SS . Os AAS : re ec a SNe cee 24). OGA.n aad i ae © -— i ind a Pe] ¥ at fo 7 nies ae Wie 4" & Jae 5 a ; THE ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY. NEW SERIES. JULY TO DECEMBER, 1822. VOL. IV. AND TWENTIETH FROM THE COMMENCEMENT. 4 en London : Printed by C. Baldwin, New Bridge-street ; FOR BALDWIN, CRADOCK, AND JOY, PATERNOSTER-ROW. i 1822. TABLE OF CONTENTS. NUMBER 1.—JULY. Page On the Fundamental State of the Magnetic Phenoniena of the Electrical Connecting Wire. By M. Prechtel, Director of the Polytechnic Insti- RApaNVicnHs. CVV ita bldtes)siscrcccsscccacs slice ecenee tale ce os i! Account of the Weather during the Three Winter Months of 1821, and 1822, kept at Jasmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. ByN.J.Winch, Esq. 6 Meteorological Register kept in St. Petersburgh from 1772 to 1792, and FedGrand 18sOr ee by MIIsWUONZOMIG sscnesccccic ste cecsccctssccce cee 13 On the Crystalline Form of Diaspore. By W. Phillips, Esq. FLS. &e. (With a Plate.)...... ain omer racle cietorayetereteisicisicisrsitie ste sie'elie's cee sete ticle 17 On the Differences in the Annual Statements of the Quantity of Rain fall- ing in adjacent Places. By H. Boase, Esq. (With a Plate.)........ 18 On Finding the Sines of the Sum and Difference of Two Arcs. By Mr. Hames Adams. - +(VWVith a Plate,). 12.2022 ccacecssessercescccecassece 21 On the Use of Tincture and Brazil Wood in distinguishing several Acids. PRE Je. PAW SAAHGUGIN, wo, ep c es cece tes ssaltetecteeuserddercs 23 Astronomical Observations. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. ..........--0.e005 27 Method for finding the Sum of all the Coefficients in the Expansion of a Mfoldinomial..--By-MroSz Jones i202)... + cteces ss sees sete tecesceacs 27 On the Specific Gravity of Gases. By Charles Sylvester, Esq........... 29 Extracts from the Journal of a Survey to explore the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna. By Capt. J. A. Hodgson............eeeeseeese 31 On certain Substances which have been supposed to act as Acids and as Alkalies. By R. Phillips, FRS. L. & E. FLS. &c. 20.22... esceeceeee 53 Analytical Account of Mr. Partington’s History of the Steam Engine.... 56 ———— Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical So- ciety, for 1822. Vol. T. Part I]. .........sseeeceeee eeeeeceseeeeees 64 Proceedings of the Royal Society, June 6, 13, and 20......seeeseeeeeee 64 Geological Society, April 19, May 3,17, and June7 66 Definition of a Straight Line. .......... Ap BRON ACIS CC CUCE DO OOCOC IEEE 71 EG 2) UIT A i SR eAnonos Gem etre pisicreinitic ssl feces 71 Remarkable Phenomenon, which occurred at sie June 15, 1821.... 72 Analysis of the Aerolite which fell at Juvinas ......+++++++. Aseuasocabes 74 Magnesian Minerals of Hoboken..........see+sseeereeeees Cosccccoseee 75 Analysis of Sulphuret of Molybdenum .......2..sesesseeecesessereees 76 Analysis of the Chromate of Iron. .........+eseeeesesescccecccscescees 76 Progress of Mineralogy in America....+sseceesseseerseeeeses pereiniis sions 76 recy Meat fOr ATEEING fas vipaiteeeiiasxiete ccc airs ss aj8 do's oe viele ehiivenraicts PG / lv ; CONTENTS. Page Conversion of Cannon Balls into Plumbago.......... nig aiewa COED pia be Semeae New Scientific BOOKS «6... sage cess aceuclsete daciieess sete Sete siatsers 78 New Patents... sicqoven carga tes sips s'gigih oeGes Mes ah eilecsatcewees 78 Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Jourtal’ for May. cis < stncettaer compas 79 ——— NUMBER II.—AUGUST. Geological Remarks. By T. Weaver, Esq. MRIA. &c..........2000000 81 Extracts from the Journal of a Survey to explore the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna. By Capt. J. A. Hodgson (concluded)........s006 99 Ona New Lead Ore. By H. I. Brooke, Esq. FRS. and FLS...,....... 117 Account of Dr. Hare’s improved Deflagrator. ......-.....eeeeeeeceeeeee 119 On the Detection of very minute Quantities of Arsenic and Mercury. By FeSmithson; sq cS. ction saele ae euts Adee Wabiseeed tape ee 127 Apparent Place of § Urs Minoris for 1829, By J. South, Esq. FRS... 129 Account of Fossil Teeth and Bones discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale, in Yorkshire. By the Rev. W. Buckland, FRS. &c. (With Two Plates.) 133 On Diaspore. By J. G, Children, Esq. FRS. 8&c..........02eeceeeeees 146 Analytical Account of Memoirs of the Astronomical Society of London, A) eee eee So dina wisinn'e elemle wae Ubiele's eiseie'e oie wiles 148 Proceedings of the Royal Societys. o's 5. Fa seals o> des e036 smawavbe agiee 153 Hydgiodide: of Carbon dsicpeisweds wei ban nth seeipg sine enadaae Ie Slepmlge See 153 General Return of Copper ented 3 in Great Britain and Ireland in One Year ending June 30; ISB vesis.—- Page 23, line 18, for Tincture and, read Tincture of. 168, 11, for elasticity, read velocity. AO, for 277,93 tons, read 1243,7 tons. Al, for 271,15 feet, read 573,5 feet. 29, for purchases, read purchasers. 22, for Falcoe, read Falco. 48, for Montano, read Montana. 34, for Ortherea, read ZEtherea. 19, for Blougios, read Blongios, Al, for Fero, read Fern. 3, for Islandicas, read Islandicus. 14, for unexplained, read unexplored. AG, for Fascus, read Fuscus. ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY. ———_ ——_—_—__——-_ JULY, 1822, ARTICLE I. On the Fundamental State of the Magnetic Phenomena of the Electrical Connecting Wire, or on the Transverse Llectrical . Charge. By M. Prechtel, Director of the Polytechnic In- stitution in Vienna. (Communicated by the Author.) Maenetism produced by electricity is of the same nature as common magnetism; the apparently anomalous phenomena of electric magnetism may, therefore, be recognized in the pheno- mena of the magnetism elicited by the earth’s action, or by common magnetism; and these phenomena ought to include the explanation of the phenomena of electro-magnetism. Set- ting out from this principle, I have made experimental researches on transverse magnetization, the fundamental phenomena of which were previously unknown. I believe that these phenomena give a satisfactory explanation of the physical state of the electro- magnetic connecting wire, and of electro-magnetic facts in general, I have discovered the following facts, which I have detailed in several memoirs, inserted in the first, fourth, and sixth numbers of M. Gilbert’s Annales de Physique for the year 1821. These facts I shall now detail in succession. 1. When a straight iron wire has one of its ends presented to the magnetic pole, it is well known to be magnetized, or its two ends form magnetic poles of a certain degree of intensity. Ali circumstances being equal, this polarisation is more intense in a perfectly straight wire than in one which has angles and inequa- lities. 2. When an iron wire, which has its ends united accurately by welding, is magnetized in a mode presently to be described, New Series, vow. tv. B 2 M. Prechtel on the Fundamental State of the (Jury, an endless magnet is formed, which possesses separate poles throughout its circumference, or heteronomous poles alternately succeeding each other. For these experiments the softest iron wire should be employed. 3. When the most perfect circular form is given to an endless wire, and it is suspended vertically, it will be found when exa- mined by means of a very small magnet,* that the lower part has acquired a north pole, and the upper a south pole. By applying the pole of a magnet for some time to any part of this circular wire, it will be found that this ring is so magnetized, that its periphery presents two heteronomous poles diametrically op- posite, as may be seen by Pl. XIII. fig. 1. 7% 2 are points of in- difference. It sometimes happens that the heteronomous poles are placed from 90° to 90°, as in fig. 2; then the points of indif- ference are 727i. 4. When an endless wire is bent in a quadrangular form, aft in fig. 3, and it is magnetized by applying the heteronomous poles of a magnet to the angles a and 6; then the four angles are mag- netized in such manner that the heteronomous poles succeed each other alternately, as is shown by fig. 3. If the magnet is~ sufficiently strong, and the iron wire very soft and even, then this magnetic arrangement will take place by the application of a single magnetic pole to one angle, for example, to the angle d. 5. When an endless wire is bent in the form of an octagon, and we proceed as before, 1. e. by applying the heteronomous poles of a magnet to the two angles a, 6, fig.4; the magnetic poles as- sume a similar arrangement, 1. e. the heteronomous poles placed at the angles succeed each other alternately, or each north pole is followed by a south pole, or vice versa. This will take place in every polygon. Ifthese magnetic arrangements be represented as in the figure, by arranging magnetic needles, one half of these needles will be directed to the mght, and the other half to the left. These facts prove that magnetic polarity has a tendency to establish itself in a right line; and it is seen that in the endless polygonal magneta simple magnetic impulse, upon a single point of iis periphery, produces a quantity of heteronomous poles, which succeed each other alternately upon this periphery. 6. This arrangement of the needles indicates the elementary action of each side of the polygon; this side representing a linear magnet. Nevertheless this elementary action can be observed only when the sides of the polygon possess sensible length, so that a very small magnetic needle can follow the elementary or separate action of the side, or of this linear magnet. Let us suppose that these linear magnets, forming the sides of the polygon, are extremely small (1), which will happen when the diameter of the polygon is extremely small, or the number of its. * I find that small magnetic needles from half to one-eighth of an inch long, are extremely delicate in cases of small quantities of magnetism, even when the heterono- mous poles are very near each other, if Fig. 7. Fug. Yo =H > 2g s. 4 >< ee =< Se or >< a gaa s TUTE Fig.8. P18. ’ Engraved ror the Annals of Lhilosophy. _ tor Baldwin, Gadock & Joy July l 1822 EE 1822.] Magnetic Phenomena of the Electric Connecting Wire. 3 sides is very great, or which comes to the same, that the poly- gon of a given diameter becomes a circle; or (2) that the length of the magnetic needle employed to examine the polarity of the endless magnet is very great compared with the length of a side of the polygon; then this elementary action of each side of the polygon cannot be observed; but the combined action of all the polarizations distributed on all the sides above the diame- ter parallel to the needle, will take place upon the magnet. By - this combined action, the needle shows an apparent arrangement of the polarizations in the endless magnet. This happens, pre- cisely in the same manner, in arranging a series of magnets in the manner represented by fig. 7. These magnets are disposed one after the other in such manner, that the heteronomous poles touch and follow each other alternately in the length a 6. In examin- ing the magnetic arrangement a 6, by means of a very small mag- netic needle, it will be observed that the elementary actions are represented in the figure by small needles. But in employing a magnetic needle which equals or exceeds the length of the line ab; this needle attracted by the combined action of all the polarities, and determined by the quality of the two extreme poles of this magnetic arrangement, will assume a constant direction. This arrangement indicated by the needle m n is only apparent, and we should deceive ourselves if we were to conclude from its position, that the arrangement @ 6 isa common magnet, presenting its poles at the two extremities, and the point of indifference in the middle. Let us suppose that the line a 6 is extremely short, it will then be impossible to examine the partial actions, and we must be content with observing the total or apparent action. _ 7. It is nevertheless easy to observe what happens in a poly- gonal endless magnet with respect to the arrangement of the needle around its periphery, if the length of the sides of the polygon are very small when compared with the length of the examining needle. In fig. 5, the needle m n is attracted by the poles NS NS = NS; the needle 0 p by the poles NS NS = NS; theneedle g7 bythe poles NS NS=NS. The needle, therefore, preserves its direction constantly the same, around the periphery of the polygon ; this would happen precisely the same upon all the points of a polygon of an infinite number of sides, or in the circle, as in fig. 6, so that there will be an appearance of the needle being directed by a current around the periphery in the same direction. 8. A superposition, or continuation of endless magnets, con- stitutes the transverse magnet, i.e. in a transverse magnet every section perpendicular to its axis is anendless magnet. The trans- verse magnet presents no poles at its extremities ; but the hetero- nomous poles succeed each other alternately in the periphery of these sections. I have shown in a memoir which is inserted in the Annales de Physique already mentioned, that in forming a B2 de M. Prechtel on the Fundamental State of the (Jury, helix ofiron wire, and magnetizing this hollow cylinder by means of the pole of a magnet, in the direction of its axis, this cylinder becomes a transverse magnet, one side of which presents the north pole, and the opposite side the south pole. This pheno- menon depends upon the fact already explained (3). I have shown that a solid bar of iron may be magnetized in the same manner by carrying homonomous magnetic poles on opposite sides in the plane of its axis. By thus treating a quadran- gular bar of iron, for example, its four corners will present throughout their whole length the magnetic arrangement already explamed with respect to the quadrangular endless magnet ; that is to say, one corner will present throughout its whole length the north pole, the following the south pole, the third the north pole, and the fourth the south pole; and the two extremi- ties do not exhibit signs of reciprocal polarity. By the same pro- cess, I so formed the magnetic arrangements in a cylindrical steel bar, that in one-half of its length it presented longitudinal magne- tism, and in the other half, transverse magnetism. One of its ends has anorth pole, and the northern magnetism diminishes to the centre, where there is indifference ; here, transverse magnetism distributed throughout the periphery of the other half com- mences. In this arrangement, these two magnetisms support each other reciprocally. Let us apply these magnetic phenomena to the electrical con- necting wire ; we shall there recognize all the properties which belong to transverse magnetism. If the connecting wire is prismatic, e. g. quadrangular or hexangular, we shall then find precisely the same magnetic arrangements as in the transverse magnets of the same form. If the wire has a cylindrical form, the magnetic arrangement is such as it ought to be according to the properties of transverse magnetism; nevertheless this arrange- ment is apparent, and consequently the cylindrical wire compli~ cates the phenomena instead of explaining them, as M. Berzelius has already observed. These properties of transverse magne- tism, founded on the facts now sketched, explain all the pheno- mena observed in the connecting wire, not only without difficulty, and without having recourse to any hypotheses of electric cur- rents, or of certain qualities of these currents; we may also predict what will happen by varying the combinations of the ex- periments to which the connecting wire may be subjected. (See the memoir in the fourth number of Gilbert’s Annales, 1821.) The difference which exists between common transverse mag- nets and the transverse magnetic charge of the connecting wire, depends upon the nature of the action of the electric pile. Nei- ther this pile, nor any electric force whatever, gives a simple and determinate impulse, as is the case with the action of the magnet, or with a plate of glass electrically charged (leyden jar) ; but the ile produces and receives these impulses every instant, so that the effect of this action is evident, notwithstanding that every in- 1822.] Magnetic Phenomena of the Electric Connecting Wire. § stant a neutralization of the electricity or destruction of the elec- trie effect occurs. To this property mast be attributed the reason: why the pile magnetizes some metals, which are not magnetized to a sensible degree by the magnet; for although these metals have not the power of retaining the magnetic charge, and suffer more or less every instant the neutralization of the communicated electricities ; yet as the pile establishes this electric tension each’ moment, it is impossible that these metals should not exhibit its effect ; that is to say, the transverse or magnetic charge. The case is the same with the electric spark, because the electric. spark is nothing else than a connecting wire formed by the air, as is proved by the experiments of Sir H, Davy, by the magnetic property of the electric spark. This activity of the pile prevents, at the same time, the fixed arrangement of the poles in the periphery of the connecting wire, as produced by common magnetization. If, for example, the: connecting wire has any kind of prismatic form, the pole of angle 8 2, fig. 5, which was south, becomes north, when the baris turned, until the angle S 2 occupies the place of the angle N 2; and the angle N i, which was north, becomes south, when it enters the place of the angle S i.* According to this, the researches into the phenomena of the electrical connecting wire resolve into this simple question : Why is a conducting body connecting the two electrical poles charged transversely ? The answer to this question enters into the theory of electricity in general, and I shall probably find an opportunity of returning to it. The properties of the drans- verse electrical charge form a new branch in the theory of electri- city. The facts stated readily lead to the result that every trans- verse electrical charge is magnetic. The reason is, that in the trans- verse electrical charge, the electrical poles approach each other infinitely near, and on account of this approximation, their ten- sion is increased. Let us suppose that two weak electrical poles of the intensity = i are capable of giving the longitudinal elec- trical charge to a metallic wire of 100 feet long, and the thou- sandth of an inch in thickness, and that this longitudinal charge becomes changed into a transverse electrical charge, then the intensity of the poles at the periphery will be greater than 1200090 7. As two very weak electrical poles are capable of giving an electrical charge to a much longer metallic wire, it follows that the electrical tension of the poles in the connecting wire must be very great, in comparison with common electrical tensions, for which the air still preserves its non-conducting = power, although it is diminished on account of this tension. - It is this great electrical tension of the transverse charge, which makes the metals red-hot, and volatilizes them. This constant and infinitely great electrical tension is magnetic ; for electri- * These references are not in the figure, but being apprehensive that I might alter the sense, I have not attempted to supply the deficiency.— Ed. 6 Mr. Winch’s Account of the Weather, &c. [Juny, city whose tension is so considerable, that to it all non-con- ductors become conductors, and some bodies only which were before conductors, become on account of the state of their m- ternal cohesion non-conductors, can only be magnetism. This I have shown in a memoir in the first number of Gilbert’s An- nales for 1821. If the air were not a non-conductor of electri- city, we should not be acquainted with common electricity, but only with magnetism. Articre II. Meteorological Account of the Weather during the Three Winter Months of the Years 1821 and 1822, kept at Jasmond, New- castle-upon-Lyne. With Observations on the Time of the Flowering of various Plants. By N.J. Winch, Esq. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) . SIR, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, April 8, 1822. ConcEIVING a meteorological account of the weather during the three winter months of the years 1821 and 1822 as it occurred in the north-east of England, may afford amusement to some of your numerous readers, 1 take the liberty of transmitting an abstract of a journal kept at Jasmond in the vicinity of this town, by Mr. Losh, and kindly communicated by him for that purpose. Together with observations on the state of the wea- ther, notes on the time of the flowering of various plants are interspersed, which, with some general remarks, will serve to convey a correct idea of the mildest winter experienced in this part of the island within the memory of man. i remain, Sir, your obedient servant, N. J. Wincu. SW AT 30-0 10 Calm and pleasant. — 44 30:0 25} 9 Very fine. _— 43 29:9 2 Ditto. SW A6 29°8 10 Gloomy. —_ 46 29°T Birds, say thrushes, larks, robins, and hedge-sparrows, singing this evening as they do in April. 24, 9 Calm and pleasant. _ 46 29°6 » 2 Very fine. SW Al 29-6 - 10 Gloomy. os AS 29°65 We have in flower in the open air 28 distinct kinds of shrubs and plants. 25) 9 Windy and cloudy, Ww 44 29°6 2 Ditto and clear. Z SW 44 29°6 10 Windy. Ww 39 29-8 26) 9 Clear and windy. — 38 29:9 2 Ditto. Ww 39 29:9 10 Gloomy and cold. _ 35 30°1 27); 9 Calm and misty. _— 36 30°] 2 Diito and wet. SW 39 30°03 10 Dark, windy, and wet. — 46 39-0 28) 9 Clear and windy. _ A5 29-9 2 Ditto. SW Ad 29°8 10 Gloomy. —_ 46 29°9 29) 9 Clear and pleasant. — 40 29-92 2 Ditto. Wi 43 29°94 10 Calm and very clear. — 35 30-0 a0) 9 Clear and hoar frost. — — 830-04 2 Ditto and fine. Ww — 30:0 10 Gloomy and windy. _ — 300 Sil aid Stormy night; windy moming. — 4l 29°9 2 Clear and high wind. SW A3 29-8 10 Fine night; windy. — 42 29°8 In Flower.—China rose, laurustinus, common furze, pansey, yellow aconite, wall flower, christmas rose, stocks, hepaticas of different colours, polyanthus, auricula, primrose, gentianella, heaths, crocus, snow drops, pimpernel, dwarf rhododendron (rhododendron hirsutum), hellebore, and mespilus japonica. This month of January has been the mildest ever remembered, and certainly very favourable for gardening and planting. We have had some very heavy gales of wind, and several slight 1822.] Mr. Winch’s Account of the Weather, Sc. 1I frosty nights, but nothing like snow storms, which are usual at this season of the year. The crops, particularly that of wheat, of the last autumn, have proved very productive in the north- eastern part of the kingdom at least, and of a good quality. Month. | Hour. Weather. | Wind. | Ther. | Barom. 1822, Feb. 1 9 Pleasant morning. _— 45° 29°T 2 Clear and windy. SW 46 29°6 10 Very stormy night. — AT 29-24 9 9 Stormy, with rain. — AS 29-1 2 Ditto. SW 51 29-0 10 Ditto. — 51 28°6 3 9 Clear morning ; hoar frost. — 35 29°] 2 Ditto and pleasant. SW A2 29°2 10 Ditto and calm. -- 3T PE 5 4, 9 Calin and clear ; hoar frost. SW 35 29°43 2 Clear. SW 40 29°4 10 Gloomy, with showers. SE 39 29°2 5} 9 Very fine. — | 40 28°9 2 Windy, with rain. SW 39 28°38 10 Ditto and clear. — 35 29°5 ‘ ) | 9 Clear and pleasant ; hoar frost. —— 3ST 29°8 Z Clear and fine. i SW 42 29°8 10 Gloomy and windy. — 39 29°54 "| 9 Wet night ; gloomy morning. SE AQ 29-4 2 Cloudy and windy. SW AT 29°4 10 Calm and pleasant. SW Al 29:5 8} 9 Calm and hazy. NW Al 29°5 2 Very fine and clear, w 42 29°5 10 Calm and clear. Ww 43 29°44 9 9 Gloomy and windy. _ 4 29°5 2 Cloudy. SE 42 29°45 10 Calm and wet. _ AZ 29°5 10) 9 Gloomy ; calm ; fair. — 43 29-64 2 Cloudy and calm. s Ad 29°5 10 Calm and clear. — 42 29°5 11 9 Calm and clear; hoar frost. — 36 29'7 2 Clear and fine. SW 44 29°77 10 Calm and clear. — 12} 9 Clear and hoar frost. _ 2 Clear and sunny. Ww AQ 30-0 \ 10 Calm and clear. — é 3 9 Calm and hazy; hoar frost. — H 2 Calm and cloudy. SE ST 29-85 10 Calm ; hazy and wet. — 38 298 14,9 Pleasant day. — 359 29'8 2 Very fine. SE AT 29'8 10 Gloomy and windy. 42 29°T 15) 9 Calm and pleasant. 45 29°78 2 Clear and sunny. SW 40 29'8 10 Gloomy. -- 4l 29:8 Mignonette in flower. 16) 9 Clear and fine morning. Ww 37 29:9 2 Cloudy, Sw AQ 29°9 10 Wet evening ; starlight, but windy SW 49 29°8% night. 12 Mr. Winch’s Account of the Weather, &c. [Juxy, Month. | Hour. Weather. Wind, } Ther. | Barom. 1822. Feb. 17} 9 Mild and pleasant. SW 50° | 30-0 2 |. Very fine day. Ww 54 29°9 10 Gloomy night; windy. Ww 48 29°92 1s; 9 Windy, but pleasant. SW A8 29-9 2 Ditto, with showers. Ww AT 29-9 10 | Calm and starlight. Ww 48 30°L a!) Cloudy. SW 42 30-1 2 Ditto and windy. WwW AT 30 0 10 Ditto and calm. Ww 46 29-9 20) 9 Gloomy and wet. — 44 29-5 2 Clear and windy. Ww 4A 295 10 | Calm and clear. — 44 | 29-7 21; 9 Clear and sunny. iS Ad 299 2 Calm and sunny. Ww A5 29-9 10 | Calm and cloudy. | — AQ 30-1 22; 9 | Pleasant, but windy. Ww 43 29-9 2 | Ditto. Ww 45 29-9 10 | Windy, with showers. SW 40 29-7 93} 9 | Clear, with hoar frost. — 40 29-92 2 Clear and windy. | SW 45 29'8 10 | Windy and starlight. | — 45 29-7 24, 9 | Cloudy, with slight showers. — AS Bobs * 2. | Ditto and windy. SW 52 29-5 10 Ditto very windy. — 52 29-64 25) 9 | Windy, but mild. — 5l 29°8 2 Ditto and clear. SW 54 29°74 10 | Cloudy and windy. _— 57 29-7 26 9 | Gloomy, with showers. — AT 29°7 2 | Clear and fine. SW AT 29-7 10 | Ditto and windy. _ 39 29°85 oi). 59 Clear and sunny. — 37 30°15 2 | Sunny and fine. Ww 44 30-2 10 | Calm and clear, ao 7 30°3 28; 9 | Clear and fine. Ww 40 30:3 2 | Clear and sunny. SW AS 30°3 10 | Calm and clear. SW 37 30°2 In Flower.—Crocus, snowdrop, hepatica, aconite, violet, wall flower, heath, mezerion, anemone, stock, pansey, polyanthus, primrose, auricula, primula gentianella, dog tooth, violet, christ- mas rose, pimpernel, carnation. The month of February has this year been remarkable for its mildness. We have had no frost beyond occasional hoar frosts in the morning, and although there have been some violent gales of wind, and one or two heavy falls of rain; upon the whole, all the operations of husban- dry and gardening have been carried on without interruption, and in the most favourable manner. At the same time, the frosty mornings have given a salutary check to vegetation, and prevented that premature expansion of leaves and flowers which too often ends in the ruin of our crops of fruit, particularly of apples and pears. 1822.] Meteorological Register kept at St. Petersburgh. 13 ArTICcLE III. An abstracted Statement of the Weather during the Twenty Years from 1772 to 1792, kept at the Imperial Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburgh; to which is added the Two Years 1818 and 1819; both copied from the Russian Yearly Calendar. By Mr. Longmire. Account of the Weather at St. Petersburgh from the Year 1772 to 1792, both included, in the Old Stile. Barometrical Observations. English inches. 1. Greatest height during these 20 years oc- PEC CAL NOV: ort, PT TE: . bon ms 0 a5 0 widle,« 31°15 Least height in 1784 ......... dis up lous ores 28°56 SLE Salers aprttags tute om ana paca Me 2. Mean of the greatest yearly height taken on ther 2B years... kisi wert! 4 dadsree oh «.. 30°84) Mean of the least height................ 28°813 Differences). i414) sass nO ae AA 2028 General mean height. .......... sea Poe 29:914 In general, the barometer fluctuates the most ; and, therefore, is at the highest and lowest points in December; but the mean height was at the upper extreme in May, and at the lower in July. Thermometrical Observations. The account is given in the scales of Reaumur and De Lisle. I have reduced the numbers to Fahrenheit’s scale, and annexed them to the others. Iv adag of ie | & 4g EI =] o o oa A | & 1. The greatest cold on the 4th of Feb. 1172, .1.....+++4+s+000¢ | 38° |208-0]—39,2 The greatest heat on the 7th of July, 1788 ........-+-seees- 92 {1000} 262 er AMeren CCH a Paan Ad soles ats o/e's\saSteishisicleleeo:c, beleve «sh[é 130 |108:0} 66% 2, The mean of the greatest cold for the 20 years ......+-.++++ —23 |195°6|—24% The mean of the greatest heat.....--sssececccccecceccarsce 85 |106°6} 23,4 Nie Gifference a delnpcisap.csercccocceccsresccececessiensiose: 108 | 89 48} 4 Meteorological Register kept at St. Petersburgh [Juny, Z| 3 |8 a|'3 | 8 me | A mS 3. a. Mean temperature in the mornings and evenings ............ 333)149°7 | — b. The same during the summer, or from May till October. ....} 49 |136°0 72 c. The same during the winter, or from November till April....) 20 |160°5/— 6% 4. a. Mean temperature at two o’clock after mid-day............. A434)141-0 4a b. The same during the six summer months .............----./ GL |1260] 123 c. The same during the six winter months.......-+.-..--+. «| 27 |154°8!— 22 In general, January was the coldest, and July the hottest month. The first frost was always between the 8th of Sept. and the 9th of Oct. ; but in general about the 27th of Sept.; and the last frost always between the Ist of April and the 12th of May, but mostly in April. Each year had about. 112 complete winter days, 59 harvest and spring days, with frost in the night, and 194 summer days. The ice in the Neva River at St. Petersburgh was broken up sometimes on the 22d of March, generally on the Ist of April, and never after the 3lst of this month. This river was never frozen again before the 16th of October, mostly on the 14th of November, and never later than the 12th of December. The river was navigable generally 218 days, and covered with ice 147 days. Each year had, for the most part, 69 perfectly calm days, 166 days of strong wind, 103 windy, and 27 very stormy days. The west wind prevailed the most, and the south wind the least. Jannary was the most stormy, and had westerly winds, and July was the calmest month. The north wind reigned in April, the east in July, the south in November, and the rest in August. Each year had 91 fair days, 118 completely dull, 156 partly cloudy days, 106 rainy, 73 showery, 43 foggy, and 4 times hail ; 13 to 14 times thunder, and 21 northern hghts. In the year 1786, it thundered 18 times’; in 1790 only 6 times : these are the extremes in 20 years. The year 1774 had the most thunder and northern lights, the thunder having been heard 17 times, and the northern lights seen 48 times. It is remarkable that the northern lights have decreased since 1782, as from that year to 1756, they were seen 110 times, and only 39 times from 1787 to 1791. The most serene months were April and June,’ next to them March, May, and July; November, December, and January, were the dullest months; August was the most cloudy and variable, and next to it, the months July, May, and September. The greatest fogs are in February, and the most rain in July, August, and September; the most snow falls in December. It hails the most in May; in September, somewhat less, but never 1822.) ~ :from 1772 to 1792, and 1818 and 1819. 15 in January and February ; in December, only twice in 20 years; in March and November, four times ; and in June, five times. The northern lights abounded in September and March, and July had the most thunder ; the former having been seen four times each month, and the latter heard four or five times. Dur- ing 20 years, it thundered three times in June and August ; June and July had no northern lights, and December, January, and September, had no thunder. In November, it thundered only once ; in April it occurred five times, in October three, and in November, two thunder storms. — Statement of the Weather for the Years 1818 and 1819. Barometrical Observations. 1818. | 1819, Eng. in.) Eng. in, 1, a. The greatest height was in 1818 on Oct. 5, and in 1819 on | eM e 5 5 ii gadaear cays 027 opbetenieaet 4e-heowe Wee: 30°88 | 31°32 The least height on Jan. a in 1818; and on Noy. 26, in LS) Ce SRE SSS eS a Oe Re eee 28°28 | 28°86 Mma CIMIE TE Cire Als sree aoe cage 's.ces mAb Epe 2.950 pe0 eee 2:60 | 246 abl By eat Maes ai ae SAR eee 2 2 ey 29°58 | 30°09 ce. The mean height from three observations every day in the year} 30°17 | 30-09 Days. | Days. d. The mercury stood higher than 29-86 English inches during ..} 253 281 Thermometer. 1. a. Greatest cold by Fahrenheit The greatest cold in 1818 was on Feb. 17, and in 1819, on Dec. 34 Ee CEI IR ral daa dik ai hatelg/aialten's Bad vickvinpes me Days. 2. a. There were days in which the temperature was below the freezing ‘ point in the mornings and evenings oct e nas seen cess sescccecs 174 4. In the above days, there — in which the temperature w 80° belowrwer@ncs sai) icis\s silos saaab obalaledy nanee we ewes 2 OME HEIGRAZENO js nici tein of deisialoo a dekssinieinga dalg' see 94 3 OEE itet OG arate ow os jaigeleia wnin'e asieisicipe(anieaiaeiiiomm'se aicisip 9 6° below to 8° above zero. ........- Dieideiselpela vis tacia kenellas's 35 PMO GEO Posies clo dase secccecs a ie idelsinldnielalc’e 0's pedeene> is 2O® £6 32° ditto, ccccoccsscssrcovccees scovcscccnscodswaiions 16 Meteorological Register kept at St. Petersburgh. (Jury, a. There were days i in which the temperature rose higher thar the freezing point in the warmest part of the day............ aie 4, Of these days, there were, in which the temperature was 80°. ot Between 80° and 67°.................. aise nib iajaiein (010 ef0/nisiaby 4 GTP and Ga ee cenaie nae ieee ee ee sles ae 55° ANAS Ejajocickels aipnciee denice Aieis a Mit ieteoella AAO ANU eon. exten comeartedeiny tee biden Byer 4, a. The mean temperature in the mornings and evenings from the Ist of November to the Ist of the same month each year......... 6. And the mean temperature at mid-day.........2.0.. ee eseeeees c. But the mean temperature, from observations three times a day, taken soon after mid-day, WaS.. -..0.. eesseeeeececcseceeres The same for the mornings and evenings. peace Uaeieuswlcsmens'e d. General mean temperature, from three observations each day. ... 5, a, Last frost in the first part of the year was on May 18, 1818, and April 28, 1819. First frost in the latter part of the year was on Sept. 13, 1518, and Oct. 15, 1819, . Wind blew ; very stormy or hurricanes. ........2...-seeeeeees WY grads pty B yogic « BUR bient ole ce vinisete viele deesitie ewcccceeee Windy Snot cieenere bib bobs oa Selah Cet E sie he slebe wee, eadels Moderaicly windy. wee iefeinfa’elee oes eee seseces eetaee visage ecoves WAIN a lnicccinena ose naain cen eer Sieblelnlese eva clererers cinivlete. obtelale'els e. North wind prevailed .......s+++s+ WM TOY HIT Ue Ales hide etee SANUS ies o Soeiisc aie alaysis(atareeta iain Seu so use Snoee oc sesacs PIOUEN cle araieleteiele= gods cnpiets.enincins'aste,s = Sb eiuiavieislaiein us ouieles UVES te ste: ate\ stoves e's o/=lupinteint cleiee sla ssiciclsisienian snleisjesie cee tse North-east. ......... Lar clceies sim ales cise sleet ewes Meise tre’ peers South-east ...........-- Sib miaisinielelnicieie eines loisjatale sieis vate oo ners SOLER WESE see cinlelsfusicoinsivintewininras citleip/siniel= Baidasis Bele piss ocimecs North-west 02 o.veeciccs soe cteaveW cress css o's sects sus.cs wc ote d. Perfectly clear days.........-. SOGDUGE eiafalell iofala aj evaiatolel sre laieiete Partly clear and partly cloudy. .......0..ec-0- ceeccescccececes MU VERON By foni> cieivinie sist-miawiigi bys Biisin es -e) siale pelted Seer ae ine e- There were in the above, misty days........22++2-+++ sida sees G.pa. Wain telliduring, |. w..e\ siete acs ole bev ele Pulecstbetetelelere “Pe NOW’ «.< oeale os eee eam chit Sa kie ae lotetawla KfoleMlalGie/aiecalt clot a0 UElaeSENMLGS ere cc here 2 Sere oiate elelape clatmiela slacctoln yeti cbeisse nint= eco sisies eis b First /andw was on Oct. 14, 1818, ana Oet. 17, 1819. Last snow was on May 5, 1818, and May 10, 1819. c. The water continued frown. 3% NES Scheid ate. oR bist eee cael ete TIS RMMIMEE NAM Fe oe,c'> ori) o.sin'na = ee larelare Laie wivieeeteleia eeeeeleieeee d, The rain, hail, and snow, were equal to a column of water of... . The proportion of water yielded, from rain to that from snow, was BS. wee rece ereerencsrecesnereeesesesescereeesevesseesess Ts Mae Span ibe oasceac vc ailois a mics ad «manana s donee First thunder occurred on April 15, 1818, and April 6, 1819. Last thunder was on the Sept. 1, 1818, and Sept. 18, 1819. 1822.) Mr. W. Phillips on the Crystalline Form of Diaspore. 17 ET Ee , 1818..| 1819, —————— a ee Times, |Times. b. Rainbows were Seen .........-.eceecceeecseerneceteres sent 1 Circular round the sun occurred «iets T 9 Circular round the moon ...........---0+ cee teeerseeeeereeee 5 13 Northern lights were seen .......-.-+eeee-e cottseet essere ses 6 12 8. a. The river Neva was frozen on Noy. 15, 1818, and Oct. 27, 1819. The ice was broken up on April 17, 1818, and April 9, 1819. ArticLe IV. On the Crystalline Form of Diaspore. By W. Phillips, FLS. &c. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) In the Annals of Philosophy for the present month there is a communication on the subject of that rare mineral diaspore. In the cabinet of my friend, 8S. L. Kent, is another specimen consi- derably resembling that which is in the possession of G. B. Sowerby, but of a more highly crystalline structure. The results obtained by subjecting the latter to the blowpipe by J. G. Children, Esq. tend to show that it does not difter essentially in character from the diaspore of Le Lievre ; and having been permitted to examine the specimen in the posses- sion of S. L. Kent, which he bought many years ago at a sale of foreign minerals, without either a name or locality, I am satis- fied that it alsois a true diaspore. I succeeded in detaching portions of several fragments of crystals, and one very minute and nearly perfect crystal, sufti- ciently brilliant for the use of the reflective goniometer. This crystal is a doubly oblique prism, of which the form and measurements are shown in Pl. XII]. fig. 11. IMT.On Ih. touaacter~tetehasde « pete tasvene 65°. 0% i Oni Sh eccn ai. donee nae aiateoaraa 2-40 08h530 | 27d ee Cee ets Bee LOD, 20 The plane o, though perfectly defined, is not brilliant enough for the use of the reflective goniometer, nor are three extremely minute planes in connexion with it at the lower solid angle of the prism. I possess a yery small fragment of Le Lievre’s diaspore, on which the plane P of the preceding figure is very bright, and on ‘which there is a cleavage parallel to the plane M, and hence 1 have been enabled to procure the measurement by the reflective New Series, vou. 1v. c 18 Mr. Boase on the Differencesin the Statements of (Jury, « goniometer of 61° 40’, which is so near to the complement of P on M (108° 30’) that it is impossible to doubt its being P on M return over the edge X. Nor can a reasonable doubt exist that the two specimens are identical, though differing somewhat in appearance. They afford similar results on the apehieeen of heat. W. Puituies. ARTICLE V. On the Differences in ihe Annual Statements of the Quantity of Rain falling in adjacent Places. By H. Boase, Esq. Treasurer of the Royal Cornwall Geological Society. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, Geological Society, Penzance, June |, 1822. Your intelligent correspondent Mr. Hanson, noticed (Annals for May, p. 372), that “ the differences in the annual statements of rain from places near together are singular, and certainly require an attentive inquiry.” The tables published from time to time, and periodically, in the Annals of Philosophy, exhibit still greater “ differences” than those stated by Mr. Hanson; and it was in consequence of remarking such anomalies that the resident officers of the Cornwall Geological Society instituted, above 12 months ago, a course of careful observations, with a view to an explanation of this phenomenon. Suspecting that a part, if not a great part, of the differences. arose from the disparity of gauges or measures, our first care was to be accurate in that respect. Fig. 8 (Plate XIII), will show better than a mere verbal description, the form of the instruments we adopted. The upper rim, a, is of copper, one inch wide; the basin or funnel, 6, is of pewter, two inches deep ; the outer gneck or cylinder, c, is of the same material, as is also the pipe, d. This cylinder should so fit the neck of the bottle or receiver,. e, as to keep the funnel quite steady ; and the pipe has a ve small orifice at its lower end, and is covered by a perforated lid at top, in order to prevent, as much as possible, evapor‘ation. The diameter of the copper rim is exactly six inches, and cor- xectly turned in a lathe and perfectly circular. All this any expert brazier can accurately execute, and for the cost of 4s. ar 5s. A common bottle does well for the receiver, but it should be of the capacity of not less than three pints wine measure, for a gauge of six inches diameter. No less care is requisite in having a measure accurately gra- duated. A cylindrical glass jar or gas receiver, f, is very con- venient, and easily obtained. In a guage of six inches diameter 1822.} the Quantity of Rain falling in adjaeent Places, 19 one inch deep of rain is equal to 28-274 cubic inches (nearly one int wine measure), and in weight at the temperature of 60° to 7139-1850 grains ; consequently } inch = 1784-7962 or 17843 grains nearly. Let, therefore, the glass jar be exactly balanced m good scales, and then filled with raz or distilled water to the perfect equipoise of 17843 grains, marking the height on the side of the measure, which will be the indication of :25 or 4 inch of rain in the guage. Were the cylinder of equal diameter throughout, it would only remain to divide the space so marked off into 25 equal parts; but as these glasses are seldom quite uniform, it is necessary to check the measure by weight to every 05 of an inch, which is easily done by weighing with 14273 ers. for -20, with 10703 for -15, with 714 for -10, and with 357 grs, for -05 of an inch, marking these divisions severally and accu- rately on the side of the measure, and then dividing each into five equal parts, observing to allow in the lowest for the bulb usually found at the bottom. Thus the measure will be gra- duated to the hundredths of an inch, and if it be about 14 inch in diameter, the spaces will be large enough to halve, so that the register may be conveniently kept in three places of decimals; thus instead of -101, set down -105, being so many thousandths of an inch. If there is any difficulty to cut the glass, the gradua- tion may be marked with a pen on a slip of paper pasted on the side of the measure, observing that it should be quite dry before the operation takes place. It is thus easy to provide an accurate pluviameter ; but to find a suitable situation for fixing it ‘‘at a sufficient distance from trees, buildings, or any object that might obstruct ” the free current of the wind, is a matter of great difficulty, and of the greatest importance. For this reason, the tops of the highest buildings have been heretofore selected. There is, however, cause to suspect that they are the most ineligible. Inthe reports from Kinfaun’s Castle, the upper is made to indicate more rain than the lower guage. This is contrary to all similar observa- tions, and to the nature of things. The error must, therefore, be in the different capacity or situation of the instruments used. To this phenomenon, which has excited so much speculation, our observations have been particularly directed. Three guages and measures, exactly alike in form and size, have been used. The first was already fixed onthe top of our Museum (from this our annual reports are drawn), higher than the level of the adja- cent chimney stacks, and consequently free from lateral obstruc® tions. The house is open in front, joined on each side to others, and its back towards the continuous buildings of the town. The guage is 45 feet.above the surface of the ground, and 143 above the level of the Sea. The two other guages are fixed at the level of ihe ground, each in a garden, and at a distance of about 60 yards from any building or high trees, being in respect of all circumstances, that seem to affect the fall of rain, similar each c 2 20 Mr. Boase onthe Differences in the Statements of [Juny, to the other. The first of these two, or No. 2, is 150 yards dis- tant from the Museum, and 90 feet above the sea. No. 3 is about 500 yards from both the former, and 70 feet above the level uf the sea. In these two, viz. No. 2 and No.3, the quan- tity of rain was on the whole equal, only varying occasionally in a small degree above or below each other; but the difference between them and No. 1 is very great, viz. above 3 to 2, the result of 12 months being, in No. 1, 30°475 inches ; and in No. 2 and No.3, 46:080 inches. The ratio varied considerably in several months, as for instance, the total of No, 2 and 3, No. 1. Aug. 1821, was in. 4-470 .... 4°000 being nearly as 9to 8 September i. 2 4 BDOM i SAGO 9 6 Getober. 1. FIO) OMB SoG 11 fy November’. 228 245° 170) Se oalo 10 6 December. ...... 9-500 .... 6°480 Toy 40s These months were unusually wet, and the three last remarkably stormy. Having observed that the difference between the first and the other guages varied with the more or Jess wind, its velocity has been registered from observation ; but not having an accurate anemometer, we cannot yet offer any certain conclusion further than this, that the difference in the quantity of rain received in a guage placed on the top of a building and one at a level with the surface of the ground, is, for some reason or other, propor- tioned to the velocity of the wind; and that the average excess of the lower guage is much greater than can be attributed to any or all the causes hitherto assigned. For admitting all that can be due to the difference of the sine of the angle of inclination at which the falling drops may reach the earth; and also all that could accrue from a continued condensation of aqueous vapour between the altitude of the upper guage and the surface of the ground, yet the aggregate of both would, in an elevation of only 45 feet, be trivial, in comparison of the enormous difference found every month, and on the average of the whole year. The facts obtained do not yet, perhaps, warrant the positive conclusion, and we, therefore, offer it only as a conjecture that the aforesaid difference is owing chiefly to the whirl or eddy occasioned by the recoil of the gusts of wind striking on the sides of the building—an effect very visible in the disturbance of smoke issuing from chimneys during a high wind. Since the discovery of the self-registering thermometer, and the consequent notation of the daily maximum and minimum of temperature, it has been found that the annual mean heat of the north and south of Great Britain is much more equal than was supposed ; and it seems probable that the annual mean of the 1822.] the Quantity of Rain falling in adjacent Places. 21 fall of rain will be found to differ much less than hitherto recorded. Nothing will contribute more to ascertain the fact than an uniformity of guages, as well in situation, as size and shape. It is desirable that in all cases there should bea guage on the level of the surface of the ground. A pit must be prepared just fitted to the bottle in which it may so stand that the edge of the funnel shall be but half an inch above the surface, and care taken that the rim of the basin be truly horizontal. If any obstacle to the free course of the wind occurs within 100 or 200 yards of the guage, its height, breadth, and direction, should be noticed ; and in respect of those placed on the tops of buildings, the length of pipe between the funnel and receiver, and whether within or without the house, should be mentioned ; as well as the height of the guage above the ground, and above the level of the sea. It is also desirable that the barometrical tables should be always reduced to the temperature of 32°, or, if not, that the omission should be stated; and the thermometrical tables which Sle the true maximwm and minimum of every 24 hours are pre- erable to the observations of fixed periods, which very often fail to show either. Iam, Sir, your most obedient servant, H. Boase. Articte VI. On Finding the Sines of the Sum and Difference of Two Arcs. ? By Mr. James Adams. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, Stonehouse, near Plymouth, June 8, 1822. Ir having occurred to me that by making a small alteration in the methods given by Mr. Leslie in his Geometry, and by Mr. Woodhouse in his Trigonometry, the demonstrations of the two fundamental formule for compound ares may be rendered still more simple than those usually given, I will thank you to insert the following in the Annals of Philosophy, when con- venient. I am, Sir, your most obediert servant, James ADAMS. ; —_ To find the Sine of the Sum of two Arcs. Let the quadrilaterals A B D E be inscribed in acircle and semieircle, whose centres are C, and diameters A E, the dia- gonals of which being AE, BD, in fig. 9 (Pl. XIII), and AB, DE, in fig. 10. Bisect the ares EB, ED, BD, in: the ‘points ¢, r, w; and draw the radii Ct, C r, and Cw, which will 22 Mr. Adams on the Sines of the Sum [JuLy, (3 and 30.3.¢e.) bisect at right angles the chords E B, E D, B D, in the points m, v, m; then wili (31.3 . e .) the triangle A BE be similar to C m E, and the triangle A D E similar to C vE; therefore (4.6.e.) A B is the double of Cm, and A D the ‘double of C v. We then have in fig. 10, by Prop. D, Simson’s Euclid, AS x DE +4bAcDix Bi =i AVE, Tools deagetshk (a) Or, 2Cm x 2Ev+2Cvx 2Em=2 x 2 Bn (radius unity.) Or, Cm+Ev+CvxEm=Bn=Dn. Therefore, cos. Et sin. Er + cos. Ersin, Et = sin. Bw = sin. rt = sin. (Er+Et?). To find the Sine of the Difference of two Arcs. We have in fig. 2, by Prop. D, ibid. ADxBE+AExBD=AB~x DE. Therefore, ABxDE-—-ADxBE=AE~x BD. From whence, see equation (a), we have cos. E¢ sin. Er — cos. Ersin. Et = sin. B w = sin. r f= sin. (Er— Et). If from A and E, the extremities of the diameters A E, the perpendiculars A x, E s, be drawn to the chords B D, we shall, by a method equally as simple as the preceding, be able to find the cosines of the sum and difference of two arcs. For by Prop. C. 6, Simson’s Euclid, we have the following equations; viz.A B x AD=Awx AE,andEs x AE= EB x ED in both the figures, from whence we get AB x AD—EB x ED=AE (Ax—Es) =2Cu x AE,, fig. 1 .. (6) ABxAD+EB x ED=AE (Ar+ Es) =2Cn x AE, fig. 2 .. (c) Or, 2Cmx2Cv—2Etx2Ev=2 x 2 Cn (radius unity). Or, Cmx Cv—Etx Ev=Cn. Therefore, cos. Et cos. Er — sin. Et sn. Er = cos. Bw = cos.rt = cos. (Er + Ed), by equation (6). In like manner, we have cos. Et cos. Er + sin. Et sin. Er = cos. Bw = cos. rt = cos. (Er + E 2), by equation (c). The arcs E B and E JD, as well as their halves E¢ and Er, are supposed to be of the same magnitude in both the figures. From the foregoing, we readily obtain the following equations ; viz. sin. (A + A) =sin. 2A = sin. Acos. A + sin. A cos. , A= 2sin. A cos. A. cos. (A + A) = cos. 2A =cos2A * Sei ie fees vs hs ted s shawls mid br Se poti's die 'We 6, Rites od e SN 1822.] and Difference of two Arcs. 23 sin. (A —+A)= sin. A = sin. A cos. 1 A — sin. i A cos. Fi, payee eats nv dfcheheihni ate)'sie) aka fatyaristla) sl'siaPbyete!aifelle: ahd jarelye trey syprereye GC) cos. (A —+A)=cos.4A=cos. Acos.tA+sin.bA......(f) From equation (e) we have sin. A (1 + cos. A) = sin. A - 1+ cos. A = cos. 1 A; therefore, cot. 1 A = rere From equation (f) we have cos. 1 A (l—cos. A) = sin. A sin } A; therefore, tan. 1—cos. A 2 A= sin. A tions, we obtain tan. 1A + cot. + A = 2 cosec. A; and cot.1 A — tan. A = 2 cot. A. From whence cosec. A = cot. + cot. $A + tan. $A ; by adding and subtracting the two last equa- me ms a. mh We aa Maral agli A—cot. A =tan.1 A + cot.A; and Sey A aay AT Bee cot. A + tan. A 2 MGS ciara we POR “Me . We also have by the common property of sines and cosines cos. 1A + sin.21+ A = 1], and by equation (d) cos.2t A — sin.” 1A = cos. A; by adding and subtracting the two last equa- 2 1—cos. A tions, we have sin. 4 A = \/ oo) atid *co8i4. oAviz 1+ cos. A 2 < ~ Articte VII. On the Use of Tincture and Braxil Wood in distinguishing seve- ral Acids, and ona new Yellow Colour obtained from it. By M. P. A. de Bonsdorff.* Ir is well known that Brazil wood, when treated with an alka- line solution, yields a very fine violet colour. It is on account of this property that the tincture of Brazil wood, or paper coloured by it, is used in chemistry as a very delicate test of the alkalies.+ Besides this property, it possesses another which may prove interesting to the chemist; it may be seen by the experiments which | had occasion to make on this substance, and which are the subject of this memoir, that Brazil wood paper may be employed not merely as a delicate test of the presence of acids in general, but as a certain means of detect- ing several acids, and distinguishing them from each other. ith respect to the action of acids upon the red colour of Brazil wood paper, it is to be observed; first, that a concentrated * From the Annales de Chimie et de Physique. + The chemists of France and England prefer reddened litmus or turmeric paper to detect an excess of alkali; but these reagents, and especially the latter, cannot be com~= pared as to sensibility with Brazil wood paper. 24 M. Bonsdorff on the Use of Tincture and Brazil Wood [Juxx, acid produces an alteration of colour, which is'sometimes similar in various acids, but which is most commonly different from that produced by the acid diluted with water; secondly, different acids produce their effects in different times ; and thirdly, the colour produced by the action of different acids is more or less ' durable, and it undergoes changes in a shorter or longer time. It is with respect to these variations that we ‘now propose to consider the acids; and to give the reader an opportunity of judging by ‘comparison, we shall successively enumerate the miost common acids, and even those which do not possess a very marked action. Concentrated sulphuric acid, or when mixed with three parts of water, immediately gives a bright rose colour to Brazil wood paper, which, by attracting moisture from the air, becomes orange-coloured. When diluted with rather more water, the acid produces a colour which has a shade of yellow; and with 20 or 30 parts of water, it gives in one minute a yellow, orrather a yellowish colour, which very soon fades. Nitric and muriatic acids act nearly in the same way as sul- phuric acid, excepting that the yellow colour produced by these acids, when diluted with water, is paler; the rose colour pro- duced by the concentrated nitric acid soon becomes yellow and greyish, and that produced by muriatic acid still sooner becomes of a dirty grey colour. The action of the three acids men- tioned differs but little; but it may be employed to distinguish to a certain extent the degree of concentration of these acids. Sulphurous acid gas bleaches the moistened paper perfectly. Hydriodic acid, when concentrated, gives a rose colour, which gradually becomes yellow on the edges, and in a few days entirely yellow. When diluted with water, it gives a fine yellow colour in half a minute, which soon begins to fade; in a few hours, it becomes less evident, and is rather red than yellow. lodic acid immediately gives a pale dirty yellow colour, which remains unchanged. Concentrated fluoric acid, whether pure or combined with silica, gives a bright red colour; when diluted, it acts in a very marked manner; it immediately becomes a fine lemon yellow colour, which disappears in the space of a minute, and soon leaves a greenish grey colour, which, by transmitted light, appears ofan olive-green. When the fluoric acid is used in the gaseous state, it is sufficient to subject the moistened Brazil wood paper to its action fora few seconds. The paper is then stained a bright yellow, which disappears in the manner already mentioned. This also takes place with other volatile acids. Fluoboric acid acts in the same way as the fluoric. Boracic acid has no immediate action, but the colour of the paper soon becomes pale, and is eventually of a reddish-white colour. If the boracic acid contains any trace of sulphuric-acid, -¥822.] in distinguishing several Acids, &c. 5 which is ‘always the case when it is not purified by repeated crystallization, it immediately occasions a very distinct yellowish colour, which soon disappears. The boracic acid of the Isle of Volcano acts very distinctly like pure boracie acid. Concentrated phosphoric acid gives a rose colour, by absorb- ing moisture from the air, it is slowly changed to orange colour. The acid, when diluted with 10 to 30 parts of water, gives in half a minute a very fine yellow colour, which remains without any alteration. Phosphatic acid cannot be distinguished by its action from phosphoric acid. Concentrated phosphorous acid gives a rose colour, which becomes of a yellow colour sooner than either of the last men-- tioned acids, and it resembles the colour produced by those acids when diluted. Dilute phosphatic (phosphorous?) acid gives a fine yellow colour, which soon becomes pale. ~ Concentrated hypophosphorous acid gives also a red colour,, which becomes gradually pale-yellow, and eventually almost colourless; when diluted with water it gives at first a yellow colour nearly as fine as that of the three last named acids, but it soon disappears, and there remains an indistinct colour, which is neither red nor yellow. Concentrated arsenic acid produces a rose colour which remains for along time. Diluted with 10 to 30 parts of water, it gives in one minute a very fine yellow colour, but in a few minutes, it fades, and becomes and remains pale-yellow. Arsenious acid has no marked action. Concentrated acetic acid gives a dull-yellow colour directly, which disappears immediately, and is succeeded by a pale- violet colour, which, by transmitted light, is of a very deep reddish-violet colour. Diluted with more or less water, it gives at first a yellowish colour, and afterwards, both by transmitted and reflected light, a reddish-violet colour. It is to be observed that the reddish-violet colour does not become very evident for half, or sometimes one hour, and after some hours have elapsed, the tint is still stronger; it then becomes almost as deep as the colour produced by the alkalies. If the acetic acid is not pure 5 if, for example, it contains sulphurous or sulphuric acid, which sometimes occur in acetic acid as usually prepared, their presence is easily detected by Brazil wood paper. Sulphurous acid destroys the action of acetic acid, or renders it extremely weak, according to the quantity which it contains, and sulphuric acid causes th acetic acid to give a yellowish colour, instead of the reddish violet. By this method, very small quantities of sulphuric acid may be discovered; acetic acid, for instance, which contains only 0-005 of sulphuric acid, gives a very evident yellowish colour. Citric acid, whether concentrated or diluted, gives a fine yellow colour, which is as durable as that occasioned by phos- phoric acid. 26 On the Use of Tincture and Braxil Wood, &c. [Juuy, Tartaric acid also gives a very fine yellow colour, but it soon fades and becomes dull, in proportion to the weakness of the acid. If, for instance, it is diluted with five parts of water, it gives a less lively colour than citric acid mixed with 15 or 20 parts of water. Malic acid acts nearly like tartaric acid. Concentrated oxalic acid produces an orange colour which becomes gradually yellow. Diluted with one part of water, it gives a yellow colour, which remains pretty good. If the acid is diluted with three parts and more of water, the yellow colour at first produced disappears in a few minutes. Succinic acid gives a yellowish colour which soon fades, and benzoic acid has scarcely any action. It occurred to me that the fine yellow colour which succeeds the red colour of Brazil wood, when it is subjected to the action of phosphoric or citric acid, might be employed in the art of dyemg. To ascertain this, I tried at several times to dye wool by means of the above-mentioned substances, and these trials afforded results which exceeded my expectation. Some woollen manufacture dipped into a boiling bath of Brazil wood, acquired a yellowish-red colour, but it was dull. If, after washing and draining, it is dipped for a few minutes in a boiling and very dilute solution of phosphoric acid, or lemon juice, diluted with water, a very bright yellow colour is immediately produced. As phosphoric acid is too dear a substance to be employed with advantage in dyeing, I tried as a substitute acidulous phosphate of lime obtained by treating bones with sulphuric acid, and I found that this substance acted precisely in the same manner, and gave as fine a colour as that produced by pure phosphoric acid. Woollen manufacture dyed yellow, by means either of an acidulous phosphate or lemon juice, may be sub- jected to the strongest soaping, without the colour undergoing any alteration. [have had no opportunity of ascertaining by direct experi- ment whether this colour is permanent, and resists the action of the sun; it may be admitted that even if the colour produced by the action of lemon juice is not permanent, that given by the acidulous phosphate, on the contrary, will be so, as being a combination of the colouring principle with a substance which is perfectly unalterable by water, air, or heat. Silk is also susceptible of receiving a fine yellow colour by the process which has been described; but as to cotton and linen, the very incomplete experiments which I have had an opportu- nity of performing, have not afforded a satisfactory result ; it might, perhaps, be possible to succeed if the substance to be dyed was previously animalized. It is, however, worthy of remark, that paper, as I have already observed, receives and retains this colour with all its brightness. 1822.] Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations. 27 ArticLe VIII. Astronomical Observations, 1822. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. Bushey Heath, near Stanmore. Latitude 51° 37! 44°3” North. Longitude West in time Lee ost. Occultations of small stars by the moon. May 23. Immersion... --.+-+-eeeeee8 8n 59! 10-3” 24, Emersion.....-2eeeeeeseerere 13 45 21-0 $ Siderial Time at Bushey. 26, Immersion...-.-+-+-2eeeee9° 15 30 O81 N. B. The observation of the 24th uncertain to five seconds. ee eeeiecieieeeteeinaniaiol ARTICLE IX. “ An Investigation of the Method for finding the Sum of all the Coefficients in the Expansion of a Multinomial. By Mr. S. Jones. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, Nash Grove, Liverpool, May 29, 1822. Ir is a remarkable coincidence that two of our most general theorems in analytical calculations should have been published by their respective authors, Dr. Brook Taylor, and Sir Isaac Newton, without their demonstrations : the utility of the former in the differential and integral calculus, vanishing fractions, the higher mechanics, Kc. has induced many of the continental, as well as several of our own mathematicians, to attempt to demon- strate it from first principles; it is, however, generally acknow- ledged that its difficulty excludes that conciseness, perspicuity, and native simplicity, which all fundamental propositions ought to possess ; the latter, or binomial theorem, though less difficult, was, at the time of its discovery, no easy task to demonstrate ; accordingly we find that it caught the attention of the most eminent mathematicians, and has employed the talents of Maclaurin, Simpson, Demoivre, Euler, Lagrange, Woodhouse, and others, to whose minute researches and amplitude of remark it might be supposed that nothing more could be added ; yet it is presumed that to demonstrate generally what only one of these, Euler has done for a particular case, and that by numeral induction, will not be thought an inelegant appendage to this beautiful theorem, nor unworthy the attention of the mathemati- cians of the present day. 28 Mr. Joneson finding the Sum of all the Coefficients [Jury, For the sake of simplicity, I shall divide the proposition into the following cases, beginning with the easiest. 1. To find the sum of all the coefficients in the expansion of a monomial a, to the power of n. It is manifest that a" = a x aX ax .... ton terms, and since a has unity for its coefficient, the sum will be 1x1 x1x1 .... tom terms = 1"; therefore, the sum of all the coefficients in the expansion of a monomial is 1". 2. To find the sum of all the coefficients in the expansion of a binomial a + 4, to the power of n. By the binomial theorem, (@ + b)"= a" + n.a*"*b+n. — od" * OF, gee are “S .a"~> b> + &c.; and since 6 has unity for its coefficient, all the powers of 6 will have unity for their coefficients, which consequently will not affect their sum ; whence they may be rejected, and the sum of all the coefficients n—1 2 in the expansion of (a + 6)" will be a* + na"-'+7. -a*° +n. -—.— -a"*++ &e.; but @ being a monomial, the sum of all the coefficients in a” is 1", at is gate eka is | sapere a TAas let? t8or. These values of a", a*—', a"~’, &c. being substituted in the expansion, gives 1"+ ”.1"~' +n a ol eka = 2 - 1"~* + &c. but this series is absolutely the expansion of (1 + 1)" = 2"; therefore the sum of all the coefficients in the expansion of a binomial a + 0b, to the power of x, is 2”. 3. To find the sum of all the coefficients in the expansion of a trmomial a + b + c to the power of n. To obtain this, puta + 6 =x; then(a + b+ c)"=(e«+c)" seit opts 2 n—1 n—1 ee ee n—1 n—2 fa 92. CORR oma at OF MEW es ate + Xc.; and because c has unity for its coefficient, allits powers may be rejected, and the sum ofall the coefficients in the expan- % ; < : n—l sion of a trinomial will be 2* +.2.2"7' +n. art xz +n. s gn—3 cc n—1 n-—2 5 : : 5 zg wT + &e. 5 but since x is a binomial, the sum of all the coefficients in 2* = (a+ 6)" is 2", a) = (a + by*-* is = Sia a>? =a + b)*— 78:2" ~*, Ke. These different powers of 2 being substituted for a", 2*~', x*~* &e. gives 2° + n.2""' +n. i dtr « n—l n—2 Gy tS rages 1822.] in the Expansion of a Multinomial. 299 Q"-3 + &c. which series is the developement of the binomial (2+1)" = 3"; therefore, the sum of all the coefficients in the expansion of a trinomial a + 6 + ¢, to the power of 7, is 3", 4, To find the sum of all the coefficients in the expansion of a muitinomial of m terms, to the power of n. Let p = the last term, and y = the sum of all the remaining terms; that is, of the m — | terms; then the wth power of the multinomial will be expressed by (y + p)" = y"+ 2. y""p + n. uP + &c.; but it follows, a priori, that the sum. of all the coefficients in this expansion will be y* + n.y"-' +n. = .y"—* + &c.; and from the preceding cases, it is manifest that the sum of all the coeflicients in . y” is. (m,— 1)” Of 8 (a LPs yy"? 1s (m — 1)"~*, &e. which substituted for y", y"~', y*~*, &c. gives (m — 1)" + n (m —1y- +0 “ge .(m — 1)? + &e.; but this. series arises from the developement of (m— 1 + 1), = m"; therefore, the sum of all the coefficients in the expansion of a multinomial of m terms to the power of m is m”. _ Throughout the preceding investigation, the exponent » has been taken arbitrarily, it may, therefore, be expounded by any number whatever, either positive or negative, whole or fracted. I am, Sir, yours truly, S. Jongs. ARTICLE X. Observations on the Presence of Moisture in Medifying the Spe- cific Gravity of Gases. By C. Sylvester, Esq. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) DEAR SIR, 60, Great Russell-street, June 5, 1822. Wuarever Mr. Herapath may say of Dr. Thomson’s paper, its foundation is good, and the principal facts from which his conclusions are drawn have been long known to the philosophi- cal world, and confirmed by experience ; I allude particularly to the fact of the same weight of steam at all temperatures containing the same quantity of heat; and that the sum of the degrees expressive of the latent and sensible heat is a constant quantity. He is doubtless wrong in making these sums commence at 32°. If the principle be true above. that degree, it must be equally applicable to those below the 30 Mr Sylvester on the [JuLy, same. That is, if 7 be the latent heat, and ¢ the tempera- ture,/ + ¢ = c aconstant quantity, whatever ¢ may be. I differ with Dr. Thomson as to any practical advantage derived from the variable quantity of latent heat at different temperatures either in distillation or in its agency in steam engines. Suppose in the former application that vapour is distilled over atthe tem- perature of 70°, and condensed in a temperature of 50°, a con- stant succession of liquid will be formed by condensation, which is the practical effect desired, and it must be admitted from the law quoted by Dr. Thomson, that the stock of vapour at 70° constantly passing from the still to the receiver will hold more latent heat than the same quantity at a higher temperature. The difference will consist in having a small excess of latent heat, which is “in the uncondensed vapour at every period of the process without any disadvantage,” as to the ultimate quan- tity of liquid condensed. I am inclined to think that if the size of the apparatus be increased so that the same weight of vapour may come over in the same time, the advantage would be in favour of the low temperature, owing to the quantity of heat lost in all processes carried on at high temperatures by radiation and the conducting power of contiguous bodies. For the same reasons there is no advantage in using steam for engines at a high pressure. Whatever may be the fuel con- sumed to make a given volume of steam equal to one atmosphere, it will take twice the quantity to give twice that volume, or the same volume of a density to give a pressure equal to two atmo- spheres. I should think therefore, that the increased tem- perature of the volume equal to two atmospheres would lose more heat to surrounding bodies than the two volumes of one atmosphere, but the mechanical advantage of the two will be obviously the same. The boasted advantage of the Cornish engines has chiefly arisen from their inventor assuming some erroneous data respecting the power of steam, and many others, even Mr. Herapath, seem to have fallen into the same mistake. In the range of temperature commonly used for high pressure steam, it will be found that from an increase of temperature of every 30° degrees, the density and elasticity of the steam become doubled ; that is, at 212°, its elasticity is equal to about 30 inches of mercury, and a cubic foot of such steam would weigh about 253 grains. At 212 + 30 = 242 degrees, the volume remaining the same, it will support 60 inches of mercury, and a cubic foot will contain 253 x 2 = 506 grains. Hence it will appear that the temperature is increasing in arithmetical proportion while the power of the steam increases in geometrical Eepporion, and hence the apparent advantage by working with high pressure. * he source of this fallacy will be found in the assumption of . # The force of steam has not strictly a geometrical ratio to the temperature. The ratio for 10° below 212° is about 1°23. And this ratio for every ten degrees above -will decrease by -01, while steam, for every ten degrees below, bas a similar increase, - 1822.) Specific Gravity of Gases. 31 the quantity of heat being as the temperature ; when the fact is, that while the temperature has been advancing by 30°, the real quantity of heat is doubled; and it will be found that a cubic foot of steam of 60 inches pressure in mercury, although only 30° in temperature above a cubic foot of 30 inches pressure will heat twice the quantity of water to the same temperature, or melt twice the quantity of ice, which is the clearest proof that their respective quantities of heat are as 2 to 1. The remaining part of this paper which is applied to calculate the correction for the specific gravity of gases, as affected by the presence of aqueous vapour, is very valuable. If the force of aqueous vapour at different temperatures be correctly taken in order to get the specific gravity of the same, nothing can be more simple than the formula given by Dr. Thomson for finding the allowance to be made for the presence of vapour in any gas. This is the same formula which is contained in my paper sent to your journal for finding the proportions of mixed inflammable gases. I remain, dear Sir, yours very truly, C. SyLvesTex.. ArTICLE XI. Extracts from the “ Journal * of a Survey to explore the Sources of the Rivers rea and Jumna.” By Capt. J. A. Hodgson, 10th Reg. Native Infantry. As I have had it in my power to explore and survey the course of the Ganges within the Himalaya mountains to a considerable distance beyond Gangautri, and to the place where its head is concealed by masses of snow which never melt, I hope, that an account of my journey may be acceptable to the Asiatic Society. J must premise that, as Capt. Raper’s account of Capt. Webb’s survey in 1808, has already appeared in the eleventh volume of the Researches, I have nothing to add to that officer’s able and fzithful description of the mountainous country, passed through in the route of the survey from the Dan Valley to Cajani, near Reital, where the survey towards Gafigautri was discontinued in consequence of the serious obstacles which impeded it. I shall, therefore, only give an account of the course of the river above * The Editor is favoured with these extraets from almost the only copy of Captaia Hodgson’s Journal, which has reached England, by Mr. Edmonstone, of Newcastle ; who observes, that in order to shorten the communication, a number of minute and inte- resting details have been necessarily omitted. This circumstance will serve to explain the breaks which the narrative occasionally assumes, and we should hope will be received as a sufficient apology for our not doing all the justice that we could wish to the labours of Capt. Hodgson, who has since been appointed to the important situation of Surveyor-General of India. 32 Extracts from the “Journal of a Survey to explore [J ULY, the village of Reital, where I halted to make arrangements for my progress through the rugged regions before me, in which I found | had no chance of getting any supplies of grain for my followers: I was consequently obliged to buy grain, and to send it off before me, so as to form little magazines at the places I intended to halt at; and as I learned that several of the sangas or spar bridges over the river had been destroyed by avalanches of snow, I sent a large party of labourers to re-establish them. Considering Reital as a point of departure, it will be satisfac- tory to know its geographical position. By a series of observa- tions with the reflecting circle of Troughton, and also by his astronomical circular instrument, I found the latitude to be 30° 48’ 28” N.; and having been so fortunate as to get two observations of immersions of the first satellite of Jupiter, and one of the second, I am able to give a good idea of the longitude of the place; and the more satisfactorily, as two of the immer- sions are compared with those taken at the Madras Observatory on the same night, and with which I have been favoured by Mr. Goldingham, the astronomer there. The telescope used by me. in observing the satellites was a Dollond’s 42 inches achromatic refractor, with an aperture of two and three-quarter inches, and power of about 75 applied, having a tall stand, and rack work for slow motion. The watch was a marine chronometer, made by Molineux, of London, and went with the greatest steadiness on its rate, as nightly deter- mined by the passage over the meridian of fixed stars observed with a transit instrument. The time of mean noon when required was always found by equal altitudes. By a mean of several observations taken at Madras about the time of four emersions of the first satellite, which I observed at Mr. Grindall’s house near Seharanpur. (Mr. Goldingham finds 5" 10’ 24” for the longitude of Seharanpir.) A snowy peak called Sri Canta is visible both from Reital and Seharanpir, its position is determined by means of a series of triangles insti- tuted by me for the purpose of taking the distances and heights of the snowy peaks. I find the angle at the pole or difference of longitude between Seharanpur station and Sri Canta to be 1° 14’ 47”, the peak being east, and at Reital, the difference of longitude of that village, and the peak is found to be 12’ 6”; the peak heing east, consequently the difference of longitude of Seharanpir and Reital is 1° 2’ 41”. On the whole, I think 5» 14’ 20:6”, or 78° 35’ 60°7” may be safely taken for the longi- tude of Reital, east of Greenwich. Reital contains about 35 houses, and is esteemed a considera- ble village ; as is usual in the upper mountains where timber is plentiful, the houses are Jarge, and two or three stories high. ‘When a house has three stories, the lowest serves to shelter the cattle by night; the second is a sort of granary, and in the upper the family dwells; round it there is generally a strong 1822.) the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.” 33 wooden gallery, or balcony, which is supported by beams that project from the walls. The roofs of the houses are made of boards or slates; they are shelving, and project much beyond the top of the walls, and cover the balcony, which is closed in bad weather by strong wooden shutters or pannels. These houses are very substantial, and have a handsome appearance at a distance, but they are exceedingly filthy within, and full of vermin. The walls are composed of long cedar beams, and stone in alternate courses, the ends of the beams meet at the corners, where they are bolted together by wooden pins. Houses of this construction are said to last for ages ; for the Deodar or Cailon pine, which, I suppose, to be the cedar of Lebanon,* is the largest, most noble and durable, of all trees. _ The situation of this village on the east side of a mountain, the summit of which is covered with snow, and the foot washed by the Bhagirathé is very pleasant. It commands a noble view of the Sri Canta, and other adjoining peaks of the Himalaya, on which the snow for ever rests. Snow also remains until the rains, on all the mountains of the second order, which are visible hence, both up and down the river. Many cascades are formed by the melting of the snows on the foot of the surrounding moun- tains. One in particular descends in repeated falls of several hundred feet each, from the summit of a mountain across the river, and joins it near Batheri. In the following account of my progress up the river, I have put down such remarks as occurred at the time, and they were written on the spot, and are here inserted with very little altera- tion. Though { am aware that such minute descriptions of localities must appear tedious, I hope they will be excused by those who, feeling interested in the subject, may have the pa- tience to read the detail. To give general descriptions of such rude regions is difficult, if not zmpossible, and I trust that parti- cular ones, though often tedious, will be found more faithful, and to give more precise ideas of those remote recesses of the Hima- laya, which I visited. On the 19th of May, I was joined at Reital by Lieut. Herbert, of the 8th Reg. N. I. who had been appointed my assistant, and from his skill and zeal, the survey has received much benefit. Mr. Herbert came direct from Calcutta, and brought me a pair of mountain barometers, but the tubes filled in England had been broken before they arrived in Calcutta: there were some spare empty tubes which we filled and used as hereafter mentioned, but we could not succeed in boiling the mercury in the tubes to free it entirely of air. The height of Reital above the sea, as indicated by our barometers, is 7108 feet. _ Having received reports that the sanghas were repaired, and that the grain I sent forward was lodged in the places I directed, ® It is the pinus Deodara of Roxburgh ; the Dévyadaru of Sanscrit writers,—H, H. W, New Series, vou, wv. D - 34 Extracts from the “ Journal of a Survey to explore [JSuLy, I left every article of baggage I could possibly do without, and having given very light loads to the coolies that they might pro- ceed with less difficulty, we marched from Reital on the 21st of May. On the 27th we reached the Soar river, from whence to imme- diately above Tawarra, the path is exceedingly rugged, over broken masses of rock. The whole is an ascent; and in some laces, very steep open precipices to the right, and high rocks above to the left ; precaution is required in the footing, and some places are very unpleasant to turn, where it is adviseable to go bare footed. The mountains are of granite, with various pie ale of quartz and feldspar, of which I have specimens. Heavy rain both on going and returning ; could not get a latitude. Water boiled at 198°, the temperature of the air being 67°. ~ At the village of Tawarra, direction of the small lake called Cailac Tal, whence the Dinni Garh river issues 71°. It is said to be 50 yards in diameter, but deep, and is formed by the melt- ing snow ; there isa small piece of level ground near it to which the villagers drive their sheep to pasture m August. Descent through the fields and down the Dell steep and slip- pery. Rhoh (or Rhai) pines and the mohora, a species of oak, grow here. Descent to the Elgie Garh torrent; cross it by a sangha 15 feet long: Granite rock in large blocks, with quartz nodules and bands in the bed of the stream. Cross Camaria Gadh (rivulet), eight paces wide. Down the narrow glen of the rivulet to its junction with the Ganges ; the whole a descent, and in many places bad and diffi- cult, over large blocks of rock which have fallen from above, and overturned and shattered all the trees in their course. The gra- nite precipices which confine the river at this place have split and fallen in large masses into the bed of the stream. Path along the side of the Ganges, but above it a cascade cope falls 800, but not in one sheet, river up to 6°; path rocky. Across the river and on its steep bank is a range of hot springs ; they throw up clouds of steam, and deposit a sediment of a ferruginous colour; these are the first hot springs I have observed on the Ganges; the river not being fordable, we can- not go to them. Huge blocks of rock fallen to left. Climb over and under the ruins of a most tremendous fall of the precipices ; blocks of granite from 100 to 150 feet in diame- ter are thrown on each other in the wildest and most terrific con- fusion ; the peak whence they fell is perpendicular, and of solid rock. This fall took place three years ago. Cross the Ganges by a sangha made of two stout fine spar Jaid from rock to rock. It isa good bridge of the kind, and 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna,’ 35 about 3+ feet wide; the space between the pine spars is overlaid with small deal shingles which are tied together so as to form a platform. Like all the rest, this sangha is open on both sides, and unpleasant to pass, being from the length and elasticity of the pines so springy as to rebound to every step the passenger takes. The river below the sangha was deep, and very rapid, being confined by rocks. Its breadth under the sangha, as measured by a chain, was 50 feet; height of the sangha above the stream 30 feet. The river is more expanded above and below. Sanghas are always placed in the narrowest parts. Tent at Dangal, a small flat so called on the left bank of the Ganges, and at the confluence of the Limea, a large torrent. No village here. The halting place is surrounded by high and steep -rocky mountains, and mural precipices; observed some bears climbing among the rocks. Time of marching five hours and 48 minutes ; a very laborious journey. The path is very rough, and merely a succession of steps from one broken crag to another; some places very diffi- cult. To the Ganges was descent; then we passed along its bank at no great height above the stream, which, though not wide, is deep and impetuous, falling from rock to rock. In the less rapid parts pools are formed, where the breadth may be 200 feet, but generally it appears from 100 to 120 feet wide ; several rills besides those noted above, fall into the river ; it is needless to say, that they fall in cataracts, the sides of the river being every where bounded by high cliffs. The rocks are granite, of much the same composition as on yesterday’s march. The di of the strata is about 45° towards NE. as usual, and the whole line of inclination is visible from the river to a great height above. Water boils at 202°, the temperature of the air being 54°. On our return, the barometer was deranged at this place. It is to be remarked that on going up, we did not fill the barometers, fearing they might be broken, and the mercury spilt, of which we had very little; our store of it having been dimmmished by those various accidents to which every thing that can be lost or broken in these rough regions is subject. Of these barometers more hereafter. Lofty cliffs on both sides of the river ; path generally a slight ascent, but rocky and difficult. Narai peak crowned with snow. Cross the river on a sangha at Deorani Ghati; it is anew and good bridge of the kind, but long and very elastic. Height above the stream 40 feet ; breadth of stream under the sangha 30 paces, or about 60 feet. The high flood mark of the stream when swollen, appears to be about 14 feet above the present level. A wild and savage looking place. Precipice around, granite and some black and grey rock of a laminar texture. Rocky path from last station. Pines of various kinds, and the true deal D2 36 Extracts from the “ Journal of a Survey toexplore [Jury, fir, grow here. Immediately on passing the sangha, the path leads over an avalanche of snow which reaches to the river’s margin; it is many feet thick, and has fallen this year, and brought down all the trees in its path. This is the first snow bed we passed over on the Ganges. The river, abed of foam falling from rock to rock. Five hun- dred yards further on, are the falls of Lohari Naig, where the river is more obstructed than in any part of its course, and tears its way over enormous masses of rock, which have fallen into it from the mural precipice which bounds its left shore. This frightful granite cliff of solid rock, of above 800 feet high, appears to have been undermined at its foot by the stream, and the lower and middle part have fallen into it, while the summit overhangs the base and the river, The vast ruins of this fall extend for about a quarter of a mile; the river has now forced its way through, and partly over the rocks, with a noise and impetuosity, we thought could not be surpassed; but on our return in June, when the Ganges was doubled in depth, the scene was still grander. It then just covered the tops of the rocks, and one of the falls of the whole stream we estimated at 25 feet perpendicular, and below it were more, close to each other, of little less height. The scene is full of sublimity and wildness, and the roar of the water is astounding, On the right bank also there has been a recent large slip of the mountain, but the above-mentioned on the left bank is for its height the most formidable fall I ever saw. It is not recent. Cross the Ganges by the sangha of Lohari Naig, 16 paces long, and 25 feet above the stream, which is here narrow, deep, and has a great fall; the ends of the sangha (which is very nae- row) are supported on each side on two great tabular granite rocks : that on the right bank is circular, and 150 feet in circum- ference. It is of a coarse brown granite, with quartz intermixed, and is decomposing in some places. The mountains on both sides of the river are very steep. On the left bank of the river observed a rill, impregnated with calcareous matter, which is so abundant as to incrust every thing it touches very strongly, and we collected large pieces of this lime, which is pure, like that at Sansir Dhara. This is a singular thing in a region of granite. The Lot Garh river joins the Ganges ; cross it by a good little sangha. This river is 20 feet wide. This last station has been almost level, and a good and pleasant path along a flat of 150 yards wide by the river side, shaded by caksi, mirei, omil, and ‘other trees. From the edge of the flat, the rock rises in a gigantic mural precipice of about 1500 feet perpendicular, and the same across the river. Strata much inclined. The Lot Garh river comes from the snow to the right, and is very rapid, Ganges here expanded, and the scenery beautiful, On our return breakfasted here, 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.” 37 Barometer. .....- Sieh» aledh. «ads an. Thermometer attached. ........ 53° Detached ...... cued midis a0 Fi eto Very steep and difficult descent, open to the left, and the river deep below ; a mural precipice across the river with well defined strata at an angle of 45°. The strata are so arranged in these regions, which are the feet of the Himalaya ; but I have observed that near the tops of the /zghest peaks, the layers of rock are nearly horizontal. Name of above mountain Baldera Luru ; steep as it is, and nearly devoid of soil, the pines nevertheless contrive to fix their roots in many parts of it. Bad and narrow path overhanging the river. The Soan Gadh (river) joins the Ganges below to west; appears to be 30 feet wide, and not fordable: very rapid. Bad and rough ; here cross the Ganges on a sangha about 45 feet above the stream; breadth of the roaring stream below 17 paces, or 42 feet. The bridge about 21 feet wide, ill secured, and unsteady ; it extends from one large rock to another: The current extremely violent, and the fall ofthe river great. A torrent from the Suci mountain falls in here; at this sangha on return, barometer, 22:90 in.; thermometer, 52°. Long ascent to Suci, a decaying village of nine houses, of which three only are inhabited. It is on the west side of a mountain, and surrounded on all sides by the Himalaya rock precipices crowned with snow. ‘The river is about 1000 feet below, foaming in a confined channel. As to the march, it was very long and laborious ; we performed it in seven hours ; probably one-fifth of it was hand and foot road. The rest, except the two places of fat mentioned above, as usual, a succession of long strides, or little careful steps from one broken crag to another. The three sanghas over the river, having been lately repaired, are not dangerous, but too high, natrow, and elastic, to be pleasant to cross. The people from the plains passed them very well (three persons excepted), but many of the mountain coolies were obliged to be led over with their eyes shut, as well as some of the Goorkha sepoys. To get well over them, it is proper to take careful steps (but not to go too slow), and to keep one’s eyes steadily fixed on the platform, and by no means to look over the side at the foaming gulf below, or to stop or hesitate when on the sangha, The scenery to day was in Nature’s grandest and rudest stile. Wall-like precipices of compact granite, bounding the river on both sides, to the immediate height of 2000 or 3000 feet; above those cliffs is snow. Latitude observed, 30° 59’ 40°25”. Descent and cross the Ganges by a sangha; length of the bridge 115 feet, breadth 3 feet ; breadth of the river below, 82 feet; depth to the surface of the water from the sangha, 19 feet (measured by the chain), This is the best sangha on the river, < 38 Extracts from the ** Journal of a Survey toexplore (Jury, and the water below is not so rapid as usual, Jhala, village of five houses; above Jhala, the country is not at present in- habited. A fine view up the river, which, for several miles above this, flows in a more expanded bed in a narrow valley; the feet of the mountains bounding it are less steep, and are clothed with cedars. Good path along sand and pebbles in the river’s bed, the current of which more gentle though very swift. The bed is about 600 yards wide, and will be overflowed when the river is at its height. Lower line of snow generally 2000 feet above the river, though several avalanches reach down toits margin. The air is very cold. We have now turned the snowy range, seen from the plains, and brought it to our right; the march from Dangal to Suci, and on to this place, may be considered as in that gorge of the Himalaya through which the river forces its way to the foot of those mountains of the second order, which are the beginning of the spurs of the grand range. We have now the great snowy peaks on both sides of the river, and it is henceforward bounded by them. Those to the right are visible from Hindustan; those across the river, or to our left, are not visible from the plains, being hid by the southern ridges. The line of the outlet of the river is very perceptible from the plains, and the Sricanta peak, the western foot of which it washes here, is conspicuous from Seharanpur and the Doab. From hence onward, the course of the Ganges is to be considered as being within the Himalaya differing from the Jumna, inasmuch as that the source of the latter river is at the south west feet of the snowy peaks seen from Seharanpur, and not within the Himalaya. Pleasant and level; a snowy peak towards Barrasah shows itself up the Soan Gadh: it is called Dumdara, and is very white with snow : mouth of the Soan Gadh 322°. Down its bed the plunderers from Barrasah and the western districts of Rawaien penetrate in the latter end of the rains. As faras Barrasah, the country is uninhabited for six days’ journey, except at Leuh- anch Gong, which is three coss on this side of Barrasah. hose districts are on the Tonse river, and are the seat of nume- rous gangs of plunderers and murderers who much infest this part of the country. Descent to the bed of the Ganges, and cross the Til Ghar, a large torrent which falls in a most beautiful and picturesque cas- cade of 80 or 100 feet over a rock, bordered and shaded by high feathery pines and spreading cedars. Flat, over sand and peb- bles of the river, bed here expanded. On our return we halted at this place to take the altitude of two very sharp snowy peaks, which now appeared to the south, or to ourright. We measured carefully with the chaina base of 165 feet, which was the greatest extent of level ground to be found ; with this base we found a longer line of 1568 feet, and 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.” 39 from its extremities determined the distances of the two peaks, and their heights above the east end of the base, as follows : First peak called Sewmarcha Chauntal, distance 16440 feet, bearing due south. Its angle of elevation 26° 43’ 42”, and height above the river 8278 feet. Second peak no name, but it is a lower part of the Sricanta mountain. Distance 15374 feet. Magnetic bearing 170° 43’. Angle of elevation 25° 55’ 30”. Height 7475 feet above the river. Barometer 22°249 inches; thermometers attached 79° ; detached 78°. N.B. On our return, we found gooseberries at this place ; they were of the large hairy kind, and, though not ripe, made good dumplings. Gradual descent, and cross the Kheir Gadh large rivulet by a sangha at Derali, a village of six houses, but now deserted on account of the failure of the crops and incutsions of banditti. The road to day, considered as a mountain path, was excellent, two or three places excepted. The north bases of the moun- tains which we passed along are moderately steep, and are clothed with noble cedars, and various sorts of large pines, of which the eshir and khai, or kher, are the largest. Cshir is a name indiscriminately given to several of the large leaved pines, but the tree so called here is the true deal; it grows to a great height, and bears a resemblance to the common cshir or turpen- tine fir, which abounds in the lower hills, but which is never seen in company with the cedar (deodar). I took some sveci- mens of this deal; it is light, and has a fine grain: the rhai is a lofty pine ; it has a graceful appearance ; the leaves are pendent. The wood of it is not esteemed for building, being heavy and knotty: the cedar is always preferred for that purpose. From the sangha to Derali the Ganges flows in an expanded bed with a swift current over stones. Yesterday it was a succession of falls from rock to rock, and bounded by frightful precipices. To day the scenery was very interesting, the river being bounded immediately to the north by the cedar forests; above which towered the sharp snowy peaks, and many torrents and cascades fell from them. I never made a more delightful march; the climate is pleasant, and the weather bright to day. The village of Derali is situated in a rocky recess, and commands a fine view of the river, and of the north sides of the snowy peaks behind Jamnautri. There are three small temples of stone by the river side; they are of good workmanship. Derali was plundered last year by banditti from the westward. Pole star hid by the mountains as usual. Crest of nearly per- pendicular and difficult short ascent: crags overhanging and threatening to fall. The river bed the whole way broad, and strong current at Derali; lofty peaks on every side rising immediately from the river. This place is 1000 feet above it. Cedars of great size here. 40 Extracts from the “ Journal of a Surveytoexplore (Jury, Road generally level on bank of the river: cross an avalanche of great magnitude, being a fall of lumps of snow like large rocks, it has brought down, and broke to pieces, all the cedar trees in its path: perpendicular rocky precipices rise imme- diately from the river bed to the height of 1500 and 2000 feet ; high snow peaks on all sides ; large cedars at their feet. An exceedingly steep ascent; river not visible, but close below mountains with bare peaks; not a blade of herbage on their rocky sides. In front, Decani snowy peak ; to our left a mountain called T’hui. The south side of Decani is washed by the Bhagirat’hi, and the north side by the Jahni Ganga or Jah- nevi, their confluence being at Bhairog’hati. This place is called Ratenta. Another steep and toilsome ascent. Descent over broken fragments of peak. A rocky precipice nearly mural, of 1000 feet, overhangs the right bank of the Ganges, which here, as usual, rushes over rocks with an impe- tuous and foaming current. In front is the gigantic peak Decani rising immediately from the bed of the river, on the left, almost equally high, one of T’hui; below immense masses of granite overhang the river. The scenery is very grand. Very large cedars here. A sweep from 8. to E. brings us to that most terrific and really awful looking place called Bhairog’hati. The descent to the sangha is of the steepest kind, and partly bya ladder. The sangha is inclined far from the level, and, as seen from the height above it, cannot fail to inspire the beholder with anxiety as to his safe passage over it. It is indeed by far the most formidable sangha I have seen; the height of the plat- form above the river, we measured by dropping the chain ; it was 60 feet. One is apt at first sight to estimate it at much more ; however, this height added to the circumstances of the narrowness of the sangha (about 24 feet wide), its elasticity, and its inclined position, 1s sufficient to render its passage disagree- ble, it being (like all the rest) quite open at the sides. It is laid from one side of the precipice to the other; the end on the left bank is the highest; the precipices in some places are quite perpendicular, in most, nearly so, rising to the height of 3000 feet above the stream; they are of compact granite. On some ledges there is a little soil where the cedars fix their roots. The river below the sanghais closely confined by the wall-like rocks, which are perfectly perpendicular, and its course is thus bounded nearly to Gangautri. The breadth of the stream is about 45 feet, and it is deep under the bridge. Turn to the left by a rocky path to our tent, which is in a very strange place for a tent to be in; and one of the most curious sights among many here, is to see a little tent pitched under vast overhanging masses of rock at the confluence of these two rivers, the Bhagirat’hi, and its foaming rival the Jahni Ganga, or 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.” 4} as more properly called, the Jahnevi. The strange and terrific appearance of this place (Bhairog’hati) exceeds the idea I had formed of it. No where in my travels in these rude mountains have I seen any thing to be compared with this, in horror and extravagance. Precipices composed of the most solid granite confine both rivers in narrow channels, and these seem to have been scooped out by the force of the waters. Near the Sanga, the Bhagirat’hi has in some places scolloped out the rock which overhangs it. The base of these peaks is of the most compact sort of granite; it is of a light hue, with small pieces of black sparry substance intermixed. From the smoothness of the rocks which confine the stream, and which appear to be worn so by water, I think the stream must have formerly flowed on a higher level, and that it is gradually scooping its channel deeper ; for it does not appear that the walls which confine the rivers are masses fallen from above, but that they are the bases of the peaks themselves. Enormous blocks have indeed fallen, and han over our heads in threatening confusion ; some appear 200 feet in diameter, and here are we sitting among these ruins by the fire side at noon. Thermometer 52°. What are these pinnacles of rock, 2000 or 3000 feet high, which are above us, like? I know not. To compare small with great, I think the aptest idea I can form of any thing that might be like them, would be the appearance that the ruins of a Gothic cathedral might have, to a Spectator within them, supposing that thunderbolts or earth- quakes had rifted its lofty and massy towers, spires, and but- tresses ; the parts left standing might then in miniature give an idea of the rocks of Bhairog’hati. The great cedar pines, those gigantic sons of the snow, fringe these bare rocks, and fix their roots where there appears to be very little soil ; a few also of the larger deal pine are seen, but inferior trees do not aspire to grow here. The day is dull and rainy, and I cast my eyes up at the precipice overhead, not without awe ; a single fragment might dash us to pieces. Avalanches of snow and rock such as we have passed to day, and indeed for these three last days, show by their effects their vast powers of destruction; for they bring down forests in their overwhelming course, and dash the cedars into splinters. These avalanches have ail fallen this season ; they have in some places filled up the dells and water courses to a great depth with snow, and extend from the peaks to the margin of the river. A painter wishing to represent a scene of the harshest features of nature, should take his station under the sanga of Bhairog’hati, or at the confluence of the Bhagirat’hi and Jahnevi rivers : here it is proper to take some notice of this latter river hitherto little known. Though the Bhagirat’hi is esteemed the holy and cele- brated Ganges, yet the Jahnevi is accounted to be, and I think is, the larger stream. From a Brahman who officiates at Gangotri, and who has been up it, I collected some particulars, which, 42 Extracts from the “ Journal of a Survey to explore [Jury, though, perhaps, far from correct, may serve to give an idea of it. By the course of the river is a pass to Bhoat or Thibet, by which the people from Reital and the upper villages of Rowaien go to get salt, blanket cloth, and wool, in exchange for grain. The trade is trifling, and not more than 100 people go yearly ; in the latter end of the rains the road is open. They carry their goods on sheep and goats. The Brahman has been at the fron- tier village called Neitang ; it is four long and very difficult days’ journey. The first three days are up the course of the river, high above its bed for the most part, but occasionally descend- ing to it. It is exceedingly steep and difficult. First day.—They go along the high precipice on the right bank of the river: a sangha at the end of along march. Very bad path. No village. Second day.—Having crossed, very bad path to Cartcha, a halting place. Novillage. Cedar pines here. Third day.—On same bank of the river to Handouly, a halt- ing place; but no village. Not very long march. Fourth day.—The frontier or (do-phashias) village called Nei- tang, in the district of Tangsah ; at this village, the river seems (they say) but little diminished in size, and there is a sangha over it. The Brahman can give no account of its origin, except that he believes it comes from some hills in Bhoat. The first part of the course of the river upwards, so far as can be seen from Bhairog’hati, is 72° NE.; and from what J can understand, it appears that this river has its source to the north of that ridge of the Himalaya which bounds the Bhagirat’hi to the NE. or on its right bank, and that between Bhairog’hati, and, perhaps, the third day’s march above-mentioned, it forces itself through the range. The Brahman says that at the village, and for the last day’s march to it, the mountains are bare of trees, and that they are not the Cylas mountains (i..e. not what we call snowy mountains) but that the Cylas peaks towards Gangotri are seen to the right, and so they would be, if we suppose the course of the Jahnevi up, to be about N. 70 E.; and the course of the Ganges is, we know from hence, considerably to the 8. of E. By the way I may mention here, that cylas is a general appella- tion for high ranges always covered with snow, in the same way as we say Himalaya or Himachal (which last indeed literally means snowy peaks). At Neitang, the houses are built very low on account of the high winds. Travellers suffer much from difficulty in breathing, caused, as they say, by the bic’h or bis’h; i. e. exhalations from poisonous herbs which grow on the high bare knolls. This frontier district of Tungsah appears to be considered to belong to what they call here Bhoat or Thibet, and they pay their land. tribute to a collector who comes from Chaprang. Of the distance, or size, or direction, of Chaprang, I could not get any satisfac- tory account, but it appears to be a Chinese dependency. The 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.”’ 43 district also gives to the Raja at Bassahir a blanket per man every third year, and a small complimentary tribute of dac’h (raisins) to the G’harwal Raja. The inhabitants are called do- phashias from their speaking the languages of both G’harwal and Bhoat, and they act as interpreters and brokers. The exports from Rawaien are rice, mandwa and papra (coarse grains), tobacco, and tamashas. Imports, salt, and thick woollen cloth and wool. The Rawaien people go in the month of Cartic, because the wool is then ready, but in the month of Sawan, the road may be passed, and that would be the best time to go. Had the season been more advanced, and if I had had grain, I should have been tempted to go up this river; it is an inte- resting object of future research, but there are many others, and one does not know which to attend to first; but it is my inten- tion to explore this river next season. Latitude observed. Confluence of the rivers at Bhairog’hati. Water boiled at 198°, the air being 44°. On our return, June 3, we encamped in a much better place, a small piece of flat at the summit of the cliff which bounds the Ganges on its left side. It was a pleasant and secure situation, and under the shade of the cedars. At this place, about 700 feet above the river, the. barometer (unboiled mercury) stood at 21 inches, temperature of air 70°. Latitude of this camp 30° 01’ 22:5” good observations ; junc- tion of Bhagirat’hi and Jahnevi rivers 72° distant 1 furlong. A very steep and difficult ascent, we pass along the perpendi- cular face of the precipice by means of a scaffolding of two nar- row planks, which appeet very rotten, and ill supported at the ends ; under the scaffold is a chasm of 300 feet deep. Imme- diately afterwards, ascend by ladders, the precipices bounding the river, being here like walls, and these scaffolds and ladders are laid from projecting points to enable one to pass. Three other passages along the precipices and over chasms by means of rotten planks ; then an exceedingly steep ascent by short zigzags to a flat at the foot of Decani peak ; here is a small temple of Bhairo Lal who is esteemed the janitor of Gangotré ; at this place, pious Hindis leave their shoes. Road tolerably level; winds‘round the SW. side of Decani peak ; the river 1s about 800 feet below to the right, and rising from its bed is a wall of mountains of a height I find it difficult to estimate; below to the river steep precipices. Path very difficult; a few paces further on cross another frightful chasm by a platform of afoot or 18 inches wide. Road over masses of granite piled in confusion; they are fragments of a fallen peak. Looking up, we see the tower-like summits of Decani almost overhanging us. The whole way strewed with falls of rock from them. Many traces of bears. Wind round the brow of the hill, and come upon an opening 44 Extracts from the “Journal of a Survey to explore [Juty, where the eye is saluted with a full view of Mianri peak, and in the distance, the mountains of Rudr Himalaya crowned by the peak of Dugdi towering to a great height ; the pure snows on it shine in the sun’s rays with dazzling brilliancy. , Rather better path ; the river deep below, foaming inits nar- row and rocky bed. Most fantastic great snow peak over Gan- otri. Black rocky peak across the river. Call it Iron Sides. Path as before. Across the river is a cascade falling through a large snow bed ; the snow reaches in several places from the river bed on the opposite side, to the summit of the mountains which are very steep. We are almost in sight of Gangotri. The river flows under beds of snow which have fallen into it from the peaks, and cover it. Pass above a cascade falling over a precipice of grey granite with black sparry spots. Wonderfully steep precipices on both sides of the tiver; on this side, the rocks are quite bare and shattery. Cross above a cascade falling from a rocky gorge to the left. Path extremely bad. This river below foaming between walls of rock perfectly perpendicular. A sangha (now destroyed) had formerly been laid over at this place by the banditti, who, in the rains, plunder the Cédarnath districts to the eastward. The rocks through which the river flows have horizontal strata, and the light hue of Portland stone. They are as usual granite. The cedars here are poor and starved. Rudr Himalaya a snowy peak 95°. Gangotri: the small temple of Ganga Mai and Bhagi- rat’hi on right bank of Ganges. The path to day was of the worst description, and is on the whole, J think, the most rugged march we have hitherto had, though there are not any long ascents. Nothing can be more unpleasant than the passage along the rotten ladders and inclined scaffolds, by which the faces and corners of the preci- pices near Bhairog’hati are made. The rest of the way lies along the side of a very steep mountain, and is strewed with rocks. The views of the snowy peaks which are on all sides, were very grand and wild. The rocks are of granite, but ofa lighter colour than usual, and specks of a bright black sparry substance are interspersed in them at the distances of from one to three inches. The river’s bed from Bhairog‘hati to Gauricund, was between mural precipices of 200 or 300 feet high ; above them was the steeply inclined ground, along which our path lay. Though very rocky, there were many places with soil where the cedars grew, but not large. Above the path to our left were bare rocky precipices, on the summit of which the snow lies : at Gauricund and Gangotri the river’s bed becomes more open. The temple at Gangotri is a Mundup of stone of the smallest kind ; it con- tains small statues of Bhagirat’hi, Ganga, &c. and it is built over 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.” 45 a piece of rock called Bhagirat’hi-Sita, and is about 20 feet higher than the bed of the Ganges ; and immediately above its right bank, there is also a rough wooden building at a short distance for the shelter of travellers. By the river’s side, there is. in some places soil where small cedars grow; but in general the margin is strewed with masses of rock, which fall from the precipices above. ‘The falls do not appear recent. Too much tired to attempt to boil mercury in the tubes to day. At night, having prepared the instruments to take the immersion of one of Jupiter’s satellites, we laid down to rest, but between 10 and 11 o’clock were awakened by the rocking of the ground, and, on running out, soon saw the effects of an earth- quake, and the dreadful situation in which we were, pitched in the midst of masses of rock, some of them more than 100 feet in diameter, and which had fallen from the cliffs above us, and probably brought down by some former earthquake. The scene around us, shown in all its dangers by the bright moonlight, was indeed very awful. Onthe second shock, rocks were hurled in every direction from the peaks around to the bed of the river, with a hideous noise not to be described, and never to be forgotten. After the crash caused by the falls near us had ceased, we could still hear the terrible sounds of heavy falls in the more distant recesses of the mountains. We looked up with dismay at the cliffs over head, expecting that the next shock would detach some ruins from them. Had they fallen, we could not have escaped, as the fragments from the summit would have flown over our heads, and we should have been buried by those from the middle. Providentially there were no more shocks that night. This earthquake was smartly felt in all parts of the mountains, as well as in the plains of the north-west provinces of Hindustan. In the morning we removed to the left bank of the river, where there is a bed of sand of about 150 yards wide ; there isa flat of soil with trees of about 20 yards wide, and immediately above it are precipices with snow on them; here we were much more secure. In the afternoon indeed, the effects of the snow melt- ing, often caused pieces of rock to fall from above, too near our station, but we could avoid them by running over the sand to the river side, which could not be done on the right bank ; besides only comparatively small pieces fell here, and in day light, so that this is much the best side to encamp on. We had the curiosity to measure trigonometrically the height of the cliff, at the foot of which we were during the shock, and found it to be 2745 feet. This day, the 27th, we hada slight shock of an earthquake, as well as on the 28th. Filled a new and full length ciean tube with pure mercury ; immediately after filling (unboiled), it stood at 20 inches. 46 Extracts from the “ Journal of a Sw'vey to explore (Jury, Thermometer attached ....... Seat art iin Ditto detached. .........- BS ic rs 68° Having hung the barometer up in the tent, and allowed it to acquire the temperature of the air and adjusted zero, the follow- ing heights were observed : Thermometer attached ......0+0...0+6 774° Ditto detached ..... 20.26.60. epee «3 DOr Upper surface of the mercury......... 20 in. Second reading an hour afterwards, mercury upper convex surface...... 20 An hour afterwards upper convex. .... 20 Afternoon, outside of the tent three hours after filling the tube ; mean at four o°clogk... «is:sists))cistenn'h 0a eieininotelene There were very few and but small (air) bubbles in the column, and the vacuum was evidently pretty good, as shown by the smart cracking of the mercury against the top of the tube. Wiateriboiletatss..sinetcearcie elon ve 196° We now begin to boil the mercury in the tube. The tube as usual broke. None but a professed artist can expect to succeed in this difficult business once in 10 times. With the unboiled mercury, there must be an error, but it should not, I think, affect the heights more than 200 feet, and generally not 100 feet; and as under the present circumstances we cannot do more, we must be content with such approximate altitudes ; and I reckon it of some consequence to have the heights of these places even within 200 feet, as hitherto no idea could be formed on the subject. When a tube is filled with unboiled mercury, which of course eontains air, it stands at first higher than it ought from the air dilating the column ; but, after a short time, much of the air escapes into the upper part of the tube, where the vacuum ought to be, and there expanding presses down the mercury in the tube, thus making it Jower than it should be. The mean height will not differ much, perhaps not more than two-tenths of an inch in moderate heats from that shown by a boiled tube. The barometers I had were two out of six sent from England to the Surveyor-General’s Office. They were made by Berge, and are very fine instruments ; but so little attention had been paid to their packing, that the tubes of them all were found to be broken when they arrived in Calcutta, as well as most of the thermometers belonging to them. There were spare, but unfilled tubes sent with them, and some of these would not fit. Whenever barometers are sent, there should be to each at least six spare tubes filled in England by the maker, and herme-~ 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.” 47 tically sealed ; and these should be carefully packed in separate cases of copper or wood lined with flannel, and the scale down- wards should go to 13 inches. The scale of these barometers only reaches to 19 inches. In instrumeuts intended for India, solidity should be considered ; we want those which will do their work effectually, and are not anxious that they should be smadd and easily portable, as we can always here find means of carrying them. The mean height of tie column by such observations as I thought most to be depended on is 20 in. 837’; the tempera- tures of the air and mercury being 75° and 65°. From which the height of Gangautri above the sea, is, calculated by Feet. M. Raymond’s method. .......... 10319:4 Dr. Hutton’s method ............ 10306°6 Latitude observed May 27 and 28, 1817. By me, reflecting circle, alternate faces, mean by A and B. Librass oo v0.0 00 2060 cies s 05 30° 59’ 29” Large sextant by Berge. Lieut. Herbert, four SM PAME MI ha, i: tg YS Si ayol afin suid a. wpe chy h bh nel oie 30°5 By me, reflecting circle, eight circummeridional altitudes of spica, being 24 indexes, on alter- nate faces ....... sheet eh aiads 5 hs a Ma 27'1 eee Mean latitude of Gangautri.............5 as 30°59°30°5 These were good observations, and refraction is allowed on the altitudes, according to the barometer and thermometer; and all other corrections for precession, aberration, nutation, &c. are applied as usual. The pole star could not be seen on account of the height of the cliffs, nor any star to the south lower than those observed. The same cause most unfortunately prevented our being able to observe any eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites here, or the occultation of the star + libra by the moon, and I was sorry to find that my chronometers could not be depended on to show the difference of longitude in time. Though they are of the best kind, and hung in gimbals, no method of carriage that I had then adopted coulda prevent them feeling the effects of the short and conti- nually repeated jerks they received from the uneven steps which the man who carried them on his back was obliged to make. Nothing, except a staff, can be conveniently carried in the hands, as they are so frequently employed in assisting the feet in diffi- cult places. : _ The mean breadth of the Ganges at Gangotri was (measured by the chain) 43 feet, depth 18 inches, and nearly the same depth at the sides as in the middle: the current very swift, and over large rounded stones. This was on the 26th May; the stream was then in one channel, but the effect of the sun in 48 Extracts from the “ Journal of a Survey to explore (Jury, melting the snow was at that season so powerful that it was daily much augmented ; and on our return to Gangotri on the 2d of June, the depth of the main stream was two feet, and it was a few feet wider:(but I did not then measure the width). Several shallow side channels had also been filled in the interval, and on the whole I estimate that the volume of water was doubled. Though the frequency of the earthquakes made us_ very anxious to get out of our dangerous situation in the bed of the river, we resolved, as we had come so far, to leave no means untried to trace the stream as far as possible, and accordingly set out on the morning of the 29th of May, hoping to arrive at the head of the river in the course of the day. The two Gangotri Brahmins could not give any information as to how far it might be distant; they had never been higher than Gangotri, and assured us that no persons ever went further, except the Munshi, who appears by the account in the Asiatic Researches to have gone about two miles. Mr. James Frazer visited Gangotri im 1815, and was the first European who did so. From Gangotri forward up the Ganges. Pass avalanche and fragments of rock newly fallen, and which cover the path. Ascend a snow bed which covers the river; it is about 50 feet thick. Over the snow bed, and descend to the open stream. | Here a gorge of huge rocks obstructs the stream; they have all fallen from above. N.B. The Brahmins say they never heard of any rock or place called the Cow’s Mouth, or Gao Muc’h, or any thing like it either in sound or signification. We did not see or hear of any image whatever. River flows under a snow bed; a rill of water from the snow to right. High precipices on both sides all the way. Alternate avalanches of snow and rock recently fallen. River under an avalanche of 500 feet thick ; the snow hard and frozen. A great fall of the peaks. River bed filled with fallen rocks, and difficult to pass. The stream, a succession of cataracts. High peaks above. Over fragments. Here the river falls out of a snow bed ina cascade of foam: ascend the great snow bed. Strong ascent of the snow bed, which is about 100 feet thick, over the river. Mis Cross a torrent six feet wide and nine inches deep; it comes from a cleft in the peaks to the left. River here under a’ snow bed. 18. Msp River turns the foot of high snowy peaks to the right ; preei- pices quite perpendicular to the left. Rudra Himalaya peak, 97°, 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.” 49 Finding that the head of the river must be more distant than we expected, we sent back to Gangotri for a small tent. High mural precipices rising immediately from the river to the left: snowy peaks to the night, their summits about 6000 feet above us. Cross the river at some falls. We leaped from rock to rock with some difficulty. Present general line of snow about 200 feet above us. To the right, the face of the mountain has slipped. Bhojpatra (i. e. birch) jungle to the right with some pines, but small and stunted. Great mural precipices to the left. Begin to pass a great snow bed from under which the river falls in a cascade. Heavy slips of the mountain to the right. Ascend a very steep mass of snow, which covers the river; it appears to be 300 feet thick. Cross a rill. To the right above us are sharp snowy peaks 6000 or 7000 feet high ; at their bases is some soil and loose stones, in which birch and small firs grow. . Up the rocky bed of the river, and here ascend a very darge snow bed, which reaches from the top of the peaks to the right of the river, and conceals it: the river bed here more expanded. The feet of the mountains to the right not so steep as hitherto. To the left are precipices. Saw some musk deer among the rocks. From the top of the snow bed, a noble snowy peak (St. George) appears. Above the left bank of the river, and by the side of the snow bed, are some birch trees and small long leaved firs, but no more cedars. This being the only convenient or safe place we could see, we halted here. The river is perceptibly diminished in bulk already, and we hope that to morrow we may see its head. The march to day was most toilsome, and rough through the loose fragments of rock which daily fall at this season from the peaks on either side ‘to the river, in the afternoon when the sun melts the snow. Travellers should contrive to gain a safe place by noon, or they may be dashed to pieces. It was very cold at this place, and froze all night, but we had plenty of fire wood from the bhojpatra trees. The soil was spongy, and full of rocks. The silence of the night was several times broken by the noise of the falling of distant avalanches. ' By the barometer, it appeared we were 11,160 feet above the sea. Water boiled at 193° of Fahrenheit. A little tent, which one man carries on his back, came to us; but in this trip, we ate and slept on the ground, and were well pleased to have got so farbeyond Gangotri, hitherto the boundary of research on the Ganges. Latitude observed, 30° 58’ 59”. ‘The place we adie the night on is elevated above the left te of the stream, being a sort of bank formed by the ruins of fallen peaks ; but as the falls are not recent, nor the slope so ue as in most places, the birch trees and various sorts of small ew Series, VOL, 1Y. E 50 Extract from the “ Journal of a Survey to explore [Juuy, pines and mosses have had time to fix their roots, and afford fuel and shelter. A very long and deep snow avalanche reaches from the peaks above the left bank down to the river, and con- ceals it. Onthe opposite side of the river, the cliffs are of great height and mural, except in one place where a tremendous fall has taken place, encumbering and obstructing the bed of the river. But these ruins are so frequent, that the traveller scram- bles through them with little regard, except where the freshness of the fracture of the fallen masses of rock warns him to mend his pace, and get as soon as possible out of danger. May 30.—Birch tree, halting place, forward. Thermometer, sunrise, 32°. Set off from the middle of the snow bed. A torrent eight feet wide, five inches deep, joins the river. Its edges are frozen. Cross a high avalanche of snow, which conceals the river; it is very hard frozen. The bed of the river begins to be wider; large icicles hang among the rocks. ; Ford a rivulet or torrent from the left 11 feet wide. Rocky and rough. Gradual ascent. Gradually ascending among rocks. To the left, high cliffs of granite, but not so steep as before. To the right, snowy peaks; their summits about 6000 or 7000 feet high, distant about two. miles. The river bed is here about two furlongs wide, and full of stones. River certainly diminished in size ; it is very rapid, its bed being an ascent. We are now above the line of vegeta- tion of trees, and past the last firs. The birches remain, but they are only large bushes ; laurels also are seen, and a sort of, I believe, lichen, which grows in the rocks. The noble three- peaked snowy mountain shines in our front, and is the grandest and most splendid object the eye of man ever beheld. As na person knows these peaks or their names, we assume the privi- lege of navigators, and call them St. George, St. Patrick, and St. Andrew. St. George bears 129°; St. Patrick 132° 30’. N.B. On going further, we saw another lower peak between St. George and St. Patrick, which we called St. David, and the mountain collectively the Four Saints. A fall of the river of 12 feet over rocks, and a succession of smaller falls. The inclination of the bed of the riveris consider- able ; it is filled with blocks of granite, white, yellow, and red, and we saw some flint. Very difficult moving here. Great slips of the mountain to the left. _ Most difficult. Over masses of rock, which have fallen from above to the stream. This station is full of peril, being a very recent slip of the whole face of the mountain to the left. The broken summits cannot be less than 4000 feet high; blocks threaten to fall, and are indeed now continually coming down I have not seen so dangerous a slip. The ruin extends about half a mile; every person made the greatest haste to get past 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.” 51 this horrid place. The fracture of the rocks is so fresh, that I suspect this havoc must have been caused by the earthquake of the 26th; for we heard a great crash in this direction. Over snow for the most part. An enormously high and extensive snow bed in sight in front: it entirely conceals the river, but the stream is yet 20 feet wide. Snow all round, and above and below, except where it has melted just here on a convenient fiat between the river, and the feet of the mountains to the left. All beyond is an inclined bed of snow ; so we must halt here. Call it halting place near the. debouche of the Ganges. Proceeded forward to reconnoitre, and returned. Up the river, and along snow. Mount Moira 170°; pyramid peak, 200°. Return to ©, eight to halt for the sake of fire wood. This is an excellent and safe place; no peak can fall on us ; five companies, or even a battalion, might encamp here. Sublime beyond description is the appearance of the snowy peaks now so close tous. The Four Saints are at the head of the valley ofsnow, and a most magnificent peak, cased in snow and shining ice, stands like a giant to the right of the valley: this we named Mount Moira. The snow valley, which hides the river, appears of great extent ; to morrow will show what it is. We experienced considerable difficulty in breathing, and that peculiar sensation which is always felt at great elevations where there is any sort of herbage, though I never experienced the like on the naked snow beds, even when higher. Mountaineers, who know nothing of the thinness of the air, attribute the faintness to the exhalations from noxious plants, and | believe they are right, for a sickening effluvium was given out by them here, as well as on the heights under the snowy peaks, which I passed over last year above the Setlej ; though on the highest snow, the faintness was not complained of, but only an inability to go far without stopping to take breath. ‘Barometer.—The tube heated, and then gradually filled with mercury halfan inch at a time, and the bubbles which were per- ceptible, driven out by gently beating against the places they were at. The mercury stood at. ............ 18-854 in. Detached thermometer............ 55° Attached ditto. ......... Oe eee Op Height of the place above the level of the sea 12°914 feet. Water boils at 1921°, which, according to Mr. Kirwan’s table, answers to a barometer of 19-5 inches. We are about 150 feet above the bed of the river. By day the sun is powerful, although we are so surrounded by snow ; but the peaks reflect the rays. When the sun sunk behind the mountains, it was very cold; at night it froze. High as we are, E 2 52 Extracts from the “ Journal of a Survey,” &¢c. [Jury, the clouds yet rise higher. The colour of the sky is a deep blue. What soil there is is spongy. A few birch bushes are yet seen; but a large and strong ground tree or creeper overspreads the ground somewhat in the manner of furze or brambles ; and it is a curious fact that the wood of this is, we think, that of which the cases of black lead pencils are made, being of a fine brittle, yet soft red grain; and the smell is the same as of that used for the pencils, and which has hitherto been called by us cedar. I have specimens of this wood ; it is called, I think, chundun: I saw it on the summit of the Chour peak, and in the snowy regions of Kunaur, but did not then examine it. It will be found pro- bably that the pinus cedrus, or cedar of Lebanon, is the deodar (or as it is called to the westward, the kailou), and no other. Nor do our mountain cedars (24 feet in circumference) yield in size or durability to those of Lebanon. But this chundun (mis- called cedar) is not even a tree ; it may be called a large creeper, growing in the manner of bushes, though it is very strong, and some of its arms are as thick as a man’s thigh. Of this, and also of the great cedar (deodar), and of other pines, I will send specimens, > Latitude, mean 30° 56’ 34:5”. Good observations.—The particulars of them, as well as of all others, I have preserved. The strata of rock, where exposed, near the summits of the grand snowy peaks, were very nearly horizontal, as I observed, last year, at the summits of the peaks above the Setlej; though in lower parts of the Himalaya, the rock is generally seen deeply declined, as observed between Dangul and Sookie, as well as at Jumnotri, Xe. The colour of the high rocks on the Four Saints appeared to be ofa hght yellow mixed with brown or black. There being a small:piece of level ground here, a primary base was measured on its longest extent; it was 319 feet ; with it a longer base of 667-2 feet was obtained, favourably situated for taking the heights and distances of the peaks in front. This base, being but short, and no other to be had, great care was taken in observing the angles and elevations; and they were repeated both with a fine theodolite, and reflecting instruments (my cir- cular instrument could not be safely brought beyond Reital). The angle of altitude of Peak St. George was 14° 07’. Height of the peak above the sea, 22,240°6 feet. St. Patrick, height above the station. .........e.e0+0- 9,471 Station above the sea. ......... cee ee «8 sy Grae = ae een Distance 42,480 feet ; and height above sea, feet... /. 22,388 (To be concluded in our neat.) 1822.] Mr. R. Phillips on certain Substances, &c. 53 ArtTicLE XII. ~ Qbservations on certain Substances which have been supposed to act as Acids, and as Alkalies. By R. Phillips, FRS. L&E, Xe. Tue first volume of the Annales de Chimie contains a memoir by M. Perthollet; the object of which is to show, that if the metals, when oxidized, perform the functions of alkalies with the acids, the same oxides also act as acids with the alkalies. Mr. Smithson (Phil. Trans. 1811,) adopting a similar opinion with respect to the action of silica upon other earths, has considered it as an acid, and has employed the term silicate to express its compounds: thus he says that zeolite may be regarded as a silicate of alumina and soda; and he considers the compound as bearing some analogy to alum. /M. Berzelius has not only admitted that silica performs the part of an acid in certain compounds, but has attributed similar powers to alumina, and employs the term aluminate. The fol- lowing passage from his Nouveau Systeme Minéralogique (p. 76), would however appear to indicate that he had not clearly de- termined the nature of the substances included in this class : “ Selon Ekeberg, le gahnite contient Alumine ........ 60°00 2 contenant §28°2 12 ou 6 Oxide de zinc.... 24:25§ oxigéne 4-0 2 1 Oxide de fer ... beg.bg comme oxidule 2:0 ] POLL, as wens 4:75 3-3 1 On peut considérer ce minéral de plusieurs manicres. Si nous ne faisons pas attention au fer et a la silice, ce sera un alwmi- nias zincicus, dans lequel l’alumine contient six fois l’oxigéne de l’oxide de zinc, 21 A%, et qui peut etre coloré par le silicias ferrosus. D’un autre cété il peut encore tre composé d’un double aluminiate de zinc et de fer, c’est-da-dire former un trialuminias ferroso-zincicus, de sorte que l’alumine dans toutes ces combinaisons simples, contient trois fois autant d’oxigéne que le corps avec lequel elle se trouve combinée. Dans ce cas, la composition serait f A? + 227A? 4A° 8.” Dr. Thomson, in his System of Chemistry, has also adopted the idea of the action of silica as an acid; and when the au- thorities by which this opinion is sanctioned are considered, it will, Iam apprehensive, appear useless for me to endeavour to show, that by admitting silica and alumina tobe, or to perform the functions of acids, we are in danger not only of adopting a loose system of nomenclature, but also of attributing to bodies 54 Mr. R. Phillips on certain Substances which [Juny, the properties of acids, whose only claim cousists in their power of combination with other bodies, and which power will, consistently with Berthollet’s observation, equally entitle them to be ranked in the very opposite class of alkalies. It will be readily granted that silica does not possess any one of the move obvious properties which characterize acids ; it is inodorous, tasteless, insoluble in water, or alcohol, does not affect. vegetable colours, and has no immediate action upon any alkali, earth, or metal, so as to neutralize, dissolve, or form crystalline compounds with them. On the other hand, there are cases in which it appears to act as an alkali; thus, in a finely divided state, silica is dissolved by the acids generally, and with the fluoric acid it forms a peculiar compound : it is certainly con- sidered that the silicated fluoric acid is a compound acid, but it is to be remembered that the fluoric acid possesses acidity without being combined with silica; and moreover, when sili- cated fluoric acid is mixed with water, the silica is precipitated ; but as this is perfectly analogous to what happens when muriate of antimony is poured into water, I think that analogies are more favourable to the alkaline, than to the acid properties of silica. With respect to alumina, it cannot for a moment be questioned . that its powers as a base are much more strongly marked than those of silica; it readily combines, when minutely divided, with almost every acid; and the formation of alum must be deemed satisfactory evidence of its saturating power with re- spect to acids. Alumina, however, resembles silica in its property of com- bining with the alkalies, potash and soda; and it is not, I believe, generally known, that with potash it so far performs the function of an acid, as to form a crystalline compound. 1 have, however, procured it in crystals of considerable size, and they appeared to be efflorescent, but 1 have not yet subjected them to analysis; and as I am not aware that any crystalline compound of silica and potash has been formed, it must, | think, be admitted, that the acid, as well as the alkaline functions of alumina, are better defined than those of silica. Oxide of lead is a substance which possesses the power of. combining with acids and alkalies in a still more remarkable degree than alumina. When this oxide is dissolved in acetic acid, it is weil known that a certain quantity saturates the acid sufficiently to prevent its action upon vegetable colours, and by evaporation we procure sugar of lead; but if this solution be boiled with an additional quantity of oxide of lead, we obtain a compound (Goulard’s extract of lead) which is remarkable on. two accounts. First, it is a real subsalt, and soluble in water, and there :s not, that I know of, a similar instance in record. Secondly, the oxide of lead in excess acts so completely as an: 1822.] are supposed to act as Acids and as Alkalies. 55 alkali, that Mr. South has discovered, it possesses the power of turning turmeric paper brown. Again, Mr. Faraday informs me, that by boiling the solution of muriate of zinc, as usually ob- tained, with an additional quantity either of the metal or the oxide, a solution is produced, which acts on turmeric paper as an alkali. There cannot, therefore, be any doubt as to the power of oxide of lead and of oxide of zinc, to perform the function of an alkaline base. The property which oxide of lead possesses of combining with the alkalies, potash and scda, or in other words, performing the function of an acid, is as perfect as that of silica ; and it resembles alumina in forming a crystalline, and consequently a definite com- pound with an alkaline base. M. Berthollet, in the memoiralready alluded to, states that when oxide of lead is boiled with lime water, very small iridescent and transparent crystals are formed. Now this compound is the more remarkable, because it results from the combination of two bodies, which possess distinctly marked alkaline properties. ‘Similar observations may be made with regard to oxide of zinc ; it combines with ammonia, potash, soda, and lime, and therefore appears to perform the functions ofan acid even more extensively than oxide of lead. The powder of Cassius is a compound which it would be dif- ficult to describe, on the assumption that its formation depends upon the acid nature of one, and the alkaline nature of the other constituent. In fulminating gold, the metallic oxide appears to act as anacid, for itis incombination with ammonia; but with the acids, the oxide of gold performs the function of a base, giving rise to the well-known salts of gold. Oxide of tin seems in some compounds to act as an acid ; thus it combines with the alkalies, potash and soda; and italso exhibits distinctly the proper- ties of an alkali, as far as combining with acids is to be esteemed as such. If, however, the powder of Cassius be a compound of oxide of gold and oxide of tin, as is generally allowed, what functions can be attributed to them? Do they combine as acids, as is supposed to be the case, when the fluosilicic acid is formed ? or do they combine as alkalies, as when lime and oxide of lead unite? orif we consider one oxide as performing the - function of an acid, and the other that of an alkali, what rule have we for assigning to each its peculiar office? These remarks might be extended to a greater length, especially if the oxides of antimony were taken into the account: these have been supposed by Berzelius to act the part of acids, and he has accordingly adopted the appellations of antimoniates and antimomtes. There are many cases also in which metallic oxides combine with vegetable products, such as oxide of lead with gum, starch, &c.: now in these cases, the rules of nomenclature have been so completely set at defiance, and chemical propriety so violated, as to give these compounds the appellations of gummate and amylate of lead. Are we then to 56 Analyses of Books. , [euny, consider gum and starch as acids because they combine with metallic oxides? It would be difficult, or perhaps impossible to suggest any mode of describing such compounds, as I have adverted to, without incurring ambiguity or impropriety: I think, however, it would be possible to employ a nomenclature which would not involve the inconsistency of describing the same substance some- times as an acid, and at others as an alkali. With this view I would propose to consider these compounds as resulting not from the same law as that which determines the combination of acids and alkalies, but as derived, at any rate, in most cases, from the general disposition which oxides have to combine with each other. By reverting to the original mode of ex- pressing the compounds of silica and the alkalies, and alumina and the alkalies, we should avoid all theory, and employ terms. sufficiently descriptive of the compounds. Instead, therefore, of speaking of silicates or aluminates, we: may use the term silicated or aluminated potash, soda, or lime ; it may be convenient so far to regard the compounds as saline, as to consider the more distinctly marked alkaline body as the base, and without involving any theory. Thus oxide of tin pos- sesses greater power of combination with alkaline bodies than oxide of gold does; the powder of Cassius may therefore be de- nominated stannated gold. Mercuriated lime, plumbated lime, antimoniated and antimonited potash, plumbated gum and zin-- cated potash, are terms which may be employed without violating the present system of nomenclature, and without confounding bodies whose properties are not merely distinct, but diametrically opposite. The compounds of metallic oxides with ammonia might be included in this method; thus we might say cuprated or zincated ammonia; but as.no ambiguity arises from the use of the term ammoniuret, it would be worse than useless to attempt any alteration in these cases. ARTICLE XIII. ANALYSES OF Books. An Historical and Descriptive Account of the Steam Engine, comprising a general View of the various Modes of employing Elastic Vapour as a prime Mover in Mechanics; with an Appendix of Patents and Parliamentary Papers connected with the Subject. By Charles Frederick Partington, of the London Institution. 8vo. London, 1822. THE great importance of the steam engine in a commercial point of view will, perhaps, render it unnecessary for us to offer any thing in the way of apology for presenting our readers with 1822.] Mr. Partington on the History of the Steam Engine. 57 a brief notice of this stupendous machine, of which a detailed account is given in the above work. The historical data furnished by Mr. P. certainly throw consi- derable light upon the early history and subsequent improve- ments which have been effected in the steam engine, and to this part of the work we shall principally confine ourselves. - Among the numerous competitors for the honour of having first suggested steam as a moving power in mechanics, we must certainly place Brancas and the Marquis of Worcester in the foremost rank. The former of these was an Italian philosopher, of considerable eminence, and who, in 1629, published a treatise, entitled ‘ La Machine,’ &c. which contained a description of a machine for this purpose. The apparatus employed by Brancas was in fact nothing more than a large eolipile, similar to the blowpipe suggested by M. Pictet, of Geneva, with this difference, that the aperture in the pipe connected with the body of the wolipile instead of being directed towards the lamp (or in this case the furnace that heated the machine) was made to strike against the floats or vanes of a wheel, by which means a rotatory motion was produced,” “ After the publication of this scheme, which it is probable was never put in practice with any useful effect, nearly 30 years elapsed ere the further consideration of this important subject was resumed by the Marquis of Worcester. The mode of employing steam recommended by the Marquis, and which he describes in his ‘Century of Inventions’ to have completely carried into effect, was entirely different from that of his prede- cessor ; and it is evident that the noble author had received no previous hint of Brancas’s invention, as he expressly states in another part of the above work, that he ‘desired not to set down any other men’s inventions ;’ andif he had in any case acted on them, ‘ to nominate likewise the inventor.’ ”* “ In 1683, a scheme for raising water by the agency of steam was offered to the notice of Louis X1V. by an ingenious English mechanic of the name of Morland. This, however, was evidently * “ This work was written about the middle of the seventeenth century, and, consi- dered as the united discoveries of one individual, is certainly one of the most extraordi- nary scientific productions which has yet issued from the press in any age ornation, In addition, however, to its value, as containing the first tangible suggestion for the em~ ployment of steam as an hydraulic and pneumatic force, it has unquestionably formed the foundatien of a large portion of patent inventions which make so prominent a feature in the present day. The praiseworthy labours, however, of this indefatigable noble- man shared the fate which usually attends on projectors; and it was left to the slow though certain march of scientific improvement to award to his memory a posthumous praise. The Marquis also published a work, entitled ‘‘ An Exact and True Definition of the most Stupendous Water-commanding Engine, invented by the Right Hon. (and deservedly to be praised and admired) Edward Somerset, Lord Marquis of Worcester, and by his lordship himself presented to his Most Excellent Majesty Charles II, our most gracious Sovereign.” This was published in a small quarto volume of only 22 pages, and consists of little more than an enumeration of the wonderful properties of the above pe a and it is most probable that he never published any key to the first hint fure in the Century of Inventions.” 58 Analyses of Books. [JuLy, formed upon the plan previously furnished by the Marquis of Worcester in his Century of Inventions. Morland was presented to the French monarch in 1682, and in the course of the follow- ing year, his apparatus is said to have been actually exhibited at St. Germain’s.” The claim lately made by the Americans to the invention of the steam boat is completely set at rest by reference to Mr. P.’s work, in which we find, under the head of Steam Navigation, p- 53, the following curious historical data : “In 1698 Savery recommended the use of paddle wheels similar to those now so generally employed in steam vessels, though without, in the remotest degree, alluding to his engine as a prime mover; and it is probable that he intended to employ the force of men or animals working at a winch for that purpose. About 40 years after the publication of this mode of propelling vessels, Mr. Jonathan Hulls obtained a patent for a vessel in which the paddle wheels were driven by an atmospheric engine of considerable power. In describing his mode of producing a force sufficient for towing of vessels and other purposes, the ingenious patentee says: ‘ In some convenient part of the tow boat, there is placed a vessel about two-thirds full of water, with the top close shut. This vessel being kept boiling, rarefies the water into steam: this steam being conveyed through a large pipe into a cylindrical vessel, and there condensed, makes a vacuum, which causes the weight of the atmosphere to press on this vessel, and so forces down a piston that is fitted into this cylindrical vessel in the same manner as in Mr. Newcomen’s engine, with which he raises water by fire. “Mr. Hull’s patent is dated 1736, and he employed a crank to produce the rotatory motion of his paddle wheels ; and this inge- nious mode of converting a reciprocating into a rotatory motion was afterwards recommended by the Abbé Arnal, Canon of Alais, in Languedoc, who, in 1781, proposed the crank for the purpose of turning paddle wheels in the navigation of lighters.” a Mr. Partington gives the following account of the improve- ments effected by Mr. Watt: “ Mr. Watt’s attention was first drawn to this subject by an examination of a small model of an atmospheric engine belong- ing to the University of Glasgow, which he had undertaken to repair. In the course of his experiments with it, he found the quantity of fuel and injection water it required, much greater in proportion than in the larger engines; and it occurred to him that this must be owing to the cylinder of this small model exposing a greater surface in proportion to its contents, than was effected by larger cylinders. This he endeavoured to remedy, by employing non-conducting substances for those parts of the engine which came in immediate contact with the steam. After a variety of experiments, the results of which we shall presently describe, he succeeded 4n constructing a working a a 1822.] Mr. Partington on the History of the Sieam Engine. 59 model, capable of producing a force equal to 14 pounds on every inch of the piston, and which did not require more than one- third of the steam used in the common atmospheric engine to produce the same effect. “Jt will be evident that this was as near an approximation towards perfection as could possibly have been expected ; and indeed much more than was likely to be effected in a large engine, as the vapour left beneath the piston possessed only 1-15th part of the elastic force of the steam employed to form the vacuum. “Having discovered that the great waste of caloric in the old engine, arose from the alternate heating and cooling the cylin- der, by the admission and subsequent condensation of the heated steam, Mr. Watt perceived that to make an engine in which the destruction of steam should be the least possible, and the vacuum the most perfect, it was necessary that the cylinder should remain uniformly at the boiling point; while the water forming the steam was cooled down to the tempera- ture of the atmosphere. To effect this, he employed a separate condensing vessel, between which, and the hot cylinder, a communication was formed by means of a pipe and stop cock. “To understand the action of this engine, we may employ a common syringe, connected with a boiler, as in the atmo- spheric engine, and furnished with a pipe passing into an air- tght vessel, immersed in water for the purpose of condensa- tion. “If the piston be then raised, and the communication with the condenser cut off, the steam will speedily expel the air ; when this is effected, the further admission of steam must be pre- vented, and the communication with the condenser opened. The steam wii! now expand itself, passing down the pipe and entering the condenser; the moment, however, that it comes in contact with the sides of the cold vessel, it will be condensed and a vacuum formed ; and this process will continue to proceed, so long as any steam remains beneath the piston. ** The only objection that offered itself to this admirable mode of condensation, arose from the difficulty experienced in get- ting rid of the water and air that remained in the condensing vessel. When steam was generated from water that had been freed from air by long boiling, a considerable advantage was obtained ; and it was found that a power nearly equal to the entire pressure of the atmosphere was produced. The great advantage thus obtained will be sufficiently obvious, when it is known that, in the engines previously constructed, the elasticity of the steam arising from the heated injection water remaining at the bottom of the cylinder, was equal to one-eighth of the atmospherical pressure, and consequently destroyed an equal proportion of the power of the engine. ; - ‘©The mode of condensing the’ steam, by the application of 60 Analyses of Books. ath [Juny, cold water to the outside of the condenser, was soon found in convenient from the great size and expense attendant. on the use of this apparatus; and Mr. Watt introduced an internal jet of cold water, which, striking against the steam, instantaneously reduced it to its original bulk, and thus formed a vacuum. To draw off the condensing water, as well as to get rid of the air that was extricated during condensation, he found it necessary to employ a small pump, worked by the engine, the size of which was proportioned to the amount of air and water gene- rated in the condenser. In one of the early engines upon this construction, erected at Bedworth, three air-pumps were used ; two below, worked by chains connected with the beam, anda third, placed above, which received the hot water raised by the others. In the engines now constructed, only one alr-pump is employed, and this fully answers the intended purpose. * Another improvement introduced by Mr. Watt, consisted in surrounding the upper part of the cylinder with a cap, through a hole in the centre of which the piston rod worked air-tight. The force of steam was then substituted for that of the atmo- sphere, and at a pressure of more than fifteen pounds on the square inch ; so that when a vacuum was formed beneath the piston, steam of considerable impellent force was entering the anys end of the cylinder, by means of a pipe connected with a oiler, “ By thus substituting the force of highly elastic vapour, for the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere, the upper and under side of the piston were preserved at the same temperature, and the supply of steam being regulated by the width of the aper- ture, any givenamount of force might readily be produced. In the atmospheric engine this could not be effected, as the whole ressure of the atmosphere was made to act on the piston, the instant the vacuum was formed by the condensation of the va- pour beneath ; so that in the event ofa pump-rod breaking, by which the elevation of the water might be impeded, and the la- bour of the engine taken off, the rapid descent of the piston would evidently cause the destruction of the entire apparatus. “Soon after the completion of his first model, Mr. Watt erected an engine for his friend Dr. Roebuck of Kinneil, near Borrow- stownness, with whom he was afterwards associated in the manufacture of his improved engine: the latter gentleman, however, in 1774, disposed of his share of the business to Mr, Boulton, of Soho.” Want of room prevents our making any additional extracts from Mr, P.’s work, or attempting an enumeration of the various engines he describes, which could only be satisfactorily accom- . plished by reference to the numerous plates employed for their illustration.—But it may be adviseable before we finally dismiss the subject, to briefly notice another work of a more general nature, but with much higher pretensions, announced as far 1822.] Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, Part II. 61 back as 1816, though but just published. We allude to the new edition of Professor Robison’s Mechanical Philosophy, edited by Dr. Brewster. The article Steam Engine, after having been revised by the late Mr. Watt and the learned editor, has been put forth by Mr. Murray, as “ the only account of the steam engine that can be relied upon.” What claims it possesses to this title, may easily be seen by reference toa very simple fact. The last steam engine described in Professor Robison’s Me- chanical Philosophy, was erected for the Albion Mills, in 1788, since which period we find, by turning to Mr. Partington’s ap- pendix, that more than one hundred patents have been enrolled, many of which are of the utmost importance. ia Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, Vol. I. Pare LTO TS22. From an accidental cause, we omitted to notice the first part of this Society’s Transactions ; we, therefore, take an early opportunity of giving a brief sketch of the contents of the present art. I. Analysis of a Native Phosphate of Copper from the Rhine. By F. Lunn, Esq. As this paper has been given entire in the Annals, it is unne- cessary to notice it upon the present occasion. IL. Upon the regular Crystallization of Water, and upon the Form of its primary Crystals. By Dr. E. D. Clarke. This communication of the late and lamented Professor is accompanied by a plate, which is indeed requisite to the perfect understanding of his views. After mentioning various authors who have treated on the same subject, and described the appearances which crystallized. water assumes, Dr. Clarke concludes his memoir with observ- ing: “It is presumed, therefore, that the question respecting the crystallization of water may be set at rest by these pheno- mena; because it is now no longer a mere inference deducible from observing the intersection and disposition of the spicule exhibited by water when frozen upon the surfaces of other bodies, and in its approach to crystallization; but it is a decided fact, shown by regular crystals of ice, that the compound we call water, or hydrogen oxide, crystallizes both in hexahedral prisms and in rhombi, having angles of 120° and 60°; and that the latter is its primary form. ‘The manner too in which these forms have been displayed may guide to the crystalline forms of other bodies, by inducing a careful examination of the surfaces, points, and interstices of all minerals when they are found as stalactites,’ The stalactite formation is of all others the most likely formation to bear marks of a regular crystallization ; because itis the. result 62 Analyses of Books. [Juny, of a process in which the particles of bodies are not carried by a too sudden transition trom the fluid to the solid state; but gradually approach, and become united by virtue of their mutual attractions, as the moieculz of the fluid which had separated them go off by evaporation or by other causes. Andin further confir- mation of this, it may be urged, that when the crystallization of the stalactite carbonate of lime, and of other stalactites, especially chalcedony, had been considered as impossible formations, con- tradictory to the laws by which Nature acts in the stalactite pro- cess, yet the primary form of the carbonate of lime is neverthe- less exhibited by the stalactites of the cavern of Antiparos, and the primary form of the hydrates of silica by the stalactites of blue chalcedony brought from the Hungarian mines.” III. On the Application of Hydrogen Gas to produce a moving Power in Machinery ; with a Description of an Engine which is moved by the Pressure of the Atmosphere upon a Vacuum caused by Explosions of Hydrogen Gas and Atmospheric Air. By the Rev. W. Cecil, MA. Fellow of Magdalen College, and of the Cam- bridge Philosophical Society. The author of this paper observes that ‘“ two of the principal moving forces employed in the arts are water and steam. Water has the singular advantage that it can be made to act at any moment of time without preparation ; but can only be used where it is naturally abundant. A steam-engine, on the contrary, may be constructed at greater or less expense, in almost any place ; but the convenience of it is much diminished by the tedious and laborious preparation which is necessary to bring it into action. A small steam-engine, not exceeding the power of one man, can- not be brought into action in less than half an hour; and a four horse steam engine cannot be used under two hours’ prepara- tion.” The engine in which hydrogen gas is employed to produce moving forces was intended to unite the two principal advan- tages of water and steam so as to be capable of acting in any place without the delay and labour of preparation. The general principle of this engine, as described by Mr. Cecil, is founded upon the property which hydrogen gas mixed with atmospheric air possesses, of exploding upen ignition, se as to produce a large imperfect vacuum. If two and a halt measures of atmospheric air be mixed with one measure of hydrogen, and a flame be applied, the mixed gas will expand into a space rather greater than three times its original bulk. The products of the explosion are a globule of water, formed by the union of the hydrogen with the oxygen of the atmospheric air, and a quantity of azote, which in its natural state (or den- sity 1) constituted °556 of the bulk of the mixed gas ; the same -quantity of azote is now expanded into a space somewhat. greater than three times the original bulk of the mixed gas ; that is, into about six times the space which it before occupied ; 1822.] Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, Part LI. 63 its density is, therefore, about one-sixth, that of the atmosphere being unity. According to Mr. Cecil, if the external air be prevented by a proper apparatus from returning into this imperfect vacuum, the pressure of the atmosphere may be employed as a moving force, nearly in the same manner as in the common steam engine ; the difference consisting chiefly in the manner of forming the vacuum. ir, Cecil then enters into an estimate of the power resulting from such a vacuum by comparing the effects of equal bulks of sicam and hydrogen ; this it will be impossible to comprehend without the diagram by which it is illustrated ; but the author concludes, that “ it appears by calculation that any quantity of pure hydrogen gas will produce more than five times the effect of the same bulk of steam; and in practice the disproportion of their effects is still greater. It is here supposed, that steam produces by condensation a perfect vacuum equal to its own bulk ; but this is far from being the case : much of the power is lost by needless condensation by the escape of steam through the piston, besides a considerable deduction for working an air pump, and two water pumps, which are necessary to a steam engine. This paper is accompanied with a drawing and explanation of a model of a gas engine. The drawings are adapted to the {sometrical Perspective of Prof. Farish. There is also a draw- ing of one of a different construction which Mr. Cecil has intro- duced on account of its simplicity. The paper concludes with some observations upon the use of the explosive force of gunpowder as a moving force, and with showing that it cannot be practically useful, for several reasons, and particularly from the corrosion of metals by the sulphur contained in the gunpowder, and by the sulphuric acid which is produced during combustion. IV. Ona remarkable Peculiarity in the Law of the extraordi= nary Refraction of differently-coloured Rays exhibited by certain Varieties vs Apophyllite. By J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. FRS. of London, Edinburgh, and Gottingen, &c. &c. In this paper Mr. Herschel refers to the figures contained in the first part of the Transactions ; and as without these, it would be imperfectly intelligible, we shall not attempt any analysis of this paper. A (To be continued.) 64 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Juny, ARTICLE XIV. Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. June 6. On the Binomial Theorem, by John Walsh, Esq. A paper, by Dr. Davy, was likewise read, entitled “ Some Observations on Corrosive Sublimate.” It is known that the liquor hydrargyri oxymuriatis of the London Pharmacopeeia, on exposure to light, slowly undergoes decomposition ; and it has been asserted that light has a similar effect on corrosive subli+ mate itself. Dr. Davy relates a number of experiments made to investigate these points. He finds that corrosive sublimate remains unaltered on exposure to light ; that it remains unaltered when exposed in solution in media, having a strong affinity for it, as alcohol, ether, muriatic acid, &c. and that decomposition takes place only under circumstances of complicated affinities, as in the instance of the liquor hydrargyri oxymuriatis, and in the aqueous solution, when calomel and muriatic acid appear to be formed, and oxygen evolved. For the purpose of further illustration of the subject, Dr. Davy describes a series of experiments on corrosive sublimate with alcohol, ether, several oils, muriatic, and the mineral acids, many of the muriates, &c. the results of which hardly admit of being given in the form of abstract. In every instance that an oil, whether volatile or fixed, was heated with corrosive sublimate, mutual decomposition took place, charcoal was evolved, and muriatic acid and calomel formed. Besides, when oil of turpen- tine was used, some traces of artificial camphor appeared ; and when the oils of cloves and peppermint, a purple compound dis-+ tilled over, consisting of the oil employed, and muriatic acid. With muriatic acid, common salt, and some other muriates, corrosive sublimate formed definite compounds remarkable for their solubility. June 13.—On the State of Water and Aeriform Matter in the Cavities of certain Crystals, by Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. PRS. June 20.—Some Experiments on the Changes which take Place in the fixed Principles of the “Egg during Incubation, by W. Prout, MD. FRS. The author, after a few preliminary remarks, proceeded to relate his experiments on the recent egg. The specific gravity of new laid eggs was found to vary from 1080 to 1090. Eggs, however, as is well known, on being kept for some time, become specifically lighter than water, owing to the substitution of air for a portion of their water which escapes. Thus it was stated that an egg exposed for two years to ordinary circumstances, 1822.] Royal Society. t) ae lost nearly two-thirds of its weight. Experiments were next related, the object of which was to attempt to ascertain the rela- tive weights of the shell, albumen, and yolk. For this purpose the eggs were boiled hard in distilled water, and the different parts weighed in their movs¢ state. The average of 10 experiments gave for the shell 106°9, albumen 604-2, and yolk 288:9, on the supposition that each egg originally weighed 1000 grs. to which standard the weights of all the eggs were reduced. These experiments show that the relative weights of these different portions of the egg differ very considerably, particu- larly the shells, the weights of which were found to vary from 77-6 to 108, on the supposition that the original weights of the two egos were equal. An egg, when boiled, and cooled in the air, always lost considerably in weight; and the water was found to contain traces of most of the saline contents of the ege. PA fier these remarks on the recent egg, the author proceeded to relate the results of his analysis of the egg at the end of the first, second, and third week of incubation, and arrived at con- clusions of which the following may be considered as an onte-. line: 1. That an egg loses about one-sixth of its weight during incubation—a quantity amounting to eight times as much as it loses in the same time under ordinary circumstances. 2. That in the earlier stages of incubation, an interchange of pzinciples apparently takes place between the yolk and a portion of the albumen ; that this interchange is confined on the part of the yolk to a portion of its oily matter, which is found mixed with a portion of the above-mentioned albumen. That this portion of albumen undergoes some remarkable changes, and is converted into a substance analogous in its appearance, as well as some of its properties, to the curd of milk; and, lastly, that a portion of the watery parts of the albumen is found mixed with the yolk, which becomes thus apparently increased in size. 3. That as incubation proceeds, the saline and watery matters: again appear to quit the yolk, which is thus reduced to its origi- nal bulk, or even becomes less than natural; and that in the last week of the process, the greater portion of the phosphorus quits the yolk likewise, and is found chiefly in the animal, where it exists as phosphoric’acid, and in union with /ime, constituting, its bony skeleton, which lime amounting to about three grains, does not pre-exist in the recent egg, but makes its appearance, in some unaccountable manner, during the process. The author then proceeded to make a few remarks on the source of the earthy matter, which, he observed, must be either derived from the shell, or from the transmutation of other prinet- ples. The great difference existing among the shells of different eggs rendered it impossible to determine by chemical means, and the application of averages, whether it was derived from the New Series, vou. 1v. F 66 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. (JuLy, shell or not ; but the extravascular position of the earthy matter of the shell, the separation of the membrana putamuinis in the latter stages of incubation, and particularly the singular fact of the small quantity of earthy matter, originally existing in the egg, remaining unappropriated at the end of the process of in- cubation, rendered this opinion very improbable. The. author, however, left this poimt to be determined by future observation. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. April 19,—On the Formation of Vallies by Diluvial Excava- tion, as illustrated by the Vallies which intersect the Coast of Devon and Dorset. By the Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.S. F.L.S. V.P.G.S. and Prof. of Geology and Mineralogy, University, Oxford. The author, on presenting the society with two sectional views of the coast on the east of Lyme, and on the east of Sidmouth, is led to consider the general causes to which val- lies owe their origin, and particularly such as occur in hori- zontal and undisturbed strata within the limits of their escarp-+ ments. Many vallies may be ascribed to the elevation or depression of the strata composing the adjacent hills, by forces acting at very remote periods from within the body of the earth itself; and to similar forces, principally we may refer the high incli- nations and contortions of the strata that compose the most elevated mountains, and some also of the minor hills. Other vallies have been occasioned by the strata having been originally deposited at irregular levels, and others to some partial slips or dislocations of portions of strata. But at different periods of time, intermediate between the deposition of the most ancient and the most recent of the strata, the irregularities of level arising from the preceding causes, have been variously modified by the action of violent - inundations, hollowing out portions of the surface, and remoy- ing the fragments to a distance. To such inundations, we must ascribe the water-worn pebbles of the red marl and of the plastic clay formations. A cause similar to that last mentioned, has wrought exten- sive changes on the surface, however variously modified by preceding catastrophes, at a period subsequent to the deposi- tion and consolidation of the most recent of the regular strata. For rocks of all ages bear on those portions of their surface which are not covered by more recent strata, the marks of aqueous excavation, and are strewed over with the mingled is of the most recent, as well as of the most ancient eds. When one or more sides of a valley are formed by any of those abrupt escarpments, such as usually terminate the out- goings of our secondary strata, it is then difficult to say to 1822.] Geological Society. 67 what extent the discontinuity of the strata and the formation of the valley, beyond the limits of the escarpments are attribu- table to the last of the above recited causes; for we know not how far the strata originally extended beyond their present frontier, nor how much of the subjacent valley is referable to other causes than the most recent diluvian agency. But when a valley occurs within the limits of the escarpment of strata, which are horizontal, or nearly so, and which bear no marks of having been moved from their original position, by eleva- tion, depression, or disturbance of any kind ; and when such valley is inclosed along its whole course by hills that afford an exact correspondence of opposite parts, it must be referred ex- clusively to the removal of the substance once filling it, and the cause of that removal appears to have been a violent and transient inundation. The author contends, that vallies, such as those last described, cannot have been formed in any con- ceivable duration of years, by the rivers now flowing through them, since each individual stream owes its existence to the prior existence of the valley through which it flows. But for further proofs and illustrations of the diluvian theory, he refers to the works of Catcott and Dr. Richardson, and of Mr. Greenough. Of the same nature with those last described, are the val- lies which form the principal subject. of the present communi-_ cation. Their main direction is from north to south, at right angles to the coast, and nearly in the direction of the dip of the strata in which they are excavated. The streams that dow through them are short and inconsiderable, and incompetent, even when flooded, to move any thing more weighty than mud and light sand. The greater number of these vallies, and of the hills that bound them, are within the limits of the escarpment of the green sand formation, and in their continuation southwards cut down into oolite, lias, or red marl, according as this or that formation, constitutes the substratum over which the green sand originally extended. There is usually an exact correspondence in the structure of the hills inclosing each valley, so that whatever stratum is found on one side, the same is discoverable on the other side, upon the prolongation of its plane. Whenever there is a want correspondence in the strata on the opposite sides of a valley, this is referable to a change in the substrata, upon which the excavating waters had to exert their force. The section of the hills presents in general an insulated cap of chalk, or a bed of angular and unrolled chalk-flints, reposing on a broader bed of green sand ; this, again, reposes on a still broader base of oolite, lias, or red marl. With the exception of the very local depression of the chalk, and the subjacent strata on the west of the Axe at Beer Cliffs, the position of F2 4 68 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Jury, the strata is regular and slightly inclined, nor have any sub- terraneous disturbances operated to any important degree, to affect the form of the vallies. The mass of chalk which at Beer Head composes the entire thickness of the cliff, gradually rises westwards, with a con- tinual diminution of its upper surface, until after becoming more and more thin it finds in Dunscombe hill its western boundary. Beyond this boundary, on the top of all the highest table lands and insulated summits, from the ridges that encircle the vales of Sidmouth and Honiton, to the summits of Black- down and even Haldon west of the Exe, angular chalk fints are found. Similar chalk flints are found on the summits of green sand that encircle the vallies of Charmouth and Ax- minster; and large insulated masses of chalk itself are found along the coast from Lyme, nearly to Sidmouth, and in the interior at Wideworthy, Membury, Whitestanton, and Chard, at the distances of from 10 to 30 miles from the escarpment of the chalk. These facts concur to show, that there was a time when the chalk covered all those spaces on which the flints are now found, and that it probably formed a continuous stratum, from its present termination in Dorsetshire, to Haldon west of Exeter, Similar observations are made by the author concerning the green sand, and similar inferences are drawn from them as to the former continuity and subsequent excavation of its strata. May 3.—A Paper was read, entitled “ Additional Notices on the Fossil Genera Icthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus,” by the Rey. W. Conybeare, M.G.S. This paper consists principally of anatomical details not sus- ~ ceptible of abridgment. It fills up the outline of the history ~of the fossil genera Icthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus, sketched i a preceding communication published in the 5th vol. Trans- actions Geological Society, and establishes five different spe- cies of Icthyosaurus, principally distinguished by the form of their teeth. A particular account of the dentition of this genus is given by the author, from which it appears that it re- sembles that of the crocodile in the general form of the teeth, and the general mode in which the secondary teeth replace the first set; but differs in the circumstance, that the latter teeth become in advanced age, completely solid, by the ossification of the pulpy matter filling the interior cavity, which in the crocodile always remains hollow, a constant developement of successive series of new teeth taking place in the latter animal. In this point the dentition of the Icthyosaurus agrees with the other genera of the Saurian order, to which the term lacertian may most strictly be applied. Bi The comparative analogies of structure exhibited by the Icthyosaurus to both these branches of the Saurian order, are examined and illustrated in detail in the present communica- .1822.] . Geological Society. 69 tion, but the author hesitates to pronounce any decisive opinion as to the question, whether it approximates most nearly to the former or the latter class; considering its characters as in many respects intermediate, and the combination. of those characters as constituting a whole entirely sui generis. In the course of this detail, the structure of the temporal fosse, the parts surrounding the meatus auditorius, the pos- terior bones of the head, and the palatal and pterygoidal parts of the roof of the mouth, are minutely investigated. Of the new Saurian genus Plesiosaurus (tie discovery of which is due to the present author), the bones of the head which had not been discovered when the former communication was published, have since been procured. The teeth in this genus are placed in distinct alveoli, and in all respects resemble those of the crocodile ; but in almost every other respect, the - analogies presented by the head of this animal are much more closely allied with the lacertian genera. The nostrils are small, and placed as in the Icthyosaurus ; so that the olfactory organs must have been much less deve- loped than in any recent Saurians. The comparative} shortness of the snout in the Plesiosaurus ives to the whole head a-general character entirely dissimilar to that of the Icthyosaurus, yet many of its separate parts offer strong analogies with this genus also, May 17.—Notice on a Fossil Bone found in the neighbour- hood of Cuckfield, Surrey, by Capt. Vetch, MGS. The bone mentioned in this notice was obtained from a bed of ferruginous sandstone, a short way north of Cuckfield in Sussex; this bed is 6 feet thick, resting upon blue clay, about 3 feet from the surface ; and within the sandstone is a bed of limestone, about a foot thick; and the bone, under examina- tion, was found at the upper junction of the limestone and sandstone partly imbedded in both. The bed of sandstone varies considerably in its thickness and dip; and the beds of limestone which it contains also vary in thickness and num- ber. These two rocks contain vegetable remains, shells, and numerous small fragments of bone. That under notice is, how- ever, of considerable size, but was evidently at the period of its envelopement in the sandstone, very imperfect. The fact of the bones in this bed being so much broken and dispersed, would seem to show that they had been subjected to the action of some considerable force, probably of water; and as the fragments have not the appearance of being water worn, it may have been, that the bed of sandstone is not their original repository, but they had been lodged in a previous bed of sand or mud, till so far decayed as to be easily broken by slight forces. rom the appearance and internal structure of the bone under consideration, it may, the author conceives, be inferred, that 70 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Juty, it belonged to an aquatic animal, and if compared with the osteology of the whale, it bears some resemblance to the jaw of a small subject of that tribe, and still more to the rib of a large one. It is not improbable, however, that it has belonged to a genus very distinct from any we are now acquainted with. A smaller bone, procured near the same place, resembles part of the spine of a large animal, and may have belonged to the bone of the same individual with that in question. Observations on the Strata of Tilgate Forest, in Sussex. By Gideon Mantell, Esq. MGS. This paper is an abstract of a more detailed account which has, since the last meeting of the Society, been published in the author’s work on the Geology of Sussex, and is intended merely to illustrate a series of specimens now presented by him to the Society. Notice on the Stonesfield Slate Pits. By Henry Hakewill, Esq. MGS. The quarries from whence the specimens referred to in this communication were obtained, are in the village of Stonesfield, situated about three miles north-west from Woodstock, in Ox- fordshire, on the north bank of the valley, in which the river Evenlode runs, and at a considerable elevation above the river, The strata from which the Stonesfield s/ates are made, occur at about 60 feet from the surface of the earth, and are worked by means of shafts sunk to that level, and the vee (as the bed sought after is called) is followed in an excavated gallery: the pendle, which is the name given to the bed from which the slates are made, consists of two distinct strata, separated by a eravelly vein of about a foot and a half thick called race; the upper course of the slatestone is about 10 inches in thickness, with excrescences of a circular form attached to it, called by the workmen bolt downs, or whims. The lower stratum of the pendle is one foot thick, and upon its upper surface are excrescences of a similar form, called caps. In the race are found numerous spherical nodules, flattened at the sides, six inches to four feet in diameter, but most com- monly about two feet. Immediately above the pendle, there is occasionally a coarse stone, and in the pendle itself are found those interesting remains of animals, which have drawn the attention of geologists to this spot. The slates are made from the stone dug in the summer, and brought to the surface, and spread out with the grain exposed to the weather; and, during the winter, it is frequently watered ; the frost assists materially in dividing it into slates. June 7.—A letter was read, accompanying specimens from Dr. Wallich of the Residency of Napal. _'These specimens were brought from Mucktinath, a place at a distance of about 20 days’ journey nerth-west from the valley of Napal, and probably at a very considerable elevation ‘above it. 1822.) Scientific Intelligence. 71 They are said to occur always in the form of rolled pebbles, and to constitute almost entirely the bed of the river called Sala grami. The specimens themselves are of that sort which the Hindoos worship under the name of Salagrams; the present kind being called Shesha Kundala. They consist of a very firm variety of a blackish argillaceous rock, and their form is that of ammonites in which they seem to have been moulded. ARTICLE XY. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, AND NOTICES OF SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH SCIENCE. I. Definition of a Straight Line. A correspondent states that he shall feel obliged by any objection to ‘the following definition of a straight line : A straight line is such as being divided or produced to any extent, is still directed towards the same points. Il. Black Urine. It appears from Dr. Marcet’s paper in the Medico-Chirurgical ‘Transactions, that he has met with somecases in which black urine had been voided. At the request of Dr. Marcet, some was examined by Dr. Prout, who gives the following account of its chemical pro- perties : The residuum obtained from this urine by evaporation not only does not contain any lithic acid, as was observed by Dr. Marcet, but no urea can be detected in it by the tests which indicates its presence. Although the addition of dilute acids produced no immediate change of colour in the urine, yet, on standing for some time, a black precipitate slowly subsided, leaving the supernatant fluid transparent, and but slightly coloured. The black precipitate thus obtained was found to be nearly insolu- luble either in water or alcohol, whether hot or cold. It readily dis- solved in cold concentrated sulphuric and nitric acid, forming a deep brownish-black solution; but, on diluting the acids with water, the black substance appeared to be again precipitated unaltered. These acids, however, by the assistance of heat, apparently decomposed it. The black substance readily dissolved in the fixed alkalies and in the alkaline subcarbonates, forming very dark solutions. The addition of water did not affect these solutions; but acids re-precipitated the substance apparently unchanged. When ammonia was employed as the solvent, and the excess expelled by evaporation to dryness, a black or deep brown residuum was obtained, which appeared to be a com- 72 ‘Scientific Intelligence. [Juny, pound of the black substance with ammonia, and possessed the fol- Jowing properties: Las tna) It was very soluble in watcr; and, on being heated with caustic potash, it gave off the smell of ammonia. ‘The black compound, however, did not appear to have any tendency to assume the crys~ talline form. In evaporating to dryness, on a piece of glass, the ammoniacal solu- tion in which the black substance had been dissolved, the residuum split into most minute fragments, having a regular and very peculiar appearance, especially when examined with a magnifier. From the solutions of this compound in water, muriate of barytes and nitrate of silver produced copious brown precipitates, as did also protonitrate of mercury and nitrate of lead ; but oxymuriate of mercury produced no immediate precipitate, and that obtained from acetate of zinc was of a paler brown colour. From these experiments Dr. Prout concludes that the remarkable specimen of urine in question owes its black colour to a compound of a peculiar principle with ammonia, as Dr. Marcet had inferred from his own trials; but he is moreover inclined to think that the black principle itself, such as obtained from the urine by the action of dilute acids, may be considered as a new body possessed of acid properties. From the small quantity of the specimen, however, which could be spared for Dr. Prout’s experiments, it was impossible to obtain complete and decisive evidence on the nature of this substance; but it appears to be sufficiently characterized as a peculiar acid, and to bear a closer anzlogy to the lithic acid, or rather to some of the compounds which it forms when acted upon by the nitric acid, than to any other principle usually found in the urine. Should this view of the subject be confirmed by farther observations, Dr. Prout would propose to distinguish this new substance, on account of its black colour by the name of Melanic acid. Ill. Details ofa remarkable Phenomenon, which occurred in the Commune of Juvinas, June 15, 1821. The following extract from the Register of the Civil Department of Juvinas appears worthy of notice, not merely from the fact which is there recorded, though it is curious, but from the nature of the recital. It is astonishing, that in the 19th century the narration of a well-known meteorological phenomenon should be accompanied by the relation of circumstances which recall the ignorance of past ages; that five hundred devils should be named as the presumed agents of the fall of an aerolite; and that to discover this stone, ? was judged more proper to carry holy water than mattocks and evers. That a proces-verbal, in which all these absurdities are recorded, should be signed by magistrates, filling important offices, is still more surprising. The frequent fall of aerolites, during the last fifty years, has fixed the attention of naturalists to the subject. It is generally in calm weather, observes M. Leman, under a cloudless sky, that these phe- nomena are observed: a ball of fire is: perceived, which traverses a certain space, variable in its direction, and which soon bursts with a 1822.] Scientific Intelligence. 73 noise resembling fire-works, or a battery of cannon at a distance. When it is extinguished, a small white cloud is seen in the same spot, which is quickly dissipated, and it falls upon the ground, sometimes, in large fragments, but more frequently in small quan- tities, and even single stones. In falling, the stone pierces the ound for a considerable distance, according to its size and hardness. At the time of its fall, it is hot, and gives out a sulphurous smell ; it is covered entirely with a black crust, without it has struck, in its fall, against a rock or very hard substance; then it flies into a thousand pieces, and shows no crust. : ‘With these preliminary observations, persons the least instructed in meteorological phenomena, will be able to form an exact idea of the facts contained in the following account, of which the copy is duly certified. We, Mayor of the Commune of Juvinas, Canton d’Antraigues, Arrondissement de Privas, departement de 1’ Ardéche, report, that on the 15th of this present June, warned by a frightful noise, which was heard in our commune, and those which surround it: about three o'clock in the afternoon, we apprehended that some great and extra- ordinary event was about to effect a general destruction in nature, which obliged us successively to adopt regulations to satisfy us, that ~ no one in our jurisdiction had been the victim of the phenomenon which at first appeared to be inexplicable. At length, after some days had elapsed, we were informed that a meteor, of which history furnishes no similar account, had burst upon the mountain de l’Oulétte, inthehamlet of Crosdu Libonez, forming a part of our commune; and, according to Delmas, who is seventy years of age, its appearance was preceded and announced by two strong explosions, occurring nearly together, resembling the discharges of two large cannons, and followed by a frightful noise, that con- tinued for more than twenty minutes, which spread alarm and con- sternation amongst the inhabitants, who believed they should be immediately swallowed up by some abyss ready to open under their feet: the flocks fled, and the goats and sheep collected in groupes. At the same time a black mass was seen coming from behind the mountain de |’Qulétte, describing, as it descended in the air, a quarter of acircle, and sinking into the hollow of the valley of Libonez. This remarkable circumstance was scarcely perceived by any but children, who, less alarmed than more competent persons would have been, followed the direction, and have since pointed out the exact spot where this mass was swallowed up. Delmas adds that he heard in the air a confusion of voices, which he thought were, at least, fiye hundred devils, and whom he considers as the agents that transported this alarming phenomenon: at the moment he said to Claude Vaisse one of his neighbours (who, like himself, was in the fields) “Do you hear; do you understand the language of all these people?” This person replicd frankly,—‘ I do not comprehend them;” but they were both persuaded that this mass was carried by infernal spirits. Delmas, for the latter reason, said to Vaisse, “ we have only time for one act of contrition,” cast his eyes on the ground, bowed his head, and tranquilly waited for death. Such was the consternation of all the witnesses of this terrible event that, according to their con- 74 Scientific Intelligence: ° [Jury, fession, they fancied they already saw the niountains rolling and heaped upon them. i ‘ The alarm was such, that it was not till the 23d of the month that: they resolved to dig out this prodigy, of which they knew neither the form, the nature, or the substance. They deliberated for a long time, whether they should go armed to undertake this operation which ap- eared so dangerous ; but Claude Serre, (sexton) justly observed, that if it was the devil, neither powder or arms would prevail against him, that holy water would be more effectual, and that he would undertake to make the evil spirit fly; after which they set themselves to work, and after having sunk nearly six feet, they found the aerolite, weigh- ing rather more than 202 pounds (English). It was covered witha black bituminous varnish, and some parts of it had a sulphurous smell. It was requisite to break it to get it out: there still remains a mass weighing about 100 pounds. All the facts above stated are proved by all the inhabitants of the hamlet of Libonnez; and especially Delmas, sen. and jun.; James and Claude Serre, Peter Charayre, John Chaudouard, Anthony Dumas and his child; and also by Mary Ann Vidal, a young girl of about 14 years of age; the two latter, who were less frightened, fol- lowed the direction of the stone, and actually found the place where it was buried, Concerning all which, we have drawn up the present proces-verbal as a continuation of the history of these phenomena, a copy of which we shall send to M. the Prefect.—(Drawn up and agreed upon at our house, the 25th of June, 1821.) We, the Mayor of Juvinas, certify, that three days after, on the 26th of June, on visiting the place where this stone fell, another was found at a short distance from it, which weighed about two pounds and @ quarter ; it was covered with a similar varnish, and entirely distinct from the first. (A true copy delivered by us, the Mayor of the Com- mune of Juvinas, the 2d of July, 1821.) DELAIGUE. The Master of Requests, Prefect of Ardéche, certifies that the present extract from the proces-verbal, written the 25th of June, 1821, by the Sieur Delaigne, Mayor of the Commune of Juvinas, agrees precisely with that which was sent officially to the prefecture, and that the fragments of the acrolite, which were brought by the Sieur Claude Fargier, are of the same nature, and present the same characters as that which has been deposited in the Museum of Ardéche. Privas, 5th of July, 1821. TEYSONIER. IV. Analysis of the Aerolite which fell at Jwvinas. M. Laugier states that he has performed four analyses of this stone, the first by means of acid, the second by potash, the third by nitric acid, with the intention of determining the quantity of sulphur; the fourth by means of nitrate of barytes, for the purpose of determining the quantity of the potash, which M. Vauquelin had found in this stone, although he did not employ this method, the only one which can be relied upon. . These several analyses, all agreeing ‘as to the nature of the elements of stone, varied slightly with respect to their proportions ; a variation which must be attributed to its being deficient in homo- geniety in all its parts. 1822.) Scientific Intelligence. 75 ~ The second analysis, that by potash, which appeared to M. Laugier to be the most correct, gave the following results : Bi CRYS FAP OIE: B gO TOL ASE RA Oxide vf iron! 22525) 29. BLE) 24 gar Oxide of Manganese ........... 6°5 + Ain? POS 5 CNS SB oO Kime «2 205: aS ERS Te Chrome) 2). Js Pp Rees Oe ele ae VEGA Sice FY Aine ak 3.0 oe - = < pie En RUM. Stance cite ea. ee NPOSHEINE vo notice Bie tee ialatins cates ee UGE) W's Cattle Soles vs ate ck’, S daaue Indispensable loss...........-.. 3°0 Loss from unknown causes...... 48 100-0 M. Laugier observes, that the loss of four or five per cent. which always occurred in his analyses, instead of the increase which, in these kinds of analyses, usually results from metals which the aerolites contain, renders it probable that in the aerolite of Juvinas, the iron and manganese exist in the state of oxides. No portion of this aerolite reduced to powder was attracted by the magnet, which renders this conjecture more probable. M. Laugier endeavoured to discover whether this loss was owing to carbonic acid, but the stone did not appear to contain any: in a sub- sequent analysis he found, however, that it yielded rather more sul- phur than stated in the analysis. He afterwards observes that this areolite resembles one which fell at Ionzac in its analysis, and espe= cially in the absence of nickel; and also with an aerolite which fell in 181%, in the environs of Lantola, a village in the government of Wibourg, in Finland. ‘These are the only areolites which have been hitherto found destitute of nickel. V. Magnesian Minerals of Hoboken. It appears from the observation of Mr. Nuttall, that magnesian earth pervades not only the mass. of serpentine rock, which occurs at Hoboken, in New Jersey, but. all the concomitant minerals, in a manner hitherto unexampled. Among the latter is the hydrate of magnesia, which contains 30 per cent. of water, * and a minute pro- portion of iron, the latter ingredient being found even in the purest specimens which are . perfectly colourless and diaphanous. Con- tiguous to this is found a species of magnesian marble, forming a con- tinuation of the same veins which afford the magnesian hydrate. It contains in 100 parts 4% magnesia, 50 carbonic acid, and variable proportions of lime, silica, and protoxide of iron. _In veins of the same rock a mineral occurs, which, from its silky lustre, and flexible fibrous texture, was at first.mistaken for amianthus. It was found, however, to dissolve entirely without effervescence in * This, as well as the similar mineral found in Shetland, by Dr, Hibbert, appears to be the proto-hydrate, consisting of one atom of magnesia, = 18°5 + 1 atom of water = 85. : 76 Scientific Intelligence. [Juny, acids; and, in fact, to be a hydrate of magnesia constituted of the same proportions as the foliated variety, with about five per cent of protoxide of iron. In other veins of the Hoboken serpentine, and in that of Bare Hills, near Baltimore, a mineral also has been found, which has received the name of marmolite. Its texture is foliated with the laminz, thin, and often parallel as in diallage ; its colour pale green or greenish grey ; lustre pearly ; soft enough to be cut with a knife, and almost perfectly opaque and inflexible. Spec. Grav. 2°470. Jt was found on analysis to contain Narmesiax. £2 co a6 eonauia ...- 46:0 SiltCeh e's soe oe eee Rew ae, Ringe i) oy 9, me ears alee de aitye Se Ne aime 4d U) WAtEI ic coc esis Sat lore ineehesiopeicars 15:0 Iron and Chrome.............. O°5 99°5 ASSES s «is, ora Cand oleiel ote ete kareena 5 100°0 (Silliman’s Journal.) VI. Analysis of Sulphuret of Molybdenum, found near Chester, Delaware County, Pennsylvania. by Mr. Seybert of Philadelphia. In internal characters it resembled so closely that of Saxony as to render any description needless. It consisted of Sulphur..... aes A ohh. AC 39°68 Molybdentm f. 5. sti tsicavis aetsle 59°42 Boss Veh. ts os Melek wita we OOD: 100°00 (Ibid.) VII. Analysis of the Chromate of Iron from Bare Hills, near Baltimore. By the Same. Its constituent parts are, after roasting, Silex ati: 8 ewslate Remarc ie ; 10°596 Peroxide of iron ........ vse. 36'°004 ALUMNAE es tle toe. bots 13:002 Protoxide of chrome............ 39-514 99:116 MOSS. ee oe wattsidealaveys; oatarede Meneses 100:000 (ibid.) VIIE. Progress of Mineralogy in America. ~The volume of Professor Silliman’s Journal which has just been received, shows that this branch of science is becoming a favourite object of pursuit in America. It announces the discovery of some minerals not before found in that country, and of several new localities of the rarer minerals, such as beryl, chrysoberyl, chlorite, fluor spar, satin spar, epidote, yellow oxide of tungsten, both pulverulent .and 1822.] Scientific Intelligence. 77 massive, micaceous iron ore, of great beauty ; actynolite, rose quartz» red oxide of titanium, sulphate of strontia, sulphatefof lead, &c. as well as of several minerals of importance to the arts, as oxide of man- ganese, white granular marble, plumbago, and hematites, IX. New Test for Arsenic. Dr. Cooper, president of Columbia College, finds a solution ot chromate of potash to be one of the best tests of arsenic. One drop is turned green by the fourth of a grain of arsenic, by two or three drops of Fowler’s mineral solution, or any other arsenite of potash. The arsenious acid takes oxygen from the chromic which is converted into green oxide. To exhibit the effect, take, he says, five watch glasses; put on one, two, or three drops ofa (watery) solution of white arsenic; on the second, as much arsenite of potash; on the third, one fourth of a grain of white arsenic in the substance ; on the fourth two or three drops of solution of corrosive sublimate either in water or alcohol; in the fifth, two or three drops of a solution of copper. Add to each three or four drops of solution of chromate of potash. In half an hour, a bright, clear grass-green colour will appear in numbers 1, 2, 3, unchangeable by ammonia; number 4 will instantly exhibit an orange precipitate: number 5, a green, which a drop of ammonia will instantly change to blue. Dr. Cooper, however, does not recommend that this test should be exclusively relied on, but merely that it should be used in conjunction with others, of which the most unequivocal is certainly the actual exhibition of arsenic ina metallic form. (Silliman’s Journal.) X. Conversion of Cannon Balls into Plumbago. In July, 1779, a British squadron from New York invaded the coast. of Connecticut ; and, in ontee to favour the movements of a military force which had landed, kept up a cannonade in the town and redoubts of Newhaven. During a violent storm in September, 1821, part of a ~ low bank near that town was undermined by the sea, and a cannon ball discovered which must have lain undisturbed 42 years. The ground in question, where the ball lay, is little else than a salt morass, so that it must have been constantly kept moist by sea water. Its diameter is 3-87 inches. By means ofa common saw, a section was easily made through the plumbaginous coat, which, at the place of incision, was half an inch deep, but varied in thickness in different places. The plumbago is cut with the same ease, gives the same streak to paper, and has in every respect the same properties as common black lead. The same article recounts another instance in which a cannon ball, covered by oysters, adhering firmly to it, was taken from the wreck of a vessel, which appeared to have lain many years under water. When the oysters were knocked off, the external part of the ball was found converted into plumbago, but the central part remained un- altered. It does not, however, appear that this change always hap- pened to cast iron when thus exposed; for an old cannon, found covered with oysters, did not, in the renewal of its coating, shew any signs of such a conversion.*—(Ibid.) * In the Annals of Philosophy, vol. v. p- 66, (Jan, 1815) may be found a paper by Dr. Henry, on the conversion of cast iron pipes into plumbago. The change seems to have been effected by the action of water containing muriate of soda, and muriates of lime and magnesia, ; 78 . New Patents. > [Juny; ArticLtE XVI. NEW. SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION, In the press, A Treatise on the Use of Moxa as a Therapeutical Agent, by Baron Larrey; translated from the French, with Notes, and an Introduction containing s History of the Substance, by Robley Dunglison, Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. A Succinet Account of the Lime Rocks of Plymouth, with 10 Li- thographic Plates of some of the most remarkable of the Animal Remains found in them, by the Rev. Richard Hennah. 1 vol. roy. 8vo. A new Edition of Newton’s Principia Mathematica, from the best Jesuit’s Edition. A History of a severe Case of Neurelgia, commonly called Tic Dou- loureux, occupying the Nerves of the Right Thigh, Leg, and Foot, successfully treated, with some Observations, By G. D. Yeats, MD. JUST PUBLISHED. The Scottish Cryptogamic Flora, or coioured Figures and Descrip- tions of Cryptogamic Plants growing in Scotland, and belonging chiefly to the Order Fungi. By Robert Kaye Greville, Esq. FRSE. MWS. &c. Royal 8vo. No.I. 4s. The Philosophy of Zoology, or a General View of the Structure, Functions, and Classification of Animals. By John Flemming, DD. Minister of Flisk, Fifeshire, FRSE. MWS. &c. 2 vols. 8vo. With Plates. 1/. 10s. The Naturalist’s Repository, or Monthly Miscellany of Exotie Natural History. By E. Donovan, FLS. FWS. &c. Royal Svo. No. I. 3s. 6d. ArticLe XVII. NEW PATENTS. P. Erard, Great. Marlborough-street, musical instrument maker, for improvements on harps. Communicated tohim by a foreigner residing abroad.— April 24. E. Dodd, St. Martin’s-lane, musical instrument maker, for improve- ments on pedal harps.—April 24. J. Delvean, Wardour-street, musical instrument. maker, for certain improvements on harps.—April 24. R. Ford, Abingdon-row, Goswell-street-road, chemist, for a chemical liquid or solution of annotto.—A pril 24. . R. Knight, Foster-lane, Cheapside, ironmonger, and R. Kirk, Osborn-place, Whitechapel, dyer, for a process for the more rapid crystallization, and for the evaporation of uids, at comparatively low temperatures, by a peculiar mechanical application of air.—May 9. 1822.] Mr Howard’s Meteorological Journal. a 79 ArticLte XVIII. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE, — BARoMETER,| THERMOMETER, 1822, | Wind. | Max.| Min.| Max. | Min. | Evap. | Rain. aes aaa ae O° LS 5th Mon. May 1|. E __|30°30)30:23) 66 45 — 2IN —_E/30-23/30°05| 70 33 _ 3| E |30:06/29:72| 70 51 — 4) E_ |29:79/29'72| 70 Al == 29 5IN —_E/29:80!29':79| 74 49 541 06 6IN W}29°83)29°80| 73 53 — 03 7IN E/30:04/29°83] 64 44, = 60 8iIN _E/30°04/29°84) 59 |. .37 — QIN —_—E/29°84/29°48) 69 41 — 10IN. —- E/29°65/29°48} 59 38 35 14 11|S E/29°84/29'65| 69 37 — 02 12IN _E/29:90,29°84; 56 46 se 13\N —_- E/29:95/29°90} 58 45 —_ 14) N_ /29:98/29°95| 62 47 _ 15IN —_E/30-05/29'98} 76 40 55 16\N _—E/30'05)30°02| 68 46 ee ee 17| E_ |30:04'30:02) so 49 — 18} N_ 130°11/30°04) 77 45 _ 19} N_ /|30°16)30°11| 79 45 —_ 20/8 E/30'28/30°16; 81 49 57 21} N_ {30:37|30°28} 81 47 — 22\N _E|30°37/30°30| 76 44 — 23} N_ |30°30/30°13| 74 44. — 24; E |30°13|30°04| 69 42 — 25| N_ (|30:04/29°89| 72 AA 56 | 33 26/8 W/30°18/29°89! - 68 Ai —_ 10 27/8 W/'30:23/30°18) 67 55 — 01 28} W_ |30°28/30°23| 77 44 43 29} W_ |30°35|30°28| 76 AS _ 30| W_ |30°35/30 31} 78 48 31) W_ |30°31/30°23) 79 52 44, i | $0'37|29°481 81 | 33 | 3-44 11°58 The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, beginning at 9 A. M. on the day indicated in the first column. A dash denotes that the result is included in the next following observation. 80 Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. {Jury, 1822. REMARKS. Fifth Month.—1. Very fine. 2. Cirrus: wind veered to SE, p.m. 3. Cirrus: ‘fine. 4. Fine. 5. Very warm: a shunder storm, p.m. 6. Cloudy: close. 7. Rainy. 8. Fine. 9. Cloudy. 10. Showery. 11. Fine. 12, 13. Cloudy. 14—24, Fine. 25. Rain, with thunder, in the afternoon. 26. Showery. 27—31, Fine. RESULTS. st Winds: N,6; NE,11; E, 5; SE,2; SW,2; W,4; NW, 1. Barometer: Mean height For the month. 2.2... .ccscccccnescecvccess eeeeee.- 30°035 inches. For the lunar period, ending the 14th.........2+0...- 29°895 For 16 days, ending the 14th (moon south) .......... 29:929 For 12 days, ending the 26th (moon north). ...... -- 30°122 ‘Thermometer: Mean height For the month..... Fevebaere ese ce secs en tess vel ciety. eOe For the lunar period ij. «00s o.4s\se/s acplanseiamaes adckeese SaeraO For 30 days, the sun in Taurus ..,..0.-eseeseeseee 55°612 Eivaporation. .. 2 ...eee0s S¥ieslen ose e a te b soxbiclensidenn sees vid meveese ALIN. Rain. eee OHSS SHEP SEE EEE SHEESH SHE eee toe . . eer eterane 1°58 t Laboratory, Sivatford, Sixth Month, 24, 1822. R. HOWARD. | ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY. AUGUST, 1822. ARTICLE I. Geological Remarks. By Thomas Weaver, Esq. MRIA. MRDS. MWS. MGS. In the Comparative View which I took of floetz formations in the British Isles and on the Continent (Annals of Philosophy for Oct. Nov. and Dec. 1821), it was my professed object to main- tain, that a general order of succession prevails in the structure of the Earth, from the oldest to the newest formations, subject, however, to variation in detail in different countries, and even in the same tract of country, as arising, from a fluctuation of cha- racter in particular beds; from the various modes in which corre- lative formations are associated (namely, as being distinct. or interstratified with each other) ; and, lastly, trom the occasional absence of certain members of a series. In illustration of this doctrine, I produced the carboniferous series as an example, proceeding from the most simple to the most complex arrange- ments, to be found in the British Isles, and adverting to the local deficiency of particular members of the series. Passing then to the Continent, with the same object before me, I noticed the analogy which subsists between the carboniferous series of England and the Netherlands, and between that of Scotland and some parts of Germany. With this principle, therefore, con- stantly in view, my surprise was great to find that a writer of distinguished talents had so far misunderstood my observations, as to have conceived that [ suppose an inversion of the order in the instance of the carboniferous series of Germany, and thus impugned the very doctrine I had undertaken to sustain ; while in truth I have not made any such supposition.* * See p. 310—319, of “* Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales, by the New Series, vou. tv. G $2 Mr. Weaver’s Geological Remarks. [Auc. - The question, (involving others of some moment), chiefl depends on the true construction of the term, the rothe todtlie- gende formation of Germany, In the Comparative View, ad- verted to above, I have considered it as the representative of the carboniferous series, extending from the old red sandstone to the coal formation inclusive; while Mr. Conybeare, on the other hand, maintains that it 1s the equivalent of what Professor Buckland has denominated the new red conglomerate of England, (the same which I have designated by the name of the calcare- ous conglomerate), stating that the rothe todtliegende is always found above the coal of Germany, and not below it. In support of our respective opinions, we have both appealed to the same authorities ; to Lehman, Werner, Karsten, Von Buch, Freies- leben, &e. Whence does this great diserepancy arise ? If I show that the rothe todtliegende of those authors agrees in relative position, characters, and associations, with the carbo- niferous series, this will be positive evidence that I have correctly rendered their meaning; and if I further show that the rothe todtliegende is deficient in those particulars that serve to cha- racterise the new conglomerate, this/will be negative evidence. The two itis presumed will be deemed conclusive. * Lehman, in his work (Geschichte, von Flotzgebirgen, 1756), of which a French translation appeared a few years atter, speaks of the rothe todtliegende as “ da base sur laquelle sont appuyés des lits du charbon de terre” (sect. iv. p. 268, 282); and in describing sections of strata in the following division of the’ work, he also says, the coal is covered by true rothe todtlie- ende, meaning that the coal is wnbedded in rothe todtliegende 5 and this is the sense in which that author is understood by Ger- man writers m general, and by Freiesleben in particular, who expressly quotes him to that effect (vol. iv. p. 170). Freiesleben, the disciple of Werner, in constant and close! intimacy with him to the latest period, and occupying hke him aseat in the Council of Mines at Freyberg, may be supposed to represent faithfully the positions of his master, corroborated! and elucidated as they have been by his own researches during a residence of seven years in Mansfeld and Thuringia, while: acting as chief officer of the mining department in that country. it is well known that the mountamous group of the Hartz con- sists of primary and transition tracts, whose general constituents I shall now mention, for reasons that will appear hereafter. Granite appears to be the general base, since it occurs not only’ as suchin the primary region, but is found protruding, or denuded, in the transition ; m the former also appear clayslate, flinty slate, an intimate compound of felspar and quartz with some little tourmaline called hornfels, quartz tock, varieties’ of ‘trap, limestone, and some indications of gneiss and mica slate. ‘The Rev. W. D. Conybeare, FRS. MGS. and W. Phillips, FLS. MGS.” an extremely able and valuable work, affording, so far as it has proceeded, an excellent view of the “ geological relations of the kingdom. The.completion of the task,is very desirable. 1822.] Mr. Weaver’s Geological Remarks. 83 transition tracts consist of clayslate, greywacke, greywacke slate, and flinty slate, contaiming subordinately limestone, iron- shot sandstone with impressions of shells, and beds or masses of trap, porphyry, and amygdaloid. round this mountainous region are drawn the principal floetz an or formations of Werner, not concentrically disposed, as as been sometimes falsely represented, but of unequal distribu- tion ; namely, 1. his old or first floetz sandstone, or rothe todt- liegende, formation; 2. his first limestone formation; 3. his -second or new red sandstone formation; 4. his second or shell limestone formation ; 5. his third or quadersandstone formation. Of these, the first four ‘constitute the particular object of Freies- leben’s elaborate work, and of three of them, viz. the second, third, and fourth, being the equivalents of the magnesian lime stone (including the calcareous conglomerate), the new red sandstone, and the shell limestone of England, I have given a detailed abstract in the Annals of Philosophy. Of the rothe todtliegende formation, I have spoken only in general terms, from the condensed manner in which it was necessary to treat the comparative view of that subject, in the confined space allotted in a periodical journal. Let us now consider it more in detail. The rothe todtliegende is described by Freiesleben as the old sandstone formation, which contains casually (though rarely in Mausfeld and Thuringia), traces of coal or coaly shale, and inci- dentally likewise beds of limestone, trap, and porphyry (vol. 1. . 32—34, and 43—46), being also in some parts of its extent in direct connexion and association with the ccal formation, properly so called; and hence to this also the term rothe todt- liegende is extended (vol. iv. p. 191—-198). In a confined sense, therefore, rothe todtliegende signifies the old red sand- stone with its subordinate beds, and in a large sense it compre- hends the coal formation also, thus representing the whole car- boniferous series. It is employed in both these senses | by Freiesleben, and other German authors. To obviate, however, all misconception to which this latitude of expression may give rise, I shall, in the following pages, separate the old red sand- stone, in the limited sense, from the coal formation, unless where 1 may employ the term carboniferous series as indicative of the whole. But in a few cases I shall quote Freiesleben’s own words to show the latitude in which he uses the term rothe todt- liegende. | Relative Position —The carboniferous series is disposed in the form of a crescent, embracing the foot of the transition tract of the Hartz, on its north-eastern, eastern, and south-eastern sides, ranging thus in a circuit of about 63 miles, from the vicinity of Ballenstadt on the N., past Mansfeld on the E., to beyond Ihle- feld.on the S. The only interruption to this continuity is for a short space in the south-western quarter, near (Questenberg, G2 84 Mr. Weaver's Geological Remarks. - [Avue. where the weissliegende, or new conglomerate, is in immediate contact with the transition country, reposing unconformably on vertical strata of clayslate. The belt, thus described, follows in general in its inclination the declivity of surface presented by the subjacent transition tract, and hence in its line of apposition to that tract, it is sometimes conformable, sometimes unconforma- ble, to the stratification of the latter, the strata in their course dipping successively to the north, east, and south, and at angles varying from 12° to 50°. The far greater part of this belt consists of the old red sand- stone, being connected with coal districts at both its extremities ; on the NW. with a coal field about three miles long, extending from the vicinity of Cpperode eastward toward Meisdorf, and on the SW. with a field which, commencing in the territory of Stollberg, and ranging past Neustadt to the NW. of ihlefeld, extends about 10 or 12 miles in length. The exposed breadth of the old red sandstone is in most parts inconsiderable, being soon concealed by the succeeding floetz formations; but in the south-eastern quarter, where it throws out an arm toward Hornburg on the SH, a distance of about 10 or 12 miles, it acquires in its widest part a breadth of three or four miles, forming a plateau of great thickness and considerable elevation, in the central part of which the strata are nearly hori- zontal, while on the south-western side the dip is SW. 12° to 15°, at the south-eastern extremity a few degrees to the E. or SE. ; and on the north-eastern side, 12° to 3U° to the NE. In the north-eastern quarter, near Hettstadt, the old red sand- stone throws out another arm, extending eastward beyond the banks of the Saale in the form ofa narrow ridge, about 14 miles in length, in which the prevailing dip of the strata on the south- ern side is to the &. or SW.; on the northern to the NE.; and in the eastern quarter to the E. At this extremity it is found again connected with and supporting a coal district (vol. iv. p. 191—198), which, as far as exposed, between-Kathau and Lobegiin on the N. and Dolau and Halle on the 8., is about 12 miles long. In thus following the circuitous course of the old red sand- stone, we find it to extend through a range of about 60 miles, to which, if we add the coal fields at its north-western, eastern, and south-western extremities, the entire range of the carboni- ferous series may be said to be between 80 and 90 miles. But if we consider that on the 8. of the general range are to be found several isolated hills of old red sandstone, emerging from beneath the newer floetz formations, e. g. in the Kiffhauser, &c. we may conclude that the carboniferous series occupies a great expanse also, though mostly witlidrawn from observation. Characters of the Old Red Sandstone (vol. iv. p. 67—119).— i have already noticed the general constituents of the primary and transition tracts of the Hartz; and in examining the ingre- 1822.] _ Mr. Weaver's Geological Remarks. 85 dients of the old red sandstone, we shall find them referable to the detritus of those tracts, and varying in different quarters. The cement which combines these ingredieuts is usually siliceous, or an indurated sandy micaceous clay ; it is more rarely marly, but it contains in general so much oxide of iron as to take a brown- ish-red colour, whence, as Freiesleben observes, the name of the rock, the rothe todtliegende, the red dead lier, has been derived, although beds of greyish and whitish colours are not unfrequent. The sandstone formation itself is described by Freiesleben as - consisting of conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, slaty micaceous sandstone, indurated slaty clay, and clay marl, in beds frequently alternating with each other, from a few inches to several ells, and even fathoms, in thickness ; but, generally speaking, they are from two to four feet thick. The conglomerate usually forms thick beds in alternation with fmer grained and clayey beds, but sometimes appears in the form of thin layers in fine grained sandstone. It constitutes the least part of the formation, being commonly situated in the lower region. The boulders and pebbles vary from the size of one foot in diameter to that of a nut, compacted by smaller grained ingredients of the same composition, with brownish-red ironshot indurated sandy or marly clay, which is more rarely of a white cast and calcareous quality. The rounded and angular fragments noticed by Freiesleben are claysiate, taleslate, flinty slate, lydian stone, greywacke, gneiss, trap, porphyry, quartz, hornstone, jasper, and agate, with disintegrated felspar, grains of quartz, and mica, differently assembled in different parts of the range; for the minute detail of which, as well as of the fol- lowing beds, I must refer to the copious work of that author.* The breccias and sandstones exceed in mass the conglomerate, and extend to a greater distance from the fundamental rock. A common form of the fine grained breccia is that of angular grains of quartz, with single pebbles of quartz and hornstone, and numerous small fragments of yellowish-white decomposed fel- spar, and scales of mica; sometimes also including single frag- ments of ironshot clayslate, or talcslate, the whole being combined by a brownish-red sandy cement. Sometimes also small grains of reddish-white decomposed felspar predominate, which, with grains of quartz, are imbedded in a sandy clayey slaty base of a dark cherry-red colour. The small and fine grained sandstones vften appear of a homogeneous character, and either granular or slaty, brownish-red or grey, more rarely white, sometimes also alternately striped red, grey, and white, or with a reddish-grey or bluish base, containing white spots. In the most uniform sandstone appear occasionally streaks or layers of * In this composition of the conglomerate, we perceive a close analogy to that of some parts of Ireland noticed by the writer of this article, e. g. adjoining Waterford Harbour. (Geol. Trans. vol. v.) Some of the conglomerates also closely resemble those ef the old red sandstone of Tortworth and Milbury Heath, in Gloucestershire. 86 Mr. Weaver’s Geological Remarks. [Ave. coarser grained, or of conglomerate, arranged at certain dis-) tances in parallel order. The fine-grained sandstones yield. large flagstones. - The fine-grained clayey sandstone passes into slaty micaceous: sandstone of difterent degrees of firmness, containing numerous scales of white mica. It passes also gradually into ¢ndurated. clay, which is mostly slaty, and either pure, or sandy and firm, and of red, green, or grey colours; the substance being gene- rally intimately mixed with minute scales of mica. Beds of this clay, which are often ofthe nature of c/ay mar/, and occasionally contain lighter-coloured portions of a calcareous quality, are frequent m the old red sandstone of Mansfeld. The clay and clay marl are found likewise in thin layers between the sandstone beds, of red, grey, green, and blue. colours, and sometimes also included in them im the form of ovoidal or flattened elliptical nodules, then resembling, as Freiesleben observes, the clay galls of the new red sandstone formation. Beside the colouring matter of the old red sandstone derived from oxide of iron, diftused through its substance, brown and red iron ochres are occasionally found in it in spots, round por- tions, and thin streaks.* Grains, slight layers, and indeterminate portions of compact, scaly, and ochraceous red iron ore, have also been met with; and near Mansfeld, Freiesleben noticed in the sandstone com- pact red iron stone in the form of the stems of reeds. Associations of the Old Red Sandstone—a. Coal; 6. lime- stone; c. porphyry and amygdaloid ; d. coal fields. a. Coal.—Near Grillenberg, in Sangerhausen, a slight coaly seam, from a half to one and a half inch thick, has been foundin the old red sandstone ; and a somewhat similar appearance is said to have occurred near Mollendorf, in Mansfeld.+ b. Limestone.—Oft the occurrence of this mineral in subordi- nate beds in the old red sandstone, the following instances are given: near Cressfeld, a bed of compact, splintery, and partly foliated granular limestone, of greyish colours, with interspersed lamin of white calcareous spar: at Vatterode, Wimmelrode, and Mollendorf, a bed, eight to ten feet thick, of compact fine splintery limestone, of brownish-red, greenish, and reddish-grey colours, with disseminated spots of calcareous spar, and veins of the same substance ; it was formerly wrought for marble, and sent to Berlin: near Rothenburg on the Saale, limestene dis- posed in the sandstone iv thin beds, of a red or hght-grey colour, minutely granular cr compact, and containing terbratu- * The precedmg general description of the sandstone, slaty sandstone, clay, and clay marl beds of Mansfeld, with nodules also resembling clay galls, might almost serve word for word, for that of the old red sandstone on the banks of the Severn, in Gloucestershire, as well.as in many respects for that of Tortworth and Milbury Heath. » + A parallel instance of the casual occurrence ¢f imperfect coal in the old red sand- stene may also be found in England, e. g. in Portishead Point, near Bristol, . 1822.) Mr. Weaver’s Geological Remarks. 87 lites and discites; while a little further south, Freiesleben was assured, after he had left the country, that the sandstone con- tains also beds of oolitic limestone, where it underlies the Wettin coal field; for the truth of this, however, the author does not actually vouch. c. Porphyry and Amygdaloid.—Porphyry occurs in_ great lying masses, of an indeterminate form, in the old red sandstone, on the SE. bank of the Wipper between Hettstadt and Burgor- ner, its immediate cover being coarse sandstone conglomerate. It is traversed by innumerable small veins of calcareous spar. Not far from hence porphyry becomes again visible near Meisberg, forming cliffs, protruding 56 to 70 feet high from amidst the old red sandstone. It is partly amygdaloidal, and reposes immediately on coarse siliceous conglomerate. It re-appears in a similar manner between Hettstadt and Gerb- stadt ; and porphyry has also been traversed under the same circumstances by the adit level of the mine Johann Friedrich. The old red sandstone, when adjacent to porphyry, acquires not unfrequently a porphyritic aspect. d. Coal Fields. Ades ; 1. The North Western (vol. iv. p.227—237).—On this Freies- leben remarks, “ [tis quite certain that the coal which occurs near Opperode, in the Principality of Anhait-Bernburg, lies in the rothe todtliegende.” In proceeding from the vicinity of Opperode on the N. toward the transition tract on the S., the beds succeed each other in the following descending order: 1. Brownish-red, ironshot, fine-grained, rothe todtliegende, ‘with occasional larger grains of quartz, clay slate, and flinty slate ; regularly stratified, strata 1 to 14 inch thick, dipping 15° to the NW. and affording excellent building stone, 7 fathoms to 9 fathoms 2 feet thick. 2. Conglomerate, of unequal grain, iron-shot, some of the peb- bles of quartz and slate being 8 and 9 inches in diameter; 32 inches thick. 3. Sandstone, same as No. 1, alternating with thin layers of reddish-grey marly rock ; 35 fathoms thick. 4. Slate clay, bluish-grey, and sandy, with numerous impres- sions of vegetables; 5tathoms 5 feet thick. 5. Roof shale, bituminous ; 1 to 2 feet. 6. Coal; 2 feet. 7. Floor shale, resembling that of the roof; 31 feet. 8. Conglomerate, very coarse grained ; 4 fathoms 4 feet. 9. A second seam of coa/, but not worth working. 10. Blue rock, resembling No. 4. 11. Conglomerate, coarse-grained, being the lowest of the series. The upper coal seam dips pretty rapidly near the surface, but in descending, it maintains a general inclination of 15° to 20°, 88 Mr. Weaver's Geological Remarks. [Auc. ‘seldom forming troughs or saddles. The coal field is subject to faults. Z 2. The Eastern or Petersberg tract. a. The Wettin Collieries (vol. iv. p. 237—260).—These collie- ries, which are distinguished into the lower or Wettin, and the upper or Schachtberg fields, are generally relieved by an. adit Jevel between four and five miles in length, which attains a depth of about 45 fathoms from the surface. The .beds of the two fields are very different in different places. The following is said to be the general arrangement in the lower field : . Vegetable soil and loam ; 2 fathoms 2 feet thick. . Sandstone, white, micaceous; 1 fathom 3 feet 6 inches. . Clay marly rock, brown; 7 fathoms. . Ditto blue; 1 fathom 6 feet thick. . Slaty sandstone, bluish-grey, micaceous ; | fathom 1 foot. . Coal, upper seam; 6 feet 2 inches. . Grey sandy clayey rock; 3 fathoms 3 feet. . Coarse sandstone ; 3 fathoms 3 feet. . Blue slaty rock ; 21 to 52 inches. 10. Coal, middle seam ; 8 inches. 11. Grey sandstone ; 3 feet 6 inches. B 12. Sandy clay ; 1 fathom 1 foot. 13. Blue slate clay with numerous impressions of ferns, reeds, &c.; 5 feet three inches. 14. Coal, lower seam; 10 inches. 15. Grey sandstone; 1] fathoms 4 feet. 16. Rothe todtliegende. But considerable variations are to be found in several parts of the fields : thus, instead of the slaty sandstone, No. 5, the imme- diate roof of the upper coal seam consists not unfrequently of a bed of coarse conglomerate, 2 fathoms 2 feet thick, containing boulders of porphyry of the size of the head, and even larger. The roof of the coal seams is also often of a calcareous nature, consisting of sandstone combined by carbonate of lime, in which pure limestone occasionally appears, and generally in the form of geodes. The middle and lower seams, which are commonly between two and three fathoms asunder, sometimes approach within 10 inches of each other, coalesce, and bear good coal of considerable thickness. The coal seams are in some places greatly enlarged; in others closely compressed, so that they almost disappear. This is the case with the upper seam, which gradually closes and terminates both in the line of range and of ip. The coal seams of the Wettin district in general are remark- “able for the great variableness of position, to which they are sub- ject within short distances, presenting a continued succession of troughs, saddles, and serpentine curvatures, in which the angles of inclination vary from 70° or 80° to the horizontal. . © HAG Or da CO WD 3822.) Mr. Weaver’s Geological Remarks. 89 On the Wettin coal field, Freiesleben observes, that “ it is imbedded in the rothe todtliegende, being both covered by, and reposing on, rothe todtliegende.” The coal has been pursued for 70 fathoms beneath porphyry, and this porphyry is also proved to lie in the rothe.todtliegende, not only by a distinet graduation from the one rock into the other, but by the former appearing in separate beds in the latter. b. The Lobegiin Collieries (vol. iv. p. 260—264).—These are situated among hills of porphyry, occupying hollows and dells, and apparently forming a mantle round porphyry. Hence no gene- ral range or dip can be given; the latter is often at a high angle, from 50° to 80°. Itis stated that, wherever accurate observa- tions have been made in these collieries, the porphyry has always been found subjacent to the coal field. The coal beds here, as far as sunk into, consist as under : 1. Vegetable soil, with sand and conglomerate, 21 inches thick. . Clay marl varying from 21 to 32 inches. . Conglomerate, 7 to 21 feet. . Coal smut, 3 to 6 inches. . Blue clayey rock, becoming gradually thicker in descend- ing, 21 inches to 14 fathoms. . Coal, 7 feet to 9 feet 8 inches. . Blue clayey rock, 21 inches to 14 feet. . Blue sandy rock, beyond which the works had not ex- tended. The coal seam is divided into three beds by two intervening layers of shale, one of which is 10 inches, and the other from 5 to 10 inches, in thickness. In another part of the field, a second seam of coal has been met with, from 21 to 32 inches thick. c. At Kathau the coal sandstone is found supporting porphyry on its southern side in a distinct manner (vol. iv. p. 118). At Gerwitz, a small coal trough reposes on porphyry; and between Halle and Giebichenstein the coal is imbedded in porphory. (Vol. iv. p. 293.) d. Beside these facts, Schulze states in his map, appended to Freiesleben’s work, that the coal at Raunitz reposes on porphyry, while to the E. of Brachwitz, it appears to underlie porphyry. Now, combining these observations, it is perfectly clear that in the coal tract of the Petersberg, between Halle on the S. and Kathau on the N., the coal formation alternates with porphyry ; and yet it is stated (‘ Outlines,” p. 469), that these porphyries, thus connected with the rothe todtliegende, belong to the same era as the new red conglomerate or sandstone of England ; posi- tions quite irreconcileable with each other. 3. The South Western Coal Field.—After the detail into which we have entered, it may be sufficient to observe that in / OID Ok Cw 90 Mr. Weaver’s Geological Remarks. [Ave. this district porphyry and trap are also found in association with the coal formation, and that the same construction applies here as in the Petersberg tract. : If now called upon to draw a parallel between this carbonife- rous series and any of the British, I should say that here is ‘a general tract of old red sandstone, supporting on its eastern confines a coal district, which in many respects agrees with some of those of the Scotch great coal tract; while in the north- western and south-western quarters, the coal fields there appear to repose either immediately on transition rocks, or partly on these, and partly on old red sandstone, corresponding in this respect with some of the coal tracts in Shropshire, as well as in the circumstance of the absence of the carboniferous limestone. Tdo not perceive any ground that can be laid for considering, as it has been suggested, this range of sandstone as the millstone- grit and shale, (namely, the sandstone and shale interposed in some tracts between the carboniferous limestone and the great coal formation, properly so called), unless it could be shown to be divested of all those general characters of the fundamental aie of the old red sandstone, which it in fact so strikingly isplays. On the other hand, the absence of the millstone-grit and shale in Mansfeld and Thuringia is no greater anomaly there ‘than it is elsewhere, e. g. in Cumberland, in most parts of Shrop- shire, in Ireland, and in the great coal tract of Scotland. Nor is it a greater anomaly that there but few beds of carboniferous limestone occur, since in some parts of our own island they are wanting altogether, e. g. in Shropshire. But this is not the whole of the question. What are we, strictly speaking, to understand by the term old red sandstone? I presume no one in the present day would confine it exclusively to the mere funda- mental bed of the carboniferous series. This would be as con- tracted a view, as if, in the case of gneiss alternating with beds of primary limestone, we were to restrict the use of that word to the lowest bed of gneiss. In the case then of the old sand- stone alternating with limestone, where is the line to be drawn ? Is it to be extended to the confines of the great coal formation, that is, when the latter is distinct? But who will separate one from the other, when, as in many cases in Scotland, the sand- stone, the limestone, and the coal, are repeatedly interstratified with each other? Were we indeed to take a large view of the subject, and to call the British carboniferous series the old or first great sandstone, formation or group, this expression would be quite equivalent to that of the rothe todtliegende, or first floetz sandstone, formation of Germany. In both countries, the ~ subject matter is the same, though, from the fuller display of the seriesin the British Isles, the mode of considering and express- i ee, ee as ee 1822.] Mr. Weaver's Geological Remarks. 91: ing it has been somewhat different. In making this allusion, however, I am far from meaning to deny that the fourfold divi- sion into the fundamental old red sandstone, carboniferous lime- stone, millstone-grit and shale, and coal formation, is very descriptive, wherever applicable, since it enables us to consider distinctly the several links ofa chain, which constitute in them selves a complete system of one great era; but this division cannot always be strictly made, e. g. in most parts of the Scotch great coal tract. After the full consideration given to the rothe todtliegende form- ation, extending from the Hartz beyond the banks of the Saale, that of the Forest of Thuringia may be disposed of in few words. The old red sandstone is there found in great force, frequentl alternating with porphyry and trap (e. g. vol. iv. p. 107—116), reposing principally on primary rocks, and clearly showing by its composition, like that of Mansfeld Xc., that it originated from their detritus (vol. iv. p. 67—99.) The coaly shale and coal formation, connected with the old red sandstone, is unequally distributed, being also occasionally associated with limestone and porphyry, and coming in the course of its extent not unfre- quently in contact with primary tracts, the coal field reposing in some instances upon granite (e. g. vol. iv. p. 167, 168). I will now consider the red sandstone formation described by Von Raumer. But previously let me observe that, as the princi- pal object of that author’s researches was to ascertain the grand features and relations of the country, we are not to expect that great precision, or minute detail, that are so generally observable in the works of Freiesleben. ‘Still, however, the leading facts can hardly admit of dispute. For the general positions, I refer to the Annals of Philosophy for Oct. 182], p. 248—250. The red sandstone formation which occupies so large an expanse on the southern side of the Riesengebirge, extending . from Schatzlar, appears to be destitute of coal. It dips 8. But proceeding eastward from that town, it is found connected with an extensive coal field, sandstone conglomerate forming throughout the great basis, the character of which varies according to that of the adjacent primary or transition tracts upon which it reposes, enveloping pebbles and fragments of gneiss, micaslate, granite, hornblende slate, clayslate, quartz, &e. (Von Buch, Geog. Beob. vol. i. p. 85—93 ; Von Raumer, p. 92.) The carboniferous series ranges along the south-western side of the Eulengebirge toward Glatz, a distance of about 35 miles. Having given a summary of its general relations in the work referred to above, it may be sufficient to add in this place a few remarks on the general disposition of the tract. This carboniferous series is almost entirely overlaid on its 92 Mr. Weaver's Geological Remarks. [Auc. south-western side by the quadersandstone formation: in all other quarters, its line of contact with older rocks may be fol- lowed, from which it appears throughout to conform to their sinuosities, with a dip corresponding, Thus on the NW. itis generally inclined toward the SE. or 8.; on the NE. to the SW. but on the SE. occupying in that quarter three inlets, or bays as it were, the dip is successively directed to every point of the compass except the E. Again, on the SW. near Schlesisch Albendorf, on the confines of the quadersandstone, the dip is to the ENE. ; while beyond the quadersandstone on the SW. where the coal re-appears at Straussensee, the dip is NNE., a disposition probably arising from the adjacent primary tract. The general arrangement of the beds, therefore, indicates the form of a great trough, at least in the south-eastern quarter; but the internal structure of the field is rendered very intricate and complex from the interposition of isolated ranges and masses of porphyry and trap, which have a sensible influence on the stratification of the country. The map of the environs of Waldenburg, founded on actual survey, is an evidence of this fact. Similar indications appear in the south-eastern part of the tract, and hence the course of the coal and concomitant beds becomes frequently curve linear, dipping at angles varying from 80° to 16°. That the seams of coal are extremely numerous, and that there is an interstratification of the whole series of beds connected with the coal, may be fully inferred by combining the observations of Von Raumer with those of Von Buch. The latter states that if we traverse the outcrops of the strata from Furstenstein to Alben- dorf, we shall fall short rather than exceed the number, if we reckon the beds of the carboniferous series at 500; that is, . without including the innumerable beds that extend but a short way, edge out, and are lost among the others (Geog. Beob. vol.i. p- 101—103). The number of beds of limestone in the series appears not to be ascertained, for though limestone has been noticed in 22 places, several of these spots seem to be situated on the line of bearing of the same stratum. It would require laborious and expensive research before a correct map, with corresponding sections, of this coal tract could be constructed ; and the sections of Von Raumer can only be considered as illus- trative diagrams, tending to convey a general idea of the rela- tive position of the carboniferous series itself, without pretending to give a detailed view of its internal conformation. The red sandstone and porphyry adverted to, as if covering this coal dis- trict (“ Outlines,” p. 470), form in fact a part of the general series. | The structure of this tract seems very analogous to that of the Scotch great coal field. Many of its features correspond also with those of the coal tract of the Petersberg, on the banks of the Saale. The red sandstone formation situated to the north of the Rie 1822. | Mr. Weaver's Geological Remarks. 93 sengebirge ranges, as far as noticed by Von Raumer, fora dis- tance of about 40 miles, from Walkersdorf, between Lauban and Bunzlau on the NW., to beyond Bolkenhayn on the SE., where it terminates. Jt appears disposed in the form of a trough in a pri- mary slaty tract, by which it is encompassed on every side, except on the greater part of the northern, where it is overlaid ‘by the quadersandstone formation. The dip appears to conform to the indentations of this trough, at angles varying between 30° and 50°. The predominant rock is the red sandstone, but beds of compact limestone, of reddish and yellowish-grey colours, are not unfrequent in it. The sandstone alternates also with felspar porphyry, claystone porphyry, basaltic trap, and amygdaloid. Only one slight trace of coal has been observed in it, and Von Raumer, in his general view of this tract, no where remarked any organic remains. It is referred by Von Buch to the old red sandstone formation (Geog. Beob. vol. i. p. 77, 78). The preceding statements have, I trust, proved ; ]. The iden- tity of the old red sandstone of Werner, and that of the British Isles ; 2. That the rothe todtliegende formation of that naturalist is the representative of the carboniferous series ; and 3. That in the details of that series in Germany, we perceive the occasional absence ofa particular member, and various states of association, in the same manner as they are to be found in Britain, but no in- version of the general order. These positions being thus established, in what sense can the rothe todtliegende be said to be the same as the new conglome- rate? I do not know any, except by a misapplication of terms. The weissliegende of Germany, which in all its relations of position, composition, and association, perfectly corresponds with the new conglomerate, has been repeatedly called rothe todtliegende by Voigt and other writers, down to the latest period, who, considering it as the uppermost bed of that series, have, without due attention to their different characteristics, confounded the two together. This fact is insisted on by Freies- leben, to whom we owe the clear exposition of this error (vol. in. p. 239)* ; an error that might readily be committed in the Forest of Thuringia in particular, where the new conglomerate (the weissliegende of Freiesleben) is mostly of a siliceous character and reddish hue, nearly resembling in aspect the rothe todtlie- gende ; and as the latter is there in frequent association with trap and porphyry, and commonly supports the new conglomerate, the * A somewhat similar error- prevailed in England at no distant period, for proof of which it may be sufficient to refer to Townsend’s work, ‘* The Character of Moses vin- dicated.” 1813, See vol. i. p. 154, et seq. 94 Mr.. Weaver's Geological Remarks. [Aue. .two formations might easily be mistaken for each other, when not duly observing their respective boundaries ; and the inference then be drawn that the new conglomerate is also associated with porphyry and trap. Now in adverting to the Forest of Thurin- gia, itis stated, (‘‘ Outlines,” p. 316,) “here we may observe, at top a shell limestone, answering to our lias ; then red marle and gypsum; the calcareous beds associated with the cupriferous ‘marl slate; and at buttom the rothe todte.” (See also p. 313.) But this so-called rothe todte at. the bottom of the cupriferous marl slate, is assuredly the weisshiegende of Freiesleben; that is, the new conglomerate, beneath which is to be found the true rothe todtliegende in association with trap and porphyry. Here then we have a formation which, as the first member of anew series, covering the carboniferous series, and extending beyond it to the transition series, and even to the primary, distin- guished by gypsum as. its occasional companion, beside other characters (which I have detailed in the Annals of Philosophy, Nov. 1821, p. 255—257), leave no room to doubt its identity with the new red conglomerate of England. Again, with respect to the supposed alliance of the new con- glomerate with porphyry and trap, | confess I do not know an instance of the kindin Germany ; and Freieslebenis perfectly silent upon any such occurrence. Ofits existence in England, only one example is given, and that is admitted to be of a problematical character. I have suggested that the amygdaloidal trap in the neighbourhood of Exeter might possibly be connected with the transition tract of that country: this seems to be denied... Yet, as presenting some ground. for the suggestion, | must remark that the very able and luminous view of Cornwall, Devon, and Somerset, taken by Prof. Sedgwick, inthe first volume of the Cam- bridge Phil. Trans., has clearly shown that red transition conglo- merate and sandstone occur at least in Somersetshire ; to which 1 may add that transition red sandstone is of common occurrence an Gloucestershire and Herefordshire, being in the former county an direct association with amygdaloidal trap, which has sometimes salso a porphyritic aspect, including acicular crystals of glassy fel- spar. If, however, the conglomerate and sandstone in question be not transition, 1 then venture to inquire whether it may not be the first floetz or old red sandstone ? Of the existence of the Jatter in Somerset, 1 was assured three. years since by the researches of my friend, the Rev. Dr. Cooke, who found it sup- ‘porting the carboniferous limestone of Cannington Park ;,a view now apparently confirmed. by the high authority of Mr. Cony- -beare. In support of either suggestion, it may also be stated that Mo writer appears to have observed any gypsum in the,sandstone said to be associated with the trap, while it is not uncommon in the extensive tracts of the new red sandstone of that part of the kingdom, e.g. in Devon, at Budleigh Salterton near Teignmouth, at Sidmouth, and on Blackdown, and again more N. in Somerset { . 1822.] Mr.. Weaver's Geological Remarks. 95 adjacent to the Quantock Hills, I may here incidentally observe that both in Devon and the SW. of Somerset, the magnesian. limestone formation, properly speaking, appears, to be wanting in the regular order of succession, between the new or calcareous. conglomerate and the new red sandstone. . Having thus entered my decided protest against, considering, the new red conglomerate of England, and the rothe todtliegende of Werner, as equivalent terms, I now proceed to perform a similar task in respect of the old red sandstone and carbonife- rous limestone of England ; the former of which, it is said, is a: variety of the greywacke of Werner, and the latter his transition limestone ; and upon this view, the charge is raised that the Wernerians have confounded, the carboniferous series with the transition. Is this charge just? In the Netherlands the two series certainly have been con- founded together; but by whom primarily? by French writers on that tract, e.g. Omalius d’Halloy and M. Clere, neither of whom, I presume, will pronounce himself to be of the Freyberg scnool. It is true, Von Raumer, in his Geognostic Sketches in 1815, has quoted Omalius d’Halloy’s statements without inquiry, and D’Aubuisson has done the'same in his Traité de Géognosie in 1819, and to that extent they, as well as other Continental writers citing to the same effect, are doubtless chargeable with the mistake. Yet are such oversights, springing from a foreign source, to be visited on Werner and his followers? Has Wer- ner himself, or Von Buch, or Freiesleben, for instance, con- founded the carboniferous series with the transition? [ do not anticipate an affirmative to this question. In fact, how can the ald red sandstone of Britain, which I have shown to correspond in all its relations, perfectly with the old red sandstone of Wer- ner, be held to be a variety of the greywacke of that naturalist. (even putting mineralogical character out of the question), or how can the carboniferous limestone be said to be his transition limestone, when both in_ his! view occupy’ totally different positions ? It is very true, aid must be admitted by ali conversant with the subject, that the red sandstone and the limestone of the car- honiferous series often closely resemble the red sandstone and the limestone of the transition series, so much so; as in hand spe- cimens. to be scarcely distinguishable from each other, and this similarity is further increased by. several. kinds of organic remains being common to both limestones ; and it is also true, that what have been called graduations from one series into the other may be observed in certain situations, and so far appear- ances may be deceptive, Yet no attentive geologist can: be deceived. in this particular, if he take that view of the subject whivh ought always to be taken; namely, if he follow. through- aut the line of contact. between the carboniferous series and the 96 Mr. Weaver’s Geological Remarks. [Aue. transition. He will then readily perceive that the two series constitute totally distinct systems; for if the former appear in some places conformable in position to the latter, these are merely local occurrences arising from the more variable stratifi- cation of a transition country, while in the general arrangement ' unconformability of position will be found to prevail. And as a subsidiary mark of distinction, it may also be added, that the transition sandstone frequently contains organic remains, while the first floetz sandstone is generally free from them. Von Hoff, however, did propose to incorporate the carbonife- yous series with the transition (in Leonhard’s Taschenbuch, Jahrgang, viii. p. 320—828); and if some other writers have partly leaned the same way (whether justly called Wernerians, I will not stop to inquire), this disposition cannot be charged as derivable from Werner, whose positions are irreconcileable with any such attempt. It follows from the whole of these premises, that the floetz formations of Werner strictly commence with the old red sand- stone of England, and not, as has been stated, with the new or calcareous conglomerate. It follows also, that the charge of confusion in the views of that naturalist is obviated, and that so far from the floetz formations which came under his considera- tion having been few in number, they comprehended the whole series from the old red sandstone up to the chalk, and above the chalk, gravel, sand, clay, wood-coal, and the newest floetz trap formation. His arrangement of formations in Germany is, when duly construed, quite in accordance with their succession in the British Isles ; there is no hiatus ; we travel from the primary to the transition, and thence through the whole series of the floetz, in which last let it be observed, that though the carboniferous series be less fully displayed, yet other formations are in much greater force in Germany, and afford a greater variety of charac- ter than is to be found in the British Isles ; and here we may perceive the compensating power of nature. I have, therefore, yet to learn that more modern inquiries have at all invalidated the general positions of Werner. His grand outlines of the structure of the globe remain unshaken, from the fundamental granite up to the newest floetz trap. The labours of his followers, and of other geologists pursuing a similar path, have tended more and more to fill up those outlines. In our own country, few, if any, are entitled to greater distinction in that respect than Mr. Smith, whose views also have so far the merit of originality as they appear not to have been derived from any extraneous source. The later investigations of nume- rous English naturalists, of M. Greenough, Dr. Macculloch, Professors Buckland and Sedgwick, Messrs. Webster, Cony- beare, Miller, Phillips, Dela Beche, besid.e those of a host of Bri- 1822.] Mr. Weaver’s Geological Remarks. 97 tish writers whose names are recorded either in their own distinct works, or in the Geological, Philosophical, and Wernerian Trans- actions, or in periodical publications, are all invaluable contri- butions to the same effect. Above the chalk, the history of our planet has been further elucidated by the inestimable researches of Cuvier, Brongniart, Mr. Webster, Prof. Buckland, and other geologists pursuing that branch of the subject. But all these labours, whose merits and importance can never be too highly appreciated, so far from impugning the general facts advanced by Werner, serve rather to confirm and establish them. The Comparative View of floetz formations, which I submitted to the public in the Annals of Philosophy, Oct. 1821, is consist- ent with the main positions of Werner, though, from.the mode of considering them, there may seem to be some difference : this, however, is rather apparent than real. It arises from the following circumstances: 1. In the carboniferous series, pro- ducing the limestone and the coal as distinct formations, while Werner considered them only as members of his first floetz sandstone, or rothe todtliegende, formation: 2. In like manner, in the gypseous and saliferous series, producing the weisslie- gende or calcareous conglomerate as a distinct formation, while by Freiesleben and others it is included in the magnesian lime- stone formation : 3. As a consequence of the foregoing, in consi- dering the magnesian limestone as belonging to the second floetz series: and 4. From distributing the floetz formations into four principal series, founded, as I conceive, on natural distinctions ; namely, on their relative position in the order of succession, their mineralogical characters, the organic.remains which they respectively contain, and the mutual affinities of the formations which constitute each series or group. In this view there is no real incongruity ; for, in fact, had the carboniferous limestone appeared in force in the north of Germany, it certainly would have been designated by Werner as the first floetz limestone ; and this, according to the established method of that naturalist, who, in arranging the mineral masses of the globe, was led to distribute the predominant into principal formations, and the incidental into subordinate. Bearing this in mind, the carboni- ferous limestone would have been his first floetz limestone formation, and as a necessary consequence, the magnesian limestone would have become his second floetz limestone. The whole difference, therefore, is a mere question of enumeration. Here let me add: a few words on the meaning of the term floetz. It was employed by Lehman, and adopted by Werner. English writers have repeatedly asserted that it ps flat or horizontal. Suchis not necessarily its import. The French trans- lator of Leliman more nearly expressed its sense by roches en. couches. Floetz literaily signifies a mineral bed, and floetzgebirge New Series, vol.1v, H 98. Mr. Weaver's Geological Remarks. [Aua. bedded or interstratified formations, as more peculiarly character- istic of those mineral masses to which the term has been applied. The general tendency to horizontality, increasing from the older to the newer floetz formations, is, it is true, a distinctive mark ~ of these formations, but still horizontality is not necessarily implied in the word floetz. And, even if it were, the occasional departure from the horizontal position would be no more an objection to the use of the term, than the occasional horizontal disposition of primary strata would be to their general designa- tion as inclined. Al} that can be said is, that in both cases the general rule is subject to exceptions. To the continued/use of the term floetz, as applied to any part of the carboniferous series, an objection has been raised upon the supposition that the original sense in which it was employed has been departed from (Introduction, p. vi. and Outlines, p. 352); but as that supposition has been shown in the course of this paper to rest wholly on a misconception of the true import and application of the term, the objection vanishes. I may fur- ther add, that the value of a word consists in its conveying a definite idea to the mind, and so long as terms of established usage thus perform their office (in which respect the word floetz is not deficient), to exchange them for new can only be justified by showing that the latter answer the purpose better. In conclusion I must observe, that in awarding the meed of praise due to the services of Werner, French writers appear in general to have been more just than the English. Nota few of the latter seem to forget, or not to consider, that though others might before his time have hit upon the general division of rocks into primary and secondary, yet geology, as a science, had no existence. To Werner belongs, in the first place, the merit of introducing a nicer discrimination in the examination of simple minerals, and of inventing an appropriate language by which they might be described and distinguished, previous to which mineralogical science was quite in its infancy. And, in the second place, to him also belongs the chief merit, not merely of distinguishing and giving names to rocks, but of accurately marking out both the grand distinctions of primary, transition, and floetz classes, and the various principal formations of which those classes consist. If then it be the glory of the Saxon to have laid the broad foundations of the edifice, let that of the Briton and Frank be to complete the structure. 1822.] Extracts from the “ Journal of a Survey,” &c. 99 ARTICLE I]. Extracts pon the “ Journal of a Survey to explore the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.” By Capt. J. A. Hodgson, 10th Reg. Native Infantry. (Concluded from p. 52.) A sharp peak across the river; call it the pyramid. Height above the 20,966 feet. A rock on the great snowy bed, over which we are to pass, roved to be distant 9044 feet, and its height above this place 984 feet, the angle of elevation being 6° 15’, which is the general inclination of the snow bed; as our progress was continued far beyond this rock, it will easily be imagined that the crest or summit of the bed, then distant five or more miles by estimation, must have considerable elevation. We had brought very few followers onwards from Gangotri, but here we sent back every one we could possibly dispense with, that our small stock of grain might subsist the remainder, who were a few trusty fellows (Mussulmans), two Gore’ha Sipa- his, and a few Coolies, for two days, or three, if possible, in the event of our being able to get over the snow in front. And I sent orders to the people at Gangotri to leave grain there if they had any to spare, and if they did not hear of any supply coming from Reital, to make the best of their way back till they met it, and then to halt for us, and send some on to us. Having made all the arrangements we could on the important head of supplies, and made observations, we had leisure to admire the very singular scenery around us, of which it is impos- sible to give an adequate description. The dazzling brilliancy of the snow was rendered more strik- ing by its contrast with the dark blue colour of the sky, which is caused by the thinness of the air; and at night, the stars shone with a lustre which they have not in a denser atmosphere. It was curious too to see them, when rising, appear like one sudden flash, as they emerged from behind the bright snowy summits close to us, and their disappearance, when setting behind the peaks, was as sudden as we generally observed it to be in their occultations by the moon. We were surrounded by gigantic peaks entirely cased in snow, and almost beyond the regions of animal and vegetable life, and an awful silence prevailed, except when broken by the thunder- ing peals of falling avalanches. Nothing met our eyes resem- bling the scenery in the haunts of men; by moonlight, all appeared cold, wild, and stupendous, and a Pagan might aptly imagine the place a fit abode for GemOns, We did not see even H 2 100 Extracts from the “ Journal of a Survey to explore [Ave. bears, or musk deer, or eagles, or any living creature, except some small birds. To form an idea of the imposing appearance of a snowy peak, as seen here under an angle of elevation of nearly 33°, and when its distance is not quite three miles, and yet its height is 8052 feet above the station, one should reflect that if even when viewed from the plains of Hindustan, at angles of elevation of one, and one and a half degree, these peaks towering over many intermediate ranges of mountains, inspire the mind with ideas of the grandeur, even at so great a distance : how much more must they do so when their whole bulk, cased in snow from the base to the summit, at once fills the eye. It falls to the lot of few to contemplate so magnificent an object as a snow clad peak rising to the height of upwards of a mile and a half, at the short hori- zontal distance of only 23 miles. May 31.—Along, and above the right bank of the river, rocks and snow. Descent to the bed of the river, enclosed by rocks. A most wonderful scene. The B’hagirat’hi or Ganges issues from under a very low arch at the foot of the grand snow bed. The river is here bounded to the right and left by high snow and rocks ; but in front over the debouche, the mass of snow is per- fectly perpendicular, and from the bed of the stream to the sum- mit, we estimate the thickness at little less than 300 feet of solid frozen snow, probably the accumulation of ages ; it is in layers of some feet thick, each seemingly the remains of a fall of a separate year. From the brow of this curious wall of snow, and immediately above the outlet of the stream, large and hoar icicles depend ; they are formed by the freezing of the melted snow water of the top of the bed, for in the middle of the day, the sun is powerful, and the water produced by its action falls over this place in cascade, but is frozen at night. The Gangotri Brahmin who came with us, and who is only an illiterate moun- taineer, observed, that he thought these icicles must be Maha- déva’s hair, from whence, as he understood it is written in the Shastra, the Ganges flows. I mention this, thinking it a good idea, but the man had never heard of such a place as actually existing, nor had he, or any other person to his knowledge, ever been here. In modern times they may not, but Hindus of research may formerly have been here, and if so, I cannot think of any place to which they might more aptly give the name of a Cow’s Mouth than to this extraordinary Debouche. The height of the arch of snow is only sufficient to let the stream flow under it. Blocks of snow were falling about us, so there was little time to do more here than to measure the size of the stream. Measured by a chain, the mean breadth was 27 feet. The greatest depth at that place being knee deep, or 18 inches, but more generally a foot deep, and rather less just at the edges, say 9 or 10 inches ; however, call the mean depth 15 inches. Believ- 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna,” 101 ing this to be (as I have every reason to suppose it is) the first appearance of the famous and true Ganges in day-light, saluted her with a bugle march, and proceeded (having to turn a little back to gain an oblique path) to the top of the snow bed ; having ascended it to the lett. Pretty strong ascent up to the inclined bed of snow. This vast collection of snow is about 1+ mile in width, filling up the whole space between the feet of the peaks to the right and left: we can see its surface forward to the extent of four or five miles, or more, to where it is bounded on the left by the feet of the Four Saints, and to the right by snow spurs from other mountains beyond Mount Moira. These last spurs rather overtop the feet of the Saints, and to them, and to the place where we judge there is a ridge, is all ascent over snow. Ascent of the same kind ; generally, acclivity 7°, but we pass over small hollows in the snow, caused by its irregular subsiding. A very dangerous place; the snow stuck full of rubbish, and rocks imbedded in it. Many rents in the snow appear to have been recently made, their sides shrinking and falling in. A man sunk into the snow, and was got out not without some delay. The bed of the Ganges is to the right, but quite concealed by the snow. In high hope of getting on to what may be at the top of the acclivity, we have come on cheerly over the hollow and treache- rous compound of snow and rubbish, but now with bitter regret, we both agree that to go on is impossible. The sun is melting the snow on all sides, and its surface, will not bear us any longer. I have sunk up to my neck as well as others. The surface is more and more ragged, and broken into chasms, rifts, and ravines, of snow with steep sides. Ponds of water form in the bottoms of these, and the large and deep pools at the bottoms of the snow hollows, and which were in the earlier part of the day frozen, are now liquid. It is evident from the falling in of the sides of the rents in the snow, that there are hollows below, and that we stand on a treacherous foundation. It is one o’clock, and the scene full of anxiety and awe. The avalanches fall from Mount Moira with the noise of thunder, and we fear our unsteady sup- port may be shaken by the shocks, and that we may sink with it. And here we were obliged to return! Had it been possible to have got across the chasms in the snow, we would have made every exertion, so anxious were we to get forward; but onward, their sides were so steep, and they appeared of such great depth, that I do not think it would be possible to pass them (this year at least), even if the snow was not as at this hour soft, and the bottoms of the chasms filling with water. Be that as it may, they are now utterly impassable. At this season snow must fall here whenever it rains below, so that it does not acquire such hardness at the top as it does on the avalanches we have hitherto passed, where no new snow at present falls. We now set out on 102 Extracts from the “ Journal of a Survey to explore (Ave. our return, and not too soon, as we found ; for the snow was so soft, and the increase of the water so great, that though we went with the utmost expedition, it was only by 21 hours’ hard labour of wading and floundering in the snow, and scrambling among rocks, where they would give a footing, that we reached the turf, tired and bruised with falls, and the skin taken off from our faces and hands by the sun and drying wind of these elevated regions. It now remains to give some account of this bed or valley of snow, which gives rise to the Ganges. It appears that we pass- ed up it, somewhat more than a mile and a half. From our last station, we could see onwards as we estimated about five miles to where there seemed to be a crest or ridge of considerable elevation, though low when compared with the great peak which flanked it. The general slope of the surface of the snow valley was 7°, which was the angle of elevation of the crest, while that of the peak of St. George, one of those which flanked it to the left, was 17° 49’. In the space we had passed over the snow bed, the Ganges was not to be seen; it was concealed probably many hundred feet below the surface. We had a fair view onward, and there was no sign of the river; and I am firmly convinced that its first appearance in day is at the debouche I have described. Perhaps indeed some of those various chasms and rents in the snow bed which intersect it in all sort of irregular directions, may occasionally let in the light on some part of the bed of the stream, but the general line and direction of it could only be guessed at, as it is altogether here far below the broken snowy surface. The breadth of the snow valley or bed is about a mile and a half, and its length may be six and a half miles, or seven miles from the debouche of the river to the summit of the slope, which terminated our view: as to the depth of the snow, it is impossible to form a correct judgment, but it must be very sae It may easily be imagined that a large supply of water is urnished at this season by the melting of this vast mass in the valley, as well as by the melting of that of the great peaks which bound it. From their bases torrents rush, which, cutting their way under snow, tend to the centre of the valley, and form the young Ganges, which is further augmented by the waters which filter through the rents of the snow bed itself. In this manner, all the Himalaya rivers, whose heads I have visited and passed over, are formed ; they all issue in a full stream from under thick beds of snow, and differ from the Ganges in as much as their streams are less, and so are their parent snows. On our return down the snow valley, we passed nearer to its north side than in going up, and saw a very considerable torrent cutting under it from the peaks ; this was making its way to the centre: at times we saw it through rents in the snow, and at others only heard its noise, As there must be several more such feeders, they will be fully sufficient to form such a stream, as we observed the 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.” 103 Ganges to be at the debouche in the space of six or seven miles. I am fully satisfied that if we could have gone further that we should not have again seen the river, and that its appearance at Mahadéva’s hair, or whatever we may choose to call it, was the real and first debouche of the B’hagiratt’hi. All I regret is that we could not go to the ridge to see what was beyond it. I sus- pect there must be a descent, but over long and impassable wastes of snow, and not in such a direction as would lead direct to any plains, as the course to bring one to such plains would be to the north-east or north, whereas the line of the river’s course, or rather of the ridge in front, was to the south-east, parallel to the run of the Himalaya, which is generally from SE to NW. Immediately in front of the ridge, no peaks were seen, but on its south-east flank, and at the distance of about 18 miles, a large snowy peak appeared, so that I think there can be no plain within a considerable distance of the south-east side of the ridge: if there be streams from its other side, they must flow to the south-east. After all, [ do not know how we should have existed, if we had been able to go to the ridge, for we could not have arrived there before night ; and to pass the night on these extensive snows, without firewood or shelter, would have cost some of us our lives, but of that we did not then consider much Gf we could have gone, we would). We had only a few trusty men with us, and a short allowance of grain for them, for this and the following day, and had sent orders to the people left at Gangotri to make their way back towards Reital, leaving us what grain could be spared, and to forward what they might meet, as I expected some from Reital, from whence we were supplied during our absence from it of altogether 28 days. I cannot suppose that by this way, there can be any practicable or useful pass to the Tartarian districts, or doubtless the people would have found it out, and used it, as they do that up the course of the Jahnavi. While I give it as my opinion, that under any circumstances the crossing of the ridge must be difficult, I would by no means wish to be understood to assert that I think it impossible under more favourable circumstances, and in a year when less snow has fallen than in the present; but I seriously declare, that situated as we were, it was not possible for us to go ie than we did, and that it was with great difficulty we ot back. : It is now to be considered, if the supplies of water produced as above described, are sufficient to form a stream of 27 feet wide, and 15 inches (mean depth) at the debouche. It has been stated that at Gangotri, the breadth of the river on the 20th of May was 43 feet, and its depth 18 inches. The distance thence to the debouche was 22,620 paces, which I reckon about 11 British miles. In that space, it received some supplies, as mentioned in the notes, but they were not abundant. Thus the quantity of water is diminished nearly one half; but it is to be 104 Extracts.from the “ Journal of a Survey to explore [Avuc. remembered that on our return to Gangotri on the 2d of June, the bulk of the river was considered as being doubled, it being two feet deep, and also much wider, so that on the 3lst May, we may suppose it to have been 21 inches deep, and perhaps 48 feet wide at Gangotri. It is with this mean size that the comparison of the difference of its bulk at Gangotri and the debouche must be made; the proportion thus is, that the body or quantity of water would be at Gangotri almost treble to that at the debouche; but allowing it to be only double in this J1 miles, it will be evident that in five or six miles further, there can be little or no water in the bed under the snow, and conse- quently that the most remote rill which contributes under the snow to the first formation of the Ganges cannot be more dis- tant than the ridge; so I think it may be allowed that such first formation is on the hither side of the ridge, and not at any lake, or more distant place beyond it. Indeed considering the large supphes which the snow valley furnishes, I rather wonder that the stream was not larger, when I measured it at the debouche. Whether there are any boiling springs under the snow as at Jumnotri I do not know, but sup- pose there are not, as I did not see any smoke ; a steam, how- ever, there may be, and the steam may be condensed ere it can appear. Iimagine that the season of the rains would be in one respect the most proper to attempt the passage of the great snow bed; it may at that time be reduced in thickness ; but I have no idea that it ever melts away ; yet in the rains it perhaps will not be possible to ford the river above Gangotri, which must fre- quently be done, if the smaller avalanches on which we very frequently crossed it are melted. In the rains also there must be greater hazard from the falling of the rocks and slips of the mountain, for the melting snow forms many rills which under- mine the rocks, and set them loose, and it is not possible to avoid a large fall of the mountain’s side, if one should unfortu- nately be in the line of its direction when it comes down. I have preserved specimens of the rocks of which these peaks are composed ; also of the different sorts of pines which grow at their basis. Above Suc’hi and Jhala, the country is not inha- bited, nor is it habitable beyond those places, except at the small village of Durali, which is now deserted. Tuwarra, Suc’hi, and Jhala, are very small and ruinous villages. Reital is a pretty good village of about 25 houses, as is Salung, and there are two or three more in that neighbourhood. I found the inhabitants civil and obedient. The people of Rowaen are in general much inferior in appear- ance to those of Jubul and Sirmour, and the more western moun- tains ; indeed, with few exceptions, they are an ugly race both. men and women, and extremely dirty in their persons. ‘They complain much of the incursions of the banditti from the western parts of Rowaen and Busahir, who carry off their sheep in the 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.” 105 rains; but from what I can learn, they in turn plunder their eastern neighbours of the Cédar-nat’h districts, and they pride themselves on the long journeys they make in their sheep stealing expeditions. The proper time for those incursions is the latter end of the rains, when the snow in the defiles is much reduced. The women have not here, as to the westward, a plurality of husbands. I saw no fire arms among the inhabitants, nor swords or war hatchets ; their weapons are bows and arrows, The climate of Reital is at this season very pleasant, and the price of grain is not high, but it is not abundant. The corn is cut in the beginning of June. No volcanos were seen or heard of in these mountains, whose composition is granite of various kinds and colours. No shells or animal remains were seen. ‘The magnetic variation was small, and differing little, if at all, from what it is on the plains of the upper provinces ; it is from 40’ to 1° and 2° according to differ- ent needles, and is easterly, by which I mean that the variation must be added to the magnetic azimuth. The diurnal small changes in the barometer were perceptible, the mercury always falling a little before noon as in the plains. Having received new thermometers from Calcutta, both lon and short, I found that they gave the same boiling point, but the thermometer I had last year in Busahir, &c. showed the boiling point 2° or 23° below the new ones. I always suspected the thermometer, but had not then a better. It boiled in the Panwei pass in the Kunaur and Busahir snowy mountains at 188° at m camp a little above the lower line of snow on the 24th June last, so that it should have been 190°, or 22° lower than at the sea side. Bears abound in the higher mountains ; also the goorul or boorul, an animal between the deer and goat, and the pheir, a larger animal of the same kind. I have preserved the skin, horns, and bones, of the head of one shot near Jumnotri. Near the villages where snow lies a great part of the year, there are abundance of the Monaul pheasants and chakors. In the lower mountains there are black partridges, and tigers, leopards, and bears, I never saw any snakes in the cooler regions. _ It was remarked above, that the snow on the great bed was stuck as it were with rock and rubbish in such a manner as that the stones and large pieces of rock are supported in the snow, and sink as it sks ; as they are at such a distance from the -peaks as to preclude the idea that they could have rolled down to their present places, except their sharp points had been covered, it appears most likely that the very weighty falls of snow which there must be here in the winter bring down with them pieces of rock in the same manner as a larger snow ball would collect gravel, and carry it on with it in its course. Masses of snow falling from the high peaks which bound the snow bed, if they chanced to collect more, and to take a rounded form, would have a prodigious impulse, and might roll to the 106 Extracts from the “ Journal of a Survey to explore (Aue. ‘centre of the snow valley, loaded with the pieces of rock they had involved. It is not very easy to account for the deep rents which inter- ‘sect this snow bed, without supposing it to be full of hollow places. Itstruck us that the late earthquakes might have occa- sioned some of the rents. I never saw them before on other snow beds, except at Jumnotri, where they are occasioned by the steam of the extensive range of boiling springs there ; per- haps there may be such springs here also: they are frequent in the Himalaya, and one might suppose they were a provision of nature to insure a supply of water to the heads of the great rivers in the winter, when the sun can have little power of melting the snow above those deep recesses. I will now proceed to give some account of the course of the river Jumna within the mountains, and of its spring at Jumnotri, which I also visited this year. The above remarks respecting the Ganges haying already swelled this paper to too great a bulk, I will make those regarding the Jumna in as few words as possible. In the maps published 10 years ago, the Jumna is Jaid down as having a very long course from the latitude of 341°; from what authority it is difficult to guess, for much as has been surmised and written respecting the head of the Ganges, I can- not find any accounts of that of the Jumna. It was not known until the year 1814, that the Jumna, properly so called, was a comparatively small river above its junction with the Tonse in the Din, and I believe the existence of the latter river, though fully treble the size of the Jumna, was unknown to Europeans. The junction of the Tonse and Jumna takes place at the NW. end of the Din valley, in latitude 30° 30’, where the large river loses its name in that of the small one, and the united stream is called the Jumna. The course of the Jumna from Jumnotri, which is in latitude 30° 59’, being generally 8S. 50° W. Itis fordable above the confluence, but the Tonse is not. Not having visited the sources of the Tonse, I am not certain whether it rises within the Himalaya, as the B’hagiratt’hi does, or at its SW. or exterior base, like the Jumna; but the latter I believe to be the case. I apprehend that three consider- able streams which, like the Jumna, originate from the south faces of the Himalaya, in the districts of Barasa, Leulowari, and Deodara Kowarra, join to form the Tonse; and it receives a considerable accession of water from the Paber river, which I imagine to be equal in size to any of the three above-mentioned feeders. Respecting them, | have at present only native inform- ation to guide me, but of the Paber, I can speak with more con- fidence; for when, in June, 1816, I penetrated within the Himalaya by the course of the Setlej, 1 found that the north bases of many of the snowy peaks seen from the plains of Hin- dustan, were washed by that river. Its course, in the province of Kunauw, in latitude 31° 31’, and longitude 78° 18’, being from 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.” 107 east 25 S, to 25 to the N. of west. In this position, the Setlej is bounded both to the N, and 8. by high and rugged snowy mountains, from which many torrents descend, and increase its bulk, Leaving the left bank and bed of the river, I ascended the snowy range, of which it washes the north base, and crossed over it on the 21st June, 1816, at 40 minutes past 11 o’clock in the forenoon, during a heavy fall of snow, being the first Euro- pean who effected a passage over the grand Himalaya ridge in that direction. On surmounting the crest of the pass, I found that the Indra- yati river, which is a principal branch of the Paber, originated from the snows, on which I descended on the SW. or hither side of the ridge; and I followed its channel to the place where it joins the Paber, which river must have its beginning, in like manner, on the same side of the ridge, as I was informed by the people of the country it had, and | am nearly certain it is the case; and it is most probable that all the streams which form the Tonse do, in like manner, descend from the SW. side of the fronting snowy range, the NE. base of which is washed by the Setlej, as above-mentioned. However, I intend to explore the sources of th2 Tonse, as well as of the Setle} and Jahnavi rivers. But to return to the Jumna. The route from its confluence with the Tonse in the Din is thus; to Calsi four miles, a large village immediately within the mountains of Jaunsar, of which district it is esteemed the capital. It is situated between two high and steep mountains, and on the Omla, a small river which joins the Jumna. Calsi is a place of some little trade, as the people of the neighbouring mountains bring to it their productions, and exchange them for cash to pay their rents, and a very small quantity of the produce of the plains. On the march, the Jumna is forded above its confluence with the Tonse. Carriage cattle may go to Cals, but further within the mountains every article is carried on men’s backs. Latitude of Calsi, 30° 31’ 24”. Six thousand paces of exceedingly steep ascent of the moun- tain on left bank of the Omla; 2600 paces easier to the village of Khuny on the ridge ; remainder, along the mountain’s side, with occasional ascent and descents to the foot of the peak of ' Birat, which rises conically above the ridge ; 1800 paces of the steep ascent up it to the fort, which is a small double enclosure. It was abandoned by the Gorc’ha garrison on the approach of a force under Col. Carpenter. The height of Birat above Seharanpur (which is visible from it) is 6508 feet ; it commands a noble view of the snowy moun- tains and the various intermediate ranges, as well as of the Dun. valley, and the plains on both sides of the Jumna. Invalids from the plains requiring a change of climate may find it at Birat. In the winter the fort is almost buried in snow, 108 Extracts from the “ Journal of a Survey to explore [Avt. which remains in shady places, and on the northern side of the peak till the beginning of April ; but snow seldom falls later than the last week of March, at which season, while I was in the fort, there was a shower which covered the ground to the depth of two inches: the peak is a bare slaty rock, with some quartz intermixed. March 29, 1817.—Narrow path along the mountain’s side; then a steep descent of 2 m. 1 f. to Murlang, a small village in a glen on the Silgad rivulet, which falls into the Jumna three miles to the E. No grain here. Latitude observed 30° 36’ 53”. Thermometer at noon 78°. It was yesterday at noon at Birat, 50°. Proceed 21 miles down the bed of the Silgad to the Jumna ; then leave it, and cross a ridge, and go up the bed of the Jumna to the confluence of the Cunti river, which joins it from the Keinah peak to the west. That river is about 60 feet wide, and 14 and 2 feet deep. The Jumna is 90 feet wide, 3 to 5 feet deep, rapid, and not fordable. The rest of the path is a long ascent of the mountain, above the right bank of the Jumna to Cot’ha, a village of 10 houses, about 3000 feet above the level of the river. A fatiguing march; heavy rain. No grain here. The path lies generally along the side of the mountain, with occasional strong ascents and descents ; 1 m. 5f. of very steep descent into a dell, the rest lighter descent, flat and ascent from a rivulet to Lak’ha Mandal, on the right bank of the Jumna, and about 300 feet above it. Lak’ha Mandal is a place of some celebrity in Hindu story, as having been one of the temporary residences of the Pandus; and tradition says, that formerly there were a great number of statues and temples here, but I imagine the greater part to have been buried by the slip of the side of the mountain at the foot of which it is situated. Several pieces of cornices, entablatures, and other ornamental fragments of buildings, are seen projecting above the soil, which buries the remainder; they are of black stone, and the carving of the ornaments is very well executed. There are also two statues of Bhim and Arjun of the size of life, which are half buried im the soil; and a prodigious number of small idols are deposited in a little temple, which is the only one now remaining, and which does not appear to be of any remote antiquity. The ignorant Brahmin could give no account of the builder; he declared, as they all do, when consulted on such subjects, that it is not of human workmanship, but was built by Bhim countless ages ago. It does not appear that pilgrims now resort here; the place is nearly desolate ; it is surrounded by high rocky peaks, and may have been chosen as a fit seat for gloomy and recluse super- stition. - Within the temple there is a large slab of blue stone inscribed with Hindu characters; I cleaned it, and took off a reversed 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.” 109 impression as well as circumstances would allow, and sent it to Col. Mackenzie. Latitude of Lak’ha Mandal, 30° 43’ 24”. Gradual descent 14 mile to the Ricnar river, which. is the boundary between Sirmor and the Rewaen district of Gurhwal. It has a course of about 10 miles from the NW. and joins the Jumna here. From the river, a very strong ascent of 11 mile up the mountain to a crest called Genda Ghat; there obliquing to Bancauli, a village of 20 houses, with a temple; it is on the mountain’s side, and about 3000 feet above the Jumna. No grain to be had here as at other places. I planted potatoes. Rainy weather. No latitude. To the bed of the Jumna 3m. 3 f. mostly oblique descent, though steep in some places above the right bank of the river. Here: are very high and steep precipices, from which large blocks of granite have fallen into the bed of the river, which forces its way through and over those obstructions with much violence and noise. After passing over the rocks by the river side for half a mile, we leave it, and climb the right bank by an exceedingly steep ascent to the Tocm Ghati, which overhangs the stream, and is about 1000 feet above it. Hence descend a mile to the Camaulda river; cross it on trunks of trees laid across, a little above its junction with the Jumna. The Camaulda is the largest river which the Jumna receives above the confluence of the Tonse; its course is from N. 10° west, down the Rama Serai district, which is a small valley, and is reported to be in some places a mile wide, but it is now over- run with jungles, full of wild beasts. The Camaulda, now swollen. by the rain, is about 70 feet wide and 21 feet deep, and very rapid. Immediately on crossing it, the country up the Jumna assumes a more pleasing appearance; the mountains which _ bound it, though very lofty, do not rise so abruptly, and several _ small villages are seen on their lower slopes. On the right bank of the river, there is a slip of level ground from 300 to 500 yards _ wide. The summits of the mountains are covered by cedars and other pines, and the snow yet lies on them. Proceed by the river side to Paunti, a village of 20 houses, _ pleasantly situated about 400 feet above the Jumna. The march was long and fatiguing, as it rained the whole way ; the loaded people did not arrive till after dark. At this village I got supplies of grain. The country I have passed through from Calsi is nearly deserted, on account of famine caused by the crops of last year having been destroyed by the hail in October. Aware of this circumstance, I have brought grain with me from Calsi, and subsisted my followers with it. Latitude of Paunti, 30° 48” 08”. Two and a quarter miles parallel to the Jumna, and descend to its bed, where the stream from the Banaul glen joins it. Leave ‘the Jumna, and proceed three miles NW. up the Banaul river. _ Then ascend the south face of the mountain to Gira, a village of 110 Extracts from the “ Journal of a Survey to explore (Ave. 10 large houses pleasantly situated, and sheltered from the northern blasts. This district of Banaul is about seven miles in length ; the NW. end is closed by a high rocky mountain, where the stream arises, which waters the bottom of the glen. Several villages are seen placed in advantageous situations on the sides of the mountains, the soil of which is fertile; wood, water, and grain are abundant. As I learned that much snow yet remained on my route for- ward, I halted here some days, to give it time to melt, and to refresh my people who were harassed by the journey from Calsi, for it had rained every day, and they had been sparingly and ill fed, and also to take the rates ofmy chronometers. 1 took two immersions of Jupiter’s satellites : Latitude of Gira, 30° 52’ 08”. Gira to Thanno ; total distance eight miles. Down the north side of the glen, and pass the villages of Bisat and Devah to Dakiat, a large village, 4 m. 6 f. Proceed parallel to the Jumna, but above it, 1 m. 6 f. and descend to the Badal river, which comes from a glen similar to that of Banal, but is longer, and contains more and larger villages. The river joins the Jumna here; it comes from the Cédara Canta, a large mountain covered with snow, and its course is from N. 15° west; breadth about 40 feet; depth 14 and 2 feet. Proceed 14 mile further to Thanno, a small village, 400 feet above the right bank of the Jumna. The road to day chiefly on a gradual descent ; path good and pleasant. The Jumnotri snowy peaks seen up the river, have a noble appearance ; the eastern peak bears 56° 17’ N&.; its alti- tude 8°16’. Thanno appears to be 4083 feet above the level of Seharanpur. Latitude observed 30° 49’ 12”. Thanno to Catnaur; total distance 4 m. 2 f. Steep descent to the Jumna, and cross it on a sangha, which consists of three small spars and some twigs bound together, and laid across in the manner of a hurdle. Thesangha is in two portions, being laid from rock to rock ; one is nine paces in length, and the other seven, the breadth of the river being about 40 feet; but it is deep, being confined between the rocks, through which it falls like a cataract. The water nearly touches the bridge, which is a bad one. Some of my goats fell through it, and were drowned. Above this place, the bed of the Jumnais much inclined ; the stream bounds from rock to rock, and for the most part is a series of small cataracts. A mile beyond the sangha, cross the S’ilba, a small river from the glen of that name, and proceed to Catnaur,.a small village 500 feet above the left bank of the Jumna. Up the S’ilba glen is a convenient pass over the ridge, which separates the Ganges and Jumna. The path to day chiefly ascent and descent, and very rough and steep in most places; and hence forward the features of the mountains bear a harsher appearance, there being generally 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.” 111 mural precipices rising from the bed of the Jumna to the height of 1500 to 2000 feet, either on one side or the other. The sum- mits of the mountains all round are deep in snow. A stream from a peak called Dallia Cursu joins the Jumna here from the: SE. Latitude observed 30° 51’ 35”. As no grain was to be had here, I was obliged to march in the afternoon to a very large village called Pali, situated up a wild glen ; this was a good deal out of my route. The inhabi- tants of Pali and the neighbouring villages have been noted for a rebellious spirit against both the Gur’hwal and Gore’ha governments. They had cut off several parties of the Raja’s troops, and surprised and destroyed a complete company of Gore’has several years ago, for which they were punished by a force sent against them under the brave chief B’hacti T’hapa. On my arrival, they refused to sell me any supplies, and I: expected to have had trouble. However, towards evening, we came to a better understanding, and I got abundance of grain. The village consists of about 50 large houses; the inhabitants are stout and hard featured, and the women generally have light complexions, and agreeable countenances. In. the morn- ing I went down the glen 1+ mile, and then along the right bank of the Jumna, but high above it, by a difficult and very unplea- sant pathway overhanging it. In one place I was obliged to go with great caution, and bare footed, for a false step would be fatal. The precipices on the opposite side of the river are quite perpendicular, and on this exceedingly steep. After passing the worst part, descend to Oj’ha Ghur, a hamlet of three huts only, in a dismal situation, at the feet of steep and lofty cliffs, the rocks hurled from: which by the earthquake of 1803, buried a small fort and village which once stood here. Dreadful memen- tos are seen in these mountains of the effects of that catastrophe. Under Oj’ha Ghur, a stream falis into the Jumna, and several cataracts are seen falling among the surrounding precipices. There are some hot springs at the bed of the Jumna which is. 400 feet below the hamlet. Latitude observed 30° 54’ 47”. Oj’ha Gur to Rana ; total distance 4 m. 5 f. In paces 91°815. 2655 paces along the mountain’s side, and descent to the Jumna. Cross it on a sangha of two small spars; its length 20 feet; breadth about 21 feet. The river rushes with great vio- lence under the sangha, and nearly touches it. The general breadth of the stream is greater, but it is here confined between two rocks. 1200 paces by the margin of the river; the rest, for the most part, ascent, and in some places very steep and rugged. Rana is a small village of 15 houses, about 800 feet above the left bank of the river on the slope of the mountain ; the general lower line of snow on it does not appear to be more than 1000. feet above the village. The opposite bank of the river is com- posed of yellow granite precipices rising murally from the stream 112 Extracts from the “‘ Journal of a Survey to explore [Ave. to the height of about 2500 feet or more. The courses of the rock are disposed almost horizontally as high as 1000 feet above the river; but, towards the summits, they appear to incline in an angle of about 35°, the apex being to the SW. Heavy storms of hail and thunder. Rana to Bannasa; distance 7839 paces. Ascents and descents to the small village of Bari 2356 paces; 684 paces further descent to the Burha Ganga river, which has a course of about eight miles from the snows to the right; it is in two streams, each eight paces wide, and 18 inches deep, and joins the Jumna; 1480 paces of exceedingly steep ascent; the remainder, ascents and descents, and difficult road. Cross the Jumna on a sangha, and also the Bannasa river, which is about two-thirds of its size, and joins it here. Ascent to Bannasa, a small village, at the foot of arocky mountain, a fall from which last year destroyed half the village. Angle of altitude of the mountain, 40° 55’. Among the cliffs and on the summit, I observed with a telescope many of a species of animal peculiar to these elevated regions ; it is called Pheir, and as a moun- taineer in my service succeeded, after many toilsome chases, in shooting one of them, I can give a description ofits dimensions. Feet. In. Length from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail, the length of the face 11 inches, and of the tail, Oo MUCHES OWN cet crams sls sailas ses Cape ve pte va steep MY Height from shoulder to toe. ............06: o antas. a oot AGE ALINE CHERL , acess ae 'en so ts pats. sae APM c= tye Girth at the loins ....... ibe boinis ters aietae a oe) diene «tere 2 4 Length of the hair at the shoulders, eight inches, but on the other parts of the body it is short. I preserved the skin and the bones of the head and horns, and presented them to the Most Noble the Governor-General, who, I believe, sent them to Sir Joseph Banks. The face of the animal, which was a male, resembles that of the Nil Gao. The horns are large, the lower part of them stands nearly erect from the forehead, but the upper half bends backward. The hoofs, cloven. The colour, that of a camel or lion, and the long hair about the shoulders and neck somewhat resembles a lion’s mane. The flesh appeared coarse, and an unpleasant musky smell exhaled fromit. The Hindustanis would not touch it, but the Gorc’ha Sipahis, and mountaineer Coolies ate it with avidity. It is remarkable that those people will not eat mutton. The Pheir is a gregarious animal, and appears to subsist on the short herbage at the edge of the snow. The chase of it in its haunts on the cliffs and precipices is most diffi- cult and dangerous; but in the depth of winter when the snow drives them down to the villages, the people hunt and kill them more easily. 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.” 133 In this neighbourhood springs of hot water are very nume- rous; they are seen bubbling up among the rocks in various laces near the rivers. The heat of the water is too great to bear the hand in it for many moments; but having broken my long scaled thermometer, I could not ascertain its precise tem- perature. The water has little if any taste. About half a mile above its junction with the Jumna, the Bannasa river falls from a precipice of yellow and rose-coloured granite, of 80 or 90 feet high, in a noble cascade. The breadth of the stream is about 15 feet, and it falls, with much noise, into a deep basin, which it has worn in the rock. The stream is caused by the melting of the snows on the heights above. i From the village, two of the Jumnotri peaks appear towering above the clouds with sublime efiect. Angle of altitude (taken by reflection in mercury) of the east peak, 15° 34’ 45”, of the west, 17° 10’ 10”. Bannasa.—Longitude of Bannasa, 5° 13” 47-9”. The beginning of twilight made the observation not so good as it would have otherwise been. Lat. observed, 30°55’ 50”. This is not a good latitude. The weather was cloudy and stormy, with showers of sleet. Bannasa to Cursali; thermometer at sunrise, 33°. Descend to the Jumna, and cross it on a plank 12} feet long, and again on a plank of 10 feet; depth of the water 24 feet; beds of frozen snow extend to the margin of the stream. A most laborious and steep ascent of 675 paces, whence gradually descend, and cross the Jumna on a small sangha, where it receives the Imri rivulet from the snow, whence it originates, about 11 mile to the end. It is less than the Jumna, which is now reduced to the rank of a rivulet. Strong ascent to the vil- lage of Cursali. Total distance 4978 paces. Stormy weather and very cold; driving showers of sleet and rain; path bad andslippery. —, The viilage of Cursali contains about 25 substantial houses, and is situated at the immediate feet of the Jumnotri snowy eaks ; but they are not visible, as the near and steep part of the ase obstructs the view. The situation is very peculiar, and one would hardly suppose that people should choose to live in such aremote and cold place. [tis the latter end of April, and yet daily slight showers of snow fall, and the remains of drifts yet lie in shaded places in the village. By the sides of the [mn and Jumna, there are several spots of flat ground on which the inhabitants cultivate grain enough for their subsistence. To the west, north, and east. this little secluded place is bounded b the lofty cliffs of the Himalaya ; and to the south it is sheltered by a mountain, the north face of which is not so steep, and it is clothed with trees. All those are at present deep in_snow, which reaches down to the level of the two streams ; yet I found New Series, you. 1v. I 114 Extracts from the “Journal of a Swvey to explore [Avc. the place by no means an uncomfortable abode, for the heights near it shelter it from the violence of the winds. The sun is ‘pleasantly warm in the middle of the day, and the progress of * vegetation is rapid in proportion to the length of the winter. The rocky and snowy defile called Jumnotri, where the Junma originates, is seen in the direction of N. 42° east. Distant three miles. Latitude of Cursali, 30° 57’ 19”. During three days I attempted to get some sets of lunar distances, and also transits of the moon over the meridian, but was constantly prevented by clouds from doing any thing satis- factorily. Cursali to Jumnotri. Flat along the village fields: here climb a steep rocky corner above the river’s bed. Jumnotri nearly 41°30’. Chia mountain, over which there is a pass to Suc’hi on the Ganges, practicable in the rains (at present, it is blocked up by deep snow). Steep descent through snow | to 5 feet deep; then flat. Fields. Shght acclivity; snow patches. Abundance of pheasants here, chiefly of the kind called Monal. . Rough and rocky: descend. to the Jumna, which in several et flows under beds of snow 25 or 30 feet thick. An over- anging precipice to the right. A torrent called the Bandiali, half the size of the Jumha, joins it from a cleft in the rock, and is the first tribute it receives. The path to this station entirely through snow ; cross the river twice, once on the stones, and once onasnowarch. _ At Bhairo Ghati. The crest of one of the steepest ascents (for its length) I ever saw; it is entirely up the snow, in which we cut steps with p*haoras (spades) to facilitate our passage. There is here a place dedicated to Bhairo Lal, who is esteemed to be the Janitor of Jumnotri and Gangotri. It is nothing more than a low building (if it may be so called) of three feet high, containing some small iron tridents. I hung a new English silver coin by a copper ring on one of them. Exceedingly steep descent to the Jumna by steps cut in the snow. A cascade of the stream cuts through the snow, and falls from a rock of the height of about 50 feet. Stiff ascent up the snow bed, which conceals the river. Except here, where the stream is visible for a few yards through a hole in the snow, the snow bed is about 100 yards wide, and bounded by high precipices, from which masses of rock of 40 feet in length have recently fallen. River as before under the snow: here it appears through a deep hole faliing in a cascade from the rock below the ‘snow. Rocks on both sides, those to the right cased with ice. At Jumnotri, the snow which covers and conceals the stream is about 60 yards wide, and is bounded to the right and left by mural precipices of granite ; it is 40 feet 51 inches thick, and has * fallen from the precipices above. In front, at the distance’ of 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.” 115 about 500 yards, part of the base of the great Jumnotri moun- tain rises abruptly cased in snow and ice, and shutting up and totally terminating the head of this detile, in which the Jumna originates. I was able to measure the thickness of the bed of snow over the stream very exactly by means of a plumb line let down through one of the holes in it, which are caused by the steam of a great number of boiling springs which are at the bor- der of the Jumna. The snow is very solid and hard frozen; but ‘we found means to descend through it to the Jumna by an exceedingly steep and narrow dark hole made by the steam, and witnessed avery extraordinary scene, for which I was indebted to the earliness of the season, and unusual quantity of snow which has fallen this year. When! got footing at the stream (here only a large pace wide), it was some time before I could discern any thing, on account of the darkness of the place, made more so by the thick steam; but having some white lights with me, I fired them, and by their glare was able to see and admire the curious domes of snow overhead ; these are caused by the hot steam melting the snow over it. Some of these excavations are very spacious, resembling vaulted roofs of marble ; and the snow as it melts falls in showers, like heavy rain, to the stream, ‘which appears to owe its origin in a great measure to these sup- plies. Having only a short scaled thermometer with me, I could not ascertain the precise heat of the spring, but it was too hot to bear the finger in for more than two seconds, and must be near the boiling point. Rice boiled in it but imperfectly. The range of springs is very extensive, but I could not visit them all, as the rest are in dark recesses and snow caverns. The water of them rises up with great ebullition through crevices of the granite rock, and deposits a ferruginous sediment, of which I collected some : it is tasteless, and | did not perceive any peculiar smell. From near this place, the line of the course of the Jumna is erceptible downward to near Lak’ha Mandal, and is 55° 40° W. It will be seen by the notes that from the place called Bhaira Ghati, the bed of the river is overlaid with snow to the “depth of from 15 to 40 feet, except at one or two places, where it shows itselfthrough deep holes in the snow. The snow bed is bounded to the right and left by mural preci- op of light coloured granite : on some ledges there is a sprink- ing of soil where the b’hojpatra bushes grow. The end of this dell or defile is closed, as before observed, by part of the base of the great snowy mountain of Jumnotri, and which is visible from the plains. The altitude of the part of the mountain visible is 29° 48’; but higher parts are concealed by the lower and ‘nearer. The face of the mountain, which is visible to the height of about 4000 feet, is entirely cased in snow and ice, and very steep. The foot of the base is distant from the hot springs ‘about 500 yards, and immediately where the ascent becomes Ie 116 Extracts from the “ Journal of a Survey to explore [Auc. abrupt, a small vill is seen falling from a rock which projects from the snow; itis about three feet wide, and shallow, being only a shower of spray produced by the snow now thawing in the sun’s rays at noon. Above that no water whatever is seen; if there were any, it would be visible, as the whole base of the mountain is exposed to view, directly in front; consequently the above rill is the most remote source of the Jumna. At the present season it was not. possible to go to it, as the snow bed was further on ampassable, being intersected by rents and chasms caused by the falling in of the snow, as it melts by the steam of the boiling springs below it. Here then is the head of the Jumna on the SW. side of the grand Himalaya ridge, differing from the Ganges, inasmuch as that river has the upper part of its course within the Himalaya, flowing from the south of east to the north of west; and it is. only from Suc’hi, where it pierces through the Himalaya, that it assumes a course of about 8S. 20° W. The fall of the Jumna from Jumnotri to the Din is very consi- derable. I regret I had not a good barometer to ascertain the height of Jumnotri. I had with me an empty country-made barometer tube with which I endeavoured to gain an approxi- mate idea on the subject. Having warmed and well dried the tube, I filled it gradually with mercury, driving out such air bubbles as were visible, and inverted it in a deep cup of quick- silver, taking care not to remove my finger from the orifice till the lower end of the tube was fairly below the surface of the quicksilver ; the tube was kept in an erect position by means of a plumb line. The length of the column was 20°40 inches, which, corrected for temperature, gives 10,483 feet for the height of Jumnotri above the sea, taking 30-04 inches for the level of the sea. The above is only a rude experiment, but I had not the means of making a better; the length of the column may be depended on to the 20th part of an inch, I think, but the probable impurity of the mercury may cause an error of 200, or, perhaps, 300 feet. Near noon, I took a short set of circum-meridional altitudes of the'sun for the latitude. Mean latitude of the hot springs of Jumnotri, 30° 58’ 52:1”. The latitude of the small fall or rill, which may more properly be calied the head of the Jumna, will be 30° 59” 06”. April 21.—Having finished my observations by two o’clock, I set out to return; the heat of the sun had then begun to melt the snow on the cliffs on both sides, and many rocks and lumps of snow were falling down: this obliged us to run with all speed down the snow bed to get out of the way of these missiles. Several of the people had narrow escapes from the falling frag- ments, but no one was struck. The inhabitants of Cursali say, that it is 17 years since they 1822.] the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna.” lit had so severe a winter asthe last. At Jumnotri, the inclination of the granite rock is from 43° to 45° from the horizon; the apex being to the SW. or towards the plains. As the season was not sufficiently advanced to allow of my passing to the Ganges by the Chia or Cilsaum mountains, both of which are at present impassable from the depth of snow on them, I returned to Catnaur, and going up the Shialba glen, crossed the ridge, which divides the two rivers at the Jackent Ghat, and descended by Bauna to Barahat, from whence I pro- ceeded up the Ganges to Reital, and continued my route beyond Gangotri, as before mentioned. I shortly hope to be able to present to the Society the resul€ of my trigonometrical operations to determine the heights and positions of all the peaks of the Himalaya visible from Seharan-. pur, and also an account of the sources of the Tonse and Jahnavi rivers, and of the upper part of the course of the Setlej. ARTICLE III. Ona New Lead Ore. By H.1. Brooke, Esq. FRS. & FLS. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, July 6, 1822. Tue third volume of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal contains a notice from me of three varieties of lead ore which had not been before accurately described. I have now to add a fourth, of which only a very slight account has been given by Mr. Sowerby in the third volume of his Brit. Min. p. 5, under the name of blue carbonate of copper. It is only within a few days that I have had an opportunity of examining this substance. The specimens I have seen, as well as that figured by Mr. Sowerby, were found at Wanloch Head or Lead Hills. The facility with which this species may be cleaved, the bril- liancy of the cleavage planes, and the angle at which those planes incline to each other were indications that the substance was not carbonate of copper; and it appears on examination to be a compound of sulphate of lead and hydrate of copper, and may be denominated cupreous sulphate of lead. The colour resembles the brightest specimens of blue carbon- ate of copper. Specific gravity about 5:3, but as the specimens I possess are ‘not perfectly free from included particles of carbonate of lead and of cupreous sulphato-carbonate of lead, it is probable that the specitic gravity of more perfect specimens may differ ina 118 Mr. Brooke on a New Lead Ore. [Aus. small degree from that which I have given. A fragment of 1-4 grain, which is more transparent than the general mass of the substance, has indicated a specific gravity of 5°43. It scratches sulphate, but is scratched by carbonate of lead. For the purpose of enabling me to describe the crystalline form more accurately than I could have done from my own spe- cimens, Mr. Sowerby has favoured me with a couple of small crystals whose form is rudely represented by the annexed hastily drawn figure. The cleavages are parallel to the planes M and T. That parallel to M may be effected almost by pressure between the fingers. I have not observed any trans- verse cleavage, but as the plane P is at right angles to M and T, and as the plane M does not meet the planes 0’ and T at the same angle, the primary form may be regarded as a right prism whose base is an oblique angled parallelogram. The measurements are as follows, the letters b’, a’, T’, and M’, being placed above the edges of the planes to which they relate: Mom. 25 Wicty . acid Need 102° 457 TRE HOO GRACE <3 -- 104 50 Ce Pi aes vee koh es 120 30 FT Nees eee ne es 90 0O Lin BE HARB POR Wea SO 161 30 WO Oni: ter a ae Re ohn tt i Dae Dict x0 etn pm 3 Fs bere e Wile ae 102 45 SG, NSM rene v's whe eke Sen eee oR > "G If we suppose the plane 6 to result from a decrement by one row on the acute lateral edge of the prism, the terminal edge of the plane M would be to that of plane T nearly as 11 to 23, and if the planes c and c’ are produced by a decrement by one row on the terminal edges, the height of the prism will be to the greater terminal edge as 13 to 23 nearly. The specimen I possess is so sinall, and so little of it is, per- fectly pure, that I have not been able to submit more than a few grains to analysis. The result of this has given the following proportions of the constituent parts of the mineral : Dulpnaie q@iaade. ws, .'s dss sis aj voice POP i Onide oljcopper: . a / | 5 ; a = 5 2 TE 77722 be 7.4 Bi Ty —< 2S Se5= ahaa Ae D Section ofthe Cave. L4— 3 : 3 a ace 3. a i \ as S he \ = / Je ji nef Ss ol as > ‘ait = 18 { ~ Ground Plan cf the Cave : : we ony P wards. rte = Tak oY edie ae n SN = 20 Yards. 1822.] Bones discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale, in Yorkshire. 135 are identical with those of the Heddington quarries near Oxford, but its substance is harder and more compact, and more inter- spersed with siliceous matter, forming irregular concretions, beds, and nodules of chert in the limestone, and sometimes entirely penetrating its coralline remains. The most compact beds of this limestone resemble the younger alpine limestone of Meillie- tie and Aigle, in Switzerland, and they alternate with, and pass gradually into, those of a coarser oolitic texture ; and both varie- ties are stratified in beds from one to four feet thick. The cave is situated in one of the compact beds which lies between two others of the coarser oolitic variety; the latter vary in colour from light-yellow to blue; the compact beds are of a dark grey passing to black, are extremely fetid, and full of corals and spines of the echinus cidaris. The compact portions of this oolite partake of the property common to compact limestones of all ages and formations, of being perforated by irregular holes and caverns intersecting them in all directions ; the cause of these cavities has never been satisfactorily ascertained : into this uestion (which is one of considerable difficulty in geology) it is oreign to my present purpose to inquire any further than to state that they were neither produced, enlarged, or diminished by the presence of the animals whose bones we now find in them. The abundance of such caverns in the limestone of the vici- nity of Kirkdale is evident from the fact of the engulphment of several of the rivers above enumerated in the course of their passage across it from the eastern moorlands to the vale of Pick- ering ; and it is important to observe that the elevation of the Kirkdale cave, above the bed of the Hodge Beck, exceeding 100 feet, excludes the possibility of our attributing the muddy sedi- ment we shall find it to contain, to any land flood or extraordi- nary rise of the waters of that or any other now existing river. It was not till the summer of 1821 that the existence of any animal remains, or of the cavern containing them, had been sus- pected. At this time, in continuing the operations of a large quarry along the brow of the slope justmentioned (Pl. XIV. fig. 1), the workmen accidentally intersected the mouth of a long hole or cavern, closed externally with rubbish, and overgrown with grass and bushes. As this rubbish was removed before any competent person had examined it, it is not certain whether it was composed of diluvial gravel and rolled pebbles, or was sim- ply the debris that had fallen from the softer portions of the strata that lay above it; the workmen, however, who removed it, and some gentlemen who sawit, assured me, that it was com- posed of gravel and sand. In the interior of the cave there was not a single rolled pebble, nor one bone, or fragment of bone, that bears the slightest mark of having been rolled by the action of water. A few bits of limestone and roundish concretions of 436 Rev. Mr. Buckland’s Account of Fossil Teeth and [Ave. schert that had fallen from the roof and sides, were the only zocky fragments that occurred, with the exception of stalactite. About 30 feet of the outer extremity of the cave have now been removed, and the present entrance is a hole in the perpen- dicular face of the quarry less than five feet square, which it is only possible for a man to enter on his hands and knees, and which expands and contracts itself irregularly from two to seven feet in breadth and height, diminishing, however, as it roceeds into the interior of the hill. The cave is about 15 or 90 feet below the incumbent field, the surface of which is nearly Jevel, and parallel to the stratification of the limestone, and to the bottom of the cave. Its main direction is ESE. but deviat- ing from a straight line by several zigzags to the right and left (Pl. XLV. fig. 3); its greatest length is from 150 to 200 feet. In its interior it divides into several smaller passages, the extent of which has not been ascertained. In its course it is intersected by some vertical fissures, one of which is curvilinear, and again returns to the cave; another has never been traced to its termi- nation; while the outer extremity of a third is probably seen im a crevice or fissure that appears on the face of the quarry, and which closes upwards before it leaves the body of the limestone. By removing the sediment and stalactite that now obstruct the smaller passages, a further advance in them may be rendered practicable. ‘The half corroded fragments of corals, of spines of echini and other organic remains, and the curious ledges of lime- stone and nodules of chert that project along the sides and roof of the cave, together with the small grooves and pits that cover great part of its interior, show that there was a time when its dimensions were less than at present; though they fail to prove by what cause it was originally produced. ‘There are but two or three places in which it is possible to stand upright, and these are where the cavern is intersected by the fissures ; the latter of which continue open upwards to the height only of a few feet, when they gradually close, and terminate in the body of the limestone: they are thickly lined with stalactite, and are attended by no fault or slip of either of their sides. Both the roof and floor, for many yards from the entrance, are composed of horizontal strata of limestone, uninterrupted by the slightest appearance of fissure, fracture, or stony rubbish of any kind ; but further in, the roof and sides become irregularly arched, presenting a very rugged and grotesque appearance, and being studded with pendent and roundish masses of chert and stalac- tite ; the bottom of the cavern is visible only near the entrance ; and its irregularities, though apparently not great, have been filled up throughout to a nearly level surface, by the introduc- tion of a bed of mud or sediment, the history of which, and also of the stalactite, I shall presently describe. (See Plate XIV. fig. 2.) , 1822.) Bones discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale, in Yorkshire. 137 The fact already mentioned of the engulphment of the Rical Beck, and other adjacent rivers, as they cross the limestone, showing it to abound with many similar cavities to those at Kirkdale, renders it likely that hereafter similar deposits of bones may be discovered in this same neighbourhood ; but accident alone can lead to such discovery, as it is probable the mouths of these caverns are buried under diluvian sand and gravel, or post- diluvian detritus ; so that nothing but their casual intersection by some artificial operations will lead to the knowledge of their existence ; and in this circumstance we also see a reason why so few caverns of this kind have hitherto been discovered, although it is probable that many such may exist. In all these cases, the bones found in caverns are never mine- ralised, but simply in the state of grave bones, or incrusted by stalactite; and have no further connection with the rocks them- selves than that arising from the accident of having been lodged in their cavities at periods long subsequent to the formation and consolidation of the strata in which these cavities occur. On entering the cave at Kirkdale (see Pl. XIV. fig. 2), the first thing we observe is a sediment of mud, covering entirely its whole bottom to the average depth of about a foot, and entirely covering and concealing the subjacent rock, or actual floor of the cavern. Not a particle of mud is found attached either to the sides or roof; nor is there a trace of it adhering to the sides or upper portions of the transverse fissures, or any thing to suggest the idea that it entered through them. The surface of this sediment, when the cave was first entered, was nearly smooth and level, except in those parts where its regula- rity had been broken by the accumulation of stalagmite above it, or rufiled by the dripping of water: its substance is argilla- ceous and slightly micaceous loam, composed of such minute particles as would easily be suspended im muddy water, and mixed with much calcareous matter, that seems to have been derived in part from the dripping of the roof, and in part from comminuted bones. Above this mud, on advancing some way into the cave, the roof and sides are seen to be partially studded and cased over with a coating of stalactite, which is most abundant in those parts where the transverse fissures occur, but in small quantity where the rock is compact and devoid of fissures. Thus far it resembles the stalactite of ordinary caverns; but on tracing it downwards to the surface of the mud, it was there found to turn off at right angles from the sides of the cave, and form above the mud a plate or crust, shooting across like ice on the surface of water, orcream on a panof milk. (See Pl. XIV. fig. 2.) The thickness and quantity of this crust varied with that found on the roof and sides, beg most abundant, and covering the mud entirely where there was much statactite on the sides, and more scanty in those places where the roof presented but little : in 188 Rev. Mr. Buckland’s Account of Fosstl Teeth and [Avey many parts it was totally wanting both on the roof and surface of the mud and subjacent floor. Great portion of this crust had been destroyed in digging up the mud to extract the bones; it still remaimed, however, projecting partially in some few places along the sides; and in one or two, where it was very thick, it formed, when I visited the cave, a continuous bridge over the mud entirely across from one side to the other. In the outer portion of the cave, there was a mass of this kind which had been accumulated so high as to obstruct the passage, so that a man could not enter tiil it had been dug away. These horizontal incrustations have been formed by the water which, trickling down the sides, was forced to ooze off laterally as soon as it came into contact with the mud; in other parts, where it fell in drops from the roof, stalagmitic accumulations have been raised on its surface, some of which are very large, but more commonly they are of the size and shape of a cow’s pap, a name which the workmen have applied to them. There is no alternation of mud with any repeated beds of stalactite, but simply a partial deposit of the latter on the floor beneath it; and it was chiefly in the lower part of the sediment above described, and in the stalagmitic matter beneath it, that the animal remains were found : its substance contains no black earth or admixture of animal matter, except an infinity of extremely minute particles of undecomposed bone. In the whole extent of the cave, only a very few large bones have been discovered that are tolerably perfect; most of them are broken into small angular fragments and chips, the greater part of which lay separately in the mud, while others were wholly or partially invested with stalactite ; and some of the latter united with masses of still smaller frag- ments, and cemented by the stalactite, so as to form an osseous breccia, of which I have specimens. The effect of this mud in preserving the bones from decompo- sition has been very remarkable ; some that had lain along time before its introduction were in various stages of decomposition ; but even in these, the further progress of decay appears to have been arrested by it; and in the greater number, little or no destruction of their form, and scarcely any of their substance, has taken place. I have found on immersing fragments of these bones in an acid till the phosphate and carbonate of lime were removed, that nearly the whole of their original gelatine has been preserved. Analogous cases of the preservative powers of diluvial mud occur on the coast of Essex, near Walton, and at Lawford, near Rugby, in Warwickshire. Here the bones of the same species of elephant, rhinoceros, and other diluvial animals occur in a state of freshness and freedom from decay, nearly equal to those in the cave at Kirkdale, and this from the same cause, viz, their having been protected from the access of atmo- spheric air, or the percolation of water, by the argillaceous matrix in which they have been imbedded ; while similar bones 1822.] Bones discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale,in Yorkshire. 139 that have lain the same length of time in diluvial sand, or gravel, and been subject to the constant percolation of water, have lost their compactness and strength and great part of their gelatine, and are often ready to fall to pieces on the slightest touch; and this where beds of clay and gravel occur alternating in the same quarry, as at Lawford. The workmen on first discovering the bones at Kirkdale, sup- posed them to have belonged to cattle that died by a murrain in this district a few years ago, and they were for some time neg- lected, and thrown on the roads with the common limestone ; they were at length noticed by Mr. Harrison, a medical gentle- man of Kirby Moorside, and-have since been collected and dispersed among so many individuals, that it is probable nearly all the specimens will in a few years be lost, with the exception of such as may be deposited in public collections. By the kind- ness and liberality of the Bishop of Oxford (to whom I am also indebted for my first information of the discovery of this cave), end of C. Duncombe, Esq. and Lady Charlotte Duncombe, of Duncombe Park, a nearly complete series of the teeth of all these animals has been presented to the Museum at Oxford ; while a still better collection both of teeth and bones is in the possession of J. Gibson, Esq. of Stratford, in Essex, to whose exertions we owe the preservation of many valuable specimens, and who is about to present a series of them to our public collec- tions in London. W. Salmond, Esq. also, since I visited Kirk- dale in December last, has been engaged with much zeal and activity in measuring and exploring new branches of the cave, and making large collections of the teeth and bones, from which I understand he also intends to enrich our public cabinets in the metropolis. 1am indebted to him for the annexed ground plan of the cave, and its ramifications (P]. XIV. fig. 3).* Draw- ings by Mr. Clift, of some of the most perfect of Mr. Gibson’s specimens, have been sent to M. Cuvier, for the new edition of his work on fossil animals; copies of these have beer made for me by Miss Morland, and appear in the annexed plates, with many other drawings, for which I am indebted to the pencil of Miss Duncombe ; and the Rev. George Young, and Mr. Bird, of Whitby, in their History of the Geology of the coast of York- shire, have given engravings of some teeth that remain in their possession. It appears that the teeth and bones which have as yet been * Plan of the cavedrawn and measured by W. Salmond, Esq. The figures within the lines express the width of the cave in feet and inches, those outside its height. Both these have been enlarged by removing stones to obtain a passage. A. Original slope of the hill. B. Rubbish filling the mouth of the cave. C. Original entrance of solid rock. D. Portion of cave destroyed by quarrying. E. Present entrance of cave. 140 Rev. Mr. Buckland’s Account of Fossii Teeth and [Ave. discovered in the cave at Kirkdale, are referable to the follow- ng 22 species of animals. 7 Carnivora.—Hyena, tiger, bear, wolf, fox, weasel, and an unknown animal of the size of a wolf. 4 Pachydermata.—Elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and horse. . 4 Ruminantia.— Ox, and three species of deer, 3 Rodentia.—Rabbit, water-rat, and mouse. 4 Birds.—Raven, pigeon, lark, and a small species of duck, resembling the anas sponsor, or summer duck. The bottom of the cave, on first removing the mud, was found to be strewed all overlike a dog kennel, from one end to the other, with hundreds of teeth and bones, or rather broken and splintered fragments of bones, of all the animals above enume- rated; they were found in greatest quantity near its mouth, simply because its area in this part was most capacious ; those of the larger animals, elephant, rhinoceros, &c. were found co-extensively with all the rest, even in the inmost and smallest recesses (see Pl. XIV. fig. 3). Scarcely a single bone has escaped fracture, with the exception of the astragalus, and other hard and solid bones of the tarsus and carpus joints, and of the toes. Onsome of the bones marks may be traced, which, on applying one to the other, appear exactly to fit the form of the canine teeth of the hyena that occur in the caye. The hyenas’ bones have been broken, and apparently gnawed equally with those of the other animals. Heaps of small splinters, and highly comminuted, yet angular fragments of bone, mixed with teeth of all the varieties of animals above enumerated, lay in the bottom of the den, occasionally adhering together by stalactite, and forming, as has been before mentioned, an osseous breccia. Many insulated fragments also are wholly or partially enveloped with stalactite, both externally and internally. Not one skull is to be found entire; and it is so rare to find a large bone of any kind thathas not been more or Jess broken, that there is no hope of obtaining materials for the construction of any thing like a ske- leton. The jaw bones also, even of the hyenas, are broken like the rest; and in the case of all the animals, the number of teeth and of solid bones of the tarsus and carpus, is more than twenty times as great as could have been supplied by the individuals whose other bones we find mixed with them. Fragments of jaw bones are by no means common: the greatest number | saw belong to the deer, hyzena, and water- rat, and retain their teeth; in all the jaws both teeth and bone are in an equal high state of preservation, and show that their fracture has been the effect of violence, and not of natural decay. I have seen but 10 fragments of deers’ jaws, and about 40 of hyenas’ (see Pl. XV. fig. 2, 3), and. as many of rats. The ordi- nary fate of the jaw bones, as of all the rest, appears to have been to be broken to pieces. ' oo NS Plate XV. Fage 140 1822.] Bones discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale, in Yorkshire. 141 The greatest number of teeth are those of hyznas, and the ruminantia. Mr. Gibson alone collected more than 300 canine teeth of the hyena, which at the least must have belonged to 75 individuals, and they are in the same proportion in other col- lections. The only remains that have been found of the tiger species are two large canine teeth, each four inches in length, and one molar tooth, exceeding in size that of the largest hon or Bengal tiger. There is one tusk only of a bear which exactly resembles those of the extinct ursus speleus of the caves of Germany, the size of which M. Cuvier says must have equalled that of a large horse. Of the wolf and fox there are many teeth, and others belonging to an animal which I cannot ascertain: it seems to have been nearly allied to the wolf, but the teeth are rauch thinner, and less strong. A few jaws and teeth have also been found belonging to the weasel. Teeth of the larger pachy- dermatous animals are not abundant. I have information of about 10 elephants’ teeth, but of no tusk; and as very few of these teeth exceed three inches in their longest diameter, they must have belonged to very young animals. I have seen but six molar teeth of the hippopotamus, and a few fragments of its canine and incisor teeth ; some of which latter are in the pos- session of Mr. Thorpe, of York. Teeth of the rhinoceros are not so rare. I have seen 40 or 50, and some of them extremely large ones, and apparently from aged animals. I have heard of only two or three teeth belonging to the horse. Of the teeth of deer there are at least three species, the smallest being very nearly of the size and form of those of a fallow deer, the largest agreeing in size, but differing in form from those of the modern elk; and a third being of an intermediate size, and approaching that of a large stag or red deer. I have not ascertained how many species there are of ox, but apparently there are at least two. But the teeth, which occur perhaps in greatest abundance, are those of the water-rat ; for in almost every specimen I have collected or seen of the osseous breccia, there are teeth or broken fragments of the bones of this little animal mixed with, and adhering to the fragments of all the larger bones. These rats may be supposed to have abounded on the edge of the lake, which 1 have shown probably to have existed at that time in this neighbourhood: there are also a few teeth and bones of rabbits and mice. Besides the teeth and bones already described, the cave con- tained also remains of horns of at least two species of deer. One of these resembles the horn of the common stag or red deer, the circumference of the base measuring 93 inches, which is precisely the size of our largest stag. A second measures 73 inches at the same part, and both have two antlers, that rise very near the base. In a smaller species, the lowest antler is 354. inches above the base, the circumference of which is 8 inches. No horns are found entire, but fragments only, and these appa- 142 Rev. Mr. Buckland’s Account of Fossil Teeth and [Ave. rently gnawed to pieces like the bones: their lower extremity nearest the head is that which has generally escaped destruction : and it is a curious fact, that this portion of all the horns I have seen from the cave shows, by the rounded state of the base, that they had fallen off by absorption or necrosis, and been shed from the head on which they grew, and not broken off by violence. : It must already appear probable, from the facts above described, particularly from the comminuted state and appa- rently gnawed condition of the bones, that the cave at Kirkdale was, during a long succession of years, inhabited as a den by hyznas, and that they dragged into its recesses the other animal bodies whose remains are found mixed indiscriminately with their own; and this conjecture is rendered almost certain by the discovery I made, of many small balls of the solid calcareous excrement of an animal that had fed on bones, resembling the substance known in the old Materia Medica by the name of album grecum: its external form is that of a sphere, irregu- larly compressed, as in the feces of sheep, and varying from half an inch to an inch in diameter; its colour is yellowish- white, its fracture is usually earthy and compact, resembling steatite, and sometimes granular; when compact, it is inter- spersed’ with minute cellular cavities : it was at first sight recog- nised by the keeper of the Menagerie at Exeter Change, as resembling both in form and appearance, the feces of the spot- ted or Cape Hyena, which he stated to be greedy of bones, beyond all other beasts under his care. This information I owe to Dr. Wollaston, who has also made an analysis of the sub- stance under discussion, and finds it to be composed of the ingredients that might be expected in fecal matter derived from bones, viz. phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime; and a very small proportion of the triple phosphate of ammonia and mag- nesia; it retains no animal matter, and its originally earthy nature and affinity to bone will account for its perfect state of preservation. . I do not know what more conclusive evidence than this can be added to the facts already enumerated, to show that the hyenas inhabited this cave, and were the agents by which the teeth and bones of the other animals were there collected ; it may be useful, therefore, to consider, in this part of our inquiry, what are the habits of modern byenas, and how far they illus- trate the case before us. The modern hyena (of which there are only three known species, all of them smaller and different from the fossil one) is an inhabitant exclusively of hot climates; the most savage, or striped species, abounds in Abyssinia, Nubia, and the adjacent parts of Africa and Asia. The less ferocious, or spotted one, inhabits the Cape of Good Hope, and lives principally on car- rion. In bony structure the latter approaches more nearly than 1822.] Bones discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale, in Yorkshire. 143 the former to the fossil species: to these M. Cuvier adds a third, the red hyena, which is very rare. The structure of these animals places them in an intermediate class between the cat and dog tribes; not feeding, like the former, almost exclusively on living prey, but like the latter, being greedy also of putrid flesh and bones:* their love of putrid flesh induces them to follow armies, and dig up human bodies from the grave. They inhabit holes which they dig in the earth, and chasms of rocks ; are fierce, and of obsti- nate courage, attacking stronger quadrupeds than themselves, and even repelling lions. Their habit of digging human bodies from the grave, and dragging them to their den, and of accumu- lating around it the bones of all kinds of animals, is thus described by Busbequius, where he is speaking of the Turkish mode of burial in Anatolia, and their custom of laying large stones upon their graves to protect them from the hyznas, « Hyena regionibus iis satis frequens ; sepulchra suffodit, extra- hitque cadavera, portatque ad suam speluncam; juxta quam videre est ingentem cumulum ossium humanorum ‘ veterinario- rum,} et reliquorum omne genus animalium.” (Busbeq. Epist. 1. Leg. Ture.) Brown, also, in his Travelsto Darfur, describes the hyenas’ manner of taking off their prey in the following words :—“ They come in herds of six, eight, and often more, into the villages at night, and carry off with them whatever they are able to master; they will kill dogs and asses even within the enclosure of houses, and fail not to assemble wherever a dead camel or other animal is thrown, which, acting in concert, they sometimes drag to a prodigious distance.” Sparman and Pen- nant mention that a single hyena has been known to carry off a living man or woman in the vicinity of the Cape. The strength of the hyzna’s jaw is such, that in attacking a dog, he begins by biting off his leg at a single snap. The capa- city of his teeth for such an operation is sufficiently obvious from simple inspection, and had long ago attracted the attention of the early naturalists ; and, consistent with this strength of teeth and jaw, is the state of the muscles of his neck, being so full and strong, that in early times this animal was fabled to have but one cervical vertebra. They live by day in dens, and seek their prey by night, having large prominent eyes, adapted, like those of the rat and mouse, for seeing in the dark. To animals of such a class, our cave at Kirkdale would afford a most convenient habitation, and the circumstances we find developed in it are entirely consistent with the habits above enumerated. It appears from the researches of M. Cuvier, that the fossil * It is quite impossible to mistake the jaw of any species of hyana for that of the wolf or tiger kind; the latter having three molar teeth only in the lower jaw, and the former seven: while all the hyzna tribe have four. (See Plate XV. fig. 1, 2, 3.) + Veterinam bestiam jumentum Cato appellavit a vehendo: (quasi yeheterinus vel Veterinus.) Pomp. Fest, 144 Rev. Mr. Buckland’s Account of fossil Teeth and [Ave. hyena was nearly one-third larger than the largest of the modern species ; that is, the striped or Abyssinian; but in the structure of its teeth, more nearly resembled that of the Cape animal. (See Plate XV. fig. 1, 2, 3.) Its muzzle also was shorter and stronger than in either of them, and consequently its bite more powerful. The length of the largest modern hyena noticed is five feet nine inches. The fossil species has been found on the Continent in situa- tions of two kinds, both of them consistent with the circum- stances under which it occurs in Yorkshire, and, on comparing the jaws and teeth of the latter with those of the former engraved in MI. Cuvier’s Recherches sur les Ossements Fossiles, I find them to be absolutely identical. The two situations are caverns and diluvian gravel. 1. In Franconia, a few bones of hyena were found mixed with those of an enormous number of bears, in the cave of Gailen- » reuth. 2. At Muggendorf, in a similar cave. o. At Bauman, in ditto. 4. At Fouvent, near Gray, in the department of Doubes, bones of hyena were found mixed with those of the elephant and horse in a fissure of limestone rock, which, like that at Kirk- dale, was discovered by the accidental digging away of the rock in a garden. 5. At Canstadt, in the valley of the Necker, A. D. 1700, hyenas’ bones were found mixed with those of the elephant, rhinoceros, and horse, and with rolled pebbles, in a mass of yellowish clay. 6. Between Hahldorf and Reiterbuck, on the surface of the hills that bound the -valley of Eichstadt, in Bavaria. These were buried in a bed of sand. The four first of these cases appear to have been dens, like the cave at Kirkdale; the two latter are deposits of diluvian detritus, like the surface gravel beds of England, in which simi- lar remains of all the other animals have been found, excepting hyzenas. {t has been observed when speaking of the den, that the bones of the hyenas are as much broken to pieces as those of the animals that formed their prey ; and hence we must infer that the carcases even of the hyenas themselves were eaten up by their survivors. Whether it be the habit of modern hyenas to devour those of their own species that die in the course of nature ; or under the pressure of extreme hunger to kill and eat the weaker of them, is a point on which it is not easy to obtain positive evidence. Mr. Brown, however, asserts, in his journey to Darfur, “ that it is related of the hyznas, that upon one of them being wounded, his companions instantly tear him to pieces and devour him.” It seems, therefore, in the highest degree probable, that the mangled relics of hyenas that lie indiscrimi- 1822.} Bones discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale, in Yorkshire. 145 nately scattered and equally broken with the bones of other animals in the cave of Kirkdale, were reduced to this state by the agency of the surviving individuals of their own species. A large proportion of the hyzenas’ teeth bear marks of extreme old age, some being abraded to the very sockets, and the majo- rity having lost the upper portion of their coronary part, and having fangs extremely large: these probably died in the den from mere old age: and if we compare the lacerated condition of the bones that accompany them, with the state of the teeth thus worn down to the very stumps, notwithstanding their pro- - digious strength, we find in the latter the obvious instruments: by which the former were thus comminuted. A great number of other teeth appear to have belonged to young hyenas, for the fangs are not developed, and the points and edges of the crown: are not the least worn down. I havea fragment of the jaw of an: hyena which died so young, that the second set of its teeth had uot been protruded, but were in the act of forming within the jaw. Others are in various stages of advancement towards maturity ; and the proportion of these is too great for us to attribute them to animals that may have died in early life from accident or disease. It seems more probable, and the idea is. confirmed by the above statement of Mr. Brown, and by the fact of the hyznas’ bones in the den being gnawed and broken: to pieces equally with the rest, that they were occasionally killed and devoured by the stronger individuals of their own species. But besides the evidence their teeth afford to show that the animals died at various periods of life, they present other appearances (and so likewise do the bones), of having passed through different stages and gradations of: decay, arising from the different length of time they had Jain exposed in the bottom of the den, before the muddy sediment entered, which, since its introduction, has preserved them from further decomposition. This observation applies equally to all the animals. I have por- tions of bone and teeth that are so much decomposed as to be ready to fall to pieces by the slightest touch; these had proba- bly lain a long time unprotected in the bottom of the den; others still older may have entirely perished ; but the majority both of teeth and fragments of bone are in a state of the highest preservation ; and many thousands have been collected and car- ried away since the cave was discovered. In all cases the degree of decay is equal in the teeth and jaw bones, or frag- ments of jaws, to which they are attached. (To be continued.) New Series, vou. 1v. L : 146 Mr. Children on Diaspore. fAve. Articte VIII. On Diaspore. By J.G. Children, Esq. FRS. &c. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) DEAR SIR, British Museum, July 24, 1822. In the third volume (New Series) of the Annals of Philosophy, p- 433, Mr. G. B. Sowerby has published his discovery of a new variety of Diaspore, together with some experiments which I made, at his desire, on a portion of it by the blowpipe, and in the followmg volume, p. 17, your brother, Mr. W. Phillips, with his usual ability, has described the crystalline form of a similar substance in the possession of Mr. S. L. Kent, a fragment of which I have also examined, and am satisfied of its identity with the former. I have subsequently submitted the mineral to a further analy- sis, and, I believe, the results as stated below, are a pretty near approximation to. the: trath, though the quantity on which I operated was necessarily small, notwithstanding Mr. Sowerby’s liberality, who would willingly have furnished me with larger portions of this very rate substance, had I thought it right to consent to the sacrifice. The quantity of water was ascertained by heating the mineral to redness, in which operation pute water only was given off. The heated portion was fused with about eight times its weight of borax, the mass dissolved in’ diluted muriatic acid, and the whole precipitated by carbonate of potassa. The precipitate, well washed, was collected from the filter while in a moist state, and treated with.a solution of pure potassa, which left the oxide of iron untouched; and, lastly, the alumina was separated from the alkali by muriate of ammonia. The use of borax for the fusion of aluminous stones was, I believe, first recommended by Mr. Chenevix, and is the best flux for such minerals that I am acquainted with; but in the subsequent precipitation of the aluniina from its solution in the muriatic acid, by carbonate of potassa, it is necessary to concen- trate the solution by evaporation (for the glass requires a rather large quantity of fluid to dissolve it), or a considerable propor- ‘tion will escape the action of the precipitant, even though boiled. { was nearly led into a serious error by not being aware of this circumstance. It is stated, in Mr. Sowerby’s communication, that the test of boracic acid and iron before the blowpipe gave no trace of the presence of a phosphate in the mineral ; and I equally failed in detecting any, by treating a small portion with soda and silica, in 1822.] Mr. Children on Diaspore. 147 the manner used by Berzelius in his excellent analysis of Wavel- lite. I also made a separate experiment to ascertain if the diaspore contain an alkali, by fusing it with nitrate. of baryta, but of this also I could discover no trace. The result of my analysis conducted as above gave SPIE ere heres 2 eos no sak ce nee 76°06 Protexideotiron }.... |. 3... Mare aires yr Water: saeeteccsresseere rece 14:70 EI OR Pd pale Ta ia ie. i aaa ig? 4 100-00 Perhaps the true proportions may be : Equivalents. ATOM 63... UE. 76:923 = 20 = 360 Protoxide of iron. .... 7°692 = 1= 36 (fe 2 15:385 = s= vB) 100-000 468 Lelievre’s diaspore is accompanied by a dark coloured sub- stance, which has been supposed to be a mere variety of the lighter, but by the following experiment, on a minute portion furnished by Mr. Sowerby, before the blowpipe, that does not appear to be the case. In the matrass, if freed from the true diaspore, the assay does not decrepitate. Its dark brown (almost black) colour becomes rather lighter, and it gives off a large quantity of water. Alone in the forceps it does not fuse. The heated fragment does not brown moistened turmeric paper. With soda, on platina wire, in the oxidating flame, it gives a light opaque dirty brown globule. In the reducing flame, the colour is darker, and somewhat inclining to bottle-green. On platina foil, with soda and nitre, it gives no trace of man- nese. With borax, on platina wire, in the oxidating flame, fuses slowly into a perfectly transparent glass, deep orange-red while hot, fine yellow when cold, and which does not become opaque by flaming. In the reducing flame, the colour of the globule changes to bottle-green. With salt of phosphorus, on the platina wire, in the oxidating flame, it dissolves slowly, but perfectly, into a diaphanous glass of a fine deep orange colour while hot, which, on cooling, becomes lemon-yellow, and when quite cold is colourless. In the reducing flame the assay presents the same phenomena. A portion of the pulverised assay treated with a drop of nitrate of cobalt on charcoal, in the usual manner, gaye a black mass. » Vauquelin’s analysis of Lelievre’s diaspore gave L < 148 Analyses of Books. [Aue. Wianima: ig ateats aid oi dissed ad Be Be Brion.) ii its AES UERR elg bitte: oth «Ohuace Ne Wrater un, sac st) enail uid. ad sie ed quantities that are not reconcileable to equivalent proportions. Yours truly, ? Joun GEORGE CHILDREN. ARTICLE IX. ANALYSES OF Books. Memoirs of the Astronomical Society of London. Vol. I. London. 1822. THOSE anticipations in which we ventured to indulge, when announcing the formation of the Astronomical Society, the con- tents of the present volume have fully justified. The list of its members comprehending names unquestionably the most distin- guished among the scientific, and the well-known zeal of many in the ptfactice of astronomy, gave assurance that numerous valuable communications would soon be presented to it. From the distinction which has been acquired by the artists of this country in the construction of astronomical instruments, it might naturally be expected that practical contributions of this descrip- tion would frequently appear; and accordingly among these memoirs, the first and second convey the results of the ingenious labours of Troughton and Dollond; the former giving “ an account of the repeating circle, and of the altitude and azimuth instrument ; describing their different constructions, the manner of performing their principal adjustments, and how to make observations with them, together with a comparison of their respective advantages ;” and the latter offering “ the descrip- tion of a repeating instrument upon a new construction.” That the repeating circle, introduced for the correction of imperfections in the art of dividing, should not be approved by Mr. Troughton, who has so greatly advanced that art, and still so actively labours to perfect it, cannot occasion any surprize- Even its form and general appearance are objected to by him, for it is stated to be “ of all the instruments subservient to geo- desy and astronomy, the most uncouth and unsightly.” He adds, ‘‘ the whole of the effective parts are placed on one side of its single supporting pillar, and on the other a weight almost equal to the instrument, is placed for the purpose of keeping it in equilibrio. But ugliness is not the worst thing that attends this unavoidable combination ; for it renders the instrument top-heavy, tottering, and weak. In these respects, the azimuth 1822.} Memoirs of the Astronomical Society, Vol. I. 149 circle is very much superior. The whole of its fabric is regular and self-balanced ; the upper circle being supported like a transit upon two columns is thus rendered firm and steady. Respect- ing sightliness, I think the man of taste would, in the different forms it has appeared under, pronounce it agreeable, I dare not say beautiful; and here I may be allowed to remark, that the art of instrument making, as a matter of taste, is far behind many others. In this country indeed at the beginning of the art, instruments were adorned with the flourish of the engraver, chaser, and carver (now long out of fashion) ; but these are not the beauties which 1 mean; those of uniformity of figure and just proportions are alone what I have in view ; and I cannot for a moment think that these are at all inconsistent either with strength or accuracy. Through the whole of this paper, every reader will have seen that I am an advocate for the altitude and azimuth instrument, and } have made no endeavour to conceal it; yet if 1 have said more for it than it deserves, or given to the repeating circle less than its due, it is a thing I am quite uncon- scious of.” How different is the opinion of the celebrated Biot respecting this degraded instrument, the following quotation from the Traité Elementaire d’Astronomie Physique will show : «< Lerreur des divisions est donc comme nulle dans les observa- tions faites au cercle. Il est impossible qu’elle soit aussi rgou- rousement detruite dans les plus grands instrumens s’ils ne sont pas répétiteurs. Jamais l'addresse de Uurtiste ne peut égaler un procédé mathematique.” (Tome 1, chap. xx. p. 278, Edit. Seconde.) Should Mr. Troughton candidly and attentively eruse the elaborate disquisition, entitled, ‘ Description et sages du Cercle repetiteur,” he may be induced to discard the predictions which he has advanced in the concluding paragraphs of his essay. “‘ As it was the rudeness and inaccuracy of divid- ing which brought this instrument into existence, we should think that as the art becomes cultivated, it will fall into disuse. The art in this country is sufficiently advanced to set repeating instruments aside ; and if I am rightly informed, several foreign artists are at this time pursuing the course of its improvement, in which they had for many years been impeded by circum- stances which science could not controul. It is, therefore, my opinion, that as the division of instruments becomes generally improved, so will the repeating circle hasten to its dissolution ; and, perhaps, on accuunt of the great services which in its time it has rendered to astronomy and geodesy, some future age may be induced to chaunt its requiem.” The repeating instrument, of which the construction is described in the second memoir, was finished in Jan. 1819, and is stated by Mr. Dollond to be applicable to all the uses where vertical and horizontal angies are required to be taken. It may be sufli- cient for our present purpose to point out the novelties by which itis distinguished. ‘The first novelty is the transverse or transit 150 Analyses of Books. [Aue. axis. By this construction, the telescope is rendered indepen- dent of the plane of the circle, and by the length of the axis is impelled to move in a truly vertical plane; and by reversing the axis, the line of collimation may be perfectly verified. This, therefore, renders it also a good instrument for observations in right ascension. The second novelty is the application of the two small levels or finders, which afford a very great convenience when repeating zenith distances; as by this application the telescope can be readily placed to those distances each time the instrument is reversed without the aid of a divided circle. There is also a novelty applied to the lantern which will be found extremely convenient. It consists of two plates of brass, having a square hole ineach; these plates are moved in contrary direc- tions by rack and pinion; and by this contrivance the observer is enabled to regulate the light in any proportion that may be required. There is also an entirely new application, which will be extremely advantageous when taking horizontal angles. This is the level which is applied to the principal horizontal circle, and which in every respect answers the purpose of a second teles- cope, while it is much more convenient, as the observer can instantly perceive the least possible motion of the circle without the necessity of changing his position; and if it should be required to take horizontal angles at night, the advantage will be very considerable. There is, lastly, a new appendage which will be found very useful when repeating the verticalangles. It consists of two arms fitted to the lower end of the centre that belongs to the horizontal circle, and has a motion sufliciently tight to keep it at the place to which itis set. When the teles- cope is presented to the object for observation, one of these arms is brought to coincide with a projecting piece in the triangular frame, and when the instrument is turned half round by bringing the other or epposite arm to coincide with the same projecting piece, the object will be again in the field of view of the telescope. In the third memoir, Mr. Francis Baily details “ A Method of fixing a Transit Instrument exactly in the Meridian.” ‘This zealous and distinguished mathematician and astronomer, zecommends, that when the transit instrument is placed nearly in the plane of the meridian, its accurate adjystment should be completed by observing the culmination of any two stars differ- ing from each other considerably in declination. By this method, the necessity of having a building constructed, so as to command an uninterrupted view of the meridian from the northern to the southern horizon is avoided, since it may be successfully prac- tised with portable instruments placed on the.imner side of a window having a range of above 70° in altitude, or on the outer side, where they may be directed even to the zenith. ‘ The stars which should be chosen for the purpose,” Mr. Baily says, «¢ are those which differ at least 50 degrees from each other in declination, but the nearer that difference approaches to 90 2822.| Memoirs of the Astronomical Society, Vol. I. 151 degrees, the more correct will be the results. Their right ascen- sions, on the contrary, must be as near as possible to each other, a circumstance which will moreover prevent the possibility of any error arising from a variation in the rate of the clock during the interval of the observations.” Passing over the mode of computing the useful table of declinations with which the paper concludes, we shall copy one of the two examples of its use and application, and of the mode of operating in such cases: “ On July 1, 1819, { placed my transit instrument nearly in the meri- dian; and in order to ascertain how much it deviated from the true meridian, I observed the two stars y Lyr@ and + Sagittarii. The passage of the former was observed at 18".52’.37”,3, and of the latter at 18" . 56’. 4”,5 siderial time. The apparent right ascensions of those stars on that day were 18" . 52’.9’,8, and 18" . 55’ .389”,7 respectively ; and their declinations were 32°, 27’ N. and 27° . 55S; consequently the operation will stand thus ee OT. Oe | 9,0" Se ee ao aya We == 19). 08. 00,7 Tate ao.” BS apg 99,9 aP e208 .182)6 whence (d T — d R) = — 2”,7. This value being negative, shows that the deviation is to the west: and in order to deter- mine the quantity of the deviation, we must take the sum of the declinations (or the difference of the polar distances) of the two stars, which in this case is equal to 60°. 22’; or for the sake of round numbers, equal to 60°; and the declination of N (or the northern star) is about 32°. Consequently against the number 60, and under the column headed 32°, we shall find 1:39; which, being multiplied by — 2”,7, will give — 3”,75 for the deviation of the instrument in 颢me; and this multiplied by 15 will give — 56”,3 for the deviation in arc westerly.” The importance of micrometers in the practice of astronomical observation is so great, that their improvement has constituted an object of continual interest to the philosophical artist. From this uninterrupted attention, numerous suggestions have arisen ; and the Rev. William Pearson, by his extensive investigations, contained in the fourth, fifth, and sixth memoirs, has contributed im a high degree to the advancement of this valuable appendage to the telescope. To detail a method of measuring small angles that has for its basis that singular property of several crystallized bodies, double refraction, is the purpose of the first of these essays, entitled “‘ On the Doubly-Retracting Property of Rock Crystal, considered as a Pyinciple of Micrometrical Measure- ments when applied to a Telescope.” The ingenious author candidly states, that. the Abbé Rochon, about the year 1783, dis- covered, and first made known, a method of compounding two prisms of rock crystal in such @ manner that any small object seen through them appeared double, and the constant angular 152 Analyses of Books. [Aue. distance thus formed was made the ground-work of a microme- ‘trical telescope. Of this original instrument, not described in any English work, an account is given; and the improvements consequent upon the discoveries of Malus, Arago, and Lenoir, are successively noticed. But before the doubly-refracting prism can be rendered useful in measuring small angles, Dr. Pearson states that the constant angle which it measures, as viewed by the unassisted eye, must be accurately known; and also the magnifying power of the telescope as used with it; foron these data, the accuracy of the measure taken by this method entirely depends. The remainder of the memoir is accordingly devoted to a consideration of these two necessary objects. As « specimen of the manner of con- ducting these investigations, the second method of determining the constant angles of the prisms may be transcribed. ‘“ The prisms were now applied in succession to the small cap at the eye end of the telescope of 45°75 inches, with the view of mea- suring the distance between the centres of the same disc that had been used with the prisms in the cap of the object end. In the first position, all the three spider’s lines were doubled; viz. the horizontal one and the two vertical ones. But turning the cap which held the prism round a little, brought the two images of the horizontal line into one, while it opened the other images or lines wider apart: a little motion given to the screw, however, soon brought the second and third lines into one strong black line, and left the first and fourth more faint, at equal distances to the right and left. In this situation I found I had obtained the measure of the angle wanted ; for the second line of the first image was become coincident -vith the first line of the second image ; and the distance of either of the extreme lines from the strong black one in the middle was the quantity of the measured angle, as indicated by the micrometer. The same thing was done at the other side of the micrometer’s zero, and a mean of the two measures gave the true one without any index error. This process is as simple as accurate. When any prism is screwed into its place, the two images of the horizontal line must first be brought into one strong line, and then the two or four images of the coincident or separated lines (as the case may be) must be brought nicely into three, of which the middle cne will be always much darker than either of the others by reason of there being then two images occupying the place of one. It is indeed astonishing with what degree of precision the small angle of any prism may be taken in this way; and what at first was not suspected, the micrometer indicated the same quantity, to whichever telescope it was thus applied with any prism, or even when it was detached from the telescopes altogether.” Respecting the determination of the magnifying power of the telescope, the second of the objects before alluded to, the follow- ing quotation may suffice: “ Ithas already been said, that if the 1822.] Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. 153 constant angle of any prism be divided by the power of the telescope to which it is applied as a double image‘micrometer at the eye end, the quotient will be the measure of the angle, sub- tended by a line joining the centres of the two images of the objects observed. Therefore if the natural constant angle of any prism be divided by the measure obtained with any given power, the quotient will be that power, the constant angle being a quan- tity always equal to the product of any power by its correspond- ing measure.” (To be continued.) ARTICLE X. Proceedings of Philosophical Socieiies. ROYAL SOCIETY. On the ultimate Analysis of Animal and Vegetable Sub- stances, by Andrew Ure, MD. FRS. = the Analysis of Sea Water, by Alexander Marcet, MD. In this paper, the whole of which was not read, Dr. Marcet shows that the waters of the ocean do not contain mercury, as has been supposed, and that muriate of ammonia is a constant ingredient. ArTIcLe XI. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, AND NOTICES OF SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH SCIENCE. I. Hydriodide of Carbon. In the Philosophical Transactions for 1821, Mr. Faraday described a compound of iodine and olefiant gas, but he had not at that time the means of ascertaining its composition. Since that period he has obtained it in greater quantity, and analyzed it. Four grains were passed in vapour over heated copper in a green glass tube ; iodide of copper was formed, and pure olefiant gas evolved, which amounted to 1-37 cubic inch. As 100 c. i. of olefiant gas weigh about 30°15 grs. 1°37 c. i. will weigh 0413 gr. Now 4 grs. — 0-413 leave 3°587 iodine, and 3°587 : 0°413 :: 117°75 : 13°55 nearly. Now 13°55 is so nearly the number of 2 atoms of olefiant gas that, according to Mr. Faraday, the substance may be considered as composed of 1 atom of iodine...........- BES viecmpusie 11775 2 atoms of olefiant gas. ..... eweee dence 13°4 bee ‘154 Scientific Intelligence. . [Ave. | * 4 4 and is, therefore, analogous in its constitution to the compound of -chlorine and olefiant gas, sometimes called chloric ether.—(Institution Journal.) Il. General Return of Copper raised in Great Britain and Ireland in One Year ending June 30, 1822. Tons Comwallis [NF 2000 Qik Sasso Joab. vada ad 9140 Treland, and sundry parts of England, sold Bt) Swansea. sq ciscleisit« «pee ae tarde 388 ME von s.. 3215 251 WYESEEEDY.- n00e pers rests 2371 249 25263 2042 6] other‘mimes .. vos... es 26862 9591 52125 4433 Produce of the ores, 82 per cent. Average price of copper, 108/. 15s. per ton. III. Attraction of Moisture by Peroxide of Copper. ; According to M. Berzelius, this oxide attracts the humidity of th atmosphere very rapidly: it is reduced so readily in hydrogen gas that if a piece be strongly heated, but not to redness, and put into a bottle of the gas, the oxide takes fire, and is reduced, and water trickles down the sides of the vessel. According to the weight lost in this mode of reduction, peroxide of copper appears to he. composed of GR DER «35 sini ors * sen * 4p SABO Bets 100-0 ORYPER. nates ne ae Be Fee Meteor (AF ta: one 25-272 (Annales de Chimie). 1V. Influence of Green Fruits upon the Air. 1 M. Theodore de Saussure has given the following as the results of his experiments on this subject : ; Green fruits have the same influence as leaves upon the air both in sunshine and darkness ; their action differs only in intensity, which is greatest in the leaves. During the night they cause the oxygen of their atmosphere to disappear, and they replace it by carbonic acid 1822.] Scientific Intelligence. 155 gas, part of which they absorb ; this absorption is generally less in the n air than under a receiver. In the dark they absorb more oxygen, when green, than when they are becoming ripe. During their exposure to the sun, they extricate, either wholly or partially, the oxygen of the carbonic acid they absorb during the night, and leave no trace of this acid in their atmosphere. Several fruits, detached from the plant, thus add oxygen gas to air which contained no carbonic acid. When their vegetation is very feeble or languid, they corrupt the air under all circumstances, but less in the sun than in darkness. Green fruits detached from the plant, and exposed to the succes- sive action of night and the sun, alter the air but little either in purity or volume; the slight variations observable in this respect depend either upon their greater or less power of forming carbonic acid, or upon their composition, which is modified by the degree of their matu- rity ; thus green grapes appear to assimilate a small quantity of the oxy- gen of the carbonic acid which they form in the air that they vegetate in night and day ; while grapes which are nearly ripe, exhibit in their atmosphere entirely during the day, the oxygen of the acid which they produced in darkness. If there be no mistake in this result, which was ‘not strongly marked, but constant in all my experiments, it denotes the passage from the acid to the sweet state, indicating that the acidity of green fruits tends to fix the oxygen gas of the atmosphere, and that this acidity disappears when the fruit imbibes only carbon from the air or carbonic acid. Green fruits decompose, either totally or in part, not enly the car- bonic acid which they have produced during the night, but also that which is artificially added to their atmosphere. When the latter expe- riment is made with watery fruits, and which, such as apples and grapes, evolve the acid gas slowly; they are observed to absorb* in the sun, a much greater portion of gas than an equal quantity of water would do in a similar mixture. They afterwards disengage the oxy- gen of the absorbed acid, and thus appear to form it in their interior. Their power of decomposing carbonic acid becomes weaker as they ripen. apesind vegetation, they absorb the oxygen and hydrogen of water, depriving it of its fluid form. These results are frequently unobserv- able, excepting when the volume of air exceeds that of the fruit 30 or 40 times, and the heating action of the sun is much weakened: if these precautions be neglected, several fruits corrupt the air, even in the sun, by forming carbonic acid with the surrounding oxygen; but still, in the latter case, the mere comparison of their effect in the dark, with that which they produce under the successive influence of night and of the sun, shows that they decompose carbonic acid. The differences of M. Berard’s results and mine are principally derived from the circumstance of his having enclosed the fruits in a space not exceeding six or eight times their volume, which was too small, to prevent their suffering from the proximity or contact of the sides of the receiver heated by the sun. Some succulent plants resist this trial, and my results with the cactus, may have induced this che- * In the sun, the absorption in a mixture of | part of carbonic acid and 20 parts of air is equal to about two-thirds of the yolume of hese fruits. 156 Scientific Intelligence. [Auc. mist to treat fruits by the same process; but several of them require . more careful management, not only than succulent plants, but even ‘than the most delicate leaves. I think also that he ought to have nourished the fruits with a little water; the appearance of freshness which he observed in them after the experiments, might have some foundation if he had been experimenting with leaves which lose their appearance and consistence by the least drying, but it is of little ‘value with respect to thick and fleshy fruits, which may deteriorate and lose weight, without giving any indication by mere inspection. If my remarks have shown a slight error in this single point in the memoir of M. Berard, it is too rich in new and well-observed facts, to haveits value diminished by it.—(Annales de Chimie et de Physique.) V. Chloride of Gold and Sodium. M. Figuier procures this compound in the following manner : Dissolve an ounce of gold in nitro-muriatic acid, evaporate the excess of acid, and dissolve the muriate of gold in eight times its weight of distilled water; to the filtered liquor add a quarter of an ounce of decrepitated common salt, dissolved in four times its weight of water : the mixed solution is to be evaporated until it weighs only four ounces. By cooling, very regular crystals are obtained, which have the form of elongated quadrangular prisms, of a fine orange-yellow colour. No crystals of mere common salt are obtained, which happens, if a larger proportion of it be employed. These crystals are unalterable by exposure to the air. When pow- dered and washed, they do not Jose their colour, which would happen if they were a mere mixture of chloride of sodium and chloride of gold, for the latter is by much the most soluble. This salt was found by analysis to be composed of Chloride of gold ....2...... aNFrws waka 69°3 Chloride ofsodium..........5. 0.004% Repeter lel Waterss cirvk Se hale mde Heke sided eloe 166 100°0 Supposing it to be formed of one atom of chloride of gold, one atom of chloride of scdium, and eight atoms of water, M. Figuier states that its composition would be: Chlovide of gold: o.:\suas dative. dvieawleinn ~ 70:0 Chloride of sodium.......... ales’ bet dehie Gites 13°4 Water: tse acute tax archaea eae srarhte oa eeliGHe 1000 (Ann. de Chimie.) VI. Compound of Hydrogen and Tin. It has been observed by Prof. Kastner, that when tin is dissolved in moderately strong muriatic acid, the hydrogen gas extricated is com- bined with tin, forming stanniuretted hydrogen gas. It has a peculiar and penetrating odour, and when compressed into water is dissolved in considerable quantity; it burns with a blue light, and gives off white fumes of oxide of tin: when passed into a dilute solution of gold, the 1822.] New Scientific Books. 157 powder of cassius is immediately formed, and on this account it is recommended as a test of the presence of minute portions of gold. Bismuth and zinc also are dissolved by hydrogen gas when treated in the above mode. VII. Frauenhofer’s Experiments on the illuminating Power of the Pris- matic Rays. By means of an ingenious photometer, M. Frauenhofer measured, with great care, the illuminating power of the different coloured spaces, and obtained results very different from those usually given. Oneach side of the yellow space, the light varied with very great rapidity, as appears from the following measures : é Intensity of light. At the 22d degree* of the red........... 0°032 At the 34th degree of the red........... 0°094 At the 22d degree of the orange......... 0°64 At the 10th degree of the yellow........ 1°000 At the 42d degree of the yellow. ....... . 0°48 At the 2d degree of the blue.......... Liepll ts W At the 16th degree of the indigo........ 0-031 At the 43d degree of the violet......... 0°0056 The measures here given have no relation to the colours opposite to them, as the colours are mentioned merely to point out the position in Newton’s spectrum, corresponding to thé’ position in Frauenhofer’s spectrum, where the intensity of illumination was measured. The colours in Frauenhofer’s spectrum, indeed, do not correspond with those of Newton.—(Edin. Phil. Jour.) _ ARTICLE XII. NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION, A work on the science of mineralogy is just about to make its ap- pearance in Germany by Mr. Frederick Mohs, Professor of Minera- logy at Freyberg, and will contain the terminology, the rules of the construction of Mr. Mohs’ system, and the nomenclature, the charac- teristic, and the descriptive part of natural history. The whole to be comprised in Two Volumes, 8vo. with plates. An English translation will appear at the same time, made under the inspection of the author, by Mr. Haidinger, who lateiy visited this country in company with Count Brenner. Hogg’s Treatise on the Growth and Culture of the Carnation, Pink, Auricula, Polyanthus, Ranunculus, Tulip, &c. An improved Edition, 1 Vol. 12mo. * The whole length of the spectrum is here supposed to be divided into 360°; the red occupying 45°; the orange 27°, the yellow 48°, the green 60°, the blue 60°, the indigo 40°, and the violet 80°, 158 New Patents. [Ave. JUST PUBLISHED. A Practical Treatise on the Strength of Cast Iron: intended for the Assistance of Engineers, Iron Masters, Architects, &c. Also an Account of some Experiments, with an extensive Table of the Proper- ties of Materials. By Thomas Tredgold, Civil Engineer. 8vo. Four Plates. 12s. A Letter to Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. on the Application of Ma- chinery to the Purpose of calculating and printing Mathematical Tables. By Charles Babbage, Esq. MA. Member of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and Secretary to the Astronomical Society of London. 4to. 1s.6d. Lectures on the Elements of Botany: containing the Descriptive Anatomy of those Organs on which the Growth and Preservation of Vegetables depend. By Anthony Todd Thomson, FLS. MRCS. With Plates and Numerous Wood-Cuts. 8vo. Vol. I. 11. 8s. The Study of Medicine: comprising its Physiology, Pathology, and Practice. By John Mason Good, MD. FRS. Member of the Royal College of Physicians, London, &c. 8vo. 4 large Vols. On the Use and Abuse of Friction, with some Remarks on Motion and Rest, as applicable to the Cure of various Surgical Diseases, and particularly Gout and Rheumatism. By John Bacot, Member of the Royal College of Surgeons, London. 8vo. 2s. sewed. Observations on the Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the Nervous System. By J. Swan, Member of the Royal College of Sur- geons. 8vo. With Nine Plates. 10s. 6d. The Seats and Causes of Diseases investigated by Anatomy; con- taining a great Variety of Dissections, and accompanied with Remarks. By John Baptist Magagni, Chief Professor of Anatomy, and Presi- dent of the University at Padua. Abridged, and elucidated with copious Notes. By W.Cooke, Member of the Royal College of Sur- geons, London. 2 Vols. Thick Svo, 11. 11s, 6d. ARTICLE XIII. NEW PATENTS. H. Septimus, Clapton, Middlesex, merchant, for a bolt or fastening, particularly applicable as a night-bolt.—June 4. W. Huxham, Exeter, iron-founder, for improvements in the con- struction of roofs.—-June 4. H. Colebank, Broughton, in Furness Kirkley Ireleth, Lancashire, tallow-chandler, for an engine for cutting, twisting, and spreading of wicks.—June 4, J. Barton, deputy comptroller of our mint, for a certain process for the application of prismatic colours to the surface of steel and other metals, and using the same in the manufacture of various ornaments. —dJune 4. J. Frost, Finchley, Middlesex, builder, for a new cement or artifi- cial stone.—June 11. W. Feetham, Ludgate-hill, stove-maker, for a certain improvement on shower baths.—June 11. 1822.] Mr Howard’s Meteorological Journal. 159: ArtTIcLe XIV. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE. BaromMeEreR,| THERMOMETER, : Daniell’s hyg. 1822, Wind. | Max. | Min. Evap. |Rain.| at noon. 6th Mon. June 1|S W130°24130°23 Q\S E/30°25|30°24 3| E |30-24|30°23 22 4S E}30-23/30°20 04 5} N_ |30°21/30-20 6IN —_—«E}30:21)30°21 7IN _E|30°21|30°14 siS _E|30°14/29:99 12 oS _-E/30-01|29 99 10/8 —_ E/30°11/3001 asi 20 11| N_ |30-20/30°11 12 121 N_ 130°23/30-20 13| N_ {30:25/30-04 14): S_ |30°04|29°75 091 «17 15) N_ {2992/2075 56 16| E |30°25|29°92 17/8 __E/30-25|30-24 1s} § |30-24130-04 19} N_ |30-04/30°04 20IN _E|30°24|30-04 2iIN _ E)30°24/30-20 22 alS _ E}30-20|30-07 23) Var. |30°07|30:07 2418 W1|30"14/30:07 05 25] W_ |30°14/30-08 26/8 W/1|30-09|30-08 27| N_ |30°12/30-09 28| W_ |30:09'30:05 16 7 29IN W)30-06/30-05 05 - g0lS. - W/30*12/30°05 ai 30°25 The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, inning at 9 A.M. on the day indicated in the first column. A dash denotes that the result is included in the next following observation. 160° Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. [Ave. 1822. REMARKS. Sivth Month.n—1—S. Fine: clear, and very warm. 9, A few drops of rain about six, p.m.: some lightning from 11 to 12, p.m. 10, Fine: a heavy thunder storm in the evening. 11—13. Fine: hot. 14. A shower at three, p,m. 15. Showery. 16. Fine. 17. Cloudy. 18—22. Fine. 23, A slight shower about nine, a.m. with some distant thunder. 24. Fine: a heavy shower about two, p.m. 25—2T. Fine. 28. Cloudy. 29. Fine: cloudy: a heavy shower about 10, p.m. 30, Cloudy and fine. RESULTS. Winds: N, 7; NE,4; E, 2; SE,7; 8,2; SW,4; W,2; NW, 1; Var. 1. Barometer: Mean height For the month........ eialsls(a\pimnlole nas Bielniaslainlete eeeeees 30°19 inches. For the lunar period, ending the 12th........+0ee+4- 30°167 For 14 days, ending the 12th (moon south) .........- 30°187 For 12 days, ending the 24th (moon north). ........ 30:08T Thermometer: Mean height For the month...... o cecleceeiecsisbieasned cescicnlsisioes SES” For the lunar period,..... BE osclcr wocaseccccccccccss 4140 For 30 days, the sun in Gemini ........0ceeeeeeees 62838 Bivaporations <. salons cle ceudes sisi’ selascseeesieds = is caaiebe « Rite sive 4-45 in. Raids 50 Babialclewiske carewy ees cc cRise sefet start os satementad Sloleie sles c ROM *,* Daniell’s Hygrometer for Fifth Month (omitted last month).—\st, 20; 3d, 20; Ath, 13; 6th, 6; 7th, 35 8th, 15; 10th, 3; 11th, 24; 13th, 6; 14th, 18; 15th, 13 16th, 15; 17th, 21; 18th, 15; 20th, 20; QIst, 22; 22d, 10, Laboratory, Stratford, Seventh Month, 12, 1822. R. HOWARD. 1 ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY. - SEPTEMBER, 1822, ARTICLE I : On the Composition of Common Verdigris. By Richard Phillips, FRS, L. & E. &c. _...In the Annals of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 417 (New Series), I. gave an analysis of crystallized verdigris, sometimes, but impro- perly, called distilled verdigris. From the experiments which E detailed, it appears to be a compound of two atoms of acetic acid, one of peroxide of copper, and three of water; or in other a words, of one atom of binacetate of copper combined with three atoms of water of crystallization. : Soon after I had completed that analysis, I began an exami- nation of common verdigris, usually termed subacetate of copper, but some difficulties occurred which induced me to discontinue the experiments. It is well known that when a small quantity of water is added to a fragment of common verdigris, it softens __ and swells by imbibing the water, and if more be added, a blue solution is obtained, while a portion of the verdigris remains undissolved. It appeared to me at first probable that common. verdigris might be a mixture of binacetate and subacetate of copper; the former dissolving and forming the blue solution, and the latter remaining undissolved. Upon examination, however, I could not find this to be the case, and one circumstance appeared unfavourable to such a supposition. When the verdigris in question is closely.examined, it is found to contain small crys- tals, which, instead of being distinctly formed, and of a green | «colour, as is the case with the binacetate, are acicular, of alight __ blue colour and silky lustre. _*. New, Series, vow. tv. M 162 Mr. Richard Phillips on the [Sepr. In the state in which this compound is usually met with, it is very difficult, on account of its extreme compactness, to deter- mine whether it consists principally of these blue crystals, or whether they are merely mixed with some other acetate, or with hydrate of copper. During a visit to Birmingham in the latter part of last year, Mr. Badams, a manufacturer of both kinds of verdigris, showed me some light blue crystals of acetate of copper, which, he informed me, were common verdigris that had not been subjected to pressure by putting it into bags. Being desirous to ascer- tain the composition of these crystals, Mr. Badams was good enough to supply me with a quantity for analysis, and I shall now state the results of the experiments which I made upon them, and also upon common verdigris. Although these blue crystals appeared to be unbroken, their size was too minute to allow of their form being determined ; they are unalterable by exposure to the air, and so very light that 100 grains, when not pressed together, occupy the space of an ounce of water. When a small quantity of water is added to these crystals, they absorb it, precisely as common verdigris does; to determine the action of a large quantity of water, I put 100 grains. of the crystals into a pint of it, and after occasionally agitating the mixture, the clear solution was poured off. To the insoluble residuum, half a pint of water was added ; it gradually became brown, and at the expiration of three days, it had the appearance of being completely decomposed. It appears then that the blue crystals are separable by water into a soluble acetate, and one which is insoluble, and that the Jatter'is decomposed even by cold water. I now attempted by direct experiment to ascertain the quan- tity of water which these crystals contain. With this view, 100 parts were heated in a platina crucible to the temperature of boiling water. They became of a green colour, and lost 24 arts: as, however, a portion of this loss was evidently derived © rom the expulsion of acetic acid, it was impossible to determine the quantity of water by direct means. To find the quantity of acetic acid, 100 parts of the erystals were boiled in water with lime. Carbonic acid gas which had been previously sent through water, was passed into the filtered solution to precipitate the excess of lime ; the solu- tion, after’ being heated to expel the superfluous carbonie acid, became neutral acetate of lime, and was decomposed by carbonate of soda; the carbonate of lime precipitated, bemg washed and dried, weighed 28°3 parts. This experiment was repeated with ‘but littie variation in the result. To-ascertain the proportion of peroxide of copper, 100 parts of the blue crystals were heated in a platina crucible with dilute nitric acid ; when the nitrate of copper formed was decomposed by a red heat, the peroxide left, weighed 43-2 parts. This 1822.) Composition of Common Verdigris. 163 eexperiment being repeated, using a. flask instead of the cru- cible, 43-3 parts were obtained, giving a mean of 43:25 of per- ~oxide of copper. . According to Dr. Thomson’s latest experiments, the number representing hydrogen being 1, that of acetic acid is 50, and carbonate of lime being also 50, the quantity obtained in the experiments above detailed will indicate that of the acetic acid sin 100 parts of the blue crystals, or 233. per cent. which, being added to 43-25 of peroxide of copper, will give as) the composition of these crystals, PRC CUGACTO pte c's ly staan + ¢ a OL Peroxide of copper... . se eee 45°25 leaving for go a erie MIR, 28°45 100-00 Now an atom of acetic acid being 50, that:of peroxide of copper 80, and of water 9, it will appear that these blue crystals of acetate of copper are by theory composed of In 100 parts, Watomrof'acetic'acid .....20.502. SO Poi ar 1 atom of peroxide of copper...... BO iene ee Oe GeatemsyOl Wael. fay saciiseeneere ® ET eae Ea 184 100-00 Ihave already observed that these crystals are readily decom- posed by water, and its effects upon the salt are sufliciently -marked to merit particular notice; a small quantity of water being added to 100 grains of the crystals, the whole became a pulpy mass. When the water was increased,to a pint, a blue solution was obtained, and a greenish precipitate thrown down. Upon examining this blue solution, it was found to consist of binacetate of copper, and the green precipitate of sub- acetate, composed of one atom of acid and two atoms of oxide. ‘It is, therefore, evident, that in addition to the acetate and bin- acetate of copper already described, there exists a subacetate composed of One atom of acetic.acid . ..........4. 50 Two atoms of peroxide of copper 80 x 2 160 210 When this subacetate was diluted with a further quantity of water, it became, as I have already noticed, quite brown in a few days; but whether it was totally decomposed into per- oxide, or was another subsalt, | have not:examined. Having now ascertained that a compound of one atom of acetic.acid and oxide of copper actually existed, I proceeded to M 2 164 Mr. Richard Phillips on the (Serr. examine whether common verdigris consists entirely of it, or is a mixture of different compounds. For this purpose, I reduced 100 parts of French common ver- digris to powder, and boiled it with excess of lime, filtered the solution, passed carbonic acid through it, decomposed it by car- bonate of soda, and collected the carbonate of lime in the mode already described. The mean of two experiments carefully performed gave 29°3 of carbonate of lime, equivalent to a like quantity of acetic acid. The quantity of oxide of copper was ascertained by boiling 100 parts of the verdigris in dilute sulphuric acid. Two parts of insoluble impurity were left, and the sulphate of copper being decomposed by heating with excess of potash, gave 43:5 of per- oxide of copper. This experiment was repeated without any Hie eae The composition of French verdigris is, therefere, as ollows : Acetic acid. ...... SIRS . 2, Me 29°3 Peroxide of coppet®. Y9d4 0): OE 43°5 Water? bow o eaek ve: SPORES bs 25:2 Insoluble EGELSL: Sg eee SS - 2:0 100°0 ‘That this is the true composition of common verdigris, and that it is essentially composed of the crystals which I have already described, was further proved by subjecting the verdigris manufactured by Mr. Badams, and in its compressed state, to a similar examination. This I found to consist of WAGE MCAT M6 OUP. A, J 20-48 Peroxide of Copper Vs). a AY 44°25 Waterey e2ren PRM art 720, 2A Insoluble matter ...... a aC OL 0°62 100-00 The action of water upon both these specimens of verdigris is perfectly similar to that upon the blue crystals of acetate of copper; indeed, from the following comparative statement, it will appear, except in containing less water, occasioned by artificial drying, that when deprived of insoluble matter, the three sub- stances resemble each other as perfectly as could be expected. Blue crystals, French verdigris. bags > He i Acetic acid. ........ 28°30 oe wee 29'S .wenes 29°62 Peroxide of copper 43°25 ...... 93°D eevee 4429 Water, ...sinisrpinins) sys QOrAD * opi e'g are 20'S. ome ge 25°51 DE DUE Yi ve dems ms poy 0 Os nigeeiss > On 2, eo 100-00 100-0 100-00 Te — SE ST Sy a eo 1822.] Composition of Common Verdigris. 165 M. Chaptal in his “ Chimie appliquée aux Arts,” mentions the silky blue crystals as forming on the surface of the plates of copper in the preparation of French verdigris. As far, however, as my knowledge extends, no analysis of them has yet been given; this is the more remarkable, because the existence of these crystals may be considered as indicative of the perfection of the manufacture. ARTICLE II. Experiments and Calculations for comparing the Force of a Body in Motion with Dead Weight. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) DEAR SIR, Bushey Heath, Stanmore, Aug. 10, 1822. In the last century, a remarkable difference of opinion sub- sisted among philosophers respecting the momentum of bodies. The English and French mathematicians maintained that the momentum was the weight multiplied into the simple velocity. The Dutch, German, and Italian philosophers, on the contrary, - asserted that the momentum was the mass multiplied into the square of the velocity. This controversy appears to have been conducted with a great deal of asperity, and in some instances recourse was had to personal abuse. The experiments to which the disputants appealed in support of their arguments not being satisfactory, has induced me to turn my attention to the subject, and endeavour to contrive an appa- ratus for making a series of experiments less liable to objection. How far this undertaking has been attended with success, is submitted to the readers of the Annals of Philosophy ; but I think I have proved that a moving solid and a dead weight are not incommensurable with each other. It is evident that when a stake is driven into the ground by a beetle, or a pile into the earth with an engine, the wood sinks lower and lower until the resistance it meets with equals the impetus of the impelling power; and then it becomes an accu- rate measure of the momentum of the descending ram. The only difficulty in this investigation consists in finding the resist- ance the pile meets with. To accomplish this purpose, I caused to be made a well-formed spiral spring, and inclosed it in a cylinder of brass. This represents the opposition of the ground to the entrance of the pile. Through the centre of the cylinder and the middle of the inclosed helical spring, was inserted a circular brass rod ; this may be considered as representing the pile to be driven, and was sufficiently long to project beyond each extremity of the 166) Col» Beaufoy on the Force of [Sepr. cylinder, The lower extremity of the rod ran into a smaller cylinder, which was fixed to the larger one containing the spring ;” and this second cylinder had a slit or groove cut in the side; on which was graduated a scale of inches, and parts of aninch. In) this opening slid a vernier, which divided the scale into hun- dredths of an inch, but which was capable of being divided the eye into smaller fractions. The upper part of the rod (but within the larger cylinder) had a shoulder which compressed the spring when forced downwards; at the same time the lower end pushed forward the vernier to mark the degree of compression the spring underwent by the application of an external force. As it was requisite, for reasons hereafter given, that the spring when compressed should be retained in that situation; a notched piece of brass was screwed to the side of the rod, each hollow being rather more than one-tenth ofaninch asunder. Into these notches, or hollows, fell a click, which offered little resistance when the rod was forced downwards ; but effectually prevented its return by the action of the spring upwards. The apparatus rested on three strait and firm, but obliquely placed brass legs, and the upper part of the rod terminated with a circular piece of brass, for the purpose of receiving the impulse of the falling weight. Another part of the machine consisted of a vertical piece of wood resting on a frame secured by screws to the floor; and on this upright by means of a mortice slid a projecting arm; the whole representing a gibbet. From the horizontal arm by means of a fine thread hung a sphere of lead, which may be considered as representing the ram of a pile engine; and the thread bein cut with a sharp pair of scissors, the ball fell, which striking the brass plate, compressed the spring; the rod at the same time pushing down the vernier, the exact contraction of the spring was found by examining the scale. To find the value or effort: the spring exerted, when thus compressed, the click was lifted up, the rod permitted to ascend, and the vernier kept in contact with the rod; then, as many pounds and parts of a pound were gradually placed on the top of the rod until the vernier descended and stood at the same division as it did when forced down by the impetus of the descending weight. This was considered the measure of thé momentum. The accuracy of these experiments partly depending on truly placing the rod under the falling weight, prior to each expert- ment, a conica] plummet was hung from the arm of the gibbet, and the centre of the brass plate made to coincide with its apex. For better adjusting the exact height of the impinging body, a circular hole was made in the projecting arm, into which was- inserted a round peg, about which the opposite end of the thread that suspended the weight was twisted; and by turning the peg in the socket, after the weight had nearly gained its proper posi" tion, it was accurately adjusted. 1822.] a Body in Motion with Dead Weight. 167 Loading the circular plate, and by this means compressing the spring, being both tedious and troublesome, a table was formed, containing the requisite weight to press the rod every half inch. In Table I, column 1 shows the compression of the spring in half inches. Column 2, the pounds, ounces, and drachms, that produced the effect. Column 3, the pounds, with the ounces and drachms reduced to the decimals of a pound. Column 4, the difference between the numbers in Column 3. The sum of these differences 1:708, divided by 9, gives the mean effort when compressed half an inch; and this last quotient divided by 5, and afterwards further reduced by decimal division, are the num- bers placed in the remaining columns of the same Table. The weights employed in these experiments were globes of lead, the larger one weighing one pound, the smaller eight ounces ; the lesser sphere was dropped from the height of 6, 12, and 18 inches; but the larger one, for want of sufficient strength in the spring, was limited to the elevation of six inches. Column 1, of Table II, If, [1V, and V, contains the number of times the ball struck the brass plate, it being requisite to continue the experiment till the effort of the spring counterbalanced the momentum of the falling weight. Column 2, the depression of the vernier after each blow ; and Column 3, the difference of the numbers in Column 2. The asterisk denotes the numbers included in taking the mean. From these experiments, a globe of lead weighing one pound avoirdupoise, and falling from the height of six inches, has an impetus of 15,143 lbs. ; a leaden ball weighing half the former, _ or eight ounces, and falling through the respective altitudes of 6, 12, and 18 inches, acquired a momentum of 6,600, 12,899, and 19,600 pounds avoirdupoise. Half 15,143 is 7,572, which exceeds 6,600 by 972, or nearly one pound. This difference may be partly attributed to error in the experiments, and partly to elasticity, which may have a greater proportionable effect on the smaller sphere than on the larger. The resistance of the air in these experiments is so trifling as to be unworthy of notice. It is demonstrable that if a body falls through any space, and moves afterwards with the velocity gained in falling, it will describe twice that space in the time of its falling. Assuming, therefore, that a body in this latitude falls in the first second of time, a space of 193,144 inches, or 16,095 feet, by a well-known theorem v = 2 / gs: g representing 16:095, the space a body falls in the first second of time; s the height of 6, 12, and 18. inches. The uniform velocity acquired by a body falling through the spaces of 6, 12, and 18 inches, will be 5,6736, 8,0238, and 9,827 feet. On the supposition that the impetus is proportional to some power of the velocity represented by m, V and v being symbols of the velocity, I and 7 those of the impetus. V™: v™ :: log. I — log. i log. V — log. v" I :7; and the exponent m = By comparing the 168 Col. Beaufoy on the Force of [Serr experiments made with the eight ounce weight with each other, three values of the exponent m will be obtained, viz. m = log. of 12-900 — log. of 6600 5.9943 py = 108+ of 19+599 — log, of 12/900 log. of 80235 — log. of 5°6736 *"" ™~ Jog, of 9827 — log. of 8°0238 log. of 19°599 — log. of 6-600 " f — 2-0626 m= jog. of 9-827 — log. of 56136 IT 9817 3 the mean of these three exponents is 19929; which is so near the square of the velocity, that the momentum may be considered as the square of the velocity. From the experiments with the sphere of one pound moving with an uniform velocity of 5,6736 feet in a second, was given an impetus of 15,145 pounds; and they proved the momentum to increase as the square of the elasticity. Hence may be cal- culated the dead weight sufficient to stop an 18 pound shot, moving with a velocity of 1000 feet in a second, 5°6736° : 15:143 Ibs. :: 10002 Ibs. : 470439: This number multiplied by 18 gives the product 8467902, the impetus of the cannon ball ; which is nearly 3780 tons; a force so enormously great as hardly to be credible. The following experiments are suggested on a larger scale, and in a different manner. Suppose several iron pipes screwed together in the shape of an inverted syphon, the two legs parallel to each other, and united by one bent into a semicircular form; then into the shorter leg of the syphon insert a piston, with a projecting iron spindle cut into notches for a pawl to slide so as to prevent its return back after being forced down. The syphon is then to have as much water poured into the longer leg as will raise it sufficiently high to reach the bottom of the piston inserted in the other leg. Let a pile engine be afterwards brought over the piston, and the ram permitted to fall; this striking the iron spindle will, by pressing down the piston, force up the water in the other leg ; the pawl retaining the piston. The altitude of the elevated column of water may be determined by thie piston’s depression, and this quantity being known, with the diameter of the syphon previously measured, the weight of the water, and consequently the momentum of the falling body can be found by calculation. It is recorded that the weight of a large battering ram, includ- ing the head, beam, iron hoops, chains, &c. weighed 41112 Ibs. ; and if it be presumed that the engine when employed in demo- lishing walls was impelled with a velocity of 12 feet per second, the momentum is equal to 277,93 tons ; an impetus that equals an 18 pound cannon shot, moving at the rate of 271,15 feet in a second ; consequently the force communicated to balls by gun- powder is far more efficacious in destroying buildings than the most penderous weapons used before the invention of fire arms. I remain, dear Sir, truly yours, Mark Beavroy. 1822.] a Body in Motion with Dead Weight. 169 Taste I.—Table of the Weights requisite to compress the Spring. 1 2 3 4 | | Comp.| Weight. | Weight. | Diff. j Cones Weht. Comp. |W ght. | Comp. Wight Inches. |Ib. oz. dr.) Ibs. lbs. ae | Ibs. |Inches.| Ibs. |Inches.| Ibs, 04 4 2 0} 4125 — “1 | 0-342] -O1 | -034 | -001 | -003 1 6 6 O| 6:375 | 2-250 "2 0-683} -02 | ‘068 | :002 | -007 1z |8& O 0} 8-000 1-625 3 1:025| :03 | °102 | *003 | -010 2 9 5 8 9-343 1+343 “4 1°367| ‘04 | -137 | 004 | -014 22 |10 15 0) 10-937 1-594 5 1708} -05 | -171 | -005 | -O1T 3 12. 8 O| 12°500 1-563 "06 | -205 | -006 | -020 32 {12 15 0} 13:937 1-437 ‘OT | -239 | O07 | -024 4 15 8 8| 15°503 | 1°566 70S | :272 } 008 | -027 42 HT & O 17°375 1°872 |} of ‘09 | 307 | C09 | -03! 5 19 8 0} 19-500 | 2:125_ "10 | 342 | -@10 | -034 Mean 1-708 fs“ 0°342 | qty (0°034 ram 0-003 : ; u Tasxe II. Experiment 1. | Experiment 2. Weight 1b, Fall 6 inches. | Wght. 1 1b. Fall 6 in, 1 2 Tit ah 3 1 0791 | Diff || 0-810 Dif. | 2 1-130 OS nS 0-327 | 3 1430 0-300 1-428 0291 4 1°653 0-223 || —s«b'T00 0-272 | 5 1907 0-254 |; 1-917 Ors hir| 6 2°142 0°235 2°206 0-283 7 2°269 0:127 2°398 0-198 8 2°31T 0-108 27532 0-134 9 2°509 0-132 2°666 0134 10 2°638 0°129 2838 O-172 From Table I. 11 2-140 0-102 2-910 0-072 | “ Ibs. 12 2-858 | O18 3-092 0°182 3-5 =13-93T 13 29964 | OU106 || 93:298 0°206 0-3 = 1:025 14 3°130 0166 || 3-473 0-175 005 = 0-171 15 3°240 0-110 3516 0:043 003 0-010 0-003 0 16 3°390 0-150 3-746 0°230 17 3°501 oll 3-934 0-188 15-142 ig | 3-617 0-116 || *3-833 omer 19 3-632 o015 || s8l2 20 3°148 0-116 3°809 | 21 3°764 0:016 3°854 | 22 3°871 0-107 — 23 3°878 0007 || 15°358 24 | *3-868 os | 25 | 3856 | 3-839 26 3-871 _ 21 3877 | 415-472 3-868 Exp. 3°839 ~ Mean 3°853 | ra CT ‘170 On the Force of a Body in Motion with Dead Weight. [Srpr.. Tascre II. Experiment 3, Experiment 4. Weight 8 ounces, Fall 6 inches.) Weight 8 oz. Fall 6 in. 1 | ale 3 2 3 1 0°424 Diff. Os1T Diff. 2 0-492 0-068 0°502 0-185 3 0°585 0-093 0°638 0-136 4 0-710 0:125 0-730 0-092 5 0848 0-138 0'817 0-087 6 0-941 0-093 0°843 0-026 7 0°958 0-017 0:906 he 0-063 8 1-054 0:096 0°958 0:0538 9 1-066 0-012 1-064 0°106 10 1-053 1:063 1] 1-058 1:060 12 “1-068 *1°053 13 1-067 1-054 14 1-071 1-087 15 1°066 1-068 4) -272 4-262 | 1-068 1-065 Exp. 4. 1°065 Mean 1°066 2 5 TABLE IV. Experiment 5, Experiment 6. Weight 8 ounces. Fall | foot. ||Wght. 80z. Fall t foot. l 2 Sth tiga: Bho ortega 1 0-629 Diff. || 0°572 Diff. 2 0°844 0-215 0-888 0°316 3 1-118 0274 | 1:327 . |, 0°239 4 18433} 0225 vel} 1870 oo}, 0-248 5 1-494 O151 || 1-616. | 0-246 6 711 0-217 || 1-720. | 0-104 1 1840 | 0-129 || 1-837 | ONT 8 1-970 0130 1-951 | O14 9 2079 0-109 | 2:052 | O-101 10 2:203 0-124 2150 | 0-098 11 2337 0-134 || 2224 | 0-074 12 2°438 0-101 235 les! 0-127 13 2-537 0:099 2446 | 0:095 14 2-566 0-029 S573 ila» 0-127 15 2704 | OSS) QTC pal 0°44 i6 2816 | O112 || 2800 0:083 17 3-068 | 0252 || 2896 0:096 18 *3:085 | 0-017 } °3°062 0-166 19 3-085 | |. 3=120'abs} 0:062 20 3:063 | | 37162 | 0-042 21 3078 | | "3153 | . 3°153 | 4)12°311 | 3-168 | 3-078 | _ 3156 | Exp.5 3-156 3°156 Mean SIT From Table I. In. Ibs. 1=6:375 °06= 205 ‘005= 020 Momentum 6°600 From Table I. In. Ibs. 3=12°500 I= (342 ‘Ol= 034 *00T= + 024 Momentum 12-900 S=ScESCnSSSeEEISneneannntenann enna nnn neal 18221] Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations. 171 TaBLe V. b Experiment 7. | Experiment 8. Weight § oz. Fall 18 inches. | Weight 8oz. Fall 16 in. 1 2 3 2 3 ] 0-769 Diff. 0-750 Diff. 2 1-161 0-392 1-079 0:329 || 3 1-445 0:284 1-388 0:309 4 1-758 0°313 1-730 0°342 5 1:930 | 0-172 2-019 (289 6 2-239 0:309 2-264. 0-245 || 7 2-303 0-064 2417 0-153. || 8 2-589 0:286 2-528 OllL |} 9 2-788 0199 || 2-740 0212 |) 10 2-913 0:125 2-797 0:057 11 3*007 0-094 2-888 0-091 | From Table I. 12 3 427 0-420 || 3-187 0-299 |! In. Ibs. I 3°637 0-210 |, 3-338 0-151 5=19'500 14 3°788 0-151 || 3-437 0-099 |) -02= -068 15 3-821 0:033. || 3-518 0-081 | 009=. +031 16 3874 0-053. || 3-942 0:424 17 4:258 0-384 4-229 0-280 | Momentum~ 19-599 18 4-406 07148 | 4-456 0-234 |, 19 4438 0-032 || 4:590 0-134 || 20 4-604 0-166 4-657 0-067 |, 21 4°29 0-225 || 47832 O175 | 22 4-829 0-000 | 4:834 0-002 || 23 4-854 0-025. |) 4°782 24 *5-000 0146. || 4°775 | 25 _ 4-929 | 4-872 26 4952 | 4858 21 5-200 | *4-953 | 4)20-081 june? 5-020 3 ae Exp.7 5 will | 5-039 Mean 5-029 Articre III. Astronomical Observations, 1822. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. Bushey Heath, near Stanmore. Latitude 51° 37’ 44°3” North. Longitude West in time 1’ 20°93”. June 30. Immersion of a small star by the moon 174 0! 23:1” Siderial Time. ; Bae? hs 0 f Aug. 2. Lunar eclipse. ........ ; amas A uF Baan Mean Time at Bushey. 172 Mr. Leslie on Sounds excited in Hydrogen Gas. [Sert. ARTICLE IV. On Sounds excited in Hydrogen Gas, By John Leslie, Esq’ FRSE. &e. &e.* Ir is well known that the intensity of sound is diminished by the rarefaction of. the medium in which it is produced. We might, therefore, expect the sound excited in hydrogen gas to be feebler than what is, in like circumstances, produced in atmo- spheric air. But the difference is actually much greater. A small piece of clock-work, by which a bell is struck every half minute, being placed within the receiver of an air-pump, a successive rarefaction was produced; and after the air had been rarefied 100 times, hydrogen gas was introduced. But the sound, so far from being augmented, was at least as feeble as in atmo- spheric air of that extreme rarity, and decidedly much feebler than when formed in air of its own density, or rarefied 10 times. The most remarkable fact is, that the admixture of hydrogen gas with atmospheric air has a predominant influence in blunting or stifling sound. If one half of the volume of atmospheric air be extracted, and hydrogen gas be admitted to fill the vacant space, the sound will now become scarcely audible. These facts, I think, depend partly upon the tenuity of hydro- gen gas, and partly upon the rapidity with which the pulsations of sound are conveyed through this very elastic medium. The celerity of the transmission of sound through common air is the same in every degree of rarefaction ; but in hydrogen gas, it is more than three times swifter. The bell, therefore, strikes a medium which is at once thin and fugacious ; fewer particles are struck, and these sooner escape from the action of the stroke. To produce undulations similar to what are excited in atmo- spheric air, or to cause equal reciprocations in the tide of sound, it would require the impulse to be as the square of the celerity, or 10 times greater than on common air. If this view of the matter be just, I should expect the intensity of the sound to be diminished 100 times, or in the compound ratio of its tenuity and of the square of the velocity with which it conveys the vibra- tory impressions. When hydrogen gas is mixed with common air, it probably does not intimately combine, but dissipates the pulsatory impres- sions before the sound is vigorously formed. It would be desirable to prosecute such observations with different gas, and at various degrees of rarefaction. But I have not yet found time, and merely throw out these hints for subse- quent examination and research. JoHN LEsLiE. * From the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1822.] Rev. Mr. Buckland’s Account of Fossil Teeth, &c. 173 ArTICLE V. Account of an Assemblage of Fossil Teeth and Bones, of Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, Bear, Tiger, and Hyena, and 16 other Animals ; discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale, Yorkshire, in the Year 1821: with a Comparative View of five similar Caverns in various Parts of England, and others on the Contz- nent. By the Rev. William Buckland, FRS. FLS. Vice-Pre- sident of the Geological Society of London, and Professor of Mineralogy and Geology in the University of Oxford, &c. (Concluded from p- 145.) In many of the most highly preserved bones and teeth, there is a curious circumstance which, before I visited Kirkdale, had convinced me of the existence of the den, viz. a partial polish and wearing away to a considerable depth of one,side only; many straight fragments of the larger bones have one entire side, or the fractured edges of one side rubbed down and worn completely smooth, while the opposite side and ends of the same bone are sharp and untouched ; in the same manner as the upper portions of pitching stones in the street become rounded and polished, while their lower parts retain the exact form and angles which they possessed when first laid down. This can only be explained by referring the partial destruction of the solid bone to friction fiom the continual treading of the hyenas, and rubbing of their skin on the side that lay uppermost in the bottom of the den. In many of the smaller and curved bones also, particularly in those of the lower jaw, the convex surface only is uniformly that which has been worn down and polished, while the ends and concave surface have suffered no kind of change or destruction ; and this also admits of a similar explanation ; for the curvature of the bone would allow it to rest steady under constant treading only in this position; as long as the concave surface was upper- most, pressure on either extremity would cause it to tilt over and throw the convex side upwards ; and this done, the next pres- sure would cause its two extremities to sink into any soft sub- stance that lay beneath, and give it a steady and fixed position. Such seems to have been the process by which the curved frag- ments I allude to have not only received a partial polish on the convex side only, but have been submitted to so much friction, that in several instances more than one-fourth of the entire thickness of the bone, and a proportionate quantity of the outer side of the fangs and body of the teeth have been entirely worn away. I can imagine no other means than the repeated touch of the living hyenas’ feet and skin, by which this partial wearing 174. Rev. Mr. Buckland’s, Account of Fossil Teeth.and ‘[Sxrr. away and polish can have been produced ;* for the process of rolling by water would have made pebbles of them, or at least would have broken off the edges of the teeth and delicate points of the fractured extremities of the bone, which still remain untouched and sharp. I have already stated that the greatest number of teeth (those of the hyena excepted) belong to the ruminating animals ; from which it is to be inferred that they formed the ordinary prey of the hyenas. I have also to add that very few of the teeth of these animals bear marks ofage; they seem to have perished by a violent death in the vigour of life. With respect to the horns of deer that appear to have fallen off by necrosis, it is probable that the hyenas found them thus shed, and dragged them home for the purpose of gnawing them in their den; and to animals so fond of bones, the spongy interior of horns of this kind would not be unacceptable. 1 found a fragment of stags’ horn in so ‘small a recess of the cave, that it never could have been intro- duced, unless singly, and after separation from the head ; and near it was the molar tooth of an elephant. I have seen no remains of horns of oxen, and perhaps there are none, for the bony portion of their interior being of a porous spongy nature, would probably have been eaten by the hyenas, while the outer case, being of a similar composition to hair and hoofs, would not long have escaped total decomposition. For the same reason the horn of the rhinoceros, being merely a mass of compacted hair-like fibres, has never been found fossil in gravel beds with the bones of that animal, nor does it occur in the cave at Kirk- dale. Ihave been told that sheeps’ horns laid on land for manure will be consumed in ten or a dozen years ; the calcareous matter of bone being nearly allied to limestone, is the only portion of animal bodies that occurs in a fossil state, unless when preserved, like the Siberian elephant, of the same extinct species with that of Kirkdale, by being frozen in ice, or buried in peat. The extreme abundance of the teeth of water rats has also been alluded to; and though the idea of hyenas eating rats may appear ridiculous, it is consistent with the omnivorous appetite of modern hyzenas ; nor is the disproportion in size of the animal to that of its prey, greater than that of wolves and foxes, which are supposed by Capt. Parry to feed chiefly on mice during the long winters of Melville Island. Our largest dogs eat rats and mice ; jackalls occasionally prey on mice, and dogs and foxes will eat frogs. It is probable, therefore, that neither the size nor * I have been informed by an officer in India that passing by a tiger’s den in the absence of the tiger, he examined the interior, and: found in the middle of it a large portion of stone on which the tiger reposed, to be worn smooth and polished by the frie- tion of his body. ‘The same thing may be seen on marble steps and altars, and even metallic statues in places of worship that are favourite objects of pilgrimage: they are often deeply worn and polished by the knees, and even lips of pilgrims, to a degree that without experience of the fact we could scarcely have anticipated. 1822.] Bones discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale, in Yorkshire. 175 aquatic habit of the water rat would secure it from the hyenas. They might occasionally also have eaten mice, weasels, rabbits, foxes, wolves, and birds ; and in masticating the bodies of these small animals with their coarse conical teeth, many bones and fragments of bone would be pressed outwards through their lips, and fall neglected to the ground, The occurrence of birds’ bones may be explained by the pro- bability of the hyznas finding them dead, and taking them home, as usual, to eat in their den: and the fact, that four of the only five bones of birds I have seen from Kirkdale are those of the ulna, may have arisen from the position of the quill feathers on it, and the small quantity of fleshy matter that exists on the outer extremity of the wing of birds; the former affording an obstacle, and the latter no temptation to the hyenas to devour them. Two of the five bones here mentioned, in size and form, and the position of the points at the base of the quills, exactly yesemble the ulna of a raven; a third approaches as closely to the Spanish runt, which is one of the largest of the pigeon tribe; a fourth bone is the right ulna of a lark; and a fifth, the coracoid process of the right scapula of a small species of duck resem- ‘bling the Anas sponsor, or summer duck.* With respect to the bear and tiger, the remains of which are extremely rare, and of which the teeth that have been found indicate a magnitude equal to the great Ursus spelzus of the caves of Germany, and of the largest Bengal tiger, it is more probable that the hyenas found their dead carcases and dragged them to the den, than that they were ever joint tenants of the same cavern. It is, however, obvious that they were all at the same time inhabitants of antediluvian Yorkshire. In the case of such minute and burrowing animals as the mouse and weasel, and, perhaps, the rabbit and fox, it is possi- ble that some of them may have crept into the cave by undisco- vered crevices, and there died since the stoppage of its mouth; and in such case their bones would have been found lying on the surface of the mud before it was disturbed by digging: as no observations were made in season as to this point, it must remain unsettled, till the opening of another cave may. give opportunity for more accurate investigation. This uncertainty, however, applies not to any of the extinct species, or to thie larger animals, whose habit it is not to burrow in the ground, ‘nor even to those of the smaller ones, e. g. the water rat, frag- ments of whose bones and teeth are found imbedded in the -antediluvian stalagmite, and cemented by it both to the exterior and internal cavities of bones belonging to the hyenas and other extinct species, which, beyond all doubt, were lodged in the den ' * For my knowledge of these and many other bones I have from Kirkdale, I am indebted to a careful examination and comparison of them made by Mr. Brooks, in his most valuable collection of osteological preparations. Mr. Clift also has kindly assisted me at the Royal College of Surgeons in furtherance of the same object. 176 Rev. Mr. Buckland’s Account of Fossil Teeth and (Serr. before the period of the introduction of the mud. Should it turn out that since this period the cave has been accessible to foxes and weasels, it is possible that some of the birds also may have been introduced by them. The evidence of this, however, rests on a fact not yet carefully ascertained, viz. whether the bones in question were buried, like those of the extinct animals, beneath the mud, or lay on its surface; the state of one of the ravens’ bones, containing stalagmite in its central cavity, seems to indi- cate high antiquity; and the quarryman, who was the first to enter the cave, assured me, that he has never seen a single bone of any kind on the surface, nor without digging into the sub- stance of the mud. As ruminating animals form the ordinary food of beasts of prey, it is not surprising that their remains should occur in such abundance in the cave; but it is not so obvious by what means the bones and teeth of the elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopota- mus, were conveyed thither. On the one hand, the cave is in eneral of dimensions so contracted (often not exceeding three feet in diameter), that it is impossible that living animals of these species could have found an entrance, or the entire carcases of dead ones been floated into it; moreover, had the bones been washed in, they would probably have been mixed with pebbles and rounded equably by friction, which they are not: on the other hand, it is foreign to the habits of the hyena to prey on the larger pachydermata, their young perhaps excepted. No other solution of the difficulty presents itself to me, than that the remains in question are those of individuals that died a natural death; for though an hyzna would neither have had strength to kill a living elephant or rhinoceros, or to drag home the entire carcase of a dead one, yet he could carry away, piecemeal, or acting conjointly with others, fragments of the most bulky animals that died in the course of nature, and thus introduce them to the inmost recesses of his den. Should it be asked why, amidst the remains of so many hun- dred animals, not a single skeleton of any kind has been found entire, we see an obvious answer in the power and known habit of hyznas to devour the bones of their prey ; and the gnawed fragments on the one hand, and album grecum on the other, afford double evidence of their having largely gratified this natural propensity: the exception of the teeth and numerous small bones of the lower joints and extremities that remain unbroken, as having been too hard and solid to afford induce- ment for mastication, is entirely consistent with this solution. And should it be further asked, why we do not find at least the entire skeleton of the one or more hyznas that died last, and left no survivors to devour them; we find a sufficient reply to this question, in the circumstance of the probable destruction of the last individuals by the diluvian waters : on the rise of these had there been any hyznas in the den, they would have rushed 1822.] Bones discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale, in Yorkshire. 177 out, and fled for safety to the hills ; and if absent, they could by no possibility have returned to it from the higher levels: that they did so perish on the Continent is obvious, from the disco- very of their bones in the diluvial gravel of Germany, as well as inthe caves. The same circumstance will also explain the reason why there are no bones found on the outside of the Kirkdale cave, as described by Busbequius on the outside of the hyznas’ dens in Anatolia; for every thing that lay without on the ante- diluvian surface, must have been swept far away, and scattered by the violence of the diluvian waters ; and there is no reason for believing that hyenas, or any other animals whatever, have occupied the den at any period subsequent to that catastrophe. Although the evidence to prove the cave to have been inha- bited as 2 den by successive generations of hyzenas, appears thus direct, it may be as well to consider what other hypotheses may be suggested, to explain the collection of bones assembled in it. 1. lt may be said, that the various animals had entered the cave spontaneously to die, or had fled into it as a refuge from some general convulsion: but the diameter of the cave, as has been mentioned before, compared with the bulk of the elephant and rhinoceros, renders this solution impossible as to the larger animals ; and with respect to the smaller, we can imagine no circumstances that would collect together, spontaneously, ani- mals of such dissimilar habits as hyenas, tigers, bears, wolves, foxes, horses, oxen, deer, rabbits, water-rats, mice, weasels, and birds. , 2. It may be suggested that they were drifted in by the waters of a flood: if so, either the carcases floated in entire; or the bones alone were drifted in after separation from the flesh: in the first of these cases, the larger carcases, as we have already stated, could not have entered at all; and of the smaller ones, the cave could not have contained a sufficient number to supply 1-20th part of the teeth and bones; moreover, the bones would not have been broken to pieces, nor in different stages of decay. And had they been washed in by a succession of floods, we should have hada succession of beds of sediment and stalactite, and the cave would have been filled up by the second or third repetition of such an operation as that which introduced the single stratum of mud, which alone occurs in it. On the other hypothesis, that they were drifted in after separation from the flesh, they would have been mixed with gravel, and at least slightly rolled on their passage ; and it would still remain to be shown by what means they were split and broken to pieces, and the disproportion created which exists between the numbers of the teeth andbones. They could not have fallen in through the fissures ; for these are closed upwards in the substance of the rock, and do not reach to the surface. The third, and only remaining hypothesis that occurs to me is, that they were dragged in for food by the hyenas, who caught New Series, vou. tv. N 178 Rev. Mr. Buckland’s Account of Fossil Teethand [Sert. their prey in the immediate vicinity of their den; and as they could not have dragged it home from any very great distances, it: follows that the animals they fed on all lived and died not far from the spot where theirremains are found. The accumulation of these bones then appears to have been a long process going on during a succession of years, while all the animals in question were natives of this country. The general dispersion of similar bones through the diluvian gravel of high latitudes, over great part of the northern hemisphere, shows that the period in which they inhabited these regions, was that immediately preceding the formation of this gravel, and that they perished by the same waters-which produced it. M. Cuvier has moreover ascertained, that the fossil elephant, rhinoceros, hippo- potamus, and hyzna, belong to species now unknown ; and as there is no evidence that they have at any time, subsequent to the formation of the diluvium, existed in these regions, we may conclude that the period, at which the bones of these-extinct species were introduced into the cave at Kirkdale, was antedilu- vian. Had these species-ever re-established themselves in the northern portions of the:world since the deluge, it is probable their remains would have: been found, like those of the ox, horse, -deer, hog, &c. preserved in the post-diluvian accumulations of gravel, sand, silt, mud, and peat, which are referable to causes still in operation, and» which, by careful examination of their relations to the adjacent*country, can be readily distinguished from those which are of diluvian origin. The teeth and fragments of bones above described seem to have lain a long time scattered’ irregularly over the bottom of the den, and to have been continually accumulating until the imtroduction of the sediment in which they are now imbedded, cand to-the protection of which they owe that high state of pre- ‘servation they'possess. Those that lay long uncovered at the bottom of the den, have undergone a decay proportionate to the time of their exposure; others that have lain only a short time before the introduction of the diluvian mud, have been preserved. by it almost from even incipient decomposition. Thus the phenomena of this cave seem referable to a period in which the world was inhabited by land animals, bearing a general resemblance to those now existing, before the last inundation of the earth; but so completely has the violence of that tremendous convulsion destroyed and remodelled the form of its antedilavian surface, that it is only in caverns that have been protected from its ravages, that we may hope to find undisturbed evidence of events in the period immediately preceding it. The bones already described, and the stalagmite formed before the introduc- tion of the diluvial mud, are what I consider to be the products of the period in question. It was indeed probable, before the discovery of this cave, from the abundance in which the remains of similar species occur in superficial gravel beds which cannot 1822.] Bones discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale,in Yorkshire. 179 be referred to any other than a diluvial origin, that such animals were the antediluvian inhabitants of this country ; but the proof was imperfect, as it has been said they might have been drifted or floated hither by the waters, from warmer latitudes ; but the facts developed in this charnel house of the antediluvian forests of Yorkshire show that there was a long succession of years in which these animals had been the prey. of the hyenas, which, like themselves at that time, must have inhabited these regions of the earth ; and it is in, the diluvial wreck occurring in such latitudes that similar bones have been found buried in the state of grave bones over great part of northern Europe, as well as North America and Siberia. The catastrophe producing this gravel appears to have been the last event that has operated generally to modify the surface of the earth, and the few local and partial changes that have succeeded it, such as the forma- tion of deltas, terraces, tufa, torrent-gravel, and peat-bogs, all conspire to show, that the period of their commencement was subsequent to that at which the diluvium was formed.* It is in the highest degree curious to observe, that four of the genera of animals whose bones are thus widely diffused over the temperate, and even polar regions of the northern hemisphere, should at present exist only in tropical climates, and chiefly south of the equator; and that the only country in which the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and hyzna, are now associated, is Southern Africa. Inthe immediate neighbourhood of the Cape * It was stated in describing the locality of the cave at Kirkdale, and on comparing it with the fact of its containing the remains of large and small aquatic animals, that there was probably a lake in this part of the country at the period when they inhabited it; and this hypothesis is rendered probable by the form and disposition of the hills that still encircle the Vale of Pickering. Inclosed on the south, the west, north-west, and north, by the lofty ranges of the Wolds, the Howardian hills, the Hambleton hills, and Eastern Moorlands, the waters of this vale must either run eastward to Filey Bay, or inland towards York; and such is the superior elevation of the strata along the coast, that the sources of the Derwent, ris- ing almost close to the sea, near Scarborough and Filey, are forced to run west and south- ward 50 miles inland away from the sea, till falling into the Ouse, they finally reach it by turning again eastward through the Humber. The only outlet by which this. drain- age is accomplished, is the gorge at New Malton; and though it is not possible to ascertain what was the precise extent of this antediluvian lake, or how much of the low districts, now constituting the Vale of Pickering, may have been excavated by the same diluvian waters that produced the gorge; it is obvious that without the existence of this gorge, much of the district within it would be laid under water; and it is equally obvious that the gorge is referable to the agency of diluvian denudation, the ravages of which have not, perhaps, left a single portion of the antediluvian surface of the whole earth, which is not torn and re-modelled, so as to. haye lost all traces of the exact features it bore antecedently to the operations of the deluge. _ It is probable, that inland lakes were much more numerous than they are at present, before the excavation of the many gorges by which our modern rivers make their escape ; and this is consistent with the frequent occurrence of the remains of the hippopotamus in the diluyian gravel of England, and of various parts of Europe. It is not unlikely that, in this antediluvian period, England was connected with the Continent, and ‘that the excavation of the shallow channel of the Straits of Dover, and of a considerable portion of that part of the German ocean which lies between the east coast of England and the mouths of the Elbe and Rhine, may have been the effect of diluyial denudation. The average depth of all this tract of water is said ‘ be less than 30 fathoms. N ’ 480 ‘Rev. Mr. Buckland’s Account of Fossil Teeth and [Srpv. they all live and die together, as they formerly did in Britain ; while the hippopotamus is now confined exclusively to Africa, and the elephant, rhinoceros, and hyena, are also diffused widely over the continent of Asia. - Such are the principal facts I observed in the interior of the cave at Kirkdale, and such the leading conclusions that seem to arise from them; and I cannot sufficiently lament that I was not. present at its first opening, to witness the exact state in which it appeared, before any part of the surface of the mud had been disturbed. From the description given of the state of the bones, and of the mud and staiactite that accompany them, we may extract the following detailed history of the operations that have succes- sively been going on within the cave. 1. There appears to have been a period (and if we may form an estimate from the small quantity of stalagmite now found on the actual floor of the cave, a very short one), during which this aperture in the rock existed, but was not tenanted by the hyenas. The removal of the mud which now entirely covers the floor, would be necessary to ascertain the exact quantity ofstalagmite referable to this period ; but it cannot be very great, and can only be expected to exist where there is much stalactite also upon the roof and sides. The second period was that during which the cave was inha- bited by the hyzenas, and the stalactite and stalagmite were still forming. The constant passage of the hyenas in so low acave, would much interrupt this formation ; as they would strike off the former from the roof and sides by their constant ingress and egress ; and accordingly in some specimens of the breccia, we find mixed with the bones, fragments of stalactite, that seem to have been thus knocked off from the roof and sides of the cave, while it was inhabited by hyznas before the introduction of the mud ; I have one example of a hollow stalactitic tube that lay in ean horizontal position in the midst of, and parallel to, some long splinters of bone and the unbroken ulna of a rat; all these are united by stalagmite ; and it is impossible that this stalactitic pipe could have been formed in any other than a vertical position, hanging from the roof or sides. In other specimens of the breccia, I have split fragments of the teeth of deer and hyzna ; and in almost every portion I have seen, either of this breccia or of the antediluvian stalagmite, there are teeth of the water-rat. Mr. Gibson possesses a mass exceeding a foot in diameter, com- posed of fragments of many large bones, mixed with some teeth of rhinoceros and several of the larger animals, and also of rats, all adhering firmly together in a matrix of stalagmite. It did not occur to me, while on the spot, to examine whether the bottom of the cave is any where polished (like the tiger’s den before alluded to), in those parts which must have been the constant gangway of the hyenas; but the universal cover of mud by 1822.] Bones discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale, in Yorkshire. 181 which it is buried, renders it necessary that this should be removed, in order to the observation I suggest. During the formation of this stalactitic matter, no mud appears to have been introduced ; and had there been any in the cave at the time while the osseous breccia was forming, it would either have excluded all access of the stalagmite to the bones, or have been mixed and entangled with it in very large proportions, forming a ‘spongy mass, such as it does at the root of the stalagmites that lie on its surface. “ The third period is that at which the mud was introduced and the animals extirpated, viz. the period of the deluge. I have already stated that the animal remains are found principally in the lower regions of this sediment of mud, which appears to have been introduced in a fluid state, so as to envelope the bony frag- ments then lying on the bottom of the cave: and the power of water to introduce such sediments is shown by the state of Wokey Hole, and similar caverns in the Mendip Hills, and Derbyshire, which are subject to be filled with water occasion- ally by heavy land floods. The effect of these floods being to leave on the floor a sediment of mud precisely similar to that which covers the bones and osseous breccia in the cave of Kirk- dale. I have also mentioned that there is no alternation of this mud with beds of bone or of stalagmite, such as would have occurred had it been produced by land floods often repeated ; once, and once only it appears to have been introduced ; and we may probably consider its vehicle to have been the turbid waters of the same inundation that produced the diluvial gravel: these would enter and fill the cave, and there becoming quies- cent, would deposit the mud suspended in them (as we see daily silt and warp deposited in quiet spots by waters of muddy rivers) along the whole bottom of the den, where it has remained undis- turbed ever since. We cannot refer this mud to a land flood, or a succession of land floods, partly for the reasons before stated, and partly from the general dryness of the cave; had it been liable to be filled with muddy water, it would have been so at the time I visited it in December, 1821, at the end of one of the most rainy seasons ever remembered ; but even then there were not the slightest symptoms of any such occurrence, and a few scanty droppings from the roof were the only traces of water within the area of the cavern. The fourth period is that during which the stalagmite was deposited which invests the upper surface of the mud. The quantity of this stalagmite appears to be much greater than that formed in the two periods during, and before which, the cave was tenanted by hyenas. In the whole of this fourth period, no creature appears to have entered the cave, with the exception ossibly of mice, weasels, rabbits, and foxes, until it was opened ast summer, and no other process of any kind appears to have 182 Rev. Mr. Buckland’s Account of Fossil Teeth and [Surr. been going on in it except the formation of ‘stalactitic infiltra- tions ; the stratum of diluvial sediment marks the point of time at which the latter state of things began and the former ceased. As there isno mud at all on the top or sides of the cave, we have no mark to distinguish the relative quantities of stalactite formed on these parts during the periods we have been speaking of: should it, however, contain in any part a fragment of bone or tooth of any of the extinct animals, it will follow that this part was antediluvial. A further argument may be drawn from the limited quantity of post-diluvian stalactite, as well as from the undecayed condition of the bones, to show that the time elapsed since the introduction of the diluvian mud, has not been one of excessive length. The arguments arising from the detail of facts we have been describing, are applicable to the illustration of analogous pheno- mena, where the evidence of their history is less complete. In our own country there are five other instances of bones simi- larly deposited in caverns, the origin of some of which, though not before satisfactorily made out, becomes evident as a corol- lary from the proofs afforded by the cave at Kirkdale: these are in Glamorganshire, Somersetshire, Derbyshire, and Devon- shire. 1. The first is in the parish of Nicholaston, on the coast of Glamorganshire, at a spot called Crawley Rocks, in Oxwich Bay, about 12 miles SW. of Swansea ; it was discovered in the year 1792, ina quarry of limestone, on the property of T. M. Talbot, Esq. of Penrice Castle, and no account of it has, 1 believe, been ever published ; some of the bones, however, are preserved in the collection of Miss Talbot, at Penrice ; they are as follows : Elephant.—Three portions of large molar teeth. Rhinoceros.—Right and left ossa humeri. One atlas bone. Two molar teeth of upper jaw. Ox.—First phalangal bone of left fore foot. ‘Stag.—Lower extremity of the horn, Three molar teeth. One first phalangal bone, right leg. Hyzna.—Two canine teeth, much worn. These bones were found in a cavity of mountain limestone, which was accidentally intersected, like the cave at Kirkdale, in working a quarry : they have a slight ochreous incrustation, and a little earthy matter adhering to them; but are not in the least degree rolled ; and the condyles of the two humeri of the rhino~ ceros, belonging to different individuals, have in each case been entirely broken off, as if by gnawing. The two canine teeth of hyena (worn down to the stumps), that were found in the same cave with them, afford ground for probable conjecture as to the 1822.] Bones discovered in a Caveat Kirkdale,in Yorkshire. 183 means by which those bones were thus broken, as well/as intro- duced into this cave in Glamorganshire.* 2. The next case I shall mention is that of teeth and bones of elephants and other animals discovered in the Mendip Hills in cavities of mountain limestone, which were lined, and nearly filled with ochreous clay. These are preserved in the collection of the Rev. Mr. Catcott, in the City Library at Bristol. The following account of them is extracted by my friend the Rev. W. D. Conybeare, from Mr. Catcott’s MS. notes : he has added also a few explanatory observations. “« The ochre pits were worked about the middle of the last century, near the summit of the Mendip Hills on the S. of the village of Hutton, near Banweil, at an elevation of from 300 to 400 feet above the level of the sea: they are now abandoned. “The ochre was pursued through fissures in the mountain limestone, occasionally expanding into larger cavernous cham- bers, their range being in a steep descent, and almost perpendi- cular. Thus, in opening the pits, the workmen, after removing 18 inches of vegetable mould, and four feet of rubbly ochre, came to a fissure in the limestone rock, about 18 inches broad, and four feet long. This was filled with good ochre, but as yet no bones were discovered ; it continued to the depth of eight yards, and then opened into a cavern about 20 feet square, and four high; the floor of this cave consisted of good ochre strewed on the surface of which were multitudes of white bones, which were also found dispersed through the interior of the ochreous mass. In the centre of this chamber, a large stalactite depended from the roof; and beneath, a similar mass rose from the floor, almost touching it: in one of the side walls was an opening about three feet square, which conducted through a passage 18 yards in length, toa second cavern 10 yards in length, and five in breadth, both the passage and cavern being filled with ochre and bones ; another passage, about six feet square, branched off laterally from this chamber about four yards below its entrance; this continued nearly on the same level for 18 yards ; it was filled with rubbly ochre, fragments of limestone rounded by attrition, and lead ore confusedly mixed together; many large bones occurring in the mass; among which four magnificent teeth of an elephant (the whole number belonging to a single skull) were found ; another shaft was sunk from the surface perpendicularly into this branch, and appears to have followed the course of a fissure, since it is said that all the way nothing appeared but rubble, large stones, ochre, and bones: in the second chamber, immediately beyond the entrance of the branch just described, ‘* On comparing one of these humeri of the rhinoceros with a similar bone from the cave at Kirkdale, I found in each case both extremities of the bone broken or gnawed off exactly to the same point, i. e. just so far as was sufficient to extract the marrow and take off the most spongy portions of the extremities, while the parts remaining were only the hardest and most compact cylindrical portions of the centre of the bones in question, 184 Rev. Mr. Buckland’s Account of Fossil Teethand [Serr. there appeared a large deep opening, tending perpendicularly downwards, filled with the same congeries of rubble, ochre, bones, &c.; this was cleared to the depth of five yards; this point, being the deepest part of the workings, was estimated at about 36 yards beneath the surface of the hill; a few yards to the west of this another similar hole occurred, in which was found a large head, which we shall have occasion presently to notice.” The bones from this cavern, preserved in Mr. Catcott’s cabinet in the Bristol library, are the teeth and fragments of some bones of the elephant; and similar remains of horses, oxen, and two species of stag, besides the skeleton, nearly complete, of a fox. There are also molar teeth of the hog, and a large tusk of the upperjaw. This tusk probably belonged to the head mentioned in his MS. as having been found in the pit above described, and of which the following particulars are specified :—‘ The head was stated by the workmen to have been about three or four feet lorg, 14 inches broad at the top, or head part, and three inches at the snout. It had all the teeth perfect, and four tusks, the larger tusks about four inches long out of the head, and the lesser about three inches.”* The tusk now preserved is about three inches long, its enamel is fine, it is longitudinally striated, and on one side of the apex truncated and worn flat by use. On the summit of Sandford Hill, on the east of Hutton, bones of the elephant were also, according to Mr. Catcott’s MSS. dis- covered four fathoms deep among loose rubble. Some further detail of the bones found in the cave at Hutton are given as a note in Mr. Catcott’s Treatise on the Deluge (page 361, first edition), in which he specifies six molar teeth of the elephant, one of them lying in the jaw, part of a tusk, part of a head, four thigh bones, three ribs, with a multitude of lesser bones, belong- ing probably to the same animal. ‘ Besides these (he adds), we picked up part of a large deer’s horn very flat, and the slough of a horn (or the spongy porous substance that occupies the inside of the horns of oxen), of an extraordinary size, together with a great variety of teeth and small bones belonging to different species of land animals. The bones and teeth were extremely well preserved, all retaining their native whiteness, and, as they projected from the sides and top of the cavity, exhibited an appearance not unlike the inside of a charnel-house.” {t appears to me most probable from the description given of these bones and horns, that they were not all dragged in by beasts of prey, but some of them, at least, drifted in by water, and the presence of pebbles seems to add credibility to this conjecture. 3. Another case of fossil fragments of bone has been disco- * The head here described is evidently that of a hog ; the account of its length being exaggerated by the workmen, from whose report alone Mr. Catcott gives the measures of it. The head itself was lost or destroyed before he had seen it. 1822.] Bones discoveredina Cave at Kirkdale, in Yorkshire. 185 vered by Mr. Miller, of Bristol, in a cavity of mountain lime- stone, near Clifton, by the turnpike gate on Derdham Down: these are not rolled, but have evidently been fractured by vio- lence: they are partially incrusted with stalactitic matter, and the broken surfaces have also an external coating of thin ochreous stalactite, showing the fracture to have been ancient; one spe- cimen, the property of Mr. Miller, displays the curious circum- stance of a fossil joint of the horse; it is the tarsus joint, in which the astragalus retains its natural position between the tibia and os calcis; these are held together by a stalactitic cement, and were probably left in this position by some beast of prey that had gnawed off the deficient portions of the tibia and os calcis. 4, A fourth case is that of some bones and molar teeth of the elephant found in another cavity of mountain limestone at Bal- leye, near Wirksworth, in Derbyshire, in the year 1663; one of these teeth is now in the collection of Mr. White Watson, of Bakewell. There is; I believe, no detailed account of the cir- cumstances under which these remains were found, further than that the cavity was intersected in working a lead mine; they might possibly have been introduced in the same manner as those at Kirkdale and Crawley Rocks. 5. The fifth and last example which I am acquainted with is that described by Sir Everard Home and J. Whidby, Esq. in the Philosophical Transactions for 1817, as discovered at Oreston, near Plymouth, by Mr. Whidby, in removing the entire mass of a hill of transition limestone for the construction of the Break- water. This limestone is full of caverns and fissures, such as may be seen at Stonehouse and elsewhere along the edge of the cliffs ; that in which the bones were found was 15 feet wide, 12 high, and 45 long, and about four feet above high water mark ; it was filled with solid clay (probably diluvian mud) in which the teeth and bones were imbedded, and was intersected in blasting away the body of the rock to make the Breakwater. The state of the teeth and bones was precisely the same with that of those found at Crawley rocks, they were much broken, but not in the slightest degree rounded by attrition, and Sir Everard Home has ascertained them to belong exclusively to a species of rhmoceros. A similar discovery of teeth and bones was made in 1820, ina smaller cavern, distant 120 yards from the former, being one foot high, 18 wide, and 20 long, and eight feet above the high water mark ; a description of its contents is given in the Philo- sophical Transactions for 1821, by the same gentlemen. It contained no stalactite, which abounds in many of the adjacent caverns. Sir Everard Home describes these teeth and bones as belonging to the rhinoceros, deer, and a species of bear. Mr. Whidby is of opinion that neither of these caverns had the appearance of ever having had any opening to the surface, or communication with it whatever ; an opinion in which | can 186 Rev. Mr. Buckland’s Account of Fossil Teeth and [Srrr. by no means acquiesce ; though I think it probable that the enings had, as at Kirkdale, been long ago filled up with rub- bish, mud, stalactite, or fragments of rock reunited, as sometimes happens, into a breccia as solid as the original rock, and over- grown with grass. It is now too late to appeal to the evidence of facts, as the rock in which the cave existed is entirely removed ; but the circumstances of similar caverns that have communication with the surface, either open or concealed, both in this neighbourhood, and in compact limestone rocks of all ages and formations, and in all countries, added to the identity of species and undecayed state of the animal remains which they contain, render the argument from analogy perfect, to show that the bones at Oreston are not coeval, and have only an accidental connection with the rock in the cavities of which they were found. It by no means follows from the certainty of the bones having been dragged in by beasts of prey to the small cavern at Kirk- dale, that those of similar animals must have been introduced in all other cases in the same manner; for, as these animals were the antediluvian inhabitants of the countries in which the caves occur, it is possible, that some may have retired into them to die, others have fallen into the fissures by accident and there perished, and others have been washed in by the diluvial waters. By some one or more of these three latter hypotheses, we may explain those cases in which the bones are few in number and unbroken, the caverns large and the’fissures extending upwards to the surface ; but where they bear marks of having been lace- rated by beasts of prey, and where the cavern is small, and the number of bones ard teeth so great, and so disproportionate to each other as in the cave at Kirkdale, the only adequate explana- tion is, that they were collected by the agency of wild beasts. We shall show hereafter, that in the case of the German caves, where the quantity of bones is greater than could have beensup- plied by 10 times the number of carcases which the caves, if crammed to the fuli, could ever have contained, they were the bones of bears that lived and died in them during successive generations. ‘We may now proceed to consider how far the circumstances of the caves we have been examining in England appear consist- ent with those of analogous caverns in other parts of the world. The history of the diluvian gravel of the Continent, and of the animal remains contained in it, appears altogether identical with that of our own; and with respect to the bones that occur in caverns, the chief difference seems to be, that on the Continent some of the caves have their mouths open, and have been inha- bited in the post-diluvial period by animals of now existing species. Thus at Gailenreuth the great extinct bear (Ursus spelzus) occurs, together with the Yorkshire species of extinct hyena, ina cave, the mouth of which has no appearance of hav- er 2 1822.] Bones discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale,in Yorkshire. 187 ing ever been closed, and which at this moment would probably have been tenanted by wild beasts, had not the progress of human population extirpated them from that part of Germany. For a description of the cavern at Gailenreuth (which I visited in 1816), I must refer to the work of Rosenmuller, published-at Weimarin 1804, in folio, with engravings of nearly all the bones composing the skeleton of the extinct bear, the size of which approached nearly to that of a horse; and for a description of the caves at Blankenburg, to an account by Esper and Leibnitz, published at Brunswick. M. Rosenmuller says, he has never seen the remains of the elephant and rhinoceros in the same cavern with those of bears; and that he has found the bones of wolves, foxes, horses, mules, oxen, sheep, stags, roebucks, badgers, dogs, and men; * and that the number of all these is in no proportion to that of the bears. ‘The bones of all kinds occur in scattered fragments.. One entire skeleton only of the Ursus speleus is said to have been found by Bruckmann, in a cave in the Carpathians, and to have been sent to Dresden. He adds that the different state of these bones shows that they were introduced at different periods, and that those ofall the animals last enumerated, including man, are in much higher preservation than those of the bears and hyeenas. Thus it appears that the bones which are in most perfect pre- servation, and belong to existing species, have been introduced during the post-diluvian period; while the extinct bears and hyena are referable to the antediluvian state of the earth. In corroboration of this, | found in 1820, in the collection of the Monastery of Kremsminster, near Steyer, in Upper Austria, skulls and bones of the Ursus spelus in consolidated beds of diluvial gravel, forming a pudding-stone, and dug for building near the monastery ; from which it appears that this species of bear lived in the period immediately preceding the formation of that dilu- vium ; and the same thing has been already shown of the extinet hyena in the gravel of France and Germany. M. Rosenmuller states that in all the caverns he has‘examined, the bones are disposed nearly after the same manner; sometimes scattered separately, and sometimes accumulated in beds and heaps of many feet in thickness; they are found every where from the entrance to the deepest and most secret recesses,; never in entire skeletons, but single bones mixed confusedly from all parts of the body, and animals of all ages. The skulls are generally in the lowest part of the beds of bone, having from their form and weight sunk or rolled downwards, as the longer and lighter bones were moved and disturbed continually by the living animals passing over them; the lower jaws are rarely found in contact with, or near to the upper ones, as would follow M. Esper bas found in one of the caverns containing bears’ ‘bones, fragments of arns, which from their form: were probably made at least 800 years ago. 188 —§ Rev. Mr. Buckland’s Account of Fossil Teeth and [Sere. from the fact last mentioned.* They are often buried ina brown argillaceous or marly earth, as in the cases of Gailenreuth, Zahnloch, and in the Hartz, which earth, from an analysis by M. Frischman, seems to contain a large proportion of animal matter derived from the decay of the fleshy parts of the bears. In the caves of Gailenreuth and Mockas, a large proportion of the bones is invested with stalactite. Even entire beds, and heaps of them many feet thick, are sometimes cemented toge- ther by it, so as to form a compact breccia. Occasionally they adhere by stalactite to the sides of the cavern, but are never found in the substance of the rock itself. At Sharzfelden, and in the Carpathians, they have been found enveloped with agaric mineral (lac lune); they have undergone no alteration of form, but the larger bones are generally separated from their epiphyses. Their usual colour is yellowish-white, but brown where they have lain in dark-coloured earth, as at Lichtenstein. At Mockas their decree of decay is by far the greatest. Even the enamel of the teeth is far gone, and the bones are perfectly white, hav- ing lost all their animal gluten, and acquired the softness and spongy appearance, as well as colour, of calcined bones; still their form is perfect, and substance inflexible, and when struck, they ring like metallic bodies falling to the ground. These retain simply their phosphate of lime. In other caverns they are usually less decayed, but they sometimes exfoliate and crack on exposure to air, and the teeth particularly are apt to split and fall to pieces, as are also those at Kirkdale.+ M. Rosenmuller is decidedly of opinion with M. Cuvier, that the bears’ bones are the remains of animals which lived and died through successive generations in the caves in which we find them ; nay even that they were also born in the same caves. In proof of which he has found some bones of a bear, that must have died immediately after buth, and other bones of individuals that must have died young. This is analogous to the case of numerous teeth of young hyenas with fangs not formed; and the jaws of two that had not shed their first teeth, which I found at Kirkdale. Most of the arguments which I have used to show that the bones in Yorkshire cannot have been accumulated by the action of one, or of a succession of floods, apply with equal force to the cave at Gailenreuth, and it is unnecessary to repeat them. * At Kirkdale, not one skull, and few, if any, of the larger bones are found entire ; for these had all been broken up by the hyenas to extract the brains and marrow ; and in their strong and worn out teeth we sec the instruments by which they were thus de- stroyed. The bears, on the other hand, not being exclusively carnivorous, nor haying teeth fitted for the cracking of large bones, have left untouched the osseous remains of their own species. + It is a curious fact, that of the numerous caves in the calcareous hills near Muggen- dorf, that flank the valley of the Weisent-stream, those on the north chain contain not a fragment of the bones of the Ursus spelzus, while those on the south side are full of them. ‘This may probably be explained by supposing the mouths of the former to have been closed in the antediluvian period, and afterwards laid open by denudation. 1822.] Bones discovered ina Cave at Kirkdale, in Yorkshire. 189 The above description of the cave at Gailenreuth, extracted from Rosenmuller, and confirmed by my own observations on the spot, may be taken as an example of the state of the other caves on the Continent, of which it is superfluous here to say any thing further than to subjoin a list given by M. Cuvier of the most important of them, and to refer to the fourth volume of his Animaux fossiles, for further details taken from the authors by whom these caves have been described. The caves alluded to are as follows : 1. That of Bauman, in the county of Blankenberg, in Bruns- wick, on the east border of the Hartz forest, and described by Leibnitz. 2. That of Sharzfels, in Hanover, in the south border of the Hartz, described by Leibnitz, Deluc, and Bruckmann. Behrens, in his Hercynia Curiosa, speaks of several more in the neighbourhood of the Hartz; from most of these the bones were collected during a long course of years, and sold for their imaginary medicinal virtues under the name of Licorne. 3. The caves that next. attracted attention were those of the Carpathians, and the bones found in them were at first known by the name of dragons’ bones, and have been described by Hayne and Bruckmann. : 4. But the most richly furnished are the caves of Franconia, -described by Esper and Rosenmuller, near the sources of the Maypn, in the vicinity of Bamberg and Bayreuth, at the villages of Gailenreuth, Mockas, Rabenstein, Kirch-a-horn, Zahnloch, Zewig, and Hohen Mirchfeld. 5. A fifth locality occurs at Glucksbrun, near Meinungen, on the south border of the Thuringerwald. 6. And a sixth in Westphalia, at Kluterhoehle, and Sundwich, in the country of Mark. M. Cuvier states, that the bones found in these caverns are identical over an extent of more than 200 leagues; that three-fourths of the whole belong to two species of bear, both extinct; the Ursus speleus and Ursus arctoideus, and two-thirds of the remainder to extinct hyenas. A very few to a species of the cat family, being neither a lion, tiger, panther, or leopard, but most resembling the jaguar, or spotted panther of South America. There is also a wolf or dog (not distinguish- able from a recent species), a fox and polecat. He adds that, in the caves thus occupied, there occur no remains of the elephant, rhinoceros, horse, ox, tapir, or any of the ruminantia or rodentia. in this respect they differ materially from that of Yorkshire ; but such variation is consistent with the different habits of bears and hyenas, arising from the different structure of their teeth and general organization ; from which it follows, that bears prefer vegetable food to that of animals, and, when driven to the latter, wae sucking the blood to eating the flesh, while hyzenas are eyond all other beasts addicted to gnawing bones. rom this circumstance it is rendered probable, that in the 190 Rev. Mr. Buckland’s Account of Fossil Teethand. [Srrxr, caves inhabited chiefly by bears, the bones of other animals should be extremely rare. But unless there be an error in the statement. of M. Deluc (Lettres, vol. iv. p. 588), that a. tooth found in the cave at Scharzfels was ascertained by M. Hollman to be that.of a rhinoceros; and of Esper, that large cervical vertebree of an elephant were found by M. Frischman in the eave of Schneiderloch ; it follows, that these two animals, occur, though very rarely, in the caves of Germany, and they may have been introduced by the few hyznas that occasionally inhabited them; that. they lived in the neighbourhood of these caves, in the period immediately preceding the formation of the diluvium, is probable, from the occurrence in it of the bones of the elephant and rhinoceros near the caves of Scharzfels and Alterstein, men- tioned by Blumenbach. (Archaeologia Telluris, p. 15.) _ The fact mentioned by M. Cuvier of the same hyzna being common to, the caves and gravel of France and Germany, and that ascertained by myself, of the Ursus speleus occurring in the gravel of Upper Austria, proves both these extinct species to have. been the antediluvian contemporaries of the extinct ele- phant and rhinoceros; there is, therefore, no anachronism in finding the remains of the two latter in a den that was occasion- ally inhabited by such hyznas and bears. With respect to the analogies of the diluvian sediment and the stalactite in Germany and Yorkshire, in the case of the open caves that have been disturbed and ransacked for centuries, it is hopeless to expect evidence of what was the precise state of these deposits in each individual cavern at the time it was first entered. Still there is information respecting some that have been recently discovered, which is to our purpose. it is stated, that a sediment of this kind was found on the sides and floor of the cave at Glucksbrun, near Meinungen, when it was newly opened in cutting a road in 1799, and that in all the other caverns also there is mud, but no rounded pebbles. M. Deluc, in describing the matrix in which the bones are lodged in the eave at Scharzfels, says, ‘le fait est donc simplement, que le sol de ces cavernes est d’une terre calcaire,” ‘‘ qu’en creusant cette couche molle, on en tire quantité de fragmens d’os; et qu'il s’y trouve aussi des concrétions pierreuses qui renferment des.os.” (Deluc, Lettres, vol. iv. p. 590.) These concretions with bones appear analogous to the stalagmitic concretions. at Kirkdale, and, the soft calcareous earth by which they are covered, resembles its stratum of mud. Again, the resemblance holds. also in the existence both of bones and soft mud in the smallest recesses of the caverns. He says, p. 589, “ Il faut en quelques endroits se trainer sur le ventre, par dessous la pierre dure pour continuer ay creuser.” This is an exact description of the state of the extremities of the cave at Kirkdale at the present moment. : . ‘Leibnitz, in his: description.of: this same cavern, has the:fol- 1822.] Bones discavered in a Cave at Kirkdale,in. Yorkshire. 191 lowing words to the same purpose, “ Limo nigricante vel fusco infectum est solum.”—(Leibnitz, Protogaea, p. 65.) Esper thus describes the state of the floor near the entrance of one of the largest caverns at Gailenreuth. “ Dans: toute la contrée le terrain est marneux, mélé avec du limon, et tire sur le jaune, mais ici on trouve une terre moins limoneuse dans une profondeur considérable. Je ne prétends pas encore la prendre absolument pour une terre animale telle qu’est sans contredit la terre qui se trouve plus bas, mais probablement elle doit y €tre rapportée, p. 9. This again is consistent with the circumstances of the cave at Kirkdale, the mud, thus dubiously spoken of, being probably of diluvial origin, and reposing on, and being mixed with, the animal earth that had been formed before its introduction. The absence of black animal earth at Kirkdale, results from the fact of the flesh, and great part even of the bones of the animals introduced to it, having been eaten by the hyenas. The identity of time and circumstances which I am endeavour- ing to establish between the German and English caverns, does not, however, depend so much on comparisons between. the stalactitic matter and earthy sediments which they contain, as on the agreement in species of the animals entombed in them, viz. in the agreement of the animals of the English caves with those of the diluvian gravel of the greater part of Europe; and, in the case of the German caves, on the identity of the extinct bear with that of the diluvian gravel of Upper Austria, and the extinct hyena with that of the gravel at Canstadt, in the valley of the Necker; and at Eichstadt, in Bavaria; to these may be added the extinct rhinoceros, elephant, and hippopotamus, which are common to gravel beds as well as caves. And hence it fol- lows, that the period at which all these caverns were inhabited by the animals in question, was antecedent to the formation of that deposit of gravel, which it seems to me impossible to ascribe to any other origin than a transient deluge, affecting universally, simultaneously, and at no very distant period, the entire surface of our planet. The bones found in these caverns are considered by M. Cuvier to be of older date than those of the osseous breccia, which, at Gibraltar and various places along the cvast of the Mediterra- nean and Adriatic, occur in vertical fissures of limestone. This breccia contains fragments of bones and teeth of various rumi- nating and gnawing animals; that is, of ox, deer, antelope, sheep, rabbits, rats, mice; also of the horse and ass, of snakes and birds, mixed with land shells, and angular fragments of the adjacent rock ; all united into a solid breccia by ochreous stalac- tite. The greater number of these animals agree with species that now exist, and are supposed by M. Cuvier to have: fallen into the fissures in the period succeeding the last retreat of the waters. I do not see why some of them may not also: have 192 Rev. Mr. Buckland’s Account of Fossil Teeth and [Serr. fallen in during that earlier period in which the bears occupied the caves of Germany, and the hyenas that in Yorkshire; for some of the animals found at Kirkdale seem to agree in species with those that occur in the fissures; but as they are at the same time not distinguishable from existing species, the argu- ment arising from this resemblance is imperfect. The discovery of the extinct elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, bear, and hyzna in this breccia, should it ever be made, would be decisive of the question. For an account of the bones accumulated in these fissures, I must again refer to the works of M. Cuvier, which contain more sound and clear philosophical reasoning on the early state of habitation on our planet, and a more valuable collection of authentic facts relating to the history of its fossil animals of the higher orders, than can be found in all the books that have ever yet been written on the subject. —_—_—— APPENDIX. It was mentioned, when speaking of Gailenreuth, that human remains had been discovered there in the same cave with the bones of antediluvian animals, but that they are of comparatively low antiquity. Three analogous cases have been noticed in this country in cavities of mountain limestone, at Burringdon, in Somersetshire, and in Glamorganshire and Caermarthenshire ; and these also are attended by circumstances which indicate them to be of post-diluvian origin. ]. The discovery of human bones incrusted with stalactite, in a cave of mountain limestone at Burringdon, in the Mendip hills, is explained, by this cave having either been used as a place of sepulture in early times, or been resorted to for refuge by wretches that perished in it, when the country was suffering under one of the numerous military operations which, in different periods of our early history, have been conducted in that quar- ter. The mouth of this cave was nearly closed by stalactite, and many of the bones were incrusted with it. In the instance of a skull, it had covered the inside as well as the outside of the bone ; and I have a fragment from the inside, which bears in relief casts of the channel of the veins along the interior of the skull. The state of these bones affords indications of very high antiquity ; but there is no reason for not considering them post- diluvian. Mr. Skinner, on examination of this cave, found the bones disposed chiefly in a recess on one side, as in a sepulchral catacomb ; and in the same neighbourhood, at Wellow, there is a large artificial catacomb of high antiquity, covered by a barrow, and constructed after the manner of that at New Grange, near Slane, in the county of Meath, of stones successively over- Japping each other till they meet in the roof. In this were 1822.] Bones discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale, in Yorkshire. 193 found the remains of many human bodies. A description of it may be seen in the Archeologia for 1820. 2. Mr. Dillwyn has observed two analogous cases in the mountain limestone of South Wales; one of these was disco- vered in 1805 near Swansea, in a quarry of limestone at the Mumbles, where the workmen cut across a wedge-shaped fissure, diminishing downwards, and filled with loose rubbish, composed of fragments of the adjacent limestone, mixed with mould. In this loose breccia lay confusedly a large number of human bones that appear to be the remains of bodies thrown in after a battle, with no indications of regular burial; they were about 30 feet below the present upper surface of the limestone rock, 3. The other case occurred, in 1810, at Llandebie, in Caer- marthenshire, where a square cave was suddenly broken into, in working a quarry of solid mountain limestone on the north bor- der of the great coal basin. In this cave lay about a dozen human skeletons in two rows at right angles to each other. ‘The passage leading to this cave had been entirely closed up with stones for the purpose of concealment, and its mouth was com- pletely grown over with grass. It is obvious, that in neither of these cases are the bones referable to so high an era as those of the wild beasts that occur in the caves at Kirkdale, and elsewhere. P.S. As this paper was going to the press, [ have been grati- fied to hear that my conjecture, as to the abundance of such caverns as that at Kirkdale, has been verified by the discovery of another cave (containing chambers lined with stalactite, and having on its bottom mud, and bones imbedded in the mud), in a quarry close to the town of Kirby Moorside, on the property of C. Duncombe, Esq. who has judiciously taken every precaution to secure it from injury, till some qualified person shall be present to observe, and record the undisturbed appearance presented by its interior. Should it be in my power, as I hope it may, to assist at its further opening, I shall communicate the result to the Royal Society. It is recollected also, that about 20 years ago, another cavity containing bones was discovered on the north of Kirby Moor- side, but none of them have been preserved. Though it is probable, as I have stated, that such caverns are not uncommon, we shal! cease to wonder that they are so rarely brought to light, when we consider the number of accidental circumstances that must concur to lead to such an event. 1. The existence of caverns is an accidental circumstance in the interior of the rock, of which the external surface affords no indication, when the mouth is filled with rubbish and overgrown with grass. 2. The presence of bones is another accidental circumstance, though probably not an uncommon one in the case of those caves, the mouths of which were accessible to the wild beasts that inhabited this country in the period immediately pre- New Series, vou, 1v. o °994 = Rev. Mr. Buckland’s Account of Fossil Teeth, &c. [Sevr. ceding the deluge. 3. A further requisite is, the intersection of one of these caves in which’ there happen to be bones, by a third ‘accident, viz. the working of a stone quarry by workmen who shave sufficient curiosity or intelligence to notice and speak of what they find, and this to persons who may be willing or able to appreciate, and give publicity to the discovery. The neces- sary concurrence of all these contingencies renders it probable, that however great may be the number of subterraneous caverns, "man inland country, very few of them will ever be discovered, or, if discovered, be duly appreciated. Those I have mentioned in Devon, Somerset, Derby, and Glamorganshire, were all laid open by the accidental operations ofa quarry or mine. May 24, 1822.—I have this day received the entire lower jaw of an hyena from Lawford, near Rugby, in Warwickshire. It was found by Andrew Bloxam, Esq. in the same diluvial clay and gravel with the bones of elephant and rhinoceros. This is the first instance of the remains of hyena being noticed in the diluvium of England. The animal must have perished by the same catastrophe which extirpated the hyenas, and closed the den at Kirkdale, and which swept together the remains of ele- phant, rhinoceros, and hyzena, in the diluvian gravel of the Con- tient. The support which’ this recent discovery gives to my arguments on the cave in Yorkshire, is too obvious to require pointing out. — EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. PLaTE XIV. Fig. 1. View of the mouth of the cave at Kirkdale in the face of a quarry, near the brow of a low hull. Fig. 2. Section of the cave before the mud had been dis- turbed.. A.. Stratum of mud covering the floor of the cave to the depth of one foot, and concealing the bones. B. Stalagmite incrusting some of the bones, and formed before the mud was introduced. C. C. Stalagmite formed since the introduction of the mud, and spreading horizontally over its surface. D. Insulated stalagmite on the surface of the mud. E. E. Stalactites hanging from the roof above the stalagmites. Fig... Ground plan of the cave, by W. Salmond, Esq. show- ing its. extent, ramifications, and the fissures by which it is intersected. ny Pratt XV. .» Fig. 1. Outside view of the right lower jaw of the modern ‘Cape hyena. [ Fig. 2. Analogous portion of lower jaw of the Kirkdale hyena, “being nearly one-third larger. ' Fig. 3. Inside view of No. 2. 1822.] Dr. Apjohn on the Specific Gravity of Gases. 195 ArTICLE VI. Additional Remarks on the Influence of Moisture in modifying the Specific Gravity of Gases. By John Apjohn, MD. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, Trinity College. in the number of the Annals for May last, you did me the favour of publishing some observations of mine upon the influ- ence of moisture in modifying the specific gravities of the gases. In that paper, I gave an expression for the specific gravity of a gas saturated with moisture, and also suggested a method of determining the exact specific gravity of a gas perfectly dry. The principle upon which I proceeded, namely, that the density of steam is directly as its tension, has been called in question by Mr. Herapath, in a succeeding number of your journal, in a paper, in which he also contests the correctness of Dr. Thom- son’s idea of the sensible and latent heat of steam, beginning at 32, constituting a constant quantity. With this latter topic, I have no concern. But as Mr. H. conceives that he has proved from received principles that the density of steam is not simply as its tension, and as he appears to me to have by no means accomplished what he asserts, I shall briefly state the reasons which have led me to this opinion. Mr. H. has certainly adopted the most decisive method for achieving his object, for he proceeds at once to show what the true relation between them is. I hope, however, to prove, that the gentleman has fallen into an error, and that this errer consists in his confound- ing gases and vapours, substances, as to many even of their phy- sical properties, essentially distinct, and as to none more so than the relation existing between the density, temperature, and elas- ticity of each. Before_I proceed, I beg to be understood as admitting that the expression S’ =S8. en a sie gi H. properly represents the relation between the density and tension of a permanently elastic gas, or even of steam when separated from the water which has produced it. That the fol- lowing remarks may be the better understood, I shall give the steps which lead to this expression. Gases, and even steam isolated, have been found by experiment to expand the ;4,th of their volume for every degree of Fahrenheit. Hence it follows, that if 480 represent the tension of any of them at 32, the ten- sion, at any higher temperature F, will be 448+F. The follow- ing proportion then may be instituted. 448 + F : 448 + ¥ re 7 448 + F" » , iidlaedetiadie aE é again, since METH the Mie at F’. Andagat yA oO ‘ ven by Mr. 7 the tension at F; 196 Dr. Apjohn on the Specific Gravity of Gases. [Sepv. at a given temperature F’, the specific gravities are as the ten- 7.4484 F = o / ; -- = sions, we shall have [3-4 : 7’ any other tension :: s the spe cific gravity corresponding to the former tension : s’ = s +! A484 F 7° 448+" it being ascertained (according to Mr. H.) “ by the concurrent experiments of the French and English philosophers, that, with the exception of their not being able to sustain more than a cer- tain pressure according to the temperature, vapours are perfect gases, and follow precisely the same laws of expansion and con- traction,” he easily infers that the specific gravity of steam is not as its elasticity. With deference, however, to Mr. H. he has, I must say, though no doubt unintentionally, misrepresented the the specific gravity corresponding to the latter. Now philosophers. It is true they have shown, that vapours apart. from their respective fluids, “‘ obey the same laws of expansion and contraction with the otber gases.” But the case is far differ- ent with vapours in contact with their fluids. The effects of an increment of temperature upon gases, or vapours apart from, and those same vapours in juxtaposition with their fluids, are strik- ingly distinct. The volume being given, the elasticity of the ras Is augmented, but not its density. On the other hand, not only the elasticity, but also the density of a vapour in contact with its fluid is increased. Let us return now to the above-men- tioned proportions of Mr.H. The first evidently does not apply to vapours over fluids, for the volume being given, it supposes the density also given, which in the case of vapours so situate is not the fact. The second is also without meaning here, or is at best but a trifling proposition ; for what does it state? Why, that if the temperature be given, the density is as the tension. But the tension ofa vapour in contact with its fluid is always the same at the same temperature, and, therefore, so must the density. Now to say that a varies as 6, when neither a or 6 vary at all, is certainly little short of being absurd. The original proposition, therefore, namely, that the density of steam is as its tension, has not been shaken by Mr. Herapath, for the result which he arrives at, and from which he deduces zs falsehood, does not apply to vapours in contact with their fluids. It still, however, may be doubted whether the density and tension of steam are so simply related, for Mr. H.’s failure to prove the negative does not esta- blish the affirmative of the proposition. A few accurate experi- ments, by determining the specific gravity of steam at different temperatures, would enable us (as we are already possessed of tables of elasticities) to bring this law to the test of experience. Gay-Lussac indeed having already determined its specific gravity at 212, another determination would afford at least a single comparison. It will be observed that I do not any where assert that the density of steam is precisely as its elasticity. Mr, H. 1822.] C.’s Reply to D. 197 acknowledges it to be nearly, and I confess many circumstances lead me to conclude it to be strictly the case. In the absence of proof, I do not wish to dogmatise. I shall, however, briefly advert to a circumstance which appears to me to render any but the simple relation inadmissible. It is well known that at a given temperature, the densities of gases are as the forces which compress them. From this fact, and Newton’s expression for the elasticity (see any work on pneumatics), it follows that their particles repel each other with a force which varies inversely as the distance between their centres. Now if the density of steam be not as the force which compresses it, or in other words, as its tension, it must follow that its particles repel each other accord- ing to a different law, a circumstance improbable, when we con- sider the accordance of its expansion, when apart from water, with that of gases. This argument, however, I am not disposed to insist upon, as my principal object has been to show, that Mr. Herapath’s formula does not comprehend vapours in contact with their fluids. Your obliged humble servant, James APJOHN. Articte VII. Observations upon D.’s Answer to C.’s Remarks upon Mr. Hera- path’s Theory. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, I aM sorry again to occupy any space in your Annals on the subject of Mr. Herapath’s theory, but the observations of your correspondent D. require some notice from me, and will excuse, I hope, my wishing once more to trespass upon your kindness. Had he indeed confined himself to reasoning, I could without concern have left it to your readers to have determined whether or not my objections to that theory were satisfactorily answered ; but by the charges he has made against me, lam obliged for my own Satisfaction again to obtrude myself upon you. His manner indeed [ do not complain of, as he seems to think it natural I should; he has no doubt chosen that which he thinks the most effective and convincing ; and I may, therefore, with as much reason, complain of his differing from me on any other subject as on the propriety of that manner. One of the charges to which J allude is more applicable to a moral than an intellectual deficiency ; and consequently, if true, would be a disgrace, instead of a misfortune. It is contained 198; Cvs Reply to D. [Seer. in the following extract from D.’s letter in the Annals for April, p- 292. “ Accuracy, it seems to me, should be rigidly adhered to in all discussions. An author should never be made to say. what he has not. In more than one instance, C. has not been over delicate in this respect.” By this no doubt D. means to insinuate, that I make little scruple to state a writer’s meaning or expression to be different from that which I believe it really is—an insinuation which I must take leave to assert is wholly unfounded and unjustifiable. To state that a writer means that which itis known he does not mean is as direct a falsehood, as to assert, he says, that which he does not say; and to do either, would be so degrading to any one guilty of such misconduct, as to render him unworthy of any other attention than such as might be necessary for his exposure ; whether or not I have so done will best appear from an examina- tion of what D. has offered as an instance. “At present,” says D. “I shall adduce an example which will serve as a specimen of the rest; and lest there should be any mistake or difficulty in turning to Mr. H.’s opinion, I shall place right against it one or two quotations from his first paper. Quotations from “ Cs Observations on Mr. “ Mr. Herapath’s paper, An- Herapath’s Theory, Annals for nals for April, 1821, p. 279.” Dec. 1821, p. 420.” << But whether the atoms be «“ Therefore it seemed to me elastic, or hard, having the pro- that the ultimate atoms ought erties of elastic bodies which to possess two properties 7 Mr. Herapath has attributed to direct contrariety, hardness and them.” elasticity.” The evident meaning of the extract from my former paper is, that Mr. H. has attributed to hard bodies properties which do actually belong to elastic bodies. Now this he might have done even though he had really thought the properties of elasticity and hardness to be in direct contrariety to each other, it. being sufficiently clear that however opposed he might have esteemed them to be, it is still possible that he might have erroneously attributed to the one, properties which really belong to the other. Bat whether the statement that he did so be correct or erro-: neous, the sentence does not pretend to give either Mr. H.’s expression, or his meaning; and, therefore, cannot possibly have misrepresented the one or the other. It cannot fairly be made to amount to more than an assertion, that:some of the pro- petties which Mr. H. has attributed to hard bodies-in my. judg- ment belong to elastic bodies. That the opinion expressed in the extract is really not ill founded, will appear from the following quotations : Mr. Herapath says, “ If two hard and equal balls come in 1822.] C's Replyto.D. 199 contact with equal and opposite momenta, they will separate after the stroke with the same velocity with which they met.”— (Annals, April, 1821, p.285.) Sir Isaac Newton says, ‘‘ Bodies which are either absolutely hard, or so soft as to be void of elasticity, will not rebound from one another, Impenetrability only makes them stop. If two equal bodies meet directly in vacuo, they will by the laws of motion stop where they meet and lese all their motion, and remain at rest; unless they be elastic and receive new motion from their spring.” —(Newt. Opera, vol. iv. p. 258.) “‘ Non-elastic bodies on their shock will adhere together, and either remain at rest, or else move together as one mass with a common velocity ; or if elastic, they will separate after the shock with the very same velocity with which they met and shocked.” —(Hutton’s Math. Dict. in verb. Percussion, p. 215.) These propositions from such men as Newton and Hutton (and: similar mght be extracted from the writings of Kaclaurin, Play- fair, and other philosophers of that rank) will, I hope, justify my opinion that Mr. H. did attribute to hard bodies properties actually belonging to elastic bodies. It is, however, quite clear, that no one could honestly believe those expressions amounted to “ an assertion that Mr. H. makes hardness and elasticity the | same;” yet so D. in a subsequent part of his paper (Annals, May, p. 350) ventures untruly to callit, and that for the purpose of making it appear, contrary to éhe fact, that I had asserted that which was not true. It is, however, most extraordinary that D. in the very moment of his attack upon another for a supposed misrepresentation of the meaning of Mr. Herapath, should, with all the formality with which he has introduced the quotation from his paper, misstate his expression. There is in fact no such word as “elasticity” in the sentence which D: pretends to quote, he having substituted that word for the word “ softness.” Nor, [ fear, can we in excess of candour attribute such a strange pro- ceeding to accident, or oversight ; since he has by his attempt- ing in a note to excuse it, proved that he did it wilfully. It is not, however, easy to conceive, what sufficient excuse can be made for intentionally giving as. a,quotation from another paper that which D. knew at the time was not so. Nor was the alteration made to accommodate the sentence to Mr. H.’s meaning; for he must have known that Mr. H. did not think hardness and elasticity to be ‘‘ 2m direct contrariety:” . for in a sentence. the very next to one which D. has quoted on this subject, Mr. H. calls elasticity “almost the very opposite of hardness ;” and it is evident that what he thought only “ a/most the:very opposite,” he could not think to be ‘in direct contra+ 1 t' 7? Dis knowiedge of Mr. Herapath’s real opinion on the subject too is proved by his own note; whichis as follows’: ‘‘ Mr. H.! 200 C.’s Reply to D. [Sepr. has written softness, but immediately before he tells us that elasticity is nothing but an active kind of softness; and he now, therefore, uses softness instead of elasticity merely to make the contrast the stronger.” By what means LD). knows that Mr. H. used softness instead of elasticity, he has not informed us ; but Mr. H. could not have wanted, nor was it possible for him to have obtained a stronger contrast than that which was ‘in di- rect contrariety ;” if, therefore, he thought “softness,” a stronger contrast than “ eiasticity,” he could not have thought elasticity to be “in direct contrariety.” In stating too that the term “softness” was used for the purpose of making the contrast stronger, he admits that Mr. H. advisedly used the one word instead of the other; consequently it is evident that D. with full knowledge on the subject, attributes a word to Mr. H. not only which he did not use, but which he intentionally avoided. Thus D.at the instant of censuring one person for a pretended misrepresentation, has, in order to give the charge an appear- ance of truth, intentionally misstated the actual words of another, making him say not only what he did not intend, but what he did not believe; and for this purpose has attributed to him an expression which he knew was on consideration rejected. {f D. thus misstates the expressions and meaning of Mr. H. I could hardly indulge an expectation of being differently treated. I was, therefore, little surprised subsequently to find that there is hardly a single quotation which D. pretended to make from my former paper, where he has not misstated either the words, or meaning, or both. The first proposition of any importance to which he refers is the following: ‘ In innumerable instances (if the words are taken in their usual sense), true conclusions may be brought out from false principles by correct reasoning. If, for instance, the errors on each side should exactly compensate each other, the. result will be correct, though the foundation be erroneous.” D. in quoting these sentences, omits some words, and transposes others, without marking the alterations, but as the tone and emphasis of the sentences are changed, rather than the sense, it is not of material consequence. ‘The meaning of these sentences it would seem hardly possible to mistake. It is most evident from the whole paragraph, that it is the false principles, and the foundation only, to which errors are ascribed, and the reasoning is supposed in all cases to be correct; and it is surely unneces-: sary to occupy your pages in proving that it is possible to reason correctly from erroneous data. D.however, in order to raise an apparent contradiction, has assumed that I meant to attribute errors to the reasoning, at the same time too that I concluded the reasoning to be correct. “So then,” he observes, ‘ correct. reasoning must contain errors; that is, I apprehend truth must be error. Of course, by parity of argument, false reasoning 1822.] Cis Reply to D. 201 must contain no errors, or e77'0r must be truth, and wrong, right.” Thus, by apprehending one piece of nonsense, and assuming “ of course”? another, he triumphantly concludes that there are absurdities in the propositions, of which they do not in fact contain the slightest trace. The intelligence and fairness of such observations are just equal. His next criticism is found in the following extract: “ Allud- ing to the loss and developement of heat in the changes of states, C. objects to Mr. H.’s theory of heat by motion, because heat may for a time become imperceptible, and again be developed without being destroyed. ‘ If, therefore,’ says C. ‘ heat and motion be identical, motion cannot be destroyed, which the experience of every day tells us is untrue.’ Here C. would plainly charge Mr. H.’s thecry as being incompetent to explain, nay, as being repugnant to the phenomena of latent heat. Now observe ‘ Mr. H.’s Theory of the Changes of State and the Concomitant Phenomena,’ in which the subject C. alludes to is copiously explained, was published in the Annals for October ; C. in his ‘ Observations,’ dated nearly a fortnight afterwards, tells us he had seen this very number of the Annals, and of course this very explanation, for the want of which he gravely tells the world Mr. H.’s theory is defective.” However unjusti- fiable it may have been in D. to misquote the expressions of Mr. Herapath, yet as it was for the purpose of supporting his theory, the injury was not to Mr. H. but to D.’s own character. Butin the foregoimg paragraph, D. not only states that 1 made asser- tions and charges which I never did make, but even by inverted commas, as though they were literal extracts, ascribes to me expresstons which I never used, and a meaning which | never intended ; and that for the express purpose of raising the impu- tation that | had stated what was unsupported by fact. Itis not true that I objected to Mr. H.’s theory of heat by motion, “because heat may for a time become imperceptible, and again be developed without being destroyed.” I did not charge Mr. H.’s theory “as being incompetent to explain,” or “as being repugnant to the phenomena of latent heat.” I did not object, nor in any way allude, to that part of Mr. H.’s theory, however erroneous I may have thought it; consequently, 1 never did “ tell the world that his theory was defective,” for want of any explanation in relation to it. Every one of those assertions of D. both in substance and effect, are utterly untrue. This will be clearly proved by the paragraph itself, to which he refers. It is the following: ‘‘ Experiment has clearly shown that caloric, or the immediate cause of heat, whatever it may be called, cannot be destroyed. However, under particular circumstances, it may become for a time imperceptible, it can be again developed, and. so be shown to have continued its existence ; if, therefore, heat and motion be identical, motion cannot be destroyed. This, I apprehend, the experience of every day, in addition to mathema- 202 C.’s Reply to D. (Serr. tical argument, tells us is untrue. We all every day see motion generated and destroyed. Nor can this objection be answered bya supposed difference in the nature of the motion, as we cannot'even conceive of any difference in motions, except that which is made by their quantity and direction.” The reasoning contained in these observations, intended to show that the indestructibility of caloric is a strong argument to prove it cannot be merely motion, whether well founded or not, is too clear to need any further explanation; D. has not attempted to answer it, but, as I have shown, he has resorted to a method of evading its force, which intelligence and integrity. would have alike disdained. The next subject of D.’s reply is an objection to the “ gaseous body of very great tenuity,” which Mr. H. supposes “ fills all space.” The observations are not worthy of notice except as affording another instance of the kind of misrepresentation of meaning to which D. has resorted. The following is the sen- tence to which D.’s observations were applied: ‘The only proper answer to such a supposition is, ‘ Show this fluid to me ; prove its existence by some other evidence than its being neces- sary to support your theory, for that argument can have little weight which founds the truth of a theory upon a supposed fluid, the existence of which fluid itself rests only upon the truth of the theory.’ ” ’ To this, D. replies: “ But the oddity of this request is, < Show me this fluid.’ Surely C. does not wish Mr. H. to make this fluid visible. He does not wish, does he, Mr. H. to catch and bring to him a nameless being, a few particles of a fluid, &c.” T should think D. would not wish his intelligence should be esti- mated so low; as to have it supposed he was incapable’ of per- ceiving that I did not mean by the term “ Show,” to express a wish to have the fluid rendered visible; but he must choose between such an estimation of his intellect and the estimation of his fairness, which would arise from the supposition that his observations were only applicable to a meaning which he knew I did not mtend. D. proceeds to observe, “ C.speaks-of Sir Isaac Newton, and insinuates to the world that Mr. H.is trying to overturn him. Except in the absolute equality of reciprocal attraction in the planets, which Newton deduced merely from analogy, and of which no proof whatever can be furnished, there is no one phz- nomenon in which Mr. Herapath does not perfectly agree with Newton.” D. would not have much reason to boast of Mr. H.’s modesty, if it were true, that he did only differ from Sir Isaac Newton in his opinions relating to the mutual attractions of the heavenly bodies: on those opinions are established Newton’s noblest: ; P fame; nor-will they, above all others, ever cease to be an honour to the age'and nation in which he lived. The evidence of their 1822.] C’s Replyto Do 203 truth is not merely analogy ; they are still more strongly con- firmed by the soundest mathematical demonstrations, and the ablest observations of astronomy. But the assertion possesses as little trath as modesty. I have already given one instance in which Mr. Herapath directly opposes Newton, where there is no relation to the reciprocal attraction of the planets ; and as it respects the laws of the collision of hard bodies, itis a disagreement on the very basis of Mr. H.’s theory. And in addition, in the same paper from which D.’s extracts are taken, and to which almost the whole of his cbservations relate, Mr. H. does himself refer in terms to Newton’s Cor. 5, of the third law of motion, and there expressly attempts to controvert it, and to prove that it is not true in cases of the collision of unequal hard bodies.—( Annals, April, 1821, p. 2.) « But,” says D. “since C. opposes Newton to Mr. H. I beg to ask him on what grounds he does it? Is it on the doctrine of heat?” And he then continues for the purpose of declamation, pretending to believe that 1 opposed Mr. H. to Newton upon that ground, although in the only two sentences in my paper in which Newton’s name is mentioned, the subject of opposition is expressly mentioned to be “ the doctrines of Newton in relation to the collision of hard bodies,” and for the fact of that opposi- tion, | have Mr. H.’s own authority. D. after such introductory observations, proceeds “to examine the objections to the theory of heat by motion,” nor will the examination disappoint the promise of such an introduction. The first objection which he attempts to answer, is, where it is shown that consequences necessarily arising from the theory are contradicted by experiment; whence it is concluded that the theory itself cannot be correct. It will not be necessary to go through the reasoning to understand the kind of answer which is given to it. It was said by me in the course of the argument, “ if one atom a, of the body A, having a greater velo- city than 6, of the body B, overtake the slower atoms, the atom a will lose some of its velocity, which will be communicated to the atom 6, and thence among the other atoms of the body B. The communication of motion from the atoms of A to the atoms of B will not be compensated; for the atoms of B having less velocity than the atoms of A, will never overtake them. The motion of the atoms of B, therefore, will be increased. So that if one body A have atoms of a less magnitude than a body B’ with which it is im contact, but with a velocity inversely greater (that is, according to Mr. H. the bodies A and B being of the’ same temperatures), the momentum of the atoms (that is, the temperature of the body B) shall continually increase.” D: having’ extracted the greater part of this proposition, says, “©What becomes of the temperature of A? I do not know; C. has'not told us; but I suppose as the temperature of B shall continually increase, that of A increases too.” It must be remem+ 204 C.’s Reply to D. (Serr. bered in examining the truth of this observation, that Mr. H.’s theory, upon which this argument is founded, and the truth of which for the purpose of deducing the consequences is assumed, considers the motion of the atoms and the heat of the body to be the same thing. And then notwithstanding it is expressly stated that part of the motion of the atoms of the body A, that is, part of the heat of the body A, is communicated to the atoms of the body B, without any compensation, he ventures to assert that I have not told him what becomes of the temperature of the body A, but that he supposes it increases. He then proceeds : “« Hence we have another source of heat we did not know of before. It is only to put two bodies in contact with unequal particles, and we shall have heat generated without the aid of friction or percussion ; and without chemical, galvanic, or elec- tric action. All this results by C.’s mathematics,” &Xc. Here D. first states that I have not told him what becomes of the temperature of A, which, to say the least, is a mere equivo- cation; as I have told him what becomes of: the heat of A, according to the theory which D. supports, and upon which the argument is founded; he then supposes that the temperature of A increases, without offering the slightest pretence for such a supposition, and immediately positively asserts that the absurd consequences to which that supposition would lead “ result by my mathematics.” I fear it is impossible to attribute with any reasonable probability such misrepresentations only to a want of capacity to understand the meaning of propositions so clear and intelligible; nor would a theory be worth the trouble of an exa- mination, which rested on the arguments of an intellect capable of such mistakes. Some of the misstatements indeed are founded upon mere invention; and, therefore, could not have arisen from misapprehension; and what then must be thought of a writer capable of such perversion of truth, or of a theory requiring such support. The arguments [ formerly used to show that the consequences fairly deducible from Mr. H.’s propositions in relation to the nature of heat and temperature, are inconsistent with facts, and, therefore, incorrect, were necessarily founded on the proposi- tions in the form and words of Mr. H. himself; what modifica- tions he might afterwards choose to make in them, it was of course impossible I should foresee. They were mere inventions, and the same rules of philosophical argument (if there be any such) which authorised the exercise of the imagination at first, will equally justify his inventing new qualities to answer objec- tions founded upon his former statements. But unless D. be Mr. Herapath himself, I do not see upon what grounds he can assume the same right. At all events he cannot justify making new contradictory propositions, yet such are assumed in D’s reply. For instance, having assumed for argument sake, Mr. H.’s statements ‘ that heat arises from an intestine motion of 1822.) C.’s Reply to D 905 the atoms or particles, and is proportional to their individual momentum ;” and that the temperature of bodies is equal when the velocities of the particle are inversely proportional to their magnitude ; I concluded that “‘the greater atoms having less velocity than’the smaller will never overtake them.” Upon this D. observes: “ That is not universally the case. In consequence of the mutual action of the particles, they move both in their goings and returnings swifter at some parts of their paths than at others. Generally speaking, in the exterior particles, which are those of the two bodies that come in contact, their velocities are the swiftest immediately before and after the collision ; and the slowest immediately preceding and following the exterior extremity of their path. Hence, therefore, the greater particles may often move much swifter than the less ; and, consequently, may frequently overtake and strike them.” Thus it is assumed, that the particles have paths, to which there are extremities or limits, at which they return, and near to which they move so much slower than at other parts of their paths, that the respective velocities of the particles at the time of their collision, may be directly the opposite of that of the mean motion of the bodies to which they belong. But in the preceding page, in relation to the very same particles of the same bodies, he says, ‘* nor can it” (the particles) “return to its own body, because the collision did not give it an inward, but merely diminished its outward motion.” Now this assumption that the particle will not return to its own body after the first collision, till it comes into collision with, and receives an inward motion from, another particle of the second body, is directly contrary to the other supposition that the particles have limited paths, at the extremities of which they return of themselves. He proceeds, ‘ Now the outward particle which” (the particle of the body A) ‘ next strikes, must evidently meet it with the mean motion B b-of the particles to which it belongs.” But his other assumption is, that the exterior particle of bodies near the extremities of their paths (and there alone solid bodies could come into contact if they had the supposed motions) “ generally speaking,” move slower than the mean motion of the body. Nor can he with propriety found the supposed mean motion upon any contemplation of mine. I have not supposed any such second collision at all; nor is it probable (if it be reasonable to use such a term in relation to such a theory) that upon the supposed facts there would be a second collision. However contradictory each of these suppositions is to the other, it is equally opposed to facts. For if it were true that the exterior particles ‘ which are those of the two bodies which come in contact,” had, generally speaking, a slower motion at the extremity of their paths, the communication of motion (that is, according to Mr. H.’s theory, the communication’ of temper- ature) from body to body, would not depend so much upon the 206 C.’s Reply to D. (Serr. actual temperatures of bodies in contact, as upon the parts of the paths of the particles where the collision took place. Accord- ing to the well-known facts, however, the communication of temperature depends simply upon the real temperatures of the bodies in contact. On the other hand, if it were true that the particles of bodies had such a motion as D. supposes, and would not return till they received an inward motion from collision with other particles in vacuo, where they could receive no such inward : motion, the particles would altogether fly off and be dissipated ; which is no less contrary to fact. The remainder of D.’s reasoning on this subject rests upon the truth of Mr. H.’s theory of the laws of collision of hard bodies ; and I shall now proceed to examine the answer D. has attempted to give to my former arguments upon that part of the subject. D. commences his observations in the Annals for May last, p- 357, by attempting to show that absurd consequences would follow, according to the usually admitted theory of collision of bodies, from propositions which I have made, or admitted to be true ; the reasoning in this instance will be found to be as nearly as the different kind of argument will admit, of the same nature as that upon which I have already observed. Before, he mis- stated the obvious meaning and expressions ; here he will be found to have misstated the no less obvious consequences. D. states, “ He allows that bodies act with a force equal to their momentum, and, therefore, as one consequence, that the force with which a hard fixed plane, and a hard ball moving per- pendicularly upon it,come in contact, is equal to the momentum of the ball.” Again C. grants that “the mtensity of the force with which two hard balls moving in opposite directions come in contact is equal to the sum of their momenta.” Admitting, therefore, that the three momenta in these two cases are respect- ively equal, it is evident by what C. himself allows to be true, “ that the intensity of the collision in the latter case is double the former.” ‘ It is on all hands allowed, | believe, in the case of perfectly hard bodies, that the changes of motion have at least the same ratio as these intensities. For instance, if a certain intensity of stroke produce a certain change of motion, double, treble, Xc. that intensity will generate a double, treble, &c. change of motion.” Most obviously the consequences of this reasoning is, that as the intensity of the collision in the case of the two balls coming in contact is duuble the intensity of the col- lision in the case of the one ball striking perpendicularly upon + the hard fixed plane, the change of motion is also double. Con- sequently, if when the one ball strikes perpendicularly upon the plane, the motion of the one ball is destroyed ; when the two balis | come into contact, double that motion, or the motion of the two balls, is destroyed. Instead of these consequences which are so direct and conclusive, and which accord with what was stated in.my former paper, D. proceeds: “Therefore, in the case of the 1822. C.’s Reply to D. 207 hard body and plane, the change of motion in the body is the half of what C. admits to that in e?ther of the two moveable bodies.” I certainly never did admit, nor is it even plausibl deducible from avy thing which I have stated or admitted, that the change of motion in the one body is the half of that in ecther one of the two bodies ; but, on the contrary, I have stated, and, I think, proved, that the change of motion in the one body is the half of the change of motion in the two bodies. But D. conti- nues, ‘“‘ Consequently if, as C. asserts, each of the two bodies just lose the whole of its motion by the stroke, the body striking on the plane will lose only half its motion; and, therefore, after the stroke, it will proceed right through the fixed imperviable plane, with the other half motion that remains to it!” Such consequences and observations are quite worthy of D.’s previous mode of argument. But how the proposition, that the change of motion has the same ratio as the intensity of collision, “ precisely coincides with Mr. Herapath’s” reasoning, D. has not explained. Mr. H. says, “if a hard spherical body impinge perpendicularly upon a hard fixed plane, the body will after the stroke remain at rest upon the plane.” (Annals, April, 1821, p. 284.) And he also says : “ But if two hard and equal balls come in contact with equal and opposite momenta, they will separate after the stroke with the same velocity with which they met.” (Amnadls, Apmil, 1821, p. 285.) In the first case, the whole motion is said to be destroyed ; but in the second, when the intensity of the contact is double, and consequently when the change of motion ought to be also double, there is no change at all, either in the quan- tity or direction of the motion. There is a change in the direc- tion of the balls, equal altogether to four times the effect of the one ball being stopped by the plane, but just as much motion continues in each direction as there was before the contact. The next extract from D.’s reply, on which it will be neces- sary to observe, is the following: C. says, ‘“ that the intensity of the stroke between two bodies moving towards opposite parts is equal to the sum of their momenta ; ” and, therefore, when one of them is at rest before the stroke, the intensity must be equal to the momentum of the other.’ The words in italics, D. has placed within inverted commas, so marking it as if an extract from my former paper ; yet there is no such sentence there, nor did I ever say any thing fairly capable of such a meaning. Speaking of two hard and equal balls which “ come in contact with equal and opposite momenta,” I said “the intensity of the force is equal to the sum of the momenta with which both balls come in contact ;” and it is a statement, of the truth of. which there can be no doubt ; but from that there is no rational pre- tence to conclude as a consequence, that “ when one of them is at rest before the stroke, the intensity must be equal to the 208 C.’s Reply to D. [Srpr. momentum of the other.” The body which ts at rest before the stroke, yields to the force (of course not among its parts but altogether), and consequently does not receive the whole inten- sity. It is evident that the intensity of the stroke, according to the sense in which D. and Mr. H. use the term, must depend not only upon the momentum of the striking body, but the resist- ance of the body which receives the blow. When the resistance is equal to the whole force of the striking body, there the body struck receives the whole momentum; but in proportion as the resistance is less, the motion received by the resisting body is also less. The general proposition, however, which D. attri- butes to me, I never laid down, and his statement that I did so is absolutely false. Having, however, ascribed to me an asser- tion which I never made, he derives from it a consequence equally unsupported by fact. “ But C. tells us,” D. says, “ the one body after the stroke remains at rest on the plane ; therefore, the other body striking the quiescent one likewise remains at rest after the stroke.” When the moving body strikes the hard fixed plane, the resistance is equal to the momentum of the mov- ing body ; but the resistance of the quiescent body is not equal to that momentum; and it cannot rationally be contended, that because when the resistance is equal to the momentum, the body remains at rest after the stroke; therefore, when the resistance is less than the momentum, the body also remains at rest. Yet D. not only assumes that it is so, but insinuates that itis acon- — clusion of mine; although my former paper contains nothing from which any such inference can fairly be drawn; and he knows that I have endeavoured to support the laws of collision of bodies which have been laid down by former mathematicians, by which the consequences are totally different. That D. was aware of this is evident from what follows in his paper. ‘ Now,” says D. in the sentences immediately succeeding that which I have just quoted, ‘though this agrees with Mr. H.’s theory, it is decidedly at variance with the old. The old theory makes the two bodies after the stroke to go on together, and hence the collision deprives the striking body of only part, not of the whole, of its motion. C. has consequently embraced views in direct opposition to the theory he means to advocate.” It is certainly extraordinary that any writer should venture to make such wilful misstatements. [can only expose them. 1 cannot descend to apply to them the only names which would be their appropriate designation. I must leave them to that disgust which every honourable mind must feel on perceiving them. I must, however, consider the length to which I am led by exposing these misstatements one by one, and I shall pass on to that which D. would call demonstration, having put the supposed reasoning in the form of mathematical propositions. “If two perfectly hard and equal balls at rest be similarly 1822.) C.’s Reply to D. 209 struck by two other perfectly hard balls moving with equal momenta, the intensities of the strokes are equal.” (Prop. A. Annals, May 1822, p. 260). The only material part of the rea- soning by which this proposition is attempted to be supported is the following: “All the bodies being absolutely hard, the strokes are mere impulses which are begun and finished with the very commencement of the contacts, and are, therefore, equally smart with respect to duration under every velocity. Hence the velocities of the moving bodies have no effect on the intensities of the strokes.” Mr. H. has stated in the Annals for April, 1821, p. 284, “that all the strokes between perfectly hard bodies have no duration, and are thence equally smart.” If this be true, as it undoubtedly is, the strokes are eyually smart with respect to duration under every momentum, and consequently it may, with just as much reason, be concluded, that the momenta of moving bodies have no effect on the intensities of the strokes. But if the two similar hard balls which are supposed to be struck, instead of being quiescent, were moving with equal velo- cities, then Mr. H. himself does in a proposition which D. has adopted (Annals, April, 1822, p. 294), in effect clearly admit, that notwithstanding the strokes would be equally smart with respect to duration, yet the velocities of the striking bodies would have an effect upon the intensities of the strokes. “ If,” say they, “a hard body overtake and strike another hard body moving with less velocity in the same right line, the first body will after the stroke continue its course with the same velocity which the other body had before, and the second body will acquire from the stroke a momentum equal to the difference of the velocities of the bodies drawn into the mass of the first body.” According to this proposition, ifa hard body A, with a mass as 4, and a velocity as 6, that is, with a momentum as 24, overtake another hard body B, with a mass as 5, and a velocity as 3, B will acquire a momentum by the stroke =6—3 x 4=12. But if the body B moving with the like velocity be overtaken by another body, C, having the same momentum as A, but having its mass as 2, and its velocity as 12, the momentum gained by B will be 12—3 x 2=18. In D.’s proposition, the bodies which receive the stroke are supposed to be quiescent, and in that of Mr, H. they are supposed to be moving; that difference, how- ever, cannot affect the argument of D, which is founded solely upon the fact that the strokes are equally smart with respect to duration, and this is alike in both cases. I do not, however, allow that Mr. H.’s proposition is correct, further than as it admits that the difference in the velocities of bodies having equal momenta has an effect in the collision of hard bodies; but it serves to show the inconsistencies in the theory itself, and very New Series, vou. 1v. Pp 210 C.’s Reply to D. [Serr. rarely indeed it is, that there are not such inconsistencies in a. theory which is itself inconsistent with truth. That the difference of the velocities of hard bodies having equal momenta has an effect in their collision with hard quiescent bodies, will readily appear upon examination. Ifa hard moving body A, strike a hard quiescent body B, in the lines of their cen- tres of gravity, the quiescent body yields to the stroke, and this it must do lessening A’s motion, and increasing its own, until it shall have acquired a velocity equal to that of A. When B _ moves with a velocity equal to that of A, itis evident that A will cease to act upon it. his effect in hard bodies is produced instantaneously. These things being premised, and they are too self-evident to require further illustration, the effects of the difference in the velocities may be easily made evident by num- bers. Thus if a hard body A having a mass as 8, and a velocity as 6, and consequently a momentum as 48, strike in the line of their centres of gravity a hard quiescent body B, having also a mass as 8, B will not have acquired a velocity equal to that of A until A has communicated to it motion as 24; when both A and B willhave a velocity as3. But ifanother body C, having the same momentum as A, say 48, but having its mass as 4, and its velocities as 12, strike B when quiescent in a similar manner, B will not have acquired a velocity equal to that of C untilit has received motion as 32; when C and B will both have a velocity as 4. The quantity of motion altogether is, in both instances, the same after the stroke as before, there being no motion destroyed by the collision ; but in one case the velocity acquired by B is as 3; in the other as 4. In the first case after the stroke, the whole momentum 48 is divided by the whole mass of A and B, or 8 + 8 =16, making the velocity as 3, and the mo- mentum of B 8 x 3 = 24; in the second case, the momentum 48 is divided by the whole mass of B and C, or 8+4=12, mak- ing the velocity of B as 4, and its momentum 8 x 4= 32. But the intensity of the stroke must be in proportion to the quantity of motion acquired by B, its resistance to the stroke being greater in proportion as it was required to attain greater velocity. Though, therefore, the bodies A and C, having equal momenta, would be capable of giving strokes of equal intensity where the whole motion was expended ; in the cases supposed, as the quan- tity of motion communicated is different, so the intensity of the strokes is different. It will sufficiently appear from the foregoing observations, that it was not from any difficulty in answering a similar theorem in Mr. H.’s paper in the Annals for April, 1820, that I passed it over with many others of the same kind, but because having shown enough to prove that the theory itself was erroneous, 1 thought it unnecessary to trace out every error whichit contained. When, therefore, D. says, that ‘‘ C. descended for the purpose of suiting his own views to an artful omission of it,” he makes an 1822.) C.’s Reply to D. he assertion which is wholly untrue, and does me the injustice of so estimating my conduct by his own, as to think that meanness sossible to me, of which he has shown himself so capable. D.’s next proposition is so entirely founded upon the first as to require no particular notice, but in order further to confirm them both, he makes quotations from Hutton, Playfair, and Emerson, which, he says, are “ perfectly compatible ” with his theory. That this is true can be easily imagined, as no one will doubt that there are many sentences in those authors which, having little or no relation to the question, cannot be said to be incompatible with it. Thus from Playfair, “ Bodies that have equal quantities of motion have equal forces or equal powers to produce motion.” But the question here is not whether they haye equal powers when their whole power is exerted, but whe- ther when the body struck yields to the blow, the whole motior is communicated; that is, whether the whole power is actually exerted. Again, “the velocities being equal, a double mass will strike with a double force, a triple with a triple force, and so on.” (Hutton’s Courses, vol. ii. p. 132.) But what has this to do with Mr. H.’s proposition, “that the velocities of the moving bodies have no effect on the intensities of the strokes” But his refex- ence to Maclaurin is more singular. “‘ Maclaurin’s Fluxions,” D. says, “in which I believe his views of collision are expounded, I have not by me. If I had, 1 should probably be able to give another amusing specimen of C.’s knowledge of names instead of things.” If D. will refer to Maclaurin’s “¢ Account of Newton’s Philosophical Discoveries,” p. 184, et seq. he will find that he maintains “thatin the actions of perfectly hard or inflexible bodies upon one another,” “as there is no spring nor any force to sepa- rate them, they must go on together after their collision as if they formed one body.” It would, however, be endless to make extracts to this effect from all the other writers referred to; 1 have already done so in relation to some of them. But it is evident from other statements in his paper, that D. knows the fact that every one of these authors from whom he has made these quota- tions, do, in their works, state propositions in relation to the very point in question, directly contradictory to his theory, yet upon these quotations alone, D. in effect assumes, what he must know to be perfectly untrue, that Playfair and Hutton do not maintain those laws of collision of hard bodies which I have attempted to support.” (Annals, May, 1822, p. 368.) his, however, is not the only disingenuous use he makes of these quotations, as will appear from the next extract, which contains 2 difficulty or paradox, as he calls it, which, as he states, has perplexed him alittle. ‘‘ Let a perfectly hard ball A, mov- ing with any velocity a, strike in the line of its motion another perfectly hard ball B at rest, then, by the old theory, the motion p2 212 Cis Reply to D. [Serr of B after the impulse, or the motion it acquires by the stroke =e Aa — as A = ck ; and in any other parallel case, the ,! motion acquired by the same B at rest = a Now by the views in the quotations I have made from Hutton, Playfair, Emerson, and C. himself, it is evident that if the momenta A a and A’ a’ were equal, the intensities of the strokes and the momenta due to the body B after the strokes would be equal. That is — = a or A = A’,‘however unequal the value of A and A’ may be.” A moment’s consideration will show, that this apparent absur- dity arises from another assumption made by D. without any reason, by which he attributes to the writers referred to, opinions which he knows they do not hold, and consequences which the very proposition he himself ascribes to them contradicts. That no such inference as that which D. has drawn from the quota- tions is fairly deducible from them, or was intended by the authors, is evident, not only from the quotations themselves, but by what the authors have written in other parts of their works. For it is still true that “bodies act with a force equal to their momentum,” although neither the force nor momentum can fairly be measured by the effects of their collisions on bodies which yield to the stroke ; and that this was the opinion of those writers, D. knew at the time he attributes the contrary, not to the quotations only, but to their views. Thus he has said before, “The old theory makes the two bodies go on together; and hence the collision deprives the striking body of only a part, not of the whole of its motion.” (Annals, May, 1822, p. 358.) And one of the propositions which he has introduced for the purpose of controverting the old theory, is to show that the velocity of the striking body has no effect on the collision if the momenta are equal, (Ibid. p. 360.) Ihave already shown that the momen- tum of the body struck which is at rest before the stroke is affected by the velocity of the striking body, though other things are equal, but the proposition itself sufficiently proves the truth of the old opinions, and D.’s knowledge of them. Thus he says that the velocity of B after the stroke is = a and in any A'd B A’+B A’ a’, and B is the same in both cases; therefore, Aa B = A’ a’ B. If then A be greater than A’; A + B must be greater than A’ + B, and consequently A a B divided by the greater A + B must be less than A’ a’ B divided by the lesser; that is, — is less than -< =. When, therefore, D. states, that by the other parallel case, By = But the momentum A a = . 1822.] C.’s Reply to D. 213 old theory, B v after the stroke is 2 a , and in parallel cases = A+B ‘ aes he must have known that the writers who supported it did not think the momenta due to the body B after the strokes would be equal. It was, however, unnecessary in order to show the mode by which this difficult paradox was raised, to do more than refer to the paragraph itself; where he ventures to attribute to Hutton, Playfair, and Emerson, the belief that when A a = 45 AaB A‘a'B A a, then AsB = A+B’ that is, that Hutton, Playfair, and Emerson, believed that equal quantities divided by unequal quantities produced equals. The next proposition is the one stated by Mr. Herapath in the Annals for April, 1821, p. 287, with its form a little altered. “If a perfectly hard ball strike another perfectly hard ball at rest in “the line described by the centre of gravity of the former, the striking body will remain at rest after the impulse, and the other will proceed im the same right line in which the former was moving, and with the same momentum.” “ From this,” Mr. H. has himself stated, “ it follows that a body in a state of free and perfect quiescence, however small it might be, will destroy the motion of another body however large, and however great its momentum.” Whether or not such pro- positions are not self evidently untrue, 1 must leave to the judg- ment of your readers; it is certainly impossible to exaggerate them. It will not, however, be difficult to show the fallacy in the reasoning offered in support of this proposition, nor will it, I apprehend, occasion surprise that it should be found to rest on assumptions as unfounded as those which have already been exposed. ** All that I require,” says D, “for demonstrating this pro- position is, that the intensity or force of percussion be the same as, or equal to, the motion generated ; and that the api of percussion be proportional to the generating momentum. ithout adverting to the preceding propositions, each of these postulates is admit- ted in the quotations I have made from the authors C. has quoted against Mr. Herapath.” I have already made some observations on the meaning which D. has endeavoured to apply to those quotations, which are equally applicable to the postulates said to be deduced from them, upon which the reasoning in support of this proposition rests. For the generating momentum must evidently be the momentum which generates motion; that is, the momentum expended in producing motion, and consequently when the body struck yields to the stroke, the generating mo- mentum will not be the whole momentum of the striking body. Although, therefore, the momenta of the striking bodies may be equal, the momenta expended in producing motion in other bodies at rest ; that is, the generating momenta, may be unequal. however unequal A may be to A’; 214 C.’s Reply to D. [Serr This has been so fully explained before, and is in itself so eyi- dentiy true, that it would not have been again repeated, but that the whole of the argument in support of the proposition depends upon an assumption of D. that if the momenta of the striking bodies be equal, the generating momenta and the momenta of the bodies struck must be also equal. I have already show the fallacy of those propositions and reasoning, by which D has attempted to prove that the velocity of the striking body has no. effect upon the motion of the body struck, if the momenta of the striking bodies are equal; but in the support of this proposition, D. has not rested upon them, but instead has relied upon the postulates before mentioned. He then proceeds, “ Let B, B’, be two perfectly hard and equal balls at rest, and let A, A’, be any two other perfectly hard balls striking respectively B, B’, according to the conditions of the proposition. Let also a, a’, be the velocities of A, A’, before the strokes, so that Aad = A’a’. Then it b, be the velocity of B after the strokes, and 0’ that of B’, we have B 6 = B’b’ and b=06’.” Upon this assumption that 6 = 0’ rests the whole of the reasoning supporting this pro- position. I have, however, already shown that this is not the; case unless A = A’, and consequently a = a’; for, as before shown, the velocity of the body struck depends upon the velo- city of the striking body, and consequently B 6 may differ from B’ b’ to any extent less than Aa. Having assumed without, sufficient reason as a consequence of his postulates that b = 0’, he proceeds to show that if it be true, and A’ has any velocity after the stroke, “the body A’ which cannot move faster. than B’, because it comes behind it, might nevertheless have a greater velocity in the same direction, which is absurd.” [ readily admit. that if it be assumed that 6 = 0b’, whatever may be the magnitudes of A, A’, this absurdity will follow; but this only shows that the assumption is not founded im truth ; and consequently that if A be not equal to A’, then BO shall not be equal to B’b’. But D. concludes, not that B 6 is not. equal to B’b’ unless A = A’, but that “ A, A’, must remain at rest after the impulses, and consequently the bodies B, B’, pro- ceed with the momenta A a, A’ a’, respectively.” That this con- clusion is not warranted by the premises is sufficiently evident from the preceding observations. It was not, however, possible that the proposition should be proved by the argument ad absur- dum, as no absurdity could be greater than the proposition itself which it was produced to prove. The next proposition (Prop. D) is a repetition of part of Mr.. Herapath’s Cor. 3, Prop. 2 (Annals, April, 1821, p. 285), with a little variation ofterms. ‘“‘ If two perfectly hard and equal balls come in contact, when moving with equal momenta in the same right line towards opposite parts, the intensity of the stroke as felt by each body in a direction opposite to that in which it was. moving is equal to the sum of the momenta of the two, or twice 1822.] C.’s Reply to D. 215 the momentum of either one before the stroke.” That bodies act with a force equal to their momentum, is a maxim which D. has repeatedly and triumphantly quoted, and momentum is the quantity of motion ina given direction. Itis also quite clear that neither of the balls can themselves act in a direction opposite to that in which they are moving. The utmost intensity of force, therefore, with which either of the balls can ‘act, is its own momentum ; and that only in the direction towards which it moves. The acting force is necessarily the same at the time of the collision as before ; and consequently at the mstant of colli- sion each ball acts with a force equal to its own momentum in the direction towards which it moves; and as both balls are moving in opposite directions, they each act with a force equal to their own momentum in a direction opposite to the direction of the other ball. The intensity of the collision, therefore, is the sum of the momenta of the two, but the force in each direction is the momentum of each one ; and consequently “‘ the intensity of the stroke ‘as felt by each body in a direction opposite to that in which it was moving,” is equal to the momentum of one ball, and not the momenta of two ; forif they acted in each direction with a force equal to the momenta of two balls, it is evident the whole force would be doubled by the collision, which is impos- sible. D. professes to demonstrate the proposition from the principles admitted in the whole theory, and he commences by stating truly, that “ By the old theory, if a hard body A, having the velocity of a, strike another hard equal body A’ at rest, the Aa Aa@,, ca A= alt This he properly treats as the intensity of the stroke, and uses it as such in his reasoning. But in the same argument in which he uses this as correct, he states, and assumes that he has proved, that “ when one of the bodies is at rest,” ‘ the intensity of the stroke on each is equal to the momentum of the moving body.” I have already shown that the latter statement is not true ; but if it were, the former could not beso; and the reason- ing can little deserve the term of strict mathematical induction, which assumes in its support as true two propositions quite inconsistent with each other; namely, that the intensity of the motion communicated to A’ by the impulse is stroke is equal to ee or half the momentum of A, and also equal to the momentum of the moving body, or the whole momentum of A. It is, however, worthy of the corollory which he founds upon it, but which has already been sufficiently refuted. “Hence,” he says, “the two equal bodies after the impulse recede towards the parts whence they came with the same momenta they had before they met.” “ In the theory of motion rightly understood,” says Maclaurin, 216 C.’s Reply to D. (Serr. in his Account of Newton’s Philosophical Discoveries, p. 130, “the same laws that serve for comparing, compounding, or resolving motions, are likewise observed by pressures ; that is, the powers that generate motion or tend to produce it; and it adds no small beauty to this theory-ef motion that both observe the same laws.” Accordingly many of the laws of collision of bodies are afterwards exhibited by Maclaurin from the effects of pressure. In formerly observing, therefore, upon Mr. H.’s theory, | exhibited the incorrect consequences which were dedu- cible from his reasoning on the laws of motion in a sentence similar to the corallary just quoted, by an instance of its effect in a case of pressure. ‘ Thus if a man push with all his strength against a wall, say with a force as 10, action and reaction being equal, the wall resists with a force as 10, exactly in a similar manner to the fixed plane in Mr. H.’s proposition. If instead of the wall there be an opposing active force, another person, for instance, pushing agamst the first with an exactly equal force, the effect to the first will be just the same as the wall, and neither person will be able to move the other. But by Mr. Herapath’s reasoning, each person would be acted on ina direction opposite to that towards which he pushed, by a force equal to twice the force of either one; thatis, with a force as 20; and consequently both must be pushed backwards ; a conclusion notoriously con- trary to fact. And yet this is the reasoning by which are to be overturned, in one short page, the doctrines of Newton, Maclau- tin, Hutton, Playfair, and innumerable other mathematicians, m relation to the collision of hard bodies; the first principles of which too are as nearly as possible self-evident.” Upon this, D. ‘observes, “‘ These sentences, as far as I understand them, dis- tinctly charge Mr. H. with confounding pressure with impulse.” Certainly no understanding can be worse than one which chooses to misunderstand, and no other could derive such a charge from those sentences. He adds afterwards, “ C. tells us that the pushing case I have just quoted which (with how much truth the reader may judge from the counter quotations), he informs the world, is Mr. Herapath’s, is that, by which it is intended by Mr. H. that the doctrines of Newton,” &c. “ are to be overturned, in relation to the collision of hard bodies.” I will only observe upon this, that the extract is all that I ever said on the subject ; and it may be thence ascertained whether, when D. said that I charged Mr. H. “ with confounding pressure with impulse,” that Linformed the world that “ the pushing case,” as he calls it, was Mr. Herapath’s, and that I told them it was by that by which it was intended by Mr. H. that the doctrines of Newton, &c. were to be overturned, his assertion was not absolutely untrue. His motive in the assertion may be gathered from his insinuation that what I said was not accordant with truth. I have now, I believe, examined all that-is offered in the form of reasoning in D.’s papers. Had it indeed been reasoning, 1822.] C.’s Reply to D. 217 however able or severe it might have been, and however difficult to have been answered, that examination would have given me much pleasure. The mental effort required to meet a powerful argument, though great, is invigorating to the mind, and health- ful; and gives it that tone and elastic energy which is no incon- siderable enjoyment; but the toil of dissecting and exposing a vast mass of misstatement and misrepresentation, though less difficult to accomplish, is merely laborious, fatiguing, and dis- gusting ; and I fear the exposition will be found so by your readers. There still, however, remain one or two topics which D. has used for declamation, which will claim a few observa- tions. The first which I would notice is the boast that Mr. H. has compared his theory with so many experiments, and has pre- dicted the phenomena of so many new and untried cases. Pro- bably the credit which is claimed for Mr. H. in his prophetic character may not be readily granted, as long as the cases remain new and untried. It is, however, by no means extraor- dinary, that he should be able by his theory plausibly to explain many phenomena. Seriously to publish any hypothesis which was evidently incompetent to account for any of the phenomena of nature, would prove the writer not foolish, but insane ; it is, therefore, to be expected, that every theory should afford an explanation of some class of experiments or observations. But that which may properly be demanded of it is, that it should besides be consistent with all the phenomena of nature ; for if its truth be clearly contradicted by any one fact, that is sufficient to prove its incorrectness. In my former paper, I pointed out » many cases in which facts were inconsistent with the theory ; and in this, I have endeavoured to show that they still remain unexplained. But Mr. H. himself admits that his theory opposes conclusions drawn by other writers, though the observations on which they are founded are exceedingly numerous. Thus he does not hesitate to conclude, that if two in volume of hydrogen unite with one in volume of oxygen to form water, the atoms of oxygen will be double in number those of hydrogen. (Annals, June, 1821, p. 403.) Yet that conclusion is opposed by almost all the ablest chemical writers. The manner in which the coincidence between the theory and those experiments with which it accords is produced is so singu- lar, that it will deserve a few moments’ examination. ‘ On the supposition,” says Mr. H. “ that mercury and water are homoge- neous fluids, | have found from the best experiments I can pro- cure, that the ratio of the numeratoms of mercury and water is about equal to that of 1 to 2; and the ratio of the magnitudes of the particles equal to about that of 27 to 1; and, therefore, the ratio of their diameters, supposing them similar, about that of 3 tol. This greater numeratom of the water is indicated by the mean temperature of the mixture of equal parts of mercury and 218 C.’s Reply to D. [Supr. water always being in favour of the temperature of the water, and the excess of magnitude in the particles of mercury by its less disposition to be affected in volume by changes of tempera- ture.” Thus it appears that Mr. H. pretends to ascertain the proportionate number of atoms by the mean temperature of the bodies on their mixture, as determined by experiment; and. it having been so determined that if a given volume of mercury at the temperature of 100° Fahr. be mixed with an equal volume of water at the temperature of 40°, the temperature of the mixture is about 60°, and consequently that the effect ofthe water upon the temperature in proportion to that of mercury is as 2 to 1 nearly, that is assumed by Mr. H. to be the proportionate number of atoms. Mr.H.then proceeds, “ Taking these numbers for cor- rect, I find that if a given volume of mercury at the temperature of 100° Fahr. be mixed with an equal volume of water at the temperature of 40°, the temperature of the mixture should be 592°; by Dr. Henry, itis 60°. And if the same temperatures be taken, but the water be put at the higher, and the mercury at the lower temperature, the mixture should be at 791°: Dr. Henry says it is nearly 80°.” Thus it is first assumed that if upon the mixture of equal quantities of mercury at 100°, and water at 40°, the resulting temperature is 60°, the numeratom, as Mr. H. calls it; that is, the proportionate number of atoms in the water in comparison with those in the mercury shall be as 2to1. And the comparison of Mr. H.’s theory with experiment consists in reasoning back again, that if the numeratom be as 2 to 1, then if a given quantity of mercury at 100° be mixed with an equal quantity of water at 40°, the resulting temperature ought to be nearly 60°. That is, if it be true that if the result- ing temperature be as 60°, the numeratom must be as 2 to 1, then if the numeratom be as 2 to 1, the resulting temperature shall be as 60°. So that if you will tell Mr. H. what will be the result- ing temperature of a mixture of two fluids having certain previous temperatures, he will by his theory again tell you the very same, and will also calculate what wili be the temperature of a mixture of the same fluids mingled at other temperatures. This mode of reasoning will doubtless give results very accurately coincid~ ing with experiments, but as it is merely reasoning in a circle, it can tend very little to prove the truth of the theory, however long a list may be furnished of such facts. Another topic to which D. frequently refers, with much appa- rent self gratulation, is the opinions of other philosophers, and chiefly that of Sir I. Newton. To him he refers more than a dozen times, but only once for the purpose of making a quota- tion in confirmation of the theory, and that once he draws an inference which the next sentence would have shown was incor- rect, and which is directly contradicted by other parts of his works. With what justice he claims the support of several other philosephical writers to whom he has referred, the extracts 3822.) C.’s Reply to D. 219 which I have already given will sufficiently show. With respect to Sir I, Newton’s opinions also, I have already proved by extracts from his works, that on the laws of collision, they directly, both in words and meaning, contradict Mr. Hera- path’s. Even, therefore, if Newton had positively stated it as his opinion that there did exist such a gravitic medium as Mr. H. speaks of, and that he really considered it to be proved that heat was only motion, yet as Mr. H.’s laws of collision of hard bodies is at the very basis of his theory, there would still exist a differ- ence in relation to all that is peculiar to Mr. Herapath’s philoso- phy. The manner, however, in which Newton suggests these peculiar thoughts on heat and gravity is so striking an illustra- tion of the distinction which should be made in the statement of hypotheses and facts, and offers so singular an instance of the modesty of his exalted mind, that I cannot refuse myself the pleasure of making some extracts. “ But,” says Maclaurin, speaking of Sir I. Newton, in his Account of his Philosophical Discoveries, p. 9, ‘ while he was thus demonstrating a great number of truths, he could not but meet with hints of many other things that his sagacity and dili- ent observation suggested to him, which he was not able to establish with equal certainty, and as these were not to be neg- lected but to be separated with care from the others, he, there- fore, collected them together, and proposed them under the modest title of queries.” It is in those queries, and in what he calls ‘“ Cogztationes varia,” that are contained those speculations of Newton on the causes and nature of heat and gravity, to which D. refers. But the manner in which he suggests them affords no pretence to consider them his opinions. Thus in the advertisement to that art of his works, in which the “Question” relating to gravity is published (Newt. Opera, vol. iv), he says, “‘ And to show that I do not take gravity for an essential property of bodies, I have added one question concerning its cause, choosing to propose it by way of a question, because [ am not yet satisfied about it for want of experiments.” And in the question itself, speaking of the objections made to his opinion of gravity, because he cannot account for the causes, he says, ‘‘ Later philosophers banish the consideration of such things out of natural philosophy, feigning hypotheses for explaining all things mechanically, and referring other causes to metaphysics ; whereas the main business of natural philosophy is to argue from phenomena. without feigning liypotheses, and to deduce causes from effects till we come to the very first cause, which certainly is not mechanical.” Jn his letter to the Hon. Mr. Boyle (Ibid. p. 385), he says, ‘“ The truth is, my notions about things of this kind are so indigested, that I am not well satisfied myself about them; and what I am not satisfied in, I can scarce esteem fit to be communicated to others, especially in natural philosophy, where there is no end of 220 . C.’s Reply to D. [Sepr. fancying.” And he then adds, “ I shall set down my apprehen- sions in the form of suppositions.” He concludes the same letter: ‘‘ But by what has been said, you will easily discern whether in these conjectures there be any degree of probability, which is all I aim at. For my own part, I have so little fancy to things of this nature, that had not your encouragement moved me to it, I should never, I think, have thus far set pen to paper about them. What is amiss, therefore, I hope you will the more easily pardon.” The contrast which is thus afforded by the style of Newton to the manner in which Mr. Herapath and D. have written on the same subject, though exceedingly striking, will occasion no sur- prise to those who are accustomed to look for modesty and sim- plicity from minds in proportion as they are elevated and supe- rior; and to expect that by how much experimental and philo- sophical truth is habitually contemplated with a clear and lucid perception, by just so much will these ‘ conjectures,” these “ feigned hypotheses,” these “ fancies,” as Newton calls them, be esteemed doubtful and worthless. There are many other parts of D.’s papers which it will be perceived I have not thought worth notice. When, for instance, he over and over again mockingly repeats without any sensible ‘application or meaning, phrases which I formerly used ; when too he asserts that I am “ unacquainted with one of the com- monest of Newton’s ideas,” speaks of my “ conclusions too absurd to be entertained by any other person,” “ ridiculous con- clusions,” ‘ temerity,” “ folly,” “ absurdity,” ‘ presumption,” “‘ quibbling ;” recommends me to avoid “ equivocation,” “ sub- terfuge,” ‘ paltry attempt to evade,” &c. with many other such imsinuations and expressions, I have thought such things not deserving an answer; they only degraded the writer, if they were not indeed to be expected as the natural style and manner of one capable of the wilful misstatements and misrepresentations which I have exposed. Very many other similar misstatements and misrepresentations I have passed over without observation, where they were not interwoven with the propositions offered as answers to what I had previously written ; | have shown enough to guard his readers against receiving as true, without examina- tion, any of his assertions, however positively made; and the occupation of exposing them is too unpleasant and disgusting not to be avoided as much as it can be done with propriety. With respect to the author of these papers, I certainly will not choose to attribute them to Mr. Herapath himself. I am aware that Mr. H. has been misled into a manner of attack upon what he calls the “ illiberal opposition ” from members of the Royal Society, and the “ absurdities and strange paralogies” of Mr. Tredgold, which will give some countenance to the suppo- sition that he might have been tempted to indulge in any longer paper, in the more liberal use of those terms not usual in philo- 1822.] C.’s Reply to D. 99) sophical controversies, but which are contained in the papers of D. Nor can it be unobserved that there is in these papers an apparent most intimate acquaintance with every part of the theory of Mr. H. both published and unpublished, and of the meaning, and even secret motives of the expressions and omis- sions in Mr. H.’s former papers, and at the same time an un- usually energetic and triumphant interest in his philosophical opinions. These things may probably induce many persons to do Mr. H. the injustice to ascribe the papers to him, and, per- haps, therefore, he may. think it worth while publicly to disown them ; but for myself, having traced in them so many other unfounded assumptions, I can easily admit that these circum- stances should be added to the number. The contrary too is not so easily conceived. Though indeed it is neither extraordinary nor unpardonable that a writer, having with no inconsiderable labour prepared a new theory in an important branch of natural philosophy, should be induced to value it rather more highly perhaps than its merits would warrant, and be led by a zeal and energy in its support, to use language not suited nor usual in philosophical discussions ; it is not easily to be imagined that any one who feels within him any pulse of honourable ambition, to distinguish himself in the scientific discoveries and controvet- sies of the age, should almost at his very outset stoop to such a course of wilful misstatement and misrepresentation as D.’s papers exhibit, even to the extent of giving in inverted commas as the literal expressions of a writer, what was never written, meant, or thought by him. Such conduct must necessarily wither all his hopes in their very opening, by rendering it impossible for an person of honourable feeling to continue a correspondence with him. I must indeed still think that Mr. Herapath has mistaken the path to philosophical science, in departing from experiment and observation, as the foundation of his opinions, and resting them on certain supposed properties of bodies, the knowledge of the existence of which is not deduced from the examination of phe- nomena, but springs from the imagination ; contenting himself, if the theory be so framed, as to accord with some one consider- able class of facts. Such was not Newton’s mode of philosophi- cal discovery. ‘“ Quicquid enim ex phenomenis non deducitur aces vocanda est; et hypotheses, seu metaphysice, seu physice, seu qualitatum occultarum, seu mechanice, in philoso- phia experimentali locum non habent.” (Newt. Opera, vol. iv. p. 493.) ‘The main business of natural philosophy is to argue from phenomena without feigning hypotheses,” and when once the inductive philosophy is departed from, and the imagination, instead of fact and observation, is made the basis of theory, “there is no end of fancying.” But however much it may be necessary that Mr. H. should change his course of philosophical thought and study before he can generally attain among scientific men 922 Lunar and Solar Phenomena seen at Toula, Russia. [Surr. that rank as a philosopher to which he seems to aspire, his sup- porter D. has much more to change in his manner and style of writing, and his integrity as a controversialist, before he cam deserve that any further arguments or observations of his should be regarded with any other feeling than contempt. I remain, yours, &c. Gy ArticLe VIII. Lunar and Solar Phenomena seenat Toula, in Russia. By Mr. Longmire. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, Whitehaven, Aug. 8, 1822. On Feb. 18, 1819, O. S. at about eight o’clock, p. m. the moon being nearly full, and nine degrees above the horizon, and the night still and very clear, with hard frost, there appeared | near the moon six perpendicular 4 spires of light; every two of which had a common base in the hed | middle, and in a horizontal line 7 | “4 | drawn through the moon’s cen- _ ~~\{>> > tre. The whole formed three B! perpendicular elongations of q light; the middle one being on the moon, and the others, at 9° b on each side of it. The point of the upper spire at the moon was 16° above the horizon, and the inverted spire extended to the ground. The other elonga- tions were half the length and breadth of the middle spires ; whose base was equal to the apparent diameter of the moon; which, where these spires were seen, was enlarged one-fifth. The colour of the elongation at the moon was a light yellow, . unbroken for two thirds of the length; but nearer both points, it consisted of perpendicular blue streaks, somewhat lighter than the sky. Perpendicular blue streaks formed the other elonga- tions. The stars shone through the streaks, and the sky was seen in the spaces between them I have attached a sketch to this paper in which A is the moon, B the spires on it, C D the other spires; the parts a 6 are light yellow: and the parts ¢ c, with the whole of the spires C D, are ue. These very beautiful phenomena were visible to a spectatorin the town, but not in the country adjoining it. The heat from 1822.] Analyses of Books. 293 the houses seemed to melt a highly attenuated frosty vapour in the air, and in this heated medium, the spires were situated. In the month of July, the same year, I observed a perpendi- cular elongation of faintly reddish light from the setting sun to the clouds. Its breadth was equal to the sun’s diameter. The western sky was covered with clouds, except an opening round the sun 15° high, and 12° wide. The departing rays, as is usual in this country in summer, coloured the edges of the clouds, wherever they penetrated, a scarlet red; and from the unevenness of the surface, gave the illuminated parts the appear- ance of flame. This elongation of light appeared to extend forward nearly to the observer. The place where I stood was on rising ground near the town; at about half a mile in front was the river Oupa. In the vapour rising from the river, and the dampy holm on this side of it, originates this elongation of the sun’s figure. ARTICLE IX. ANALYSES OF Books. Memoirs of the Astronomical Society of London. Vol. I. London. 1822. (Concluded from p. 153.) The second of the three memoirs furnished by the Rey. William Pearson, is entitled, ‘‘ On the Construction and Use of a Mi- crometrical Eye-piece ofa Telescope.” The rationale of the new contrivance is given, previously to explaining the application of the doubly-refracting power to some of the most delicate measurements in practical astronomy ; but this preliminary disqui- sition, which is extended to a considerable length, not admitting of intelligible abridgment, nor indeed bearing very materially on the subject, we shall proceed to give Dr. Pearson’s account of the application of this power. ‘ In measuring the diameter of a small body of sensible dimensions, the sliding tube containing the prism must be steadily and gradually moved by the finger and thumb, backwards or forwards, until after adjustment for good vision, the two images of the object come exactly into contact, edge to edge: in this situation the distance indicated, will be the argument for entering the table of powers ; and the power there seen by inspection, will be the proper argument for entering the table of measures, which will give at sight the appa- rent diameter, in seconds and parts of a second, without further correction. When the angular distance between two stars, satellites, or other luminous points, is required to be measured, 224 Analyses of Books. [Szrr. there will be two pairs of images formed, and these may fall in any direction with respect to each other; but turning the move- able tube with the prism round more or less will bring the four luminous images into one straight line ; in which position, if the second and third images coincide exactly, the measure will at once be correct; but if not, the distance between the lenses must be varied until this coincidence takes place. Should the prism used be found to have too great or too small an angle at any of the distances marked in the scale, it must be changed for another having a more suitable angle, and must be adjusted as before directed. In all cases where one of two contiguous stars . is much smaller in appearance than the other, and is yet visible through the prism, the small one will be lost by super-position on the larger, and must, therefore, be made to pass over its centre by a slow motion given by rotation of the tube, when an esti- mate may be made of the exactness of the central transit ; or otherwise, the four visible images may be formed into an exact square, when it will appear whether or not the bounding sides of the figure are equal to each other; and if they are, the proper distance will be indicated in that position.” These directions are illustrated by a tabular account of the actual application of the micrometrical eye-piece to various celestial measurements ; and the memoir concludes with extensive tables of powers and measures, of which. it is not possible to give an intelligible abridgement. Of the sixth memoir, ‘‘ On the Construction of a New Posi- tion-Micrometer, depending on the Doubly-refractive Power of Rock Crystal,” a very short notice will be sufficient. Before proceeding to describe the addition made to the former instru- ment, a method is mentioned by which Dr. Pearson varies the constant angle of a prismatic solid, by the juxta-position of a second solid of double refraction ; a method which, says he, “to me is new, but which probably may be known to those philosophers, who have studied more minutely the laws of the polarization of light.” By what arrangement the eye-piece micrometer with double images is converted into a position- micrometer, the following extract will render sufficiently obvious. “When a crystal of the micrometer was applied before the eye- piece of a transit instrument, all the spider’s lines, as was expected, were seen double ; as was also a star or other luminous point placed at a distance. But turning the prism round a little, soon brought all the images of the vertical lines into contact with the lines themselves, and the coincidence was perfect as to breadth, but not as to length of the lines in question: the image of the star in the mean time revolved round the star itself with- out coming into contact. Likewise when two stars, in the same field of view, are examined through a doubly refracting prism, a line connecting either star and its own image will be truly verti- cal, when the image of the vertical line is coincident with the 1822.3 Memoirs of the Astronomical Society, Vol. I. 225 line itself, which may always be made so by turning round the rism. While the image of the vertical line was separated from the line itself to its greatest distance, by turning the prism, the image of the star circulated round the star the space of an exact quadrant. In this situation the horizontal line and its image coincided as to breadth, but not as to length, just as the vertical line and its image had done before: and separating them to their greatest distance, brought the vertical line and its image again into a state of coimcidence; while the image of the star moved through another quadrant. The same appearances took place in the quadrantal point ofthe other semicircle. This expe- riment led to an immediate conclusion, that if a vernier connected with the revolving prismatic solid, were made to travel along a graduated circle, until a pair of stars and their images. are all seen arranged in one straight line, it would indicate, in that posi- tion, the angle that this line makes with the vertical or horizon- tal line, accordingly as the graduations might be figured on the limb; provided that the zero of the circle has been previously adjusted to the vernier, while one of the vertical or horizontal lines had its respective image coincident therewith.” The instrument was completely adapted to its purpose by substituting for the thread of a spider’s web, which was liable to be injured by turning the tube or cleaning the lens, a fine line made by drawing a diamond diametrically across the plain face of the lens. The next memoir contains ‘‘ Observations on the best Mode of examining the Double or Compound Stars ; together with a Catalogue of those whose Places have been identified, by James South, Esq. FRS. FLS. &c.” In consequence of Sir ae Herschell having employed in the examination of double stars, instruments of powers much greater than fixed instruments generally possess, a method has been given by him for finding a double star, not only equal, but indeed as he asserts, superior to having its right ascension and declination given. At the time when this opinion was expressed, and for several years after- wards, the highest power belonging to any of the fixed instru- ments did not exceed 80: they were, therefore, quite inadequate to this particular species of astronomical research. Now, however, it appears that telescopes admitting of magnifying powers equal to 500 or GUO are attached to fixed instruments ; and in all cases where compound stars can be resolved by such owers, Sir William Herschell, it may be inferred notwithstand- ing all that he has said apparently to the contrary, would fully admit their convenience and sufficiency. The difference, there- fore, betwixt the author and this celebrated astronomer is a mere shadow; and did not demand in its delineation any of those expressions of diffidence, which deference to an authority so elevated, if actually opposed, would inevitably call forth. ‘The peculiar fitness of fixed instruments,” says Mr. South, “ may be New Series, vou. 1v. Q 226 Analyses of Books. [Sepr. substantiated by their superior steadiness ; by the unerring cer- tainty with which they may be directed to the wished-for star; by the opportunity they afford us of examining any star at its most advantageous situation ; by the uniformity in the appear- ance of the compound stars, which they present to the eye and position of the observer, thereby materially assisting him in sub- sequent observations ; and, lastly, by the facility which they afford to the dispatch of business.” A letter from Professor Gauss, dated Observatory, Gottingen, and addressed to Mr. Herschell, the Foreign Secretary, gives an account of “ the new Meridian Circle at Gottingen,” constructed by the celebrated artist Reichenbach. It is adapted at once for a transit, and for the measurement of altitudes, and possesses (in common with the most perfect meridian telescopes) all the adjustments requisite for their purpose. The telescope is tive Paris feet in focal length, and four Paris inches in aperture. The four eye-pieces magnify respectively 68, 86, 120, and 170 times. The cross wires consist of seven vertical and two horizontal spider-threads. The intervals between the former are each tra- versed by an equatorial star in 14”. The horizontal onés are only 76 asunder. The axis, 35 Paris inches in length, carries on one side two concentric circles whose outer surfaces (or those furthest from the telescope) lie nearly in one plane. The exte- rior circle (which being fastened on the axis, revolves with the telescope), bears the divisions which are to every three minutes. The inner, or altdade circle, would turn freely about the axis, were it not for a clamp fastened on the pillar. This allows it only a small delicate motion for the purpose of adjusting the level fastened upon it. On this alidade circle are the four indices, each 45° from the vertical line, with their verniers ; which sub- divide the principal division into 90 parts each, and consequently from 2” to 2”, and yet smaller parts admit of estimation, The diameter of the circle where the reading-off takes place is 35 Paris inches. That both circles, without being in actual con- tact, are yet separated by an interval scarce perceptible, and that in consequence, the microscopes for reading-off are purposely set somewhat obliquely, the surface of the dividing circle stand- ing out alittle, although but extremely little beyond that of the alidade circle, are adjustments which this instrument possesses in common with others by the same artist. Such, with the addi- tion of a few unimportant particulars, is the account of this valu- able instrument. Ofits great correctness striking instances are furnished by tne observations of M. Gauss ; but we think it right not to extend this article further than to insert the following notice, by the Foreign Secretary: “‘ A point which has occu- pied the attention of astronomers for some years, though it involves only a few seconds, is yet of the highest importance, both in reference to the art of astronomical observation, and on account of the numerous astronomical elements, whose exact 1822.] Memoirs of the Astronomical Society, Vol. I. 227 deterniination depends on it; I mean the minute difference in the declinations of stars, the obliquity of the ecliptic, and the altitude of the pole, which appear. in their determination by different, though very excellent instruments. There is no doubt these differences arise from the action of gravity on the different parts of each instrument, though hitherto the mode of this action has not been clearly pointed out, nor is it possible to pronounce decidedly which instrument has afforded the right and which the wrong result. We know, in fact, very little of the extent to which the yielding of the metals may go; and it seems too hazardous to deny the possibility of this cause exercising a nota- ble influence on the divisions, and in consequence on the obser- vations in any instrument, whatever be its construction, without grounding such denial on sufficient proof. In our meridian circle the great artist has done every thing to obviate the flexure of the telescope by a well adapted system of counterpoises: still a doubt may remain, whether all the flexure be done away with by that means, or rendered quite insensible; and the only direct means of ascertaining the point seems to be, the combination of immediate observations of a heavenly body with those of its image reflected in an artificial horizon. Such observations must of course be frequently repeated to clear up a point of so much delicacy. M. Gauss has already entered on this inquiry by observing the pole-star in a reflecting surface of water. It is, perhaps, the most striking proof of the astonishing optical power of the telescope, that the superior culmination may be very well observed in this manner even in the day time. The result of the first complete observation of this kind was as follows: May 13, 1820.—Zenith distance of the north star, free from refraction, but including the error of culmination. ; Fp agp Direct 319° 50’ 20:73” Inferior culmination Rafiected 2201/60 4304 DEERE ETA Direct 323 8 41°51 uperior ditto ...+++ Reflected 216 46 44:31 Hence we deduce the true zenith distance. Inferior culmination ...... 40° 7” 21°60” Superior ditto. ...... perme Oat: NS mba 40) And hence (the change of declination in 12 hours being — 01) the latitude of the place of the water vessel is 51° 31’ 48”-45, and that of the centre of the circle 51° 31’ 48-40. This being nearly a mean between the two above given, it is rendered very probable that the effect of its weight on the observations with this instrument are either quite insensible or at least extremely small.” Such observations as Mr. Baily was able to make on the Solar Eclipse which took place on the 7th of Sept. 1820, with those Q 2 228 Analyses of Books. [Serr. which were communicated to him by accurate observers, con- stitute the ninth memoir in this collection. Considering the number of good observers who must have witnessed this inte- resting phenomenon, the number and importance of the commu- nications is not so great as Mr. Baily had reason to expect; more especially, we may be allowed to add, considering the very scientific and impressive manner in which astronomers had been awakened to the occurrence, by the extensive gratuitous circula- tion of a dissertation on that eclipse, printed for that very purpose by Mr. Baily: an example of disinterested exertion, at once honourable to the author and to science. According to Mr- Baily’s observations made at Kentish Town, north latitude 51° 33’ 34”, and west longitude 35”:2 in time, the beginning was 0 21’ 42”-4, the end 3" 13’ 41”*1 (mean time at the place), and the duration, therefore, 2" 51’ 58’°7. The apparent diame- ter of the moon, and the distance of the borders of the sun and moon, were measured with great accuracy ; and the steps taken for measuring, as well as for correction, are very clearly dis- played. A barometer, with a thermometer within and without, were also noticed during the progress of the eclipse, but without observing any alteration in either of them. The diminution of light he states to have been very trifling; by no means so great as in the eclipse which occurred Noy, 1816, although only -78 of the sun’s disc was then obscured, and 87 on the occasion now adverted to. Venus was seen, however, by thousands of spec- tators with the naked eye, and Mars was visible to many. We pass over the observations of Mr. Dollond, Mr. Groombridge, and Dr. Pearson, which do not convey any new or curious informa- tion on the subject, to insert those of Mr. Wiseman, of Norwich, which are both new and curious. After stating that, according to Mr. Wiseman, the eclipse began at Norwich (north latitude 52° 38’, east long. 5’ 10” in time from Greenwich), at 0" 28’ 45”, and ended at 3" 21’ 40”, Mr. Baily thus continues the narrative : “« This gentleman has also sent me the result of some experiments on the power of the burning lens on different substances, dur- ing the time of the eclipse. Having procured a piece of paste- board, he affixed thereto four equal pieces of different coloured cloths ; viz. black, blue, yellow, and red ; and placed them suc- cessively in the focus of a burning lens on the day preceding the eclipse. The following are the periods at which they respect- ively took fire : viz. Black in seven seconds. Blue in seven seconds. Red in eight seconds. Yellow in sixteen seconds. He also, on the same day, submitted the bulb of a thermome- ter (which then stood at 66°) to the focus of the lens ; andin 14 minute it rose to 94°, and probably would have risen higher, had 1822.] Memoirs of the Astronomical Society, Vol. I. 299 he not been apprehensive that the giass would have been broken by the heat. These experiments were made at about two o’clock im the afternoon, in order that they might correspond with the time of the eclipse at its greatest obscuration. On the following day, about half an hour after the commencement of the eclipse, he applied the cloths in succession to the focus of the lens, and found the periods at which they respectively took fire to be as follow ; viz. © Black in twenty seconds. Blue in twenty seconds. Red in sixteen seconds. Yellow in forty seconds. At about half an hour before the end of the eclipse, he again submitted them to the focus of the lens, and found their periods of ignition to be as under; viz. Black in seventeen seconds. Blue in eighteen seconds. Red in fourteen seconds. Yellow in twenty-four seconds. But during the time of the greatest obscuration, he could not produce any effect upon them whatever. The thermometer at the commencement of the eclipse was at 66°, and by two o’clock had fallen to 612°. This was about the middle of the eclipse ; and Mr. Wiseman assures me that at this time he held the bulb in the focus of the burning lens for upwards of four minutes, but without producing any sensible effect. At a quarter past two, he repeated the same experiment, and with the same result, although the sun was free from clouds. At the termination of the eclipse, the thermometer rose to 64°. Mr. Wiseman also states that he fitted up a prism ina darkened room, and that he made several observations on the coloured rays which were thrown on a screen of white paper. He says, that during the continuance of the eclipse, the yellow and blue rays were gene- rally increased in brilliancy, whilst the red became exceedingly faint, and did not occupy more than half their usual breadth. As I am not aware that any experiments of a similar kind were made during this eclipse, and as the results are somewhat singu- lar, although anticipated by Mr. Wiseman, I have thought it right to state them here, in order that the attention of the public may be excited thereto in any future eclipse.” Mr. Baily received some communications from the Continent, which tend to confirm the observations made by former astronomers, on this singular and rare phenomenon. ‘The formation of the annulus is mentioned by Mr. Albert, at Frankfort on the Maine, by Prof. Stark, at Augsburg, who represents its duration to have been 5% 47/5, by Prof. Schwerd, at Spire, who describes a bright spot at the point of one of the horns, six seconds before the annulus 930 Analyses of Books. {Serr, was formed, and by M. Nicolai, at the Observatory of the Grand - Duke of Baden, at Manheim, whose account deserves to be transcribed. ‘‘ The actual formation of the annulus was very remarkable; for about a second before it occurred, the fine curve of the moon's disc, then immediately in contact with the - : edge of the sun, appeared broken into several parts; and ina moment these parts flowed together like drops of water or quicksilver placed near each other. At the dissolution ofthe annulus, a similar appearance presented itself; for the delicate thread of light then formed by the annulus, instead of being broken in one place only, was, in an instant, divided in several places at once. The thermometer (reduced to Fahrenheit’s scale) was at the commencement of the eclipse at 664°, and fell towards the middle to 63°, but afterwards rose again to 661°.” Prof. Moll, of Utrecht, in a memoir entitled, like the preced- ing, ‘ On the Solar Eclipse which took place on Sept. 7, 1820,” has transmitted an account of numerous observations made at Amsterdam, Groningen, and Middelburg. Prof. Van Swinden’s statement respecting the formation of the annulus is exceedingly interesting, but without the aid of his figures would not be well understood: besides, we suspect that the venerable author of the Positiones Physice, has experienced at the time, perhaps through his enthusiasm in the cause, certain optical delusions. Mr. Grave, also of Amsterdam, adds likewise some remarks as to the appearance of the eclipse. He made use of an English reflector made by Mann. The formation of the annulus appeared to Mr. Grave the most beautiful phenomenon which he ever beheld, and he has delineated it with considerable effect. Of the remaining memoirs composing this valuable volume, we cannot convey any important account, in the abridged form to which we are confined ; we regret the less, therefore, that the space still remaining allows only the repetition of their titles: viz; On the Comet discovered in the Constellation Pegasus in 1821, by M. Nicollet, of Paris. On the Comet discovered in the | Constellation Pegasus in 1821; and on the luminous appear- ance observed on the dark side of the Moon on Feb. 5, 1821, by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen. On a luminous appearance seen on the dark part of the Moonin May, 1821, by'the Rev. M. Ward. On the Occultations of Fixed Stars by the Moon; on the Re- peating Circle ; on the Perturbations of the new Planets; and Observations on the late Comet and the Planet Vesta, by Prof. Littrow, of Vieuna. On the Places of 145 new Double Stars, by Sir William Herschell, President of the Astronomical Society. Universal Tables for the reduction of the Fixed Stars, by S. Groombridge, Esq. ; and, lastly (17th memoir), Observations of the Solar Eclipse which took place on Sept. 7, 1820; com- ~ municated in a letter from M. Piazzi to the Foreign Secretary. 1822. ] Scientific Intelligence. 231 ARTICLE X. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, AND NOTICES OF SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH SCIENCE. I. Abbé Haiiy. The following account of the acciJent which occasioned the death of this eminent philosopher, has been transmitted by a medical friend at Paris to the Editor, accompanied with a copy of Baron Cuvier’s discourse at his funeral, the original, of which our readers will prefer to any translation :—- On the afternoon of the 14th of May, while alone in his cabinet, the Abbé Haiiy fell down, I rather imagine in consequence of a slip, for I cannot find that he suffered any loss of sensibility, nor did he subse- quently exhibit any symptom of cerebral affection, which could war- rant the idea of a fit. After some little time, he managed to call his attendants to his assist- ance. Some days elapsed before the exact nature of the injury which he had received was ascertained, the pain which he experienced from it, added to that which he before acutely suffered from a nephritic complaint, rendering a very minute examination difficult. After some time, however, a fracture of the neck of the os, femoris was discovered. Fortunately for the Abbé, he was attended by Almand, surgeon to the Hospice Salpetriere ; and as this gentleman does not, like many of his countrymen, entertain vain hopes of reunion in fractures of this kind, the good old man was spared the fatigue of a useless and distressing apparatus. Notwithstanding the diminution in his strength and appetite, the Abbé continued to cherish the prospect of recovery till almost the last; aad in conversation with the few scientific friends who were permitted to see him, he exhibited full proof of the unabated vigour ef his recol- lection and reasoning powers. A few days before his death, which occurred about nine o'clock on the morning of the Ist of June, it was discovered that a collection of matter had formed, after the evacuation of which, his decline became more rapid than it had previously been. The extreme heat of the weather, probably had some effect in accele- rating it. In consequence of the Abbé Haiiy’s being Canon of Notre Dame, custom required a considerable service to be celebrated in the cathe- dral on the occasion of his funeral, but the circumstance of its happen- ing on the day on which that building was occupied by the Chamber of Deputies, in the performance of the usual ceremony on the election of new members, prevented this service from being performed there, and a dispensation was obtained to go through it in the Abbe’s parish church. My engagements prevented me from being present on this occasion, but the ceremony must have been one of considerable length, for though the corpse left the garden between 10 and 11, it did not: reach Pére la Chaise till nearly three o’clock. Here too I was nearly prevented from attending, for it happened that on that very day, the students of Law and Medicine were desirous 232 Scientific Intelligence. [Sepr. of paying anniversary honours to a young man of the name of Allemand, who, two years before, had been killed by the gens d’armes. Witha view to thwart them, the police placed troops to stop the different avenues to the burying-ground. By some of these I was forbidden entrance, but I was more successful in a second attempt, when I walked by the side of the corps. Several of the company were less fortunate, and were absolutely refused admittance. Gay-Lussac, the President of the Institute this year, attended with several of his fellow-members; and the Baron Cuvier read the speech, of which I have sent a copy. While this was being read, some of the Abbé’s brother professors, whose years indicated that they must ere long follow him, were melted into tears. Most of the company, according to custom, sprinkled holy water over the grave before leaving it. A small body of the veteran troop employed as the guard at the garden, attended the funeral, and while standing at the ground, fired twice in platoons, and on retiring they singly discharged their pieces into the grave. The new edition of the Abbe’s Mineralogy will very shortly be pub- lished; he had, as he told me, very nearly brought it to a conclusion himself. He laboured at it very closely, and was as anxious about his success and credit as any young author could be. —< FuUNERAILLES DE M. Lt’ Asse Hauvy. Le 3 Juin, 1822, ont en lieu les funérailles de M. ? Abbé (René-Just) Haiiy, Membre de l' Académie Royale des Sciences. Arrwé au liew de la sépulture, M. le Baron Cuvier, Secrétatre Perpétuel de 2 Académie Royale des Sciences, et Directeur du Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle, a prononcé, au nom des deux établissemens le discours survant, Messreurs.~-Par quelle fatalité Ja mort semble-t-elle depuis quelque temps se plaire 4 redoubler ses coups ? En peu de jours nous avons accompagné, vers ses tristes et derniers demeures, les Hallé, les Richelieu, les Sicard, les Vanspaendonck. Ni les talents, ni les grandeurs, ni les services rendus a /humanité ‘n’ont pu a doucir ses arréts. Elle frappe aujourd’hui Je génie et la vertu; elle nous enléve 4 la fois le plus parfait modéle du scrutateur de la nature, et celui du sage, ‘heureux de la jouissance de la vérité, de ce bonheur sur lequel ne ‘peuvent rien ni les révolutions ni les caprices du sort. ; Au milieu d’occupations obscures et laborieuses, une idée vient sou- ‘rire 4 M. Haiiy; une seule mais lumineuse et féconde. Dés lors il ne cesse de la suivre, son temps, les facultés de son esprit, il lui consacre tout. Pour elle il étudie la minéralogie, la géométrie, la physique ; il semble vouloir devenir un homme tout nouveau! Mais aussi quelle magnifique récompense accordée & ses efforts ? Il dévoile la sécrete architecture de ces productions mystérieuses ot la mative inanimée paraissait offrir }es premiers mouvements de la vie; oii i] semblait qu’elle prit des formes si constantes et si précises, par des principes analogues a celles de l’organisation. I] sépare, il mesure par la pensée les matérieux invisibles dont se forment ces étonnants édifices; il les soumet a des lois invariables; il prévoit par le calcul les résultats de leurs assemblages; et parmi des i aimee Te 1822.] Scientific Intelligence. 933 milliers de ces calculs, aucun ne se trouve en défaat. Depuis ce cube de sel que chaque jour nous voyons naitre sous nos yeux, jusqu’a ces saphirs et ces rubis que des cavernes obscures cachaient en vain a notre luxe et 4 notre avarice, tout obéit aux mémes régles; et parmi les innombrables métamorphoses que subissent tant de substances, il n’en est aucune qui ne soit consignée d’avance dans les formules de M. Haiiy. Comme un de nos plus illustres confréres a dit avec raison, quil n’y aura plus un autre Newton, parce qu'il n’y a pas un second systéme du monde, un peut aussi, dans une sphere plus restrainte, dire qu’il n’y aura point un autre Haiy, parce qu’il n’ya pas une deuxiéme structure des cristeaux. Semblables encore en cela 4 celles de Newton, les découvertes de M. Haiiy, loin de perdre de Jeur généralité avec le tems en gagnent sans cesse, et l’on dira et qu’il ena été de son génie comme de ses découvertes. Loin que l’age otat quelque chose au mérite de ses tra- vaux c’étaient toujours les derniers qui étaient les plus parfaits, et les personnes-qui ont vu l’ouvrage auquel il travaillait dans ses derniers moments, nous assurent qu’il sera encore le plus admirable de tout. Quelle douce existence que celle qui se dévoue ainsi toute entiére au culte d’une vérité grande et certaine; d’une vérité autour de laquelle se groupent chaque jour de nouveaux faisceaux de vérités subordon- nées. Combien un tel spectacle éclipse aux yeux de l’homme digne d’en jouir, ce que le monde peut lui offrir de plus brillant, et qui jamais l’apprécia mieux que M. Haiiy. Ces objets méme qu'il étudi- ait sans cesse, ces pierreries qu'une aveugle fureur va chercher si loin, au prix de tant de fatigues et quelquefois au prix de tant de sang, ce qu elles ont de précieux pour le vulgaire etait précisément ce qui lui demeurait étranger. Un nouvel angle dans le plus commun des cris- taux l’aurait intéressé plus que les tresors des deux Indes. Ces joyaux si chers 4 la vanité, ces diamants dont les rois eux-mémes sont fiers de parer leur couronne, passaient journellement dans sons humble réduit sans l’émouvoir au milieu de sa simplicité ! Que dis-je? tous le fracas du monde extérieur ne le laissait pas moins impassible. II n’a été ébranlé ni par les menaces des hommes farouches qui en voulurent un instant a sa vie, ni par les hommages qu’a dautres époques, des hommes en pouvoir se firent un honneur de lui rendre. Dans tous les temps un jeune homme studieux, un éléve capable de saisir ses idées, avait plus de droits sur lui. Lors méme que sa santé ne lui permettait pas de se rendre dans son auditoire, il aimait i s’entourir de cette jeunesse, 4 !ui prodiguer ses conseils, 4 lui distribuer ces productions curieuses de la nature, que Vestime de tous les hommes instruits faisait affluer de tous cotés dans sa collection. Mais ce que ces nombreux ¢éléves trouvaient encore pres de lui, de supérieur a ses dons et méme A ses legons, c’etait son example ; c’était l'aspect de cette douceur inaltérable 4 chaque instant récompensée par le tendre dévouement de sa famille; celui de cette piété simple et tole- rante, mais que les spéculations les plus savantes ne détournaient cepen- dant d’aucun de ses exercises ; le spectacle enfin de cette vie si pleine, si calme, si considérée, dont ce que le monde et la science ont de plus illustre s'est efforcée d’adoucir les derniéres souffrances. Quwiils bénissent donc la memoire d’un si bon maitre; qu'ils n’ou- 234 Scientific Intelligence. [Serr. blient jamais le modéle qu’il leur laisse, et que, prés de son tombeau, en se promettant de limiter, ils réjouissent encore son ombre. Et nous mémes, mes chers collégues, au milieu des Jarmes que nous arrache une perte si douleureuse, cherchons quelques consolations dans ces souvenirs; disons nous bien; quel homme jouir ici bas d'un bon- heur plus constant ? quel homme fut jamais plus certain d’un bonheur éternel ? I. Volcano in Iceland. According to the last but imperfect news from Iceland, the voleano in Eyafields-jokull had remained quiet until the 26th of June, when a new eruption of ashes took place, which seems to have done more harm than the former. It is reported that the foot of the mountain had burst, and that a current of lava had begun to flow. The inhabitants of the nearest villages have been obliged to leave their houses. On the north part of the island frequent earthquakes have been felt, but they were not violent, and have done little damage. Ill. Jeffersonile. A new mineral, to which the above name is given, has been disco- vered at the Franklin Iron Works, by MM. Vanuxem and Keating, about six miles to the north-east of the town of Sparta, in Sussex County, New Jersey. The following description of this mineral is given by the last- named gentleman: “‘ This mineral has hitherto been found in Jamellar masses, the largest of which does not exceed a pigeon’s egg, imbedded in Franklinite and Garnet. “It presents three distinct cleavages, two of which are considerably easier than the third. These cleavages lead us for a primitive form to a rhomboidal prism, with a base slightly inclined. The angles of the prism are 106° and 74°, those of the inclination of the base are 94° 45’ and 85° 15!.. There is another face, which makes with the vertical face of the prism, angles of 110° and 70°. I have likewise seen, in one instance, cleavages parallel to a rhomboidal prism of 116° and 64°. I have also obtained cleavages under an angle of about 99° 45! and 80° 15'. I have not been able to trace the connexion between these and the former, but I am inclined to think, that they result from the combination of the two prisms just mentioned. I had hoped, as some of the cleavages have a tolerable degree of lustre, to have been enabled to determine the angles by the reflecting goniometer, but all my. attempts to that effect have proved unsuccessful. Ihave not been able to obtain a reflection from any one face. “ The hardness of this mineral is intermediate between that of fluor spar and apatite. It is very readily scratched by pyroxene (malacolite). “Its specific gravity varies from 3°51 to 345. I have in one instance obtained it as high as 3-64, but I suspect the mineral to have been mixed with Franklinite. “¢ Its colour is dark olive-green, passing into brown. “¢ It is slightly translucent upon the edges. “ Its lustre is slight, but semi-metallic upon the faces of cleavage ; in the transverse fracture, it is resinous. ‘“‘ The fracture is lamellar when in the direction of cleavage, other- wise it is uneven. — = —_ >. 1822.] Scientific Intelligence. 935 «‘ When scratched with a knife, the streak is greyish. « The colour of the powder is a light-green. «< Before the blowpipe, it melts readily into a dark-coloured globule. « It displays no electric signs, either naturally or by heat or friction. “It is not magnetic, either in the common way, or by the ingenious method of double magnetism, which we owe to Abbé Haiiy. “ The acids do not act upon it when cold. When digested a long time with boiling nitro-muriatic acid, about 1-10th is dissolved. The residue is of a lighter colour.” The analysis was performed by Mr. Keating, who found it to con- sist of Smee Oe aa OF IRA WLI 560 Hermes SAU re ito: ver, VO Sa Te 151 Protoxide of manganese......... ~"93°5 PELORIGS OIL poet ote a. 10:0 xe Ot MNCs er ee sete lacs ate e = 1:0 Aalermmine,’: LS Dia ee eh eee 2:0 Loss by calcination.............. 1:0 TGGsseee sf SS A aie se eg A Dae! ee 100-0 The following remarks are added by Mr. Keating: “The jeffersonite presents some points of resemblance with the pyroxene of Haiiy, but still it can be well distinguished from it. Its cleavages are essentially different from those of the pyroxene, but appear to approach some of the faces of crystais of substances which have been united to this species; for instance, the angles in the diop- side (mussite and alalite), fassaite, and in the pyroxene analogique, come very near some of the angles of cleavage obtained in the jeffer- -sonite. I at first indulged the idea that these cleavages might be con- sidered as cleavages parallel to the faces of secondary crystals of pyroxene, but upon reflection I am fully convinced that this is not the case; for the angles which we have measured cannot be deduced from the others by a strict mathematical calculation, and though they may approximate, they are notthe same. Besides, no analogy can warrant us in admitting, that the regular cleavages of one substance can disap- pear entirely, and be replaced by cleavages parallel to secondary crys- tals. On the contrary, wherever minerals have been found presenting different orders of cleavage, the first or those parallel to the primitive form were always predominant. Thus in carbonate of lime, it is not uncommon to meet the cleavage parallel to the eguare, but I believe in every instance the pri:itive is predominant. In a rarer and more inte- resting instance, that of fluor spar, Prof. Mohs has described, and I have seen in his possession in Freyberg, specimens of the Saxon fluor which cleaved in the direction of the cube and the dodecahedron, but the octahedral cleavage was very distinct. Before we change our opinion on this point, we must change all our ideas of cleavage, and of its high importance in the determination of minerals. - ‘‘ In the hardness there is also a remarkable difference, the pyroxene being decidedly harder. The specific gravity is likewise different: the highest specific gravity of pyroxene recorded by Haiiy is that ofa large crystal from Vesuvius, which gave 3'3578. ‘Ihe highest specific 236 Scientific Intelligence. (Serr. gravity indicated by Mohs is 3°5, while that of the jeffersonite has, in every instance which Ihave seen, exceeded this limit. « The chemical analysis offers another important difference, in the absence of magnesia, which appears to be essential to pyroxene. _ For these and other reasons, I conceive that there canbe no doubt as to the necessity of considering this mineral as a distinct species. I am inclined to believe that a closer study of the diopside and fassaite, and of the pyroxene analogique, might lead to their separation from the pyroxene and union with the jeffersonite. This is a subject which appears to me fraught with interest, but upon which I am not able to offer any thing but conjectures, as my specimens of these minerals are not as good as would be necessary to enable me to decide this point. I shall close these remarks merely by observing that a similar opinion is, I believe, entertained by Mr, Vanuxem.” IV. Instrument for measuring the Compression of Water. Prof. Oersted has used a very simple instrument for measuring the compression of water. He fills a cylinder of glass with water which has been deprived of its air, the cylinder has on its upper end an air- tight cover of brass, through which a screw passes with a small piston of brass on its lower end, which presses on the water. In the cylinder, is a thermometer tube filled with the same water as the cylinder, and having on its upper open end a small column of mercury which, the tube being very narrow, remains there without sinking into the bulb. Suppose now the water being pressed in the cylinder by screwing down the piston, this pressure will act equally powerful on the open end of the tube, as on the outsidé. of the bulb, so that the pressure being equal on the interior and on: the,exterior side of the glass bulb, neither expan- sion nor contraction of:its walls can take place, the state of the mercury above the water in the glass tube will, therefore, immediately indicate the compression. Professor Oersted had previously ascertained the capacity of the bulb and of the tube by weighing the mercury which they were able to hold. The pressure exerted by the screw on the water was measured by another tube filled with air, likewise inclosed in the cylinder. Thus he obtained the result, that the compressibility of water diminishes very quickly with the increase of pressure, and that the mean compressibility at a pressure of 3 to 4 atmospheres is 45°0 1000000 ments of Canton. for each atmosphere, which agrees pretty well with the experi- V. Tutenag. This substance has lately been analyzed by Dr. Fyfe. The follow- ing is the Doctor’s account of the specimen he examined : *¢ Dr. Howison, of Lanarkshire, was so fortunate, when in China, as to procure a basin and ewer of Chinese or white copper, a part of which he sent me for analysis. From the experiments I have performed on it, I find the composition to be different from what is stated by the above-named chemists, its component parts being copper, zinc, nickel, and iron; the last of which, however, is but in small quantity. “The basin in the possession of Dr. Howison is of a whitish colour, approaching to that of silver, and is very sonorous. When held in one hand, and struck with the fingers of the other, the sound is distinetly heard at the distance of an English mile. It is also highly polished, q " h — Ss 1822.] New Scientific Books. 237 and does not seem to be easily tarnished. The piece that was sent me I found was malleable at a natural temperature, and at a red heat ; but when heated to whiteness, it was quite brittle, breaking with the slight- est blow of ahammer. By great caution, it was rolled into thin plates, and was drawn into wire, of about the thickness of a fine needle. When fused in contact with the atmospheric air, it oxidated, and burned with 4 whitish flame, in the same way as zinc does. Its specific gravity at 50° was 8°432. « Five grains of it were subjected to analysis, with the view of ascer- taining the proportion of its ingredients; the result was, Copper...) 2:02 Or inthe 100 parts, 40:4 pmb oN es 1:27 25°4 eo 1°58 31°6 Tron is... 55. 0°13 26 5:00 100-00 “ The method which is practised in preparing white copper is not known in this country, though it seems to be the general opinion that it is procured by the reduction of an ore, containing the ingredients of which it is composed. Ina letter I received from Dr. Howison, he mentions, that Dr. Dinwiddie, who accompanied Lord Macartney to China, showed him, when at Calcutta, several specimens of the ore from which he was told the white copper was procured, and which he obtained at Pekin. The basin, in the possession of Dr. Howison, cost in China about one-fourth of its weight in silver; and the exportation of utensils of this alloy is prohibited. These circumstances also render probable the opinion, that the white copper is obtained by the reduc- tion of a metallic ore, for in China, labour is cheap, and the metals com- posing it are said to be found in great abundance.— (Edin. Phil. Jour.) ARTICLE XI. NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PREPARING FOR PUELICATION. Mr. P. W. Watson, of Hull, is preparing a work, to be entitled “‘ Dendrologia Britannica: containing an Account of the Trees and Shrubs that will live in the open Air of Britain the whole Year; ” and to be illustrated with coloured Plates from living Plants. 8’ Mr. Worsdale, sen. of Lincoln, has ready for the press, ‘‘ Celestial Philosophy, or Genethliacal Astronomy,” containing the whole Art of calculating Nativities, and a great number of Genitures. To be pub- lished in 25 Numbers, 8vo. Mr. Wood is preparing a complete Illustration of his Index Testaceo~ logicus, in which he will give an accurate Figure of every Shell. Mr. T. Coar,has in the press, the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, with Translations into Latin and English. Anatomical and Physiological Commentaries, by Herbert Mayo, Surgeon, and Lecturer on Anatomy. 8vo. ‘To be published in Numbers. 938 / New Patents. [Sepr. JUST PUBLISHED, Observations (from Experience) on the Aid obtained in various Dis- eases, particularly those incidental to Tropical Climates, by the Exter- nal Application of Nitromuriatic Acid in a Bath, With several Cases, wherein it has been used by the Author with great Utility. To which is added the present most approved Mode of mixing the Acids and preparing the Bath. By Phineas Coyne, MRCS. London, &c. 8s. 6d. Boards. An Introduction to the Study of Fossil Organic Remains, especially of those found in the British Strata; intended to aid the Student in his Inquiries respecting the Nature of Fossils, and their Connexion with the Formation of the Earth. By James Parkinson, FRCS. MGS. WSE. and Cesarean Society, Moscow. With Plates. Post octavo. 12s. Geological Essays; comprising a View of the Order of the Strata, the Coal Fields and Minerals, of the District of the River Avon; an Introduction concerning Primitive, and the Flood-washed Earth ; Refutation of Errors, and Notes from the Best Authors. By Joseph Sutcliffe, AM. Author of a Grammar of the English Language. 8vo. 4s. The Study of Medicine: comprising its Physiology, Pathology, and Practice. By John Mason Good, MD. FRS. Member of the Royal College of Physicians, London, &c. 4 large Vols. 8vo, 31. 4s. ARTICLE XII. NEW PATENTS. D. Gardner, Edmund-place, Aldersgate-street, for a stay, particu- larly applicable to supporting the body under spinal weakness, and correcting deformity of shape.—June 18. J. Wass, Ashover, Derbyshire, millwright, for an improvement, which prevents the ill effects to vegetation and animal life that has hitherto been occasioned by noxious fumes and particles that arise from smelting or calcining lead ore, &«.—June 15. M. I. Brunel, Chelsea, engineer, for improvements on steam-engines. —June 26. T. Gauntlett, Bath, surgeons'-instrument-maker; for improvements on vapour-baths, by which the heat is better regulated, and the baths rendered more portable.—June 26. W. Brunton, Birmingham, engineer, for improvements upon fire- grates, and the means of introducing coal thereon.—June 26. L. B. Rabant, Skinner-street, Snow-hill, Gent. for an improved ap- paratus for the preparation of coffee or tea.—June 26. T. Postans, Charles-street, St. James’s, Gent. and W. Jeakes, Great Russell-street, Bloomsbury, ironmonger, for an improvement on cook- ing apparatus.—June 26. G. Smart. Pedlar’s Acre, Lambeth, civil engineer, for an improve- ment in the manufacture of chains, which he denominates mathematical chains.—July 4. J. Smith, Sheffield, book-keeper, for an improvement of, or in, the steam-engine boiler—July 4. 1822.] Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. 239° ARTICLE XIII. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE. ee 7th Mon. July 1; N_ |80°13/30-05) 72 46 28 W!30°13)30:02; 72 48 3IN W/30:04|30:02, 78 53 — A| Var. |30°04/29°85) 78 56 Bee TG, 5| Var. |29°95/29°80| 72 46 _— 70 6| N_ |30°17/29°95) 71 44 —— 7IN W/30:23/30°17| 76 52 —_ SIN W/30-23|30°14) 77 58 — ON W/30-14\29:94 74 | 58 50 10; W_ {29:94/29°91| 75 50 — 10 11S W/29-91129'51) 75’ 53 _ 30 12) W_ |29-94120'51) 71 50 | cs 13IN W({30°10/29°94) 70 44 5 14IN W/30°10/30°04) 84 45 — 15|S E|30°04/29°87| 74 52 — 16} N_ |29°S87|29°80) 75 57 —_ 50 4 17/S W/{|29-82)29°80| 75 52 18/S E/29'82\29°60, 79 60 19S . W{|29-62/29°60| 78 56 20} S |29:66\29°62| 75 56 — | 21| S§ |29:7629:66| 76 60 56 10 22IN W/)29:86/29'76) 76 58 — 23/5 W/29-85|29°70 2 60 — 2415 W129°75|29:70) 74 59 — 03 25S W/)29-°84)29°75) 73 51 5 26/5 W/)29°87|29°84| 74 48 27/8 W/)|29'87|29:64) 78 58 — 41 2815 W/29:64129'61} 72 56 — 05 29) W_ |29°64/29°62) 74 53 — 14 30IN W/29:77|29°64| 67 46 58 31S W/{29:90|29-'77| 75 49 10 | 26 — |__| CN s023)29'51| 84 | 44 | 3-91 |3-23 The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, beginning at 9 A. M. on the day indicated in the first column. A dash denotes that the result is included in the next following observation. \ 240 Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. [Szrr. 1822, : ‘ qi REMARKS. : ‘ Seventh Month.—1\. Cloudy. 2—4. Fine. 5, A thunder storm about two, a.m. : . : avery heavy shower about half-past ten: the rain continued till about two, p.m. with very frequent thunder at a distance. 6, 7. Fine. 8. Cloudy. 9, 10. Fine. . 11. Showery. 12—15. Fine. 16. Fine: night rainy. 17, Fine. 18. Fine: night yainy, with thunder, 19, 20. Fine. 21. Showery. 22. Fine. 23, Showery. b . . . * q 24—28, Fine. 29. Showery: some thunder. 30, Fine. 31. Showery. me | : : RESULTS. } Winds: N,3; SE, 2; S,2; SW, ll; W,3; NW, 8s; Var. 2. “ Barometer: Mean height Bor the Monginsele cha. o ccc sia die wow thele casei uisiialn ete 29°862 inches. For the lunar period, ending the I1th...............- 30:058 For 15 days, ending the 9th (moon south). .........- 30-067 For 13 days, ending the 22d (moon north) . ........ 29:810 Thermometer: Mean height ; Bor the month. « .25,n0/0}0:0%.cjvaleipha apteieta neleieiprsiel ese G3°TALO.. For the lunar period..... biic 0. pai sae acayask, Hadbecaid adage tkass 16°05 Magnesia......... et EINE : sn Ee | 21a I aS ERAS BE FORA See QS Fin Ggic ACI eg 5 oes sche eo A Beh Ae 0:68 DRAB ESC i ae din in csiere t Neigh RR ES Trace 97-19 The great loss in this analysis depends certainly upon the diffi- culty of separating magnesia and potash so as to ascertain their exact quantity. All methods that have been made use of afford only approximation, and I know none which would give an exact result. The quantity of potash was ascertained in the following manner: Thin leaves of mica were carefully placed into a crucible with nitrate of barytes in alternating layers, and heated red hot. The ignited mass was dissolved in muriatic acid, the silica was separated by evaporation, the barytes by sulphuric acid, alumina and oxide of iron by ammonia. The liquid was evaporated to dryness, and the residuum after having been heated long enough to volatilize all the sulphate, and muriate of ammonia was dis- solved in water, and the solution was mixed with acetate of barytes. The liquid separated by filtration from the sulphate of barytes was evaporated, and the dry salt heated red-hot. Water poured onit dissolved the carbonate.of potash, which, after eva-, poration, was heated red-hot, and weighed. For further compa- rison, it was saturated with muriatic acid, and its weight again _ ascertained. In order to find the other component parts of this mica, the analysis was repeated with carbonate of potash instead of nitrate of barytes. Silica was obtained by evaporation to dryness in the usual way. After having been heated, the parti- cles adhered together; it was not, therefore, perfectly pure silica, which, when heated, forms an extremely fine powder. The liquid which had _ heen filtered from the silica was treated with ammonia, and the precipitate thus obtained boiled with caustic potash. The oxide of iron precipitated was dissolved in muzriatic acid, the solution neutralized by ammonia, and precipi- tated by succinate of ammonia. The alumina was precipitated from its solution in caustic potash by muriatic acid, redissolved by an excess of it, and again precipitated by carbonate of ammonia. The liquid which had been filtered from the precipi= New Series, vou, 1v. 8 ~ 258 M. Rose on Mica [Ocr. tate by ammonia, and that which had been filtered from the succinate of iron were concentrated together by evaporation, mixed with carbonate of potash in sufficient quantity so as to decompose all the salts of ammonia, and evaporated to dryness. The dry mass was dissolved in water, boiled, and the magnesia thus obtained separated by a filter. When, after having been heated to redness, it was redissolved in muriatic acid, some silica remained undissolved, which is almost always the case in the analysis of minerals containing silica. The manganese which the magnesia contained was so extremely small that it could not be separated. The reason why the silica obtained by this method had agglu- tinated could only be that fluoric acid existed in the mica.) The insoluble triple compound of silica, fluoric acid, and, potash, must have remained with the pure silica, and muriatic acid could not completely decompose it. By heating it, it lost its fluoric acid, and the potash combining with the silica made it aggluti- nate. To find the fluoric acid, the analysis was repeated a third time, which I did in the same manner as Berzelius made use of in analyzing the topaz. This mica remaining unchanged both in external appearance and in weight, when exposed to a heat in which other varieties of mica that I had analyzed, had lost water and fluoric acid, I was surprised to find fluoric acid likewise in this kind. Ina paper published two years ago, 1 ascertained to be a property of mica which contains much fluoric acid, that it does not lose its metallic lustre and become dull, even in a very strong heat, whereas those which contain small traces of fluoric acid change, according to my former statement, their colour by ignition, but they keep their metallic lustre. This mica, however, contains more fluoric acid than mica from Utoe, which loses its lustre easily in a moderate heat; while the same heat has no effect upon this mica. It is, therefore, no certain proof of the presence of a greater quantity of fluoric acid, that certain kinds of mica become dull in a moderate temperature. It seems as if fluoric acid escapes more easily from mica containing water, by which its appearance becomes dull. When the heat is increased, mica with one axis of double refraction also loses its lustre, and about two per cent of its weight. In respect to the chemical composi- tion, this mica differs materially from those three kinds which I formerly analyzed, and for which I gave a formula that answered for all three kinds which likewise agree in their action on light. But whether the potash really is in the form of trisilicate con- tained in the mineral I am scarcely able to determine, the quan- tity of potash being difficult to ascertain exactly, and this sub- stance containing not much oxygen. This, however, is certain, that oxide of iron and alumina are present, in the form of sili- cates, in the mica with two axes of double refraction. 1822.] with only One Axis of Double Refraction. 259 In the mica with one axis of double refraction which I analyzed, the Per cent, of oxygen. Silica Contains ...- es eeeeceevercees 21°13 Oxide of iron. .....-- YG). 0, eet oe Alumina. .....-ceeeeeeeee WEG SEQUHARGS Magnesia....+++- sereeceees 5 éo ait Oe Potashiccgyene « Ms bia Nags ie ous BME A Fs: Fluoric acid ......-+-- Pitheete UP Eten, Oe From which we may conclude, that the oxygen in all the bases together amounts to the quantity of oxygen in the silica, that the oxygen contained in the bases with three atoms of oxygen (peroxide of iron and alumina) together with that of the potash, are equal to that of the magnesia. It is, therefore, possible that this mica consists of the common mica with two axes of double refraction (or of silicates of bases with three atoms of oxygen, combined with silicates of potash, like the mica of the former three analyses), and of mica composed of silicates of bases with two atoms of oxygen, like magnesia, by which combination, the interesting effect of this mica upon light is probably produced. The kinds of mica with two axes of double refraction differ likewise by the effect of acids upon them considerably from those with one axis. The former are altogether insoluble in the strongest acids, while the latter is acted upon by acids, though with difficulty. M. Peschier, of Geneva, published a short time ago a pa- per in which he asserts, he has found in many different kinds of mica a considerable quantity of oxide of titanium. I have tried with the blowpipe all the different species of mica which he mentions, without having been able to find the least trace of that metal in any one of them, though the oxide of titanium ma with the greatest ease be discovered by this mstrument. 4 Peschier hated the mica with nitrate of barytes, dissolved the heated mass in muriatic acid, supersaturated the solution with carbonate of ammonia, and obtained the oxide of titanium from the thus remaining liquid, after having passed it through a filter. It is, however, not possible to obtain oxide of titantum in this way, which, when dissolved in acids, is completely pre- cipitated by carbonate of ammonia. Ss. 260 Mr. Sylvester on the Specific Gravity of Gases. [Ocr. ARTICLE V. Additional Remarks on Dr. Thomson’s Paper on. the Effect of Aqueous Vapour on the Specific Gravity of Gases. By Charles Sylvester, Esq. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) DEAR SIR, Carnarvon, Aug. 15, 1822, In my letter to you which appeared in the Annals for July, relative to Dr. Thomson’s paper on the subject of high pressure steam, and the influence of aqueous vapour on the specific gra- vity of gases, my remarks were principally directed to Dr. Thomson’s observations upon high pressure steam. I also made some allusion to his formula for correcting the specific gravity of gases from the pressure of aqueous vapour. Having since had a conversation with Mr. Dalton, of Manchester, | have been induced to attend more minutely to that part of Dr. Thomson’s paper, and find that his formula will only be correct when the experiment is made at 212° for aqueous vapour, or the boiling point of the substance from which the vapour is derived. At any temperature above or below that point, the formula given by Dr. Thomson will fail. My object in this communication is to give a formula which, I believe, will give the true result at all.tem- peratures. Let P = a column of mercury equal to the pressure of the atmosphere ; f = a column of mercury which a volume of any condensible vapour will support, unmixed with any other elastic fluid, and at any given temperature ; S = the specific gravity of the gas under examination; c = the specific gravity of the vapour under ‘the pressure P; and R = the resulting specific gravity. Then if we suppose the gas and the vapour to be in separate equal.volumes, and at the temperature of the boiling point of the liquid producing the vapour, these volumes after mixture will be 1 + 1 = 2, the general expression being 1 + £ which when f = P, will be 1 + 1 = 2. From the expression f v the resulting volume, we have the following equation to find R the resulting specific gravity (1 + ) R=S+4+ i, and R = =< —_ WED ccc ey se = ©, each of the yo- lumes equal 1. I am, yours igre . SYLVESTER. 1822.] Mr. Adamson Logarithmic and Circular Series. 261 ARTICLE VI. On Logarithmic and Circular Series. By Mr. James Adams (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, Stonehouse, near Plymouth, Aug. 27, 1822. Tue insertion of the following series, &c. in the Annals of Philosophy, when you have a convenient opportunity, will oblige Your humble servant, James ADAMS. ee From the nature of logarithms, we have log. (1 tuysu-e4 ee 4S — &e. and 2 3 4 log. (1 ti) sts t+ sp -etin - & By sub- ee ae tt tal! Ca ah w= ( — +) -—5(w=5) +5 (w -3) a) 860s 5 FH icke IDLO a) By differentiating equation (1), we have I Bid 1 1 l= (1 + =).— (w+ 5) + (w’ “+ =4 _ (ut + —,) + &e. Then by De Moivre’s theorem: for multiple arcs, we have 1 = cos. u — cos..2 u + cos. 3-u — cos. 4u+ cos. u— ROU. sie dle ott PD eree PN Sa rdlalle Sho otha Whe te ws bldte we Sold wiles ste (2) ‘By addition 7 (1 + u) + 1 (1 fs =) = 1c tai (1 4 uy p CAM aU (ut > + 2) = log. 2[ E(u + 5) + 1} = 1 1 1 1 1 (w 1h =) ae Be ha) +5 (e+ 5) — &c. L(l + cos.u) +12 ee +icos.3u—1cos.4u+ &c. By differentiating this last 4 From whence we have = cos. u > +cos.2u equation, we have a = tan. 1 wu = 2 (sin. wu — sin. 2'u + sin. 3 uw — sin. 4+ KC.) ., cece cece cece rece ceeecees (3) By differentiating equation (3), we get sec.? Lu = 4 (cos. u — 2cos.2u +3 cos.d3u —4 cog, 4u + Xe.) 2.2... eee (4) Perhaps the following simple method relative to multiple arcs may not be unacceptable to the young analyst. By division 262 Mr. Adams on Logarithmic and Circular hy [Ocr. 1 ala | =]-— 7=— w+ ut — w + &e.; and ae ra utu + w+ qe — + - —_—- ++ - — &c. Subtract the second of these equa- ut tions from the first, and we get 0 = 1 — (w Bf -) ae (us ae -.) a8 (w + 5) + &c.; by transposition and dividing by 2, we 1 1 1 1 ut+— aha avers eT ee u u ~ = — — &e. have 5 3 ee Pao > + &c. Then by De Moivre’s theorem, + = cos. uw — cos. 2 u + cos.3 u — cos. Ab UF CRESS RMN NEE. w 0 win}iayo.ese ia win, no n'a a: wcnis aelieye Riad lee (5) The same as equation (2), but independent of logarithms or dif- ferentiation. In like manner, — =l+utv+wuv+ut + &c. And LOTS EES Pe ae a eo! We &c. Subtract the second of —u+l u u? u3 ut these equations from the first, transpose and divide by 2, we 1 ut 4 we u3 4 LY shall then have Ss ape Enmore = + &c. 2 2 Therefore 1 = — (cos.u + cos. 2u + cos.3 u + cos. 4u He fees JK pw’ aii in tobe. 'dle bn botal sibsbe: 5 ssilnig'n che nyse; 8h 040k ninicne sala paul (6) By taking the successive differential coefficients of equation (5), we have 0= —sin.u + 2 sn. 2u—3 sn.3u+ 4 sin. 4u— &e. Q0= + sin.u — 2sin.2u + 33 sin.3 u — 4 sin. du + &e. Q0-= — sin.uw + 2’sin.2u— 3>sin. 3 u + 4 sin. 4u— Ke. 0 = + sin.w — 27sin.2u + 37sin.3 u — 47 sin. 4u + &e. 0. Bis eerre eee ee es ee eee eee eee se ee ets eeeseoseeeeeses Oe es eeessee ne TOL hee ee) ERR ES Bee i) 0 = — cos.u + 22 cos.2 u — 32 cos.3 u + 42 cos.4u— Ke. 0 = + cos. u — 24 cos. 2u + 3% cos.3 u — 4+ cos.4u4+ &e. 0 = —cos.u + 2° cos.2u — 3% cos.3 u + 45 cos. 4 u— Ke. 0 = + cos. u — 2% cos. 2 u + 3% cos. 3 u — 48 cos. 4u+ &e. evrecesr eee eee se se ee eee ese eseeeeseeee esses set se Oeeeseeeseesesn O=cos. u—2’" cos. 2 u+3°" cos. 3 u—4*" cos. 4u+ke.. .. (8) We shall have from equation (7), when uw = 90°, =—-1+3 —-5 +7 —9 + &e. O0O=+1—-3° +5 —7 + 9 — &e. =—14+3-—-5 + 7>— 9 + &c. =+1]-—37 + 57— 774 97 — &e. —e>) 1822.] Prof. Brandes on the Depression of the Barometer. 263 OS P39 4 BH 7b ee 9) And from equation (8), when u = 0°. O0O=—14 2— 324 4 — 5? + &e. O= +1 — 2 +4 3+ — 4 4 5t — &e. 0= —1 + 2° — 3° + 45 — 5° + &e. O= + 1— 28 + 38 — 48 + 58 — &e. OS 1— op gee gee ee 0) Arnzcre VII. Results of Observations on the extraordinary Depression of the Barometer, which took Place on the 25th of December, 1821. By Prof. Brandes, of Breslau. (To the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy.) SIR, Tue extraordinary depression of the mercury in the barometer which was observed-in England, France, and Germany, on the 25th of Dec. 1821, has attracted the attention of natural philo- sophers in each of those countries ; and I presume, therefore, that it will be found very interesting to know what was the state of the barometer, and at what place it was lowest, &c. For the purpose of deciding these questions, I have brought together all the observations which I have been able to procure; and I have been fortunate enough to obtain sufficient materials for giving a complete table of what has been observed respecting this subject on the Continent. The barometer was lower at Dieppe and at Boulogne than it was In any other part of the Continent. Ii will be very interest- ing to have the observations made in England, and I hope that the observers there will have the goodness to publish in the journals, with the utmost accuracy, first, the time when the least elevation of the barometer was observed ; secondly, that height itself; and, thirdly, the mean altitude.* We should then be able to ascertain at what place the barometer was lowest ; and we should see whether it was found lower in England than on the coast of the channel. I have met with some observations in the English journals which give the time and the height very accurately, but the greater number of them do not mention the time of the lowest state of the barometer; nor even do they inform us whether the * Th urnals which we receive regularly are the Annals of Philosophy, the Philos sophical Magazine, and the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. 264 Prof. Brandes on the Depressionof .. [Ocr. instrument was observed with precision at the moment of its greatest descent, although this is necessary in order to obtain correct results. The observations of which I here communicate the results were all made on the Continent ; I have not noticed those which have been made in England, because there are not sufficient details of them for the formation of a table of what has taken place there ; I hope, however, that I shall be able to give the results of the English observations at another opportunity. a Observations for determining the Time at which the Barometer was lowest in different Parts of the Continent. At La Chapelle, near Dieppe, the minimum was observed by M. Breanté at 3" 30’ in the morning. At Troyes, at 3", At Viviers, in the south of France, by M. Flaugergues, at 3°. At Boulogne Sur Mer, by M. Gambant, at 5» 9’, At Triers, at 5°. At St. Gallen, in Swisserland, by M. Meyer, before 5". At Regensburg, by M. Heinrich, at 7". At Strasburg, by M. Herrenschneidern, at 75 30’. At, Middleburg and at Utrecht, at 9" 30’. At Padua, nearly at the same time. At Prague, by M. Hallasohka, at 10. At Schwelm, near Elberfeld, on the Lower Rhine, by M. Cas- tringius, at 1” at noon. At Hanover and Gottingen, by MM. Luthmer and Harding, at 12°. At Gotha, Jena, Halle, and Leipsic, according to the observa- tions of MM. Kries, Posselt, Winkler, and Schmiedel, at 12" or 1°, At Altona, by M. Schumacher, at 2” 38’. At Breslau, and at several other places in Silesia, at 2" or 3" in the afternoon. At Cracow, by M. Markiewioz, at 3". At Apenrade and Fredericksvark in Denmark, at 5" or 6”. At Dantzic, by M. Kleefeld, at 9" or 10" in the evening. At Abo, in Finland, on the 26th of Dec. in the morning. At Dorpat, in the same day, at noon. At Petersburg, in the evening of the 26th, and in the morn- ing of the following day. We may conclude with sufficient certainty from the above statement, that if we imagine a line drawn through those places where the barometer was at the minimum at the same moment, that line passed, on the 25th of December, At 3 in the morning, through Dieppe, Troyes, and Viviers. Before 5, through Swisserland. At 5, through Boulogne and Triers. —— ee 1822.] the Barometer, Dec. 25, 1821. 265 At 7, through Strasburg, Regensburg, and Padua. At 9 or 10, through Middleburg, Utrecht, and Prague. At 12 orl atnoon, through Elberfeld, Hanover, Gotha, and Leipsic.. At 2 or-3, through Altona, Breslau, and Cracow. At 5 or 6, through Denmark. At 9 or 10, through Dantzic. On the 26th of December, through Abo, in the morning ; Dorpat, atnoon; and Petersburg, in the evening. ~ LE Height of the Barometer at the Moment of its greatest Depression. sa,|2 ABE | $3 I ome |} BS S73 | 2 Time of the Lowest Descent. Places. enta S = . Siw | eas #32) 333 ae | ess = < Dec. 25, 1821,—At 3" in the morning. Dieppe. 27:47 1:95 Troyes. | 28°20 1-46 Viviers. 28°63 117% Before 5", St. Gallen. 26°51 12) Zuricd, 27°31 1:22 At 5» in the morning. Boulogne. 27°91 2-00 : Paris. 28°33 1-45 Triers. 28°24 1-19 At 7 in the morning. Strasburg. 28:18 1-39 Regensburg. 27°52 1-27 Padua. 28:96 0°95 At9" or 10 inthemorning.| Middleburg. 28°05 1-82 Zwanenburg. 28°05 “79 Nurenburg. 27°68 1°33 Prague. 28-06 Ii At 12" or 1 at noon. Elberfeld, 27-66 15k Minden. 28°33 1-5] Hanover. 28°31 143 Gottingen, 27°99 1:40 Leipsic. 28-23 1*34 Gotha. 27°55 1/29 At 3? in the afternoon, Altona. 28-31 1-51 . (Jauer. 28°24 1-15 ‘& )Waldenburg, | 27°29 116 ri ) Breslau. 28-42 | 12h ® (Leobschuz. 27-92 (1 Cracow. 28°08 11) At/5" or 6, Apenrade. 28°31 Frederiksvark. 28-39 160 Christiania. 28°60 1:60 At 9 or 10h. Dantzic, 28-71 1°39 Dec. 26, 1821.—In the morning. Abo, 29-01 1:24 At noon. Dorpat. 28ST 0:97 In the evening. Petersburg. 29°31 0°59 266 . Mr. R. Phillips on the [Ocr. [It is to be understood of course that the barometer at Dieppe and Boulogne was lower with respect to its mediwm elevation at those places than any where else on the Continent : the greatest absolute depression appears to have been at St. Gallen, where, on the 25th of December, the mercury stood at 26°51; its mean height there being only 27-71, as appears from the table.—Ed.] ArticLe VIII. Observations upon the Pulvis Antimonialis of the London Phar- macope@ia. By Richard Phillips, FRS. L. and E. &c. In a work published two years ago by Dr. Elliotson, contain- ing the results of his experience in regard to prussic acid, he has related several examples of the exhibition of large doses of the pulvis antimonialis with little or no sensible effect. The quantity commonly prescribed is a few grains; 10 are seldom ventured upon; he found however, that from 90 to 100 grains might be given every 24 hours with perfect safety, and scarely any sensible effect. He was led to exhibit these large doses on reading a paper in the first volume of the Dublin Hospital Reports, by Dr. Cheyne, who states that James’s Powder is highly efficacious in removing the apoplectic diathesis, if given in gradually increased doses till some effect takes place upon the stomach, bowels, or skin. In endeavouring to produce some sensible effect with the pulvis antimonialis of the London Pharmacopeia, Dr. Elliotson found himself obliged to augment the dose up to 80, 90, 100, grains, and even more. He extended his trials to headache, palsy, epilepsy, and other cases, attended, if not by the apo- plectic diathesis, by fulness of blood in the head. 1 may re- mark by the way, that he was not aware of any single patient receiving benefit from the medicine. As an illustration, I will copy one case that occurred in an out- patient of St. Thomas’s Hospital. Aug. 26, 1819.—George Berring, aged 23. Ill four years. Rather short; extremely strong built; plethoric; head particu- larly large at the back part. Complains of violent pain running. from the forehead through the head. Has had anaphrodisia for a twelve month, though he was formerly in the opposite extreme. Venesection, cupping, blisters, have been used in vain. Let him take pulv. antim. gr. v. three times a day for three days; then gr. x. three times aday for three days; and finally, r. Xv. three times a day. Sept.4.—No better. Let him take gr. xv. three times a day for three days ; then gr. xx. three times a day. 1822.] Pulvis Antimonialis of the London Pharmacopaia. 267 Sept. 18.—No better: has had no medicine for seven days. Let him take gr. xxv. for three days ; then gr. xxx. three times a day. Sept. 25.—No better. Yesterday he took once gr. xxx ; once gr. xl; and once gr.1; and this morning, gr. Ix. Let him take gr. xl. three times a day for three days ; then gr. 1 three times a day. Cet. 2.—No better. Let him take gr. Ix three times a day for three days ; then gr. Ixx three times a day. Oct. 9.—No better. Let him take gr. xc three times a day for three days ; then gr. c. Oct. 16.—No better. For the first time he complains of occa- sional nausea. Let him take gr. cx three times a day. Oct. 23.—Let him take gr. cxx twice a day. Oct. 30.—Much better. Let him take gr. cxv three times a day. Nov. 6.—Worse again ; sometimes feels a little nausea. The man, [ understand, was seen sometime afterwards not at all improved. In extraordinary conditions of the system, it is well known that persons are little susceptible of ordinary impressions. Dr. Eilfiotson relates an example of insanity in which the patient took 80 or $€-¢rains of calomel night after night with no more effect than would have been produced on a person in health by a very few grains ; and an instance of spasmodic asthma, in which a young lady not in the habit of taking opium, required above two table spoonfuls of laudanum to dissipate the paroxysm. The inertness of antimonial powder cannot, however be thus ex- plained, because Dr. Elhiotson observed that similar doses were just as well borne by persons little out of health; for instance, by those affected with cutaneous diseases. The ignorant are not contented with being cured by external applications, but are always urgent to take some internal medicine, and to several so eircumstanced he administered the antimonial powder in doses of 90 grains, three times a day, and without any effect. The magnitude of the doses precludes all probability of the power of the medicine being lost by habit, and in the very case { have transcribed, we see the dose was once increased in 24 hours from 30 to 60 grains ; and on another occasion, at once, from 70 to 90 grains, without any sensible effect. Dr. Elliotson has furnished me with a case where the dose was at first so large, augmented so rapidly, and the patient’s indisposition was so trifling, that nothing but the inertness of the preparation will account for the fact. A footman in his family, aged 21 years, was seized Feb. 21, 1821, with the common symptoms of catarrh. He was ordered 10 me of antimonial power at bed time. eb. 22.—No effect: ordered gr. xxx immediately. In the evening, there had been no effect: ordered gr. lx. 268 Mr: R.Phillips onthe.) \\. (Ocr. _ Feb. 23.—No effect; ordered gr. xc immediately. In the evening; an hour after taking the 90 grains, he. vomited. three’ times a large quantity of green bile. He has not vomited: nor felt sick since. ’ . The. bowels have been relieved once in the course of the day. As the stomach had been excited, Dr. Elliotson was desirous of learning whether a smaller dose would now produce nausea or vorhiting, and he accordingly ordered the man gr. lx at bed time. Feb. 24.—No effect whatever. I. must. add that, the medicine! was procured for different patients from different shops, and that which was employed at St. Thomas’s Hospital was supplied by Mr. Battley, of Fore- street; and.some indeed was manufactured by him very care- fully on purpose. The facts which [ have now mentioned’ are completely at variance with the opinions entertained by physicians of the highest character; I need only mention Dr. Duncan, who ob- serves, “ the oxide of antimony with phosphate of lime, howso- ever prepared, is one of the best antimonials we possess. It is given as a diaphoretic in febrile diseases in doses of from three to eight grains repeated every third or fourth hour. In larger quantities, it operates as a purgative or emetic.” With this contradictory evidence in the subject, it appeared to me to be extremely desirable to examine more particularly into the nature of the oxide which enters into the composition of the antimonial powder.. For after the well established fact that peroxide of antimony is nearly or totally imert, it appears to me that if proof could be obtained that the oxide of antimony is in this state, the deficiency of power in the pulvis antimo- nialis would be accounted for, at least in the cases mentioned by Dr. Elliotson, and although particular instances might occur of its proving extremely active, that circumstance would, I con- ceive, show that the preparation is worse than useless, be- cause uncertain. The Philosophical Transactions for 1801 contain a paper by Mr. Chenevix on this substance; and he has judiciously ob- served, that “every oxide of antimony with which we are acquainted is volatile at a high degree of heat: it would, there- fore, be hazardous to,assert, that it is. possible to preserve always the same proportion of antimony, whatever care may be em- ployed in directing the operation ;, and a dissimilarity in the che- mical result must necessarily be attended with uncertainty in the medical application.” Dr. Pearson, who first analyzed James’s. Powder, of which the pulvis antimonialis is a professed imitation, appears to have con- sidered these compounds as a triple salt, or a.real ternary com- bination of phosphoric acid, lime, and oxide of antimony); whereas Mr, Chenevix considers the pulvis antimonialis as a mere mixture of the metallic oxide with the bone earth; for 1822.] Pulvis Antimonialis of the Léndon Pharmacopaia. 269 reasons which I shal! presently mention, I confess I am en- tirely of the latter opinion. In order to investigate thé chemical nature of the pulvis.anti- monialis, | procuréd some at Apothecaries’ Hall : into a retort containing 6 ounces of strong muriatic acid, I put 1000 grains of the powder and boiled the mixture for some hours, the muria- tic acid which distilled, being returned into the retort. A large proportion ofthe powder remained undissolved by the acid, and when the solution had become clear, some of it was poured into water, but no precipitation whatever occurred, As the quantity of muriatic acid employed was large, it: may be supposed that the excess of it prevented the precipitation of any oxide of antimony that might have been dissolved; to .ob- viate this objection, I decomposed the muriatic solution by car- -bonate of soda, and put the precipitate upon a filter; whilst moist, strong muriatic acid was poured upon it, and a solution with but little excess of acid was immediately obtained. I mix- ed 20 measures of water with one measure of this solution, but no precipitation took place, nor did the subsequent addition of a much larger quantity of water produce any effect; further to remove any objection as to the action of the muriatic acid in preventing that of the water, I made the following comparative experiment : to one measure of strong muriatic acid, 1 added 1-30th of its volume of a solution of muriate of antimony, and one measure of the above described solution; when 12 mea- sures of water were put to this mixture, oxide of antimony was readily thrown down, notwithstanding the great excess of acid. Although these experiments satisfied me that no oxide of anti- mony had been dissolved by the muriatic acid, and that it had taken up the phosphate of lime only, I submitted the muriatic solution to additional examination. It is well known that pro- toxide of antimony, when in a state of loose aggregation, is rea- dily dissolved by potash, so that if the muriate of the metal be dropped into a solution of the alcali, the oxide at first precipi- tated from the acid is immediately redissolved by the potash: the muriatic solution obtained was therefore added to a solution of potash, precipitation immediately took place, but no excess of potash was capable of redissolving it, for when it was saturated with muriatic acid, no deposition took place : it is, therefore, evident that no oxide of antimony had been dissolved. As then the muriatic solution contained merely phosphate of lime, it remained to examine the insoluble residuum; | had no doubt from its resisting the action of the muriatic acid, that it was entirely peroxide of antimony ; it is, however, possible that it might be, as already alluded to, a triple compound of phos- phoric acid, lime, and oxide of antimony, the latter being inso- luble on account of its state of combination. To determine this point, I mixed the insoluble residuum with 270 Mr. R. Phillips on. the [Ocr. carbonaceous matter, and subjected it to a red heat; when cool, I found that it was readily dissolved by muriatic acid without the assistance of heat, and that Water threw down a copious white precipitate, which was evidently subtiuriate of protoxide of antimony. After filtration, I added ammonia to'the solution, but it occasioned the precipitation of a little peroxide of:iron only. It appears then the residuum was merely oxide of anti- mony in the highest state of oxidation ; for if it had contained any phosphate of lime in combination, it would have been dis- solved with the protoxide of antimony, and precipitated by ammonia after the separation of the oxide by water. For the purpose of determining the quantities of the peroxide of antimony and phosphate of lime contained in the pulvis anti- monialis from Apothecaries’ Hall, 200 grains were boiled for a long time in about three ounces of strong muriatic acid: 70 grs. of peroxide of antimony were left undissolved, and consequently the powder consists of Peroxide of antimony ........ Ss crjee ys, OO Phosphate of lime . .....-++5... PPE 100 Inow procured some antimonial powder from another source, but of respectability equal to that above-mentioned ; I could dis- cover no difference in their appearance, but it was heavier than that from the Hall in the proportion of about 100 to 85. With this powder, I repeated experiments similar to those just detailed, and with similar results: it was a mere mixture of peroxide of antimony and phosphate of lime, containing, however, rather more of the oxide. It consisted of Peroxide of antimony. ........+....+++ 38 Phosphate of lime. .....-eeseeeeesee- 62 100 The experiments now detailed will, I think, sufficiently account for the imertness of the pulvis antimonialis; it can only be regarded as a mixture of phosphate of lime with the old diapho- retic antimony, a preparation of antimony now quite out of use on account of its deficiency of power, and which is not likely to be increased by admixture with phosphate of lime. That the antimony should be thus converted into peroxide will be readily conceived, when it is remembered how slowly metallic sulphurets part with the last portions of sulphur, and animal matter with all the carbon it contains. M. Chenevix has proposed to precipitate together protoxide of antimony and phosphate of lime ; and provided a mixture of protoxide of antimony and phosphate of lime possessed any effi- 1822.] Pulvis Antimonialis of the London Pharmacopaia. 271 cacy which does not equally belong to oxide of antimony mixed with any other inert substance, his process is unquestionably a good one. It is, however, worthy of the consideration of medical men, whether tartarized antimony in small doses may not be - advantageously substituted for every other antimonial prepara- tion. It possesses the great advantages of being ‘actly pro cured of certain and uniform power. ArTICLE IX, An Account of the Principal Characters of the Earths and Metallic Oxides before the Blowpipe.* [I am not aware that the characters of the earths and metallic oxides before the blowpipe have any where been so minutely and accurately given as by Mr. Children in his translation of Berzelius on the Use of the Blowpipe, &c. On this account, I have now copied them from that work, without any other altera- tion than that of divesting them of their synoptical form.— Ed.] 2,* ABBREVIATIONS.—O. F. Ovidating Flame. ERE Parts of the Assay and Flux. N.C. Nitrate of Cobalt. of either of the Fluxes means that the Supportis Charcoal. P.¥F. Platina Foil. P.W. Pla- tina Wire. A Brace § refers to the Substances in the first Column only, and includes all those which are contained in the Space it comprehends. R. F. Reducing Flame. = parts; equal Fl. Flaming. C. under the Column HEATED ALONE ON ’ ASSAY. PLATINA. CHaRcoaL. Alkalies .......55.04..| Baryta...............| Infusible Infusible Hydrate. .0 ves < Carbonate ..sseecee- Bubbles up and fuses Fuses readily into a clear glass; enamel-white on cooling Is absorbed. Becomes caustic, and is absorbed Strontita.............| Infusible Infusible Hydrate. ..... «e-e| Like baryta Carbonate ......+...| Fuses with moderate heat at the surface, great brilliancy; _ tinges strong R. F. red ; becomes alkaline BREET pcies aisire ain «»| No change Carbonate .......+..| Becomes caustic and alkaline; emits brilliant white light Magnesia. ........ +.--| No change No change Alumina..,.,......+..) No change No change Glucina .......+...+.-| No change No change SEM aba 'nsie «a 'edab ees. No change No change * From Mr. Children’s Translation of ‘‘ The Use of the Blowpipe in Chemical Analysis, and in the Examination of Minerals; by J. J. Berzelius,” 972. ay Principal Characters of the Earths and [Ocr. NATL HEATED ALONE ON AssAY j Pratina, ''% CHARCOAL. ZAXCONIA. «2 2,000,006 2 ...-| Infusible: emits intense light Infusible ; emits intense light Sick inc aeqep- oversea No change No change Molybdic acid .......-| F. fumes and fuses; brown-yellow} Fuses, and is absorbed, and partly on cooling ; in R. F, blue; intense|reduced heat, brown Tungstic acid .........| R. F. blackens, but not reduced The same Oxide of chrome. ...... No change _The same Antimony ...-...--+.- Fuses readily ; white fumes, which condense into pearly crystals } Oxide of antimony ..| Fuses readily, and sublimes, in| Fuses readily, and reduces: co- white fumes; precipitated owide,|lours the flame greenish burns like tinder into antimonious' acid Antimonious acid ... Does not fuse, nor reduce; gives a bright light Antimonic acid ..... Whitens ; is changed to antimo- nious acid Oxide of tellurium..... F. fuses and fumes Fuses, efferyesces, and reduces Oxide of columbium. ..} No change The same Oxide of titanium. ..... No change The same Oxides of uranium.....- Peroxide becomes protoxide $ blackens, but does not fuse Oxides of cerium......| Protoxide becomes peroxide Peroxide does not alter Oxide of manganese... . Not fused; becomes brown in 2 strong heat Oxide of zinc. ......-.| Yellow while hot; white when cold; does not fuse, but gives out great light when very hot, and white fumes, which condense like wool Oxide of cadmium.....| F. no change Soon dissipates; leaves a red or orange-yellow powder on the char- coal y) Oxide of iron..........| O.F. no change R. F. blackens and becomes mag- netic Oxide of cobalt. ......| No change The same Oxide of nickel...... ..| No change The same Biamuth, . .Jsisiss sts Flies off in fumes, and leaves 2 ace mark with red, or orange edges, which may be dissipated in R. F. without giving colour to the flame __ Oxide of bismuth... F. fuses readily, mass dark-brown,| Instantly reduced yellowish on cooling. In very intense heat reduces, and perforates the foil Oxides of tin........-. Protoxide takes fire, and burns| R. F. peroxide does not fuse, but like tinder into peroxide reduces in a strong prolonged heat Oxide of lead.........| Minium becomes black while hot;}/ Orange glass reduces into a glo- at incipient redness, changes to yel-|bule of lead 4 low oxide, fusible into orange-colour- ed glass. Oxide of copper. ...... O. F. black globule; flows over the charcoal; under surface reduces R. F. reduces; with strong heat gives a bead of metal . Mercury........ seen ae ‘ Oxide of silver ...,....| Instantly reduced Instantly reduced UNL: oyoWcccere nat Platina ten aekns= sens Rhoda: (ous cece vvews Palladium .......... 55 a 1822.] Metallic Ovides before the Blowpipe. 273 RS Te FS a OS HEATED WITH FLUXEs. Assay. ; Sopa. Alkalies.....-+-+++++: Baryta ..c-seeeeeese-s ee Fl yd rate ives i+ +--+» sorbed by the charcoal | Carbonate....... aid No action on caustic eMNITIRNEta -le'c'c co oa ces ol f strontita Hydrate... .e.vee-+-- Carbonate .. = parts, fuses into a | clear glass,becomes milky on cooling: in strong heat, bubbles, and ab- sorbed by the charcoal GOES «5 dei cath paises stave No sensible quantity dissolved Magnesia, .......... .-| No action Swells up; forms an infusible compound No action Alumina....... A ACh UCNERY. oc) cide stale se Like glucina Similar to glucina Yttria ro Fuses with brisk effer- vescence ; clear glass 2 Ase P. W. _ effervesces, . clear glass; becomes milky on cooling. C. fuses, absorbed and reduced EE’ a'erarais aivid oieici0 . Carbonate: .....2.0. Molybdic acid , Tungstic acid ......... \lowish C. and R. F. reduced P. W.and O.F. dark- opaque Oxide of chrome. ...... jerange glass ; and yellow on cooling. green on cooling reduced Antimony......... ints = Ovide of antimony. . white on cooling C. is reduced New Series, vou. tv. P. W. dark-yellow igiass, crystallizes on cool- jing ; Opaque white or yel- P. W. fuses ; clear co- ' V lourless glass becomes|quantity; glass, yellow-|yellowish, hot; Borax. [Saur orPHosrHoRts, SEE Fuse readily with effervescence into a clear glass, which be- comes opaque by Fl As with borax, but. foam and intumesce 5 end in a clear glass Like baryta tto Clear glass; opaque Fl tity ; clear glass Fuses with efferves-| Fuses with cence; with more car- cence bonate clear glass; crys- tallizes on cooling Like lime Fuses in large quan by efferves- Fuses readily; clear iglass; saturated with magnesia, opaque on cooling Permanently glass As with borax Fuses slowly ; perma- nently clear glass Clear glass, with a large proportion of the assay ; opaque by Fl Like glucina Like glucina clear Like glucina Like glucina, but dis- solves more difficultly Very small portion dissolves ; clear glass P. W. and in O. F. greenish glass while hot ; colourless, cold In R. F._ becomes opaque; dull blue while hot ; clear and fine green on cooling C. same phenomena: O. F. yellowish glass R. F. fine blue glass Fuses very slowly; permanently clear glass P. W. clear glass in O. F. C, and in R. F. glass becomes _ dirty-brown, but not opaque P.W. and O. F, clear glass ;_ not opaque by Fl R. F. glass becomes C. fuses difficultly,| Green glass in both glass emerald-green ; on|flames P. W. and O. F. the R. F. opaque ; glass|colour flies, and glass be- comes brown-yellow ; on C. absorbed, but not/cooling, assumes a faint- green tinge P.W. and O.F, glass, colour C. dissolves in large ish, hot; almost colour-/flies on cooling less, cold. If saturated, part reduced and sub- limed; strong R. F., the glass becomesopaque and greyish T ‘274 Principal Characters of the Earths and [Ocr. ‘ Mae aie HEATED WITH FLUXEs. Sopa. Borax. SaLtT oF PHOSPHORUS. nnn aaeaamicamanimanaietalie Antimonious acid.... Antimonic acid...... Oxide of tellurium. ...'. P. W. colourlessglass;} P. W. clear, colour-| The same white on cooling less glass; white on cool- C. reduced ing C. becomes grey and opaque @xide of columbium....| Combines with effer-| Colourless, clear glass;} Fuses easily; glass, vescence, but not fused|/becomes opaque by Fl |permanently clear or reduced Oxide of titanium......| Fusesintoacleardark-| P. W. fuses easily ;| O. F. clear, colourless yellow glass; white orjglass, colourless; be-jglass grey-white on cooling,|comes milk-white by Fl| R. F. and on C, glass, and crystallizes with eyo-|_ R. F. glass assumes alyellowish, hot ; on cool- lution of great heat dark amethyst colour, butling, first red, then very C. not reducible transparent fine bluish-violet In large quantity on C. and R. F, glass, dull- yellow ; when cold, deep- blue Oxides of uranium ....| C. brown yellow; not} P. W. dark-yellow| P.W. and O. F. clear fused glass; in R, F, becomes|yellow glass; cold, straw- dirty-geeen yellow, slightly green C. and R. F. fine green glass Oxides of cerium ......| C. not fused, soda ab-| O.F. fine red, or deep} O. F. fine red glass s sorbed; white or grey-jorange-yellow glass; co-|colourless when cold, white protoxide remainslour flies on cooling ;/and quite limpid on the surface cold, yellowish tint. Ena- mel white by Fl. In R, F. loses its colour @xide of manganese. ..| P. F. fuses, green| O.F. clear, amethyst] The same, but colour glass, clear; cold, bluish-\colour glass ; colour flies|not so deep. In fusion green in R, F, in O. F. boils, and gives C. not reduced off gas; in R. F. fuses quietly Oxide of zinc......+..| | C. not fused, but re-| O. F. fuses easily,| Nearly the same duced, with flame ; whiteclear glass becomes fumes, which cover themilky by Fl charcoal Oxide of cadmium. ....| P. W. not fused P. W. yellowish glass,| Dissolves in large — C. reduced, sublimes, colour flies on cooling ;\quantity, clear glass; and leaves a circular yel-on C. glass bubbles, cad-jon cooling, milk white lowish mark mium reduced, sublimes, { and leaves yellow oxide Oxide of iron.......... C. absorbed and re-| O. F. dull red glass} Similar to borax duced ; not fused becomes clear and yel- ' lowish, or colourless by : coolin } ' | C. and R. F. bottle- green glass, or bluish- | duced ; not fused or reddish glass; be-|colour flies almost wholly comes yellow, or nearlyjon cooling | green Oxide of cobalt........| P. W. pale-red by| Fuses readily, deep-| The same, the colour transmitted light ; grey,|blue glass appears violet by candle cold ight Oxide of nickel........) C. absorbed and re-| O. F. orange-yellow,| As with borax, but the | colourless, on cooling ) | | . | Bismuth.........-..-. Oxide of bismuth.... -Oxides of tin.......... Oxide of lead ......... Oxide of copper. ...... MM enoury.).\. 6.3 sce'eu o's Oxide of silver ........ Metallic Oxides before the Blowpipe. HEATED WITH FLUXES. P. W. effervesces, tu- mified, infusible mass C. readily reduced P. W. clear glass be- comes yellowish and opaque on cooling C. instantly reduced P.W. fine green glass, hot ; on cooling, colour- less and opaque ~ _ C. absorbed and re- duced Borax. O. F. colourless glass R. F. partly reduced, muddy greyish glass Fuses with great diffi- culty ; permanently clear glass P. W. clear glass, lyellow, hot; on cooling, colourless C. flows over the sur- face and reduces O. F. fine green glass, which in R. F. becomes colourless, hot ; but cin- nabar-red and opaque when solid O. F. glass becomes milky, or opaline, on cooling R. F. greyish SALT OF PHOSPHORUS O. F. yellowish-brown glass, hot; colourless, \but not quite clear, cold R. F. clear and co- lourless glass, _hots opaque and greyish- black, cold As with borax Clear colourless glass | ©. F. similar to bo- rax; R. F. glass usually red, opaque, and like an enamel O. F. yellowish glass viewed by transmitted light by day, by candle- light reddish R. F, greyish LOCI S AS Snes Sag SeIge Rhodium. .......... =e *Palladium.....i....00 Assay. WITH OTHER REAGENTS. Remarks. PTieicg! 22 f¢ SFO eh The alkalies are not readily dis- tinguishable by the blowpipe. Lithia leaves a dull yellow stain, when heated to redness on platina foil. Ammonia may be known by heating the assay with soda: it gives off a pungent vapour, which turns the yel- low colour of moistened turmeric paper brown fo SEEDER SOD ACD N. C.; a globule of different Hydrate, . 602 osces Carbonate... 2.00006 PrOntiin 22). sees: LTT ey Carbonate .......0.4. Beeeeres, 20h OS uNRICa Carbonate .......... *Glucina ...........,.:.|-/N.C.3 black or dark grey mass A Pe Zircona 5 cooling N. C, exhibit a bla shades of red; colour flies on ck, or grey- ish-black colour ; do not fuse ‘N.C. black or dark-grey mass, infusible N. C.; flesh colour cold N,C.; fine blue glass, with strong heat when cold when quite The blue colour is only distinctly seen by day-light 4 a2 | 276 Principal Characters of the Earths, §c. ASSAY. WiTH OTHER REAGENTS. —— SUC atrad eo srererarweere’s fused Molybdic acid. .......- Tungstic acid. .....+.. Oxide of chrome....... Antimony ...-seeeeees Oxide of antimony... Antimonious acid,... Antimonic acid.....- Oxide of tellurium. .... Oxide of columbium ... Oxide of titanium. ....) N, C, black, or greyish-black Oxides of uranium ... Oxides of cerium Oxide of manganese. . Oxide of zinc. ....e0e- Oxide of cadmium. .... Oxide of iron......+++* Oxide of cobalt........| With subcarbonate of black glass when cold Oxide of nickel........ BSMUEh so nearly.” XVI. Account of an Assemblage of Fossil Teeth and Bones discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale, in Yorkshire. By the Rev. W. Buckland, Professor of Geology in the University of Oxford, &e. Xe. This highly interesting paper has already appeared in the Annals. XVITL. Communication of a curious Appearance lately observed upon the Moon. By the Rev. Fearon Failows. (In a Letter addressed to John Barrow, Esq. PRS.) Mr. Fallows, who is the astronomer at the new observator founded at the Cape of Good Hope, observed on Nov. 28, 1821, a whitish spot on the dark part of the moon’s limb, sufficiently luminous to be seen with the naked eye, and which now and then seemed to flash with considerable lustre. When examined 1822.] Mr. Babbage’s Letter to Sir H. Davy. 383 with an achromatic telescope, four feet long, and magnifying 100 times, it seemed like a star of the sixth magnitude, with three other spots much smaller, one of which was more brilliant than that first noticed. The largest was surrounded by a nebulous appearance, which could not be perceived about the smallest and the two others were similar to faint nebulz, increasing im intensity towards the middle, but without any defined luminous point. On the 29th, the large spot was as bright as before, two others were nearly invisible, and the small brilliant one had disappeared. XVIII. On the Difference in the Appearance of the Teeth and the Shape of the Skull in different Species of Seals. By Sir Everard Home, Bart. VPRS. This notice is accompanied by three plates, showing the great difference existing between the skulls and teeth of three seals - one from the South Seas, another from the Orkney Isles, and a third from New Georgia. Sir Everard conceives that the know- ledge they impart will be an advantage, when fossil remains of the seal shall be met with. The mean height of Six’s thermometer, in the year 1821, is stated in the Meteorological Journal kept at the Society’s apartments, to have been 51°8°; the mean height of the baro- meter 29°86 in.; and the quantity of rain for the year 23-567 inches. — 2. A Letter te Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. President of the Royal Society, &c. &c.on the Application of Machinery to the Purpose of Calculating and Printing Mathematical’ Tables, From Charles Babbage, Esq. MA. FRS. L. & E. Member of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, Secretary of the Astro- nomical Society of Lendon, and Correspondent of the Philo- mathic Scciety of Paris. London, 1822. We had occasion, a few months since, to notice a work, in which is detailed the progressive improvement and present high state of perfection and importance of the Steam-Engine, a ~ machine which has been preductive of such stupendous effects in its application to the arts and manufactures. We have now to state the applications of an imvention in mechanics, which is calculated, extraordinary as it may appear, to produce as momen- tous consequences in science, by the substitution of its move- ments for intellectual labour, as those to which the steam-engine has given rise, in the arts of civilized society, by the abridgment of bodily toil. The high rank which Mr. Babbage sustains as a mathemati- cian must be well known to our readers, He commences the 384 : Analyses of Books. -[Nov. letter before us by stating that the great interest which has been taken by the distinguished character to whom it is addressed, in the success of the system of contrivances to which it relates, has induced him to adopt this mode of making known the prin- ciples and probable consequences of those contrivances. He observes, that the fatiguing labour and monotony of a continued repetition of similar arithmetical calculations, first excited the desire, and then suggested the idea, of a machine, which should become a substitute for one of the lowest operations of human intellect: he then proceeds as follows : . “The first engine of which drawings were made was one which is capable of computing any table by the aid of differences, whether they are positive or negative, or of both kinds. With respect to the number of the order of differences, the nature of the machinery did not in my own opinion, nor in that of a skilful mechanic whom [ consulted, appear to be restricted to any very limited number; and I should venture to construct one with ten or a dozen orders with perfect confidence. One remarkable property of this machine is, that the greater the number of dif- ferences, the more the engine will outstrip the most rapid cal- culator. “« By the application of certain parts of no great degree of complexity, this may be converted into a machine for extracting the roots of equations, and consequently the roots of numbers : and the extent of the approximation depends on the magnitude of the machine. “ Of a machine for multiplying any number of figures (m) by any other number (x), [ have several sketches; but it is not yet brought to that degree of perfection which | should wish to give it before it is to be executed. « T have also certain principles by which, if it should be desi- rable, a table of prime numbers might be made, extending from 0 to ten millions. « Another machine, whose plans are much more advanced than several of those just named, is.one for constructing tables which have no order of differences constant. «... ST ee eee es TOI gl eee —— 1000 0-988 0°994 ‘1000 0-996 It is evident, says M. Berthier, that these five varieties belong to the same species, and that this species is essentially composed of silica, magnesia, and water; but it is very difficult to obtain a certain know- ledge of the relative proportions of these principles, because there are no means of ascertaining the quantity of silica which is found in combi- nation with the alumina. He concludes, however, after some theoretical reasoning, that the following formula represents the composition of magnesite, 6 M 83 Aq? + M Aq?.—(Annales des Mines, vii. 313.) Seems i Ill. Analyses of Native Carbonate of Magnesia. By the Same. Carbonate of magnesia is found, either in combination or in mixture, * The subjects of this notice, in conjunction with those of the following one, consti- tate the fourth section of a paper by M. Brongniart on the magnesite of the basin’ of Paris, &c,: an abstract of the preceding sections will appear m our next. 390 Scientific Intelligence. [Nov. in a great number of limestones; but it also exists in other associations. At Baldissero and at Castella-Monte, it is mixed with silicate of mags! nesia and with quartz; and in the Isle of Elba, it is mixed with pure silica, which is in a particular state. Four varieties of this carbonate were subjected to an analytical process similar to that described in the’ foregoing article ; the results were as follows: Baldissero. Castella-Monte, Coe Elba, No. 2. Magnesia. .... w/o 1OF4O, boo 68 O'ZBS 0). was. OB GD) wtaisin ulti hi 280 Carbonic acid... O'4]8 ...... OOS pd x: B5. OB Ai sisis aes 0:360 Silica)! ... sisies sidiac: O:094 crsyereleer OPA BB rd srcieie 0°266 ...... 0°206 Waterss cic ticc: O'048, . cco, OF120 6 oars O'010 wo oicis 6 0-045, Lime ...... cletelo re’ S=Sh. ecto steve Wm wees me we weeny O1140 Qeantarat: welt eisic road eceeoe 0:085 eevee are eevee — | 1-000 1-000 1-000 0-981 Or Carbonate of mag. 0°810 ..... 2 OZUS ses. ONAN rents 0'480 Carbonate of lime. — ...,.. — .w.secee SS oe 0:250 Sittca. 2... ee, OGIO ONS a) UL Ie O6s ie . 0-206 TRB OTCHIA ee eo UDO ee sens, GOT yee re ee ee The quantity of water was obtained by distilling it from the mineral in a retort into a small glass tube ; that of carbonic acid by calcination, the weight of the water being subtracted from the loss. In the mineral of Baldissero, the magnesia which is not combined with carbonic acid, bears the same proportion to the silica as it does in magnesite. In that of Castella-Monte, the proportion of the latter is much greater ; and in those of Elba, the magnesia is entirely saturated, leaving the silica free: this silica, however, like that in the calcareous deposits of certain mineral waters, is as readily soluble in alkaline solu- tions as if it had been obtained in the decomposition of a silicate by an acid. When the carbonate of Campo is treated with a strong acid in a boil- ing state, the magnesia is gradually dissolved with effervescence; but the fragment neither changes its form, nor wholly loses its cohesion ; when the solution is poured off, it is found to be semi-transparent like hydrophane, but by desiccation it becomes opaque, and of a very beau- tiful white. It dissolves without residue in boiling liquid potash, and’ the solution gelatinizes with acids. : ‘Tt results from these experiments, that it is not always possible to isolate by means of alkaline solutions, native uncombined silica, from the silica which we separate from a combination by an acid.”— (Ibid. p. 315.) IV. On the Greek Fire of the Middle Ages. By Dr. Mac Culloch. In No. xxvii. of the Journal of the Royal Institution, is an interesting memoir by Dr. Macculloch, respecting the history and nature of tliis celebrated subject of inquiry and discussion. The following is a con- densed view of the investigation. The subject of the Greek fire, sufficiently obscure in itself, appears: to have been rendered much more so, by collateral causes, and princi- 1822.] Scientific Intelligence. 391 pally by that love of the marvellous in which mankind love to indulge. The historians who have related its effects, and of whom some have even pretended to describe its composition, have involved the subject in per- plexities very difficult to disentangle; while succeeding antiquaries and historians, their analysts, have had little better success. Dr. Mac Culloch apprehends that different inventions, and different kinds of Greek fire, have been described by the same name; that the main’source of the confusion can be traced to this cause; and that there is an intimate connexion between the history of the Greek fire, and that of gunpowder. The common opinion is, that the Greek fire was invented during the reign of Constantine Pogonatus, in the year 668, by Callinicus, an archi+ tect of Heliopolis; it was confined, according to Gibbon, for 400 years to the eastern Romans; he adds, that at the end of the eleventh century, the Pisans suffered from it without knowing its composition, and concludes with saying, that it was at length discovered or stolen by the Mahometans; and that in the holy wars of Syria and Egypt, they retorted an invention, contrived against themselves, on the heads of the Christians. Dr. Mac Culloch observes, respecting this statement, that ‘ the communication between Heliopolis and the eastern nations, renders it, in the first place, suspicious, that the Greek architect borrowed the in- vention from the orientals. That they possessed it at least before the Greeks, whether they communicated it or not, appears to me as capa- ble of proof as can be expected under similar circumstances. When Gibbon says, that the Mahometans borrowed the invention from the Christians during the wars of the crusades, he forgets that the Ara- bians learned their chemistry from the Egyptians, by whom that art was practised 300 years at least before the time of Mahomet. That they also borrowed from a still more distant oriental source, appears equally certain.” Naphtha is said to have been one of the chief ingredients in this composition; and that substance is well known to be very common in “many parts of the ancient Persian kingdom and in India, Now it is much more probable, that a burning compound in which naphtha was an ingredient, should have been invented where that substance abounded, than where it was unknown; and if it can be proved that the use of inflammable compositions was known to the eastern nations before the time of Callinicus, his claim to this invention falls to the ground. It night, however, have spread among the later Arabians from the Greeks; it became common, and probably from this very source, in the wars of the crusades ; “‘ but it is also possible that this, or one of the different inventions known by the same name, might have been discovered by the Arabians themselves, who were then much addicted to chemical pursuits.” One at least of the Greek fires of the crusades was a composition into which nitre entered, and, therefore, depending on the same princi- ple as gunpowder ; and thus the two inventions are connected. The art of making fire-works appears to be the original invention, and to haye been the true parent of gunpowder, ancient as well as modern. here seems abundant reason to suppose that the cradle of pyrotechny was in the east; in China, the use of fireworks for amusement has 9ithig ijLuy1 need ove oF of 892 Scientific Intelligence, [Nov; been known from a period beyond all record; and in India, the use of rockets for military purposes is of an antiquity equally obscure, After some observations on the close analogy which all pyrotechnical compositions bear to gunpowder, Dr, Mac Culloch attempts to trace backwards to the oldest records extant, respecting any preparations of this nature; and these lead us to India, as before observed. In Grey’s Gunnery, printed in London in 1731, isa passage deduced by Philostratus from the life of Apollonius Tyanzeus; in this it is said, that Alexander the Great never entered the country of “the truly wise men who dwell between the Hyphasis and the Ganges,” ‘ de- terred, not by fear of the inhabitants, but as I suppose, by religious considerations,” ‘‘ for these holy men, beloved by the gods, overthrow their enemies with tempests, and thunderbolts shot from their walls.” The Egyptian Hercules and Bacchus are likewise said to have been repulsed from the cities of these people, who were the Oxydrace, by lightning and thunderbolts hurled on them from above. Gunpowder is mentioned in the code of Hindoo laws, which is supposed to reach back to the time of Moses; and these testimonies are confirmed by a passage in Quintus Curtius, mentioning a compound possessed of similar qualities. Dr. Mac Culloch thinks, however, that the story of the Oxydrace alludes to some kind ofrocket. “If thus far is right, the claims of the early orientals to the Greek fire is established. The Greeks might have received it from the Ara- bians, or from a more direct source ; but it seems likely that Western Europe, at least, is indebted to this people for its knowledge of pyro- techny.” It is then shown that this art is of more ancient date among us than is commonly imagined ; and having, as above, traced generally the origin of pyrotechny from the east, Dr. M. proceeds to see if some of the particular inflammable compounds, known by the name of the Greek fire, cannot be traced thither also. It is reported by the author of the Esprit des Croissades, to have been known in China in the year 917, and as the Chinese have never been known to borrow arts from the Europeans, and were acquainted with the properly explosive compounds, it is most likely that it was known to them long before. It is said to have been known in China by the name of the oil of the cruel fire. Thus the oily or resinous Greek fire seems to claim an oriental origin as well as the explosive and combustible nitrous com- pounds. The Byzantine writers are our earliest European authorities for the names, composition, and effects, of the Greek fire. The Greeks called it the liquid, or maritime fire, probably from its application in naval engagements; ‘ Procopius, in his history of the Goths, uses the same term as the Chinese, calling it an oil, Media’s oil, as if it had been some infernal composition of that noted sorceress. But the historian seems to have borrowed this term from Pliny, who calls naphtha sAdioy MidewZ, a sort of proof, by the way, that naphtha entered its com- position,” * Cinnamus also calls it sup Mycvxer; and all these names * There is a little confusion in this passage of Dr. Mac Culloch’s valuable memoir, which appears to have arisen in part from a somewhat obscure note in Gibbon’s History, quarto edition, vol, v. p. 402. Procopius, in his account of the celebrated siege of Petra, describes the use of what must have been a variety of the Greek fire, and says that it consisted of sulphur, and of bitumen which the Medes called naphtha, and the 4b te eae ee gaa 1822.] . Scientific Intelligence. 393 bespeak some resinous or oily inflammable compound, such as might be used without the help of nitre. But from the name given to it by Leo, we must conclude that he is speaking of some explosive substance, into which nitre entered as an ingredient. All the descriptions of the composition of the Greek fire seem to refer to resinous and oily substances; by some writers, it is said to have been unctuous and viscid; while others again describe it as a solid substance. ‘ Quintus Curtius considers it as made of turpentine. Anna Comnena says, that it was composed of sulphur, bitumen, and naphtha. In another place she says, that it was a mixture of pitch and other similar resins, and that it was thrown from baliste, and attached to arrows.”’ From the various modes in which it is said to have been used, it appears that at least two kinds of military fireworks are described under a common name; one of these may have been a merely inflammable resinous composition, while it is likely that the other was a nitrous compound projected from balistee in some kind of carcasses, From an account in a French Chronicle of 1190, it would appear that it was a liquid, inclosed in vessels of some kind, “ phioles.” ‘* This was then that liquid fire that is said to have been used by hand at sea, or in close action, and which is also said to have been thrown by means of military engines in sieges. It is evident that this is not Anna Comne- na’s fire, for it could not well be thrown from baliste, or attached to arrows; unless we imagine that it was always used with tow as before mentioned, [tow being dipped in it, and wrapped round arrows, ] Hers appears rather to have beena solid composition. It disagrees still more with that of Leo and Joinville.” It being impossible to reconcile this description to any imaginable composition or effects, Dr. Mac Culloch gives up the point as unintelli- gible; and observes, “* We cannot suppose the liquid in the ¢ phioles? to have contained nitre, because that salt will not mix with any liquid of this nature in sucha manner as to aid its combustion.” « The descriptions which represent the Greek fire as unctuous and viscid, and as adhering to the objects which it reached, may be, per- haps, reconciled to the former, since a viscid substance, as well as a liquid one, might have been kept in ‘ phioles.?. They might easily have been all formed of the same resinous ingredients in various pro- portions.” «The opinion of the Greek fire being inextinguishable by water could not justly have been entertained of any compositions of this nature, not even of Anna Comnena’s sulphureous compound. No burning substance could have resisted an application of this nature, provided it were employed in sufficient quantity, unless under the pro- tection of a carcass or tube of some kind, in which case it must also have contained nitre.” ‘«¢ That sand should have extinguished some of these fires, as related by the Florentine monk who describes the siege of Acre, we can under-~ Greeks, eAaiov MrSeias, or the oil of Medea. It is Pliny alone who ostensibly refers to the sorceress, and he does not allude ‘to the Greek fire; and of course does not give naphtha a Greek name. As we know that the Medes used in war arrows smeared with naphtha, and inflamed, it seems probable that the appellation cited by Procopius, not- withstanding its orthography, tefers merely to the country, and not to the enchantress,— (Procop, de Bell. Gothic. 1, iv. c, 11. Plin. Hist. Nat. ii. 109.) , 394 Scientific Intelligence. (Nov. stand; but that it should have been put out by vinegar andiurine, and - not by water, as he also affirms, is impossible, as these were not,likely to have been procured in sufficient quantity, surely not in such abund-, , ance as water, and on no other principle could the one have acted bet-.. ter than the other.” VY “1 do not see,” continues Dr. M. “that any further light can be thrown on these varieties of the Greek fire. ‘The accounts seem to be confused and unintelligible, as far as they are so, partly by the igno- rance, and partly by the exaggeration, of the reporters. Abstracting these, it is probable that they were truly enough, as has been said,-resi- nous inflammable compounds, solid, tenacious, or liquid, without nitre, and exactly similar to the fires of our ancient fire-ships, before chemis- try had taught us to proceed on better principles.” ** Joinville’s description will be found much more intelligible, and will, I think, fully prove the supposition that there were different things known by one name, and that the Greek fire used against Louis at Acre was neither the Chinese oil, nor any viscid substance, nor even the composition described by our celebrated female historian.” According to Joinville, the Greek fire was thrown from the walls of Acre by a machine, called a petrary, three times, and from a-cross- bow four times, in the course of the night. It is described as coming) forward * as large asa barrel of verjuice, with a tail issuing from it as big as a great sword ; making a noise in its passage like thunder, and seeming like a dragon flying through the air; while, from the great quantity of fire which it threw out, it gave such a light that one might: see in the camp as ifit had been day.” After an examination of this account, Dr. Mac Culloch ‘concludes,: that this was a firework of the rocket kind, ‘‘ without a bore, and therefore incapable of flying by its own recoil; in short, a huge: squib. Such a firework as this would produce all the appearances described ; the long tail of fire, the noise, and the light ; and it would require a projectile force, which might have been given both by me- chanical and chemical artillery, by the balista, and by the petrary or mortar. *‘ If I'am thus right,” he continues, ‘ in supposing the Greek fire of Joinville to have been a rocket of this imperfect kind, it is easy to explain the resistance which it offered to any attempts to extinguish it. Water has no effect, because the blast from the surface prevents. it from entering ; for the vinegar and urine, the good monk must be held responsible. It is pretty clear that his account of this property in the Greek fire has been derived from these very fireworks, and has, by the usual mistake, been assigned to the whole race.” As no further light can be thrown on this subject from the an- ciént authors, it is unnecessary to prolong this inquiry. The subject. seems to be cleared, at least, of much of its mystery; and that this. mystery has in great measure arisen from mistakes and exaggerations, must be very apparent. We may remain at. our ease on this head, and'be satisfied that we have lost nothing by our imaginary. loss, of, the Greek fire. We may still safely boast, that in whatever arts either the ‘Greeks or Arabs may have excelled us, in that of destroying each other we could have taught them much, and could have learne nothing from them, Divested of the mist which wonder and igno-, rancé have drawn round it, the boasted Greek fire seems to have been., 1822.] Scientific Intelligerice. 395 a contemptible weapon enough. Had the rhyming monk or St. Louis been at the sieges of Copenhagen or Algiers, it would be diffi- cult to conjecture where they would have found words to express what must have been, to their fires, like the thunders and lightnings of heaven to those of the theatre.” i} j : Ei ie, V. Royal Institution of Cornwall. The Report of the Council to the Fourth Annual Meeting of this Institution, the establishment of which, before it received the honour of Royal patronage, is noticed in the old series of the Annals, vol. xii. p. 395, presents some gratifying indications of the progress of science and literature in the county of Cornwall, the mineral structure and riches of which offer so many subjects for philosophical investigation. . The Institution possesses .a-select library, a zoological collection, many objects of antiquarian research, an elegant apparatus for expe- riments, and an increasing collection of minerals. ‘The Council enter- tain hopes that the time is not far distant when an exhibition of paintings will also be established; they observe, that natives who have made no small proficiency in the art of painting are to be found in towns, in the village, in the hamlet; and that the cherishing beam of the public eye is only wanted to bring them into notice. A seal has been made for the Society ; and the first diploma under it, constitutes Sir Humphry Davy.an honorary member, to which distinction he was elected by a special general meeting convened for the purpose ; the Society hoping, that by showing their regard for distinguished characters in science, literature, and the arts, they are using their endeavours to strengthen those ties by which all liberal pursuits are connected. VI. Alkohometrical Application of the Thermometer. M. F. Groening, of Copenhagen, has discovered that the thermo- meter may be successfully used in distillation, as an alkohometer. He observed, while comparing the temperature of the interior of the rectifier with that of the water about it, in a distilling apparatus in- vented by himself, that the thermometer always rose to a certain point, for example 65° Reaumur, or 179° Fahrenheit, before the first drop of the distilled liquor appeared ; and, likewise, that it remained at that point till about half the fluid in the retort was evaporated, but then, by degrees, at first slowly, afterwards more rapidly, rose to 80° Reaumur, or 212° Fahr. By trials with the alkohometer, he found that as long as the ther- mometer remained at a certain point, the liquor which came over was of an uniform strength, but when it rose the liquor grew weaker and weaker, till at last mere water came over, namely, when the instru- ment had attained the height of 80° Reaumur. The results of M. Groening’s experiments, which were performed many times, and which of course depend on the different temperatures of the vapours of alcohol and water, were as follows : ; 1. A person may, by the state of the thermometer, immediately ascertain the strength of the liquor in the vessel. Hastie “2. There is no necessity of using the alkohometer in distillation, as _ the thermometer indicates the strength of the liquor with equal accu-. racy. 396 Scientific Intelligence. [Nov. 3. Without drawing off any spirit, what quantity there is of any particular strength may be immediately known. 4. Every possible fraud, during the operation, may be prevented, as the apparatus can either be locked up or brought into an adjoining apartment, for the person who attends the work does not require the thermometer to direct him.—(Edin. Phil. Journ, vii. p. 214.) VIL. Tabular Spar, Colophonite, and Pyroxene. Mr. H. Seybert, of Philadelphia, has analyzed the above minerals from the vicinity of Willsborough, Lake Champlain. He found the tabular spar to contain Biligaa.) te wsinear ads sais oon sar OO duime@neidias vsiaers cow asthe ceedar 9 46°00 Alumina and oxide of iron. ...... 1:33 Waterton a stparecdil doelawig a riawasory 1:00 Magnesia and loss........ etree 0:67 100°00 This statement agrees very nearly with M. Bonsdorft’s analysis of the same mineral from Pargas (Annals, Oct. 1820). Mr. Bonsdorff obtained Silica... i. gevuhet. botuewoels 52°58 Lame: silt Jing evra oylg eth oe 44°45 Magnesia. ........ Gath oer eoee 068 Protoxideof iron ..).. 5.6. .0e08 1:13 Volatile matter... 2.0.00. 0000. 0:99 A trace of aluminaand loss,..... O17 100-00 Mr. Seybert observes that this mineral is-a bisilicate of lime, which, adopting Dr. Thomson's numbers for silica and lime, appears to be the case. If it consisted precisely of two atoms of silica and one of lime, the proportions would be 51 silica, and 44°62 lime, which agree still more nearly with M. Bonsdorff’s analysis. Mr. Seybert observes, that “ it is an interesting fact, that this mine- ral, whether found in Hungary, Sweden, or in the United States, is constantly associated with substances of corresponding characters ; that of Dognarka is united with brown crystallized garnets and blue calca- reous spar; that of Pargas, with black sphene, an amorphous mineral, of a reddish colour, resembling idocrase or garnet, and small grains of a green substance, resembling actynolite (probably pyroxene); that of the United States, with colophonite and pyroxene. The colophonite yielded Stag, ewig st eet SSF. PEP A Fe 38:00 Lime HEPA Phares 29°00 Protoxide,of iron: ;s 22.4 ge 223s 25:20 Altona). GR 2GWUIW eA oY, - 6:00 Water vie 8 238 Ue RE EU an 7) O33 98°53 1822.] : New Scientific Books. 397 The pyroxene yielded Silica... .... 0... swaeowe.haald on 50°33 Protoxide of iron ..........0.5. 20°40 Lime ys2agyeeh itn.l WOe.1 19°33 Magnesian bony. biel ani! . Joan 6°83 Adumintnens9Q. ta spa loWwstawe 1°53 Water...... sip Meee) SP 0°66 99:08 A trace of oxide of manganese and hd PES 3a axa w0%) bin’ be ave embers 6 MOP “100: 00 (Silliman’s Journal.) VIII. Death of Dr. Marcet. We lament to state the demise of Dr. Marcet, that took place on Saturday, Oct. 19. His chemical researches were chiefly detailed in the Transactions of the Royal Society, of which he was an active member. His principal work is a treatise on Calculi, a book of esta- blished reputation, and displaying the minute accuracy with which all that he performed is replete. He was in the 52d year of his age, and was about to return to Geneva, his native country. IX. Death of Mr. James Sowerby. It is with great regret also that we have to announce the death of this gentleman which occurred on Oct. 25, after a long and severe illness. Mr. Sowerby was a Fellow of the Linnean Society of Lon- don, Member of the Geological Society, Honorary Member of the Physical Society of Gottingen, &c. &c. ‘His patient and indefatigable labours in several branches of natural history are well known to the scientific world ; and he contributed in various ways to the advance- ment of natural ‘knowledge. ARTICLE XV. NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION, The Life and Remains of the late Dr. Edward Daniel Clarke, Pro- fessor of Mineralogy in the University of Cambridge. A Quarto Volume, with Engravings, will shortly appear, giving an Account of Don Antonio del Rio’s Discovery ofan ancient City in the Kingdom of Guatimala, North America. JUST PUBLISHED, A Treatise on the Foot-rot in Sheep, including Remarks on the exciting Cause, Method of Cure, and Means of preventing that "898 \\. New Patents. | [Nov. destructive Malady ; being the Subject of three Lectures delivered in the Theatre of the Dublin Royal Society. By Thomas Peall, Esq. Veterinary Professor to that Society. A Practical Treatise on Diseases of the Heart. By Henry Reader, MD. Physician to the South London Dispensary, &c. M. C. Pfeiffer, of Cassel, has lately produced a beautiful Work on the Land and Fresh-water Mollusca of Germany. 4to. With Eight Plates. The work is in German, but the ‘specific characters are given in Latin. A Treatise on the Utility of Sangui-suction, or Leech-bleeding. By Rees Price, MD. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Researches respecting the Medical Powers of Chlorine, particularly in Diseases of the Liver ; with an Account of anew Method of apply- ing this Agent, by which its Influence on the System can be secured. By William Wallace, MD. MRIA. MRCS. Ireland, &c. §Svo. 6s. ArtTicLe XVI. NEW PATENTS. Sir A. Perrier, City of Cork, Knt.; for improvements in the appa- ratus for distilling, boiling, and concentrating, by evaporation, various . sorts of liquids.—July 27. R. B. Roxby, Arbour-street, Stepney, Gent. for certain improve- ments on the quadrant.—July 31. W. Cleland, Glasgow, Gent. for an improved apparatus for evapo- rating liquids, —Aug. 17. . D. Mushet, Coleford, Gloucestershire, iron-maker, for an improve- ment or improvements in the making or manufacturing of iron from certain slags or cinders produced in the working or making of that metal.—Aug. 20. W. Mitchell, Glasgow, silversmith, for a process, whereby gold and silver plate, and other plate formed of ductile metals, may be manufac- tured in a more perfect and expeditious manner, than by any process which has hitherto been employed.— Aug. 24. T. Sowerby, Bishopwearmouth, Durham, merchant, for a chain upon a new and improved principle, suitable for ships’ cables, and other pur- poses.—Aug. 29. R. Vazie, Chasewater, Mine Kenwyn, Cornwall, civil engineer, for an improvement in the compounding of different species of metals.— Sept. 3. H. Burgess, Miles’s-lane, Cannon-street, London, merchant, for improvements on wheel-carriages,—Sept. 3. 1822.] j rial Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. 399 ArticLte XVII. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE. BARoMETER.| THERMOMETER, 1822. Wind. | Max.| Min.| Max. Min. ee 9th Mon. Sept. 1|N W 30°19)30'18 71 40 2\S W/{30'18)30°'02| 71 41 3IN W(30°:14/29'96| 73 50 4AIN W{29°98|29°97| 71 58 5|S W{29:97/29'93) 73 60 6S W/30°13'29'93} 72 AT 7IN W{30°14/29°97} 68 48 siS W)|30°04/29'97; 69 AS 9} W_ |30:22)30-04| 66 45 1OIN W/30°25|29°98} 69 42 11/S . W{30°13|29°S6| 73 7X6) 12IN W/30:09|30°07| 64 50 13IN _ E/30°29|30°09| 64 33 14] E |30:29|30°17| 67 AQ 15| E |30°17|30°15| 62 43 16IN. . E|30715|30°14| 70 43 17IN W|30°15|30°09| 77 46 1sIN E/30°21/30°09, 70 49 19| E |30-21|30°08| G6 47 20|S E]30°08|29'98|} 68 AT ai|IN — E}29°99'29°95| 65 49 990} E_ |29:99/29°94, 58 52 a3iIN —-E}29°94|29°39) 4+ 53 oN E)29°49|29'45) 60 50 95| N_ |29°81|29°47| 59 40 26 N_ |30°22/29°S1| 63 43 27| WN. |30°31/30°22) 58 43 asiIN —-E}30°31/30"11) 58 47 Q9\N Ej30°11|29°98) 62 39 30IN ——E|29°98|29°85| 08 36 The observations in each line of the table apply to a period o beginning at 9 A. M. on the day indicated in the first column. the result is incl uded in the next following observation. Daniell’s hyg. Evap. | Rain. at noon. ——— |__| | ee ee 36 300. rpg aa ua Sa iia Ol Pe \ _— Q7 ae hh gt 2 70 3:08 | 1°46 f twenty-four hours, A dash denotes that 400 Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. [Nov.1822. | ’ REMARKS, ‘Ninth Month.—1—t. Fine. 8. Cloudy: windy. 9, 30. Fine. 11, Cloudy: a little. rain in the evening. 12. Fine. 13. Cloudy and fine. 14. Cloudy. 15. Cloudy: windy. 16. Overcast. 17—2l. Fine. 22. Cloudy: windy: swal- lows begin to congregate. 23. Cloudy: rainy, 24. Rainy, 25, Fine, 26, Cloudy: fine. 27. Bleak, 28—30, Fine. ° RESULTS. Winds: N, 3; NE,9; E,4; SE,1; SW,5; W,1; NW,7. Barometer: Mean height For the month,» yo, Pocwelsic gpahesniopdaleo’s +». 30°035 inches. For the lunar period, ending the 8th .........+. 1+ -- 29990 For 15 days, ending the 2d (moon south) ....+....-. 29-957 For 13 days, ending the 15th (moon north). ...... Fe 30-074 For 13 days, ending the 28th (moon south) . ........ 29°987 Thermometer: Mean height For the month,....seeeeesreseeceeeseeeteeeeren ees S60509 For the lunar period. .... 0 eseecenie 5 he ck eee’ 62-206 For 31 days, the sun in Virgo....sseeeeceeeeeeesees 58064 Evaporation... ...eeeeeeeeceseceeee by. bd sbeteoe eeye seeeees 3°08 in. jo Ee SEER PARTY oh ees eee re eee dashed Sena Laboratory, Stratford, Tenth Month, 22, 1822. R. HOWARD.’ ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY. DECEMBER, 1822. ARTICLE I. Sketch of the Geology of Snowdon, and the surrounding Country. By W. Phillips, FLS. MGS.; and 8. Woods, MGS. (Concluded from p. 335.) From the elevated ground near Capel Curig, we could per- ceive in the distance a more favourable atmosphere, at the time when rain and mist prevailed on Snowdon, and the neighbouring mountains. We determined, therefore, to proceed by Llanwrst to Conway, Bangor, and Carnarvon, and to return, if possible, over Snowdon. Between Capel Curig and Conway, we did not perceive any rock with which we were not already acquainted, the slates and lower rock of Moel Shabod prevailing every where, with the same direction of the slaty cleavage. We were particularly anxious to ascend a hill marked j in Mr. Greenough’s map, and which, as well as the whole range of which it forms a part, is there represented as being crowned by transition limestone. Our anxiety was increased by having been informed by Mr. Dawson that limestone certainly is not to be found on any part of that range. We ascended the hill on the eastern side of the valley beyond Bettws, and on traversing the whole of it, we could perceive no other rock, nor even any other variety, than such as we have already noticed. As this mountain may be said to be insulated, and, therefore, not forming a part of a range (for it does not exceed about a mile and a half in length), we suspected the hill marked j in Mr. Greenough’s map is part of a range still further east, apparently of a diflerent character, New Series, vou. iv. 2D 402 Messrs. W. Phillips and S. Woods on the [Dee. being covered the whole of its considerable extent, as far as we ‘could perceive it beyond Llanwrst, with herbage to the very summit ; and as we could not detect either from the top of the hill we had ascended, or during our walk of three or four miles. to Llanwrst, any lime kiln, or even any rock or important open- ing, on the sides of the range, we were still doubtful whether limestone formed any part of it. In answer to our inquiries, the landlord of the inn at Llanwrst, an intelligent man, who had kept it during 13 years, assured us that no limestone is found nearer to that town than 16 miles; namely, near Abergelau on the coast; thus confirming the report of Mr. Dawson, that no lime stone is found on the range in question. We have stated that on the hill we ascended, we found no variety of rock, or slate, which has not been previously described, and that the run of the cleavage is NE and SW: the dip is about 54° to the NW ; and we had, as we conceived, suf- ficient evidence to prove that here the slates were interstratified in masses of considerable thickness, with rocks perfectly resem- bling those of the base of Moel Shabod ;. the latter forming ridges on the sides of the mountain, with alternate depressions in the spaces occupied by the slates, which, generally speaking, appear to be the most liable to decomposition ; and from having a better opportunity of observing on the side of this mountain the nature of the alluvium so prevalent in many places we had visited, and which has been turned over in many instances on: the side of the high road to the depth of at least 20 feet, and is of a red colour, we were persuaded that this alluvium is derived from the decomposition of the slates and other rocks every where prevalent. While on this mountain, we were particularly struck by an appearance of stratification on the sides of another above Bet- tws, composed of the same rocks. This resemblance to strati. fication, for it is only resemblance, is in a direction not quite at right angles to the plane of the cleavage, in which there are natural fissures that in the distance seem to be perfectly parallel to each other, giving to the whole mass the aspect of regular layers or beds of the same rock. We did not view this mountain sufficiently near to discern the irregularity which we cannot doubt would be visible on the spot, because it has precisely in: the distance the same character as is apparent on the northern side of Moel Shabod above the lakes of Capel Curig, and on the side above Pont y Cyfiin; the latter we examined closely, and were satisfied that this resemblance to stratification is in fact only a tendency to cleavage, greatly resembling that which in the slates with which they are interstratified, often divides them into the rhombic form, but the lines of separation are not either even, or parallel with each, nor are they always continuous, but often stopped, and are again renewed above or below. In our way from Llanwrst to Conway, we ascended about 600. 1822.] Geology of Snowdon, and the surrounding Country. 408 feet from the road to view one of the finest waterfalls of North Wales, Rhiadr Mawr, which is about six miles on the south of the latter place. It descends from the mountain region through a narrow chasm where the rocks are laid bare. The same rocks and slates were visible here also, the prevalent rock being that which has the most homogeneous and compact aspect, and which likewise is the prevailing rock of Moel Shabod. In some instances, it contained harder masses imbedded in it of the same composition as the rock itself, which here also contains calca- reous spar and opaque felspar(?). Slates predominate just above the paper mill, situated about 100 feet above the road. From this place to Conway, the slates continue ; they are often in a very decayed state, and the road, where it is repaired with them, is in many places as black as if the shale of a coal-field had been employed. The direction of the cleavage is as before noticed. A letter from the Rev. W. D. Conybeare having mentioned the existence of a felspathic rock in the hill above Conway, with a request that it might be attentively examined, we became desirous of giving our best attention to its discovery, and were prepared to expect in the nature of the rocks we were about to observe, a great difference to those we had so lately been attend- ing to. ‘his hill rises gradually at a little distance on the west of Conway, extending about three miles towards Bangor, its north- ern limit being the sea. We walked the greater part of the way along the summit ridge, descending to the high road, perhaps one-quarter of a mile before its termination, which is too rough and abrupt to admit of descent. In this walk, we did not per- ceive any well characterised slates; the rocks, however, espe- cially at the termination of the hill near Conway, have a deci- dedly slaty structure, particularly apparent on the surface, with the plane of cleavage distinctly ranging E and W; that is to say, nearly at right angles to that in which it had uniformly * ay heretofore ; the dip is towards the south at a high angle. it is often only by a very attentive comparison of a suite of rocks which in themselves are but varieties of the same compo- sition, that we can perceive the alliance of the two extremes, which not uncommonly are so dissimilar as to appear perfectly distinct in their nature and composition. So is it with the rocks of the hill in question. The first rock which presented itself immediately on ascend- ing the hill, bears a general resemblance to the prevailing rock of the base of Moel Shabod in texture and aspect; it is, how- ever, somewhat harder, and would appear perfectly homogene- ous, but for the existence of a few minute specks of crystal- line quartz, and also of a substance of a dark-green colour, which 202 404 Messrs. W. Phillips and S. Woods on the [Dec. are assumed to be chlorite, and this continued with little varia- tion until we had advanced much higher, when suddenly a sort of puddingstone appeared, of which the paste or basis was the same rock, and the included masses nearly in sphe- rical nodules of a substance sometimes resembling hornstone, but mostly weathering either into hollow or concentric balls, apparently. of whitish hornstone. A solid unweathered mass broken through the centre exhibits the appearance of its being formed of concentric coats, somewhat varying in colour from white to yellow; this mass does not yield to the knife.. This rock prevailed for a considerable distance E and W, and about 12to 20 feet in width, the fore mentioned rock ranging on each side of it. Suddenly it assumed a somewhat different appear- ance, as though it had become cellular, by the disintegration of the rock having left only the apparent hornstone, which, there- fore, must have been disseminated through the mass. On this rock, we met with a range of shallow quarries, from which the vesicular stone was raised, as we have since heard, on the assumption that it might be employed for millstones in place of the French buhrstone; but the scheme was relinquished on finding that the decomposition which had produced its cavities had not proceeded far into the mass, which became softer in descending. About one quarter of a mile from these quarries, and at the edge of the cliff, there is a large and very singular mass projecting towards the sea, possessing all the external appearance of the same rock. Just beyond this, the rock first observed appeared to be traversed by veins, and to include specks and small masses of white quartz, which sometimes pre- vailed so greatly as to constitute a very hard rock; but m many instances, the quartz was left by the decomposition of the rock in a vesicular state, the cavities being lined with crystals of quartz, as well as all the crevices in the rock itself, the surface of the hill being strewed over for some distance with small masses or fragments of this description ; and, finally, at about the place at which we descended, quartz appeared to be so finely and universally disseminated throughout the mass as to give an increased hardness to the rock, and somewhat the aspect of compact felspar, occasionally of hornstone, or of a fine-grained sandstone, and these we assume to be the varieties alluded to by the Rev. W. D. Conybeare as the felspathic rock of this hill. The fragments scattered on the side of the remaining descent (about one-fourth of a mile), denoted the continuance of the same rock to the termination of the hill. On the side towards the high road, we saw the workings ofa mine for lead, but none, as we were informed, had yet been discovered. Opposite to this felspathic-looking rock, namely, on the other side of the high road, coarse slates prevailed, interstratified with a still harder variety of rock first observed in ascending Conway Hill, but 2 1822.] Geology of Snowdon, and the surrounding Country. 405 yielding to the knife, and much resembling some of the harder varieties of the rocks of Ben Glog; the direction of the cleavage was NE andSW. Beyond the village of Duygyfylche, the road rises on the ruin- ous side of Penmanmaur, which is so completely covered by fallen masses of all sizes, that we cannot assert having seen a single rock zn situ. These rocks have the aspect of a fine- grained greenstone, and consist of a greyish substance enclosing dark-green particles, having generally a crystalline aspect, but too mmute to ascertain their forms even by the assistance of the glass: minute and very slender crystals of transparent fel- spar are occasionally observable. The rock is sometimes tra- versed by veins of quartz, enclosing crystals of a green substance, much resembling those of the rock itself; and we brought awa’ some specimens containing the largest crystals we could find, in the hope of ascertaining their nature: though very minute, they cleave with brilliant surfaces, and afford by the reflective goniometer angles coinciding with those of augite. The rock is hard beneath the hammer, but is readily cut by the knife affording a grey powder ; we, therefore, conclude its chief con- stituents to be the substance which we have termed steatite, and augite, and we are the more confirmed in this opinion from hav- ing found one variety in which the steatite extensively prevails ; this yields more readily to the knife, and encloses white specks of a substance which, as it effervesces with acid, we conclude to be calcareous spar; thus evincing the connexion of this with the rocks before observed. At the termination of Penmanmawr towards Bangor, the appearance of this rock suddenly ceases, the hills retiring further from the shore, but behind Aber, we visited an old slate quarr where the direction of the cleavage was as usual NE and SW. Between Aber and Bangor, scarcely any opportunity occurred of observing the nature of the country, the surface consisting of gentle slopes, for the most part well-covered by herbage. The whole coast between Bangor and Conway is represented in Mr. Greenough’s map as consisting of the old red sandstone; for this rock we looked carefully, but in vain. The only rock that fell under our notice that could be mistaken for the old red sandstone is that already noticed on Conway Hill, which, with- out sufficient attention, might be supposed to be a conglomerate. From Bangor, we walked to Garth Ferry, and thence passed over the Menai, accompanied by Mr. Dawson and Mr. J. Woods, to the opposite ferry on the Anglesea side, in order to view the numerous trap dykes described by Mr. Henslow as occurring between the ferry-house and Beaumaris. The rock close to the ferry-house and on the shore, we assume to be Mr. Henslow’s greywacke, but it has to us more the appearance of quartz rock, consisting of crystalline grains of quartz united without cement, 406 Messrs. W. Phillips and S. Woods on the (Dec, but including here and there very minute ochreous specks, as though one of its ingredients had perished : the soundest speci- mens that we could obtain, however, were not without this appearance : the rock is sometimes traversed by veins of granu- lar quartz, whiter and more compact than the rock itself. Between the ferry-house and Lady Bulkeley’s cottage, which are scarcely a mile distant, the rock is chloritic, yet often assuming the appearance of serpentine; in some places it seems to consist almost wholly of slaty chlorite and chlorite slate ; in others, it consists of layers of quartz and of chlorite, or of car- bonate of lime and chlorite, and occasionally it includes consi- derable masses oflimestone. ‘Traversing this rock, we observed seven dykes in the distance above mentioned, and reckoning from the ferry-house, the first, second, fourth, fifth, and seventh, run in the direction of NW and SE; one, the third, NE and SW ; and one, the sixth, NandS. The first is about 16 feet wide; the second, 8 feet; the third, 1 foot; the fourth, fifth, and seventh, about 4 feet each; the sixth, 5 inches. These dykes do not all consist of the same variety of rock ; the first, second, fourth, and seventh, are constituted chiefly of what may be termed a fine-grained basalt, often very beautiful of its kind, at once both hard and brittle. The base is a dark substance, of which it seems impossible to define the nature by its external characters, and it is rendered porphyritic by the presence of crystalline calcareous spar, very slender crystals of felspar, and small masses of iron pyrites: the whole rock, except the two latter substances, yielding pretty readily a grey powder. The third and sixth are of a much finer grain, and of a green colour almost perfectly agreeing with that of the chlorite slate which they traverse. By the assistance of the glass, they can scarcely be said to possess a granular texture, and they appear to be per- fectly homogeneous without the presence of any imbedded sub- stance; their fracture is uneven and splintery ; they are so soft as to yleld readily to the knife, and their aspect differs so ver little from some of the steatitic rocks already described, that every one to whom they have been presented for inspection, without any information of their locality, has considered them to be merely varieties.of the base rocks of Moel Shabod. A rock of the same kind is also connected with the more compact substance of the second dyke. The fifth appears to be in a state of almost thorough decomposition. The walls of these dykes are not all equally well defined; those of the small one, the sixth, is the most completely so of the whole. In most of the others, there seems more or less an intermixture of the chloritic rock they traverse, and we did not perceive any instance in which an alteration of texture had taken place in the chlorite rock, even where, as in the instance of the second dyke, the chlorite rock protruded so far into the dyke as almost to cross it. We observed that thin veins of quartz tra- 1822.] Geology of Snowdon, and the surrounding Country. 407 versed the small dyke, and the rock including it, without any alteration either of texture or direction. At Lady Bulkeley’s cottage, we ascended to the road which is from 80 to 100 feet above the sea, and walked back to the ferry-house. The first object that attracted our attention was a Jarge mass of limestone which had been cut through in forming the road. To this succeeded chloritic rocks, of the same varie- ties.as those below, and often including masses of limestone, ‘but, where these were absent, exhibiting curious contortions, and in one instance the series of vandykes noticed by Mr. Hen- slow. We looked attentively for the continuance of the dykes, but could perceive only two ofthe seven, which from their situa- tion, width, and the nature of the rock, we considered to be the first and second, consisting here and below of the same firm basaltic rock. In neither instance was the including rock altered in its direction, but in one place its texture certainly appeared to have suffered materially. Three or four feet from the dyke, it had its usual appearance of slaty chlorite of a green colour ; but close to the dyke, it had no longer the appearance ofa chlo- ritic rock ; it had become less firm in its texture, very brittle, and of a dingy-brown hue ; and even the dyke itself at the imme- diate contact appeared to be less crystalline than in the interior. Returning to Garth Ferry on the Bangor side of the Menai, we walked along the shore to Bangor Ferry, near the bridge now erecting over the Menai. For some distance, we passed only the broken edges of rocks and slates, almost perfectly resem- bling those of the base of Moel Shabod, to which we have been compelled so often to allude. In one instance at least, the rock had the appearance of a conglomerate, but it was acknowledged by all that the included nodules or masses were often of the same nature as the rock itself, though considerably harder, sometimes of the substance resembling hornstone occurring on the hill above Conway, the rock itself often partaking of the same nature. The plane of the slaty cleavage is here also NE and SW. . We were conducted by Mr. Dawson a little above the shore of the Menai to view a siliceous sandstone enclosing rounded masses of quartz, and having the characters of the millstone grit of Shropshire, being connected with a limestone and shale enclos- ing thin layers of coal. It has been described by Mr. Henslow, and apparently with much justice, as belonging to a regular coal formation, though of small extent, and without possessing any beds of workable coal. We had no opportunity of perceiving its connexion with the rocks and slates of its neighbourhood, but we visited the dyke which traverses the shale and limestone, which are quarried for building upon a large scale close to the shore. In some places the substance of the dyke is very com- pact, and then appears to consist chiefly of crystals of black augite enclosing carbonate of lime and iron pyrites, but is mostly in a decomposed state, and has much the appearance of a loose 408 . ° Messrs. W. Phillips‘and S. Woods on the > [Dec. sand, among which may be found very small fragments of a white crystalline substance. At the base of the cliff it is of considerable width, and appears to divide into branches, but we did not perceive any alteration in the limestone traversed by it, in regard either to direction or texture; but above, where immediately in contact with the dyke, it appeared to be a little turned upward, an appearance which might be the consequence either of the unevenness of the surfaces, or of our not standing so as to bring the eye on the same plane as the stratification of the layers of the rock, the ground being very unfavourable. As we travelled from Bangor to Carnarvon in the evening, we had no sufficient opportunity of observing the nature of the country between the two places. As the weather had now become more favourable to the ascent of Snowdon, we determined to attempt it from the side of Llyn Cwellyn by the copper mine road, about seven miles south of Carnarvon. The first five miles of the road from Carnarvon scarcely afforded the appearance of a rock zm situ, but only a few boul- ders, the country on either side of the road being well covered by herbage, until we arrived at the foot of Moel Eilio on the left, which presented nothing near the road but, slates greatly resem- bling some on Moel Shabod, and above Nant-francon quarries, and apparently partaking more of the nature of steatite than of com- mon slate: they split into thin Jamine, are hard enough to seratch glass, and are green by transmitted light: they have the usual direction of NE and SW. On the right, the foot of Menydd Mawr presented a somewhat singular porphyritic rock. It appears to consist of transparent crystals of quartz and of felspar, included in a paste which, although it is hard, and yields with some difficulty to the knife, we believe, from its weathering, to be a species of steatite ; but it has at first sight greatly the resemblance of compact felspar. This rock resembles one of the varieties of the summit of Moel Shabod, except that it wants the crystals of augite, manifestly imbedded in the latter. Immediately after quitting the house of the guide on the bank of Llyn Cwellyn, we passed somelarge boulders fallen in all pro- bability from Monydd Thevedo ; they bore a considerable resem- blance to the rocks of the summit of Moel Shabod, but we did not afterwards find any masses of the same variety im situ either in the ascent of Snowdon, or upon the mountain itself. About the first two miles of ascent are along a horse road made by some Cornish gentlemen engaged in working a copper mine not very far beneath the summit of the mountain on the opposite side : by the displacement of the grass and thin cover- ing of alluvium in forming this road, we could perceive that no other rock prevails along it, quite to the eastern ridge above Cwm Clogwin ; nor did we perceive any other rock 2m sifu ris- 1822.] Geology of Snowdon, and the surrounding Country. 409 ing through the almost unbroken verdant surface of this side of the mountain. These slates appear to be uniformly of the usual slate blue colour, and not to differ perceptibly from the common variety of the killas of the Cornish miner ; but just as we reached the ridge above Cwm Clogwin, the slates began to assume a different aspect and character, to become paler and more granu- lar. We afterwards crossed a bare and somewhat elevated ridge of rock almost perfectly resembling some of the varieties of the base rock of Moel Shabod, being granular, and somewhat slaty, but sufficiently soft on its broken surfaces, which are very irre- gular, to yield to the pressure of the nail, and producing a very copious effervescence with muriatic acid. We consider this rock to be an intimate mechanical mixture of steatite and car- bonate of lime, since the latter does not appear in separate masses or layers. Slates again prevailed, and then arock some- what slaty greatly resembling some fine-grained varieties of greywacke in its external character, but soft enough to yield readily in every part to the knife, and of which we consider the base to be steatitic: it also effervesces. That which succeeds this rock is a slate, yielding easily to the knife, and even, though with some difficulty, to the nail in its moist state. It partakes greatly of the nature of the slate just mentioned as occurring at the foot of Moel Eilio, but more nearly approaches common slate in colour and general aspect. It must here be observed, that the cleavage plane of these slates and slaty rocks is nearly vertical, and in the usual direc- tion of NE and SW; and that our walk was precisely across the cleavage at every step. Here is a small slate quarry. The guide told us that we had advanced just half way up the moun- tain. A vast heap of ruin succeeded, consisting of much harder rocks than any we had before seen on the mountain, but man of them agreeing in character with the prevailing rocks of the base of Moel Shabod, and among them some which occasionally appeared altogether homogeneous, sometimes slightly porphy- ritic, the base being of a greenish colour, very hard, scarcely yielding to the knife, and containing minute crystals of felspar. This rock perfectly resembles the hard nodules already described as occurring abundantly in the steatitic rock near the foot of Moel Shabod opposite to the back of Capel Curig Inn. These often assumed the form of short irregular columns. Nearly vertical slates (as regards their cleavage) succeeded, and then a nearly vertical and somewhat slaty rock, which is hard enough to scratch glass, is translucent on the edges, and by transmitted light appears to contain minute specks of a green substance, probably chlorite, but superficially it appears homogeneous. Still ascending the eastern ridge of Cwm Clogwin, we found slaty rocks again prevailing (the cleavage being indistinct and occasionally somewhat curved), but very soft, of a dark-green 416 Messrs. W. Phillips and §. Woods on the [Dec. colour, and manifestly steatitic ; the weathered surfaces show white specks, some of which yield to, while others resist the knife; the former consist of calcareous spar, the latter, judging by their fracture in the interior of the rock, and which, there- fore, had not suffered any change by exposure, consists of stea- tite mechanically mixed with siliceous matter, since they yesemble the larger masses included in the steatitic rock at the base of Moel Shabod; and being of a somewhat greenish colour, are not always distinguishable on the surface. To these succeeded a very imperfectly slaty rock, of a greenish colour, the weathered surfaces almost perfectly white—an appearance not very uncommon to the softest varieties of the more com- pletely steatitic rocks. A still softer variety afterwards occurred, apparently consisting of a mechanical mixture of chlorite and steatite, and containing white specks of carbonate of lime. Rocks of the same description continued to prevail up the ascent of Cwm Clogwim, the upper part of which is not less than 2500 feet above the sea. The most remarkable of these consist chiefly of slaty chlorite, yielding, however, a brisk effervescence by the application of acid, though carbonate of lime is not appa- rent even through a glass. As we approached the summit of Snowdon, keeping close to the ridge called Widdfa, we found it to consist entirely of several of the abovementioned rocks and slates repeated without any appearance of order in their recurrence, and with their cleavage plane (being all more or less slaty) nearly vertical, and in the direction of about NEand SW. In some of the porphy- ritic varieties, the slaty substance, when the softest of the two, had decomposed, leaving opaque white masses resembling those of the same rocks above Cwm Clogwin, projecting above the surface, while in others the imbedded substance (calcareous spar) had passed away, leaving the slaty rock vesicular. Car- bonate of lime enters into the composition of the slaty part of both these varieties since they both effervesce in acid, but no quartz is perceptible in them. The substance of the rock is manifestly slaty chlorite. A variety of this description occurs interstratified on the very summit, with an apparently homoge- neous and very soft, yet brittle, slate of a greenish colour. It has been known for some time that the impressions of a peculiar shell occur in considerable abundance within a few feet of the summit of Snowdon, and the rock enclosing them has been termed greywacke. We are decidedly of opinion that not a single rock occurs on Snowdon, nor as far as our observation extended, near that mountain that is af all allied to greywacke, unless the blue slates already noticed as prevailing up the ascent from Llyn Cweilyn, and others bearing the same characters, can be so considered, unaccompanied, as they certainly are, by ereywacke itself, and often interstratified with rock of a dect- dedly steatitic, or of a chloritic base. These shells oceur-in 1822.] Geology of Snowdon, and the surrounding Country. 411 slaty rocks, and in slates which are interstratified ; the slates are of a greenish colour, the cleavage being less perfect than: that of ordinary slates, and thin portions of them are green by transmitted light: they sometimes include whitish particles, which yield to the knife, but not to acid, and which we, there- fore, conclude to be harder portions of the same substance as the rock itself, and of contemporaneous origin; and in this respect resembling the slaty rocks with which they are interstra- tified, and which also contain the impressions of shells. These rocks are sometimes porphyritic from the same cause as the slates, and being extremely soft, yield readily to the knife, and consist chiefly of steatite intermixed, and generally coloured by specks and layers of chlorite, which sometimes has been decom- posed, leaving cavities: the steatite, however, is often of a yellowish colour, and somewhat translucent. That the softness of these rocks is not owing to the progress of decomposition is manifest from the inspection of the interior of vast blocks, occur- ring not on this mountain alone, and which have by accident or. design been cleft asunder. The rocks above enumerated were observed gn situ as they” appeared on the surface, or rather on the very ddge of the pre- cipices along the ascent of the mountain; and we conceive both from their examination individually, and from the circumstances of their connexion, that they are to be considered as varieties of the same rock: most of them pass into each cther, some even in the course of a very few inches NE and SW. Thus what appears in one place as an almost homogeneous slate of a pretty close texture is sometimes so altered in its character in a short distance as to include multitudes of small white particles, whick, when they effervesce in muriatic acid, we consider to be car- bonate of lime, but when they do not, they appear to be of con- temporaneous formation with the rock itself, and to consist of steatite intimately mixed with siliceous matter ; and the charac- ter of the rock alters in becoming closer grained and less slaty in structure. It is certain, however, that in other places the interstratification of large masses of the rocks already described with slates is very manifest ; for owing to the greater hardness of the rocks, and their less liability to decomposition than the slates, they frequently form ridges which mse uncovered by herbage above the slates on either side of them, and are seen projecting beyond the slates down the precipices of the Widdfa, and of that over Cwm Clogwin, while the indentations made by the decomposition of the slates (those which appear the most perfectly homogeneous yield soonest to atmospherical action) are covered by herbage, as is apparent every where from the per? beginning of the ascent from the banks of Llyn Cwellyn. n our descent beneath Crib Coch, and thence to Llanberris Pass, we observed no other rocks than such as have already 412 Messrs. W. Phillips and S. Woods on the ~~ [Drc. been described : the run of the slaty cleavage is of remarkable uniformity every where. . Not very far beneath the summit of Snowdon are the workings of acopper mine still carried on. An examination of the refuse thrown out by the miner produced no rock that is not manifestly connected in character and composition with those found on the surface. The principal part of the rock immediately connected with the ore is slaty, of a greenish colour, often includes multi- titudes of minute crystals of iron pyrites, yields easily to the knife, is translucent on the edges, and it is evident by trans- mitted light and the assistance of the glass, that the colouring matter of the rock is a green substance, arranged in irregular lines, and we are confirmed in the opinion of its beg chlorite, from having found masses of slaty chlorite enclosing yellow cop- per ore, and veins of quartz. We are not enabled to state any thing respecting the veins of this mine, not having been so for- tunate as to meet with the captain, either on the mine, or at his residence in Beddgelert. During our descent, we observed on the summit of the ridge which unites the Lluwydd (Cleweth) with the Widdfa, the sum- mit of Snowdon, an appearance of stratification which, as viewed in the distance, may be termed basin-shaped, and which from its complete disagreement with all that we had hitherto observed, seemed to justify the conclusion that some important difference existed in that place in the nature of the rocks. It may be represented by the following rough sketch : This remarkable appearance excited the wish to examine the spot, and a future opportunity permitted our ascent to it. We began to rise at the bridge, about four miles from Beddge- lert, on the road to Capel Curig; and after carefully observing the rocks in our progress, we may safely assert that no rock was apparent but such as have been already noticed at the base of Moel Shabod, and on Snowdon. On examining the spot above alluded to, we found the rock to be essentially of the same nature ; but being of a darker colour, and as it should appear containing more iron, it had become more subject to decay, producing on the surface an ochreous-brown colour. very observable at a distance; and by a comparison of it with other rocks of a similar nature in other places, might be said to be considerably brittle. Still, however, it remains for us to account 1822.] Geology of Snowdon, and the surrounding Country. 413 for the decomposition taking place in so unusual a form, and this, as we conceive, we are enabled to do from the observation of a fact, equally remarkable and unexpected. In a country in which every appearance of actual stratification is parallel to the cleavage of the slates, we certainly should not expect to find the very rocks thus interstratified exhibiting cha- racters which are to be accounted for only on the supposition of their having been deposited in the opposite direction, namely, nearly, but not quite, horizontally. In descending the Widdfa, and near the summit of the Lluwydd, we sawemany rocks in situ, and even in very large masses, which exhibited nearly hori- zontal and alternate projections and depressions on their sides, and we found that these uniformly consisted of layers of varieties of the same rock, differing both in colour, and sometimes even in composition, the slaty cleavage being uniform and nearly at right angles to the direction of the layers. Those which were of the lightest colour, and were, therefore, judged to contain the least proportion of iron, being least subject to decay, pro- truded, while the ends of those which were darkest, having suffered the most by exposure, formed the indentations. These effects commonly take place on the large scale, but we were so fortunate as to find more than one instance in which a cabinet specimen completely illustrates the fact, each thus forming in itself a sort of epitome of the rocks of this region. We shall, therefore, attempt to describe one of the specimens in question, first noticing the fact, that these rocks do not possess a cleavage parallel to the direction of the variously coloured layers. The base of the whole mass, which is about four inches long, and three wide, is manifestly steatite. It yields every where to the knife, affording a white powder. It consists of about 20 bands or layers in a direction not quite at right angles to the cleavage plane, varying from a yellowish-grey colour (when it is considerably compact) to a dark-green, which, however, is much heightened by the addition of moisture, and which arises from the intermixture of abundance of chlorite (it is then more com- pletely slaty) ; the two extreme bands are of this nature, but one of them is vesicular from the decomposition of the calcareous spar once imbedded in it, and it still effervesces abundantly ; the other extreme approaches the character of ordinary slate: between these are others, but very thin, of the same nature lying between others of a yellowish-grey colour with little or no inter- mixture of chlorite. Another specimen affords the opportunity of observing the very different effects of atmospherical action on the differently-coloured bands. This is much softer than the former in every part, and consists of, perhaps, 50 grey and dark- green layers varying from the tenth to the fiftieth of an inch in thickness: the dark-green have decomposed, leaving the grey ones protruding nearly half an inch. It has been observed, that the cleavage plane of the slates in 414 Messrs. W. Phillips and S. Woods on the [Dec. this district is not quite vertical, and the direction of the differ- ently-coloured layers not quite horizontal; but they are never at right angles to each other ; for it uniformly appears to be the case, that if it were possible to divide the latter along the lines separating the differently-ccloured parts from each other, and all along the cleavage in the direction of the slate, we should reduce them into rhombie masses, agreeing in form with those often observable in slates, owing in the one ease to a species of natural cleavage, or in the other to the progress of decompo- sition. = A consideration of the nature of these specimens just de- scribed, and more especially the inspection of the masses exhi- biting the same effects on the large scale, amply account in our estimation for the appearances of stratification on the summit of the ridge connecting the Lluwydd with the Widdfa. It would account at least for the resemblance of a nearly horizontal stra- tification ; and from examination of the spot, we are inclined to believe that the appearance of the dip and rise of the seeming strata is to be attributed only to the actual imequalities of its surfaces. =" will give at m equal intervals in a year, then will . : Test ~ m ‘Art.2. If P = 1l.and m infinitely great, then will 1 n? r? n3 r3 ni rt 1 ( pase bn tea A ee Loe ee 1+ 7) ! ™m = anumber corresponding to the commonlog. — nr x *43429448, &e. Art. 5.—If the principal P, instead of increasing as in Art. 1, decrease.in the same ratio, we shall have, by a like manner of reasoning, P (1 _ =)" = P (1 — ry" =ss, the decrease of P " P in n years, and TE) is s! = present value of P at the end of n years. Hence it appears, that when the principal is continu- ally increased by the addition of the interest, the present value of P to be received nm years hence will of consequence be /ess than P; so, on the contrary, when the principal is continually diminished by subtracting the interest, the present value of P, to be received 7 years hence, will be greater than P. Art. 6.—Ifin Art. 1, m P = s, then will P (1 + 7” = mP; therefore (1 + 7)" = m. Art. 7-—So likewise in Art.5. 1f~ = s, then will P (l—r)" ¢ mm P ye 2! = —; therefore (1—7)" = =. Art. 8.—To find the amount of 11. payable every v years dur- ing n years, the interest payable yearly. _ Let 1/. represent the sum payable every v years. (1 + r)’ = amount at the end of the first period, (1. + r)” = amount at the end of the second period, (1 + 7)” = amount at the end of the third period, 1 + r)"-° = amount at the end of the v periods, therefore, 1+ (1 +7) + (1+ ryf°4+(1 +7)" 4+....0.... d4¢n = ws = amount of 1/. payable every v years. during m years.....+. aicyece ay ele (a) Art. 9.—When v = 1, equation (a) will become pbs glia 5 amount of an annuity of 1/. per annum for » years, and a x ai+r)"—1 : - —— = amount of an annuity a@ for years. ‘ (1+7)° —1 — ————————EEeEeE—eEEeEeEeEeEeEeEeeeeEOOeEeEeEeEeEeE=EmEmomomauaaPEEeEeEeEeEeeeEeEeEeEeEeEeEOOEeEeeeee ee 1822.] ‘Mr. Adams on Compound Interest. 453 Art. 10.—If the interest be payable m equal times in each mn (1+2 -1 m™m (1+ 2 eee ™ payable every v years, when the interest is payable m equal times in a year. Art. 11.—If v = 1, and m, as in Art. 10, pio (a) will (1+ zy ions 1 (is, Ly a a the interest is payable m equal times in a year. Art. 12.—If P instead of representing a multiple of whole year, equation (2) will become = amount of 1/. = amount of an annuity of 1/. per annum, henaae years, represent “th part of a year, then will the expression in ug (+2 1/. per annum, payable wu equal times ina year, when the inte- rest is rs. m equal umes; z will represent the annuity at Art. 10 become ~ x = amount of an annuity of first, or the ~ th part of the yearly annuity. Art. 13. To find the present value of 11. payable every v years during ” years, the interest payable yearly.. By Art. 3, oa. = present value of 1/. at the end of the first period, a = present value of 1/. at the end of the second period, » — = present value of 1/. at the end of the third period, Tear = present value of 1/. at the end of the v periods, 1 1 1 therefore, isn at wet tare aa thubus speeder ee 1 —(l+r)-"” _(l+r-—1 tee teste te caccreccseresswoceceeres sere) Art. 14.—When 7 is infinite, the last expression becomes 1 = present value of 1/. payable every v years, during = present value of a perpetuity of all such fines. For in that case (1 + r)~" would become infinitely small. Art. 15.—When v = 1, the expression (6) will become 454 Mr. Adams on Compound Interest. {Dec. L={s0"* = present value of 1. per annum for m years, and x oo =< present value of an annuity aforn years. — Art. 16.—When n is infinite, [ea will be infinitely small, and may, therefore, be neglected, the last expression in that case would become = = present value of an annuity a, payable yearly for ever. La wt Art, 17.—If the interest be payable m equal times in a year, 1— (i+ ~ ) Mie : equation (5) will become ———-——— = present value of 1l. ( 1+ = -1 payable every v years, when the interest is payable m equal times in a year. ; : Art. 18.—If v = 1, and m, as in Art. 17, equation (6) will i— aE a become i Fes = present value of 1/. per annum for 2 f+—-— -1 ™ years, the interest payable m e ual times in a year. " Art. 19.—If an annuity of 1/. per annum be payable wu times in a year, then will the expression in Art. 17 become = x v-(r4 it)” = present yalue ofan annuity of 1/. perannum, (: - A —1 iL payable w equal times in ayear, when the interest is payable m equal times. (See Art. 12.) Art. 20.—When u = m, the last expression will become oe (: M 4 agi ——_—— = present value of an annuity of 1/. per annum, when both annuity and interest are payable m equal times in a year. Art. 21.—When nis infinite, and u = m, — in the last 05 1. per annum, when both annuity and interest are payable « equal times in a year for ever. (See Art. 16.) "Art, 22.—If in Art. 18, n be infinite, then will ————— 1822] Mr. Adams on Compound Interest. 455 = present value of the perpetuity of 1/. per annum, the interest payable m times in a year. Art. 23.—If in Art. 19, be infinite, then will + x beget = present value of the perpetuity of 1/. per annum, r ew e) =" when the annuity is payable u times in a year, and the interest m times. : : ps For a fuller account on this subject, and for a variety of inte- resting and useful examples, see Mr. Francis Baily’s “ Doctrine of Interest and Annuities.” a: From the preceding articles, the state of the population of a country under given circumstances may easily be determined. If in any place where there is no migration, and. the increase of population observe the following law, the amount of the whole penpion at any given time may be determined as follows : et P represent the population of a country at any given period ; = = B = number of births, and : = D = number of deaths in prep ht pi tag 2 ; a year, then will a ica — _P =.B— D = increase of population in the first year; from whence = = a Ne: Now if in Art. 1, for principal, we write populanon, for r we write e, and for s we put A, we shall have P (1 + e)" = A = popu- lation at the end of years; therefore, 1 (1+e".P=A, A II. G+ee = BR AY I. (5) -l=e 1 At. P IV. a ae x If m P = A, then will (1+e)" =m, from whencen =1.m —1.(1 +) = a period in which the population would be increased m times. die If the population decrease, we shall have > — > = oS eS a ab D — B = decrease of population in the first year, from whence as e'. By substituting in Art. 5, we get (l—e')*. P = A' = decrease of population in # years ; therefore, 7 456. r Analyses of Books. * ...- [Dec- vV.d-—ey.P=A\, | ps A VL gan =P, 4 Al \n Vile =1- (4), 1.A'—1.P VIII. a—— = ie wt — A', then will di-ey= = from whence n = 7. + m m i ™ —/.(1j—e') = — [(1.m+1.(1 — e')] = period in which the population would be reduced “th part. If the population be increasing, we shall have by substituting in Art. 3, eae = population » years since ; and if decreasing, we have by Art. 5, ree: = population nm years since. (See Mr. Milne’s Annui- ties, vol. i. P- 103.) ARTICLE X. ANALYSES OF Books. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, for 1922.4) Pare aT. We hasten, by our promptitude in the analysis of this part, which has just been published, to compensate for our tardiness in reviewing the former one. It contains the following papers : XIX. Experiments and Observations on the Development of Magnetical Properties in Steel and Iron by Percussion. By Wil- liam Scoresby, Jun. Esq. (Communicated by Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. PRS.) “Dr. Gilbert, so early as the year 1600, discovered that iron became sensibly magnetic on being hammered and drawn out while lying in a north and south direction; ” but Mr. Scoresby cannot discover “that any magnetical effect by hammering has been produced beyond that of occasioning a deviation in the compass needle, or of giving to floating bars or needles the power of conforming their position to that of the magnetic meridian.” — Mr. 8. having already “ succeeded in determining, in a great measure, the principal laws by which the development and destruction of magnetism in iron by percussion, scowering, 1822.] Philosophical Transactions for 1822, Part II. 457 filing, bending, &c. are governed,” and which have been pub- lished in the Edin. Phil. Trans. for-1821, confines himself, in the present communication, “to the application of these laws to practical magnetism; and particularly to the construction of magnets, without the use of any magnetized substance.” _ “ In examining the magnetical effect of percussion on different kinds of iron and steel, two tests were employed ; the weight of iron that the body would lift, and the quantity of deviation that it would produce on a magnetic needle when presented to it in a certain position, and at a certain distance. For the first test, common iron nails of different sizes were made use of : they were of the weights of 2, 4, 64, 14, 24, 37, 45, 88, 130, and 188 ers. For the purpose of securing a good and uniform contact with the magnetized bar, the oxide on the ends of the nails was removed by means of a fine file, and ihe extremities were then polished by rubbing them on a Turkey stone. The second test i employed consisted of a board two feet in length, with alongi- tudinal line down the middle divided into inches, anda sensible pocket compass. To guard against the effects of the magnetism of position, the central line of the board was placed exactly in an east and west direction by the compass; and as the board was laid horizontally on a table, this line was known to be in the plane of the magnetic equator, and consequently in a situation in which small bars of iron are not affected by the magnetism of position. In applying this simple apparatus as a measure of magnetism ; the bar, whose magnetism was to be examined or compared, was laid along the central line of the board, with its north pole always nearest the compass. The compass was placed with its centre at the commencement of the scale, so that its needle was exactly at right angles to the direction of the bar ; and before the deviation took place, its poles were equi- distant from the bar. The distance was estimated by the scale on the board, and always represented the space between the north end, or nearest end of the bar, and the centre of the com- pass. Three hammers were also employed: No. 1, of 22 ounces; No. 2, of 12 ounces; and No. 3, of 24 ounces weight. With this apparatus, a number of experiments were performed, several tables of which are given: and their general results are stated as follows : “]. A cylindrical bar of soft steel, 64 inches long, and weighing 592 grains, lifted, after repeated hammering on pewter and stone, 6} grains; but could not be made to lift a nail of 11 rains. - «2. The same bar hammered vertically upon a parlour poker, also held erect, after 22 blows, lifted with the lower end, which was a north pole, 88 grains ; and on using a larger ham- mer, received a considerable increase of power, producing a deviation of the compass, three inches distant, of 34 degrees: further hammering, it was found, rather diminished than increas- 458 ‘yar Analyses of Books. -° ~~~ *—Dre. ed the effect. On the bar being inverted, so that the north pole was upward, the magnetism was very nearly destroyed by a single blow ; while two blows changed the poles. Hammerin the end of the bar in the plane of the magnetic equator also destroyed the polarity; but the effect was not fully produced until many blows had been struck. : ‘“« When the poker had been previously hammered in a verti- cal position, an increase of magnetic effect on the bar was obtained, a single blow being now sufficient to enable the bar to lift about 20 grains ; and when the end was hammered into a kind of cup, so as to be easily bruised, the bar was by one blow rendered capable of lifting between 30 and 40 grains. After 10 blows, the highest effect obtained in all the experiments was produced, the same bar readily lifting a nail of 188 grains, being nearly one-third of its own weight ! “The magnetism by percussion was found by subsequent experiments to be augmented when the length of the bars was increased ; thus a quarter-inch cylindrical bar of steel five inches long, after receiving 20 smart blows, produced a deflection of the needle, at the distance of three inches, of 13°, and lifted 64 grains. Another piece of the same bar 7 inches long, after similar treatment, produced a deviation of 24°, and lifted 45 grains ; and a third bar of the same kind 12 inches long, after 90 similar blows, occasioned a deviation of the compass of 33°, and easily lifted 88 grains. The shortest bar, it was observed, received the full effect by the first two blows; but the others continued to increase in energy as the percussion was continued, These bars did not receive a power equal to that first used; the cause was probably their greater hardness. “3. A strong magnet properly tempered was injured in what- ever position it was hammered, but most rapidly when the north pole was upward. After no further diminution of its magnetism could be produced with the south end upward, a quick loss of ower was effected by hammering it with the north pole upward. But after the magnetism had been reduced to a certain extent by hammering im both positions, the power became nearly sta- tionary ; so that on striking it im any position with the same hammer, very little change of intensity occurred.” Besides these results, the author mentions the effect of pereus- sion on soft steel magnets, on soft iron not magnetized, and on cast iron. One of the Jirst capable of lifting upwards of 1000 rains, when placed vertically upon the poker with its north pole upward, had its magnetism destroyed by five blows. A bar of soft iron of the same size and form as the steel bar first described, and weighing about 600 drains, was hammered for a considera- ble time while held vertically upon the poker. The greatest effect which he could produce with the large hammer was a deflection of the compass needle, at the distance of three inches, of 15 degrees. In this state it lifted a nail of 64 grains, but 1$22.] Philosophical Transactions for 1822, Part II. 459 refused-one of -11 grains weight. A similar bar of cast-iron became capable of lifting 37 grains ; and after it had acquired this power, its magnetism was nearly destroyed by five blows with the north pole upward. The strong magnetising effect of percussion on soft steel induced Mr. Scoresby to apply the property to the formation of magnets. In accomplishing this object he took particular care that no magnetic substance should be used in the process, which he describes in the following terms : “J procured two bars of soft steel, 30 inches long, and an inch broad; also six other flat bars of soft steel 8 inches long, and half an inch broad, and a large bar of softiron. The large steel and iron bars were not, however, absolutely necessary, as common pokers answer the purpose very well; but 1 was desi- rous to accelerate the process by the use of substances capable of aiding the developement of the magnetical properties in steel. The large iron bar was first hammered in a vertical position. It was then laid on the ground with its acquired south pole towards the south; and upon this end of it, the large steel bars were rested while they were hammered; they were also hammered upon each other. On the summit of one of the large steel bars, each of the small bars held also vertically was hammered in suc- cession, and in a few minutes they had all acquired considerable lifting powers. Two of the smaller bars connected by two short pieces of soft iron in the form of a parallelogram, were now rubbed with the other four bars in the manner of Canton. These were then changed for two others; and these again for the last two. After treating each pair of bars in this way for a number of times, and changing them whenever the manipulations had been continued for about a minute, the whole of the bars were at length found to be magnetized to saturation, each pair readily lifting aboye eight ounces!” 3 XX. On the Alloys of Steel. By J. Stodart, Esq. FRS. and Mr. M. Faraday, Chemical Assistant in the Royal Institution. (Communicated by J. Stodart, Esq. FRS.) We purpose to give this most important paper entire in an early number of the Annals. -XXI. Some Observations on the Buffy Coat of the Blood, &c. By John Davy, MD. FRS. This communication consists of observations on the three fol- lowing subjects ; which, though important to the medical philo- sopher, are devoid of general interest ; viz. the cause of the buffy coat which appears on blood drawn from persons labouring under pslannetery: disease; the fallacy of a prevalent opinion that he age of those morbid adhesions connecting serous membranes, which are so often met with in dissection, may be guessed at by their strength; and the effusions of serum found after death in the cayities of serous membranes. The author thinks, in con- 60° Analyses of Books. [Dec. tradiction to the belief of many, that the latter do not take place after the cessation of vital action. XXII. On the Mechanism of the Spine. By Henry Earle, Esq. FRS. Surgeon to the Foundling, and Assistant-Surgeon to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. ; Mr. Earle’s account of the exquisite mechanism of the spine and spinal canal in birds, and his illustration from it of the phy- siology and pathology of the human spine, can scarcely be abridged ; and the first, unaided by the plate, would be difficultly intelligible. qa - XXIIL. Of the Nerves which associate the Muscles of the Chest in the Actions of Breathing, Speaking, and Expression ; being a Continuation of the Paper onthe Structure and Functions of the ‘Nerves. By Charles Bell, Esq. (Communicated by Sir Hum- phry Davy, Bart. LLD. PRS.) , * For the anatomical and physiological details here given, and their applications to pathology, we must refer our readers to the memoir itself. Mr. Bell informs us in the commencement, “ that already practical benefits have arisen from the former paper; that the views presented there, as connected with general science, being carried into practice, have enabled the physician to make more accurate distinctions of disease, and the surgeon in removing deformity, to avoid producing distortion.” XXIV. Experiments and Observations on the Newry Pitch- stone, and its Products, and on the Formation of Pumice. By the Right Hon. George Knox, FRS. Weare informed in the commencement of this paper, that the locality of this mineral, and the singularity of its external charac- ters, having excited the curiosity of the author, he took advantage of the facilities afforded by the liberality of the Royal Society of Dublin to make an analysis of it in their laboratory ; and after making some observations on the varying characters of' the Newry pitchstone, and mentioning that Dr. Fitton seems to have overlooked two striking characters of it, the smed/ and strong oily taste, he gives from the Transactions of the Geological Society that gentleman’s description of its site and characters. Mr. Knox adds some further particulars to Dr. Fitton’s geo- logical statement, and a more particular account of the characters of the stone itself. He observes, that ‘“ although the peculiar character of this variety of pitchstone is its smell, yet, I believe, it differs from all others, including those from Arran, in the degree in which it is disposed to divide into thin lamine; its proneness to disintegrate, and the regularity of its rhomboidal fragments.” A piece of the compact specimen lost 7°75 per cent. by igni- tion for half an hour, was changed in colour to a pitch-brown, retaining its lustre; and, without actually falling in pieces, opened 1822.] Philosophical Transactions for 1822, Part IT. 461 into thin slaty fragments : 100 grains of the same in fine powder were exposed to a white heat in a platina crucible, and were converted into a very paie leek-green glass, losing 10 per cent. : 220 grs. coarsely powdered being ignited in a coated glass retort -yielded 16 grs. or 7°2727 per cent. of a colourless fluid, having a slightly bituminous smell. ‘ The stone finely powdered and projected on melted nitre scintillated a little.” Mr. Kniox next proceeded to ascertain the constituents of the mineral, following the method of Klaproth in his analysis of the pitchstone from “Meissen, which analysis he details. In thus examining the Newry pitchstone, he obtained neither manganese nor magnesia. The muriatic solution divested of silica evaporating with con- siderable rapidity,’ a black powder separated from it, which was insoluble in acids, and burned away at a red-heat ; it was at first suspected that some carbon had accidentally got into the liquor, but it was proved to belong to the stone by repetition of the experiments and by other circumstances. It was ascertained by the process with nitrate of barytes that the mineral contained soda, which was unmixed with potash or lithia. ‘Mr. Knox then proceeds to describe his final analysis, in which he used the slaty-compact variety of the pitchstone, his specimen of the compact one having been exhausted. He obtained the silica in the usual method by fusion with soda, precipitated the alumina and iron by ammonia, and separated them by boiling in caustic potash ; obtained the lime by preci- pitating the solution freed from alumina and iron with carbonate of soda, and precipitated the alkaline solution of alumina by muriate of ammonia. We have now arrived at that part cf the analysis in which the author endeavoured to ascertain the proportion of alkali in the stone; and this we cannot but deem defective. Our che- mical readers will be surprised to learn, that rejecting the process with nitrate of barytes as tedious and liable to loss, that by boracic acid as difficult, and also the new process b lead, Mr. Knox, for the purpose of extracting the soda, boiled 100 grains of the pulverized stone in dilute nitric acid, taking up by water the soluble part when the fluid had been driven off, and replacing the acid ; this process being “ repeated until the acid seemed to have no further effect.” By this method, 7-75 gers. of nitrate of soda were obtained, giving 2°857 for soda. We apprehend that we shall be supported by the testimony of all persons who are versed in analytical chemistry, in affirming that it is impossible to extract from a siliceous compound the whole of the alkali which it contains by this mode of operating. As to the result by muriatic acid, which the author adduces as confirmatory of the above, his statement of it is incorrect ; he obtained five grains of chloride of sodium, which, he says, “make of dry soda, or oxide of sodium, 1°98198, being in the 462 Analyses of Books. “Dee. proportion 55:5 to 22; but 1-98198 of dry soda produce 287044 ‘of hydrate of soda, the state in which it is probable the alkali exists in the stone.” dy ' Now the nitrate of soda obtained in the first operation being an anhydrous salt, the quantity of alkali indicated by it is of dry soda, mere oxide of sodium, and not of the hydrate; so that in reality the results of the two processes do not agree. : During the process ey muriatic acid, a yellow substance having a bituminous sméll, was condensed on the inside of the silver cover of a crucible; and the alcohol which had been employed to separate the chloride of calcium siege of sodium, deposited on evaporation a dark oily substance, which had “ an empyreumatic smell, was insoluble in ether, but dissolved in spirits of turpentine, and inflamed with difficulty with a thick smoke, and pungent odour. Naptha dissolved it only in part, and changed the colour to grass-green.” Mr. Knox next endeavoured to obtain the bituminous matter of the stone in a state of purity, and to ascertain its quantity. In the first experiment, 480 grains of the dark leek-green slaty variety were strongly heated in an iron retort, to which was attached a bent gun-barrel, with other necessary apparatus. A quantity of gas came over, and when the retort had acquired a red-heat, some water; the heat being urged further a slightly coloured oily liquid appeared. The gas consisted of carbonic acid ; “ of hydrogen, which was judged of by its inflammation,” and of carburetted hydrogen, which was tested by explosion with oxygen gas. The receiver had gained 7-81 per cent. The oily fluid had the smell of tobacco, and burned with a similar flame to naptha. The water was neither acid nor alkaline. In another experiment with a glass retort, 2°83 per cent. of pure bitumen were obtained : in another, 100 grains of the slaty compact variety lost by ignition 8-0 per cent, and upon fusion into glass 0-5 more: 480 grains of the same were distilled after the water was expelled by ignition: bitumen came over, and after the receiver was removed, some more dropped from the retort: the latter had the same smell of tobacco as the former products; that in the receiver smelled more of naptha, and was volatilizable by the heat of the hand. One hundred yrains in mass of the Meissen pitchstone being ignited in a platina crucible, opened in the same manner as the compact variety from Newry; on fusion into enamel, it lost eight per cent : 400 grains being distilled after ignition yielded a small quantity of bitumen more volatile than any of the former, and having the smell of naptha. One hundred grains of Arran pitchstone being fused into glass, lost five per cent. ; 400 grains yielded on distillation some water, with indications of bitumen. Respecting the latter substance in the Newry mineral, the following remarks are made: “ It seems to consist of two inflam- 182%] Philosophical-Y'ransactions for 1822, Part II. 468 mable substances, the one much more volatile than the other, but both inseparable from the stone, except at a heat approachi- ing, if not entirely amounting to, whiteness. I imagine that it is in combination with the iron, as it seemed in general to accom- pany the solutions of that substance, and to modify the colour and magnetic properties of the metal..... If it should be found to be anew substance, I propose to callit mewrine. I should not be surprised, however, Judging from the smell, and its being separable from water by evaporation, if it were found to contain nicotine in combination with naptha.” Result of the analysis of the pitchstone of Newry : ilbena SRG aside deus Yow ewiely ss.) 722800 Ashuisine tei Sette toes a sie. OT ie BEL 1-500 Hrneen v2 riivelor sees. ake 31120 Protoxide of iron.’..........ee-265 3°036 Dddlal. ai atsrteiwites Qos See ses aos stat h QSa7 Water and bitumen ......++222-2. 8°500 99-813 ~ The mass which remained in the retorts after the distillation of this mineral was pumice, having the colour, levity, and magnetic properties of the natural substance, and deceiving artists to whom it was presented as such. “It appears to be a condition,” says the experimenter, “ in converting a stone into pumice, that it should contain a volatile substance, which can only be removed by the same degree of heat which is at the same time necessar for producing that sort of semi-vitrification in the mass ich renders it coherent, hard, and porous.” Some greenstone, which had lost 1-25 per cent. by ignition, was treated as the pitch- . stone had been, and became converted, partly into a vesicular glass, and partly into pumice. ~ XXV. Observations on the Changes the Egg undergoes during Incubation in the common Fowl; illustrated by microscopical Drawings. By Sir Everard Home, Bart. VPRS. In this communication, the progress of the formation of the chick is traced, “step by step, from the first appearance of the molecule found on the yolk before it leaves the ovarium to the complete evolution of all its parts, and its leaving the shell.” The details are illustrated by a series of microscopical delineations by Mr, Bauer, and cannot usefully be given without them. —— ~Sir Everard proceeds to illustrate from the results of the investigation, the processes by which the human fetus and that of quadrupeds are formed, some circumstances being common to them; and those employed in the bird. © XVI. Some Observations on Corrosive Sublimate. By John Davy, MD. FRS. ‘Dr. Davy commences this paper by observing, “ f am not 464 Analyses of Books. — [Dzc: aware that the operation of light on corrosive sublimate has yet been minutely considered. It is known that the liquor hydrar- eyri oxymuriatis of the London Pharmacopeeia is decomposed by light; it has been stated that the compound itself, when exposed to light, undergoes the same change; and it has been recommended in consequence, to keep it in black bottles.” With a view to acquire some precise information on this sub- ject, the following experiments were instituted by Dr. D. Some corrosive sublimate in fine powder was exposed to sunshine for, 14 days in a sealed glass tube ; no change was then produced. A solution in distilled water being exposed to sunshine for the same period, calomel and free muriatic acid resulted. “Some liquor hydrargyrt. oxymuriatis and solutions of corrosive subli- mate in rectified spint and in ether were exposed to. sunshine for the same time.” In. the-fosmer, calomel was produced ; while in the two latter, no change took.place. Oil of turpentine being poured on the sublimate, and exposed to sunshine, had its fluidity slightly impaired; but the sublimate-was unaltered. “To a saturated aqueous solution of corrosive sublimate, a few drops of muriatic acid were added ; and to another saturated solution, a small quantity of muriate of ammonia. No change was pro- duced in these solutions by the action of light during exposure for three weeks.” : . © From these experiments it may be deduced,” continues the author, “ that light alone has not the power of decomposing, corrosive sublimate, and that it does not produce the effect, excepting when aided by aflinities of a complicated nature.” In confirmation of this conclusion, some other experiments are related. It was found that 37 grains of distilled water were. required to dissolve 2 grains of corrosive sublimate at the tem- perature of 57° Fahrenheit; and that its degree of solubility mcreases greatly with the temperature. Alcohol, of specific gravity °816, at 60°, dissolves half its weight of the same sub- stance ; the specific gravity of the solution 1:08. Twenty grains of sulphuric ether, of specific gravity °745, took up 7 grains; the specific gravity of the solution being likewise 1:08. The solvent power of ether does not appear to be increased by elevation of temperature, or diminished by its reduction ; the boiling point of the solution and of pure ether seems to be the same ; and in the act of ebullition, the solution appears to be decomposed. When a mixture of corrosive sublimate and oil of turpentine is gently heated, mutual decomposition takes place. ‘ The results appear to be modified by the proportions of the two sub- stances. When the quantity of corrosive sublimate is large, the whole of the oil appears to be completely decomposed, and the products are, liquid muriatic acid, calomel, and charcoal., When the oil is in excess, the part that escapes decomposition passes over impregnated with muriatic acid; and, judging from its smell, appears to contain aminute quantity of artificial camphor.” ~ 1822.] Philosophical Transactions for 1822, Part Il. 465 Dr. Davy believes “ that changes very similar take place when corrosive sublimate is heated with other oils, both-volatile and fixed;” and states the experiments on which that belief is founded. He then says, “ In a paper published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1812, I have noticed the affinity of muriatic acid for corrosive sublimate. This solution may be considered as composed of 11 proportions of water, 1 muriatic acid,* and 1salt. In the act of forming, heat is evolved. At 74° this solution is of specific gravity 2-412. When its temperature is lowered a few degrees, it suddenly becomes solid, and forms a mass of delicate needle crystals, which rapidly melt, when the containing vessel is held in the warm hand.” . Dr. Davy next adverts to the common statement in systema- tic works, that corrosive sublimate is soluble in the sulphuric and nitric acids, as well as in the muriatic acid. He shows from experiment that this 1s not the case ; and then proceeds to relate in the following terms some experiments which tend to corrobo- rate an opinion long ago entertained, that muriate of ammonia and corrosive sublimate are capable of uniting and of furming a double salt. , “In the dry way, there appears to be an affinity exercised between corrosive sublimate and muriate of ammonia. A mix- ture of the two, in the proportions of 34 of the former and 6°75 by weight of the latter, heated, forms a compound more fusible and less volatile than either ingredient separate ; it may be kept liquid without volatilising by the gentle heat of a spirit lamp ; on cooling, it exhibits a very light-grey translucent mass of a faint pearly lustre; strongly heated, it sublimes, and appears to be partially decomposed, as traces of calomel and free muriatic acid. are found mixed with the sublimate. This compound, formed of one proportion of each ingredient, has more the character of a chemical compound, than any other mixture of the two ingre- dients that I have tried.” - “In the moist way, the affinities of corrosive sublimate and muriate of ammonia are better marked, and some of the combi- nations of the two have tolerably well-defined qualities. ‘The following have the best claim to be considered distinct combina- tions of any which I have yet made: No. Water. Muriate of ammonia. Corrosive sublimate. MA Maaig poy pie LU Saniaiece-cieree) O70 i 'eo\a wh ROL 2, SSS, CE SI SRE Ae 7 Pea ee yl e' < Pe 10) ES aS 5 | A Ts ae nh 0 sserblnioty, LOSLEA chciclehde soe “ No. 1 is liquid at 140°; on cooling, it forms a solid mass of needle crystals. No. 2is liquid at 85°, and solid at 55°. Inthe * New System of Chem. Phil. by John Dalton, vol. ii, p. 295. New Series, vou. tv. 2H 466 Analyses of Books. . —DEe. liquid form, at the temperature just mentioned, it is of specific gravity 1:98. No. 3 is liquid at 55, and of specific gravity 1-58. No. 4 is liquid at about 105°; on cooling slowly to 60°, it depo- sits some crystals which are four-sided prisms, composed of facets alternately broad and narrow.” Some circumstances are here mentioned which prove that cor- rosive sublimate and muriate of ammonia have a strong affinity for each other, and among them the results of an experiment, from which “ it would appear that corrosive sublimate is about 17 times more soluble in a saturated solution of muniate of am- monia than in water, and not 30 times, as is stated by some authors.” “ The results of these experiments,” continues Dr, D. “led me to make trial of some other muriates, as of baryta, magnesia, potash, and soda.” ‘The trials with these substances are then described in detail, and it is mquired respecting their results toward the conclusion of the paper, ‘‘ May not the compounds: of corrosive sublimate and common salt, muriate of magnesia and baryta, respectively, be considered as constituted of one proportion of each ingredient? The definite nature of the com- pounds with muriate of ammonia and potash are, perhaps, more questionable.” : It is next remarked, that all these compounds exhibit the pro- perties of the most active constituent, and the paper concludes as follows : “ It would appear, from the preceding experiments, that those menstrua which have a strong affinity for corrosive sublimate, prevent its decomposition when exposed to light, as the muriates, alcohol, and ether; and, on the contrary, that those solvents which exercise a weak affinity on it, and have a stronger aftinity for muriatic acid, as water, and exceedingly dilute alcohol, aid the decomposing power of light. The prac- tical application to be deduced, relative to the formula for the liquor hydrargyri oxymuriatis, is obvious, and does not require to be pointed out.” XXVII. On the State of Water and Aériform Matter in Cavi- ae ound in certain Crystals. By Sir Humphry Davy, Bart.’ RS. This novel investigation of a contested subject in geology we purpose to insert at large in the Annals. i XXVIII. Some Experiments on the Changes which take. Place in the fixed Principles of the Ege during Incubation. By Wil- liam Prout, MD. FRS. An abstract of this very interesting communication will shortly appear in the Annals. is XXIX. On the Placenta... By Sir Everard: Home, Bart. VPRS. This paper relates, primarily, to certain operations of utero~ gestation; to the means employed by nature to prevent any two different genera from breeding together ; to the period of utero- 1822.} Philosophical Transactions for 1822, Part LI. 467 gestation ; and to the direct cause of parturition. It concludes with a specimen of a new mode of classing animals according to the difference in structure of the placenta; or where this is wanting, of the chorion ; and is illustrated with seven plates. yt. 9.0.9 em Geographical Situation of the Three Presidencies, Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, in the East Indies; and XXXII. Of the Difference of Longitudes found by Chronome- ter, and by correspondent Eclipses of the Satellites of Jupiter ; with some Supplementary Information relative to Madras, Bom- bay, and Canton; as also the Latitude and Longitude of Point de Galle, and the Eviar’s Hood. By J. Goldingham, Esq. FRS. The following are the results of the observations described or enumerated in these papers. Long. E. of Greenwich. Lat. N. Madras, the Observatory.... 80° 17” 21”..., 18° 4’ 91” Madras, Fort St. George Sonuech steeples... - e524. gi ap! eR ae: sie ig Madras, the Fort Flag Staff.. 80 19 44 ....13 4 47 Calcutta, Fort William.,.... 88 23 39 Bombay, the Church.,..,... 72 54 43 ....18 56 .7 Bombay, the Lighthouse..... 72 53 36 ....18 54 25 Masulipatam Flag Staff. .... 81 12 24 .... -— Point de Galle Flag Staff.... 80 17 2.... 6 0O 50 ie Priar’s\ Hood... . seve Ho Mali COs a rea gE 8 8 WME oes woah cn a ve so o 0.n Aa Ss ae es ee or — On the coast about Madras, the tide seldom rises more than three feet ; and it is high water in the Syzigies at 9 25™; the’ variation of the compass towards the end of 1792 on the coast, about a degree to the northward of Madras, was 1° 3’ KE. At Bombay, the time of high water in the Syzigies at the Dock Head was 11" 32™; the greatest rise of the tide 18 feet ; medium rise of the springs 151 feet ; variation of the compass in’ the beginning of 1791, 42’ 59”, or 43’ W. XXXII. Observations on the Genus Planaria. By J. R. Johnson, MD. FRS. This paper relates to the natural history of four species of this genus: P. cornuta, P.torva, P. brunnea, and P. lactea; of which Dr. Johnson describes characters and habits, but we can only notice their manner of feeding, and mode of perpetuating their species. There are, in these curious animals, two ventral apertures, the upper of which gives passage to a long flexible tube, and the lower conducts to the ovarium ; the tube they frequently project, and it nearly equals the body in length. A variety of aquatic insects, worms, &c. being presented to some planarig, one of them, after the lapse of a few minutes, fastened upon a worm, immediately projecting and affixing this tube ; the worm being in this way closely retained, other plana- 2H 2 468 Analyses of Books. (Dec. rié came forward, and completely overpowered it. They seldonz attacked the worm openly, seemingly aware of the difficulty of thus overcoming it, but seized upon it, as it were, by stealth, gliding ently underneath it, and then projecting and affixing this organ, eeping a firm hold until they had concluded their repast. Dr. Johnson at first imagined the sole use of this organ to be that of effectually securing their prey ; but he observed that while they kept it firmly affixed, they moved their heads freely from side to side; and he found from a number of experiments, that when the planarie were perfect animals, they constantly received their food by this organ, and not by the mouth. In the event, however, of their being naturally or artificially divided, or of their losing this tube, which was not unfrequently the case, they took their usual sustenance by the mouth. Thus an animal fur- nished with a proper mouth, receives its food by another organ, that organ being placed as near to the tail as to the head. The P. lacteaand P, brunnea “ are oviparous, producing eggs, within a membranous capsule, each egg containing (at least those of the P. dactea), from three to eight young.” But these animals have another mode of perpetuating the species, which “ does not appear yet to have been noticed;” this is “ by a natural division of the body into two portions, the head part reproducing a tail, and the tail a head, in about 14 or more days, depending upon the state of the atmosphere.” Preparatory to this division, the posterior portion of the body first widens, and afterwards the animal has the segmented appearance of an insect. ‘“ On the third day, the separation of the head from the tail usually takes place. When undergoing this division, they remain for the most part stationary, keeping the head firmly affixed, twist- ing round the tail from time to time with a view of lessening its adhesion, and thus more readily effecting its disunion. Almost immediately after the head is liberated, it is seen to move with all the freedom of the unmutilated, perfect animal. The tail generally remains attached, and only occasionally shifts its situ- ation; but if touched, it moves with nearly the same quickness as the anterior extremity, preserving a uniform gliding motion.” The reproductive power of these animals when artificially divided is alluded to by Muller, Shaw, and others: Dr. Johnson describes some curious experiments on the subject. XXXIII. Some Experiments and Researches on the Saline Con- tents of Sea-water, undertaken with a View to correct and improve ats Chemical Analysts. By Alexander Marcet, MD. FRS. Honorary Professor of Chemistry at Geneva. XXXIV. On the Ultimate Analysis of Vegetable and Animal Substances. By Andrew Ure, MD. FRS. Dr. Marcet’s paper, which displays the elegant precision that distinguished all researches of its lamented author, shall be given in a future number of. the Annals; and of Dr. Ure’s communi- cation we shall take an opportunity of inserting an abstract. 1822.] Scientific Intelligence. 469 ArTICLE XI. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, AND NOTICES OF SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH SCIENCE. I. Death of Count Berthollet. The decease of this distinguished member of the French school of chemistry has recently been announced; it took place on the 6th of November, in the 74th year of his age. He was born at Talloine, in Savoy, and was originally of the medical profession: with the results of his labours in chemical science, our readers must be well acquainted ; they are numerous, and of the highest importance. II. Green Ore of Uranium from Cornwall. In preparing some oxide of uranium from this substance, I have found that it contains phosphoric acid, and not merely the oxides of uranium and copper combined with water, as has been stated. Jn the next number of the Annals, I purpose to give an analysis of this ore, accompanied by an account of some experiments on the oxide of uranium.—Edit, Ill. Prof. Berzelius on the Sulphurets. I had intended to have given in the present number of the Annals an abstract of the remaining portion of Berzelius’s memoir on the sulphur- ets; but having concluded that part of it which includes the alkaline sulphurets, I beg to refer the reader to the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, tome xx. p. 128, for the remainder, beginning “* Des Com- binaisons Sulfures Metalliques avec les Alcalis.” This paper is replete with the symbols peculiar to Berzelius, and they are so generally unac- companied by any explanation, that it is extremely diflicult to reduce them to an intelligible form ; for example, in about ZO lines there occur eight symbols of the following kind: As S3 + 6 dg S*.—Edit. IV. Action of Magnesia on Salep. M. Brandes, of Hoxter, has made some experiments on a compound which is formed when calcined magnesia is put into a solution of salep. When 20 grains of salep were dissolved in four ounces of distilled water, and 30 grains of pure magnesia were added, the whole became, after some hours solid, and jelly-like ; and even after a month, it had not assumed the least putrid smell. Carbonate of magnesia had the same effect, but in asmaller degree. Neither the white of eggs, nor traga- canth gum, a weak solution of isinglass, nor of starch, assumed on addition of magnesia a similar jelly-like appearance. The mucilage of quince seeds deposited the magnesia with a granular appearance,’ and the solution seemed to have become more fluid. Neither lime nor white bole produced a similar effect upon the solution of salep. The jelly is insoluble in water, fat oils, oil of turpentine, alcohol, or a solu- tion of caustic potash.. Acids, principally sulphuric acid, dissolve it partly ; the remainder is more bulky and is opalescent. . 470 - Scientific Intelligence. [Dzc. V. Ancient Aérolite. A Danish journal mentions a fact (taken from the Speculum Regale, a book written in the thirteenth century under the reign of the Danish king Snorro, and by some supposed to be written by the king himself), of which it would be interesting to ascertain whether any trace remains yet in Iceland. In this book, is told that in the church of Kloena, in Iceland, an anchor is kept, which had fallen from the air ; and, adds the Danish journalist, it is probable that it was an aérolite in form resembling an anchor, or that an anchor had been made of this meteoric iron. VI. Mathematical Laws of Electro-Magnetism. Mr. Barlow, who has so successfully reduced the laws of induced magnetism to mathematical principles, has been equally fortunate in rendering electro-magnetism a matter of computation. The battery he employed was on the-principle of Dr. Hare’s Calorimotor, and the experiments were made by means of a rectangle of stout brass wire, each side of which was four feet. One side of this was open, so as to make the connexion with the battery, and the other vertical side was passed through the centre of a table, divided into the points of the compass, and round which, therefore, a magnetic needle might be placed at any azimuth. The two horizontal sides of the rectangle might be slipped up and down on the vertical wires, whereby the length of the conducting part of the vertical wire might be changed at pleasure ; and the distance of the compass itself from the vertical wire might also, in like manner, be varied ad libitum, by merely sliding to and from the centre. From his experiments with this apparatus, Mr. Barlow has drawn the following general conclusions, viz. “ that every particle of the galvanic fluid in the conducting wire acts on every particle of the magnetic fluid in a magnetized needle, by a force which varies inversely as the square of the distance; but that this action is neither to attract nor to repel either pole of the magnetic particles, but a tangential force, which is reciprocal between the two fluids, and which tends to place the poles of either at right angles to those of the other, and to the right line which joins them,” This theory is said to be applicable to every phenomenon that has yet been observed in this new branch of natural philosophy.—(Edin, Phil. Jour. vii. 281.) VII. Azotic Springs in North America. In the south-east corner of the town of Hosick, Rensselaer county, New York, are three springs comprised within about four or five acres of ground, from which issues an incalculable quantity of pure nitrogen gas. It seems to rise from the gravel-beds beneath the water ; by press sing upon a surface of the gravel equal to five or six inches square, @ guart of the gas may be collected in an inverted jar or bottle in ten seconds.—(Ibid. p. 387, froma Geological Survey of the County.) VIII. A new Mineral called Gibbsite. This substance, named after a celebrated American mineralogist, was discovered by Dr. E. Emmons, in a neglected mine of brown he- matite in the town of Richmond, Massachusets, It occurs in irregular 1822.] New Scientific Books. 471 stalactitic masses, from one ta three inches in length, and one or more in breadth, consisting of elongated tuberous branches united in a pa- rallel direction. It is rather harder than calcareous spar, is slightly translucid, and has a specific gravity of 2°40. It does not effervesce with acids, and whitens before the blowpipe. According to the analysis of Dr. Torrey, of New York; who was particularly careful in ascertaining that it contained neither fluoric acid nor phosphoric acid, the constituents of gibbsite are : Alumina. .... ie Pade ballet Kdaelats £0499 WV ALORE cs ca op oie satin cece 6d RISERS Pes: har f MOBS E asc efeia eines AE Nate atabeterrnife Bcd aol 05 100:0 (Ibid. p. 388, from the New York Med. and Phys. Jour. No. 1.) IX. Tungstate of Lime. A specimen of this substance found in America, and analyzed by Mr. Bower, gave DumesticwCid . -.. ised «uss shonin 76°05 RUNGE EC ls. G Son ele cee tee a ae 14°36 MIG an Areata tdci e ae, ehepsce'd 2°54: Oxide OF 3FON 3). -..\-.- 0.0. a0 a dnd eid OS Oxide of manganese............- 031 99°29 Loss. .... Aout aber emis Son cane 0°79 100°00 (Silliman’s Journal.) ArricLe XII. NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION, Dr. Henry is printing a New Edition of his Elements of Experi- mental Chemistry, with great Additions, and Alterations. A Journal of a Horticultural Tour through some Parts of Flanders, Holland, and the North of France in the Autumn of 1817, by a Depu- tation of the Caledonian Horticultural Society. JUST PUBLISHED, Transactions of the Geological Society, Vol. I. Part I. Second Series. 4to. 1. 11s. 6d.—This volume contaius the following papers: On the Geology of the Southern Coast of England, from Bridport to Babbi- combe Bay; by H. J. de la Beche, Esq. Onthe Bagshot Sand; by Henry Warburton, Esq. On a Freshwater Formation in Hordwell Cliff; by Mr. Webster.. On Glen Tilt ; by Dr. Mac Culloch. On the Excavation of Valleys by Diluvian Action; by the Rev, Prof. Buck- 472 New Patents. {[Dec. land. On the Icthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus, by the Rev. W. Cony- beare. Outline of the Geology of Russia; by the Hon. W. T. H. Fox Strangways. On the Geology of the Coast of France, Department de la Seine inferieure, by H. J. de Ja Beche, Esq. On the Valley of the Sutluj in the Himalaya Mountains; by H. J. Colebrooke, Esq: On the Geology of the North-eastern Border of Bengal; by H. J. Colebrooke, Esq. ; with various other Papers and Notices ; the whole illustrated by 24 Plates, Maps, and Sections, many of them coloured. A Succinct Account of the Lime Rocks of Plymouth, being the Substance of several Communications read before the Geological So- ciety of London: with 10 Lithographic Plates. By the Rev. Richard Hennah, Chaplain to the Garrison of Plymouth. Royal 8vo. 12s. Select Dissertations on several Subjects of Medical Science. By Sir Gilbert Blane, Bart. FRS. Physician to the King, &c. &c. 8vo. 12s. Lectures in which the Nature and Properties of Oxalic Acid are contrasted with those of Epsom Salts. By Robert Venables, MD. T.C.D. 2s.6d. ; ‘An Address to Parents on the Present State of Vaccination in this Country, with an impartial Estimate of the Protection which it is cal- culated to afford against the Small-pox. By a Candid Observer. 8vo. 3s. A Guide to the County of Wicklow: illustrated by five highly finished Engravings after the Designs of George Petrie, Esq. and a large Map of the County from an original Survey. By the Rev. G. N. Wright, AM. Royall8mo. 7s. ARTICLE XIII. NEW PATENTS. J. Collier, Crompton-street, Brunswick-square, for improvements upon machines for shearing cloth.—Sept. 27. W. Goodman, Coventry, hatter, for improvements in looms.— Sept. 27. J. Bourdieu, Lime-street, London, Esq. for improving the prepara- tion of colours for printing wove cloths.—Sept. 27. B. Boothby, iron works, Chesterfield, for an improved method of manufacturing cannon-shot.—Sept. 27. J. Moxon, Liverpool, merchant, and J. Fraser, King-street, Com- mercial-road, engineer, for improvements in ship cabooses or hearths, and also for apparatus to be occasionally connected therewith, for eva- porating and condensing water.—Sept. 27. F. L. Fatton, New Bond-street, watchmaker, for improvements on watches or chronometers.—Sept. 27. T. T. Benningfield, High-street, Whitechapel, tobacco-manufactu- rer, and J. T. Beale, Christian-street, St. George’s in the East, cabinet- maker, for improvements on steam-engines.—Sept. 27. i J. Frost, Finchley, for a new method of casting or constructing foundations, piers, walls, &c.—Sept. 27. 4 1822.] Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. 473 ArTICLE XIV. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE. ——gi BAroMETER,| THERMOMETER, Daniell’s hyg. 1822, Wind. | Max. | Min.{ Max. | Min. | Evap. |Rain.| at noon. ee | es | cs a | | eee pe 10thMon. Oct. 1 E |29°87/29'81| 56 45 2) E {29°85|/29°82| 66_| 56 | »— 35 3\S E}29°85|29°82] 69 46 — 0s 4| E_ |29°82|29°80! 67 53 _ 05 : 5|S W/{29°80|29°62| 67 46 — 29 6IN W/29°62/29°59| 58 46 —_ 06 71S W/{29°75|29:67| 61 49 —_ 05 8|S_ W)|29°79/29°'72| 60 49 —_ 14 gS W)\29°96/29'72) 65 | 46°] — | 16 10| W_ {30°25/29:96| 60 Al _ 13 11/8 W/{30:25/30'03) 58 45 91 12IS E/30°03/29°57] 62 56 _— 02 13| S_ |29:97|29°57| 60 44 — 23 14IN W1{30°08/29:99| 52 30 —_ 15|S W/|29:99/29°48! 50 44, — 40 16| Var. !29°48]29°45] 56 47 = 30 IZIN ——-E/29°73/29°45) 51 38 — 24 ISIN W/29°74129'63| 51 39 — 15 19/S W)29°65|29°57|. 58 49 _ 35 | 20/8 -- W129'66|29°65| 59 A7 —_— 18 ! 21\S _W/29*84)/29:66| 61 AQ — 10 22} W_ |29°88]29°S1) 55 30 — 23/8 E)29°81/29°52| 57 50 — 2418 E/29°60/29°49|) 63 42 7S (ean 25|S E\29°63|29°61| 63 42 _ 26/S E'29°67|29°63) 60 48 — 13 27IN W'{29'90|29°67| 55 30 — 28] Var. |30°01|29°90! 58 38 — 08 2918 W/30'07|30°01| 57 45 — 02 ’ 3018S ~~ E'30°07|29°83| 61 47 ee 31S E29°97/29'84 62 43 30 30°25/29°45| 69 | 30 | 1:99 | 3:62 The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, beginning at 9 A.M. on the day indicated in the first column. A dash denotes that the result is included in the next following observation. 474 Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. [Duc. 1822. REMARES. * Tenth Month.—\. Fine. 2. Rainy. 3. Cloudy and fine. 4. Foggy morning : very frequent lightning in the evening: some thunder: night stormy. 5. Cloudy. 6. Cloudy; windy. 7. Cloudy. 8. Rain. 9. Variable. 10. Fine moming: rainy night. 11. Fine, 12. Cloudy, 13. Rainy: stormy night. 14. Fine. 15, Cloudy: rainy night. 16, 17, Rainy. 18. Day fine: night rainy. 19. Rainy: a storm of thunder, lightning, and hail, between twelve and one. 20. Rainy. 21. Showery = night boisterous. 22. Fine: Stratus in the marshes at night. 23. Fine. 24. Day fine: evening rainy. 25. Fine. 26. Cloudy: fine. 27, Fine: Sératus on the marshes at night. 28. Fine. 29. Cloudy. 30, Cloudy. 31. Fine. RESULTS. Winds: NE, 1; E,3; SE, 8; S,1; SW, 10; W,2; NW, 4; Var. 2. Barometer: Mean height For the month... .....eesee-seeesrressreee eovcees. 29°T1T inches, For the lunar period, ending the 7th .........- isa tiele 29-967 For 13 days, ending the 12th (moon north) ....:. oe 29:838 For 14 days, ending the 26th (moon south) ........ . 29°687 Thermometer: Mean height For the month. .....esccessecceseees scvsccccscscce DLT90° For the lunar period......0..-000. Resgedcuee Scccesee J4956 For 30 days, the sun in Libra.......2.-eeeeeeese++- 91°883 Exvaporations oo ..ccccccccncccvcccce ones ccnccvecetecnccescveseees 1°99 IN, Rain. eee SHE SH SORES HERES SHOE SH SEH EEE SH SH Sees eH Sere SHOES ESET OSES 3-62 Laboratory, Stratford, Eleventh Month, 21, 1822. R. HOWARD. INDEX. — CADEMY of Sciences in St. Peters- burgh, abstracted statement of the weather during the 20 years, from 1772 to 1792, 13. Acetic acid, effects of, upon Brazil wood paper, 25. Acetate of copper, composition of, 164. Acid, formic, preparation of, from tartaric acid, 311. — melanic, name proposed to distin- guish a peculiar substance found in black urine, 69. — sulphuric, diluted ; changes effected by it on the colour of Brazil wood pa- per, 24, —— sulphurous, wood paper, 24. — tartaric, preparation of formic acid from, 311. Acids and alkalies, remarks on certain substances which appear to act as both, 3. — use of tincture of Brazil wood in distinguishing, 23. Adams, Mr. on finding the sines of the sum and difference of two arcs, 21—on logarithmic and circular series, 261—on compound interest, 450. Aerolite, ancient, notice respecting, 470. Alkaline sulphurets, extract from the me- moir of M. Berzelius upon, 284, 343. Alkohometrical application of the thermo- meter, 396. Alumina, its powers as a base considered, effects upon Brazil sulphate of, on a peculiar, 280. America, progress of mineralogy in, 76. Amphibolic minerals, analysis of, 316. Analysis of the aerolite which fell at Ju- venas, 74. amphibolic minerals, 316. chromate of iron, 76. ——— colophonite, 396. —_——_ common verdigris, 161, ——-—— diaspore, 146. ——_——-an iron ore from Brazil, 310. ———— _jeffersonite, 234. a new lead ore, 117. the magnesian minerals of Hoboken, 75. magnesite, 389. -—— mica, 256. -—————— native carbonate of magnesia, 389, —w — Analysis of pulvis antimonialis, 266. ——— pyroxene, 396. sulphate of alumina, 280. —— the sulphuret ofmolybdenum, 76. ~— tabular spar, 396. — ultimate of vegetable and ani- mal substances, 424, Angers, fall of a meteorite at, 313. Apjohn, Dr. additional remarks on the influence of moisture in modifying the specific gravity of gases, 145, Ares, two, on finding the sum and differ. ence of, 21. Arsenic acid, effects of, upon Brazil wood paper, 25. detection of minute quantities of, 127. test, new one for, 77. Arsenious acid, effects of, upon Brazil wood paper, 25. Ascension, right of § Urse Minoris, 129. Asia Minor, analysis of magnesite from, 389. Astronomical observations, 27, 171, 277, 357, 450. ————— Society of London, analysis of the Transactions of, 148, 223. Atmosphere, on the finite extent of, 251. Azotic springs in North America, 470, B. Babbage, Mr. analysis of his letter to Sir Hi. Davy on the application of machi- nery to the purpose of calculating and printing mathematical tables, 383. Balls, cannon, conversion of, into plum- bago, 77. Barlow, Mr. on the mathematical laws of electro-magnetism, 470. Barometer, extraordinary depression of, Dec. 25, 1821, 263. Beaufoy, Col. astronomical observations by, 27, 171, 277, 357, 450—experi- ments and calculations for comparing the force of a body in motion with dead weight, 165, Berthier, M. analysis of native carbonate of magnesia, 369—analysis of magne- site, 389. Berthollet, Count, notice of death of, 469, 476 Berzelius, M. on the attraction of moist- ure by peroxide of copper, 154—extract from his memoir on the alkaline sul- phurets, 284, 343. — on sulphurets, notice respect- ing, 469. Bewick, Mr. analysis of his history of British birds, 294. Bezoars voided by a woman, account of, 312. Black urine, 71. Blowpipe, an account of the principal characters of earths and metallic oxides before the, 271. Boase, Mr. on the difference in the annual statements of the quantity of rain falling in adjacent places, 18. Body, force of, in motion, compared with a dead weight, 165. Bones found in a cave at Kirkdale, account of, 133. Bonsdorff, M. on the use of tincture of Brazil wood, in distinguishing several acids, and on a new yellow colour ob- tained from it, 23—analysis of amphi- bolic minerals, 316. Books, new scientific, 78, 157, 237, 318, 397, 471. Boracic acid, effects of, upon Brazil wood paper, 24. Brandes, Prof. observations on the depres- sion of the barometer, Dec. 25, 1821, 263. BraziJ, iron ore from, analysis of, 310. wood, effects of sulphuric acid upon the colour of, 24. — tincture of, on the use of, in distinguishing several acids, 23. Brooke, Mr..on a new lead ore, 117. Buckland, Rev. W. notice of his paper on the formation of valleys by diluvial ex- cavations, as illustrated by the valleys which intersect the coast of Dorset and Devon, 66—account of the bones found in a cave at Kirkdale, 133, 173. C. Calcareous rocks, on siliceous petrifactions imbedded in, 236. Cambridge Philosophical Society, analysis of their Transactions, 61, 289. Carbon, hydriodide of, discovery and com- position of, 153. Carbonate of magnesia, native, analysis of, 389. Cassius, powder of, its chemical nature considered, 55, Cave, account of bones found in one, at Kirkdale, 133, 173. Cecil, Rev. W.. notice of his paper on the application of hydrogen gas to produce a moving power in machinery, &c. 62. Index. Characters, principal, of the earths and ae oxides before the blowpipe, 271. Charcoal, fusion of, 122. Children, Mr. on diaspore, 146. Chloride of gold and sodium, method of preparing, 156—composition of, 156. Chromate of iron, analysis of, 76. Citric acid, effects of, upon Brazil wood paper, 25. Clarke, Dr. notice of his paper on the crystallization of water, 61. Colophonite, analysis of, 396. "i Common verdigris, on the composition of, 16]. Compression of water, instrument. for measuring of, 236. Constantine Pogonatus, Greek fire suppos- ed to be invented during his reign, 391. Conybeare, Rev. J. J. on works in Niello and the Pirotechnia of Venoceio Birin- guccio Siennese, 364—on siliceous pe- trifactions imbedded on calcareous rocks, 236—on Greek fire, 434. ! Rev. W. D. notice of his pa- per, entitled, additional notices on the fossil genera of ichthyosaurus and ple- siosaurus, 66. Copper, acetate of, composition of, 164. general return of the quantity of, raised in Great Britain and Ireland, 154. ——— ores, average produce of the, 154. peroxide of, analysis of, 154. — attraction of moisture by, 154. Cornwall, Royal Institution of, Report of, 395, Corrosive sublimate, unacted upon by light, 64. Coulommiers, analysis of magnesite from, 389. Crystalline form of diaspore, on the, 17. Cutanus, near Madrid, analysis of magne- site from, 389. D. Definition of a straight line, 71. Deflagrator, improved account of, 119.- Diaspore, on the crystalline form of, 17. Deuchar, Mr. an account of several cir~ cumstances connected with the ductility of glass, 358. Dobereiner, M. on the preparation of for- mic acid from tartaric, 311. * Ductility of glass, an account of several circumstances connected with, 358. E. Egg, weight lost by, during incubation, source of the earthy matter of, 65. —— aS Index. 477 Electrical connecting wire, on the funda- mental state of the phenomena of, 1. Electro-magnetic experiment, new one, + 318. , Essential oils, their smell destroyed fixed oils, 388. Experiment, electro-magnetic, new one, 318. Extent, finite, of the atmosphere, 251. F. Faraday, Mr. on the hydriodide of carbon, 153. Figuier, M. on the preparation of chloride _ of gold and sodium, 156. Fire, Greek, on the, 390. Fluoboric acid, effects of, upon. Brazil wood paper, 24. Fluoric acid, effects of, upon Brazil wood paper, 24. For, crystalline, of sulphate of potash, on the, 342. Fox, Mr. R. W. on the temperature of mines, 440. Frauenhofer’s experiments on the illumi- _ nating powers of the different rays, 157. Fruits, green, influence of, upon the air, 154. Fyfe, Dr. analysis of tutenag, 236. G. Ganges, extract of Capt. Hodgson’s jour- nal of a survey to explore the source of, 31, 99. Gases, specific gravity of, remarks on the influence of moisture in modifying, 195. ———_-—— modification of, by moisture, 29, 257, Geological remarks, 83. : Society, proceedings of, 308, 388, Geology of Snowdon and the surrounding country, sketch of, 231. Gibbsite, notice of a new mineral so named, 470. Glass, ductility of, an account of several . circumstances connected with, 358. Gold and sodium, chloride of, 156. Gravity, specific, modification of, by moist~ ure, 29, 257. Greek fire of the Middle Ages, on the, 390. Greenland, notice of Capt. Scoresby’s voyage to, 277. Groening, M. on the alkohometrical ap- plication of the thermometer, 396, H. Hakewell, M. notice of his paper on the Stonesfield slate pits, 70. Hare, Dr. account of his improved defla~ grator, 119. Haiiy, Abbé, account of the death of, 231. Herapath, Mr. observations upon D.’s an~ swer to C.’s remarks upon, 197. Hoboken, magnesian minerals of, 75. Hodgson, Capt. extracts from his journal during a survey of the sources of the rivers Ganges and Jumna, 31, 99, Howard, Mr. R. meteorological tables, by, 79, 189, 239, 319, 399, 473. Hydriodic acid, effects upon Brazil wood paper, 24. Hydriodide of carbon, discovery and coms position of, 153. Hydrogen gas, on the application of, to produce a moving power in machinery, 62. ——. on sounds excited in, 172. and tin, compound of, 136. Hypophosphorous acid, effects of, upon Brazil wood paper, 25. Lb Iceland, volcano in, 234. Jeffersonite, account of, 234. ee Royal, of Cornwall, report of, Jodic acid, effects upon Brazil wood pa- per, 24. Jones, Mr. on the method for finding the sum of all the coefficients in the expan- sion of a multinomial, 27. Iron, chromate of, analysis of, 76. —- ore from Brazil. analysis of, 310. —— different kinds of, magnetic power of, 381, Jumna, extract of Capt. Hodgson’s jour- nal of a survey to explore the source of, ST5/99: Juyenas, remarkable phenomenon which occurred at, 72. K. Kirkdale, account of bones found ina cave at, 133, 173. Knives, case of a man swallowing, 314. L. Lamps, on some improvements in, 363. Laugier, M. analysis of the aerolite which fell at Juvenas, 75. Leslie, Mr. on sounds excited in hydro- gen gas, 172. Light, has no action on corrosive subli- mate, 64, Lime, tungstate of, analysis of, 471. Lindisfarn, on the geology of, 426, 478 Line, straight, definition of, 71. Longmire, Mr, an abstracted statement of the weather during the 20 years, from 1772 to 1792, kept at the Imperial Academy in St. Petersburgh, 13—on lunar and solar phenomena at Toula, in Russia, 222. M. Mac Culloch, Dr. on the Greek fire of the Middle Ages, 390. Magnesia, action of, on salep, 469, carbonate of, native, analyses of, 389. Magnesite, analysis of, 389. Magnetic power of different kinds of iron, 381. Magnetism, mathematical laws of, notice respecting, 470. Malic acid, effects of, upon Brazil wood paper, 26. Mantell, Mr. notice of his paper on the strata of Tilgate Forest, in Sussex, 69. Marcet, Dr. death of, announced, 397. Melanic acid, name proposed to distin- guish a peculiar substance found in black urine, 69. Meteorite, fall of, at Angers, account of, 313. Meteorological account of the weather dur- ing the three winter months of the years 1821, 1822, 6. — tables, 79, 159, 239, 319, 399, 473. Mica, with only one axis of double refrac- tion, analysis of, 257. Mines, on the temperature of, 440, Mineralogy, progress of, in America, 76. Minerals, magnesian, of Hoboken, 75. amphibolic, analysis of, 316. Moisture, power of, in modifying the spe- cific gravity of gases, 29. on the attraction of, by peroxide of copper, 154. Molybdenum, sulphuret, analysis of, 76. Moyle, Mr. on an electrical phenomenon, 439—on the depression of the barome- ter, 448, Multinomial, expansion of, method for finding the sum of all the coefficients in, 2 Muriatic acid, effects of, upon Brazil wood paper, 24. N. Naptha, supposed to be an ingredient of -Greek fire, 391. New lead ore, on a, 117. Niello, on works in, and the pirotechnia of Venoceio Biringuccio, Siennese, 364. Index. Nitric acid, effects of, upon Brazil wood paper, 24, : Oo. Observations, astronomical, 27, 171, 277, 357, 450. ————— upon D.’s answer to C.’s ee upon Mr. Herapath’s theory, Oersted, Prof. instrument for measuring the compression of water, 236. Oils, fixed, effect of, in destroying the smell of essential oils, 388. Ore, lead, on anew one, 117. : Ores, copper, average produce of the ores of, 154, Oxalic acid, effects of, upon Brazil wood paper, 26, 3 : P. Partington, Mr. C. F. analysis of his work on the steam-engine, 57. grey new, 78, 158, 238, 318, 397, 12. Petersburgh, St. academy of, abstracted statement of the weather during the 20 years, from 1772 to 1792, 13. Petrifactions, siliceous, imbedded in calca- reous rocks, on, 236. Phenomena, lunar and solar, at Toula, in Russia, 222, Phenomenon, remarkable one which oc- curred at Juyenas, T2. Phillips, Mr. R. on certain substances which have been supposed to act as acids and as alkalies, 53—observations on the pulyis antimonialis of the Pharm. Lond. 265—on a peculiar sulphate of alumina, 280—on the composition of common verdigris, 161—on some pecu- liar crystals of sulphate of potash, 344, — Mr. W. on the crystalline form of diaspore, 17—-on the crystalline form of sulphate of potash, 342. —— and Mr. Woods, sketch of the geology of Snowdon and surround- ing country, 231, 401. Phosphatic acid, effects of, upon Brazil wood paper, 25. Phosphoric acid, effects of, upon Brazil wood paper, 25, Phosphorous acid, effects of, upon Brazil wood paper, 25. Pirotechnia of Venoceio Biringuccio Si- ennese, 364. Plants, observations on the time of the flowering of, 6. Plumbago, conversion of cannon balls into, 77. Potash, sulphate of, on some’ peculiar crystals of, 344, Index. Prechtel, M. on the fundamental state of the magnetic phenomena of the electri- cal connecting wire, 1. Prout, Dr. on the ultimate analysis of ani- mal and vegetable substances, 424, Pulyis antimonialis, observations on, 266. Pyroxene, analysis of, 396. R. Rain, on the difference in the annual statements of the quantity falling in ad- jacent places, 18. Rays of light, on the illuminating power of the different, 157. Ritchie, W. proposal for propelling steam vessels by horizontal motion instead of circular, 361. Rose, M. analysis of mica with only one axis of double refraction, 257. Royal Society of London, analysis of Transactions of, Part I, 1822, 370— Part iJ. 456. S. Saint-Ouen, analysis of magnesite from, 389. Salinelle, 389, Saussure, M. de, on the influence of green fruits upon the air, 154. Scoresby, Capt. notice of his voyage to Greenland, 277. Seebeck, Dr. new electro-magnetic experi- ment by, 318. Series, logarithmic and circular, on, 260. Seybert, Mr. analysis of the sulphuret of molybdenum, 76—analysis of tabular spar, colophonite, and pyroxene, 396, Shells found in Snowdon, account of, 423. Smithson, Mr. on the detection of very mi- nute quantities of arsenic and mercury, 127—on some improvements in lamps, 363. Snowdon, and the surrounding country, sketch of the geology of, 321, 401. Society, Royal, proceedings of, 153. Astronomical, of London, analysis of the Transactions of, 148, 223. Philosophical, of Cambridge, ana- lysis of their Transactions, 61, 289. Geological, proceedings of, 309. Sounds excited on hydrogen gas, 172. South, Mr. James, on the apparent right ascension of 8 Urse Minoris, &c. 129, Sowerby, Mr. G. B. on the shells found on Snowdon, &c, 423. — Mr. James, death of, announced, analysis of magnesite from, 394, 479 Specific gravity of gases, remarks on the influence of moisture in modifying, 195, Steam vessels, proposal for propelling by page instead of circular motion 361. Substance formed by some chemical changes from the wine of the sugar cane, 279. Succinic acid, effects of, upon Brazil wood paper, 26. Sugar cane, substance formed in the wine from the, 219. pe iy of alumina, account of a peculiar, — potash, on the crystalline form of, 342. Sulphurets, alkaline, extract from the me« moir of M. Berzelius upon, 284, 343. Sulphuric acid diluted, changes effected by it on Brazil wood paper, 24. Sylvester, M. on the presence of moisture in modifying the specific gravity of gases, 29—additional remarks on Dr. ‘Thomson’s paper on the specific gravity of gases, 258, ae Table, meteorological, 79, 159, 239, 319, 399, 473. Tabular star, analysis of, 396. Tartaric acid, effects of, upon Brazil wood paper, 26. : Test, new one for arsenic, 77. Thermometer, alkohometrical application of, 396. Tin and hydrogen, compound of, 136. Toula, in Russia, lunar and solar pheno- mena at, 222. Traill, Dr. notice of Capt. Scoresby’s voy= age to Greenland, 277. Transactions of the Royal Society of Lon- don, 1822, Part I. analysis of, 370— Part II, 456. Tutenag, analysis of, 236. Uand V. Vauquelin, M. analysis of an iron ore from Brazil, 310. Verdigris, common, on the composition of, 161. comparative analysis of French and British, 164. Vetch, Capt. notice of a fossil bone found in the neighbourhood of Cuckfield, Surrey, 69. ‘ Volcano in Iceland, 234. ean green ore of, notice respecting, 69. Urine, black, 71. 480 w. Water, compression of, instrument for measuring of, 236. ——— crystallization of, notice of Dr. . Clarke’s paper on, 61. Weather, meteorological account of, dur- ing the three winter months of 1821 _ and 1822, 6. Weaver, Mr. geological remarks by, 83. Winch, Mr. reply to, by Messrs. Young and Bird, 247. _____.——. meteorological account of the weather during the three winter months of 1821 and 1822, 6—observations on the time of the flowering of plants, 6— reply to Messrs. Young and Bird, 339 ' Index. —remarks on the geology of Lindisfarn, or Holy Island, 426. Wollaston, Dr. on the finite extent of the atmosphere, 251. 64 Young and Bird, Messrs. reply to Mr. Winch, 247. a repl to b Mr. Winch, 339. : 7 Z. Zeise, Dr. on a new class of compounds of sulphur, 241. END OF VOL. IV. C, Baldwin, Printer, New Bridge-street, Loudon. ag ‘', a ar