oo Siiscn! THE ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY. _—————— NEW SERIES. JANUARY TO JUNE, 1825. VOL. IX. AND TWENTY-FIFTH FROM THE COMMENCEMENT. Oe Poudon : Printed by C. Baldwin, New Bridge-street ; 1! )R BALDWIN, CRADOCK, AND JOY, PATERNOSTER-ROW. = ee 1825. TABLE OF CONTENTS. NUMBER 1I.—JANUARY. ! Page Mr. Colquhoun on the Lifeand Writings of Claude-Louis Berthollet.. .. a Mr. George on the Chloride of. Ditaniumy ac. ereneie ere declcic ence cates 18 Mr: South’s Corrections in Right Ascension of 37 Principal Stars ...... 21 Mr. Gray on the Structure of Pearls, and on the Chinese Mode 6f pro- ducing them of a large Sizeand regular Form......+.+.+-.+6 Jp dceioc 27 On the Use of Animal Charcoal as a Flux. ........00.s00008. Wena tet al 30 Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations: Anes aside EE 31 UP ATALOMNIELTESS oes | ba ree bole aly 4 ; HH. SM Pa vy Lt ae ae Nae ‘get east spies Soh, a cae A Wana if i Wana tadanat vay 4d hae “ties ee tet fori liee Shea, lector atte An et oS aaaaR, yas Pie t eogresiret ny! Ai} Ay Sie pry rr qi i oY: ohitalil Hones ye jechte BP ag rf oe ey Ps ANNALS PHILOSOPHY. JANUARY, 1825. ARTICLE J. On the Life and Writings of Claude-Louis Berthollet. By Mr. Hugh Colquhoun. THERE are some men whose characters combine those estima- ble qualities which render them the delight of their friends, with those splendid talents which destine them to form an era in that branch of study to which they devote themselves,—men, whose memories should live from age to age endeared to the cultivators of science, a generous incitement to their ardour as students, and a bright example to their conduct as philosophers. Such a friend, and such a man of genius, was the subject of this memoir; nor needs there much of prophecy to pronounce that such also shall long be the hallowed memory of Claude-Louis Berthollet. He was « man, whose thirst after science was strong in his earliest youth, and remained unabated during the extended period of a busy half century. In allthis time, neither the perplexing subversion of the old system of his favourite study could damp his zeal, nor the revolution in the government of his country withdraw his attention from the constant pursuit of chemistry. And it surely yields one a pleasure of no ordinary kind to reflect, that during the frightful tempests which agitated the political world throughout the life of this child of szience, we find the sphere of his pursuits to have been placed beyond the reach of the storm; nor can a greater contrast be imagined than the even tenour of his useful life presents to all the baneful changes and ons wars that meantime oppressed his country and the world. During the long life which Berthollet thus devoted to science, he is uniformly found with a pure and disinterested ardour of research, pressing on from discovery to discovery, and using each new step that he gained, as an instrument of farther and more powertul research into the hidden relations of nature. Independent in his opinions, he frequently stands alone in doubting, or at least in qualifying the most prevalent dogmas of New Beries, VOL, IX. B 2 Mr, Colquhoun on the Life and Writings [JAN. the day, and these doubts have been changed by subsequent discovery into certain objections against those theories, now that their merits are discussed with more cool discrimination. We must not, however, suppose that Berthollet is always as correct as he is original, or that his views are as unerring as they are profound, On the contrary, he is not only wrong sometimes, but occasionally a hitle obstinate in his prejudices. In return for this, however, we find him openly and manfully renouncing his adherence to an erroneous opinion the moment that full conviction has forced itself upon his understanding. And if, in some cases, his errors were of a longer duration, we need not, therefore, be surprised, since the amazing ingenuity of his expe- riments and of his reasoning has oftener than once, in such cir- cumstances, compelled the whole world of science, for twenty years togetber, to yield implicit assent to his doctrines., Nor was one of his peculiar and most characteristic features the least honourable to himself, or the least useful to his fellow men. For he was not one of those profound theoretical speculators, who, in the energy of their abstraction, forget the practical applica- tions of which their discoveries are susceptible. Far from this, Berthollet, while he loved science for itself, also loved to teach it how to foster the arts. On one occasion in particular, he was so eminently original and successful in the substance he em- ployed, and the method he pointed out, for improving one of the most useful arts, that his name was given to his system, and by the common sanction of his countrymen, to perform this process, was called bertholler, the workman beriholleur, and the manufac- tory berthollerie. So that thus, if every other memorial were to perish, his name would nevertheless be familiar to all his suc- ceeding countrymen, while the French language continues to be a spoken tongue. Berthollet was not a native of France. That country claims him along with Cassini, and Winslow, and La Grange, says Cuvier,* in the Eloge of which Berthollet is the subject, only as the son of her adoption, and whom it was her glory to foster and to cherish. He was born at the family mansion in Talloire, near Annecy, in Savoy, on the 9th of Dec. 1748. From this spot, he made his first progress into the world, to commence his studies at Chambéry, in prosecution of which he next proceeded to the Collége des Provinces at Turin, a celebrated establish- ment instituted by Charles Emmanuel II!. King of Piedmont, where many of the distinguished men of talent which that coun- * The eloquent Eloge Historique de M. le Comte Berthollet, par M. le Baron Cuvier, which, as perpetual Secretary, he read to the Royal Institute of Paris in June Jast, is now before the world. I take this opportunity of paying my tribute to the elegance of that Eloge, and of adding, that I have not scrupled, in preparing the mate- tials for this biography, to use it freely, whenever other sources seemed either defective, or but ill authenticated, 1825.] of Claude-Louis Berthollet. 3 try has produced, have been imbued with their first thirst for science. Here the young Berthollet attached himself to the study of ‘medicine, less, it may be supposed, from any views of interest to be gratified in its pursuit, than from that inclination already powerful, which soon became the master passion of his breast, for the investigation of those sciences which form the basis of the school of Hippocrates. He remained no longer at Turin than just to take the degrees in his profession, after which he proceeded to Paris, as the future theatre of his speculations and pursuits. His first appearance in that capital was a singular one, and the first acquaintance he made is aremarkable proof of the open frankness of an honest and independent heart. In that immense city, Berthollet had not one friend; he had not even a single introduction to any one. But, at that time, it happened, that one of the most distinguished of the medical profession. was Tronchin, a native of Geneva; and the young Savoyard con- ceived that in Paris he might be claimed as more than half a countryman. On this slender ground of introduction he waited upon Tronchin, and quite contrary to what the manners of the times might have led us to expect, his new-made acquaintance, prepossessed at first by his frankness and intelligence, grew gradually more and more attached to him, until intimacy ripened into firm friendship. Nor did this friend content himself with mere professions of regard, but soon, by means of his all-power~ ful fluence with the Duke of Orleans, Louis, grandfather of the present Duke, and then uncle of the reigning king, he procured for his protegé the situation of one of the physicians in ordinary to that prince. In this situation, the independent character of the man, and his attachment to science, appeared. For while others found their way to rank and riches by their assiduity at Court, Berthollet at once and entirely abandoned himself to the prosecution of those studies, which continued to occupy and engross his whole after life. Let us endeavour to accompany him in his researches by detailing the principal discoveries that he made, by stating the various opinions that he maintained, and by describing the chief works that he published, whilst we occasionally survey the state of science in Europe at the era of each. The first essays of M. Berthollet, and his first appearance as a philosopher, are so intimately connected with the revolution which the science of chemistry was then undergoing, that it is impossible to understand the one, or to appreciate the other, without a short view of the leading principles of the old and new systems. Nor ought we to forget, when we find our chemist somewhat obstinately wedded even to the absurdities of the old school, the length of time during which it bad ruled without B2 4 Mr. Colquhoun on the Life and Writings [Jaw. dispute, and the number of illustrious names which it enrolled among its disciples. Analogy will suggest to every one that the same phenomena have accompanied each successive revolution in science, or in philosophy, or in religion, from the dawn of letters in the middle ages down to the present day. The radical evil of the ancient system of chemistry, whose baneful influence pervaded every part of it, was Stahl’s doctrine ‘of phlogiston. When a metal is calcined under contact with the air, it is gradually converted into an incoherent earthy mass, formerly styled a calx. This calx, according to the old school, is itself'a simple substance ; and the metal is a compound of the calx and phlogiston. When a metal, therefore, is calcined, it, in their language, is resolved into the calx, its basis, and at the same time it loses some other thing unknown,—the ideal prin- ciple named phlogiston. To this hypothesis, the processes of experimenting, as they improved, furnished aninsuperable objec- tion. When a metal is converted into a calx, or gets rid of part of its composition, viz. phlogiston, it increases considerably in weight ; and, on the contrary, when a calx is brought back to the metallic state, when it gains its phlogistic constituent, it loses precisely the amount of weight which it had previously gained. That is to say, the simple basis, the calx, is heavier than when to this same basis there is superadded phlogiston. To an unprepossessed mind, this objection is fatal to the hypothesis of Stahl ; but men, bred up in any scientific creed, are not so easily induced to renounce their first belief. And, accordingly, the dis- ciples of Phlogiston only declared that this substance is specifi- cally light, or has a principle of levity; or to speak more clearly, that it paralyses the action of gravity. However, the science of chemistry continued to advance, and her busy votaries, in every quarter of Europe, by the ardour of their researches, were every day making new and interesting experiments, the results of which circulated among them with electric rapidity. It is plain that in such a state of things, any theory, which every day put to the test, ifradically vicious, must, notwithstanding its weight or prevalence, have its errors at length exposed ; and after a struggle, perhaps severe, be utterly over- thrown, and for ever discarded. Accordingly, whilst every other chemist in Europe, with an obsequiousness unfortunately more to be lamented than wondered at, was perplexing his judgment, and even distorting fact itself, in order to adapt the phlogistic theory to the progress of science, Lavoisier felt 1t every day more and more impossible to admit its accuracy.. The important discoveries of Black, Priestley, Scheele, Cavendish, and others, respecting factitious airs, and the phenomena attendant on the calcination of metals, at an early period seemed to him, not cor- rective but subversive of the system of Stahl. And the process of reasoning by which he gradually arrived at his results is at 1825.) of Claude-Louis Berthollet. 5 once so simple and so conclusive, that one cannot avoid won- dering, with Cuvier, ‘at the modest style which he assumed in arguing in support of the Antiphlogistic Theory, on the one hand, and at the confident tone of the obstinate phlogistians on the other. Lavoisier reasoned nearly as follows : A metal calcined invariably gains a considerable increase of weight. In any given close vessel, only a determinate portion of metal can be calcined. Heat may be applied to the vessel in every various degree, and for any length of time: the quantity of metal which may be calcined within it has nevertheless its fixed limits, and calcination in such a vessel, once brought to a period, can never again be renewed. But if the vessel be now opened for a short time, and a fresh supply of atmospheric air admitted, the process of calcination may be renewed, and again carried on, but within the same limits as before. In the open air, metals may be calcined to any extent. After calcination in a close vessel, the body of air originally included has dust. consider- ably in volume and weight, and has changed several of its proper- ties. The increase of weight gained by the metal measures the exact loss of weight sustained by the air, so that the weight of the whole remains unaltered. From these premises, Lavoisier con- cluded, that since the presence of atmospheric air is essential to calcination, since a given quantity of air serves to calcine only a given quantity of metal, and since this process invariably trans- fers a given weight from the air to the metal, calcination must consist in the absorption of a ponderable principle from the air. Surely no process of reasoning could be more simple—no results seem more inevitable than these; and just at this time an experiment made by Dr. Priestley enabled Lavoisier to give an analytical demonstration of his theory. When mercury is calcined in a close vessel, it is gradually converted into a red coloured calx : at the same time a portion of the confined air disappears, and the residue is incapable of contributing to new calcination, or of maintaining either com- bustion or respiration. If the red calx be now exposed to a stronger heat in contact with this deteriorated air, the metal and the air simultaneously assume their original appearance, and recover their original properties. The phenomena of this expe- riment at once furnished Lavoisier with the analytical and syn- thetical tests of his theory, and enabled him to prove that atmo- spheric air is no element, but a compound substance, of which one constituent can support combustion and respiration, while the other cannot. He next generalized the subject by showing that in all com- bustions, a portion of the atmospheric air combines with the combustible. There still remained one serious deficit in the proofs. of the truth of this theory. This arose from a phenomenon attending 6. Mr. Colquhoun on the Life and Writings (Jani the solution of metals in acids :—whence results so considerable a quantity of inflammable air? If the sole constituents of sul- huric acid be sulphur and oxygen, whence comes it that when it is brought into contact with a metal, with the addition of a little water, so large a quantity of inflammable air should be pro- duced during their reaction? This objection, which at first appeared unanswerable, was soon converted into a proof of that theory which it threatened to subvert, by Cavendish’s great discovery of the composition of water. He proved it to be no longer an element, but formed it by combining its constituents, oxygen and inflammable air. This experiment was eagerly laid hold of by Lavoisier, and repeated by him anu his associates in 1783. And now Lavoisier’s theory was established by an unbroken chain of reasoning from experiment, connecting the double processes of synthesis and analysis in its support, suchas should have constrained all enlightened chemists to renounce for ever the ancient system of error. j This, however, was far from being the case: and the sketch which has just been given of the fundamental principles of the old and new systems of chemistry is necessary on two accounts ina life of Berthollet. It is necessary in the first place to under- stand the errors under which he laboured while yet he remained a staunch adherent of the theory of Stahl; and it is so in the second, to explain the large share which his subsequent reason- ings and discoveries had in elucidating and supporting the theory of Lavoisier, after he became fairly convinced ofits truth. The first extant memoir of Berthollet (which appeared in the Journal de Physique for 1776), the subject of which is Tartarous. Acid, seems never to have been laid before the Academy of Sciences. The first which our chemist appears to have submit- ted to that learned body, is an essay on Sulphurous Acid, read in the end of the following year. Itis the custom of the Aca-. demy, it may be here remarked, upon receiving any original memoir, to appoint one or more of their members to examine into its merits, and to report on them. Lavoisier was not unfre-- quently one of those who reported on Berthollet’s earliest memoirs, and they all furnish most striking proofs at once of the extreme repugnance of the latter to adopt the doctrines of the new theory, even when these seemed most necessary to him, and of the great respect which the farmer showed even for the errors of our chemist, whose genius from the first he fondly and tenderly cherished. In this memoir on Sulphurous Acid, while Berthollet is compelled to admit that sulphur during its combus- tion unites with a portion of atmospheric air, he nevertheless, in viewing ts constitution, most wantonly encumbers and per- plexes his explanations with an unsparing use of the phlogiston. of Stahl. Lavoisier regarded sulphur as a simple body, sulphu- rous acid as a compound of that body with a certain dose of 1825,] of Claude-Louis Berthollet. 7 oxygen, and sulphuric acid as the same base united to a greater proportion of the same air. Berthollet, on the other hand, in his view of the constitution of sulphur and its two acids, gives a striking specimen of the old school of error driven to extremity, and unable either to check the progress of experiment and know- ledge, or to go on with it. Sulphur, says Berthollet, is not a simple body, but a compound one, and its constituents are phlo- giston and a base; sulphuric acid is a compound of phlogiston, the same base, and vital air or oxygen gas ; and sulphurous acid is the same base united to less vital air than exists in sulphuric acid, and to less phlogiston than is found in sulphur, If this complex explanation be deprived of the phlogiston, with so large a dose of which it is combined, the exposition of the nature of sulphur and its acids given by Berthollet is not really different from that of Lavoisier. At the same time it is difficult to conceive how that chemist could preserve his patience at seeing theories, otherwise so excellent, wholly spoiled, and talents which might have been so usefully exerted, wholly frit- tered away by the bigotted support of a system which every day’s experience made less and less defensible, and in defiance of asimple yet just doctrine, of which he had several years before developed the outlines, and had now nearly completed the proofs. Yet, at this time, he stood single in the Academy, and even Berthollet, while he admits the Lavoisierian principle of the presence of oxygen in these acids, cannot rest satisfied until he confuses and perplexes every thing by superinducing the error — views of Stahl upon the plainest facts and the simplest theory. It ‘dead surprising too, that a man who thought so freely for himself as Berthollet’s whole after life proves him to have done, should so long have remained attached to the ill-founded system of Phlogiston. Yet, independent of the force of prejudice, which, once deep-seated, rules with most power the strongest minds, it is no more than justice to Berthollet to state, that he himself, in a memoir, read to the Academy in the beginning of 1778, on the subject of Sulphuretted Hydrogen Gas, details the experiments which became the foundation of a subsequent material restriction of the theory of Lavoisier. Of course, even if the conjecture of Cuvier be correct, that neither Berthollet nor Lavoisier at that time saw all the consequences resulting from this experiment, yet as the former chemist, in a few years after, resumed the subject, and was the first, by many a year, to lay down this very limitation of the doctrine of. the latter, it is fair to suppose that, even at this time, he must almost @ son inscu, have felt a powerful, and in this case a well-grounded prejudice, against a leading part of the new system. It was unfortunately laid down by Lavoisier, as one of his fundamental principles, that oxygen constitutes the sole princt+ 8 Mr. Colquhoun on the Life and Writings (Jan. le of acidification. In his memoir Berthollet shows that sul- phuretted hydrogen gas, in which oxygen is not present, never- theless performs all the functions of an acid: and surely it seems reasonable that a doctrine opposed zn toto by every one, should not first be received as generally correct by him who alone had discovered any just grounds for qualifying one of its leadin principles. Yet it is strange enough that this very man prove eventually the first leading chemist who did admit the just doc- trines of the new theory, and it seems stranger still that those who held out longest against its truths, were also the first to embrace and defend zfs errors. But so it was; for Berthollet’s subsequent assertion, arguments, and numerous decisive experi- ments, all proving oxygen not to constitute the sole principle of acidification, fell for many a year unheeded on the’ ears and understandings of men of science, until the united force of the facts brought forward by Gay-Lussac, Thenard, and Ampere, joined to the profound and admirable reasoning of Sir H. Davy, at length established the accuracy of this limitation and qualifi- cation of the principles laid down by Lavoisier. In another memoir of our chemist, on the Nature of the Vola- tile Alkali, presented soon after to the Academy, he announced a theory of his own upon the subject, which proceeded upon a _ basis altogether erroneous. This essay was entrusted to Lavoi- sier, to report upon its merits to the Academy, who, with disin- terested tenderness for the honour of his antagonist, dissuaded him from committing himself by the publication of his system ; and Berthollet’s conduct is not less to be admired for the assent which he immediately yielded to the kindness and to the expe- rience of his adviser. The memoir was not published. His reputation was thus not publicly staked in support of any erro- neous system; and the stimulus which this very restraint gave to the ardour of his researches, led him a few years afterwards to one of his most elegant discoveries, that of the true nature of the volatile alkali. It is impossible not to esteem so much gene- rous co-operation on the part of these two illustrious chemists, eager only for the advancement of science, and opposed as they then were in many of their views ; yet the younger remaining as free from distrust of his antagonist’s advice, as the elder was untainted by jealousy of his rival’s reputation. In the subsequent experiments of Berthollet on the decompo- sition of nitre, phenomena presented themselves of so easy an explanation on the antiphlogistic system, that it seems astonish- ing how even prejudice. itself could avoid the discovery of the true composition of nitric acid. At this time, however, Berthollet was prepossessed against the truth, he clung to the old system, - and was rewarded accordingly: for the fine discovery that oxygen and azote are the constituents of nitric acid was thereby reserved for Cavendish. 1825.} of Claude-Louis Berthollet. g © It is unnecessary, however, to detail all the separate difficul- ties in which Berthollet was involved in common with the high- est intellects of his day, from the same cause, that of having the mind previously warped by prejudice. Never was there a system which can bear the test of cool unprejudiced examina- tion less than Stahl’s theory of Phlogistou. That Proteus- =. which performed the most inconsistent and contradic- tory functions ; sometimes possessed of weight, tangible, and easily confinable by the simplest mechanical means; at other times, imponderable, invisible, and eluding all the efforts of the chemist to confine it within the compactest vessels; at other times, possessing even a principle of levity ;—the chemical faith of the times, sat enthroned on the understandings of all men of science. And though nothing was more simple than Lavoisier’s whole process of reasoning, while no result could be more inevitable than his, the leading doctrines of his theory had been propounded in 1773, and their proofs were nearly complete in 1777; yet they gained no adherent of any note until so late as 1785, when Berthollet became a convert to the truth of the system. So long previous to this, however, as 1777, we have seen him obliged to admit in his memoir on Sulphurous Acid, which was afterwards printed in 1782, that sulphur unites with oxygen during its combustion and acidification, and that it is heavier in consequence of it. And in another memoir, printed in the same year, in his “‘ Researches on the Augmentation of Weight which Sulphur, Phosphorus, and Arsenic sustain, when they are converted into Acids,” he employs the same doctrine. In this latter essay too, he expressly confirms the observation of Lavoisier, that any given volume of air is diminished during combustion to an extent, the weight of which is precisely gained by the combustible. It is in a memoir read by him in 1785, on the subject of Oxygenized Muriatic Acid, that he made a full and manly confession of the change which had taken place in his opinions, and inthat very memoir combats Guyton de Morveau, one of the most illustrious disciples of the phlogistic school. Previous to this time, however, M. Berthollet had given to the world several works, all of the highest scientific merit, and some at ths same time of great practical value. Thus he was the first person who took an accurate view of the constitution of soaps, in his essay published in 1780, on the Combination of Oils with Alkalies, Earths, and Metallic Oxides. He therein showed that soaps are true chemical compounds, analogous in their nature to salts, and in which the oily principle performs the part of an acid. He also showed that this principle is capa- ble of forming soaps, not merely by combining with the fixed alkalies, potash and soda, but also with the volatile alkali, with the alkaline earths, with the earths proper, with the metallic 10 Mr. Colquhoun on the Life and Writings (Jan, oxides, and in short with every substance which, in combination with the stronger acids, forms a salt. > In the same year he published two memoirs, one on the Nature of Animal Substances, a subject which he more fully elucidated afterwards on the occasion of his brilliant discovery of the composition of ammonia; the other, on Phosphoric Acid, in which he succeeded in proving, that this acid exists ready formed in the animal body, and that it is not a product of putrefaction, or of the artificial processes employed to separate. it, as was believed by some of the most eminent chemists of the day. a 1781 he was elected Member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, in preference to the celebrated Fourcroy, Quatremére d’Isjonval, and other competitors. This was one of the most distinguished learned bodies of which he could be chosen a member ; and long previous to the close of his life, he had been elected into almost all the celebrated scientific societies in Europe, who were proud to enrol such a name as that of Ber- thollet among their fellows. In the year 1784, M. Berthollet again found a competitor in M. Fourcroy, though the result was a different one. The death of Macquer left the chemical chair at the Jardin du Roi vacant, and M. Buffon, Intendant of that Institution, bestowed it on Fourcroy in preference to Berthollet. It is said that Buffon’s vanity was piqued by the idea that the Duke of Orleans, who supported Berthollet’s interest, had not paid him sufficient court on the occasion ; but we may well say with Cuvier, that there is no need to recur to such a motive for the explanation of the ill success of Berthollet. For if his chemical acquirements and originality of thought procured him the seat in the Academy, before Fourcroy, the fascinating elocution of the latter equally entitled him to be preferred to the professorial chair, which’ immediately under his auspices, engrossed the attention of crowds of admiring pupils. Let us not here, however, omit to mention, that one of the situations which had been held by Macquer was at this time conferred on Berthollet. He was now appointed Government Commissary and Superintendant of the Dyeing Processes; and it may be supposed that this nomination necessarily turned his peculiar attention to the study of that useful art, into which he. by and bye introduced so many capital improvements. The next memoir published by our chemist appeared two years after this, on the occasion of his succeeding in discovering the mude of obtaining the caustic fixed alkalies in a state of complete purity. ‘This discovery, although not one of the least useful, is certainly not one of the most brilliant of those made by Berthollet, and indeed is chiefly. remarkable as a proof that 1825.] of Claude-Louis Berthollet. 11 even at this early period he stood pre-eminent among the chemists of his day, by his superior acquaintance with the resources of analysis, and by his greater penetration in fore- seeing the new applications of which they were susceptible. But although this is not one of the discoveries which redounds most to the fame of the individual, it is one which has contri- buted most materially tc the advancement of science. The pure caustic alkali has continued ever since that moment a most powerful instrument in the conduct of almost every department of analysis, in the animal, the vegetable, or the mineral king- dom ; and to it we are especially indebted for almost all the knowledge we possess respecting the constitution of the pre- cious stones, and other refractory mineral compounds. The greatest eclat does not always attend the most useful improve- ments, The year 1785 was on many accounts a remarkable one in the life of Berthollet. In it he had the honour of being the first French chemist of any note who acceded to the doctrines of Lavoisier: in it he gave to the world his brilliant discovery of the composition of ammonia; and in the course of the same year, he published his first essay on the Nature of Dephlogisti- cated Marine Acid, or Chlorine, thus entering upon a field from which he afterwards reaped so rich a harvest of fame. The constitution of azote and its combinations had long been a bar to the progress of the Lavoisierian doctrines. Nothing can be more strongly marked than the difference which exists between the natures of animal and vegetable substance, yet there was no subject whose investigation proved more difficult for chemists, than the cause of these distinctions. One of the first steps towards distinguishing these characteristics was made by Berthollet, when, in 1780, he showed that a large proportion of azote forms an invariable constituent in every animal sub- stance. Still, however, the prominent part which azote performs in chemistry organic and inorganic, long continued an impene- trable mystery, and remained one of the last and most serious obstacles to the establishment of Lavoisier’s theory. Nor need this mystery be wondered at, for at this time neither the com- position of ammonia nor of nitric acid was known, and water, which so often mingled itself in every analysis, was yet regarded as an element. The destructive distillation, or the spontaneous putrefaction of animal substances, gives invariably as one product a quantity of the volatile alkali: the same process applied to a vegetable prin- ciple, as certainly produces a substance of an acid nature. Bodies belonging to either class, when abandoned to spontane- ous decomposition, yield matter which is eminently adapted to the support of vegetable life ; but in addition to this, subjects of the animal kingdom, under certain circumstances, are charac~ 12 Mr. Colquhoun on the Life and Writings (Jan. terized by generating a great quantity of nitric acid, during the progress of decomposition. In what state of combination, it was vainly asked, do these three singular products, azote, am- monia, and nitric acid, or their constituents, exist in the animal body? It has been already remarked that Berthollet proved azote to be an invariable constituent of animal matter: he now pro- ceeded a step farther by making the famous discovery that ammonia is a compound of azote and hydrogen. The only blank remaining to be filled up, with a view to the complete development of animal nature, was the exploring of the nature of nitric acid, which was successfully performed by Berthollet’s friend, Cavendish, who showed it to consist of oxygen and azote.* Berthollet was now enabled to form a completely new, simple, and satisfactory theory of the constitution of animal substance, founded entirely on experiment, and accounting easily for every appearance which had hitherto embarrassed the chemist. Animal substances, said he, differ from vegetable, by containing a large proportion of azote as an invariable constitu- ent. During destructive distillation, or during putrefaction, the elements of the complex animal principles are disunited, and in obedience to the new aflinities which are thus called into action, unite in new proportions, and form with each other more simple combinations. The azote, at this time disengaged, has a strong tendency to unite with the hydrogen (another invariable constituent of animal substance), the instant it is set free, and the product is ammonia. ina situation favourable to the union of the azote with oxygen, there will also bea formation of nitric acid. Nothing could be more simple—nothing more complete, than this explanation; and by combining with it the brilliant disco- very made shortly before by Cavendish, that water is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen, a lustre was shed abroad upon the science in every quarter, illuminating even those regions over which obscurity had previously hung her deepest shade. In almost every department of chemistry, there had till then been a number of important facts unexplained, and seemingly isolated, but which the intimate relations subsisting between the composition of these three substances served at once to eluci- date and to connect. Chemistry, at this period, was at that stage of advancement, when an immense mass of facts had been accumulated, which, however, had no apparent dependence on each other, but which only required the regard of a master spirit to be thrown over them in order at once to appreciate their indi- vidual value, and their mutual relations, to penetrate the general and uniform laws and principles which govern them all, and to = So simultaneous were these important discoveries in the neighbouring kingdoms, that the private letters of the emulous friends, mutually announcing the discovery of each, are said to have actually passed each other onthe way, 1825.] of Claude-Louis Berthollet. 13 combine them into a simple and well-digested whole. This undertaking was made practicable after these discoveries of Berthollet and Cavendish, and the mode in which Lavoisier and Berthollet performed it ranks them among the first philosophers of the age. As Berthollet was by this time confessedly one of the very first chemists of France, he almost necessarily became one of those who now undertook to introduce an important reform into the language of that science of which they had completely changed the system. Lavoisier, Berthollet, Fourcroy, and Guyton de Morveau, combined to plan and organise a new phi- losophical chemical nomenclature. Such an undertaking had long been a great desideratum, of which every day’s experience made the necessity more pressing and imperious. After the important discoveries which had been made, and the many new views which had been introduced into the science, it became a matter of very great difficulty to describe the one or to explain the other in a language which had a constant reference to the phiogistic system. For Lavoisier and his confederates, this was wholly impossible, since the basis of the new system rested on the subversion of the old. They accordingly set about a radical reform where no palliative measures could be available, and if, after all the changes they effected, and all the improvements they introduced, by their “ Methodical Nomenclature,” there should still be discovered not a few omissions and anomalies, any feeling of regret that they did not do more should be absorbed in the gratitude that is justly due to them for having done so much. Indeed it would be difficult to point out how even men so gifted as they were could have employed their talents in a man- ner more beneficial to science, than in the construction of this new language. The imagination can hardly conceive a more barbarous, repulsive, unmeaning chaos, than the chemical nomenclature had for more than a century presented. it was founded by Stahl in 1720, and it is easy to suppose how little the first attempt at methodising chemical facts, made in the very infancy of the science, would suit the rapid progress of discovery which characterised the 18th century. It retained not a few of the unintelligible terms of the alchemist, and more- over was adapted to the system of Phlogiston, so as to be wholly void of meaning when detached from it. Thus the access to knowledge was rendered unnecessarily thorny and difficult, while the initiated found the science itself proportionally less advanced. Nothing could be more wildly arbitrary than the names then affixed to the various chemical bodies, forming a jargon in which men and ods, beasts, fish, and fowl, and things of the inanimate creation, all found a namesake which the inven- 14 Mr. Colquhoun on the Life and Writings (Jan. tor intended according to his varying whim; now as a compli+ ment to heaven, and now as a mark of regard for aught that struck his fancy in or upon the earth. Nay it would seem that some men of very perverse inclination endeavoured by the name to mislead and deceive the uninitiated as to the thing ;—as it is difficult in any other way to account for a fact such as that three most deadly poisons, the acetate of lead, the chloride of anti- mony, and the chloride of arsenic respectively, should have been styled the sugar of lead, and the butter of antimony and of arsenic. In fine, system was unknown,—there was no co-ope- ration, but each in his turn, in this important work, invented for himself; and the greater part of the names thus bestowed have no reference to the subject designated, and are totally indepen- dent of methodical arrangement. That after the total revolution which the science had under- gone, it could continue much longer to be tolerated, was impos- sible ; and so early as 1782, Guyton, the last of the great French chemists who acceded to the new doctrines, was nevertheless the first to furnish a memoir to the Academy proposing a new chemical nomenclature. So soon, therefore, as he became a convert to the new theory, the four leading chemists in France set about providing for the exigencies of the science, by furnish- ing it with a new methodical nomenclature. The first principle in planning the new nomenclature was to connect the words with the things they were intended to repre- sent, as is shown in the only words they truly invented, oxygen, hydrogen, and azote ;—the next was so to methodize them, as to present a connected view of the chemical facts then known, at the same time endeavouring to provide for the future exten- sion of the science. The roots of new denominations employed to express bodies of recent discovery were drawn from the Greek language, partly to avoid entirely any connexion with the barbarous system previously used, and partly because this mode afforded a facility of expressing a compound substance by an easy compound name, at the same time that, by varying the termination, it was easy to mark the different states of the sub- stance so compounded. Thus these terminations are the same in analogous substances, and to name them conveys at once the nature of the composition to which each is appropriated; and by this method there was introduced the greatest precision and accuracy into the whole science, in which system immediately took the place of chaos. Of the great benefits conferred by this new nomenclature on chemistry, it is impossible to doubt; and of the philosophical views on which it was constructed and arranged, the success with which for many years it adapted itself perfectly to every improvement in the science, is sufficient evidence. indeed, it 4825.) © Of Claude-Louis Berthollet. 15 is only within these few years that the new views which have been taken of the nature of chlorine and fluorine, the discovery of iodine and cyanogen, the decomposition of the alkalies, and the electro-chemical theory, having together introduced more enlarged and philosophical ideas of the nature of combustion and of chemical affinity, than were entertained by Lavoisier, Berthollet, and their associates, a corresponding modification of their nomenclature is become necessary. The recent doctrine of chemical equivalents too renders this reform still more requi- site, and promises to give a. degree of mechanical precision to chemical nomenclature, such as the French chemists could not possibly have imagined or anticipated. The difficulty nowis, to ‘bring the leading chemists of Europe to concur in any one method or set of principles in introducing the innovation. Each has his own peculiar ideas on the subject, and for want of some centre of reunion, some mode of having a full discussion of their ‘separate opinions, there is as yet no immediate prospect of even a provisional nomenclature, however much its want may be felt to be injurious to the interests of science. We now approach a brilliant period in the life of Berthollet, who had not yet however completed his 40th year. In 1787, by his essay on the Composition and Properties of Prussic Acid, he gave a striking proof of the independence of a mind which ever judged freely tor itself, and thereby often rose superior to the prejudices of the day. It was, as has been previously noticed, one of the doctrines of the theory of Lavoisier, that oxygen is the acidifying principle, and that no acid exists with- out its presence. So soon as the leading features of this theory began to be received by chemists as correct, an implicit assent to all its details was given by almost every chemist, save Ber- thollet. We have already seen that in his memoir on Sulphu- retted Hydrogen Gas, in 1778, he stated it to perform all the functions of an acid, and now again, in this Essay on the Nature of Prussic Acid, he found himself enabled, after the successful issue of an analysis, attended by no ordinary difficulties, to declare, that prusstc acid contains no oxygen. He showed that it nevertheless performs every function of an acid, having affinity for and combining with alkalies, neutralizing them, and forming with them crystallizable compounds, and being again displaced from these combinations by the more powerful acids. The ana- Jogy to an unbiassed mind. was complete; yet Berthollet’s opinion, that acids may exist without the presence of oxygen, gained not a single convert. The new theory now found an implicit acquies- cence in its errors, not less unreasonable than the reluctant and tardy assent which had been yielded to its truths. Nay, so undisputed became its authority, even in those points in which each man’s own experience should have been his guide, that 16 Mr. Colquhoun on the Life and Writings [Jan. when Berthollet, nine years after this, again resumed the subject, again investigated the nature of sulphuretted hydrogen, and again confirmed every former statement he had made, though he had long been confessedly one of the first French chemists, again found the same ill success in attempting to establish an important truth which has only commanded general assent since the recent era to which we have already alluded. But the year 1787 is further remarkable as the date of the publication of some of Berthollet’s most important researches into the nature of chlorine. He had already given to the world his first memoir on this subject in 1785: it was one which came repeatedly under his notice, and on each occasion his investiga- tions were attended by results the most important ; at one time to the interests of science, at another to the advancement of the arts. His experiments on this substance may be divided into three branches. The first regards the nature of simple chlo- rine ; the second, its combination with oxygen ; and the third, its property of destroying vegetable colour. The history of M. Berthollet’s researches into the constitution of chlorine is one of the greatest interest and instruction. The views which he adopted have been proved by subsequent expe- riments to be erroneous ; but the process of reasoning by which he arrived at his results appeared so plain, his conclusions seemed so inevitable, and all the phenomena were by its means so satisfactorily accounted for, that during a period of twenty- five years, his theory was universally received. Its overturn has been the consequence only of the discovery of facts unknown at the time of its formation, the metallic basis of the alkalies, the new substance iodine, and several others, all of which are closely analogous in their properties with chlorine. Scheele, who discovered chlorine in 1774, had also the great merit of taking a correct view of its constitution. He called it dephlogisticated muriatic acid, or, in modern terms, muriatic acid deprived of its hydrogen. Berthollet, on the contrary, considered muriatic acid to be the simple (or at least the till then undecom- pounded) body, and he regarded chlorine as a compound of this simple substance and oxygen. And his reasoning on the subject seemed then to be close and irrefragable. If muriatic acid be digested over the black oxide of manga- nese, a portion of it is decomposed, and separates in the state of chlorine gas ; the remaining portion is found to hold in solu- tion the oxide of manganese at an inferior degree of oxidation. Of course, the black oxide has also undergone decomposition, and given up aportion of its oxygen; but nota trace of this gas remains in the liquid. From this, Berthollet concluded, that it had gone off with the chlorine, and formed pari of that substance: 1825. | of Claude-Louis Berthollet. 17 in place of which, the modern account is that, muriatie acid being compounded of chlorine and hydrogen, the hydrogen com- bines with the excess of oxygen in the black oxide of manganese, forming water, while the chlorine, a simple substance, is set at liberty. This experiment, however, seemed to Berthollet and to all his brother chemists, to furnish a convincing synthetical demonstration of the composition of chlorine. His analytical proof was the following: An aqueous solution of chlorine, exposed to the light for some days, gave off a quantity of oxygen gas amounting to nearly one- third of its volume. After this evolution had ceased, no trace of chlorine appeared behind, the only substance remaining in the liquid being muriatic acid. Here, then, the chlorine seemed to be decomposed into muriatic acid and oxygen. Berthollet mea- sured the volume of oxygen gas evolved, and estimating the quantity of muriatic acid formed by throwing it down with nitrate of silver, he found himself able to calculate the propor- tions of the supposed constituents of chlorine. The modern account of the phenomena just mentioned is, that a certain quan- tity of water undergoes decomposition, its hydrogen combining with the chlorine, and forming muriatic acid, while its oxygen escapes in the state of gas. Berthollet, however, having his views of the nature of chlorine now rested on apparently the strongest of all grounds, changed the appellation of Scheele into that of oxygenized muriatic acid; a name which it retained until Sir H. Davy published his new view of its constitution in 1810. On this occasion, it is proper to observe, that the very extent of Berthollet’s acquaintance with chemical facts tended to mis- lead his views when once they had taken a wrong bias, and to strengthen the confidence he felt in this erroneous opinion, Layoisier had shortly before this shown that no metal can unite with an acid, unless it be in the first place combined with a dose of oxygen. Now, if metallic zinc be put into an aqueous solu- tion of chlorine, it dissolves there as silently as sugar does in water. There is no effervescence, no evolution of gas, as IS ordinarily the case during the solution of metals in acids, and from the liquid, by the proper chemical reagents, there may be separated muriatic acid and oxide of zinc. Here, said Berthol- let, the exygenized muriatic acid imparts its oxygen to the zinc, and then, the disengaged muriatic acid combines with the newly- formed oxide, and produces muriate of zinc. In place of which the modern explanation is, that the chlorine acts directly upon the zinc ; and that when these two substances are obtained in the state of muriatic acid and oxide of zinc, a corresponding quantity of water has undergone decomposition, its hydrogen and oxygen having united respectively with the chlorine and the New Series, vor. 1x. c 18 Mr. George on Chloride of Titanium. [JAN. ‘Another of the leading corroborations of this theory of the nature of chlorine, it is surely interesting to give, in order to explain fully the grounds on which the whole chemical world, with Berthollet at their head, went into a great error at a period when investigation was peculiarly alive, and continued in it during the active researches of a quarter of a century. It was this: the weaker acids are unable of themselves to expel the excess of oxygen from the black oxide of manganese, so as to unite with the salifiable oxide; but when aided by any sub- stance, sugar for example, having a strong affinity for oxygen, the salifiable oxide is then developed, which the acid immediately dissolves. ‘This Berthollet held to be the precise account of the phenomena attending the solution of the black oxide of manga- nese in muriatic acid. The acid has a strong affinity for oxy- gen; it has also a strong affinity for the salifiable oxide of man- ganese ; hence, a portion of it combines with the excess of oxygen, and flies off in the state of oxygenized muriatic acid: the remainder combines simultaneously with the salifiable oxide thus developed, and forms along with it the common muriate of manganese. There are few more interesting explanations of chemical phenomena than those on the one hand urged with so much force by Berthollet in support of his theory, and those on the other which modern science is now enabled to offer in complete subversion of it. Itis entertaining to consider each of these views even separately, and it is highly useful to compare them with each other. We thus find as the result of all the intellect and research which has been brought to bear on the question, that Scheele has the praise of having truly viewed the nature of that important substance, which he had also the merit of disco- vering; while to Berthollet belongs the scarcely smaller honour of haying overturned the doctrine of Scheele, and of having so firmly erected his own hypothesis in its stead, that it remained unshaken and almost unquestioned, until our illustrious country- man Davy succeeded in restoring chlorine once more to its original character, (To be continued.) Arricie II. On ihe Chloride of Titanium. By Mr. E. 8. George. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Grove Terrace, Leeds, Nov. 13, 1824, In a paper published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1823, Dr. Wollaston states, that the substance from Merthyr 1825.] Mr. George on Chloride of Titanium, 19 Tydvil, which he has shown to be metallic titanium, occurs also at the Low Moor Iron Works, near Bradford, Yorkshire. Hav- ing a short time ago an opportunity to examine the foundation of a blown out furnace at the Low Moor Iron Works, I found the upper part of the stone, upon which the melted metal rests, com- pletely penetrated by metallic iron, sulphuret of iron, and carbo- naceous matter, amongst which brilliant cubes of metallic tita- nium were thickly dispersed. Upon a portion of this substance reduced to a coarse powder I poured muriatic acid; a large quantity of hydrogen and sul- phuretted hydrogen gases was extricated, and after ebullition in excess of acid, the iron and earths contained in the slag were dissolved, leaving brilliant cubes of titanium having a colour between that of copper and gold and possessing great metallic brilliancy, mixed with grains of silex ; the carbonaceous part had floated away with the muriatic solutions. Having removed the grains of silex, 60 grains of the metallic titanium were placed in a glass tube, and a current of chlorine (from which all moisture had been removed by dry chloride of calcium), passed over them, no action was perceptible, nor was the lustre in the least impaired; on heating to ignition the part of the tube in which the titanium was placed, a fluid gradually condensed in the cool part of the tube, and was collected by gently inclining it. This fluid is transparent and colourless; it possesses consi- ‘derable density ; on exposure to the atmosphere, it emits dense white fumes, having a pungent odour resembling, but not nearly so offensive as, chlorine; the dense fumes appear to depend upon the presence of moisture ; it boils violently at a temperature a little higher than 212° Fahr. and is recondensed without decom- position: on the addition of a drop of water to a few drops of this liquid, a very rapid, almost explosive disengagement of chlorine ensued, attended by a considerable elevation of tem- perature, and when the water is not in excess, a solid salt is formed. This salt is very soluble in water, deliquescent, and its solu- tion possesses all the properties of muriate of titanium, giving a brownish red precipitate with prussiate of potash, a dark red with infusion of galls; with pure potash a gelatinous precipi- tate, soluble in excess of muriatic acid, and after subsidence nitrate of silver, occasioning in the supernatant fluid a precipi- tate of chloride of silver: ammonia throws down a white precipitate from the solution. A salt possessing the same properties crystallizes in the inte- rior of the tube when the chlorine is not freed from hygrometric moisture. To ascertain the composition of the two substances, upon 14°6 c2 30) Mr. George on Chloride of Titanium. [JAN. grains of the fluid in a long test tube, I dropped a weighed por- tion of water very gradually ; chlorine was disengaged rapidly, and the temperature of the tube became considerably elevated ; after cooling I found the loss of weight 4 grs.: the solution gave with gallic acid a dark red precipitate. This fluid is the perchloride of titanium, since, by the separation of chlorine, it is converted into the protochloride, which becomes the muriate by solution. From the difficulty attendant upon the drying of the salt (whether formed by crystallization in the tube, or by the decom- position of the perchloride), without rendering a part insoluble ; fT added water to a solution of muriate of titanium formed by the decomposition ofthe perchloride by water, and divided the solu- tion into two equal parts; from the one I precipitated the oxide of titanium by potash; the precipitate when dried weighed 7 grains, and from the other I precipitated the chlorine by nitrate of silver; the chloride of silver when dried weighed 15 grains, containing chlorine 3°6. Hence the muriate of tita- nium is composed of oxide of titanium 7, muriatic acid (chlorine 3°64 + hydrogen 1—) 3-74. Supposing the muriate to be com- posed of 1 atom muriatic acid and | atom oxide of titanium, the oxide is the protoxide resulting from the combination of ] atom of oxygen with | atom titanium, and the weight of tita- nium will be 61-2, it is prob&ble that the true number is 64, as indicated by the experiments of M. Rose. From this analysis, the composition will be, Muriate of Titanium. Oxideio€ titangiimess tasters: wlateleml'stcasuateit OU Miuniatic, @Cil<,v.) ts adlens acs manthaeeye iene) 2s CE Or as Protochloride. hitanvanl. sees 3, RED, Se RT S18 Chlorine, eee, Bee MARES PS SG Perchloride Titanium. Pitangim,.; sisradals. eocnle wit-eldian oe OOo Chiorme...... seid BP isc OS wats suid dees Bee I remain, your obedient servant, E. 8. Geores. 1825.] Corrections in Right Ascension. 21 Artic.e III, Corrections in Right Ascension of 37 Stars of the Greenwich Catalogue. By James South, FRS. y Pegasi] Polaris | a Arietis| «& Ceti latebaran Capella | Rigel é@ Tauri [, Orionis Mean AR2{h- m.s. {h. m. s. |i.m. s.{hem.s. |h.m. s. |h. m. s. |h. m. s. |h.m. s. Ih. m. Ss. 1825. $10 4 14:25] 0 58 17-50|1 57 19°77|2 53 8:58 4 25 53'44|5 3 46°61] 5 6 8°00 5 15 bis 45 42°18 Jan, 1/4 0°939"\+ 9-20 [4 UTI 4 rar" 2-41” | + 3:35"| 4+ 2°30") + 2°79") 4 2-48" 2 91 8°52 10 86 | 4l 35 30 719 4s 3 90 7°83 68 85 40 35 30 79 A9 4 88 714 67 85 40 35 30 19 49 5 87 6°45 66 84 AO 35 30 19 49g 6 86 575 64 83 39 35 30 19 50 7 85 5:04 63 82 39 35 30 80 50 8 84 A-34 62 82 39 34 29 80 51 9 83 3°64 61 81 38 34 29 80 51 10) 82 2°93 59 80 38 34 29 80 52 11 $l 2-26 58 19 37 33 28 19 52 12 80 1-59 56 78 37 33 28 19 52 13 19 0-93 55 17 36 32 28 19 52 14 78 |\+ 0-26 | 54 16 35 31 27 18 52 15 76 |— 0°43 52 15 35 31 27 18 52 16 75 1°17 51 4 34 30 26 78 51 17 14 191 50 13 33 29 26 18 51 18 13 2°65 49 72 33 28 25 Lic! 51 19 13 3°40 AT qT 32 27 25 17 5k 20 72 A 4 46 69 31 26 24 TT 51 21 71 A‘81 Ad 68 30 25 24 16 50 22 10 5-48 43 66 29 24 23 16 50 98 69 6-16 A2 65 28 23 22 | 15 50 24 68 6-83 Al 64 27 22 21 75 49 25 68 7°50 39 63 26 20 20 74 49 26) 67 8.16 38 61 25 i) 20 13 48 Q7 66 8-81 37 60 24 18 | 19 72 48 28 65 9-47 36 59 23 17 is va T 29 64 10°12 34 58 22 15 17 10 AT 30 63 10-78 33 56 21 14 16 69 AG 3) 62 11-40 31 55 20 12 15 68 45 Feb, 1 61 12-02 30 53 18 ll 14 67 A5 | 61 12-64 28 52 17 09 | 1s 66 A4 3 60 13:25 QT 51 16 0s 11 63 43 4 59 13-87 25 50 15 06 10 64 42 5 58 14-48 24 49 14 05 09 62 Al 6) 56 15-09 22 AT 12 03 08 61 40 7 56 15-71 21 A6 ll 02 07 60 39 8 55 16°32 19 A5 10 CO | 06 59 3 a 55 | 16:93 18 43 08 2°98 | OL 57 37 10 55 |. 17°48 16 42 07 96 | 02 56 36 il 54 18-03 15 40 05 94 ol 54 35 12 53 18-58 14 39 04 92 1:99 53 34 18 53 19-]2 13 31 O2 80 98 51 32 14 52 19-67 11 36 Ol 88 96 50 31 15 52 | 20-20 10 34 0) 86 95 49 50 16 5l 20°74 09 33 1-99 84 93 48 29 17 51 21:27 OT 3) 97 82 §2 AG 28 18 50 21°81 06 30 96 89 90 Ad QT 19 50 22°34 05 28 94 78 &8 3 25 20 50 | 22°81 03 QT 92 76 86 Al y4 21 50 |. 23°97 02 25 9 7 85 89 22 22 49 | 23-74 ol Q1 89 72 | 83 38 21 pap | AQ 24-21 0°99 22 87 69 8l 86 19 24) 49 24°67 98 pea | 86 67 80 | 34 18 25) AQ 25°09 97 19 84 65 18 32 16 26 AS 25°50 96 18 82 63 16 30 | 15 QT 48 | 25-91 95 16 80 61 14 | 28 13 d 28) 48 | 26-32 94 15 719 58 13| 21 Wz 22 Corrections in Right Ascension of [JaN. er rr Procyon | Pollux | « Hydre| Regulus | @ Leonis Sirius | Castor 6 Virginis SpicaVirg. h.m. 3 Ih. m. s. (hem. s. j|h.m. s. |hom. s. [h.m, s. |h.m. s. (bh. m. s. h, m. s. bt 6 37 26°11|7. 23 25°30) 7 30 8:47/7 34 35-85'9 18 59°40)9 59 2°78/11 40 7°S0)11 4134-98 13 15 59°22 Jan. 114 2°38") + 2-95" 4 2°47”|4 2-844 218/14 2-07) = 1°50"|4 1-47” + 0-98” eg} 39 97 48 86 14 10 58 50 9T 3| 39 98 50 81 16 12 56 54 | 1-00 4| 40] 3-00 51 89 18 15 60 51 04 et Ai 01 53 91 Ql 18 63 61 07 6| 41 03 541 92 23 20 66 64 ll "| ao| 041 56 94 25 23 69 61 id sl 43 o6| 58 95 28 25 72 7 18 9} 43 07 59 91 301! 98 76 14 21 10| 44 09 60 98 32 31 79 77 o4 li] 44 io} 61 99 34 34 82 80 28 lo} 44 11 62| 3-00 36 36 85 84 31 1s| 44 il 63 ol 38 38 87 87 35 me a8 12 63 02 40! 41 90 90 38 15] 45 i3 64} 03 49 43 93 93 41 16 45 14 65 o4: fh? ab l® 48 96 96 A5 | 45 15 66 05 46 At 99 99 48 1s] 46 15 67 05 48 50 | 201 01 bl 19] 46 16 67 06 49 52 04 | 203 bd 20/46 17 68 07 51 54 07 05 BT il 46 17 68 07 52 56 i0| 08 60 99] 46 18 69 08 54 57 13 10 64 93} 45 18 69 08 55 59 16 13 61 24; 45 19 69 09 56 61 ig 15 70 25] 44 20 70 09| 57 63 21 18 13 26, 44) 20 70 10] 59 64} 93 20 16 ei} 44/20 7 10 60 66 26] 93 79 28} 44! 20 7 il 62 68 28 95 82 a9) 43!) 21 72 il 63 69 31 28 85 30} 43 a1 72 12 64 11 33 30 88 31} 43 a1 72 12 65 79 35 33 91 Kop. 1 49 |t 91 72 12 66 74| 38 35 o4 a} 42 ol 71 12 67 15 40| 31 97 3} Al <0 71 12 68 76} 43 39 | 2-00 4) 40 90! 71 12 69 1g fe ‘ag PO van 03 5| 39 20! 7k 12 70! 79 AT 43 06 6| 38 20| 71 12 71 80 49 45 09 n| 37 19 70 12 72 81 52| 47 12 s| 36 19 0 12 73 83 5A 49 15 g} 35 19 7 12 73 84 56 51 i7 i0| 34 18 70 11 73 85 58 53 20 ill 33 18 69 lt 14| 86 60 55 29 iq} 32 17 69 10 14 87 62 51 25 13) 31 16| 68 10 4 88 64 59 o7 14/20 15 68 09 15 89 66 Gl 30 15} (29 15 67 09 75 90 68 63 32 16, 98 14 67 08 76 91 70 65 35 vi} 97 13 66 08 16 92 72 67 37 isl 96 13 65 07 "6 93 74 69 40 19} 34 12 64 06 "1 93 45 70 42 20} 93 iI 63 05 77 94 76 72 Ab ai} 91 10 62 o4 77 94| 78 73 47 92} 20 09 61 03 77 94 79 15 49 931 18 08 60 02 71 o4 81 16 52 a4) 17 07 59 ol 17 95 89 77 54 95] 15 05! 58 00 16 95 83 78 56 96, 13 04 51 | 9-99 16 95 84 79 59 ai; 12 03 56 97 76 95 85 e1 61 98) 10| 02] 55! 96 16 95 86/83 63 1825.] Thirty-Seven Principal Stars. 23 Arcturus |2a* Libre|« Cor.Bor.|« Serpent.| Antares aHerculis|aOphiuchi| ¢ Lyre y Aquile Mean AR) {h- m. s. |h. m. s. |h.m. s. jh. m. s. |h. m. s. jh. m. s. h. m. s. /h. m. 's. Iho m se 1825. § {14 7 41°06)14.41 12°92) 15 27 16°97 15 35 39°42) 16 18.41°57|17 6 40°44)17 2649°'02 18 31 1°01/19375639 Jan. 1) 4 0°54”) + 0°53”) — 0:06”|+ 0-16"|+ 0-14”) — 0°25'|— 0-26" 0-94”) — 0-25! 24 51 5T 03 19 17 93 93 24, 3| 60 60 00 22 20 20 99 92 4 4) 63 64 | + 0°03 95 93 18 20 91 23 Blo 66 67 06 28 26 16 18 90 93 6| 69 70 10 30 29 14 16 89 92 a 72 73 13 33 32 11 14 88 92 s| 75 17 16 36 33 09 12 87 21 9] 78 80 19 39 38 07 10 86 20 10; 8 83 99 49 Al 05 08 84 19 li] 84 86 25 AD AA 03 06 83 18 lo} 87 89 98 48 AT 00 04 ey 17 13} 91 93 31 51 50 |. 0-02 01 80 16 M4] 94 96| . 34 54 53 04 | 40-01 48 15 15] 97 99 37 BT 56 07 03 qT 14 16} 1-00} 1-02 40 60 59 09 05 "5 13 17} 03 06 43 63 62 12 07 14 12 1s} 06 09 4G 66 65 14 09 72 il 19} 09 12 49 69 69 17 12 70 10 201 13 15 52 72 72 19 14 68 08 211 16 19 55 15 15 99 16 66 07 29 «19 92 58 78 79 24 19 64 05 23, 22 25 61 sl 82 27 21 62 04 24, 26 29 64 84 85 29 23 60 02 25; 29 32 68 87 88 32 26 58 Ol 26, 32 36 ral 90 92 34 28 56 |+ 0-01 211 35 39 74 93 95 31 31 54 02 28, 38 42 17 06 98 39 33 52 03 29,41 4G 80 99 | 1-02 AQ 36 50 05 30,44 49 84 | 102 05 A5 38 48 06 31] 47 52 87 05 08 48 Al 4G 08 Feb. 1} 50 55 91 08 12 51 44 43 10 9} 53 59 4 it 15 53 46 Al II 3| 56 62 97 14 18 56 49 38 13 4,59 65 | 10) 17 929 59 52 36 15 5| «62 69 04 20 95 61 55 33 17 6.66 72 07 93 99 64 51 31 19 "| 69 15 10 26 32 67 60 95 20 g| 72 18 13 29 35 70 63 26 22 9 75 SI 17 32 39 13 66 23 24 10/78 84 20) 35 49 76 69 20 26 li] 81 87 93 358 AG 79 71 18 98 12} 84 90 26 ay 49 82 74 15 30 13] 86 93 99 44 53 85 77 12 31 14} 89 96 32 AT 56 88 380 09 33 5} 9 99 36 50 60 91 82 07 35 6 95 | 203 39 53 63 94 85 04 31 y| 98 06 42 5G 66 96 88 02 39 k 2-01 09 45 59 70 99 91 | 0-01 AN 1] ” 03 12 48 62 n3 | 1-02 93 04 AS x 06 15 bl 65 76 05 96 OT Ab 2108 18 B4 68 80 08 99 10 48 e |] 21 57 71 83 10 | 1-02 13 50 2 «13 24 60 7 86 13 05 16 52 24 16 26 63 7 9 16 07 19 54 2 18 29 66 80 93 19 10 29 56 26 «21 32 69 83 97 2] 13 95 59 21 93 35 72 86 | 200 a4 16 98 61 28 96 31 15 89 04 97 19 31 63 * Mean AR of 1a Libre, 145 41/ 1/50"% 24 Corrections in Right Ascension of Aquils | @ Aquile Mean AR? |! ™- s. [h, m. s. 1825. Jan. 1|— 0°22"/|— 0:19”) — 0-03") — 0:87") + 0-27!) + 0°50" 66 |: h. m. s. h. m. s. |h. m. Se 2% Capri.| « Cygni ja Aquarii Fomalhaut hm. s 76 87 1119 4214-84'1946 43-2020 8 20°34|2035 28°24.21 56 ArT 27 [JAN.. a Pegasi_ aAndrom. h.m. s. h. m.. s. 22-47 57°67|22 56 316/23 59 21°74 -—$>— Ag * Mean AR of 1 « Capricor, 20" 7! 56°55". + 0°50" Ad 48 AT 46 46 45 44 43 A2 Al Al 40 39 38 38 37 37 36 35 34 34 33 + O87” 85 84 82 81 19 18 16 re 1825.] Lhirty-seven Principal Stars. 25. y Pegasi | Bale ae a Ceti Aldcharn Capella | mee! ge noge 4 aus Mean AR M m. s. h.m. s. hem 1m, s. \h. m. hous. hom. s. |b. ims. 1825. §/0 4 14250 38 ive 5011 7 197 72 58. BF sue 20 53° “ial 3 46°61 5 6 “8-00 5 15 14-20)5 3 ‘S ‘42: 18 March 1] 4- 0:47" —26-°73”| + 0°93”) 4 1:13”|4 1-774 2-56" + 1-71") 4 2-251 + 2:10" 2 AT; 27:08 92 12 15 54 | 69 23 08 3 AT | 7-44 91 10 74 52} 67 21 07 4 AT | 27°80 90 09 72 50; . 66; 20 05 5] AT | 28°15 89; 08 rat 47 | 64 | 18 03 6). 47 | 28°50 88 06 69 45 | 62 16 02 1T AT | 28°82 87 05 67 43 | 60|. 14 00 s| 47) 9914| 86] 04 66 | 41]. 58 12] 1-98 9) AT | 29°46 85 03 64 3957 11 9T 10; 47 | +29°78 84 Ol 63 36) 55 09 95 1] AT | 30°10 83 00 61 34 53 07 93 12 47 | 30°35 82 | 0-99 60 32 Joo SE lee 05 91 13) 48 30°59 81 98 58 29 ~=—-50 03 90 14, 48 | 30°83 81]. oF Ge iT, ST ley AB Ire Poe 88 15} 48 | 31-07 80} 96 55 24) 46}, 00 86 16 49 | 31°31 79 95 53 22; 44) 1-98 85 17 49: | 31-49 19 94 52 20; 48 96 83 - 18!" 50 | 31°68 78 93 50 17| Al 94 81 19 §=650s 31-86 q7 92 49 15 39 92 79 20; 51); 32:04 71 91 AT 3 38; 91 18 21). 51 | 32:22 76 90 Ad 10 36 89 76 99) +152 | 32-35 16 89 AA 08 | 34 87 74 23). 53 | 32:47 vs) 88 4g 06 32 85 73 24 53 | 32-59 75 87 4l 04) 31 84 al 25 54 32-71 74) 86 39 02) 29! 82 wi) 26 55 | 32-83 Wala 85 38 00) 27] 80 68 21) BS | 32-87 13 84 36 | 1:98 25 |) 78 67 28 56 | 32:91 73) -> 88 35 96 |) 23 |. 16 65 29 57 | 32:95 13 82 34 94 22) We 15 64 30 58 | 32-98 72 81 32 91", 20 ia. 18 62 31 59 \ 33:01 72 Sito. 3k 89 18 3. 71 60 | Sirius | Castor | Procyon | Pollux | Hydra | Regulus | ¢ Leonis |@ Virginis |SpicaVirg. Mean AR) Ih. m. s. hem. s. h.m. s. |b. m. s. fh. m. s, |h. m. s.|h.m. s. |h. m. s. |h,m. s. 1825, 6 37 26°11,7 7 23 25°30 7 30 B47 7 34 35°85|9 18 59°40,9 59 2° 78/11 AQ 7°S8)|11 41 834:98/13 15 59-22 ll a | ai is a (ea I March 1 + 2-08 + 3: 00", + 2-54” (+ 2°95!) + 2-76" + 2°96" + 287” + 284’ | 4 2-65" 3 06) 299 | 53 94 15 | 96 88 85 67 8 «05 97 52 92 15 96 89 86 69 4, 08 96 51 91 75 | 96 90 87 71 5 ol 95 49| 90 74| 96 91 8, 913 6 1-99 93 48 89 74 96; 92 89 | 75 TAPS. 92 AT 87 7131 96 93 TUN Ge meg 8 96 90 46| 86 13 96 94 91 19 9) “4 «88 45 85 72 96 95 92; 81 IO? GOB! PST 44 84 Tey. 96 96; 93! 83 ll} 91{| 86 42 82 70! 96 96 94; 84 12) 90| 84 41| 80 69, 95 97 95| 86 13) 88 | 83 40} 79 68 95; 98 95 87 14; 86 8l 88: oy 68 95| 98 96 89 15} 84 79 BT. aT) 67 94 99 96 91 16} 82 17 $6 | 74 66 94 99 97 92 Ti) 2.80 16 35 | 73 66 93 | 3:00 98 94 Is} 979) 14 s3| 71| «| 93] oof 98! 95 Ce i ie ed 32 | 68 64 92 ol 98 97 BOW! HAS) e210 31) 67 63 92 01 99 98 21 rf 69 29 66 62 91 02 99 99 ger 1 BT) | BI 64 61; 02 99 | 3-00 23 69 65 26 62 60-90 02 99 OL 24)" 61] GA Q4 61 59 | 89 02 | 3:00 02 Bate TERM Ae" he, 128 59 58 88; 02 00; 08 26, 63 60 21 51 57 88 02 00 04 27; ~—s «6 58 rT 55 56 87 02 00 06 26 59 56 1S) toe 55 86 02 00 OT 29) 57 54 6 | 42 54 85.; 02 ol 08 30 55 52 4{| 50 53 85:| 02 ol 09 $1) 53 | 50 12 | 48 | 5l 84 02 ol 10 26 ge ge Mean AR ] |h. 1825. 4 7 4) “06 March 1\+ 2:28” met gs OO OD Ore COW 80 $2 83 85 T Mean AR ) |h. m. 1825. § |19 42 14°84 March 1)+ 0: Corrections in Right Ascension, h. h. m. 5. 14 a 12° “92 15 2716-97 4 240") 4 ETT” 43 53 | pou a Cor.Bor. raaetle tab 15 35 30-42 1éi841: 37 7 6 A044 1796 49" oo{18 81 1 + 1-91” 2-02 pinhaees rien Pagal we Lyre + 2:07”) + 1°30" | + 1-22” |+ 0:34” 33 25 37 36 40 AA AT 50 53 94 97 99 95 08 10 13 16 18 21 24 26 [JAN, v Aguile 1937 56" "55 > 0:66” 68 Tl i3 76 18 80 83 85 88 90 93 95 98 1-00 03 05 08 10 13 16 19 21 24 26 29 31 34 36 39 AQ ja Aquile | @ Aquile Butapeitos s. jhe m. s. 67” 69 12 14 76 79 81 83 + 0 ei + 0°78" na “co h. 19 46 43°20 20 8 20° “34 al ‘yeni | Apnea lh, m. h. m. s. |h. m. s 20 3a 28" 24/21 56 47°77 2 a ‘57 67 + 0-44" + 0°32” | A5 83 = He Oo 6 ae tee = a Pegasi |2Andiom, s. jb. m. 5S. 22 56 3°16\23 59 21°74 + O84" 1825.] Mr. Gray on the Structure of Pearls, 27 ArTICLE IV. On the Structure of Pearls, and on the Chinese Mode of produc- ing them of a large Size and regular Form. By John Edward Gray, MGS. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Dec. 10, 1824. PEARLS are merely the internal pearly coat of the shell, which has assumed, from some extraneous cause, a spherical form; they are, like the shell, composed of concentric coats formed of perpendicular fibres ; consequently when broken they exhibit con- centric rings and fibres radiating froma central nucleus usually consisting of a grain of sand or some other body which has irritated the animal. A pearl having been once formed, the animal con- tinues to increase its size by the addition of fresh coats, perhaps more rapidly deposited on it than on the rest of the shell, as the prominence remains a source of irritation. The pearls are usually of the coiour of the part of the shell to which they are attached. I have observed them white, rose coloured, purple,* and black, and they are said to be sometimes of a green colour; they have also been found of two colours, that is, white with a dark nucleus, which is occasioned by their being first formed on the dark margin of the shell before it is covered with the white and pearly coat of the disk, which, when it becomes extended over them and the margin, gives them that appearance. Pearls vary greatly in their transparency. The pink are the most transparent, and in this particular they agree with the internal coat of the shell from which they are formed, for these pearls are only formed on the pinne, which internally are pink and semitransparent, and the black and purple specimens are generally more or less opaque. Their lustre, which is derived from the reflection of the light from their peculiar surface produced by the curious disposition of their fibres, and from their semitransparency and form, greatly depends on the uniformity of their texture and colour of the concentric coats of which they are formed. That their lustre does depend on their radiating fibres may be distinctly proved by the inequality of the lustre of the “Columbian pearls” which are filed out of the thick part near the hinge of the pearl * I can with certainty inform the anonymous author in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, No. xxi.p. 44, who observes, that ‘‘in the British Museum there és or was a famous pink pearl,’ that there not only now is one, but three of these pearls, as he might have convinced himself, for they have been exposed to the public now for these last three or four years to my own knowledge. 98 Mr, Gray on the Structure of Pearls. [JAN. oyster, Avicula Margaritifera,* so that they are formed like that shell of transverse lamine, and they consequently exhibit a plate of lustre on one side which is usually flat, and are sur- rounded by brilliant concentric zones, which show the places of the other plates, instead of the even beautiful soft lustre of the true pearls. ay Some time ago in examining the shells in the British Museum, I observed a specimen of Barbala plicata,\ with several very fine regular shaped semiorbicvlar pearls of most beautiful water, and on turning to their superb collection of pearls, I found several fragments of the same shell with similar pearls, and on the attentive examination of one of them, which was cracked across, I observed it to be formed of a thick coat consisting of several concentric plates formed over a piece of mother-of-pearl roughly filed into a plano-convex form, like the top ofa mother- of-pearl button. On examining the other pear!s they all appeared to be formed on the same plan. In one or two places where the pearl had been destroyed or cut out, there was left in the inside of the shell a circular cavity with a flat base, about the depth, or rather less, than the thickness of the coat that covered the pearls, which distinctly proves that these pieces of mother-of- pearl must havégbeen introduced when the shells were younger and thinner; and the only manner that they could have been placed in this part of the shell must be by the introduction of them between the leaf of the mantle and the internal coat of the shell; for they could not have been put in through a hole in the shell, as there was not the slightest appearance of any injury near the situation of the pearls on the outer coat. Since these observations I have tried the experiment of intro- ducing some similar pieces of mother-of-pearl (which may now be truly so called) imto the shell of the Anodonta Cygneus and Unio Pictorum, which 1 have again returned to their natural habitation ; and i am in hopes that some persons who have more convenience, and are better situated for the purpose, will repeat these experiments, especially with the Unio Margaritifera. 1 found the introduction of the basis of the pearl attended with very little difficulty, and I should think very little absolute pain to the animal; for it is only necessary that the valves of the shell should be forced open to a moderate breadth, and so kept for a few seconds by means of a stop, and that then the basis should be introduced between the mantle and the shell, by * T have placed this shell with the Avicula, as, when young, it has the teeth of that genus; and I have seen an old specimen which would scarcely agree with Lamark’s ** Cardo edentulus.” + This shell was described and figured by Dr. Leach in his Zoological Miscellany under the name of Dipsas plicatus, but Dipsas has been used as a genus of Annulosa. I have, therefore, adopted Mr. Humphrey’s name; Dr. Leach had changed it to 4p- pius plicatus.—It may be the Mytilus plicatus of Solander’s MSS. confounded by Dill- wyn with the Mytilus dubius of Gmelin, but the pearls are certainly not “ furnished with stalks,”’ as they are described in the Portland Catalogue, p. 59, to be in that shell. 1825.] Mr. Gray on the Structure of Pearls. 29 slightly turning down the former part, and pushing the pieces to some little distance by means of a stick, when the stop may be withdrawn, and the animal will push the basis into a conve- nient place by means of its foot, and of the 30 of 40 bases which | thus introduced, only one or two were pushed out again, and these [ do not think had been introduced sufticiently far. In several which I afterwards destroyed, I found that the bases were always placed near the posterior slope of the shell, where the pearls are situated in the Barbala. If this plan succeed, which I have scarcely any doubt it will, we shall we able to produce any quantity of as fine pearls as can be procured from abroad. My reason for believing that this manner of forcing the animals of the freshwater bivalves to pro- duce pearls, is the invention of the Chinese, a nation celebrated for their deceptions and trick, is that in looking over the col- lection of shells of Mr. G. Humphreys, I observed that a shell of this species (the second perfect one that I have seen) was marked as having come from China. This plan at least is certainly much preferable to the one pro- posed by Linneus, and by the above quoted anonymous author, as the pearls are all of a regular form, and that the one best suited for setting. In cutting these pearls from the shell, it is necessary that the shell should be cut through, so that the mother-of-pearl button may be kept in its place ; for if the back were removed, as it would be were not the shell cut through, the basis would fall out, and then the pearl would be very brittle. The only objection that can be adduced against these pearls is, that their semiorbicular and unequally coloured sides preclude them from being strung, or used any other way than set; but this fault will always be the case with all artificially produced pearls, as the mantle can only cover one side of them; and the only pearls that well answer the purpose of stringing are those found imbedded in the cells in the mantle of the animal. Note.—Since the above was written, my friend Mr. Children has pointed out to me a paragraph in the Encyclopedia Britan- nica, vol. vi. p.477, in which it is stated, ‘ Pearls are also pro- duced by another artificial process. The shell is opened with great care to avoid injuring the animal, and a small portion of the external surface of the shell is scraped off. In its place ts inserted a spherical piece of mother-of-pearl, about the size of a small grain of shot. This serves asa nucleus, on which is depo- sited the pearly fluid, and in time forms pearl. Experiments of this kind have been made in Finland, and have been repeated in other countries.” 30 On the Use of Animal Charcoal as a Flux. [Jan. ARTICLE V, On the Use of Animal Charcoal asa Flux. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Tue great power of wood charcoal as a flux for minerals and metallic ores has been long known, and extensivety taken advantage of in the arts and operations of chemistry, but I am not aware that any application of animal charcoal to the same purposes has hitherto been attempted. The following facts, however, it is thought, furnish sufficient grounds for believing that the latter might prove an advantageous substitute for the former, in those cases where its comparative expense would admit of its employment; and they may, therefore, perhaps, obtain a corner in the Annals of Philosophy if not occupied with more important matter. Being in the habit of using animal charcoal as a denirifice, I nearly filled a brass crucible of moderate size, and about four- tenths of an inch in thickness, with ivory-black, for the purpose of purifying it by re-ignition. The crucible was closed with a cast iron cover, which had a small perforation in itas a vent for the gas which was extricated; and in this state was set in the fire-place of an air furnace, which was commonly employed for heating alkaline lixivia. The fire was not very large, though thoroughly inflamed, and the grate door was left wide open. The crucible soon acquired a red heat (to which it had, prior to this, been frequently exposed), and the gas burned steadily at the aperture in the cover. Being obliged to leave it at this period, on my return in about ten minutes, I was a little surprised to find the iron cover of the crucible lying by itself, and no ves- tige of the latter apparent in the fire-place. On examining the ash-pit several rugged pieces of brass were found, and two large masses of cinders, firmly compacted together by an upper coat- ing of oxidized brass. In one of these a large stick of the metal was imbedded, which broke with a rough coppery appearance, but on filing immediately displayed its brassy nature. As the heat by which this was effected appeared to me much inferior to that which brass generally requires for its fusion, I exposed some brass wire, about one-tenth of an inch in diame- ter, by itself in the same fire, and closed the door. After remaining there neatly half an hour, it was taken out broken into two parts. It was become oxidized, and, as it were, worm- eaten on its surface, and was rendered very brittle in its fracture, but it had not the least appearance of any loss by fusion. Endeavouring again to effect my purpose with the ivory-black, 1826.] Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations, 31 I exposed some of it in a cast tron crucible, in the same fire- place, and the door open as before. This crucible was only three-tenths of an inch thick, and had oceasionally been exposed for short periods to the greatest heat of this fire-place ; not expecting, therefore, that it would receive any injury in the present instance, I left it unnoticed for about 20 minutes, by which time the ivory-black had ceased to emit any more gas. It was then taken out, but unfortunately not in the condition in which it was introduced. Nearly half the circumference of the crucible for one and a half inch upwards, and a large part of its bottom, had run into a complete slag upon the opposite side, which happened to have fallen lowest in the fire, and the ivory- black was almost consumed, from the access which the air thus acquired to the inside of the crucible. The cover and upper parts of it had suffered no injury. From the great heat which brass and particularly cast-iron require for their fusion, and the low degree of it employed in these cases, little doubt can be entertained of the superior agency of animal charcoal as a flux. Both the crucibles it must also be noticed had been formerly used for the very purpose of procuring charcoal from wood in a common grate, when it is conceived the heat was little inferior to that in the present instance, and the chances of their fusion then otherwise equal. It might, therefore, be worth the trouble for those whom it may concern, to make one or two comparative experiments on this subject, with greater accuracy than the preceding, in order to determine it decisively. F, Is it not probable that in the experiments above detailed, the metals were converted into phosphurets by the decomposition of the phosphoric acid? and if so, the increased fusibility would probably be derived from this circumstance.— Edit. ArTIcLE VI.. Astronomical Observations, 1824. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. Bushey Heath, near Stanmore. Latitude 51° 37’ 44-3” North, Longitude West in time 1’ 20:93”, Noy. 15. Emersion of Jupiter’s third §12h 20’ 52” Mean Time at Bushey. , satellite. .............-.-.. 012 22 13 Mean Time at Greenwich. Noy. 21. Immersion of J upiter’s first j 15 24 22 Mean Time at Bushey. Satelite oss meses 15 25 43 Mean Time at Greenwich, Dec. 7. Immersion of J upiter’s first §13 58 52 Mean Time at Bushey. MACERILE rs wins s-csaic to's a ots ; 13 40 13 Mean Time at Greenwich Occultation by the Moon, Oct. 29. Immersion of x Pisces,...... Oh Ol’ 36°5” Siderial Time. 32 On Paratonnerres. (JAN. Articte VII. On Paratonnerres. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Dec. 10, 1824, I wave read with much interest the article in your last num- ber by M. Gay-Lussac, on Paratomnerres; and as I have long wished to erect one on my house in London, I should take it as a great favour if you could, in one of your next numbers, devote a few lines to satisfy me and some more of your constant readers, who feel equally anxious on the subject with myself, as to the practicability of placing a conductor to a house in a street in London, without endangering, by the attraction of the electric fluid, the safety of the houses contiguous, and also whether you know of any persons who are in the habit of undertaking the erection of such conductors. I remain, Gentlemen, your very humble servant, A Constranr READER. A “ Constant Reader” need be under no apprehension of endangering the neighbouring houses by erecting a paratonnerre on his own. He will observe in our translation of Gay-Lussac’s article on that subject, in our last number, that paratonnerres are in general use in the large towns in America, and we believe there is no instance on record of mischief of the nature he apprehends, having been produced by them. When raised to a sufficient height above the chimneys, and furnished with sharp copper points (if well gilded so much the better), they may not only save a building if struck, by conveying the lightning in a harm'ess current to the ground, but also, for the reasons given in our last number, pp. 429 and 438, prevent the stroke altoge- ther. The directions given by M. Gay-Lussac, both as to the mode of constructing the apparatus, and of fixing it, should be carefully attended to, especially observing that there must be no breaks im any part of the paratonnerre, and that it descend to a sufficient depth into a well of water, or ground that is constantly moist. We are not acquainted with any artist who has paid particular attention to the subject, but from our knowledge of his abilities, and the excellence of all the philosophical apparatus that we have had occasion to employ, which has been made by him, we should recommend Mr. Newman, of Lisle-street, Leicester- Square, as the fittest person we know to be employed on such an occasion,—C. and P, 1825.] Mr. Webster's Reply to Dr. Fitton. 33 ArticLe VIII. Reply to Dr. Fitton’s Paper in the “ Annals of Philosophy” for November, entitled “ Inquiries respecting the Geological Rela- tions of the Beds between the Chalk andthe Purbeck Limestone in the South-east of England.” By T. Webster, Esq. Sec. G.S8. (With a Plate.) (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, November 4, (824. Ir was with some surprise that I read a paper by Dr. Fitton in the Annals for November, since it appears to point out as the present state of my knowledge some letters written by me 13 years ago on the subject of geology. Although my profes- sional avocations ill admit of the sacrifice of time, yet I cannot, in justice to myself, pass by entirely unnoticed some observa~ tions in that paper; and should I appear tedious in my reply, I must crave the indulgence of your readers, since it 1s obvious, that a few words may depreciate, but that to remove the im- pression thus produced, many are often required. Dr. Fitton observes, thatthe “ geological relations of the beds of sand and clay, which are interposed between the chalk and the Purbeck limestone, have been of late the subject of consi- derable discussion :” but as he does not state what was the par- ticular matter in dispute, and since the general reasoning in his paper rests upon his assuming that as decided which was the very thing discussed though not determined, itis not astonishing that he should have arrived at the conclusion, that the ar- rangement and names which I have adopted for the beds in the Isle of Wight are erroneous. ; Perhaps this discussion should-have been confined where it originated, among a few members of the Geological Society, until, by a more correct examination, than has been hitherto made, of the whole of this part of the series of English strata, the question should have been determined; yet (anxious only for the truth), | can have no objection to the tribunal before which it has been brought, well knowing it to be always just, when the facis are laid before it. Had I been previously acquainted with Dr. Fitton’s intention of publishing on this sub- ject, [might have been spared the duty of pointing out some misstatements respecting myself, which could have originated only in the haste which he appears to have been in. As some apology, however, for thus occupying the public attention, 1 think it probable that this will ultimately prove use- ful to the cause of geology, by illustrating some points extremely lnportant but hitherto obscure, and attended to by a few persons only. New Series, vow. ix. Dd 34 Mr. Webster’s Reply to Dr. Fitton. [JAN. Since, I believe, the work is but little known, which Dr. Fitton has described as a “standard publication which has been referred to by all geologists in treating on the Isle of Wight,” and which has now become the subject of his criticism, it may be desirable that your readers should know something of its history. English geology was, in 1811, only beginning to arrive ‘at that advanced state for which it has been so much considered in every part of the civilized world. Many persons of distinguished abilities had occasionally bestowed their attention on a subject, than which none is more capable of exciting curiosity and enthu- siasm; and although little parade was exhibited by men equally remarkable for their modesty as for their talents, yet the names of Woodward, Michell, Grew, Davy, Smith, Parkinson, and many others whose names it would be invidious to mention, will ever live in the history of the science. But that beautiful order which genius had begun to develope, and to separate from the almost chaotic state in which it had been hitherto concealed, was yet but imperfectly traced. No fixed principles of classifi- cation were established : no types of particular beds or forma~ tions were pointed out, to which all ought to refer; but every man who had, or fancied he had, a mind capable of arranging facts into a system, thought himself at liberty to make the attempt in his own way. About this period it was, that my attention was accidentally led to the subject of geology. Having been originally educated as an architect, and much accustomed to the practice of draw- ing, I was fixed upon by the late Sir Henry Englefield to examine into, a few points which had escaped his notice in the Isle of Wight, with the view of completing a work which he had composed on that island several years before, and which he was then preparing for the press. it was not in the contemplation of Sir Henry Englefield that I should make a complete re-examination of the Isle of Wight ; but, in order to‘accomplish the object which he had in view, 1 felt the necessity of looking more jparticularly into its stratifica- tion, and of applying to it some of the geological doctrines which were afloat at that time, but which had appeared since he had been a practical geologist; and 1 was in consequence led to view the subject very differently from him, and to develope the general structure of the island. Sir Henry Enelefield, with that liberality of mind which rendered him esteemed by all who knew him, expressed his satisfaction that [ had exceeded the commission given to me, assisted me in making another journey to the coast of Dorsetshire for the purpose of extending my inquiries, and, on my return, far from wishing to appropriate to himself the information I had thus procured, resolved (as he has himself 1825.] Mr. Webster’s Reply to Dr. Fitton. 35 stated) to give it to the world in my own words,* thus setting a noble example of that strict integrity and refined sense of honour which ever distinguishes the true patron. Some of the observations which I had then made and reflected on, led me to perceive that I had discovered a freshwater form- ation which had hitherto been unknown to all English geolo- ists: and I afterwards undertook a journey, at my own expence, for the purpose of studying, with all the attention that circum- stances would allow me, a phenomenon so curious and unex- pected. The result of this journey I communicated to the Geological Society, and it may be seen in the second volume of its Transactions. Such has been the commencement of my geological pursuits ; and if it had happened that this production became “ a standard ” for other geologists (an honour never aimed at or imagined by me), it would have proved that it was well thought of by my cotemporaries ; but the table which Dr. Fitton has inserted in his paper will show, that my arrangement was not adopted “ as the standard,” but that the several geologists who have since visited the Isle of Wight had zeal, industry, and independence enough to look and think for themselves; and that if, in most cases, their observations agree with mine, it is either because S . . both are right, or that such causes of obscurity existed, that we sometimes fell into the same errors. It is well known that since the publication of my letters to Sir Henry Englefield, 1 have made several visits to the districts there described, for the purpose of examining them still more particularly, thus acquiring the knowledge otf many facts that had originally escaped me. Many of these additional observa- tions I have, sometime since, laid before the Geological Society,+ and while Dr. Fitton’s paper was in the press, I was preparing one which has since been read (see an abstract of it in the Annals for Dec. p. 465) on the same subject. The discussion to which Dr. Fitton has alluded in the begin- ning of his paper, first made its public appearance in a work entitled “ Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales, by the Rey. W. Conybeare, FRS. and MGS.; and W. Phillips, FLS. and MGS.” and published in 1822. The passage, which may * The work here alluded to was published in 1816, and is entitled “* A Description of the principal Picturesque Beauties, Antiquities, and Geological Phenomena, of the Isle of Wight, by Sir Henry Englefield, Bart.; with Additional Observations on the Strata of this Island, and their Continuation in the adjacent Part of Dorsetshire, by Thomas Webster, Esq. ; illustrated by Maps and numerous Engravings by W. and G. Cooke, from Original Drawings by Sir H. Englefield and T. Webster.” 4 to. + See a paper on the Reigate Stone, vol. v. T'rens. Geol. Soc. - ona Freshwater Formation at Hordwell, vol. i. Second Series, Trans. Geo). Sec. on the Cliffs at Hastings; not yet published: but of which an ab- stract appeared in the Annals for July, 1824, n2 36 Mi. Webster’s Reply to Dr. Fitton. [JAN. be seen in the chapter ‘On the Beds between the Chalk and the Oolites,” p. 150, is as follows : “ Fiaving thus traced these formations uninterruptedly from the coast into Surrey, it will be our next object to describe their ° appearance on the east of that county, near Merstham and Reigate ; and this we shall do somewhat more minutely, since, on the ground above stated,—namely, the continuous course of each formation from the coast, we feel ourselves compelled to dissent from the cpinions advanced by a writer of whose eminent services to English geology ene estimate only can be formed ; and who, from the inspection of this single spot, has pronounced the firestone beds, which we assign to the chalk marl formation, to belong to that of the green sand, and the range which we con- sider as the true green sand, to be iron sand.” ‘This is followed by many details respecting these beds, from observations made by Mr. Phillips and himself, who, throughout their work, con- tinue to employ the terms green and iron ‘sand according to their own views as expressed above. The paragraph by Mr. Conybeare, just quoted, was written in consequence ofa paper which I had, a short time before, read before the Geological Society, “ On the Geognostic Situation of the Reigate Stone.” I there endeavoured to show, that the section of the country from Merstham to Nutfield is analogous to that of the beds below the chalk in the Isle of Wight; stating that the Reigate stone agreed with the Underclifi, and that the sand of Nuttield and Redhill below the fuller’s earth pits was the ferrnginous or iron sand. The object of this paper was not to go into a close compari- son between the beds in the two places ; but any one who will consider with attention the table which I originally formed of these strata, in the work of Sir H. Englefield, and the following passage from my paper on the Riegate “stone, may easily perceive what was my opinion on this subject: —_ « On putting together all these circumstances, viz. the nature of the Reigate firestone, and its subordinate beds of chert and hard rag, its situation below the chalk marl and above the ferru- winous sand; and comparing it with the nature and situation of the green sandstone in other places, for instance, at the Unuder- cliffin the Isle of Wight ; the identity of these formations appears to me as evident as any with which | am acquainted; and what- ever anomalies there may be in the history of the English strata, vet here, at least, no difficulty presents itself, Buk. only such slight differences as every new locality exhibits.” Tu order that your readers may feel some interest in this ques- tion, which is really extremely curicus in its nature, as well as important im English geology, I must explain, that the terms true green sand ‘and iron sand, as used by Mr. Conybeare and YS It, are intended nol mere ly mineratlogically, or as expressive 1825.] Mr. Webster's Reply to Dr. Fitton. 3 of the nature of the substances found in the places spoken of, but that they are meant to apply to certain strata or beds of England, which have been formerly observed, and so named by English geologists ; the first from its containing abundance of dark green particles called green sand, and the second from having in it much iron ore. These names, therefore, although originally given to the beds with reference to their obvious general cnaracters, are, as far as this question is concerned, no more than A and B. A certain bed, immediately below the chalk, and containing much green sand or green earth, had been called the green sand, or A ;* and another bed, situated lower down in the series than the last, and containing much iron had been denominated the ferruginous or iron sand, or B. Now, two beds have been subsequently observed in another part of England; I have referred the upper one to A of former geologists, and the lower one to B; but Mr. Conybeare refers the lower one to A, and the upper one to another bed still higher in the series, viz. the chalk marl. The propriety of these names have nothing to do with the question, nor the opinion of any geologists respecting another mode of nomenclature. They are mere names, by which we distinguish these beds from each other; and indeed they are highly expressive of the characters of the beds. Had Mr. Conybeare intended to state, that, in his opinion, the term green sand would be more properly applied to another bed than that which had hitherto received it, this would entirely change the view of the case; but he would then have alluded to the bed which had previously been so calied, and have proposed the change. 1 do not think that this was his meaning, and I am certain that he is too candid to resort to such an explana- tion. In giving names to the beds below the chalk in the Isle of Wight and the wealds of Surrey and Sussex, in 1811,+ I followed what ] considered to be the practice of that time. We had not then a geological map of England, and I called them green and Serruginous sand, as I thought they would have been named by geologists. I considered the rock of the Undercliff to be the green sand, having in my mind the vale of Pewsey and other places ; the bed of clay below it I called the blue mil; and the whole series of beds below this I denomina ed the ferruginous sand, [By the last I intended to express a groupt of several * Several other beds of England have similar green particles as a part of their com- position ; as some parts of the London clay, plastic clay, the oolites, &c. but we do not for that reason call them green sand. + See the Table at the end of my letters to Sir Henry Engleficld. ft This practice of arranging beds first into groups I had found necessary wpon seve- ral occasions ; and I was the first who divided the nine beds described by Cuvier sand | Brongniart in the basin of Paris into four groups, for the purpose of easier comiparison with those above the chalk in the Isle of Wight, founding this arrangement upon the causes that operated during the formation of the strata. This practice has becu conti- nued, and is found to facilitate the study of the secondary beds. 38 Mr. Webster’s Reply to Dr. Fitton. (JAN. beds of ferruginous sands and clays, which, having examined them not only in the Isle of Wight, but through an extensive tract in Dorsetshire, I found so connected together, that I was not then able to separate them from each other through the whole of that distance. The term ferruginous appeared to me not inaptly applied, on the first view of the subject, since the beds both above and below the weald clay contain in many parts a very large quantity of iron ore; and they have both, by one author or other, been called the ferruginous sand. ‘The princi- ples for the classification of beds, even in the present day, are not determined; and hence, in a great measure, the various opinions with respect to where the lines of the separation of groups should be drawn. At that time, when still less was known, it cannot be extraordinary that I should have been led to group together a set of beds possessing a common feature so remark- able. The following table will exhibit my arrangement of these beds in the south-east of England, together with the view which Mr, Conybeare took of the same subject : Arrangement and Names of the Beds. Places where the Beds are well secn. ae + "eta tae os = ee cal Surrey, Kent, and By Mr. Webster. By Mr. Conybeare.) Isle of Wight. Sussex. Chalk. | Culver Cliff, in San-'BeachyHead. Folk- down Bay. stone. Merstham. — Chalk. Se == ————__—- Chalk marl. Sandown Bay. St./Merstham. Guild- Catherine’s Down. |ford. Beachy Head. Green sand. Hy Sandown Bay. Un-|Merstham. God- Blue marl. Upper ferrugi- nous sand. Weald clay. Peete. Ferruginous sand. Lower ferrugi- nous sand. ime” ae es tc '| Weald clay. dercliff. Sandown Bay. Un- dercliff. Chalk marl. Green sand. Red. Cliff, in San- down Bay. Black Gang. Compton. Sandown Bay. Cow- leaze Chine. | Ferruginous sand. |SandownBay. Cow- | leaze Chine. Brook- point. stone. Beachy Head. Folkstone. God- stone. Merstham. 'Nutfield. Wolmer 'Forest. Hind Head. Gethersden and Marsden, in Kent. | Hastings. To show, in part, the evidence from which Ihave deduced the order and arrangement of the strata, I have represented in Plate XXXYV, fig. 1, asectionacross the counties of Surrey and Sussex, from Merstham to Hastings. Fig. 2is a section taken from the top of St. Catherine’s Down, Isle of Wight, to the bottom of Black Gang Chine ; and fig. 3 exhibits a very satisfactory and instructive section which is seen on the north side of Sandown = 4 Fi 0 te a ee > > 4 Page 39, C flap of the S. EE. Part of C EXTCLAMD, > Colourcd geologically Beds above — the Chalk. a) A Chath sand — a oo Blk rurt __| & Green vind Blue mart SO) Opper Fara vinous seu’ Ca, | Porernens para Sand ~ ’ Lower Kerri. § aineus sand Citlver lastinas an orth side ot Sandawn Bay Fig. 2. . Blackyang Opper Ferruginous sant Loy Section rrom SE tatherine’s Blackgang on the tine €. Te Weald of Surry and Sufrer \ ; ope ; > > fi) Punnese Lower Ferruginows sand te : | * PAY -wroat etfon from Merstham to Hastings on the line AB SLE of WIC : : = —_— Drawn by The? Webster Engraved tor the 2nnake of Philotophy. tor BaldwinGradork de Toy, Satet2232 5, 1825.) Mr. Webster’s Reply to Dr. Fition, 39 Bay, which is perfectly accessible, and which from the remark- able and highly inclined position of the beds, is one of the very best situations for examining the beds immediately below the chalk, . The map in Plate XXXV is a slight sketch of the SE of England coloured geologically, according to my original view of the subject. j Dx. Fitton has inserted in his paper, (p. 369, of the Annals for November,) a table of these strata, in which he gives the same name as Mr. Conybeare to one of the principal beds, viz. that which he calls green sand, and which was a part of my ferrugi- nous A lui but he does not stop to discuss this question ; and by his continuing to call the bed by the name of green sand throughout his paper, I must suppose that he has adopted Mr, Conybeare’s view of the subject. In order.to pring this matter to an issue, it appears to me that we ought first to inquire what were the beds originally desig- nated by the terms the green sand and the ferruginous ai I am not able at present to say by whom the term green sand was first employed as a name for one of the strata of England ; but that is not necessary. It is sufficient if I point out that it had been long in use by the geologists who preceded us. The term green sand is to be found in the writings of Mr, William Smith, who, as will be seen by an able sketch of the history of English geology in the Edinburgh Review for 1815, and by Mr. Conybeare’s introduction to his “ Outlines,” above- mentioned, has the strongest claims on our gratitude, and who is indeed (I had almost said) the father of modern English geology. Another author of great authority, by whom this name has been employed for a long time previous to this discussion, is the late venerable rector of Pewsey, the Rev. Joseph Townsend, in his work, entitled “The character of Moses established for veracity asan historian.” In the preface to this work, which is replete with the most valuable facts, he informs us, that he was indebted for his knowledge of the succession of the beds of England to Mr. William Smith ; but as he was himself a most assiduous practical geologist, we may consider his account of them as the descriptions of Mr. Smith, verified and exteuded by himself. [t appears to me that from these and similar sources, our first ideas respecting the green and iron sands have been derived, either directly or indirectly. In the writings of these authors, it will be found that every where on the west escarpment of the chalk, which passes through Norfolk, Bedfordshire, Oxfordshire, Wiltshire, &c. the beds immediately below it are seen in succession; and that they 40 Mr. Webster’s Reply to Dr. Fitton. (Jan: have described them, beginning with that next to the chalk, as green sand, blue clay or marl, and a red or ferruginous sand: Of the first, we have a remarkably fine example in the vale of Pewsey, celebrated for its fossils ; and the latter (the ferru- ginous) is well seen at Woburn and Leighton Beaudesert. These I consider as undoubted types of the formations in ques- tion, being described under these names by all geologists to the present day ; In the tables and maps which have been published. it will, therefore, simplify this discussion if we attend to two points. 1. Whether the bed which I have called green sand, viz. the Undercliff, Isle of Wight, and the Reigate stone, be the same bed with that so ‘called by Smith and Townsend on the west of the chalk, and particularly in the vale of Pewsey ? 2. Do the Woburn and Leighton Beaudesert sands agree with that bed in the wealds of Surrey, Kent, and Sussex, which is between the Folkstone blue marl and the weald clay, and which is seen at Cox Heath, Nutfield, Wolmer Forest, &c.; or with the Hastings beds in Sussex, which are below the weald clay ? With respect to the first, i might observe, that the Undercliff has been actually called green sand not only by me, but by Mr. Conybeare in his “ Outlines ; ” by Prof. Buckland in bis Table of the English Strata printed for distribution ; by Prof. Sedgwick ; in short by all English ¢ geologists who have attached the same name to the bed in the vale of Pewsey ; and I might show that Dr. Fitton in his paper admits what I have before endeavoured to prove, that the Undercliff is identical with the Reigate stone. The thing, therefore, seems to bedone. Pewsey = Undercliff by Mr. Conybeare ; ; Reigate = Undercliff ‘by Dr. Fitton ; and hence, since thivists ys to the same are equal to each other, Pewsey = Reigate. Q.E .D. But I will not take this advantage ; since Dr. Fitton hae done me the honour to hint that these gentlemen followed me with respect to Underclitf being = Pewsey, a circumstance which I never heard of before it was rumoured that I was wrong.* I find that Mr. W. Smith, in the memoir which ¢ accompanies ° his geological map of England, applies the term green sand to the bed inmediately below the chalk, and above the blue marl, or oak tree clay. This blue marl ies identifies in his map with the Tetsworth clay, and with the gault, the latter being admitted by all to be the same as the Folks eeoiie or It appears to me to be clear, therefore, that the green sand of Smith could net be * Mr. Conybeare states, (“* Outlines,” p. 120,) that **in 1813 he made a tour in the Isle of Wight and in Purbeck, and formed detailed lists of the several strata constitut- ing the series as exhibited in the various points where their sections are exposed in that interesting district,” 1825.] Mr. Webster's Reply to Dr. Fitton, 4] the Coxheath, Nutfield, and Wolmer Forest range which is below the Folkstone blue marl. But as a decisive proof of this, he states, that the bed below the blue marl is the Kentish rag, which with him is a different bed from the green sand.* It is to be regretted, that the writings of Mr. Smith are rendered obscure when describing these beds, by his considering the Purbeck stone and the Kentish rag to be the same ; and he ever sometimes places the Portland stone in this part of the series. But it does not appear that this geologist was acquainted with the latter beds 2 situ; nor that their true place was ander- stood previously to my examination of these countries ; the first table in which they were correctly placed being that in the commencement of my paper on the Freshwater Formations of the Isle of Wight, vol. uu. Trans. Geol. Soc.; and the author of the review of Smith’s Map (Edinb. Review, 1518, p. 32), seems to have been aware of this circumstance. The ferruginous sand of Smith is evidently the Coxheath and Nutfield range, which he identifies with the Woburn sands; and in his map he places his Kentish rag properly 7m this bed, although (perhaps through imadvertence) he arranges the description as if 1t were above. Mr. Townsend describes the sands immediately under the chalk as of three varieties. 1. Green sand; 2. Grey sand; 3. Red sand (arena ferruginosa, Lin.) The first, or uppermost, forms the vales of Pewsey and Warminster, and is a sand con- taining dark green particles. The second is a caleareo- siliceous sandstone, called firestone, which he considers as identical with the firestone of Reigate, and the whetstone pits of Blackdown. As he does not mention any clay between these two (and it is remarkable that his green sand is not under, but over his grey sand or firestone), I imagine that they form one mass, and differ only in the quantity of green earth which they contain; for the firestone of Reigate is never quite without this ingredient, and in the Isle of Wight the upper part of the Undercliff contains more green earth than the lower. The occurrence of the fire- stone in the green sand of the vale of Pewsey is important, for nothing like this is found in the Coxheath and Nutield ratuge called by Mr. Conybeare and Dr. Fitton the greensand. The fos- sils of the vale of Pewsey, agreeing in general with what we * I was not originally aware of this cizeumstance. My letters to Sir H. Englefield were published several years before Mr. Smith’s memoir; and not having had an oppor- tunity at that time of examining Folkstone personally, but having heard the Folkstone blue marl described as the chalk marl, and the Folkstone rock as the green sand; and knowing from hand specimens that the Kentish rag is almost identical in appearance with the rag of the Underelift, I imagined erroneously the Folkstone rock to be a part of the same range with the Reigate stone, and consequently to lie decidedly above my fer- ruginous sand; nor was I undeceived until by a visit which I made to Folkstone in the summer of 1822, I found that the Folkstune rock lay immediately upon the weald clay, without the intervention of any ferruginous sand. 42 Mr. Webster’s Reply to Dr. Fitton. (Jan. know of those of the Undercliff, afford an additional evidence in favour of the identity of these beds. ' We have another section of the strata below the chalk, de- scribed in Mr. Conybeare’s “Outlines,” p. 162. He states that in the parish of Roak, in Oxfordshire, a stone lies under the chalk, and is worked for building. The fossils found in it (hamites, turrilites, inocerami, scaphites, and ammonites) agree with those of the Undercliff; and it stands upon the Tetsworth clay, which again rests upon an iron sand. } The stone of Totternhoe, in Bedfordshire, and of Reach, in Cambridgeshire, is soft, immediately below the chalk, and is similar to that of Roak and Reigate. I have already mentioned my original opinion, that the struc- ture of the weald and that of the Isle of Wight are the same, a circumstance that it was impossible to comprehend upon the supposition of Mr. Conybeare; but my late discovery of the Hastings limestone in that island, having enabled me to speak with more confidence on the subject, as affording me a fixed pointin each of these places (see the abstract of my paper on the subject, together with the table of the equivalent beds in the two places in the Annals for Dec. p. 465), the identity of the rock of the Undercliff with the Reigate stone is no longer doubted, and is admitted by Dr. Fitton. The rock of the Undercliff, Isle of Wight, is immediately below the chalk marl, and has the general characters of the Reigate stone, although its thickness 1s much more considerable, and its beds of chert and hard limestone are in proportion more striking. It rests upon a bed of blue maz, and that again upon a ferruginous sand, Thus we see that almost every where below the chalk in England (or rather below the chalk marl according to my arrangement), there is a stone composed of siliceous grains, mica, and dark green particles, with a calcareous cement. In some places it is very hard; in others soft, and fit to be em- ployed as firestone; and in others again too soft for this pur- pose, and scarcely distinguishable from the common chalk maul, into which it sometimes passes. This stone also varies much in eolour, chiefly from the greater or less proportion of green particles dispersed through it. Its fossils are also very unequally distributed ; those which are the most characteristic of the bed are inocerami, hamites, turrilites, trochi, aleyonites, ammonites, &e. It is to this bed, as appears to me, that the name of green sand was originally given by English geologists ; and from the above and similar observations, | conciude that the green sand bed in the vale of Pewsey is the same with the rock of the Undercliff, Isle of Wight, and with the Reigate stone. Let us now attend to the second question; viz. whether the file sands belong to the Nutfield range, or to the Hastings eds? 1825.) Mr. Webster’s Reply to Dr. Fitton. 43 I shall begin by stating, that a bed of ferruginous sand appears at Hunstanton, in Norfolk; and passing under the marshes of Ely, reappears in Huntingdonshire ; is seen in Bed- fordshire under the name of the Woburn and Leighton Beau- desert sands, and extends into Oxfordshire. This bed has been called by all English geologists, to the present day, the ferrugi- nous sand; and is so represented in all the geological maps. It is the third in succession below the chalk, being separated from it by one of firestone (the green sand of Smith), and another of blue clay or marl. In the wealds of Kent and Surrey, a bed extends from Folk- stone through Coxheath, Leith Hill, Nutfield, Wolmer Forest, Hindhead, &c. but sinks below the sea at Beachy Head. In the greater part of its course, this bed is highly ferruginous ; but in some places, and remarkably from Folkstone to Maid- stone, it has in it beds and nodules of hard limestone with dark green and ferruginous grains. The fossils are much fewer, and do not appear to be the same as those in the bed above it which [ have called green sand. In the Isle of Wight, also, a bed of highly ferruginous sand lies in the same situation with respect to the chalk, at Red Cliff in Sandown Bay; and it may be traced along the south side of the island by Shanklin, Dunnose, Blackgang, Atherfield, and Compton; and also over a great part of the inte- rior of the island. This sand, which varies much in its character, contains in many parts abundance of granular hematitic iron ore, and sometimes green earth. It also has, in some places, though not generally, nodules of limestone with fossils and green particles which resemble the rock of Folkstone. Although the Car stone and Woburn sands have been regarded by Mr. Conybeare as identical with the Hastings beds, and not with the Nutfield range, yet he has not favoured us with his reasons for this opinion ; and no sections have been published that prove it. On the contrary, when we examine the succes- sion of beds as described by Mr. Smith and others on the west of the chalk in England, we find that it resembles exactly the structure of Kent and Surrey, the succession being green sand, blue marl, ferruginous sand. 1 may add, that on examining hand specimens from the bed below the gault in Cambridge, the appear to me to resemble exactly those from Red Cliff, Isle of Wight, which” is allowed by Dr, Fitton to be the same as the Nutfield range. In all the above-mentioned places, this bed is separated from the last (the green sand of Smith and Townsend) by one of blue clay or marl, which in Cambridgeshire is called gault, at Folk- stone the Folkstone blue marl, and in the Isle of Wight, by myself, the blue marl. This bed is generally characterised by peculiar fossils, although these are very unequally distributed. 44 Mr. Webster’s Repiy to Dr. Fitton. [Jan. Those of the gault and the Folkstone marl are numerous and identical, while in the Isle of Wight they are extremely few. Mr. Smith has named this bed sometimes the Oak tree clay, and sometimes he calls it Brick earth. He describes it in his work on Organized Fossils, published in 1817, p.36, as existing at Godstone ; to the north of Reigate, under the Reigate stone; at Leighton Beaudesert, Bedfordshire ; at Grimston, in Norfolk ; and at Westering, in Bedford, four miles SW of Ampthill. It is in all these places distinguished by its characteristic fossil, the small fusiform belemnite, and contains many other fossils of this bed, as hamites, inocerami, depressed ammonites, &c. This blue marl is identified by Smith with the Tetsworth clay, not- withstanding the latter has been considered to be the weald clay by Prof. Buckland, in his table of the order of the strata. The brick earth mentioned by Townsend above the red sand at Devizes is probably this bed, and I have little doubt but that it may be traced all round the west side of the chalk as Smith has represented itin his map. From the above considerations, I am still inclined to think, that the bed extending through Coxheath, Nattield, &c. belongs to the ferruginous sand of former geologists, and not to their green sand. With respect to the-ferruginous sand below the weald clay, the Hastings beds, we have nothing satisfactory to prove that it exists on the west of the chalk. It has not been stated an where (as far as I know), that the ferruginous sands in Bedford- shire contain any fossil shells, or this question might be decided, since the fossils of the Hastings beds are peculiar, and sup- posed by some to be chiefly, if not entirely, of freshwater crigin, whereas those of the Nuttield range are marine. Nevertheless, it may yet be found in that quarter, although we have no evi- dence before us from which we can draw any conclusion; and it is quite surprising to find, that, at a time when some imagine the geological account of England to be nearly complete, we should be absolutely in want of materials for determining so important a question. Having now arrived at a certain point in this discussion, viz. the determination of what were the original green and jerruginous sands, and having stated my reasons jor giving these names to the beds in the Isle of Wight, and in the wealds of Surrey, Kent, and Sussex, it is natural that I should inquire how it could be that the bed which I imagine to be the ferruginous sand of Smith, came to be called the érue green sand by Mr. Conybeare, and several other geologists of the present day. I think I perceive the solu- tion of this in Mr. Conybeare’s work itself, the “ Outlines.” He begins his examination of the beds below the chalk at Folkstone; and finding there a dark coloured argillaceous bed immediately below the chalk, he calls it (though inaccurately) the chalk marl, 1825.] Mr, Webster’s Reply io Dr. Fitton. 45, and the calcareous rocky bed below this the green sand, the latter bed resembling, indeed, in many particulars, the rock of the Underclitf, Isle of Wight. It happens that the bed of Rei- gate stone, which continues its course eastwards past Godstone, appears not to reach to Maidstone, and is actually wanting at Folkstone, at least in the form of firestone: thus the chalk or chalk marl is divided from the hard rock of Folkstone only by a bed of biue marl; and since the true chalk marl is itself fre- quently ¢ grey, and as the hard rock below the blue marl reseni- bles some of the states of the onginal green sand, it is not at. all surprising that this error should have been fallen into. We have no method of determining upon the identity of beds in. places distant from each other, “but by the correspondence in. their nature and their order of superposition : : there appeared, therefore, considerable reasons for determining the Folkstone rock to be-the green sand, This being supposed to be estab- lished, it followed necessarily, that although the rest of this latter range, from Coxheath all round the weald, varied almost entirely in its character, so as to be a ferruginous sand (mine- ralogically); yet (since according to the principles of geognostic nomenclature, beds do not change their names in different. places according to the qualities cf the substances forming them, } the whole bed acquired the name of green sand which had thus been given to a part. This is my view of the way in which L conceive so good an observer as Mr. Conybeare might have been led to give to a stratum a name which did not properly belong to it. “I have thus stated frankly my opinion on this subject ; and it will remain for him to say how far L am right. itis, | am aware, putting his candour to.a severe test; but in that I have the fullest confidence. I must now return to Dr. Fitton. In p. 366, line 12, he observes, that Mr. Conybeare “ adopted my arrangement of the strata of. the Isle of Wicht, and recarded the lower part of that. island as composed of one series only of ferruginous sand which he identifies with those of Hastings.” He “then proceeds to show, in p. 367, that there are two distinct series of sands below what I have called green sand, which are separated from each other by a stratum of clay. In this passage I am under the ne- cessity of pointing outa double oversight ; for, in the first place, he must have been aware that I had two ferruginous sands in my airangement, since he actually states it in his | pole p. 369. In the second place, he might have seen that Mr. Conybeare does not adopt my arrangenen it, but distinctly confines his ferruginous sand to my lower one only. Dr. Fitton has also stated, erroneously, that [ mention the Purbeck beds as existing in the Isle of Wight. Since I had never expressed this decidedly, and as I had long known that they are not to be found there (having several years ago eXa~ 46 Mr. Webster’s Reply to Dr. Fitton. [Jan. mined the isle of Purbeck, and presented to the Geological Society a complete set of specimens of all the beds), I could not conceive what had led to this mistake, and turned over my letters to Sir H. Englefield in search of any passage that could bear such a construction. ‘The only one that appears to be the least obscure is that where I mention (p. 122) the thin layers with shells in a clay (the weald clay), in Sandown Bay, called Platten, respecting which 1 observe, that “ they much resemble Purbeck stone, but the shells are larger.” It must be obvious, that by this 1 mean only that the two kinds of stone have much the same appearance, without any attempt to identify the beds from which they came. I had not at that time seen the Purbeck stone in situ, and spoke merely of it as knowing it in building. Indeed that no other inference can be fairly drawn from my expression is evident, since Dr. Fitton himself says, p- 374, that “ the limestone of the weald bears altogether a strik- ing resemblance to the Purbeck limestone ;” and yet he does not intend to express they are the same. My having mentioned this resemblance shows that at a very early period of my inves- tigation, I was strack with an analogy between the Platten in the Isle of Wight, and the Purbeck and Petworth marbles, an analogy which | have since extended. Dr. Fitton is perfectly correct in stating, that, at the time when 1 wrote those letters to Sir H. Englefield, I had not duly appre- ciated the importance of the weald clay. The fact is, it 1s far less conspicuous in the Isle of Wight as a valley separating two ranges of high ground than in Kent and Sussex ; nor, at that early period, had the difference between the fossils of the Hastings beds and the Folkestone rock been noticed. But I had been gradually approaching, and had finally arrived at the same con- clusion as Dr. Fitton has now done. I mentioned in my paper on the Freshwater Formations of the Isle of Wight, and also in one of my letters to Sir H. Engle- field,* the probability, that part, at least, of the Purbeck series was of freshwater origin; and [ possess specimens which I brought with me from the Purbeck beds on my first visit to them in 1812, containing several species of freshwater shells converted into calcedony, but mixed with others that are marine. I also stated in my table of the strata, that the Petworth marble might perhaps belong to the same series, from the analogy in its fossils. The univalve shells of the Petworth marble are in gene- ral larger than those of the Purbeck, but I have since found beds * The passage is as follows :—‘‘ It was long ago observed by Woodward, in his History of Fossils, that the shells in the Purbeck marble consisted chiefly of the helix vivipara; and it is rather surprising that this very ancient freshwater formation should not have excited more attention. Beautiful impressions of fish are frequently met with by the quarrymen between the lamine of the limestone; and I saw abundance of frag- ments of bones, some of which belonged to the turtle. Complete fossil turtle have been found, and lately one extremely perfect.” (Letter 9, p. 192.) 1825.] Mr. Webster’s Reply to Dr. Fitton, 47 in the isle of Purbeck with shells quite as ae as those of Pet- worth, and apparently of the same species, In my examination of the Hastings beds, I remarked the resemblance of the casts of the univalves to those of the Purbeck and Petworth marbles, and that the fossil shells were altogether different from those of the sreen sand. I always considered the weéald clay as intimately connected with the Hastings beds, and with the Purbeck stone, from the ana- logy in the fossils,* and from the resemblance between the Platten in the Isle of Wight, the Battle beds, and the Purbeck beds, although I could not then determine to what part of the series each of these should be referred. ‘This led me originally to class the weald clay as a subordinate bed of the Hastings ferruginous sand, which contains several other beds of clay, although that of the weald is the most considerable: and this arrangement I still adhere to. In my first examination of the Isle of Wicht, the fossils of Shanklin escaped me; and | owe my knowledge of them to Prof. Sedgewick’s valuable paper on that island in the Annals for May, 1822. Since that time I have perceived the necessity for separating the upper from the lower ferruginous sands. I agree with Dr. Fitton, therefore, in the propriety of making the separation between the two sands at the top of the weald clay; but I think J see zoological reasons why the latter ought not to be called a distinct formation, but that it should be formed into a group with the Hastings and the Purbeck beds. J do not go so far however as to consider these as freshwater formations, a term which lam accustomed to restrict to such beds only as have been probably formed in freshwater lakes. i come now to consider the changes which Dr. Fitton has proposed to make in the names of the beds which have been treated of. With respect to the proposal to change the name of the rock of the Undercliff from green sand to firestone, | am compelled entirely to dissent from it. It has already been called green sand by all geologists; no arguments have yet shown that it is not entitled to that appellation, and mere change is obviously worse than useless. Firestone is a term used by builders to express a stone of a certain quality, that of resisting the fire, and which is employed for hearths and covings to chimneys ; this name can, therefore, be applied with propriety only to a stone having that property. As only a certain portion of this bed, and that only in a few localities, is fit for such a purpose, * 'The small organic body supposed to he a cypris, I found ia the weald clay in San« down Bay, when on a visit to the Isle of Wight, in 1519, with Mr. Brooke, together with paludine and the teeth of fish. I also pointed out to Dr. Fitton the resemblance of the Hollington limestone (first observed by him in that locality) to the freshwater rock at East Cowes, 48 Mr. Wetster’s Reply to Dr. Fitton. [Jan the use of this term, applied indiscriminately to all parts of the bed, would lead to much confusion when it came to be used for economical purposes. The appellation of the fourth in Dr. Fitton’s list (my upper ferruginous sand) is more difficult to agree upon, since various opinions have been entertained respecting it. If my view ofthe subject be ultimately found to be correct, that is, if this bed be found to agree with éhe ferruginous sand of the west, it would seem right that it should retain its original name ; for to call the Carstone of Norfolk and the Woburn sand, &c. the true and only green sand, would be such a preversion of names that it could not be tolerated: and should the rock immedi- ately under the chalk in the vale of Pewsey really prove, by a correct examination, to be the same as the Undercliff and the Reigate stone, what would be the consequence if we adopt Dr. Fitton’s nomenclature? The answer is obvious: it also must be called firestone ; that is, the name green sand must be taken from the bed to which it originally belonged, to be attached to another which received it only through an oversight. I do not wish to insist that this has been the case; but at least the contrary has uot been shown ; so far, therefore, Dr. Fitton’s decision is premature. However, as it has been called green sand by some eminent geologists ; and-since indeed it contains, in some places, a great quantity of the mineral from which this name has been derived ; { have proposed, in a paper lately read before the Geological Society, to style it the ower. green sand, or (to compromise the matter,) as I proposed before, in my paper on liastings, ferrugtno-green sand ; the Uncercliff being called the upper greensand. By this arrangement, a group will be formed, which may be called the green sand formation, consisting of the upper and lower green sands ; and the blue marl between them will be the marl of the green sand. This marl has indeed consi- derable analogies in its fossils with the bed above. it, into which it sometimes passes. The Hastings beds may continue to be described by that. name, until more is known; and the term ferruginous sand hitherto given to it maybe relinquished, as that has been applied to the Woburn sands. With respect to that part of Dr. Vitton’s paper (p. 367 and 383), where he appears to dissent from the opinions that have been stated on the subject of beds being more irregular-than has usually been supposed, arising partly from the want of continuity in some, and a difference in the structure and composition of others, I shall only observe, that the subject on which his own paper and the present treats furnishes ample proofs, that the difficulties of identifying beds have been frequently underrated by geologists, from their not sufficiently attending to these cir- . . > cumstances. At first, in studying the secondary beds, the 1825.] Mr. Webster’s Reply to Dr. Fitton. 49 newly discovered analogies occupy our attention most, as being infinitely the most interesting; but afterwards, our eyes are opened to the discrepancies, and these are also worthy of our notice, as itis from the “ facts alone” that we can draw rational conjectures respecting the mode in which the strata have been formed. [f have now, I trust, prepared your readers for appreciating Dr. Fitton’s remark, that I had ventured to make an arrange- ment of the strata of the Isle of Wight “ without sufficient examination.” It must be obvious to all experienced geologists, that the character of a formation, or series of beds, should not be drawn from any one spot, except that spot should contain the whole series: any character drawn from an imperfect part of the series must be liable to be corrected, when more is known. But who can say that he is acquainted with the whole series of beds in the great European basin, of which those of England are certainly but a part? and yet to delay making an arrange- ment of the British strata until the rest of Europe should be accurately examined, would be to neglect one of the very means by which we hope to arrive at the truth. To heap facts upon facts, without endeavouring to arrange them, would have excited no interest. An attempt, therefore, at an arrangement, has been made even at an early period in the progress of investiga- tion, trusting that our successors, in making additions to the science, would duly appreciate our zeal, take into their consi- deration the progressive nature of knowledge, and correct our errors with a gentle hand. After all, what is sufficient exami- nation? To some this question may appear to be easily answered; but when we reflect upon the changes that are per- petually making in the systems and arrangements of natural history from the discovery of new facts, we must soon perceive its difficulty. Few districts of England have been more fre- quently visited and examined by geologists than that in ques- tion; and yet it appears not to be exhausted. With respect to myself, I can truly say that I have omitted no opportunity, that my very limited means have allowed me, to extend my inquiries, not only in this island, but on the opposite side of the Channel. Since the period of my letters to Sir H. Englefield, 1 have visited and examined, at my own expence, the neighbourhood of Paris, in order to see if my conjectures were well founded with respect to the analogies which | supposed to exist between the upper beds of England and France; and I had, in the summer of 1823, in a tour over the ground we have been examining, accompanied M. Brochant, Professor of Mine- ralogy in the Ecole des Mines at Paris, who, with two of the eléves of that establishment, had been sent by the French Government to visit this country, and to verify the observations New Series, vou. 1X. E 50 Mr. Webster’s Reply to Dr. Fitton. [Jan, which have been made by the geologists of England. As this visit by M. Brochant may at some future time be important in the history of geolegy, I think it may be useful here to insert an extract of a letter which I lately received from him. * * * * « Une de mes plus grandes occupations, depuis deux mois, a été de ranger et d’etiquer nos recoltes geologiques de Vannée derniere, MM.Dufresnoy etElie deBeaumont ont employe d’abord beaucoup de tems a mettre chaque chose en place : nous n’avons aucune confusion, au moyen de notre catalogue et de notre journal, et de toutes les precautions minutieuses que yous nous avez vu prendre. Cela m’a fait refaire cet été tout mon voyage d’Angleterre avec une vive satisfaction. J’ai revu cette charmante Isle de Wight, ou vous nous avez fait si bien voir tant de coupes geologiques ; et j'ai pensé a cette aventureuse navigation pour doubler le cap de Handfast. C’est dans cette revue generale de nos recoltes, que nous avonsreconnu, plus que jamais, combien nous vous etions redevables. J’ai fait, depuis 30 ans, bien d’autres tournées geologiques: aucune ne m’a eté a’ beaucoup pres aussi productive, n’ayant pas, comme en Angle- terre, de savans guides pour me conduire sur les points charac- teristiques, et m’en faire voir les rapports, ce que je n’aurois pu decouvrir que par un sejour prolongé. Je suis etonné moi-méme, tout en pensant aux facilités de tout genre que vous et d’autres savans avez eu la complaisance de me procurer, d’avoir pu faire tant en une seule campagne. Car je vous assure, qu’ a l’excep- tion des fossiles, dont il nous manque un grand nombre, nous avons une suite trés belle, et presque complette, de toutes les formations geologiques del’Angleterre. Avant la fin du mois d’Acit, celle de l’Ecole des Mines sera livrée aux yeux du pube lic; et j’espere bien qu'elle contribuera a faire bien des rap- prochemens entre nos terrains et les votres.”. * * * * * Iam, Gentlemen, very truly yours, Tuomas WEBSTER. Sent eel Additions to the Reply to Dr. Fitton. GENTLEMEN, Dec. 3, 1824. _ [am happy to find that the paper which I read before a meet- ing of the Geological Society on Nov. 5 (see an abstract in the Annals of last month, p. 465), containing, in other words, the substance of the above reply, has not been without its effect, since | perceive that Dr. Fitton has, since that time, in_ his “ Additions,” given up the term _firestone upon the ground which I stated to the Society. With respect to the term green sand, Dr. Fitton now observes, that ‘ the misapplication of the term has really been the source 1825.] Mr, Webster’s Reply to Dr. Fitton. 51 of so much confusion, that it seems better to give it up altoge- ther (also), and to choose for the beds in question names entirely new.” But is this quite necessary? and what will be the confusion in all the books already written and to be written, should we adopt instead of it the proposed name of Shanklin sands ? For my part, [ cannot help thinking that we ought to retain the term green sand: it has become almost national, and is endeared to us by many associations: it has been the frequent companion of our travels, and passes current on the Continent even without translation. Shall we discard an old friend because some one has misnamed him? or is this any thing like the classical practice of covering the combatants with a cloud to prevent the decision of a contest? Seriously, when will these changes end? or is every month’s Annals to produce a new geological nomenclature? I really thought I had given up enough (considering the state of the question), when I proposed to turn my “ ferruginous” into “ lower green,” not to save my own credit, but that of others. In the same communication to the Geological Society, I sug- gested (I verily believe before any other person thought of it) that the Woburn sands agreed with what was considered by some as the drwe green ; and I find by Dr. Fitton’s “ Additions,” that he has since been consulting his maps, and that he has now come very near indeed to adopt my opinion on this subject. I am pleased also to find that Mr. Lyell has confirmed the obser- vations which J made on the green sand at Beachy Head in 1813 (see my paper on the Freshwater Formations, vol. ii. Trans. Geol. Soc. p. 192), and that he observed a section at Shiere which is the counterpart of that which I described before at Merstham (vol. v. p. 353). It is also satisfactory to perceive, that this gentleman has now arrived at the same conclusions that | had come to several years before with respect to the cor- respondence between the general structure of the weald and the Isle of Wight, and which had not been doubted until lately. I shall be glad to avail myself of the extensive circulation of the Annals to state, that I will feel obliged to any gentleman, whose local knowledge of the districts on the outcrop or basset of the chalk in England, or on the Continent, may give him the means of examining them, for any information respecting the beds which appear immediately below the chalk, since it is my wish to pursue this interesting part of English geology, until the obscurities complained of shall be completely cleared up. { am, Gentlemen, very truly yours, 20, Bedford-street, Covent-garden, London. Tuomas WEBSTER £2 52 Mr. Vhomson on Selenium. (Jan. ARTICLE LX. On the Discovery of Selenium in the Sulphuric Acid made from the Pyrites of Anglesey. By Edmund P. Thomson, Esq. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Manchester, Dec. 16, 1824, I sec to send for your particular notice and examination, a substance that has lately come under my observation, and which, from the examination I have given it, I have no doubt is selenium, the substance discovered by Berzelius in the sulphur extracted from pyrites at Fahlan, in Sweden, an account of which will be found in the Annals of Philosophy, vols. xiii. xiv. xv. The pre- sence of this new body, in one of the operations at my manufac- tory, will not be surprising, when it is known that in making muriatic acid [ use sulphuric acid which is prepared from pyrites, at the works of my friend Mr. Robert Mutrie of this town. The Selenium distils over with the muriatic acid into the receivers, and in the course of two or three days, it falls to the bottom of the vessels in the form of a reddish brown substance, which does not appear to deteriorate the acid in the least. The quantity of this new substance produced from 100 parts of the sulphuric acid (made from the pyrites) I have not yet been able to ascertain, but have reason to suppose it to be very small. Through the kindness of Mr. Robert Mutrie, I am enabled to furnish you with specimens of the pyrites used at his manufactory. The pyrites is obtained from the Paris Mountain in the island of Anglesey, and there are two or three descriptions of them, but all from the same mountain. I remain, Gentlemen, yours most respectfully, Epmunp P. Thomson. =. Experiments on the above described Selenium. By J. G. Chil- dren, FRS. &Xc. I have submitted the red substance forwarded to us by the kindness of Mr. Thomson, to a few experiments, in order to obtain unequivocal evidence of its containing selenium. A fragment, heated on a slip of platina foil by the spirit lamp, tinged the flame of a beautiful azure blue colour. A portion heated by the spirit lamp in a glass tube closed at one end, gave off first acidulous water ; some sulphur next sub- limed and condensed at a little distance from the flame, and soon after a red substance, which condensed on the sides of the tube between the flame and the sulphur, and very near the former. During the sublimation of the red matter, the lower 1825.] Mr. Phillips’s Reply to Mr. Whipple. 53 part of the tube was filled with a yellow vapour, a good deal like chlorine, but of a deeper colour, and an unpleasant odour was exhaled, very similar to that of cabbage water. After the whole of the volatile matter had been sublimed, a fixed dark coloured residuum remained at the bottom of the tube. This was transferred to another tube, open at both ends, and again heated; some more of the red sublimate was thus obtained, and the residuum assumed a grey colour. It amounted to about 53 per cent. of the weight of the substance operated on, and on examination was found to consist of earthy matter, principally silica and lime ; consequently the assay contains about 47 per cent. of volatile matters, by far the greatest portion of which consists of the red sublimate. The red sublimate had evidently been fused and spread over the inner surface of the tube. When detached from the tube, a morsel of it imparted the same beautiful blue colour to flame that has been already mentioned, but more intense. Another fragment, heated in a tube open at both ends, sub- limed without giving off any sulphur, exhaling at the same time a strong odour similar to that of horse-radish. It fused very readily on being gently heated in a close tube over the lamp, and remained for some time in a soft pasty state. These experiments are quite sufficient to establish the identity of cur red sublimate with selenium, and in external characters also it perfectly answers the description of that substance. It has a metallic lustre, and a deep brown colour when seen by reflected light. Its fracture is conchoidal, and has a vitreous lustre. It is easily scratched by the knife; is brittle, and its powder has a deep red colour; but it adheres together readily when rabbed in the mortar, and then assumes a grey colour, and a smooth and somewhat metallic surface. In very thin lamina it is transparent, and when viewed by transmitted light, has a beautiful cinnabar red calour. ARTICLE X, Observations upon Mr. Whipple’s Answer. By R. Phillips, FRS. L. and E. &c. In the seventh volume of the Annals of Philosophy, p.450, N.S. I offered some remarks upon the Pharmacope@ia Londinensis, lately published by the College of Puysicians; and in the last number of the Annals, I am requested by a correspondent who subscribes himself “ G. Whipple,” to give him an explanation of them. The manner of Mr. Whipple’s communication is such as would have prevented its appearance, if any one but myself had been the object of it. I shall, however, show, that he may at 54 Mr. Phillips's Reply to Mr. Whipple. (Jan. least congratulate himself upon his consistency, for his matter is worthy of his style. The part of Mr. Whipple’s letter which I shall first notice is the following: “I should esteem it an obligation, if favoured with a translation of the first nineteen lines of the paper, the parvum in mulio.” These lines I do not think it necessary to repeat, but their meaning is, in my opinion, so obvious, that I have no words to render it more so; [ am, therefore, compelled to leave the reader to decide, whether I write sense, or Mr. Whipple cannot understand it. “On the formula forthe preparation ofsulphate of potash,” says Mr. W. “the writer of the paper is most fatally mistaken. In my opinion, the College have acted most judiciously in directing that the excess of acid be saturated with potash, instead of lime, for, in this instance, they employ a salt of a very inferior value to obtain one of a greater (and, by the bye, of some considerable importance to.every manufacturing chemist), and, therefore, contrary to the opinion of the writer (of that paper), who says, “ The College would have acted economically in imitating the directions of the Edinburgh Pharmacopeeia, by saturating the excess of acid of the bisulphate, with lime instead of potash ; by this the waste would have been avoided of using a salt of greater value to obtain one of less.” A single importunity to any of the drug warehouses will convince him of his error.” This case is very easily settled, and I shall make great allowances in Mr. W.’s favour, and yet the result will bein mine. Having made more than “a single importunity” to the requisite sources of information, I will admit that sulphate of potash is sold at a higher price than the subcarbonate; and this fact I may fairly claim as favourable to the accuracy of my statement; for the high price of the sulphate is the natural result of expensive means employed for its preparation. The circumstances of the case are these: the College directs nitric acid to be procured by decomposing nitrate of potash with an equal weight of sulphuric acid; the residuum is conse- quently bisulphate of potash composed of 88 sulphate of potash and 40 dry sulphuric acid. The question, therefore, is, whether it is more economical to reject those 40 parts of dry sulphuric acid after saturation with lime, or to convert them into sulphate of potash by employing the subcarbonate. . Pearlash is impure subcarbonate of potash, but I will suppose it to be pure; it is sold at about 44/. per ton; 40 parts of dry sulphuric acid require 70-of it for saturation; 22 of carbonic acid are expelled, and 88 of sulphate of potash produced. A short calculation will show that the cost of a ton of it thus pre- pared will be 35/. Impure sulphate of potash is readily procurable in the market for about 15/. per ton, and when the impurities and slight excess 1825.] Mr. Phillips’s Reply to Mr. Whipple. 56. of acid are removed by lime, I will admit that only three-fourths of it are obtained in the state of pure sulphate of potash, the cost of which will be 20/. per ton. In making these statements, I suppose the trouble and expense of the operations to be equal. The remarks next requiring observation are separated by a paragraph which I shall presently notice : they are, “ Moreover { would ask, since economy be the maximum on which he has founded his examination, whether this salt could not be more economically obtained by employing potash in the process for forming the ferrum precipitatum;” and ‘ My remark relative to the ferri subcarbonas, will be seen in the note on sulphate of potash.” It is to be observed that the College directs subcare bonate of soda for the decomposition of sulphate of iron in the preparation of what they term ferri subcarbonas, and Mr. W. calls ferrum pracipitatum. 1 have repeatedly endeavoured to obtain this compound by using subcarbonate of potash instead of soda, but from some unexplained cause, the carbonate of iron never contained so large a proportion of carbonic acid in the former case. I do not suppose that the carbonic acid has any immediate good effect, but when combined with protoxide ofiron, it prevents its becoming peroxide, and consequently retains it in a more soluble state. Mr. Whipple’s next observations apply to what I have stated respecting the preparations of iron. “To attempt a definition of his remark on the preparations of iron, would be Aguam arare, wherefore I shall be obliged, if favoured with information, as to its abstract tendency. What must be the inference of an assertion like the following? ‘ That in the preparations of iron, there have been some alterations which are to be considered as amendments ; but I am apprehensive that the good which has been done ts more than counterbalanced by the omission of improvements, or the commission of errors.’ Surely, if in the formule, that is, such as have been altered, amendments have taken place, how can we ascribe to the College a want of ability, or the commis- sion of error?” J trust that most persons would understand that I conceive the College to have done some good, and more harm—the harm being of two kinds ; positive by the commission of errors, and negative by the omission of improvements. I will give instances of each : the process for preparing Ferrum tartar- wzalum is ymproved ; Vinum ferri is rendered worse by depriving a weak preparation of nearly one-third its strength. In the direc- tions for preparing ferrum ammoniatwn, about one-third only of the subcarbonate of iron ordered to be used are dissolved by the muriatic acid, and by the alterations introduced not only is waste incurred, but the apparent strength of the preparation is much greater than itsreal power. With respect to the omission ofim- provements, it is to be observed that more than one-fourth of the 56 Analyses of Books. [JAN. sulphate of iron is wasted by continuing the directions for using too small a proportion of subcarbonate of soda; and a larger quantity of solution of subcarbonate of potash should have been directed in preparing the liquor ferri alcalini. With respect to my proposal for substituting strong acetic acid diluted with water for distilled vinegar, Mr. Whipple says, “The acidum aceticum fortius diluted with water does not answer for the purpose of making the liquor plumbi subacetatis. I have frequently tried it, and ever been unsuccessful, for as soon as it assumes the density, as required in the Pharmacopezia, it becomes opaque, which cannot be removed by filtration.” I have no doubt of the accuracy of Mr. Whipple’s statement when he admits that he has ‘“ ever been unsuccessful ;” and he will continue to be so while he employs impure acetic acid; this must have been the case, for I assert that the acidum aceticum fortius diluted with water, does answer for the purpose of making the liquor plumbi subacetatis, a perfectly clear and colourless solution being immediately obtainable by filtration. ARTICLE XI. ANALYSES OF Books. An Explanatory Dictionary of the Apparatus and Instruments employed in the various Operations of Philosophical and Expe- rimental Chemistry. With 17 Quarto Plates. By a Practical Chemist. London. Boys. pp.295. 16s. SEVENTEEN well executed quarto plates (for such they really are) for sixteen shillings can hardly be a bad bargain, and if the text at all equal the engravings, in matter as well as type, it must be a very cheap one, at least as books go now. At all events, Mr. Adlard, the engraver, and Mr. Green, the printer, have done ¢/eir duty, and the paper does not disgrace the stationer who sold it. So much for the getting up; and we assure our readers, it is no small part of the art and mystery of book-making in these days of bibliomaniacal fastidiousness. We could wish indeed, for our own sakes, that matters would take a turn, and the price of books descend a little more to the level of our ‘ cold” purses ; but whilst our friend Mr. Dibdin continues to treat us with such luxuries as his Strasbourg Cathe- dral, Ann of Brittany, and the View of Rouen on the Road to Havre, &c.* we cannot help wishing him to persevere in his splendid course, though he half ruins us with the irresistible temptations. But to the work before us. * See his Tour, the most beautifully illustrated work of the kind of the present day, 1825.] An Explanatory Dictionary, &c. 57 We learn from the Preface that the design of the present pub- lication is to supply the want of plates in most of the elementary treatises on chemistry, and to assist students who attend the public chemical lectures, but have not sufficient time or oppor- tunity to examine the furniture of the lecture-table, so as to be enabled perfectly to comprehend the construction and principles of every article of apparatus. ‘The author acknowledges that he has made free use of the best authorities, and at the same time lays claim to many original remarks and explanations. The first chapter is devoted to a dissertation on the general nature of chemical apparatus and instruments ; and though the remarks are somewhat diffuse, the young chemist will find in them, on the whole, a good deal of useful matter ; but we think the necessity of having shelves, drawers, cupboards, bottle brushes, sponges, towels, &c. Xc. in the laboratory, might have been left to the tyro’s own sagacity to find out, who will probably not be long before he discovers that chemical operations are marvellously apt to make dirty hands, and that he must be no niggard of his trouble in often cleaning his flasks, precipitating glasses, retorts, &c. &c. as well as his own fingers, before he quits the fumes of the laboratory for the periumes of the draw- ing room. This chapter also contains a pretty long list of instruments and utensils, and another of tests, &c.; in the latter of which, the same articles are in several instances repeated under differ- ent heads ; for instance, under the head Tests, we find carbonate of ammonia, nitrate of barytes, nitrate of lead, sulphate of iron, &c. and the same substances occur again in the next page under the head Salts. Is this for the sake of amplification, or from inattention? It is bad at all events. Next come heat and fuel, amongst which the author has omitted to notice the new sub- stance obtained from the distillation of wood, and, not very pro- perly perhaps, called naphtha ; it is a cheap and excellent sub- stitute for spirits of wine. This chapter concludes with some remarks on the method of conducting experiments, including some good advice to young operators, extracted from Macquer and Dr. Henry. / The very small space we can afford to our further remarks on this volume will allow of only a few short extracts from some of the articles, as a specimen of the general style of the work. Blowpipe —Figures and descriptions are given of Bergman's, Black’s, and Wollaston’s, which may be considered as legitimate blowpipes, as they are supported by the hand, and the blast urged by the breath of the operator, the ouly possible method of giving all the nice varieties of flame and position that are required in the dexterous management of this admirable little instrument. There are also figures of Brooke’s Oxy-hydrogen Blowpipe, an useful instrument, when we wish to throw an intense heat on a 58 Analyses of Books. [JAN. single point; of a self-acting blowpipe, the old zolipile, not worth one farthing ; of a blowpipe with a self-adjusting candle- stick (a self-adjusting fiddlestick to Mr. Frangois Cramer’s violin would be about as necessary or useful); and a blowpipe, with a stop-cock, to be used with a bladder. The article annexed to blowpipe (Bergman’s) ismade up of the substance of the observations found in the best works on the subject, and is culled from Bergman’s Treatise, De Tubo Ferru- minatorio, Berzelius’s Essai de ’emploi du Chalumeau, &c. Our author tells us, that “The best kind of flame for blowing through with the blowpipe, is a thick wax or tallow candle.” This is new to us; we did not before know that a candle and its flame are the same thing; but however that may be, we think the recommendation erroneous, and prefer a low lamp, supplied with oii, to any candle whether of wax or tallow; for the lamp wants no snuffing ; the wick, when once well trimmed, will last a long time without requiring the least alteration, and we avoid the abominable nuisance of having our hands or instruments smeared with melted wax, or “ stinking tallow.” The advantage also of being able to adapt the size of the wick to the nature of the operation, is materially in favour of the use of the lamp in prefer- ence to a candle. “Tn using the blowpipe, the following observations should be attended to. The end of the nozzle pipe must be just entered into the fiame, and the current of air will then throw out a cone or dart of flame from the opposite side. Ifit is well managed, this dart or cone will be very distinct and well defined. Care must be taken that the stream of air does not strike against any part of the wick, as it would then be disturbed and split into several parts. The jet or blast of air must be delivered some- what above the wick; and as unless the flame was considerable there will not be sufficient for the stream of air to act upon, for this reason the wick is best to be opened, because it then exposes the largest surface, and produces the greatest flame ; the stream of air from the pipe should then be directed through the channel or opening between the wick, so as to produce a cone the most perfect and brilliant, directed downwards at an angle of about 45 degrees.” These directions are not amiss, but require some qualifica- tions. The position of the nozzle of the blowpipe with respect to the flame must depend on the effect required ; if an oxidating flame be wanted, the extremity of the blowpipe should be inserted to some distance in the flame; for a reducing flame, it must be drawn further back, andas to the form of the wick, except in cases where a large flame is required, it 1s best to let it be cylindrical and unbroken. ‘The flame of a wick of this form will be found the most convenient and manageable in all deli- cate experiments. 1825.] Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. 59 The author has given no figure of Gahn’s blowpipe, which we find superior to any other. r. Wollaston’s, like all his inven- tions, is perfect for the object proposed, viz. portability ; but for constant use, one with a reservoir is preferable, and of those we most approve of the form given by Gahn. The article Hvgrometer is one of the longest and best in the book ; and we give the author credit for having dwelt amply on the admirable instrument invented by Mr. Daniell. A wood- cut, not very neatly executed, is given of this hygrometer, and of Leslie’s, as well as of some other apparatus. Under the head Hydrometer, Nicholson’s useful table of the correspondence of the degrees of Beaumé’s hydrometers for salts and spirits, with their actual specific gravities at 55° Fahr. is given, as well as Gilpin’s valuable tables of the specific gra- vities of alcohol of different strengths, and at different tempera- tures. Under the article Measure Glass, also, several useful tables are introduced, and generally through the work much information, which both the student and proficient may refer to with advantage. We are surprised that the author has not noticed the pyro- meter invented by Mr. Daniell; a long account is given of Wedegwood’s, which, it is now known, is an instrument of very little service, since the clay pieces which serve to indicate the temperature, contract as much by a lower degree of heat long continued, as they do by the most intense. We have also looked in vain for a figure of Mr. Cooper’s excellent apparatus for the analysis of organic substances. Neither that nor Dr. Prout’s are noticed. Hiatus valde deflendus! However, on the whole, we think the Explanatory Dictionary cannot fail] to be useful to a large class of chemical readers, and hoping the author will fill up the desiderata in the next edition, we wish he may soon have tie opportunity of doing so, and bid him heartily farewell. ArticLe XII. Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. Tue meetings of this learned body, as we have already men- tioned, were resumed on the 18th of November, 1824; when Douglas C. Clavering, Esq. Capt. R.N. was admitted a Fellow of the Society, and the following communications were read :— The Croonian Lecture, by Sir E. Home, VPRS. :—In pursuing his researches in minute anatomy, the author stated, at the commencement of this Lecture, he had again availed himself of the skill and accuracy of Mr. Bauer ; and in this respect he 60 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. Jan. remarked, he enjoyed an advantage which no anatomist had ever before possessed, and which, perhaps, might never again occur to any one. Proceeding to the immediate subject of the Lecture, Sir E. Home stated, that Mr. Bauer had discovered nerves both on the foetal avd the maternal surface of the placenta: they extend over the arteries in a kind of trellis-work, and each fibre, when highly magnified, seems to consist of globules connected toge- ther: they are altogether distinct from any sort of arterial or venous tubes, and reflect the light like white human hairs.— The arrangement of the nerves on the placente of the seal and fallow-deer was then described.—Sir T. S. Raffles, whose loss of the most valuable collection of subjects of Natural History ever formed in the East Indies, the author observed, every one must feel for, presented him with the pregnant uterus of the Sumatran tapir, in which there is no placenta, the umbilical cord passing from the foetus directly to the chorion; and in this case the nerves were found in the flocculent part of the latter organ. Sir Everard next gave an account of the distribution of the nerves belonging to the organs of generation in the human female, and in those of the quadruped and birad.—He had long since suspected that wherever there were blood-vessels there were nerves, and that the latter, besides their office of conveying sensation, were concerned in the formation of arteries; and from the extreme vascularity of the placenta, he had inferred their existence in that organ. Mr. Bauer’s verification of this inference threw great light upon various facts, hitherto unex- plained, depending upon the connexion of the mother with the foetus ;—it showed that the brain of the mother is connected with all itsnerves. Thus it explained the circumstances, of a foetus formed without brain; of children dying on the too speedy divi- sion of the navel-string ; and of the various eltects ascribed to the influence of the imagination of the mother on the offspring, of which there were too many authenticated instances to reject, though from their not having taken place in certain particular cases, they had been considered as accidental. The Lecture closed with an account of some instances of this kind which had come within the immediate knowledge of the author. One of them was that recorded in the Philosophical Transactions, of the mare, which, having first had a foal by a quagga, had after- wards three foals successively by a Persian horse, all of which were marked like the progeny of the quagga. Illustrative draw- ings by Mr. Bauer were annexed to this Lecture. On the Changes undergone by the Ovum of the Frog, during the Production of the Tadpole. By the same Author. Sir Everard Home having investigated the gradual changes produced by incubation in the ova of warm-blooded animals, by examining the formation of the chick, had now extended his 1825.] Royal Society. 61 researches, with Mr. Bauev’s aid as before, to the cold-blooded class of animals. The general successive steps of the process had been ascertained to be the same in both classes. Mr. Bauer's drawings of those which took place in the ovum of the frog were annexed to the paper. Nov, 25.—At this meeting Richard Penn, Esq. was admitted a Fellow; and the name of William Scoresby, Jun. Esq. ordered to be inserted in the printed lists of the Society : the following paper was read :— A New Method of calculating the Angles under which the Planes of Crystals meet: by W. Whewell, MA. FRS. and Fel- low of Trinity College, Cambridge. In this paper, of which the introduction only was read, the details being purely mathematical, the author proposed to sub- stitute for the mode of calculating the angles of crystals hitherto employed, in which different methods are used, according to the relation of the different crystals to their nuclei, a few simple formule of universal application; and also to substitute for the arbitrary and inelegant notation by which the planes of crystals have heretofore been designated, a simple and expressive nota- tion of corresponding symbols. Nov. 30.—This being St. Andrew’s Day, the anniversary meeting of the Royal Society was held at the Society’s apart- ments in Somerset House. The President, Sir Humphry Davy, took the Chair at twelve o’clock, and delivered an eloquent address to a large number of the members assembled on the occasion. We are happy to be able to lay before our readers a faithful ‘and pretéy copious abstract of that able and impressive composition. After reading the list of members whom the Society has lost by death .in the course of the preceding year, in which the names of Lord Byron, Mr. Lowry, and Baron Maseres occurred, Sir Humphry Davy observed, that the only character which he was called upon to nctice, as a contributor to the Philosophical Transactions, was that of Baron Maseres, whom he described as having belonged to the old mathematical school of Britain, and who, through a long life, devoted much of his leisure, anda portion of his fortune, to the pursuit and encouragement of the higher departments of algebra and geometry. His love of science was of the most disinterested kind, as is shown by the nature of his publications, and his liberality in enconraging the publications of others. He died in extreme old age, having almost outlived his faculties. Yhe President then announced that the Council had awarded the medal of Sir Godfrey Copley’s donation, for the present year, to the Rev. John Brinkley, D. D. Andrew’s Professor of Astro- nomy in the University of Dublin, and President of the Royal Irish Academy, 62 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Jan, To some of the members of the Society, who have not fol- lowed closely the usages of the Council, a question may arise, why, in two successive years,* the cultivators of a science, which, during that time, has been distinguished by no remarka- ble discoveries, should receive the highest honours which this philosophical association has to bestow? The progress of science has no annual periods ; and when a medal is to be bestowed every year, not merely important scien~ tific facts, but likewise trains of useful labours and researches must be considered, and the zeal, activity, and knowledge of those persons, who, having been contributors to the Transac- tions, must be considered as competitors, are to be taken into the account. It has now and then happened that the Royal Society has had the felicity to mark some great and brilliant discovery, such as that of the aberration of light, or the magnetic effects of electri- city, by this token of its respect ; but in general the medal is, of necessity, bestowed for contributions of a more humble cha- racter; to reward those laborious philosophers who have enlightened science by correct observations or experiments ; or those sagacious inquirers, who, by accurate reasonings, or inge- nious views, lay the foundations for new researches, or new theoretical arrangements, or applications of science to the uses of life. [fany one department of natural knowledge requires encouragement more than another, itis Astronomy; for having arrived at a mature state, and presenting few striking objects of discovery, it can only be perfected by the most minute, laborious, and delicate inquiries, which demand great attention, great sacrifice of time, and often of health, since they must frequently be carried on at a period usually devoted to repose. Dr. Brinkley has long been known as an enlightened and "ai yt mathematician, and his papers in the Memoirs of the oyal Irish Academy, and some of those in the Philosophical Transactions, contain abundant proofs of his skill in the higher departments of analysis. Whoever, said the President, is in possession of the higher resources of the mathematical sciences, may be considered as gifted with a species of power applicable to every department of physical knowledge. It is, indeed, for this species of knowledge what muscular strength is for the different branches of human labour. It not only generalizes the results of experiment and observation, but likewise corrects them, and leads to new and more refined methods of investiga-~ tion. The guide of the mechanical and pneumatical philoso- pher, and the useful assistant of the chemist, it is of still more importance to the astronomer, whose results depend entirely upon magnitude, time, and motion. * The Copley medal was last year given to the Astronomer Royal.— Kd. 1825.] Royal Society. 63 Endowed in so high a degree with one of the essential charac- ters of an accomplished astronomer, his various and later com- munications to the Royal Society show that Dr, Brinkley is equally distinguished as a laborious, acute and accurate observer. After stating the several subjects of Dr. Brinkley’s seven communications to the Royal Society, published in the Philoso- phical Transactions, and justly eulogizing their extraordinary merit, Sir Humphry Davy proceeded to notice the two great leading questions of astronomy, concerning which the Astrono- mer Royal and Dr. Brinkley are at issue ; namely, 1. The sensi- ble parallax of some of the fixed stars; and, 2. The apparent southern motion or declination of parts of the sidereal system. _ It is well known that sensible parallax is denied by Mr. Pond, and believed to exist by Dr. Brinkley ; whilst, on the contrary, southern declination is denied by Dr. Brinkley, and believed to exist by Mr. Pond. I mentioned, the President continued, in announcing the award of the medal last year, that the Council of the Royal Society had no intention of giving its sanction to the opinions of the Astronomer Royal, or of attempting to decide on these important and difficult questions. I again feel it my duty to make the same observation on this occasion, and to state that the general labours of Dr. Brinkley in the most diffi- cult parts of astronomy, and the approximation that he has made to the solution of a great problem, and the high merits of his philosophical inquiries, are the sole grounds on which the Cop- Jeian medal has been bestowed. When Copernicus first developed that sublime system of the planetary worlds, which has since been called after his name, he was obliged to suppose the fixed stars at an almost infinite distance, and the astronomical instruments of that day offered no means even of attempting the discovery of their parallax. The importance of such a discovery was, however, imme- diately felt ; asa demonstration of it would in fact become like- wise an absolute demonstration of the Copernican system of the universe. Gallilzo seems to have suggested the method of inquiring for parallax, by examining the relative position of double stars, one of large, and the other of small magnitude, at the two extremities of the earth’s orbit; a method founded on the supposition that the stars do not greatly differ in absolute size. This method, which was likewise strongly recommended by Dr. Wallis, was first, I believe, said the President, practised, and pursued with great sagacity and industry, and with instruments of extraordi- nary magnitude and perfection, by the late Sir William Herschell, and, in following his path, by Mr. Herschell and Mr. South. Though it has afforded many important results with respect to the proper motions of the stars and the arrangement and groups 64 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies [JAN. of those heavenly bodies, it has as yet furnished no observations forming data for reasoning on the distances of the fixed stars from the sun. The other method, and that which has been most insisted upon, seems likewise to have originated with the illustrious Florentine phifssopher, namely, that of observing stars, about the summer and winter solstice, in or near the zenith, for the purpose of avoiding the errors of refraction, by fixed instruments. The celebrated Robert Hooke, who erected, at Chelsea, a tele- scope 36 feet long for examining y Draconis, imagined that he had discovered a very considerable parallax for this star; but Hooke’s observations were contradicted by Molyneux. Flamstead drew a similar conclusion from his experiments on the pole star, but the results which he attributed to parallax were explained by Bradley’s great discoveries of the aberration of light, and the nutation of the earth’s axis ; and it is remark- able that Hooke reasoned correctly on inaccurate observations, whilst Flamstead formed wrong conclusions from exceedingly correct results. James Cassini, in observing Sirius, attributed a parallax of 6” to this star; and La Calle, from observations made at the Cape of Good Hope, supposed it to be 4”. Piazzi, whose conclusions are given with great diffidence, in researches pursued from 1800 to 1806, supposes that several of the fixed stars exhibit parallax. He assumes for Sirius nearly the same parallax as La Caille, for Procyon 3”, and for Capra less than 1”. In all these observations, nothing like southern motion, it must be confessed, had ever been suspected. Dr. Brinkley, in 1810, rated the parallax for 2 Lyre at 21”. The general conclusions of the Astronomer Royal from observations made both with a fixed instrument, and with the mural circle, are unfavourable to the existence of sensible parallax for any of the fixed stars, and he refers apparent parallax to imperfections in the instruments used in the observations, and offers as a proof, the diminution of the indications in proportion as instruments have become more delicate; and estimating the Greenwich, as superior to the Dublin Circle, thus accounts for the difference of his results and those of Dr. Brinkley. Dr. Brinkley, in reply, does not allow the superiority of the principle of the Greenwich instrument, and shows the consist- ency of the Dublin instrument with itself, by numerous obser- yations which place its permanent state beyond all doubt. The results of 62 observations on « Lyre, in 1811, give the mean difference:between the summer and winter zenith distances as 1-32; and repeated observations, in the last ten years, give sensible parallax, though with less consistency, for « Aquile, # Cygni, and Arcturus ; but none for y Draconis. Dr. Brinkley seems entirely convinced of the accuracy of his general conclu- _— a a 1825.] Royal Society. 65 sions. If any circumstances depending upon change of temper- ature, flexure of the instrument, or other causes of error existed, why, he says, should they not be general for all the stars? Why should such causes exist for a Lyre, and not for the pole star, which shows no sensible parallax ¢ On the question of southern motion, Dr, Brinkley compares Mr. Bessel’s, Mr. Pond’s, Mr. Piazzi’s, and Dr. Bradley’s Cata- logues, and after endeavouring to prove discordance in the Astronomer Royal’s mode of applying the data in these Cata- logues to the question, he says, ‘“ from the weight of external testimony adduced, it will, 1 think, be readily conceded to me, that the southern motion does not exist, and that it must be regarded as an error, belonging to one or both of the Greenwich Catalogues of 1813 and 1823.” Such is the state of these two questions ; they are not, how- ever, questions of useless controversy, nor connected with hostile feelings: the two rival astronomers seem equally animated by the love of truth and of justice, and have carried on their discus- sions in that conciliating, amiable, and dignified manner, which distinguishes the true philosopher. I cannot give a stronger proof of this, than in stating that the Astronomer Royal was amongst the first of the members of the Council to second and applaud the propositien for the award of this day. After some further observations on the subject of parallax, the President remarked, that it is to be regretted that no star has yet been observed absolutely in the zenith, which might easily be done, and in a part of the globe, for instance under the equator, where almost precisely the same circumstances of tem- perature, moisture, and pressure of the atmosphere, would exist in summer and winter. An instrument fixed on granite, or an aperture made in a solid stratum of rock, would destroy the pos- ' sibility of interference from foreign causes, and reduce the pro- blem to the simplest possible conditions. Sir Humphry Davy then congratulated the Society on the great progress that is making in scientific inquiry, and the means for procuring the necessary instruments, and paid a well merited tribute of respect to several of the most eminent astro- nomers of the present day, and to those artists, especially Troughton, Dolland, Reichenbach, and Frauenhotter, whose genius and industry have brought philosophical apparatus tq its present high state of perfection. The President then concluded this brilliant address nearly in the following words :— There is no more gratifying subject for contemplation than the present state and future prospects of astronomy ; and when it is recollected what this science was two centuries ago, the contrast affords a sublime proof of the powers and resources of the human mind. New Series, VOL. 1X. P 66 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies, [JAN. - The notions of Ptolemy concerning Cycles, and Epicycles and the moving spheres of the heavens, were then current; the obser- vatories were devoted rather to the purposes of judicial astrology than to the philosophy of the heavenly bodies; to objects of superstition rather than of science. {f it were necessary to fix upon the strongest characteristic of the superiority of modern over ancient times, I know not whether the changes in the art of war from the application of gunpowder, or in literary resources from the press, or even that wonderful power created by the steam-engine, could be chosen with so much propriety as the improved state of astronomy. Even the Athenians, the most enlightened people of ant:quity, condemned a philosopher to death for denying the divinity of the Sun; and as to the other great nations, cotemporary with the Athenians, it will be sufficient merely to mention their ido- latry, or utter ignorance with regard to the laws or motions of the heavenly bodies. - Take the most transient and the simplest view of the science as it now exists, and what a noble subject for exultation! Not only the masses and distances of the sun, the planets and their satellites, are now known, but even the weights of bodies upon their surfaces ascertained, and all their motions, appearances, and changes, predicted with the utmost certainty for years to come, and even carried back through past ages, to correct the chronology, and fix the epochas in the history of ancient nations. Attempts have even been made to measure the almost inconceivable distances of the stars, and with this, what sublime practical and moral results! The pathless ocean navigated, and in unknown seas, the exact point of distance from known lands ascertained. All vague and superstitious notions banished from the mind, which, trusting to its own powers and analogies, sees animmutable and eternal order in the whole of the universe, intended after the designs of the most perfect beneficence, to promote the happiness of millions of living beings, and where the whole of created nature offers its testimony of the existence -of a Divine and Supreme Intelligence ! The President then delivered the medal to Mr. Baily, to be transmitted to Dr. Brinkley, begging him to assure that gentle- man of the respect and admiration of the Royal Society, who receive his communications, presiding, as he does, over another kindred scientific body, not merely with pleasure, but with gra- titude, and who trust that he will continue them both for the advancement of astronomy, and for the increase of his owa high reputation. The Society then proceeded to choose their Council and Officers for the ensuing year; and the following were declared duly elected : Of the Old Council—Sir Humphry Davy, Bart.; W, T. 1825.] Royal Society. 67 Brande, Esq.; 8. Goodenough, Lord Bishop of Carlisle ; Major T. Colby; J. W. Croker, Esq.; D. Gilbert, Esq.; C. Hatchett, Esq.; Sir E. Home, Bart.; J. Pond, Esq.; W.H. Wollaston, MD.; T. Young, MD. Of the New Council—W. Babington, MD.; F. Baily, Esq. ; J. G. Children, Esq.; J. W. Viscount Dudley and Ward ; J. F.W. Herschel, Esq.; Capt. H. Kater; T. A. Knight, Esq. ; A. Mac Leay, Esq.; SirT. 8. Raffles, Knt.; Edward Adolphus, Duke of Somerset. . President.—Sir H. Davy, Bart. Treasurer.—D. Gilbert, Esq. Secretaries —W.T. Brande, Esq.; and J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. Dec.9.—Charles Mackintosh, Esq. was admitted a Fellow ; M. Thenard was elected a Foreign Member ; and the following communications were received. Three extensive series of Astronomical Observations made at the Observatory of Paramatta, New South Wales ; communi- cated by Sir Thomas Brisbane. Explanation of an Optical Deception in the Appearance of the Spokes of a Wheel ‘seen through Vertical Bars. By P. M. Roget, MD. FRS. A portion only of this paper was read. Dec. 16.—The name of Dr. John Thomson, of Edinburgh, was ordered to be inserted in the printed lists of the Society; and the reading of Dr. Roget’s paper was concluded. The spokes of a revolving wheel appear curved when viewed through the intervals of a series of vertical bars, such as those of a palisade, ora Venetian window-blind. The spokes on each side of the upper one, which has arrived at the vertical position, appear bent upwards ; and the curvature of each spoke increases accordingly as it is more distant from the uppermost one. The direction of the curvature is the same, whether the wheel be moving to the right or to the left of the spectator. The appear- ance takes place only when the wheel is revolving with a certain velocity, and remains the same whatever greater velocity 1s givert to the wheel, as long as the spokes continue visible. author states the results of experiments illustrating the influence of various circumstances on these illusive appearances; and infers from them. that the combination of a progressive with a . rotatory motion is essential to their production. He explains them on the well-known physiological principle of the conti- nuance for a certain time of an impression made on the retina ; and shows that not only all the ordinary phenomena accord with his theory, but that, by means of it, the result of more complicated combinations may be anticipated. The paper con- cludes with a mathematical investigation of the curves thus generated ; of which the general equation and leading properties are given. r 2 68 Scientific Notices—Chemistry. [JAN. The following communication was also read :— - On anew Photometer; by A. Ritchie, AM.: communicated by the President. The principles on which the indications of this instrument depend, are, that radiant heat does not pass through thick plates of glass, but is conducted through them in the same manner as through opaque bodies ; that light expands in the same manner as heat the substances which absorb it; and that the intensity of light varies inversely as the square of the distance. Mr, Rit- chie’s photometer, however, differs essentially from that of Prof. Leslie. Its delicacy is such that it is very sensibly affected by the light of a candle at the distance of 20 or 30 feet, while no effect is produced on it by a hot ball of iron radiating a much greater quantity of heat. When exposed to several lights at different distances, it expresses their intensity according to the law just stated. ARTICLE XIII. SCIENTIFIC NOTICES. CHEMISTRY. 1. Suline Effiorescence upon the Surface of Bricks. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Lisson Grove. WALKING some time since with a friend in the neighbour- hood of St. John’s Wood Road, where a considerable number of cottages in the Italian style, surrounded by gardens and inclosed with brick walls, have lately been erected, cur attention was attracted by observing the irregular distribution of a white coloured substance upon the surfaces of some of these garden walls. Upon closer inspection, a pretty thick and extensive efflorescence became apparent, a portion of which when scraped off and applied to the tongue communicated a strong and disa- greeable saline taste. A quantity of this saline substance was collected, and on being submitted to a slight chemical examina- tion, it soon became evident that it was almost entirely com- posed of sulphate of soda, blended with minute portions of muriate of lime and magnesia. fam aware that sulphate of soda has occasionally been met with as an efflorescence upon old walls on the Continent and elsewhere, but I do not think that it is a very common occur- rence in this country ; and may it not be asked, whether the solidity of walls built of such materials is not likely to be mate-. rially diminished ? The salt evidently, in the first intance, crystallizes upon the 1825.] “Scientific Notices—Chemistry. 69 surfaces of the brick, and ina dry state of the atmosphere, efflo- resces. The action of rain speedily dissolves the efflorescence thus formed, and another portion of salt will be quickly deter- mined to the surface; should this succession of changes continue to go on, the bricks may soon be expected to become porous, and their consequent disintegration must happen in a shot time. If you consider this notice worth inserting in the Annals of Philosophy, it may probably be the means of inducing those whom it may more immediately concern, to attend to a circum- stance of which, perhaps, they are not aware. I remain, Gentlemen, your very obedient servant, M. W. 2. Solubility of Oxide of Cobalt in Ammonia.—Cobaltic Acid. Oxide of cobalt does not appear capable of dissolving directly in ammonia, and a combination between the two substances can take place only under the two following circumstances :— 1. Either the oxide of cobalt combines with an acid, and in this state forms a double salt with the ammonia, which is also com- bined with the same acid ; as, for example, in the carbonate of oxide of cobalt and ammonia, nitrate of oxide of cobalt and ammonia, &c. 2. Or, when the proportion of acid is insufticient to saturate both the oxide of cobalt and the ammonia, as, for example, when a neutral salt of cobalt is treated with an excess of ammonia, there is formed a small quantity of the doubie salt, and the greater proportion of the oxide precipitates in blue coloured flocks, which, so long as oxygen gas is excluded, do not redissolve. If oxygen gas be admitted, it is rapidly absorbed; the blue flocks at the same time assume a green colour, and gradually disappear, yielding a brown coloured solution. [fa salt of cobalt containing an excess of acid be employed, or if there be previously added a sufficient quantity of the corresponding ammoniacul salt, the addition of an excess of ammonia occasions no precipitate, and there is obtained a pale red coloured liquid ; in the case of nitrate of cobalt, this liquid undoubtedly contains nitrate of cobalt and ammonia, and depo- sits red coloured crystals. This solution also is capable of absorbing oxygen gas, and its colour is thereby changed toa brown. The maximum amount of absorption is in the propor- tion nearly of one equivalent of oxygen to one equivalent of oxide of cobalt; consequently the cobaltic acid thus formed contains half an equivalent more of oxygen than the hyperoxide of cobalt. If the above ammoniacal liquid, previously saturated with oxygen, be committed to a rapid spontaneous evaporation, it yields a compound of ammonia with nitric and cobaltic acids, in brown coloured, apparently four-sided prisms with square 70, Scienizfic Notices—Mineralogy. (Jan, bases. This salt dissolves without undergoing decomposition in dilute liquid ammonia, forming with it a brown coloured solu- tion: in water it dissolves only partially, azote being at the same time disengaged, and hyperoxide of cobalt precipitated. Eiappsed to the air, it is rapidly decomposed, and becomes dull and red coloured: it seems probable that the decomposition is principally occasioned by the absorption of carbonic acid.— Leopold Gmelin, MINERALOoey. 3. Composition of Garnet. When writing the short notice on garnet contained in ournum- ber for Nov. last (vol. vill. p. 388), we were not aware that a systematic examination of this mineral had been already under- taken and accomplished. Having since received the entire volume of the Swedish Transactions for 1823, we find in it a memoir by Wachtmeister, containing a description and analysis of 13 varieties of Garnet, all from different localities and geolo- gical positions. With only one exception they all proved to be constituted in conformity with the formula which we gave in our notice, namely, an atom of a silicate of a base containing three atoms of oxygen (as alumina, peroxide of iron), combined with an atom of a silica of a base containing two atoms of oxy- gen (as lime, magnesia, protoxide of iron, protoxide of manga- nese). Whenever a genus becomes so diversified as is the case with garnet, it is of the utmost consequence, in a mineralogical point of view, to investigate the connexion which subsists between the chemical composition of each variety, and its external and physical characters, such as its specitic gravity, hardness, colour, transparency. We have, therefore, arranged the most important of Wachimwiterts results in the form of a synoptical table; by means of which the mutual relations between the principal characters of each variety will be made at once apparent to thereader. Ina geological point of view, itis of no less importance to trace the degree of similarity which subsists between the composition of a simple mineral and its matrix ; and as the garnet appears to surpass almost every other class of minerals in the remarkable extent to which its composi- tion is influenced by that of the substance in which it exists imbedded, or upon which it rests, we have allotted a column to the matrix of each variety, or, where that has not been men- tioned, to the minerals with which it is found associated. 71 logy. Minera ices—. Scientific Not 1825.] a ee ut "ees.0 + SY *syusUsery *uoip Bae # AeMION ut JF 168-8 uiy) ur juoredsuery,| “uAoI YSIppory -ayeaapop ‘quioyyy ZHIQIY) ‘ounesjeuepy “ey] *Teprloyauod |. * (rugt AA LAT) SMe S OF F908 *‘zaenb soyoye10g *quoredsues J, *uddI8 aeq|o} Surutpour ‘uoany “On eypeipsumLy “Sl ‘sf = +9 he “2yxenb *yoryq “paxely 0 /¢99-¢ |sorpyens ApYysitg ‘oWIG| YSTUAMOIq yeq|-of ouy 0} aejnuRsy ‘Teplozadeay, | eS OUT uu sv —3 33 *zyxend “uorpayRoapop a! LES Aq poysyesos 30N “ond PREG THO “ONT "Auoyt payesuoyy “OMI” "°° “Tepasry “OL ‘sj 13 +g tom ‘zyxenb Aq ‘yeqr0s ‘UMOIg 0} But ‘sseps satpayBIIg anbedg|-urpour ‘Aars yreq “OMI ‘OI ‘ontg}'**""*** epiq ° *9 ‘a +g ae *zjuenb 30u ‘saspa *us019 03 Sut | : Gy 0 Inq ‘ssepS soypyeogloyy uo yuoredsuvay|-uyput ‘hod yieg “UAT “aaIsseyyr| °° "reds snosreoyep)¢ * “vyINApEssaFT “S ‘zyxend *IV[NUPAD 0} “worporTRoapop ‘ONIC){[L8-6 |soypywaos = Apysys “moTd yreq|Sururpur = ‘uaaouy|-quaoys payeSuopy| ‘10 wor anouse yy jc" es neuapy "py ‘ F he “saSpo “moppad Yst j SE°S25 c96-S oI |oy) Wo JuoIvdsuvry,|-UMOIq pu AOT[I A "UAT *DAISSU IT “aT OIOY | ueyAysuegSuery “9 uu ‘'S Tigig *zyxenb you *s] UDUUSEIF *UAMOIG ‘uoIpayeoapop | = F |§sF-§ janq ‘ssvps soyoyesog)ury? ur yuoredsuexy, ysippaa yysiry *qlmoyt —payesuopay *oUTTZpos Be “ss *SnTANSaA °C "2420 “ow, . *payeyy pue apuafquaoy St0-F ond “par wySiy Ara A|-oF a8iep 10 SAQeIg ‘DAISSUpT JO pasoduios yooa pl +++ puepeyy *p uut Ww *udAa se rs fa) *so8pa =u pue [eproyauos J IS8LPr "0731@] 213 UO yuoredsuexy, “par qysryjojyar Surssed uaa ** *sespuyyeyy “¢ ‘S¥Y+ts a aut *uorpayeoop 5 OFE “On “par JOIOIA Yueg *payeryo,y |-Op ‘quioyst avpnSayy “aIWIS VII" “YION MINT * F ‘sospa ‘UDADIN “J [[BUIS SV ts jr J l98a-F ‘zyreud soypyexogjayy uo yuoardsursy, *poa yxeq]|s payerpoy “yg oBrery *[eprozadexy, saudspagq|*** ++ + osSaq "uO, “Sopesourpy |UD “dg *ssoupre yy -Aousredsuvs y, *mopop *aINQOVl “UOT “xq “ABIO'] Mm —— ._.0€00_ 0 O838”@FN8— OO ——— 3 Scientific Notices—Mineralogy. [Jan. The numerical results of his analyses were as follows: 1 2 3 4 5 6 uf UGE RE a aoe ee A060] 42:51] 41-00} 42-000 39:93 35°10 35°64 AlvMINA | 50. < ieee 3 19:95] 19°15} 20-10} 21-000 13°45 — — Oxide of iron. ...... — — — — 14-90 29°10 30:00 Tame <\. 5... Biers eialeonle — 1-07} 1:50] — 4-980 31-66 26°91 29-21 Magnesia ...... Mae eS = 6:04; 4-320 — — bates Oxidule of iron ..... 33:93 | 33-57} 28°81) 25:180 — — 3 Oxidule of manganese| 6:69] 5-49} 2°88) 2°375 1°40 7:08 3:02 Potash: yes saas.e - —— — — — — 0:95 PB) Lb Son dae oo ogoaeren ness -= == 0-145 = 0°83* = 101717 {101-79 {100-33 !100-000 | 101°34 | 100°00 | 100-22 8 9 10 il 12 13 Rican ts siele siecle .e-.| 38:125 | 37-993 | 42-450 40-20 A0°55 52°107 Alvapaninia ay so% bile «8 7°325 2712 | 22-475 6:95 20°10 18-035 Oxide of iron. .....- 19-420 | 28-525 _— 20°50 5:00 — PEAS aye wale, sis) 34-647 | 30-740 6°525 29-48 34:86 S775 MVEA RNESIA cre crelante'> « _— — | 13-430 _ = ae Oxidule of iron...... — _ 9292 — _— 23°540 Oxidule of manganese} 3-300 0-615 6:273 4:00 0°48 1-745 BBOLASIU eccisielcinie)eiatesn)s = — — = _ -- — WOES ate le eee slo she sided sand ok iseeh. 63 Air AE. GOO Feet. dois ds dd ds wists bis Bais tais sedi abe eel Mg 65 Workington Colliery, Cumberland. A spring at the surface............. dip brome Sem Beste 48 Water atthe depth of 180 feet 5. 50s fips ies omens 50 Ditto at the depth of 504 feet below the level of ocean, Sd MMe ene rish.cea si. uo oicsdeitiis. emiiecdts = «sud Bt 60 Teem Colliery, Durham. Water at the depth of 444 feet .......... 0.0.05 oe MOD. Percy Mine Colliery, Northumberland. Average temperature of water at the surface........ 49 Water 900 feet deeper than the level of the sea. .... 68 WERTCRGE oo bins 9 pide ae been SES ae Soin Wms ain id att 19 Jarrow Colliery, Durham. Average temperature of water at the surface....... - 49 DE Ob GaPOAPEL sos aio x ute wo oe eles ake es ps eee pe 68 Killingworth Colliery, Northumberland (being the deepest Coal Mine in Great Britain). Witerentne sumded sas Sia oe SP .. 49 BA ae WO EEE OCC Sea en. Se Soa nes tie cece celery ep mee 51 Ditto at 900 from the surface, after having traversed 11 mile from the downcast pit... ...........0.- Water at the great depth of 1200 feet. ............ 74 Baron Humboldt, whose talents for observation, and whose accuracy, canuot be doubted, informs us that the mine of Valen- ciang is so warin, that the miners are constantly exposed to a temperature of 91:4 of Fahrenheit, while the mean temperature of the external air is 60°8. The springs which issue from veins of the same mine at the depth of 1638 feet, have a temperature of 98:2, which is 5:4 1825.] Climate of the Antediluvian World. 105 warmer than the air of levels in which the miners work ; and this fact is of itself, when added to Mr. Bald’s observations on the water in mines, sufficient to set at rest, for ever, the supposition of the heat being owing to the miners, their horses and lights, &e. The health of a miner requires a constant circulation of air, which renders the heat of mines more remarkable. The average temperature of air at the mouth of the mine of Reyas, near that of Valenciana, was .............. 69°4 Paratte depth of O30 feet oo. oo esos 36 a xe ee ree danse’? Mr. Bald very properly remarks, that the heat of coal mines cannot arise from the decomposition of sulphurets, for these never suffer decomposition zm stéu; if they did, the greater part of the coal mines in the world would have been destroyed by spontaneous ignition. In the mina Purgatoria, the height of which above the level of the sea is equal to the Pic of Tenerifie, the air in the mine was 67°53 Fahrenheit. From the foregoing observations, it is evident that the eleva- tion of a mine above the level of the sea does not regulate its temperature as it does that of the surface. Water at the depth of 1200 feet under the sea in the Killingworth Colliery, was stated to be 74° Fahr.; while the air at 436 feet deep in the mine of Villapenda, in Mexico, and which is more than 3000 feet above the level of the sea, is 84°9. When the phenomena of the antediluvian Flora, and the laws of vegetable life, are considered in connection with all that has been adduced, we are necessarily led to the same conclusion to which many celebrated geologists have arrived, partly from taking a different road of inquiry, and partly from conjecture ; namely, that there isy,source of heat in the centre of the earth itself which must be referred to, as the cause of the uniformity of temperature of the ancient world. In regard to the first of these suppositions, it is most certain that when the granitic crust is duly considered in all its analo- gies, it is much more reasonable to consider it as a crystalliza- tion arising from fire than as a crystalline deposit from a watery solution. We have no proof that any fluid, such as water, is capable of holding such an immense quantity of the most inso- luble of all substances in solutiou, and indeed it is probable that the waters which were destined to act so remarkable a part on the surface of our globe were, in the beginning of time, of the purest kind, having no saline or mineral contents whatever to deposit. The experiments of Sir James Hall and others have proved that earthy substances, when fused under great pres ; are capable of taking on a crystalline texture; and obséivation demonstrates that even when not under great pressure, the ele- ments of feldspar, mica, amphigene, hornblende, pyroxene, aual- 106 y Sir A. Crichton on the [Fes. cime, and various other bodies, when fused by the heat of a volcano, unite to form these compounds, most of which appear. as perfect and beautiful crystals in the very substance and cavi« ties of the fused mass. Lavas, basalts, volcanic pitchstone, porphyries, &c. are full of such crystallized bodies, and throw a light by analogy on the formation of granite, inasmuch as they demonstrate the positive fact, that these crystalline substances, bearing a close resemblance to the ingredients of this rock, may be formed by igneous fusion; and when to this is added the results of Mr. Micherlich’s most ingenious experiments on the artificial production of pyroxene and mica by fusion, the evidence becomes almost complete. In the very substance and cavities of lavas, we meet with amphigene, harmatome, feldspar, icespar, Thomsonite, arago- nite, mica, amphibole, and augite, allin a crystallized state. It, therefore, appears probable, that these crystalline bodies were formed when the liquid lava allowed their eiements to arrange themselves according to their aftinities. To suppose the central part of the earth a mass of highly ignited liquid matter still existing ina state of fusion is not consistent with any thing that we know; but as the brilliant discoveries of Sir Humphry Davy in chemistry have demonstrated beyond the possibility of doubt that all the earths are metallic oxides, it is not incongruous to suppose that the nucleus of the earth was in toto, and still is in part, in a completely metallic state, and that the granite crust. of the earth was formed by a general and contemporaneous oxida- tion and consequent ignition of the whole of its surface. This doctrine would account in a natural manner for the earthy and alkaline oxides which are found in all the rocks and minerals which we suppose to be of igneous origin, or, in other words, for all those substances which have till of late been considered as distinct earths and alkalies. It accounts not only for the universality of the granite involucrum, but also for the similarity of its composition ; for in fact, the granite is to be considered as a mass of earthy oxides which were produced by the action of air and water, or watery vapours, on the metallic mass. When we reflect for a moment on the intense heat produced by the rapid oxidation of a very few grains of potassium or sodium, we may conceive, if imagination can go so far, the more intense heat of this globe during the simultaneous conflagration of the whole of its surface. What a state of chaos and disorder, from which was to spring a series of secondary causes, the agency of which gave birth to a succession of others, each operating for a time, and thus accounting for the whole order of the super- structure. , We must suppose the presence of water and atmosphere to explain the oxygenation of the metallic mass, and it is conform- 1825.] Climate of the Antediluvian World. 107 able to reason to admit that the great First Cause which distri- buted through the immensity of space the primordia of so many worlds, wouid employ the simplest, and at the same time the most effectual means for accomplishing the ultimate purpose and end. There is no necessity to imagine an ocean already formed full of saline parts which held the earths in solution, and whieh it was to deposit by subsequent evaporation. The purer the element, the more rapid and effectual would its first action be; but then as a necessary result, a crystallized coat being thus formed, a stop was put to the further conflagration and oxidation of the metallic nucleus, except in a few spots where rents and fissures occurred, which would admit either water or air to the central mass. The time was now arrived at which the element- ary water became fully saturated with every kind of soluble oxide, whether earthy or alkaline. Its impregnation with these bodies, therefore, was the immediate consequence of its first action on the metallic mass, and its subsequent deposits can be accounted for as a series of natural events. Before proceeding any further, I think it right to state, that this hypothesis concerning the cause of the central heat, was first started, as far as my reading goes, by James Smithson, Esq. who, in a short introduction to a paper delivered to the Royal Society on the Analysis of a Saline Substance from Vesuvius, published in vol. 103, part 2, of the Transactions of that Society, advanced the opinion as being founded on Sir H. Davy’s disco- veries ; he appears to have been satisfied with merely throwing out the idea, and to have totally abandoned its development: Mr. Smithson’s opinion and the grounds for it are so shortly but ~ pam expressed, that I request permission to insert them ere. “ The existence (says Mr.8.) in the skies of planetary bodies which seem to be actually burning, and the appearances of ori- ginal fire discernible on our globe, I have conceived to be mutually corroborative of each other ; and at the same time when no answers could be given to the most essential objections to the hypothesis, the mass of facts in favour of it fully justified, [ thought, the inference, that our habitation is an extinct comet or sun,” “ The mighty difficulties which formerly assailed this opinion, great modern discoveries have dissipated. Acquainted now that the bases of alkalies and earths are metals eminently oxida- ble, we are no longer embarrassed either for the pabulum of the inflammation, orto account for the products of it.” “ In the primitive strata, we behold the result of the combus- tion. In them we see the oxide collected on the surface of the calcining mass, first melted by the heat, then by its increase arresting further combination, and extinguishing the fires which generated it, and, in fine, becoming solid and crystallized 108 On the Climate of the Anted:luvian World. [Fes. over the metallic ball.” Mr. Smithson then adds, that he consi- ders, as I also do, the metallic nucleus which remains enclosed as the source of volcanos, and considering the high interest which attaches itself to their ejections, proceeds to the chemical analysis of the saline substance which forms the subject of his paper. Having done justice to the opinion of this learned and excel- lent chemist, I must observe that the notion of our planet having ever been either a comet or sun, is not only an unnecessary postulate, but a most improbable conjecture. Every observation made on comets strengthens the suspicion, that so far from being burning bodies, they are masses of transparent fluid having very little density ; and a sun, according to the received definition, being the centre of a system, cannot be a fit denomination for our earth. This doctrine has also been adopted by M. V. Buch. Whether it suggested itself to his mind as an original idea, I know not; but as he does not mention its concordance with the discovery of Sir H. Davy or Mr. Smithson’s hypothesis, I presume it must. That the opinion of so celebrated, experienced, acute, and ser- sible a geologist as M. V. Buch, must have great weight with all who are acquainted with his excellent writings, needs no comment.—(See his paper on Basaltic Islands in the Abhand- lungen der Koniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaflen von Berlin, Baud, iii.) The inferences which Mr. Micherlich draws from his ingenious and successful attempts to produce crystallized minerals by heat, lead him to a similar doctrine. He says, “ The artificial production of minerals by fusion puts beyond doubt the idea of our primitive mountains having been originally in a state of igneous fusion. This state gives a satisfactory explanation of the form of the earth, of the increase of temperature at great depths, of hot springs, and many other phenomena. At that time, during this high degree of temperature, the waters of the sea must have formed an elastic fluid around the globe, accord- ing to the experiments of M. Cagnard de la Tour.” (To be continued.) 1825.] Meteorological Table kept at Bushey Heath. 109 Artic.eE III. Meteorological Table kept at Bushey Heath in 1824. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Tur barometer and thermometer were observed at nine o’clock in the morning, at which hour the temperature of the external air is nearly the same as the mean temperature; see Columns 3 and 8. The coldest day was Jan. 14, thermometer 22°; and the hottest Sept. 2, thermometer 82°. Six’s. Le M | 2 I]. ie) ‘ S| i = g onths|Barom, Ther. | Rain. | Eyap. |Least.|Great.| Mean. |4 |7 | a |u| SZ> i a oe Tb a I ey) fe ay Ce ee eee Inches Inches. |Inches. | | Jan... .|29°629 | 36°6| 0°794| 1°85 [34-1 | 41-3) 37-7 0 3| 9 113.0 Feb.. .129°331 | 37°1| 7°734| 0°95 |35°0 | 43-2) 39:1 3| 0} 83 20 March, |29°319 | 38-8| 1:880| 2-07 | 35-1 | 45-4) 40-2 9] 0| 12 011) 0 April. .|29°386 44-3| 2116 | 3°32 [385 | 51-4) 449 4| 0} 8 1| 7| 0 May ..29-497 50°8| 3-850| 3:09 |45-2 | 57-0) 51-1 2) 0| 4|3 8 3 June. .|29-438| 55°6| 5-074] 3:19 | 49-9 | 62-9] 56-4 | 5| o| 6 0 5} 1 July . (29-657 | 61°6| 1-698] 4-42 | 55-2 | 69:7| 62-5 9} 0} 10, 2 7 1 August|29:441} 60-3) 2125] 3-31 | 54-7 | 64:5) 59-6 3| 1} 11| 6 21 0 Sept... .|29°108| 57-6) 3-663| 2°69 | 53-1 | 646) 58:8 5| 0| 12| 1, 4| 0 Oct... .|29:179| 49-3 3:107| 1°63 | 45-9 | 54-8) 50°3 | gi o} 14! 2 3] 0 Nov. ..|29°118| 45:4] 3-110} 1:46 | 41-6 | 50-4] 46-2 0| o| 17| 5 6) 0 Dec. . .|29°332| 40-2! 2-782] — | 362 | 45:2] 41-0 0 1| 0] {8 4 50 99-290| 48°133°933| — | 437 54-2| 48-9 | 8|67|1735] 4|129.28 73/5 June 24, the greatest degree of heat was 83°. Dec. 25, thermometer 54°. ARTICLE IV. On the Mathematical Principles of Chemical Philosophy. By the Rev. J. B. Emmett. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Great Ouseburn, Nov. 11, 1824. In several papers which have been made public through the medium of your journal, I have endeavoured to investigate some of the principles of chemical science, which are chiefly of a mechanical nature, and to show the agreement of the mechanical 101 Rev. J. B. Emmett on the [Fes. laws of corpuscular action with the Newtonian philosophy. In the present communication, more obscure phenomena, in which the agency of electricity, caloric, and attraction, are concerned, come under examination. The relative magnitudes of the particles of matter, and the ratio of their forces of attracticn, must first be determined. If the centripetal force of a particle of matter belong to its surface only, which I have supposed in the former communications, the weight of a particle of matter = F x D?4D being the diameter of the particle, F its force of attractiont. Therefore, atomic weight {Wt = F x D?..,..e0.e+000 (@) 4 Also F = po. ces eseeeeeeeeees (0) And Dz ny PL iat CY (c) Ifthe centripetal force be competent to the entire particle, the following formule result : SY er EDP a es 1g on Ww Also F = 5; oY (2) Ww And D= 2 Pott tee eseeeeee (3) Under a given volume, the number of particles is as aa the surface of each particle isas D*; therefore, the quantity of sur- ps Adie , eee face contained ina solid of given magnitude is as 5 ; hence, upon the first supposition, the weights of equal volumes, or specific - 2 F . SQ2 re gravity {8} is as a lee Boca. Devgoey eee: . ose 7 eee eel WPA 7 But upon the second supposition, F = 8.... (4) Make (6) = (e), Then \ =S8.D.D=\/¥. pi usiaial i ae Make (2) = (4), And © =S Dare In each case, therefore, the diameter ofa particle of a solid is as the cube root of the atomic weight, divided by that of the specific gravity. This is only an approximation to the truth; for the particles have to be supposed similarly situated ; and we 1825.] Mathematical Principles of Chemical Philosophy. 111 do not possess means of ascertaining their relative positions ; the corrections to be applied must be furnished by a knowledge of the laws of chemical action; so that this department of science is similarly situated with several parts of physical astro- nomy, in which the anomalies can be ascertained, and proper corrections made, only by means of formule derived from the primary laws. Make(c) = (f), Then vhs = i.F= wd ee hs ano (B) By help of the above formule, and others which are easily investigated, many properties of solids may be ascertained. These are properties which depend upon that force which produces the phenomena of gravitation ; and in order to ascer- tain to what extent this force is concerned in producing chemi- cal changes, or what relation it bears to those forces which are conspicuous in producing chemical actions, we must compare the results of experiment with the conclusions deduced from the above formule. The atomic diameters of the following solids are calculated from (A). Atomic diameter. Atomic weight. According to Gold yo GO80) BA hPs 24°838 Berzelius. Gaal (980s sta'e A061 Alias *12:9 Brande. IlVEr. sd ai, « KOI Ce. *13°3 Davy. iver, o1. 4 Oral “32.5 5 26°88 Berzelius. Copper. .... 42407 ...... *8°00 Davy. Copper. ...«3°986 ...... 4:00 Wollaston. TORE PS ss 14448 1.0.0, *6°85 Davy. oo ag S980 weve. 3°45. Wollaston. eae ey) 555 W943 .4 6. ts 249 Davy. hea oes. 63 3 A@48 ..ees. *12:905 Wollaston. fae aie ArG41 .. 685. *7:°31. Davy. Tin. oo... BAR ees.) «147. Berselias. BBC RS 6s WOR Vea es *4:4 Davy. Pine Se ans 4-848 ...... 80 Berzelius. Phosphorus.. 4217 ...... 13385 Davy. Phosphorus.. 4°61 ...... 1-74 Wollaston. Sulphur. .... 4°64] ...... 2:00 Wollaston. Caphon . 0. GODS Ae: 0:223 Sp. gr. Carbon”). Popa ave ee’ L526 Sper, In this table, I have calculated from several sets of atomic numbers ; for different chemists of equal eminence assign to the atoms of solids very different weights. 1 haye chosen the extremes, as it would be but tedious, and not at all satisfactory, to give the diameters calculated from many numbers differing 112 Rev. J. B. Emmett on the [Fes. only in decimals, without the means of knowing which are the true values. All chemists agree in the atomic number of carbon, but its specific gravity is unknown : that of different charcoals is very various ; I have, therefore, calculated the diameter of the atom of carbon from the greatest and least gravity of wood charcoal. The diamond might be substituted, but since it has never been proved to be the pure carbonaceous element, such substitution would be premature. In the following table, I have calculated the forces of attrac- tion {Ft by formula (e); F = D.S. 1 give the numbers as they result from the multiplication, Xe. of the different tables now in use; when the same can be extended to gaseous and liquid bodies, oxygen or hydrogen may be made the unit in all tables. Atomic weight. Galak Wc 2- pints se O D5 on. aucnins 24°838 Goldsiaiighawsiose POP CMo th wr ehatad *12°9 Sil Mts ats sieve ohne 62°6365 %. sake F1S3y 1 SUV CTagh «x entiss 2% G6:680B> ‘ss-aaae 26°88 COP PEN sie: edincaie SO°S5736» ivan ol BOO eoppere. ssa’ ¢ BQO 2B nea ae 4-00 Trost! wsquth sae 34°6054 ...... * O85 Troms ew aldioneieig hk +a AOOdy bt tare 3°45 Lead vrak bicae 6774530) Khind. « 24-9 © Peadsca ths Q% G50248 405 ek *12°95 Tin. eed bate 338793 sie lode’ *7°3] Fimtoieibe id wa rel 42°6904 ...... 14-7 Aine syd sroeye 2) PO Soe REBAR *4-4 AADG leet so Be 30980 Bees 8:00 Phosphorus. .. 4604. Sie Sas Phosphorus. .. 1597 aperi. J 1-74 Sulphur. ...... 9:2355. pees ts Rep B ie, Canhionn i i054 £5569) ees» 0:223 Sp. gr. Carbon plan oss PA ME - _1:616 Sp. er. On the second supposition; i.e. that the density remaining the same, the weight of a particle of matter is as the cube of its diameter, F will be proportional to the specific gravity of each solid. In these tables, the numbers marked with an asterisk are from the same tables as those of the gases and compounds in Table 4. From this table, the most inflammable solids appear to have the least force, or the least tendency to the earth. .The order (taking the numbers marked with the asterisk, and which-seem generally very consistent), is carbon, phosphorus, sulphur, zinc, 1825.) Mathematical Principles of Chemical Philosophy. 118 ‘tin, iron, copper, silver, lead, gold, which appears the precise order of inflammability, except with regard to lead, which should precede silver. : The attraction for oxygen follows the same order; carbon decomposes the phosphoric and sulphuric acids, and all the metallic oxides ; zinc precipitates all the metals below it in a metallic state ; tin and iron precipitate copper and the metals below it; copper precipitates silver and gold. Also the adher- ‘ence of oxygen to the bases is the same ; heat alone decomposes the oxides of gold and silver; but the oxygen is generally sepa- ‘rated with greater difficulty, as the metal is more remote from ‘gold in the table. Also those bodies which are capable of combining chemically are attracted to the opposite poles of the galvanic battery; this is supposed to arise from an electric energy belonging to every ‘particle of matter, and combination is explained upon the princi- ples of electrical attraction and repulsion (whether such electrical energies exist cannot, perhaps, be proved at present ; however, the term, electric energy, may be used with propriety, until one can be devised which is free from hypothetical views ; at present by electric energy, J mean simply to denote the fact, that the particles of bodies have determinate tendencies to the poles of the galvanic series, which differ in intensity in the bodies which tend to the same pole). Oxygen always tends to the positive pole, and appears to have the highest negative energy of all known bodies. If then we refer the inflammable bodies to oxygen, the most highly inflammable will differ most in their electric energy from it; i. e. the most inflammable bodies have the highest positive energy, or are most vigorously attracted by the negative pole. It appears from the table, that those bodies which have the smallest force of gravitation {F} are most remote from oxygen in their electric state, or are the most highly 9 the order will be as follows, each substance being more ighly positive than those which follow it ; 1. Carbon ;' 2. Phos- phorus; 3. Sulphur; 4. Zinc; 5. Tin; 6. Iron; 7. Copper; 8. Silver; 9. Lead; 10. Gold. In this list, the errors are not greater than might be expected; for we cannot assume any table of atomic numbers to be critically correct ; besides, for want of better data, the particles of all solids must be supposed to be similarly situated ; but I have demonstrated in a former paper, that the order of arrangement, whilst the particles remain in contact, may produce a change of one-fourth of the entire volume, therefore one-fourth of the’ specific gravity ; however, ‘since all the metals are fusible, the variation cannot amount to ‘nearly this quantity in any case. The results, however, are sufficiently exact to show, that the most inflammable or most highly positive substances, have the least tendency to the earth. Or if the second supposition be made, the same results nearly ; New Series, vou. 1. i 114 Rev. J. B. Emmett on the {Fes. for the specific gravity of zinc is 7; tin 7-3; iron 7:78; copper 8-8;. silver 10-5; lead 11:3; gold 19:°3,. With regard to carbon, hosphorus, and sulphur, perhaps there may be some doubt, n0wever, they appear to be more highly positive than the metals ; for (Phil. Trans. 1807) Sir H. Davy has proved that when a polished metallic plate is separated from contact with sulphur, the sulphur is positive, and the metal negative. Phos- phorus entirely precipitates most, if not all the metals from their acid solutions. Charcoal precipitates many by the assistance of light. From these circumstances, these bodies appear to possess a higher positive energy than the metals have. Should these data be proved to be correct, the following deductions may be supposed to be rendered highly probable :— | 1. The most inflammable solids have the least tendency to the earth, or the least density. r% 2. Those solids which have the greatest attraction for oxygen, have the least tendency to the earth, or the least density. 3. The most inflammable solids, or those which have the least tendency tothe earth, are the most highly electro-positive. Inflammability arises from the greatness of the attraction of a substance for oxygen (supposing the latter the supporter of com- bustion), and this force is proportional to the difference of their electrical energies; and the latter bears an evident relation to the force of gravitation. Some philosophers suppose the parti- eles of every body to possess an invariable electrical state, to which chemical attraction is ascribed ; all corpuscular attraction has been ascribed to it: if this be the case, no solid can. be -simple ; for bodies equally electrified with the same power seem to repel, and certainly do not attract each other; every simple or elementary body must be gaseous ; the cohesion of solids and adhesion of liquids, on this hypothesis, must be owing to the attraction existing between the different intensities of dissimilar particles ; therefore all solids and liquids must be compounds, which certainly has not been proved ; nor can it be disproved in the present state of science. Should this hypothesis be proved eorrect, would it not appear that electrical energy and.attraction of gravitation are the same power? That the united energies of ‘the particles of terrestrial matter constitute its attraction, and that the most highly positive bodies (which appear to have the least tendency to the earth) approach. most nearly to its mean energy.! Should this: hypothesis be proved to. be correct, from the manifest connexion between the powers, which has been cinted: out, these queries appear as if they would be answered inthe affirmative. In the explanation of the phenomena, how- ever, there is no absolute necessity to assume the existence.of electric energies ; for electricity may be regarded as a foreign agent; we may suppose, and upon very good grounds, that it acts only as a decomposing power, and that those bodies which have 1825.) Mathemawical Principles of Chemical Philosophy. 16 the greatest tendency to the earth, have the greatest tendency to the positive pole of the galvanic battery, and the contrary. dn this case, the attraction. of gravitation may be the sole force which produces chemical attraction, as well as cohesion, capil- lary attraction, adhesion of fluids, &c,; and that when the gal- vanic power is applied in effecting decomposition, - bodies pos: sessing the greatest force. of gravity attach themselves-to the positive, and those having the least to the negative pole, Upon this hypothesis, electricity is not an agent in producing attrac- tion; but, like caloric, its action is regulated by the attraction.of gravitation according to some determinate law, acting primarily as a power opposed to attraction, Although highly important, it is impossible to decide between these hypotheses, in the pres sent state of chemical science: the principal reason is, that:we are totally ignorant of that which we denominate the electric fluid ; whether it is a fluid or power sud generis, or a modification of others, is unknown; it has the power of attraction, perhaps.of repulsion, and when accumulated, it either produces, conveys, or excites heat; electric phenomena may be produced separate from chemical action, as. is the case in a large electric column, or galvanic battery, charged with pure water ; but whenever it produces chemical:changes, heat is excited, and decomposition goes forward in the battery; yet electricity excited by the com- mon electrical machine has the power of decomposition, and excites heat. These facts render it very doubtful whether. what / we denominate the electric fluid is the principal agent in produe- ing chemical changes ; however all phenomena may be equally explained, and all mvestigations carried forward without haying recourse to any hypothetical views, by making observed. facts the basis: of future research, viz. that the most’ inflammable solids haye the least tendency to the earth (), and the strong- est determination to the negative pole of the galvanic series. », In cases of simple combustion, it has been obseryed géne- rally, that those bodies which have the lighest atoms,: i. ein which the ratio of the oxygen to the base is the greatest, evolve the greatest quantity of heat during combustion ; the analogy may be clearly traced ; but if the forces. of ‘attraction. (F) be compared, those bases, whose force is the least, usually evolve most heat: the following table exhibits some cases :— ©. ; »> » When hydrogen is combined with oxygen, ' the Oxygen: Base a: 7524 1:0 .... F. base unknown, : Potassium :: 7°56; 37°5 .... 0-652, 5: * Sul hur ba 5 bl? 15:0 Oe i Se Bae 0°86 > ¢ ¢ Carbon (9220795 do) SIT ebewly > 91 O82 y ss Proniiesiea: Tiots 62W0hetaacis CORE : : Gold . wiht OF Oiawks cdi) Pibotudon Mereury: 2:°'7'6::2: 190-0 ilo. lo Feber ate a: 12 - 116 - Rev. J. B. Emmett on the [Fes. ~~ "This is only an approximation, an analogy which may here- after lead ‘to important results ; for the quantity of heat evolved depends upon the quantities of heat contained.in the bodies, and the quantity remaining in the compound, which will gene- rally be greater when it is a gas or liquid, than a liquid or solid. The union of bases with chlorine, iodine, sulphur, and some others, present analogous phenomena of combustion, and the same analogy may be clearly traced. Since the atomic diameters of potassium and of carbon are uncertain, their force is doubtful; the former certainly is capa- ble of existing in a state of much greater density than it pos- sesses in its metallic state, as the great density of pure potash ‘demonstrates: the real density of carbon is also unknown; it certainly is much greater than is generally supposed ; for when the hghtest charcoal in fine powder, or lamp-black, is perfectly mixed with water, and boiled so as to expel all the air contained in the interstices, it rapidly sinks in the liquid, even if a consi- derable quantity of gum, or saline matter, be contained ; yet chemists state its gravity to be about 0:223. Besides, the yaethod by which the specific gravity of porous solids is usually found introduces very great errors; for by reason of capillary action, the mercury employed will. never enter the pores and interstices of porous solids; besides the capillary interstices of all light porous solids are filled with air in a considerable state of condensation, which keeps the mercury at a considerable ‘distance from contact with the solid ; even water does not readily enter.- When the specific gravity of a light porous solid has to be taken, it should be immersed in water, or any suitable liquid except mercury, and either boiled or exposed to a vacuum for some time, by which means. it will be freed from air : the error introduced by allowing the air to remain, makes the gravity of a charcoal, in reality heavier than water, only *223. | In all analytical researches, chemical tables should be com- puted for weights and magnitudes proportional to those of the particles of bodies ; for in combination and decomposition, the quantities are proportional to the atomic weights ; an ultimate atom possesses all the properties. which belong to a body, and the capacity for heat is as the capacity of one particle multiplied into the number of particles ; therefore the capacity of an atom of any body is the real representative of the capacity of that substance ; the expansion of a body being caused by the separa- tion of its particles, the separation which takes place between two adjacent particles is the true ratio of the expansion. The same may be extended to all other tables. In the following table I have computed the atomic capacities of a number of substances. The atomic capacity = capacity of a given weight ~ atomic weight.. The former numbers are taken from Dalton’s 1825.] Mathematical Principles of Chemical Philosophy. 117 System of Chemical Philosophy; the atomic weights from Brande’s Manual; the weight of oxygen 1s 1. Atomic capacity. Atomic weight. Hydrogen. ........-. 2°85 Oxygen. .......--665 4-75 Carbonic acid........ 0-414 ie ERE ae 2 1:37 Aqueous vapour...... i 6 MRT OL), Coie oar t Onis 3's 1-13 EE oe Met ee 1-02 Ee Oe ge gk CE ee 1:06 Carbonate of lime .... 1°7 Hydrate of lime ...... 1:16 Litharge ..........+- 0-754 Mealenad Oo ei 2 5084 0°849 Carbonate of lead... .. 1112 Vitrified oxide of lead. 0-68 Oxide of tin. ........ 0°822 Oxide of zinc ........ 0:74 Brown oxide of copper. 2°27 Oxide of antimony.... 1:817 Red oxide ofiron. .... 1°66 Goldie. o.oo as 1B4TS SS 24°83 ou te gael aie I ak O-G45 2s tas sok *12°9 Sapa se tai 1064 Ye. sooo *13:3 Rarer Se ee ee DVB ane ee ak 26:88 Mereury 20. 000. es. WOO. Peele — Pepper ae. 2s ORNS ere: *8:00 Goppere OR esis ee ee ae 4:00 paaeere RAMS ORT LG OBGH eee *6§°85 Pete Oe ee ee eer Te O448- acca. 3°45 aes aiealy Seka va Oa Seti ss 24:9 Reaay soa Fi OblSies nic sae *12-95 Me res k o. ent ats Oalid tae, *7-31 FS Ste eet eee he U0 >! SAAT a es 14:7 Aine. : AA eae Ore ye AO Sos we *4-4 PCP OL cpt aor ae sake Ot UF ai. ewe es 8:0 MOEA Sie ie case ee OPGB) e hie ci les ais 2°0 oreod {ose peace. 07197 Micker rth ke 0°37 PUAUNORY = op s's sos 0°36 "ABISIUEN os", hee oc tin 0°35 In this table, the asterisk denotes the atomic number which is contained in the table whence the atoms of the other substances are derived. é The table represents the ratios of the real capacities of bodies THE oe Rev. I. B.-Emmett on theo TR ES. for heat’; and if we knew the ratios of the absolute quantity, of heat contained in bodies, we should: be: able to estimate- the real quantity evolved during combustion and chemical changes ; however as the-heat evolved or absorbed depends primarily upon capacity, the table furnishes approximations which-probably do not differ much from the truth, and leads to several important conclusions. An example or two will show its application. Atomic capacity of carbon, .......... <= 0°197 + capacity of two atoms of oxygen, .. = 9-500 9-697 — atomic capacity, carbonic acid........ 0-414 .. caloric evolved by the combustion of one atom of carbon ......... Pe eeeere = 9°283 Atomic capacity of hydrogen .....,.. = 2°85 + atomic capacity of oxygen,...... ae 4:75 7:60 — atomic capacity of aqueous vapour.. = 1:75 .. caloric evolved by the combustion ofone ~ eration of hydrogen tyes « ,'s'os'es'ss Fos = &85°) La a Atomic capacity of carbonic acid. .... = 0°414 ++ atomic capacity of lime. .......... TN 665 1-474 — atomic capacity of carbonate of lime = 1-700 | — 0:226 or 0:226 of caloric are absorbed. From the table, the most inflammable bodies appear to have the smallest capacities, and may therefore be supposed to con-~ tain the smallest quantity of caloric: thus oxygen has the greatest capacity : the capacity of hydrogen is large, when com- pared with that of the metals ; since, however, it is highly elas- tic, its capacity must be. much greater than it would be if hydrogen were reduced to the solid state. Gold, silver, and mercury, have a larger capacity than copper; copper than iron, tin, or zinc ; these larger than that of sulphur or carbon... Hence those bodies which possess the highest electro-negative energy, or are-attraeted most powerfully by the positive pole, or which have the greatest tendency to the earth, have. the greatest attraction for caloric. These facts may be applied in investiga- tion without reference to any hypothetieal views,. In compounds 1825.] Mathematical Principles of Chemical Philosophy. 119 containing oxygen, the atomic capacity is usually greater than that of the base; for instance, the oxides of tin, lead, copper, &c. have a greater capacity than the metals themselves pos- sess ; the increase is not in proportion to the quantity of oxygen; the reason is, that oxygen does not exist in the same state of density in all solid oxides. If m = weight of base n = weight of yt in aepmpound. a = sp.gr. base. b = sp. gr. oxygen as it exists in the compound. ¢ = sp. gr. compound. NS == = sp. gr. of the oxygen Tequired. Bells eee ee See (m + n).a@.—™-C Calculating according to this formula, the sp. gr. of oxygen in glass of antimony is 2°21; in phosphoric acid 5:1?; in oxide of arsenic 1-4; in red lead 3-2; in black oxide of manganese 3°1 or 2:7 in red copper ore 1:47; in iron mica 1°36. Now the most highly electro-negative bodies, or those solids which have the greatest tendency to the earth, have the greatest attraction for caloric, and the least for oxygen: therefore their capacities for heat are the greatest, and the oxygen is retained with the least force; therefore in the most highly electro-negative combusti- bles, the oxygen retains more caloric than in the electro-posi-+ tive, is most easily disengaged, and their oxides act powerfally as supporters of combustion. Thus the oxides of gold, silver, mercury, peroxides of lead and manganese, easily inflame phos horus, oxygenate sulphur, and produce other effects which prove that the oxygen retains very much caloric, and it is so easily disengaged, that the three first are reduced by heat alone, and the other two, by the same treatment, part with one atom of oxygen ; while the oxides of iron, tin, zine, and particularly of potassium, calcium, hydrogen, and other highly electro-positive inflammables, produce no euch effects, and are reduced with difficulty, requiring thé assistance of other inflammables in addi- tion to heat. When we are possessed of accurate tables of the électrical powers of all the bodies which are supposed to be simple, and of the primary compounds of the capacities for heat, niore accurate than any at present existing, and of the true specific gravities, we may expect to arrive at conclusions highly important to science, and which will establish chemical philo- sophy upon a mathematical basis : at present we cannot expeot more than the developement of some of the primary laws of action. ; é “The atomic expansions of solids aré in the order of their fusi« bilities ; they are exhibited in the, following teble: the atomic expansion = expansion of equal lengths atomio diameter, 120 Rev. J. B. Emmett on the “ [Fes: Atomic expansion. are 2, PRR AT PP ARR PLT 0°56384 OS RS RS PARRA R 0°5685 Bopper io 0s2'. 24 PPR ERP OS: 07644 Siver sk oe Mes Reed ea eant 1:0427 Thy SOS IO AT a eee 11600 Pirie. 2002 OI GR ee 1234 Ledd:.. epee ees 1389 In this table, the atomic diameters are those marked with the asterisk in Table 1. The order corresponds with that of their fusibilities as nearly as can be expected ; for finding the expan- sion of the metals is an operation of the greatest delicacy, and one in which a small error may be committed by the most skilful 3 f atomic weight specific gravity? and in the calculations, until all the primary laws are fully deve- loped, we have to suppose the particles of all solids to be simie. larly situated, which certainly is not the case, and in solids, the error may amount to one-fourth the gravity ; but since the metals are all-fusible, and with the exception of few at a moderate tem- perature, compared with the total scale of heat which can be produced, the error will not be so great. Ifthe table be extended to silex and other highly infusible substances, the general law is very apparent. é _ Upon the same principles many other properties of bedies may be investigated and phenomena explained ; for example, it a heated body be coated with different substances, the layer being so thin as to produce no sensible effect by its conducting power, the radiating power will be inversely as F'; for the caloric is retained by the force of the surface only, and this power has been shown to be greatest in the most highly electro-negative bodies, or those which have the greatest tendency to the earth; and to this power that of radiation is inversely proportional : this accords very well with experiment ; a heated clean metallic surface has a radiating power of 12; covered with a thin coat of glue, a highly positive body, it is 80; coated with lamp- black 100. The reflecting powers of polished metals appear to. depend upon the density of the caloric contained in them, i, e. to the capacity (or rather the specific heat, if it were known) of equal volumes. The capacities of equal volumes are, iron 1:00, brass -97, silver -84, tin -51, lead 45, which numbers do, not greatly differ from their powers of reflecting heat. The conducting powers of solids for heat depend primarily upon the attraction and the capacity for heat; this power is nearly as the force F x capacity of equal volumes, if equal lengths be used; by computation the powers are, gold 75, experimenter: besides, the atomic diameter = 1825.] Mathematical Principles of Chemical Philosophy. 121 silver 43, copper 38, iron 34, lead 24, zinc 23, tin 17, carbon about -3Y; but in order to compute correctly the conducting power of bodies, their radiating power must be experimentally ascertained; because it enters into the calculation. The law according to which caloric is conducted is easily determined ; it is this:—Ifa solid rod be heated at one end, and distances be taken in arithmetical progression, the excess of temperature above that of the surrounding medium will decrease at those distances in geometrical progression. The results of these investigations I consider as approxima- tions whereby the general laws of chemical action are developed ; and until these shall be correctly known, the corrections which the numbers require cannot be made. By electric energy, I mean no more than the fact, that bodies have definite tendencies to the poles of the galvanic series. If the particles of all bodies possess definite electrical states, the relation of the force of gravitation to electrical energy is clear; but this would give rise to results which are inconsistent with the known principles of philosophy ; for it would follow that no solid can be simple, which may be the case; but since such hypothesis is totally unsupported by any evidence whatever, it cannot be adniitted : also two masses of the same matter would be incapable of attracting each other, the contrary of which is fully proved by the experiments of Mr. Cavendish, and more decisive evidence cannot be desired : besides, if two bodies, A and B, both posi- tive, attract a negative body, C, the force of A being greater than that of B; A and B will also attract each other, and the force will be proportional to the difference of their electric state ; whereas in all cases the force is proportional to the quantities of matter : these phenomena militate against the hypothesis of the existence of electric energies. But if we suppose such a rela- tion to exist between gravitation and electricity, that those bodies which have the greatest tendency to the earth are most powerfully attracted by the positive pole, all the phenomena admit of perfectly easy solution, and by electric energy nothing more will be meant than the relative tendencies of bodies to the poles of the battery, which is the sense in which I have used the term; and upon this hypothesis, chemical attraction, as well as cohesion, capillary attraction, adhesion, and gravitation, will depend upon, and be determined by the quantity of matter, to which there is evidence, that the phenomena of electric action may be reduced. I remain, Gentlemen, yours, &c, J. B, Emmett. 122). Major Macintosh on some Tumuli _ ‘Fes. Oe ‘ ‘ ‘ . ¢ s «a . to 3 at ARTICLE V. An Account of some Tumulinear the Falls of Niagara. By Major A. F. Macintosh. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Asout three miles from the falls of Niagara, near the house of Sir P. Maitland, there is a ridge of rising ground, which commands an extensive view of Lake Ontario and the surround- ing country, which is for the most part in this vicinity covered with wood. On the most elevated part of this ridge, which is now called Mount Dorchester, about two years ago, a large oak tree, measuring at the base five feet in circumference, was blown down, and an opening made in the soil by the roots of the tree being torn from the earth, which exposed to view a quantity of human bones. The person who discovered that the accident had happened caused an excavation of about ten feet in diameter to be made, and found a deep stratum of human bones regularly disposed, and forming a vast number of perfect skeletons. The wrist bones of many of the skeletons had a species of armlets upon them; the head of a tomahawk, several Indian. pipes, beads, and other ornaments, were also found interred amongst the skeletons ; and the conjecture suggested by the discovery is, that the remains in question ‘are those of some of the abort- ginal inhabitants of the country who had fallen in some sangui- nary conflict on this spot, and found their graves upon the field of battle. radatnes The most interesting part of the discovery, however, consists in the circumstance of many large conch shells, some of them bored so as to be used as a rude kind of musical instrument; having been found disposed under the heads of several of the skeletons. Several fragments. of the shells were also found near the upper parts of the bodies, and seem to have been worn upon the shoulders and arms, either as armour, or for the pur- pose of ornament, as they are perforated with holes, which probably were intended to put fastenings into to. secure them upon the person.. I was assured that these shells were of a species which is only found on the western coast of America; and:on the shores.of the neighbouring islands within the tropics. On seeing the shells, I immediately recollected that in the Museum at New York, there is a dress which belonged to the son of the King of Owhehee, which was brought to Europe originally by one of Capt. Cook’s vessels, and that upon the same dress there is a conch shell of the same species of the 1825.] _ near the Falis of Niagara. 123 Niagara ones, which forms a very conspicuous ornament. Does not an investigation of this subject promise to throw some light on the history of the original population of the American conti- nents, and the islands of the Pacific? The spot where these remains were found bears every appear- ance of having been an Indian encampment. The ground on the side of the Lake, which is distant about seven miles, seems to have been rendered steep by artificial means ; and Mr. Ror- bach, who first discovered the bones, says, that when the ground is freed from the leaves of trees, which are every where strewed over it in great thickness, that holes resembling the marks of pickets may be seen surrounding a space of several acres. We should hence infer, that those warnors who fought with the tomahawk, and who used shells as musical instruments, and as defensive armour, were not ignorant of the art of war, so far as the construction of an extensive encampment defended by works possessing some pretensions to regular fortification, oes. plea h hney. es Where the first excavation was made, there can be little doubt that a tumulus had originally been constructed over the bones, as within a short distance of the first opening, four heaps resembling tumuli have been opened, and found to contain bone and ornaments of the kind which I have described. » The people in the neighbourhood have carried away many of the skulls, particularly the entire ones. I, however, succeeded, with the assistance of Mr. Rorbach, in collecting some of the most perfect of the remains, and took measures to insure ‘their reaching Europe in safety, intending them for a scientific friend, from whose knowledge on such subjects, it may be hoped, that interesting -results are to be looked for, should he be afforded the opportunity of examining these relics of an ancient and: obscure period. - ~ From the side of the hill rises a fountain of the most transpar- ent water, in quantities sufficient to turn the wheel of a mill which is situated at a short distance; this is the inva- riable attendant of such tumuli, whether they occur in Britain, Seandinavia, or in Asia; and I could not help regretting that the tumuli of Niagara had not been inspected by some of those literary characters who have exhibited so much learning, and brought to light so much interesting and curious knowledge in their treatises upon the barrows and tumuli of Europe, Asia, and Africa, as undoubtedly those at Niagara, when taken together, with the remains of a similar character, which Baron Humboldt describes as existing in Mexico, might be themeans of throwing light upon a period of the history of the world, where records entirely fail us, and which seems buried in the darkness of the most remote antiquity, ‘nll iy ah 124 M. Berzelius on Fluoric Acid. (Fes: List of the Articles sent to England by Major Macintosh. A skull, and three thigh bones. A brass kettle. A sheet of metal. . Several strings of coloured glass beads. —_- Some strings of beads, apparently made of shells and bones. The head of a pipe. . - A conch shell entire. - Several pieces of the same kind of shell shaped into orna- ments. . ArticLe VI. On Fluoric Acid, and its most remarkable Combinations. By Jac. Berzelius. (Continued from vol. viii. p. 457.) Silcated Fluate of Potash—When this salt is precipitated from a weak acid, the liquid does not immediately become turbid, but the salt which exists diffused through it in very. minute particles, communicates to it the property of reflecting: the prismatic colours: by degrees these subside and form’ a transparent layer, which still exhibits a similar play of colours. While moist, this salt presents the appearance of a gelatinous mass, but is converted into a fine, soft, white powder by desic- cation. Itis very difficultly soluble in water, but not so much so that it can in every case be employed advantageously in making a quantitative determination of potash. It is rather more soluble in boiling than in cold water, and if a saturated solution be evaporated, the salt may be obtained in small crys- tals, which are sometimes rhombs, and sometimes regular six- sided prisms. The crystals are anhydrous. Ina low red heat it melts, and if the temperature be augmented, it boils and gives off fluate of silica, but a very high temperature is necessary to produce complete decomposition. In the open air, fluate of silica is disengaged before the salt begins to undergo fusion. If the ignition be performed in an open platinum crucible, parti- cularly if the heat of a spirit lamp be employed, a portion of the fluate is decomposed at the instant of its disengagement by the circumambient vapour of water, and the neutral fluate which remains at the conclusion of the decomposition is found to be mixed with silica. Hence, when I wished to ascertain the weight of the residual salt, I always placed the platinum crucible containing the silicated fluate within two others, and heated. it in a charcoal fire: in these experiments, the interior of the first 1825.] M. Berzelius on Eluoric Acid. 125 or outermost crucible, and even of the second, was uniformly coated thickly with silica. This salt is not altered by a solution of potash or of carbonate of potash in the ordinary temperatures, but if the mixture be boiled, carbonic acid gas is disengaged, and the whole of the salt passes into solution. In a boiling temperature, the liquid amay be concentrated without any deposition ensuing. These effects, however, are not the result of mere solution; for the salt is decomposed, and the silica gelatinizes in proportion as the liquid cools. Gay-Lussac and 'Thenard have stated, that a subsalt consisting of silica, potash, and fluoric acid, may be formed by treating the ordinary silicated fluate with caustic potash ; but the precipitate obtained in this manner is nothing else than a mixture of silica with the undecomposed salt. Silicated Fluate of Soda.—This salt, whose existence has been denied by Gay-Lussac and Thenard, is almost identical, both in its general appearance and in its chemical characters, with the silicated fluate of potash. It is, however, heavier, and forms larger granules, on which account it subsides more rapidly in the liquid from which it is precipitated; and I have never observed it, when in this state, reflecting the prismatic colours. It has a gelatinous appearance while moist, but is converted into a fine mealy powder by desiccation. It is much more soluble in water than the salt of potash: it is also more soluble in boil- ing than in cold water, and its solubility is not increased by the presence of an excess of acid. When a saturated solution of the salt is evaporated in a moderate heat, it shoots in small shining crystals, which appear to be regular six-sided. prisms, with transversely truncated extremities. The crystals contain no chemically combined water. This salt is acted upon by heat in a similar manner with the preceding, only it retains its excess of acid with much less obstinacy. ‘The introduction of some bits of carbonate of ammonia into the crucible facilitates the dissipation of the last portions of this excess, but in this case the neutral salt which remains is always mixed with silica. Silicated fluate of lithia is almost insoluble in water. Its solu- bility is augmented by an excess of acid, and it may. be obtained by this means in small transparent crystals, which are occa- sionally six-sided prisms, but which have evidently a rhomboid for their basis. hen heated, it melts, and obstinately retains its fluate of silica. Silicated Fluate of Ammonia.—This salt may be formed in the humid way by saturating the liquid acid with ammonia, but the operation is attended with difficulty, because the alkali, even when very dilute, has the property of decomposing the fluate of silica. In the dry way it may be easily prepared by distilling a mixture of the silicated fluate of potash or soda with sal,ammo- niac. Thus obtained, it constitutes an uncrystalline mass, but 126 M. Berxelius on Fluoric Acid. [Pes if it be dissolved in water, and the solution committed to sponta» neous evaporation, it shoots in large transparent crystals, The primary form of its crystal is the rhomboid, and, like the preced- ing salts, it has a strong tendency to assume the form of a short six-sided prism. This salt is very soluble in water. Ignited, it decrepitates slightly, and sublimes unaltered; and a glass retort may be employed for this experiment without undergoing corro- sion. Ammonia decomposes the aqueous solution of this salt, but if the filtered liquid (which still retains some silica in solu- tion) be evaporated, a certain quantity of the alkali is volatilized, and a portion of the double salt is regenerated, in consequence of the silica being redissolved by the disengaged acid. it ~».Gay-Lussac and J. Davy have shown that the gaseons fluate of silica and ammoniacal gas occasion mutual condensation, when mixed in the proportion of two volumes of the former to one volume of the latter. The product is a white pulverulent salt, which may be sublimed unaltered, so long as it is kept free from moisture. When put into water, it is decomposed, and the silica evaporates in a gelatinous state, according to J: Davy; —a proof that it had been chemically combined with the other ingredients of the salt. This compound appears, therefore, to consist of an atom of anhydrous fluate of ammonia and an atom of anhydrous silicate of ammonia; and it probably belongs to the class of salts styled fluosilicates. ost . Silicated fluate of barytesis best obtained by mixing a solution of muriate of barytes with the liquid acid: after a few moments it precipitates in minute crystals, and the liquid contains disen- aged muriatic acid. It is so little soluble in water that nearly the whole of the barytes may be in this manner precipitated, and its solution is not sensibly promoted by the excess of muriatic acid. Its crystals are prisms, with very long acuminations. It contains no water of crystallization. When heated, it: is easily decomposed, and there remains neutral fluate of barytes. Silicated fluate of lime may even be obtained by digesting a mixture of pulverised fluor spar and silica in muriatic acid; but the most certain method of preparing it is to add carbonate of lime to the liquid acid so long as it continues to dissolve. \ This salt is insoluble in water, unless when assisted by an excess of acid, and it crystallizes as this excess evaporates. The crystals, which are well characterized, appear to be four-sided prisms with obliquely truncated terminations. When digested in water, this salt is partially decomposed ; fluate of lime and silica bein precipitated, while the liquid silicated fluoric acid which is in this manner disengaged, retains the remainder of the double salt in solution. as bP » Silicated fluate of strontian is easily soluble in water, contain- ing an.excess of acid, and may be obtained in large crystals ‘by evaporation These crystals are short four-sided slightly oblique 1825:] MW. Berzelius on EFluoric Acid, 127 prisms, and have a two-sided acumination which rests upon the opposite acute angles of the prism. They. contain water of crystallization, and become enamel white and opaque when heated. Water decomposes this salt, but to a much less extent than the preceding. The difference between the properties of the salts of barytes and strontian furnishes an easy and. exact pracess, both for distinguishing these two earths from one another, and for separating them when in a state of mixture. For this purpose, a solution of the earths in muriatic or acetic acid is to be mixed with liquid silicated fluoric acid, and the amount of the barytes is to be determined from the weight of the precipitated double salt. A very small quantity of sulphuric acid precipitates the barytes which remains in. solution without acting upon the strontian, and by evaporating the filtered liquid to dryness, and decomposing the residue by sulphuric acid, the latter earth may be obtained in the state of sulphate. Siheated Fluate of Magnesia.—A transparent, yellowish, gummy looking mass, easily soluble in water. Silicated Fluate of Alumina.—A clear colourless jelly, which, when dried, splits into fragments, and appears yellowish, but still retains its transparency. It dissolves slowly but completely in water. ty » Sthcated fluate of glucina is readily soluble in water, and is converted by evaporation into a colourless syrup, which finally becomes white and opaque. Its taste is astringent, without any admixture of sweetness. | ; Sthcuted fluate. of yttria is insoluble in water, but dissolves in an excess of acid. } _ Silrcated fluate of zirconia dissolves very easily in water, and may be obtained by evaporation in white crystals, which have ‘the lustre of mother-of-pearl. The solution becomes opaque when boiled, but the greater part of the salt continues dissolved. Stlicated fluate of oxide of xinc is obtained by dissolving zinc ‘mm the liquid acid. It is, extremely soluble in water, and is deposited from a concentrated solution in crystals which are generally equiangular three-sided prisms. The crystals are not altered by exposure to the air. » Siheated fluate of oxidule of manganese is very soluble in water, and crystallizes on, cooling from a concentrated solution in long thin regular six-sided prisms, Sometimes it is obtained: b spontaneous evaporation in very short six-sided prisms, whic distinctly indicate the rhomboid as their.basis. The crystals have a'just. perceptible tinge of amethyst red. It is converted Ry ignition mto the simple fluate without losing its crystalline orm. } - Silicated Fluate of Oxidule of Iron-—When a solution of this salt, prepared by dissolving iron filings in the liquid acid, is allowed. to. evaporate in a capsule of, metallic iron, it shoots in 128 M, Berzelius on kluoric Acid. [Fes. bluish green coloured regular six-sided prisms; but the liquid is “converted into a dry mass so soon after it begins to crystallize, that, unless we operate upon large quantities, it is difficult to obtain the salt in perfect crystals. A second crystallization ‘renders the salt paler coloured and more regularly formed. I have remarked that all the coloured salts belonging to this class have a deeper colour than usual when crystallized from a solu- tion containing an excess of acid; but this difference in appear- ‘ance does not seem to be accompanied by a corresponding difference in their composition. _ Silicated Fluate of Oxide of Iron.—A semitransparent, pale ‘flesh coloured mass. It dissolves in water, and the solution is faintly coloured. Silicaled fluate of oxide of cobalt and of oxide of nickel are easily soluble in water, and crystallize m forms which are exactly similar to those of the salts of manganese and iron. The crystals are rhomboids, but pass into regular six-sided prisms, whenever they are in a situation to elongate themselves. The salt of cobalt is red; that of nickel green. Silicated fluate of oxide of copper is easily soluble in water, and shoots by spontaneous evaporation in transparent blue coloured crystals, which are more determinately rhomboidal than the preceding, but which have still a decided tendency to ‘become six-sided prisms. The crystals effloresce externally ‘and become opaque when exposed to the air, and their colour at the same time changes to a light blue. The remarkable coincidence between the crystalline forms of the greater number of the salts formed by the preceding isomer- phous metallic oxides, led me to suspect that they might all ‘contain a similar number of atoms of water of crystallization. 1 examined, therefore, the salts of oxidule of manganese and ef the oxides of zinc, cobalt, nickel, and copper, and found that they all contain a quantity of water of crystallization whose oxy- gen is seven times that of the base. The fatiscerated salt of oxide of copper still retains a quantity of water whose oxygens five times that of the oxide of copper. Stlicated fluate ie oxidule of copper has a red colour, and closely resembles the corresponding simple fluate both in exter- nal appearance, and in ‘the decomposition which it sustains through the combined action of air and moisture. In a high ‘temperature it melts, and loses its fluate of silica. Salicated Fluate of Oxide of Lead.—A transparent gummy- ooking’ mass, soluble in water, and possessing the peeuhar taste of the salts of lead. - . Sthicated fluate of oxide of cadmium is extremely soluble in water, and crystallizes: in long colourless prisms, which contain water of crystallization. Silicated fluate of oxidule of tin, hike the preceding, is very 1825.] M. Berzelius on Fluoric Acid. 129 soluble in water, and crystallizes in long prisms ; but it is par- tially. oxidized, and decomposed during evaporation; and the oxide thus formed precipitates in the state of a silicate. Stlicated Fluate of Oxidule of Chromium.—A green coloured uncrystallizable transparent mass, which deliquesces to a liquid when exposed to the air. _ Silicated fluate of oxide of antimony is easily soluble in water containing an excess of acid. By slow evaporation it crystal- lizes in prisms, which, after being dried, rapidly fall to powder. Silicated jfluate of oxidule of mercury may be prepared by digesting newly prepared and still moist oxidule in the liquid acid. it is by this means converted into a pale straw yellow coloured powder. The liquid, particularly when it contains an excess of acid, retains a portion of the salt in solution, which it deposits in small crystals when evaporated. The solution of this salt has a weak metallic taste, and is copiously precipitated by muriatic acid. Silicated fluate of oxide of mercury is soluble only in an excess of acid, and crystallizes by evaporation in small yellowish coloured or almost colourless needles. When put into water, this salt is partly converted into a yellow coloured insoluble sub- salt, while the remaining portion is held in solution by the dis- engaged acid. When ignited, gaseous fluate of silica is in the first place expelled, and the fluate which remains undergoes decomposition in the manner already described. The yellow insoluble subsalt is blackened by ammonia ; but its colour is again rendered lighter by the addition of water. Silicated fluate. of oxide of silver is a very deliquescent salt, which may, be obtained in white granular crystals from a solu- tion concentrated to the consistence of a syrup. A small quan- tity, of ammonia precipitates from the solution a light yellow coloured subsalt, which, when added in excess, it redissolves, and leaves a silicate of oxide of silver. Silicated Fluate of Oxide of Platinum.—A yellowish brown coloured salt, very soluble in water. When evaporated to a tenacious syrup, and in this state digested in water, it leaves a brown coloured subsalt undissolved. Fluosilicates.—I shall hereafter discuss the different points of view under which both the foregoing series of compounds, and those which still remain to be described, may be regarded. At present I shall merely add, that however much we may at first feel disposed to do so, the silica cannot in these compounds be considered to act as an acid but as a base, and consequently that the name of silicate when applied to them implies an idea which their nature does not authorise. The mineral kingdom, however, furnishes us with examples of compounds in which a fluate is actually associated with a silicate, and for which there- fore the appellation of fluosilicate would be sufficiently appro- New Series, vou, 1x. K 180 M. Berzelius on Fluoric Acid. [Fes. priate. Thus the topaz consists of an atom of subfluate of alumina combined with nine atoms of silicate of alumina ; and pycmte, of an atom of the neutral fluate combined with nine atoms of the silicate. During the decomposition of the silicated fluates by the caus- tic alkahes, particularly by ammonia, it is possible that other fluosilicates may be produced, in which the relative proportions of the fluate and silicate may vary with the different circum- stances under which the compounds -are formed. I have not investigated this subject so minutely as it deserves, and indeed I have confined myself to the decomposition of the silicated fluate of lime by ammonia, as being that of which an accurate knowledge is at present most interesting, because the preci- pitates which result from this decomposition occasionally make their appearance during the analysis of minerals. A mixture of finely pulverized fluor spar and of ignited silica in the state in which it is obtained from the decomposition of the fluate of silica, was digested with muriatic acid in a closely stopped glass vessel, from which no vapours of fluate of silica could escape. At the end of 48 hours, the clear liquid was mixed with ammonia, and the precipitate was washed and ignited. Decomposed by sul- phuric acid, this precipitate gave off gaseous fluate of silica, which was received in carbonate of soda, and left 136 per cent. of sulphate of lime. The alkaline solution was evaporated to dryness in a moderate heat ; and the residue, being digested in water, left 22-11 per cent. of silica. The remaining liquid was saturated with acetic acid, exposed to the air for 24 hours, in order to ensure the dissipation of the carbonic acid, mixed with ammonia, and precipitated in a stoppered vessel with muriate of lime. The fluate of lime thus obtained weighed, after ignition, 78 per cent. The precipitate was composed, therefore, of neutral fluate of lime and of silica in the proportions requisite to form with fluoric acid the liquid silicated fluoric acid. Whether the silica actually existed in a state of chemical union is doubt- ful, but it appears to be rendered probable by the fact, that the neutral alkaline fluates are capable of dissolving silica in a red heat without undergoing decomposition. Another portion of the same solution in muriatic acid was mixed with muriate of lime, and decomposed by ammonia. The precipitate, analyzed in the same manner as_ the preceding, yielded 150 per cent. of sulphate of lime = 62°25 per cent. of hime, 19 per cent. of silica, and 65-67 per cent. of fluate of lime = 18-04 of fluoric acid. It appears, therefore, to have been composed of an atom of bisilicate and three atoms of fluate of hme. The precipitate formed by ammonia in a solution of apo- phyllite in cold nitric or muriatic acid, and which many chemists have mistaken for alumina, possesses an exactly similar compo- sition. Ifthe mineral be dissolved with the assistance of heat, 1825.] Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations, 131 silicated fluoric acid is volatilized ; neither do we obtain the compound by evaporating the acid solution to dryness, because when a solution of fluor spar and silica in an excess of muriatic acid is evaporated, there remains nothing except muriate of lime. The double silicated salts of those bases from which ammonia separates a portion of their fluorie acid would probably give precipitates with that alkali, in which a different relation would exist between the proportions of the silicate and fluate. (To be continued.) ArticLe VII. Astronomical Observations, 1824 and 1825. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. Bushey Heath, near Stanmore. Latitude 51° 31! 44°3” North. Longitude West in time 1’ 20°93”. 1824. ; Dec. 16. Immersion of Jupiter’s first §10h 0’ 25” Mean Time at Bushey. satellite .....-.-seeeeee- 5 10 01 46 Mean Time at Greenwich. 1825. Jan. 4. Immersion of Jupiter’s third §12 37 Ol Mean Time at Bushey. satellite, .....s00ccsccceree , 12 38 22 Mean Time at Greenwich. Jan. 8. Immersion of Jupiter’s first §10 09 16 Mean Time at Bushey. satellite. ..... --seeseeees 10 10 37 Mean Time at Greenwich. Jam. 11. Immersion of Jupiter’s third §16 35 19 Mean Time at Bushey. satellite . ..+eeeeessseeees 16 36 40 Mean Time at Greenwich. Occultation by the Moon. Dec. 31. Immersion of & Pisces. ...-.- 6h 26' 46” Siderial Time. Francis Baily, Esq. having favoured me with the new method of determining the longitude by the culmination of the moon and stars ; together with a list of stars applicable to the purpose for ae year 1826, the following observations were made at Bushey eath :— Transit over the Middle Wire in Siderial Time. & Gemini... ..-.0eee cers rece cree rere 6h 53’ 46:46” Jan. 4.2 Moon’s First Limb. .......0.00seee eee 7 O1 0895 q GEMiNie ic. oic cde es ds seceses skied 7 lL 4035 Articte VIII. On a peculiar Class of Combinations. By Dr. F. Wohlér.* Witu the intention of preparing cyanuret of silver by the reciprocal decomposition of cyanuret of meréury and nitrate of * Annalen der Physik. K 2 132 Dr. Wohler ona [Fer. oxide of silver, I mixed pretty concentrated solutions of the two compounds: contrary to my expectation, no precipitate fell ; but after a few minutes there was deposited a number of small white crystals, whose quantity greatly exceeded that of the cyanuret of mercury which I had employed. They were repeatedly washed with water, and dried. When these crystals are heated in a temperature above 212°, they fuse in the first place into a transparent liquid; by and bye they boil up and detonate vehemently, with a crackling noise, and a purplish red coloured flame, closely resembling that which accompanies the combustien of cyanogen. The residue consists of cyanuret of silver, and, by continued ignition in the open air, is converted into metallic silver. Ifthe experiment be performed in a glass tube, a quantity of mercury is also sub- limed. Muriatic acid, poured upon the crystals, instantly disen- gages hydrocyanic acid, and after the whole of the latter has been expelled by the application of heat, there is given offa strong odour of chlorine : the liquid, evaporated to dryness, leaves a mixture of the chlorides of silver and mercury. If a solution of the crystals be precipitated by muriate of barytes, and if the filtered liquid be evaporated, there is obtained a saline mass, containing abundance of octohedral crystals of nitrate of barytes. From the saline mass alcohol extracts cyanuret of mercury. Consequently this crystallized substance is a com- pound of cyanuret of mercury and nitrate of oxide of silver. This compound is very difficultly soluble in cold, but rather copiously in hot water, and as the solution cools, it crystallizes in large transparent prisms, having the form of saltpetre. It may be obtained in large crystals also by mixing hot solutions of the cyanuret of mercury and nitrate of silver; the crystals appearing as the liquid cools. Alcohol appears to dissolve it in neatly the same proportions as water. In boiling hot nitric acid it is soluble without decomposition. Alkalies precipitate from its aqueous solution cyanuret of silver, which appears to be mixed with subnitrate of oxide of mercury. Repeated solu- tions in pure water produce a similar decomposition ; but only to a very inconsiderable extent. When these crystals are heated in a temperature rather below 212°, they give off water, and become white coloured and opaque, without losing their original form. 100 parts, thus treated, lost 7-6 parts of water. To determine the quantity of silver, 1 gramme of the crystals was treated with an excess of muriatic acid, and the mixture was cautiously evaporated to dryness. The corrosive sublimate being now expelled from the dry mass by ignition, there remained 0:32 gramme of fused chloride of silver. This is equivalent to 0-2588 gramme of oxide of silver, and consequently indicates. 37°96 per cent. of nitrate of oxide of silver. The quantity of 1825.] “peculiar Class of Combinations. 133 cyanuret of mercury was ascertained by dissolving 0°67 gramme of the crystals in hot water, and precipitating the silver by cyanic acid. ‘The filtered liquid was then evaporated to dryness, in order to expel the excess of cyanic acid, and the disengaged nitric acid. 0°36 gramme of pure cyanuret of mercury remained = 53°74 per cent. Hence 100 parts of this compound consist of Nitrate of oxide of silver, .... 37°96 ...... l atom Cyanuret of mercury. ........ 53°74 ....06 2 BRL ON, gna rand tat eue, ofa (e bieisluiia A US focn aiecaa Or, 99°30 Here therefore we have a compound destitute of oxygen, and analogous to the metallic sulphurets and chlorides, associated in determinate proportions with another compound, which belongs in the strictest sense of the word to the class of salts. As we know that many bodies exert sometimes an electro-positive and at other times an electro-negative action, and that many com- pounds, which, by themselves, appear of an indifferent nature, may assume either of these characters with reference to certain other substances, it follows, that the compound here examined must, in this point of view, be regarded as a saline combination, in which the nitrate of oxide of silver acts as the acid, and the cyanuret of mercury as the base. The existence of water of crystallization in the compound, which neither of its ingredients in a separate state possesses, affords an additional argument for ranking it in the class of salts. Berzelius, when he formed the white crystalline compound of prussian blue and sulphuric acid, was the first person who discovered the existence of this class of combinations. I now attempted to form other compounds, in which the nitrate of oxide of silver would act as anacid when united with metallic cyanurets. Newly precipitated and washed cyanuret of silver was boiled in a solution of nitrate of silver: it dissolved slowly, but com- pletely. As soon as the temperature fell a few degrees below the boiling point, there was deposited a large quantity of long white shining needles, so that the lquid became converted. almost into a magma. They were transferred upon blotting paper and dried. This compound cannot be washed, for the affinities by which it is maintained are so feeble, that when placed in contact with water, it is instantly resolved into pulve- rulent cyanuret of silver, and the soluble nitrate. Hence in its preparation it is necessary to employ a pretty concentrated * Or 4 atoms of water, adopting Dr, Thomson’s numbers.—Ed, 134 Mr, Gray on some Species of Shells (FEB. solution of nitrate of silver. When heated, this compound fuses, then detonates with considerable energy, and leaves cyanuret of silver, which probably contains a minimum of cya- nogen, It contains no water. If its constitution be analogous with that of the foregoing salt, it ought to be composed of Nitrate of oxide of silver. .... ] atom ...... 38°79 Cyanuret of silver. .......... 2 oe sess eee ee 100-00 It ought, therefore, to contain 70°76 per cent. of metallic silver. This was confirmed by an experiment in which 0-43 gramme of the salt, decomposed by muriatic acid, yielded me 0:387 gramme of fused chloride of silver, equivalent to 69°74 per cent of metallic silver. I made many attempts, but without success, to form analo- gous compounds by boiling other metallic cyanurets in a solution of nitrate of silver. Cyanuret of nickel, treated in this manner, instantly gave cyanuret of silver, and nitrate of oxide of nickel : a similar decomposition took place with cyanuret of zinc. Prus- sian blue occasioned the evolution of nitrous gas, and there was obtained a solution of nitrate of oxide of iron, and a precipitate consisting of a mixture of oxide of iron and cyanuret of silver. Cyanuret of lead yielded a solution of nitrate and subnitrate of lead, and a black coloured precipitate, which the application of nitric acid proved to consist of metallic silver and white cyanu- ret of silver. Cyanuret of copper, boiled in a solution of nitrate of silver, gave a precipitate consisting entirely of metallic silver. Cyanuret of palladium, similarly treated, sustained no alteration. ArTIcLE IX. A List and Description of some Species of Shells not taken Notice of by Lamarck. By John Edward Gray, Esq. MGS. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, British Museum, Jan. 10, 1825, In the following list I have referred several species, which have not been taken notice of by Lamarck, to his genera, and have described some new ones that are contained in the collec- tion in the British Museum, where most of the species are exhi- bited with the names, here adopted, attached. : Your obedient servant, J, E. Gray. 1825.] not taken Notice of by Lamarck. 135 1. Motuusca ConcHIFERA. AsPERGILLUM Javanum, Lam. disco subperforato, tubuli fimbriz distinctis crassis, Martini, t. 1, f. 7. A. Listeri. disco confertissime perforato, tubulis fimbriz con- fertis tenuibus, List. t. 548, f.3. A. vaginiferum, Lam.? I think that all the species of this genus will be found to have a foliaceous mouth to their tube when they are perfect. Mya Binghami. Sphenia Binghami, Turton. Anatina. The shells of this genus always have a loose piece in their hinge which is very much developed in A. Norvegica, but is dictinctly to be found in A. Pretenuis and A. M yalis. - Anatina globosa. Mya globosa, Wood, t. 24, f. 4—6. An. Nicobarica. Mya Nicobarica, Gmelin. An. pretenuis. Mya pretenuis, Montague, t. 1, f. 2. An. distorta. Myadistorta, Montague, t. 1, f. 1. An. convexra. Mya convexa, Wood, t. 18, f. 1. An. Norwegica. Mya Norwegica, Chemn. x. 1647, 1648. Amphidesma*corbuloides, Lam. Hist. 492. An. membranacea. Mya membranacea, Dillwyn, 45. Lurraria vitrea, Mactra vitrea, Chemn. xi. f. 1959, 1960. L. fragilis. Mactra fragilis, Chemn. vi. f. 235. Macrra Campechensis. Last. 304, f. 141. M. squamosa. Solensquamosus, Montague. Erycrna. Lam. ‘Several of Lamarck’s Crassatelle agree ‘with the character of this genus; therefore I have removed them as far asI have any grounds. The recent species of Lamarck is a Cytherea. Ery. denticulata. Vesta elongato-cuneata, dentibus lateralibus _serrulatis. Ery. striata. Crassatella striata, Lam. 483. Ery. subangulata., Crassatella cuneata, Lam. 483% Ery. glabrata, Crassatella glabrata, Lam. 482. Ery. ovata, Testa ovato-elongata, cardine in medio te sx Ery. Australis. Mya Nove Zealandie, Chemn. vi.f. 19, 20. Uneuuina. The only species of this genus that I have seen appear to be too nearly allied to Amphidesma to be kept dis- tinct. ; AmPHIDESMA decussatum. ‘Tellina decussata, Wood, t. 43, , 2, 3. agen cordiforme. Tellina cordiformis, Chemn. xi. f. 19, » Ad. Amph. variabile. Tellina obliqua, Wood, t. 41, f. 4, 5. Amph.? nitens. Mya nitens, Montague. Corsuta labiata. Mya labiata, Maton, Lin. Trans. Panpora glacialis. ‘Testa semicircularis, cardine submedio, margine dorsali recto. 136 Mr. Gray on some Species of Shells [Fes. LitHorHAcs#. The whole of the genera of this family appear to have very great affinity to the Cardite, Cypricardia, &c. and should be placed nearer to them in a natural arrangement as well as the latter genera themselves ; but these genera appear to be the most defective part of Lamarck’s arrangement. Perrreota costata, Lam. Syst. Venus Lapicida, Chemn. x. f. 1665, 1666. Pet. divergens. Venus divergens, Gmelin. Pet. nivea. Mytilus niveus, Chemn. viii. t. 82, f. 734. Pet. suborbicularis. Mya suborbicularis, Montague. Pet. bidentata. Mya bidentata, Montague. Pet.rubra. Cardium rubrum, Montague. VENERUPIS monstrosa. Venus monstrosa, Chemn. vii. f. 42. Ven. decussata. Mya decussata, Montague. TELLINA tenera. Macroma tenera, Leach. Lucina Childrene. Testa suborbiculata inequivalvis alba subantiquata; tenuissime radiata substriata: long. 3 unc. Brazil, Humphreys. nob. Zool, Jour, i. 221. Luc. gibba. Tellina divaricata var. Chemn. vi. f. 130. Luc. globosa. Venus globosa, Chemn. vii. f. 430, 431. Luc. scabra. | Tellina scabra, Chemn. xi. f. 1943, 1944. Luc. divaricata. var.2 Tellina dentata, Wood, t. 46, f. 6. TeLLENIDES? triangularis. Tellina triangularis, Chemn. vi. t. 10, f. 85. Donax veneroidea. Venus donaci formis, Chemn.xi. f. 1983, 1984. Don. scalpellum. Testa elongata, complanata, tenuis purpu- reo radiata, polita, tenuissime radiato-striata; antice valde elon- gata rotundata, lutea; postice oblique truncata, biangulata, purpurea, margine minute denticulato. Crassina borealis. Venus borealis, Chemn. vii. f. 412—414. Cyrena! depressa, Lam. ? Crass. triangularis. Mactra triangularis, Montague. Crass. minutissima. Mactra minutissima, Montague, An var. prioris ? Crass. minima. Venus minima, Montague, t. 3, f.3. Crass. subcordata. Venus subcordata, Montague, t. 3, f. 1. Crass, sulcata. Venus suleata, Montague, Lam. 427. Crass. Montagui. Venus compressa, Montague, t. 26, f. 1. Crass. Scotica. Venus Scotica, Maton, Lin. Trans. t. 2, f. 3. Lam. 455. Crass. Bankswi. Nicania Banksii, Leach. Crass. striata. Nicania striata, Leach. CyRENA cyprinoides. Testa cordato-trigona, gibba, olivacea, concentrice sulcata; cardine incrassata, dentibus lateralibus levibus, anteriori conico ceteris approximato. Japan, long. 15-16, unc. 1825.] not taken Notice of by Lamarck. 137 Cyr. Childrene. Testa orbiculato-cordata, levis olivacea antice distanter irregulariter concentrice costata, intus purpureo aurantia; dentibus lateralibus serrulatis. Encyc. Method. t. 301, f. 1, long. 2 unc. Lamarck has referred this figure to Cyprina Islandica, but the teeth are evidently serrulated, Xc. Cyr. limosa. Tellina limosa, Maton, Lin. Trans. x. t. 24, f. 8—10. CyTHEREA (6) albida. Venus albida, Gmelin, List. 273, f. 109. Cyth. (a) crassa, Testa cordato-triangulata, gibba, crassa, polita, lutea, latere postico purpureo livido, lunulé lanceolato- cordata magna; dentibus valde incrassatis. long. 18-10, unc. Madras, Humphreys, Mus Cracherode. Cyth (a) pinguis. Testa cordato-triangulata solida, polita lutea lurida; umbonibus biradiatis; latere postico lunulaque purpu- reo-livida ; imtus carneo-albidis, punctis fuscis ornatis. long. 13-18 unc. Bombay, Humphreys, Mus. Cracherode. B minor subradiata striata, margine tumido. Cyth. (a) scripta. Donax scripta, Lin. Lam. ! Cyth. (a) Solanderti. Testa ovata gibba, levi polita albida purpureo variegata; umbonibus stellatis ; intus albida ; margine crenato ; latere postico maculis purpureis natato. long. 13-18. “ Venus hyans Soland. MSS.” Humphreys. Like the former, but much more gibbous, and in the different teeth none of these three species have any affinity to Donax, with which Lamarck placed them. Cyth (a) merve. Venus meroe, Lin. Donax! meroe, Lam. Venus donaciformis, Gmelin. Cyth. (6) cardoides Erycina cardoides, Lam. ) Cyth. (b) evils. Venus exilis, Chemn. vi. t. 34, f. 362, 363. Cyth. (d) Histrio. Venus exoleta variegata, Chemn. vii. f. 407. VENUs aurisiaca. ‘Testa ovato-trigona, polita subconcentrice striata, pallide fusca, obscure trizonata; latere postico elongato; lunula scutulaque lanceolatis, purpureo variegatis : intus auran- tiaca, long. 9-10 unc. Mus Cracherode. Ven? papyracea. Testa ovata gibba papyracea tenui pellu- cida alba subantiquata ; umbonibus concentrice sulcatis ; mar- gine cardinali antice impresso, An novum genus? An Litho- phage? Testa peculiaris. en. rotundata. ‘Tellina rotundata, Montague, t. 2, f. 3. VENERICARDIA megastropha. Testa oblique cordata crassa albida, rufo variegata, costis convexis rugosis; margine cardi- nali crassissimo. long. unc. New Holland? E. dono. Dom. Bennet. (See figure on next page.) 138 Mr, Gray on some Species of Shells (Fes. Wy H tld ih Mi) vn \S f PAN EL yyyyua. WW YS Wf I j ill) ae — Carpium semisulcatum. Testa transversa, ovata lutea rosea vel albida, costato-striata, subspinosa; latere antico conferte striato; postico producto, aperto, distanter costato; margine dentato. long. 7-10 unc. C. budlato similis. Card. crenaium. ‘Testa cordata, alba, umbonibus carinatis, costis 22 convexis, anticis minoribus, lunula profundissima callosa intrusa. Arca irigona. Testa subcordata trigona turgida, angulata ; latere antico plano. long. 1 unc. peculiar for having the form of Hippopus maculatus. Nucuxa Montagui. Arca rostrata, Mont. Sup. t. 27, f. 7. Nuc. minuta. Arca minuta, Muller, Nuc. tenuis. Arca tenuis, Montague. Nuc. glacialis, Lenbulus glacialis, Leach. Unto ponderosa. Mya crassa, Wood, t. 20, 21. Un. nodulosa, Mya nodulosa, Wood, t. 22, f. 1—4. - Un. plumbea. Chama plumbea, Chemn. xi. t. 203, f. 1991, 1992. N.B. Chama is certainly the best Linnean genus for the freshwater bivalves with irregular teeth. Hyriaintermedia. Testa ovato-subquadrata, virido-nigra levis, antice rotundata, postice sinuata; umbonibus prominentibus. long. 26-8 unc. Inter H. avicularem et H. elongatam. ; Hyria Matoni. Mya variabilis, Maton, Lin. Trans, x. t. 24, ~ 417. ANODONTA must be retained instead of Anodon, a change first proposed by Dr. Leach in this work, as the latter has been used for a genus of reptiles. Ifit must be altered, monodonta, and several others, will also.require it. F Anodonta fluviatilis. Mya fluviatilis, Dillw. 316, List, t. 157, me ee Anodonta Adansonii. Mytilus dubius, Gmel. Adams. t. 17. e . Barzata plicata. Dipsas plicatus, Leach, Zool. Misc. 1825.] not taken Notice of by Lamarck. 139 Modiola castanea. Testa convexa, subcylindrica, castanea pellucida, concentrice striata, List, t. 1065, f.9, Rumph. t. 46, hi2y Mod. Brasiliensis. Mytilus modiolus Brasiliensis, Chemn. xi. f. 2018, 2019. Mytilus latus jun, Dillw.! Myrivs dilatatus. Testa trigona postice rotundata, com- pressa, umbonibus acutis incurvatibus—Mediterranean, Myt? Volgensis. Mytilus/fluvis, Volga Chemn. Myt. poly- © fo, morphus, Gmelin, perhaps ‘will form a genus distinct from Mytilus, and peculiar for its freshwater habitation ; and like shells of that station, the animal can live for a long time out of water. I have kept one for three weeks, when it was still healthy. It is found in the Commercial Docks, where it most likely has been introduced with timber from the Volga. CRENATULA. This genus may be divided into two sections, which may perhaps hereafter be considered as genera by the same character as separates Mytilus from Modiola, § 1. Testa quadrata umbonibus anterioribus, which includes the species or rather varieties mentioned by Lamarck. § 2. Testa ovata umbo- nibus sub anterioribus (Dalacia) containing the following : Cre. folium. Testa “albida radiata compressa ; latere antico rotundato, postico alata, Brande’s Journal, xv. t.2, f. 81. figura pulcherrima. Vulsella folium, Humph. Mus Cracherode. Lima gigantea. Testa crassa, ponderosa, subauriculata albi- do-rosea, irregulariter radiata costata striata; intus alba, rufo maculata. lat. 15-4, long. 18-4, unc. Lim.excavata. Ostrea excavata, Gmelin. OstREA prismatica. Testa elongata lamellosa; intus vi0- lacea, albido macerata iridescens ; impressione muscularis reni- formi translucente; umbonibus truncatis; valva superioris planulata. long. 2, lat. 6, unc. Axomta rosea. Tellina enigmatica, Chemn. x. t. 199, f. 1949, 1950. Mus. Tankerville. Discina. This genus is certainly distinct from Orbicula, which appears to be the same as Crania. Dis. levis. Orbicula! levis, Sow. 2. Moutiusca PTEROPODA. - Lamarck, Cuvier, and Peron, appear to have reversed these animals and the heteropes, and called their belly their back, for they certainly, like the gasteropodes, swim with their belly upwards, and consequently the latter have their shell placed on their mantle as in the gasteropodes ; to this order should be referred the genus Janthina. 3. MotiuscA GASTEROPODA,. Pievrosrancuus Montagui. Bulla Plumula, Montague. Pleu, argenteus, Bulla membranacea, Montague. vt 140 ‘Mr. Lévy on anew Mineral. [Frn. Siphonaria angulata. Testa convexo conica, angulata radiato- costata’; intus fusca; long. 15-10 unc. Parmopuorus elegans. Emarginula breviusculas, Sow. Gen. f. 2, certainly not Parmophorus breviusculus of Blainville, as that shell is in the Museum, and is only slightly antiquated. Inter Parmophoros et Emanginulas. EMARGINULA cristata. Testa convexo-conica, antice costa media cristata ornata. (To be continued.) ARTICLE X. An Account of a new Mineral. By M. Lévy, MA. in the University of Paris. (To Mr. Children.) DEAR SIR, Turoveu your kindness and that of Mr. James Sowerby, I have been enabled to examine some well-defined single crystals of a substance found at Snowdon, which had been classed by some with rutile, by others with sphene, but which certainly differs from both, its forms being devivable froma right rhombic prism, whilst the primitive form of rutile is a square prism, and that of sphene an oblique rhombic prism. The forms of this substance I have observed are represented by figs. 2, 3, and 4, and although [ have not drawn the inferior summit, some of the planes which belong to it occur in some of the crystals. They are flattened parallel to the planes #’, and some are more than half an inch in breadth and Jength. They cleave easily in a direction parallel to the plane g', but the face of cleavage is rather dull. All the natural planes are sufficiently brilliant to be Fig. 2. 1825.] Mr, Lévy on a new Mineral. 14] measured by the reflecting goniometer, with the exception of the plane h', which is strongly striated longitudinally. Some of the crystals are opaque, and of a pale red colour; others are translucent and transparent, and of a deep orange red colour, somewhat like the cinnamon stone. Fig. 4 represents a beau- tiful crystal of this colour placed ona group of rock crystal in the collection of Mr, James Sowerby. Upon a group of rock crystals from Dauphiny, in the collec- tion of Mr. Turner, I observed with lamellar crichtonite some flat very brilliant brown translucenv crystals, the form of which is represented by fig. 5, and which belong to the same species as those above described; they present, however, new modifica- tions which are the planes designated by p, es, and e ; but all the other planes m, h', g', and es, measure exactly the same angles as those marked with the same letters in the crystals from Snowdon. I have taken for the lateral faces of the primitive form the planes marked m, which are inclined to one another at an angle equal to 100°, and by assuming also that the planes marked es, the incidence of which upon m is equal to 134°, is: the result of a de- Fig. 1. crement by three rows in breadth on the lateral angles e of the primitive, I have found that one side of the base was to the height nearly in the ratio of 30 to 11. A right rhombic prism, fig. 1, of 100°, and of such dimen- sions, may therefore, be considered as the primitive form of this substance. The other planes are marked with the signs corre- sponding to the decrements of which they are supposed to be derived, and the incidences calculated from these laws agree within very narrow limits with the observation. The: faces 142 Mr. Lévy on anew Mineral. [Fex. marked 7 are the result of an intermediary decrement, the sign of which is (6', 6°, ¢°). fly 2D, ash bie caer maGee. LUD, Ml, COs eh aleims als, aint = 134 m,e°. eer eereecers = 120 sgn cree ere == [24 mi Baile cGasre ule W2t ily E Weide abiec bed 124 2, Wh Pee re =: 126 Ji OTE dha clin) a aaais = 90 Pp, es eortetes @ersrases = 132 PAS Senet eae = 128 "tO eee = 141 + P> €s - ee @ereseeese = 143 Py Oe veeneeenenes = 158 + Fe as bathe rakes ae COR Aa eerisp eae lees ved DE evden Ws fot Bie = 164 ) AEA Pe ere —— et fis €s,@s. . . . = 135 fas Cis etn dcase, =o 150 me C2, C2. cer cerevecee = 154 b-etwumpleeiig is = 162 3 €s,e° eo eee ee eoe soon == 156 C3, U ccc dear eseses = 156 C35 Cae wocees eeeeee = 101 Bee eae sas Feet = 109 Cae €a, 2. ee ee ee = 112 dy Assia ale os sia ae be AG 0’ This substance | propose to call Brookite, in honour of Mr. Broke. _ We hope to give the characters of this mineral before thé blowpipe, and its chemical analysis, in our next.—C. and =. 1825.] Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. 143 ArTIcLE XI. Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. Dec. 23.—Two papers by the Rev. Baden Powell, MA. FRS. were read, supplementary to a former communication on Radiant Heat; and the Society adjourned to Jan. 13, 1825; when John Bell, Esq. and William Scoresby, Jun. Esq. were admitted Fellows of the Society; and A Descrip- tion of a Floating Collimator, by Capt. H. Kater, FRS. was read. This instrument is destined to supply the place of a level or plumb line in astronomical observations, and to furnish a ready and perfectly exact method of determining the position of the horizontal or zenith point on the limb ofa circle or zenith sector. Its principle is the invariability with respect to the horizon of the position assumed by any bedy of invariable figure and weight floating on a fluid. It consists of a rectangular box containing mercury, on which is floated a mass of cast iron, about twelve inches long, four broad, and half an inch thick, having two short uprights, or Y’s, of equal height, cast in one piece with the rest. On these is firmly attached a small telescope furnished with cross wires, or, what is better, crossed portions of the fine balance spring of a watch, set flat-ways, and adjusted very exactly in the sidereal focus of its object glass. ‘The float 1s browned with nitric acid to prevent the adhesion of the mercury, and is prevented from moving laterally by two smoothly polished iron pins, projecting from its sides in the middle of its length, which play freely in vertical grooves of polished iron in the sides of the box. When this instrument is used, it is placed at a short distance from the circle whose horizontal point is to be ascertained on either side (suppose the north) of its centre; and the telescopes of the circle and of the collimator are so adjusted as to look mutually at each other’s cross wires (in the manner lately practised by Messrs. Gauss and Bessel), first of all coarsely by trial, applying the eye to the eye-glasses of the two instruments alternately ; and finally by illuminating the cross wires of the collimator with a lanthorn and oiled paper, taking care to exclude false light by a black screen having an aperture equal to that of the collimator, and making the coincidence in the manner of an astronomical observation, by the fine motion of the circle. ‘The microscopes on the limb are then read off, and thus the apparent zenith distance of the collimating point (intersee tion ot the wires) is found. The collimator is then transferred 144 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Fes. to the other (south) side of the circle, and a corresponding observation made, without reversing the circle, but merely by the motion of the telescope on the limb. The difference of the two zenith distances so read off is double the error of the zenith or horizontal point of the graduation, and their semi-sum is the true zenith distance of the collimating point, or the co-inclina- tion of the axis,of the collimating telescope to the horizon. By the experiments detailed in Capt. Kater’s paper, it appears that the error to be feared in the determination of the horizontal point by this instrument can rarely amount to half a second ifa mean of four or five observations be taken. In a hundred and fifty-one single trials, two only gave an error of two seconds, and one of these was made with a wooden float. In upwards of a hundred and twenty of these observations, the error was not one second. . For further details we must refer to the original communication. Jan. 20.—Capt. F. W. Beechy, RN. was admitted a Fellow of the Society, and the following paper was read :— On the Construction of the Barometer; by J. F. Daniell, Esq. FRS. In a former communication to the Royal Society on the Con- struction of the Barometer, the author had inferred from some experiments therein detailed, that the capillary depression of the mercury in barometer-tubes was decreased one-half by boiling; and the first object of the present paper was to describe some new experiments that he had made on this subject, the results of which confirmed his former deductions. In these the depres- sion of the mercury in tubes of from -1, to =6, of an inch internal diameter was measured to the -; part of an inch, by a par- ticular apparatus constructed for the purpose, and described in the paper; and their results very nearly agreed with those given in Dr. Young’s tables, calculated from the experiments of Lord Charles Cavendish: on repeating the experiments after boiling mercury in the tubes, Mr. Daniell found the amount of the depression to be one-half of what it was before; as he had for- merly concluded. Mr. Daniell proceeded to detail some facts relating to the gradual deterioration of barometers by the insinuation of air between the mercury and the tube, and to describe the means he had devised for obviating this defect in the instrument. He had been informed that the mercury in the barometer con- structed under his superintendence, and set up in the apart- ments of the Royal Society, by the direction of the Meteorolo- gical Committee, exhibited a peculiar speckled appearance; and on examination he found a number of minute bubbles of air between the glass and the mercury, increasing in size towards the top. 1825.] pai! Royal Society. 145 In seeking for a method of removing this source of inac- curacy, it occurred to Mr. Daniell that gases were better confined over water than over mercury, on account of the water making a perfect contact with the glass of the jars in which they were contained, which was not the case with the mercury ; and Mr. Faraday furnished him with a case in point, in which a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen confined in bottles over water, and in the dark, for about a twelvemonth, were found unaltered either in nature orin quantity; whilst bottles into which the same mixture had been passed, and confined over mercury, under the same circumstances, were found to contain nothing but common air.. Mr. D. thence inferred, that if the tube consisted of some substance which the mercury would wet (if he might be allowed the expression), the insinuation of air would be prevented. In the experiments he made when constructing a new pyrometer, he had found that platinum immersed in mercury acquired a complete surface of that metal ; and now in keeping a strip of platinum foil in mercury for some time, he found that its tenacity was unimpaired. A tube of platinum, of about an inch in length, was accordingly welded to the open end of a barometer-tube, with which the mercury form- ing a perfect contact, would effectually prevent, it might be pre- sumed, the insinuation of the air: the imstrument was then filled, and finished as usual. A mere ring of platinum also, which would be much less expensive, would be equally efficacious, as the smallest surface of perfect contact must be sufficient. As a considerable time, however, must elapse before the success of this method could be shown by the barometer itself, the author had instituted an experiment in which the effect would be sooner apparent ;—he had confined a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen over mercury in two jars, one of them having a ring of platinum at its lower extremity. He had not been able to disco- ver in registers of barometrical observations any distinct evi- dence of the gradual deterioration of barometers from the cause he had thus endeavoured to obviate; the observers, however, having frequently found it necessary, for some reason, either to re-boil the mercury in the tube, or to change their instrument, altogether. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. This Society held its first meeting after the summer recess, on Friday the 12th of November ; the President, H. T. Colebrooke, Esq. in the chair. Several new members were elected, and others proposed, and a great number of valuable presents, espe- cially from foreign astronomers, were announced. Two communications were read from Sir Thomas Brisbane, Governor of New South Wales. The first of these contained an account of some observations made at Paramatta, by Sir Tho- New Series, vou, 1x. L 146 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. ‘[Fex. mas, and Mr, Dunlop, on the inferior Conjunction of Venus with the Sun, in October, 1823, ; ; Sir Thomas’s second communication, which is dated 17th April, 1624, contains, first, a record of repetitions on the Sun, with Reichenbach’s circle, for the Summer Solstice, 1823, they extend from Dec. 10, 1823, to Jan. 2, 1824, but have not yet been subjected to the necessary reductions for a definite result ; secondly, a series of observations on several stars, made at Paras matta with the Mural circle; from Nov. 20, 1823, to Feb. 19, 1824. Twenty of the stars observed are among those whose places are given annually in the Nautical Almanac, and. are usually denominated Greenwich stars. A letter was also read from Baron Zach to Francis Baily, Esq. FRS. dated Genoa, July 21, 1824, announcing the discovery of a telescopic comet, by M. Pons, on the 24th of that month. It was in the head of Serpentarius, without tail or coma:—a simple nebulosity. Mr. Herschel submitted to the inspection of the members present, a new double image micrometer, by Prof. Amici, of Modena. Mr. Donkin laid on the table, for the inspection of the mem- bers, an instrument made by M. Fatton (a pupil of Breguet, at Paris), for determining the fractional part of a second of time, in astronomical observations. Prize Questions proposed by the Astronomical Society of London, This Society has just proposed the following prize questions, to the consideration of astronomers and mathematicians, viz. _ 1. The silver medal to any person who shall contrive, and have executed an instrument, by which the relative magnitude of the stars may be measured or determined ; and of which the utility for this object shall be sufficiently established, by nume- rous observations, and comparisons of known stars. 2. The gold medal for approved formule, for determining the true place of either of the four newly discovered planets, Ceres, Juno, Vesta, and Pallas ; within such limits as the Council may think sufficiently correct for the present state of astronomy ; such formule in each case to be accompanied with comparisons of the observed places at various periods. 3. The gold medal for a new mode of developing the differen- tial equation for expressing the problem of the three bodies, by which a smaller number of tables shall be required in order to compute the moon’s place to the same degree of accuracy, as by any existing tables, and with greater facility. ° To be entitled to competition for the prizes, all answers to the first question must be received before the lst of February, 1826; to the second, before the Ist of February, 1827; and to the third, before the Ist of February, 1828. 1825.] Astronomical Society. 147 Dec. 10.—At the meeting of the Society this evening, the publication of the second part of their Memoirs was announced. A paper, drawn up by Dr. Gregory, was read, containing a description of a box of rods, named the Rhabdological Abacus, presented to the Society by the family of the late Henry Good- wyn, Esq. of Blackheath. It appears that these rods were invented by Mr. Goodwyn for the purpose of facilitating the multiplication of long numbers of frequent occurrence : they were probably suggested by Napier’s Rods, and are, for the purposes which the inventor had in view, a great improvement upon them. The rods, which are square prisms, contain on each side, successively, the proposed number in a multiplicand, and its several multiples up to nine times ; and these in the several series of rods are repeated sufficiently often to serve for as extensive multiplications as are likely to occur. Thus if the four faces of one rod contain respectively, once, twice, three times, and four times a proposed multiplicand ; another rod will exhibit in like manner two, three, four, and five times the same; a third rod, three, four, five, and six times the same; and so on to nine; and in several cases, more rods. The numbers are arranged uniformly upon equal and equidistant compartments ; while at a small constant distance to the left of each product stands the number two, three, four, five, &c. which it represents. Hence, in performing a multiplication, the operator has only to select from the several faces of the rods the distinct products which belong to the respective digits in the multiplier, to place them in due order above each other, to add them up while they so stand, and write down their sum, which is evidently the entire product required, and obtained without the labour of multiplying for each separate product, or even of writing those products down. For still greater convenience the rods may be arranged upon a board with two parallel projections placed aslant at such an angle as of necessity produces the right arrangement. There are blank rods to place in those lines which accord with a cypher in the multiplier; and the arrangement may easily be carried on _— the bottom product upwards, by means of the indicating igits. A letter was read from Capt. Ross, a Member of this Society, Firing an account of observations made on the occultation of upiter by the moon on the Sth of April last; transmitting also an account of observations uponthe same occultation by Mr. Ramage, of Aberdeen, with one of his own 25 feet reflecting telescopes. Mr. R. observed the tmmersion. On the approach of Jupiter’s satellites to the moon, a diminution of their hght was perceptible. On coming into contact with the moon’s dark limb, they did not disappear instantly, like fixed stars, but formed an indentation or notch in the limb, as if they were imbedded in it, but were at the same time separated from it by a fine line of light. This indentation continued visible until L 2 148 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Fzs. about half their diameters were immersed, when it disappeared. All the satellites presented this phenomenon; but the fourth and third with the greatest distinctness. On Jupiter’s approach, no difference of his light or shape was perceptible, but after the contact had taken place, he appeared to exhibit no deficiency of disc, but presented a complete figure, as if placed between the moon and the earth, this appearance continuing for a few seconds. When the planet was almost entirely immersed, his retiring limb appeared as though it were considerably elongated, or formed a segment of a much larger circle than had been pre- viously presented. The position of Mr. Ramage’s telescope did not allow him to observe the emersion. Capt. Ross was prevented by the state of the weather from seeing the zmmersion, but was fortunate enough to observe the emerston, seeing first a considerable elongation, which gradually diminished as more of the planet appeared from behind the moon. Part of a letter was read from Mr. R. Comfield, a Member of this Society, in reference to the same occultation. He observed it at Northampton with a good Newtonian reflector. Mr. Com- field, and two other contemporaneous observers, with good instruments, noticed that when Jupiter had about half disap- peared, there was exhibited an adhesion or protuberance on each side of the planet, which, as Jupiter sunk behind the moon, be- came larger and larger, so that just before the entire disappear- ance of the planet, it exhibited a considerable elongation deviat- ing greatly from a circular curve of the same diameter as the planet. Phenomena, somewhat analogous, especially in reference to the indentations and adhesions, were noticed by several astro- nomers who observed the transit of Venus in 1769. See the account by Capt. Cook, Mr. Charles Green, Mr. Charles Mason, M. Pingré, &c. in the Phil. Trans. for 1770 and 1771, which are here adverted to, because the consideration of kindred pheeno- mena may assist in the explication of the whole. Jan. 14, 1825.—At the meeting this evening, Mr. Baily laid on the table for the inspection of the members, two micrometers, which have been recently invented and constructed by M. Frauenhofer of Munich. These micrometers are formed by means of very fine lines, cut on glass with a diamond point in a peculiar manner, and placed in the focus of the telescope. One of these micrometers consists of concentric circular lines drawn at unequal distances from each other; and the other consists of straight lines crossing each other at a given angle. The mode of cutting these lines has furnished M. Frauenhofer with a method of illuminating them, which (at the same time that it renders the lines visible) leaves the other part of the field of the telescope’in darkness ; so that the transits of the smallest stars may be observed by means of « these micrometers; the lines appearing like so many silver 1825.] _ Geological Society. 149 threads suspended in the heavens. A short account of the cir- cumstances which led M. Frauenhofer to this happy invention was read. An engraving of Frauenhofer’s achromatic telescope at Dorpat of 14 feet focus and 9 inches aperture, was also submitted to the inspection of the members by Mr. Herschel. A communication was read from Capt. Ross, dated Stranraer, Aug. ~. 1824, in which he transmits a diagram exhibiting his ebservation of the occultation of Herschel’s planet by the moon, on the preceding day, with Ramage’s 25 feet telescope, anda power of 500. The planet appeared to have entered about one- third of its diameter on the dark part of the moon before it dis- appeared, and its light began to diminish before it touched the lunar disc. On the contrary at its emersion, it appeared one- fourth of its own diameter distant from the moon’s western limb. The whole time of the occultation was 1 7” 445°. After this the reading was commenced of a paper by Mr. H. Atkinson, of Neweastle-upon-Tyne, ‘ On Astronomical and other Refractions ; with a connected Inquiry into the Law of Temperature in different Latitudes and Altitudes.” As the reading of this paper will be resumed at a subsequent meeting, an abstract of the whole may with propriety be deferred. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Dec. 3.—A notice was read, “ On some Fossils found in the Island of Madeira ;” by the late T. E. Bowdich, Esq. In this notice, the author describes a formation of branched cylindrical tubes encased with agglutinated sand, which occur in great abundance near Fanical, 15 miles from Funchal, in the Island of Madeira. Mr. Bowdich is inclined to refer these to a vegetable origin. They are accompanied by shells, some deci- dedly terrestrial, and others which appear to belong to a marine genus. In conclusion, some account is given of the general features and structure of the neighbouring district. An extract of a paper was then read, entitled, “ An Inquiry into the Chemical Composition of those Minerals which belong to the genus Tourmaline ;” by Dr. C. G. Gmelin, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Tubingen, and For. Mem. GS. Prof. Gmelin, in this memoir, details at length, the various analyses of minerals of the Tourmaline family, which have been made by former chemists. He then describes the methods which he adopted in his own experiments, and adds the results which he obtained from them. The author divides the different species of Tourmaline into the following sections: 1. Tourmalines which contain lithion ; 2. Tourmalines which contain potash or soda, or both these alka- lies together, without lithion, and without a considerable quantity of magnesia; 3, Tourmalines which contain a considerable 150° Scientific Notices—Chemistry. [Fes. quantity of magnesia, together with some potash, or potash and soda. It appears, he says, in conclusion, that when we compare the analyses of the different species of Tourmalines, the most essen- tial ingredients are, boracic acid, silica, and alumina, whose relative quantities do not vary much. It appears further, that any alkaline substance, though in no considerable quantity, may be likewise an essential ingredient. The different nature of these alkaline substances may be employed by the chemist, as we have used it, to divide these minerals into different sections. But it will appear to be quite useless to attempt to give mineral- ogical formule for the chemical composition of these minerals, when it is considered ; first, that we can by no means rely upon the correctness of any statement regarding the quantity of oxy- gen in boracic acid; secondly, that the quantity of alkaline bases, whose oxygen would be unity, is so small, that it cannot be determined (with sufficient accuracy) without great errors in the computation of the relative quantity of oxygen in the other ingredients; thirdly, that in one species no account could be given of a considerable loss of weight. He has, however, cal- culated the quantities of oxygen in every species, with the inten- tion of comparing the sum of the oxygen contained in the bases with the sum of that contained in the acids, viz. boracic acid and silica. Theresult of this calculation is then fully stated. ArTicLE XII. SCIENTIFIC NOTICES. CHEMISTRY. 1, Analysis of the Boletus Sulphureus. T'n1s mushroom, according to Peschier’s analysis, is com- posed of the following ingredients :— Water, Fungin, Albumen, An uncrystallizable saccharine matter—mushroom sugar, A fatty substance soiuble in alcohol, An animal matter, A peculiar alkaline principle, Oxalate of potash, An uncombined acid of a peculiar nature, and A colouring matter. The uncombined acid and the colouring matter were soluble both in water and in alcohol.—(Trommsdorft’s Neues Journa der Pharmacie.) . bs 1825.] Scientific Notices—Chemistry. Y51 2, Compound of Muriate and Hydrosulphuret of Oxidule of Antimony. Sulphuretted hydrogen throws down from a solution of the muriate of oxidule of antimony a lively pomegranate yellow coloured precipitate, which has been hitherto regarded as a pure hydrosulphuret of oxidule of antimony: it is, however, a combi- nation of this salt with the neutral muriate of oxidule of anti- mony. The latter salt may be expelled by heat, and sulphuret of antimony remains behind; the same decomposition may be effected by exposing the precipitate for some time in a close vessel to the light of the sun.—(L. Gmelin. Handbuch der theo- retischen Chemie.) 3. Composition of White Precipitate. We copy the following from a note, at the conclusion of Mr. Brande’s paper, entitled “ Facts towards the Chemical History of Mercury:” Having inferred from various experiments that the “ white precipitate ” was a compound of one proportional of peroxide of mercury, and one of muriate of ammonia, Mr. Hennel verified his opinion as follows : A solution of one proportional of corro- give sublimate (= 272) was mixed with a quantity of solution of ammonia, containing two proportionals (17 x 2 = 34) of that alkali; a neutral mixture resulted, white precipitate was formed, and one proportional of muriate of ammonia (ammonia 17 + muriatic acid 37 = 54 of muriate of ammonia) was found in solution. Jn this case, the two proportionals of chlorine in the sublimate (36 x 2 = 72) were converted at the expense of 2 proportionals of water, into 2 of muriatic acid, which, uniting with the ammonia, formed 2 of muriate of ammonia. The 2 proportionals of the oxygen from the water (equivalent to the 2 of hydrogen transferred to the chlorine) united to the | pro- portional of mercury in the sublimate, to form 1 of peroxide of mercury, which fell in combination with 1 of muriate of ammonia to constitute white precipitate ; while the other proportional of muriate remained, as above stated, in solution. The equivalent number, therefore, of white precipitate, is 270, and it consists of 1 proportional of peroxide of mercury. .. = O16) ose BO 1 muriate of ammonia.... BA E20 270 100 Having thus synthetically established the composition of white precipitate, the following analytical experiment was made upon it: 270 grains were dissolved in hydrocyanic acid, and sulphuretted hydrogen was passed through the solution till it occasioned no further change; the precipitate was: then col- 152 Scientific Notices—Chemistry. [Fes. lected, washed, and dried ; it weighed very nearly 232 grains,, being the equivalent of bisulphuret of mercury. The filtered liquor, on evaporation to dryness, left 54 grains, or | propor- tional of muriate of ammonia.—(Journal of Science.) 4. Boron, its Preparation, &c. The readiest method of obtaining boron without losing too. much potassium is to heat the potassium with fluo-borate of. potash.* Boron and silicium resemble each other in their pro- perties, nearly as sulphur and silicium, or as phosphorus and. arsenic. I have produced sulphuret of boron, a white and pul- verulent substance, which dissolves in water, yielding sulphur- etted hydrogen gas. Boron burns in chlorine. The chloride of boron is a permanent gas which is decomposed in moist air, producing a dense vapour;.and in water giving muriatic and boracic acids. It condenses one and a half time its volume of ammoniacal gas. Berzelius. Bib. Univ.—(Journal of Science.) 5. Action of Alum on Vegetable Blue Colours. It is commonly stated in chemical works, that a solution of alum has the property of reddening vegetable colours. With the exception of litmus, where the effect is very decided, and of tine- ture of cabbage, where the effect is trifling, a contrary ettect is experienced; the solution has turned the colours (which were, generally obtained from the blue petais of flowers) green. HZ. B. Lekson.—(Journal of Science.) 6. Preparation of Lithia. M. Berzelius says, that the most economical way of preparing lithia is to mix the triphane, or spodumene, in powder, with twice its weight.of pulverised fluor spar, and with sulphuric acid; then to heat the mixture until the fluoric acid with the silica is volatilized, and afterwards to separate the sulphate by solution. bib. Univ.—(Journal of Science.) 7. On Sulpho-iodide of Antimony. By MM. Henry and Garot. When very dry iodine and sulphuret of antimony are mixed in equal parts, and sublimed in dry vessels by the moderated heat of a sand-bath, red vapours appear, which condense on the upper and cooler parts of the vessels, whilst a greenish grey mixture of protoxide of antimony with a little iodide and sul- phuret remains. The condensed volatile substance appears in brilliant translu- cid. plates, resembling fern-leaves in form, of an intense poppy red colour: if the vessels in which the sublimation has been made are large, the crystals appear as prismatic prisms, When heated, they readily fuse, and by careful management may be _® See Preparation of Silicium, Annals, vol. viii. p. 122, New Series, 1825.] Scientific Notices—Mineralogy. 153 repeatedly sublimed ; but when highly heated, iodide and sul- phur are set free, sulphurous acid is formed, and a mixture of antimony and oxide produced. The crystals have a sharp disa- greeable taste: light has no action on them. When put into alcohol or ether, iodine is dissolved, and a yellow sulphuret of antimony deposited. When put into water, hydriodic acid, pro- toxide of antimony, and sulphur, are formed. The action of the acids is such as might be expected, decomposition of the sub- stance being always produced. Upon analysis, this substance gave as its elements, antimony 23-2, iodine 67-9, sulphur 8-9, which nearly corresponds with one proportional of each substance. The authors have called it a sulpho-iodide of antimony. Jour. de Pharm.—(Journal of Science.) MINERALOGY. 8. Yenite found in the United States. Dr. Torrey states, that a mineral has been found at Rhode Island, which, from its characters, he considers as yenite. It is in small crystals imbedded in an aggregate of quartz and epidote. The crystals vary in size; the largest found was an inch and a quarter long, one quarter of an inch broad, and two lines thick. The terminations were wanting. The form is nearly rectangular; the surface striated and shining, with a semi-metallic lustre. Cross fracture somewhat resinous. It is imperfectly foliated in the direction of the longer diagonal of the rism. It scratches glass slightly. It is opaque, and of a lackish brown colour. The powder has the colour of the mass. Specific gravity 3°6. Before the blowpipe, it melts with great ease into a black opaque glass, strongly attracted by the magnet.—-(Annals of Lyceum of Natural History, New York.) 9. Localities of rare Minerals. Chrome ore, the chromate of iron, has been discovered by Sir Humphry Davy in small granular masses, disseminated in a greenish-white marble from Buchanan, in Stirlingshire, pre- served in Mr. Allan’s cabinet. Of the Cronstedtite, of Stein- mann, a mineral hitherto confined to Przibram, the same collec-~ tion contains specimens from Wheal Maudlin, in Cornwall. The cronstedtite from the latter locality presents generally thinner individuals than the Bohemian one, but is, like this, accompanied by sparry iron and hexahedral iron pyrites. Another product of Wheal Maudlin has lately attracted the attention of mineralogists. The collections of Mr. Allan, Mr. Rashleigh, of Menabilly, and Mr. Williams, of Scorrier, contain pseudomorphous crystals of wolfram, in the shape of tungstate of lime. ‘They present the form, well known in that species, of an isosceles four-sided pyramid, bevelled on the solid angles 154 Scientifie Notices—Magnetism. [FEs, contiguous to the base, sometimes of the size of three or four lines in every direction. They are generally engaged in blende, which is cleavabie in large lamine, and are composed in the interior of a delicate tissue of minute crystals, between which humerous cavities are conspicuous, lined with these crystals. Sometimes also the large pseudomorphous crystals are quite disengaged, and accompanied by arsenical pyrites, chlorite, quartz, &c. The colour of the streak is almost of the same colour in the pseudomorphous crystals, and the blende in whieh they are imbedded.—(Edinburgh Journal of Science.) 10. English Locality of Metallic Lead. _ This substance has lately been found im sztu in the neigh- bourhood of Alstun. It uccurs in small globular masses, imbed- ded in galena and a slaggy substance, accompanied with red litharge, crystals of blende and quartz. The vein in which it is found is in limestone, and of the thickness of an inch, widening out to two or three as it goes down, The whole mass within the vein is considerably decomposed, and the ore is found in incoherent pieces, some of which are about the size of a walnut, Many of them have a very slaggy appearance, both externally and internally, while others are pure galena, distinctly cleava- ble, and coated with a white mealy sulphate of lead, produced by decomposition. A more particular notice of this mineral will probably soon be given.—( Edin, Jour. of Science.) MAGNETISM. 1l. Gay-Lussac on the mutual Action of two Magnetic Particles in different Bodies. This very interesting experiment was undertaken by M. Gay- Lussac at the request of M. Poisson, for the purpose of ascer- taining whether or not the mutual action of two magnetic parti- cles depended on the matter of each of the bodies, which was found to be the case. A magnetical needle, eight inches long, was found to make ten horizontal vibrations near the direction of the magnetic meridian in 131 seconds. A prismatic bar of soft iron, about eight inches long, three-fourths of an inch wide, and one- eighteenth ofan inch thick, ina vertical direction, was now fixed at the distance of two inches below the needle, and in the plane of the magnetic meridian. The oscillations of the needle became more frequent, being about 10 in 65 seconds, and soon after 10 in 60 seconds. A similar and equal bar of pure nickel was now substituted in place of the iron bar, and the needle made at first 10 oscilla- tions in 78 seconds, and soon. after 10. in 77 seconds. When the bar of nickel was removed, the needle made 10 oscillations in 130 seconds by the action of the earth alone, M. Poitsson’s Memoir on Magnetism.—(Edin. Jour. of Science.) 1825.] Scientific Notices— Miscellaneous. 155 MIscELLANEOUS. 12. Hydrophobia. Dr. Capello, of Rome, in a memoir read before the Academy del Lincei, affirms that the hydrophobic poison, after its first transmission, loses the power of conveying the disease. This observation, already made by Bader, is confirmed by repeated experiments made by Dr. Capello, A lap-dog and cat were both inoculated with the saliva of a dog who died of inoculated hydrophobia; they both remained free from disease ; and three years afterwards the lap-dog was again inoculated from a dog who became rabid spontaneously : he then took the disease and died. An ox was bitten by a dog attacked with rabies; he became hydrophobic, and bit many other animals : all remained free from the affection. The dog that bit the ox also bit a child, who died about four months after, with all the symptoms of hydrophobia: with the saliva of this child a dog also was mocu- lated, but the disease was not transmitted. A dog which had been bitten by another dog became hydro- phobic on the fifty-first day, broke the chain with which he was fastened, and escaped into the street, where he bit many per- sons, and the dogs of two persons (who are named), and finally disappeared among the ruins of the villa of Quintilius Varus : not one of the persons or dogs so bitten had the slightest symp- tom of hydrophobia. Med. Jour.—(Journal of Science.) 13. Temperature of the Maximum Density of Water. An elaborate memoir by Prof. Hallostrom, on the specific gravity of water at different temperatures, and on the tempera- ture of its maximum density, has appeared in the Swedish Transactions for 1823. It is divided into two parts: The first contains a critical discussion of the results, and the methods employed by preceding experimenters : the second, a detail of an extensive course of experiments, instituted by himself, with a view to the more accurate determination of this important but. difficult inquiry. The method of experimenting which he regarded as the most accurate, and which he therefore adopted, was to ascertain the weight of a hollow glass globe, very little heavier than water, and about 23 inches in diameter, in water of every degree of temperature between 0° and 325° cent. The errors arising from a dilatation or contraction of the glass, the weight of the atmosphere, &c, were all calculated, and a corre- sponding correction made. The result was, that water attains its greatest density at a temperature of 4:108° cent. (39°394° Fahr.) ; and the Limits of uncertainty, occasioned by the impos- sibility of ascertaining the dilatation of glass with perfect accu- racy, he estimates to be 0°238° (0:428° Fahr.). on either side of this number. 156 Scientific Notices—Miscellaneous. [Fes. The two following tables exhibit the results of his experiments on the sp. gr. of water in all temperatures between 0° and 32° cent. In the first, the sp. gr. at 0°; in the second, the sp. gr. at 4:1° is taken as the unit. Temp. Sp. Gr. Temp. Sp. Gr. Temp. Sp. Gr. Cent. Cent. Cent o° 1-0006000 10° 0-9998906 21° 0-9983648 1 1-0000166 Bt 09898112 22 0-9981569 2 1-0000799 12 0:9997196 23 0:9979379 3 1:0001004 13 0-9996160 24 0:9977T077 4 1-00010817 14 0:9995005 25 0-9974666 4+] 1-00010824 15 0:9993731 26 0:9972146 5 10001032 16 0:9992340 27 0:9969518 6 1:0000856 V7 0-9990832 28 0:9966783 7 10000555 18 0-9989207 29 0:9963941 8 1-0000129 © 19 0:9987468 30 0-9960993 9 0:9999579 20 0:9985615 Temp. Sp. Gr. Temp. Sp. Gr. Temp. Sp. Gr. Cent Cent Cent. 0° 0-9998918 10° 0-9997825 21° 09982570 alt 0-9999382 1 0°9997030 22 0:9980489 2 0-99997 17 12 O-9996117 23 0:9978300 3 0°9999920 13 0-9995080 24 0-9976000 4 0:9999995 14 0:9993922 25 0:9973587 Al 1-0000000 15 0:9992647 26 0-997 1070. 5 0:9999950 16 0:9991260 27 0:9968439 j 6 0-9999772 17 0:9989752 28 0-9965704 ib 0:9999472 18 0:9988125 29 0-9962864 8 0-9999044 19 0°9986387 30 09959917 9 0-9998497 20 0:9984534 The uncertainty which still exists respecting the temperature of the maximum density of water may, perhaps, be best illustrated by a table of the results which he brings successively under review. Observer. Calculator. Observer. Calculator. Cent. Cent. De Luc. Biot. 3°42° || Charles. Biot. 399° Ekstrand. 3-60 Paucker. 3°88 Paucker. 1-76 |\Lefevre-Gineau. |Lefevre-Gineau. | 4°44 — Hallstrom. 1-76 ||Hallstrém, Hallstrém. A435 Dalton. Dalton. 2-22 || Bischof. Bischof. 4-06 Biot. 4°35 ||Rumford. Rumford. 4:38 Gilpin. Young. 3°89 — 3-47 Biot. 3:89 ||Tralles. Tralles. 4°35 Eytelwein. 2°59 ||Hope. Hope. 3°33 Walbeck. 0-44 — 3°88 ; Hillstrém. 3°82 J — 416 - Schmidt. Eytelwein. 2:91 |/Ekstrand. Ekstrand. 3:60 . Hallstrém. 8:63 — 3:90 1825.] Scientific Notices— Miscellaneous. 157 Before commencing his investigation, Prof. H. determined in the first place the dilatation of the glass which he employed in the course of his experiments. His results, particularly in the two extremes of temperature, differ considerably from those of Lavoisier and General Roy; on which account we consider it worth while to insert them here. Temperature. | Expansion. || Temperature. | Expansion. Cent Cent 0° 0-000000 60° 0-000496 10 0-000030 10 0°000652 20 0-000081 80 0-000889 30 0-000153 90 0-001027 40 0:000246 100 0-001 246 50 0-000361 14. Prof. Oersted ona Method of accelerating the Distillation of Liquids. In Gehlen’s Journal fiir Chemie und Physik, i. 277—289, I have related a few experiments which demonstrate that the dis- engagement of gas in a fluid, resulting from chemical decompo- sition, never takes place except in contact with some solid body. This principle may without doubt be applied to the disengage- ment of vapours. Ifa metallic wire be suspended in a boiling fluid, it instantly becomes covered with bubbles of vapour. Hence it might be concluded that a large number of metallic wires, introduced into a fluid which we wish to distil, would accelerate the formation of vapours. To prove this opinion, I introduced 10 pounds of brass wire, of one-fifth of a line in diameter, loosely rolled up, into a distillatory vessel containing 20 measures (about 10 pints) of brandy: the result was, that seven measures of brandy distilled over with a heat, which, without the wire, was capable of sending over only four mea- sures. An expedient similar to this has been long in common use in England. When a steam-boiler has become encrusted with so much earthy matter that the contained water ceases to boil with rapidity, it is customary to throw in a quantity of the residue obtained from malt by extracting its soluble portion, and which consists chiefly of small grains or fibres. Here the disengage- ment of vapour is promoted by the large number of thin and solid particles. —(Tidskrift for Naturvidenskaberne.) Prof. Oersted’s information respecting the latter method. of promoting the generation of vapour, was probably derived from a paper by Mr. Bald, in the Edin. Phil. Journ. vol. ii. p. 340. The material which the engine-keepers of Scotland are in the constant practice of employing to produce this effect, is ndét, as 158 i New Patents. } [Fes M. Oersted states, the exhausted portion of malt ; although there seems no reason to doubt that it, and indeed any light substance, in a state of minute division, would prove of nearly equal effi- cacy. ‘ The substance employed,” says Mr. Bald, “is known by the name of comings, being the radicles of barley produced in the process cf malting, which are separated before the malt is sent to market. About a bushel of these is thrown into the boiler ; and when the steam is again raised, an immediate effect is visible ; for there is not only a plentiful supply of steam to produce the full working speed of the engine, but an excess of it going waste at the safety valve. This singular effect will con- tinue for several days.” ArTIcLE XIII. NEW PATENTS. J. Apsden, Leeds, bricklayer, for his improvement in the modes of producing an artificial stone.—Oct. 21, 1824. G. Dodd, St. Anne-street, Westminster, engineer, for improvements on fire-extinguishing machinery.-—Oct. 21. G.S. Harris, Caroline-place, Knightsbridge, for his machine for the purpose of giving the most effectual and extensive publicity by day and by night to all proclamations, notices, legal advertisements, and which will henceforward render unnecessary the defacement of walls and houses by bill-sticking, placarding, and chalking.—Oct. 21. J. Lingford, Nottingham, lace-machine manufacturer, for certain improvements. upon machines now in use for the purpose of making that kind of lace commonly known by the name of bobbin-net, Bucking- ham lace-net.—Nov. |. Rev. J. Somerville, Edinburgh, for the prevention of all accidental discharge of fowling-pieces or other fire-arms.—Nov. 4. J. Crosley, Cottage-lane, City-road, for better ensuring the egress of smoke and rarefied air in certain situations.—Nov. 4. T. R. Guppy, Bristol, for certain improvements in masting vessels.— Nov. 4. _ J. Head, Banbury, Oxfordshire, hosier, for improvements in ma- chinery for making cords or plait for boot and stay laces.—Nov. 4. W. Church, Birmingham, for improvements on augers and bits for boring, and in the apparatus for making the same.—Nov. 4. W. Busk, Broad-street, for improvements in propelling ships, boats, or other vessels, or floating bodies.—Nov. 4. J. White and T. Sowerby, both of Bishop Wearmouth, Durham, merchants, for their improved air furnaces for the purpose of melting” or fusing metallic substances.—Nov. 6. J. Moore, Broad Weir, Bristo), for improvements uponsteam-engines, or steam-engine apparaius.— Nov. 6. T. Cartmell, Doncaster, gun-maker, for an improved cock to be. applied to the lock of any gun, pistol, fire-arms, or ordnance, for the’ purpose of firing the same by percussion.—Nov. 6. 1825:]... Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. 159° ARTICLE XIV. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE, =e BaRoMETER, | THERMOMETER, | 1824. Wind. Max. Min. Max. | Min. | Evap. | Rain. ee ee en : { 12thMon. Dec. 1) W 29:78 29°47 43 30 — 25 Wi 29°78 29°63 45 32 = 45 3iIN W| 29:72 2965 38 | 30° | — 06 4N E| 29°75 29°72 38 31 | — 55 5| N 30°02 29°75 40 7 | — | ,; 6s wi 3000 | 2972 | 44 | 31 | — | 18 7| W 30°03 29°72 42 *|" 35 — | “s3| W 30°03 | 29°87 46 | 32 — 06 9 W 30°10 | 29°87 43 28 — 20 10N W] 30°28 30°10 42 24 — 1118 W) 3042 30°28 |. 42 38 — 02 1273S W) 30°54 30°42 46 38 —- 13,.N Wj) 30°59 $0°54 | 48 42 — 14, W 30°60 30°26 48 Al 34 01 15S Wi 30°26 30-08 48 38 — 05 16, W 30°18 30°08 | 44 35 — 17\N WES BOS PuaO DOMMIGSADANT. eee ce eras shea. 60s scuymeue leone 29,—Moon.........0-eeeee ceeceee 4 24 32:58 First or West Limb. 99 \——7r? Parts seca le ts woe Bia teeters 4 31 47°83 9O.— DAS Tanrisidccils ti ieise Seis Sap AT (AGS. SO ae MAME laieraleis ciseis's sielcieleisi< © .- 4 57, 29°88 Feb. 1.—% Gemini. ..........., See ie 6 03 46°38 1.— 9 Gemini®... .....-..... Be st deit eT 3S6 Sv OMINNG hoy ole kieteiee Beebeks ic aus io TG 39-S Y SAVAG Geman) o... ure cialeieve ere icine'e 7 97, 21:56, 1.—Moon........ Shan aoa eratniacs 7 82 30°35 First or West Limb. eed Gemini if cn: em .> Montsattas 7 36 O16! 1.—224 Gemini. ........ petaleecomhing MAL A851 1.—] Gemini. ......-..- awl » ¢ AS. 29°41 1825.] Mr. Powell on Solar Light and Heat. 201 Articte VI. Remarks on Solar Light and Heat.. By B. Powell, MA. FRS. (Continued from vol. viii. p. 293. (57.) In a former part of these remarks (16), [ adverted to the experiments on the heating power accompanying or belonging to the different prismatic rays, this being one of the principal modifications to which the solar light has been subjected, and from which conclusions respecting the nature of its heating power: have been deduced. On this part of the subject 1 propose now to make a few further observations with a view to ascertaining how far such conclusions may be substantiated, and will assist in forming a correct idea of the nature of the heating effects. (58.) It is well known that the heating power belongs to the differently coloured rays in very ditferent proportions. Among the results of different experimenters, there exists considerable discrepancy. ‘The first person to whom we owe the idea of such investigations was the Abbé Rochon.—(See Phil. Mag. June, 1815, and Biot, Traité de Physique, tome iv. p. 600.) He found the maximum in the yellow orange rays. ‘There is a much closer agreement however between subsequent observers, if we except the disagreement respecting the effect beyond the red rays. 159.) The causes of these differences are to be in some mea- sure sought in the different nature of the surfaces of the ther- mometers employed, or in the colour of the substances with which they were filled: as well as in the varying circumstances of the prism, &c. Two coatings equally described as black may be very different in the shade of colour which they exhibit. Ifthe tint incline to red for example, a less effect will be produced by the red rays. (60.) The Abbé Rochon’s result agrees with one which I have constantly obtained when the bulb was painted red. From the account of his experiments, Phil. Mag. June, 1515, it does not clearly appear what the nature of his thermometer was; but if, as I understand, it was filled with spirits, and they, as we may presume, were tinged red, bis result is fully accounted for. My experiments were as follows : Indications of ‘Differential Thermometer. Sept. 9.—9 a.m. Bulb coated with lake and vermilion. Awaye sie. ais PEL Ee LR In the orange yellow .....eeeseeeree 20 Inthe Ted Py P et d v eke led oa eley's 20 Half inch beyond. ....cercesseeeeees IZ 202 Mr. Powell on Solar Light and Heat. (Maren, Two other experiments in which the same coating was thicker, gave Exp. |. Exp. 2. fircen’. 2 3. & aig.) cote tants a Laer satel te ete Grange ydlawsc...isr) Ot shed HOG... 9's ip hea hs ace ee a eee (61.) That the heating effect produced within the limits ot the visible spectrum is of the same kind as that produced by the solar light in its ordinary state; that is to say, that it is trans+ missible through glass, and affectsa black surface more than an absorptive one, is, I conceive, sufficiently established by nume- rous experiments. I have frequently interposed a plate of glass, but without intercepting any perceptible portion of the effect on the photometer. A coating of brown or white silk also inva- riably gave a much less effect than Indian ink, or a surface of black glass. These results seem to me decisive against the hypothesis of a superposition of two spectra, one of luminous, and the other of calorific rays. (62.) It is obvious that the greater heating power displayed by the rays towards the red end of the spectrum, may be owing to either of the following causes, or to both jointly. 1. A greater intrinsic power of communicating heat. 2. A greater number of particles brought into action, or absorbed. And this last cause may depend either upon the peculiar state of division to which the rays may be reduced, or upon a greater power of absorption in the surface for these than for other coloured rays, or here again both causes may co-operate. With respect to the state of diffusion of the rays, it is obvious that the red rays are more concentrated than the yellow, and these more than the blue, &c.; so that from this cause alone we might expect a greater heating effect ; a greater number of par- ticles acting in the same space. . With respect to a possible increase of absorptive power in respect to the greater approach to the character of the extreme red hght, I am not aware that we at present possess any results which can assist such an inquiry, unless we except the view maintained by Mr. Morgan in his experiments on the light from combustion, Phil. ‘Trans. 1785, No. 1!. He considers light as matter united to other bodies by attraction, blue rays having the least, and red the greatest affinity. If this view of the subject be admitted, celeris paribus, more red particles would be absorbed than of any other coloured ray when impinging upon a surface. (63.) A notice has very recently appeared (see Annals of Phi- losophy, Sept. 1824, p. 236) of some prismatic experiments by 1825.) Mr. Powell on Solar Light and Heat. 203 Dr. Seebeck, of Berlin. These ‘very important researches tend to establish the conclusion that the position of the maximum point of heat varies in the spectrom according to the nature of the dispersing medium. | With some prisms it is situated in the yellow or orange, in those of crown glass in the centre of the red, and of flint glass beyond the red. These experiments well explain the discrepancies between different observers, though other causes before adverted to may have had some share in producing those differences. In viewing these results in reference to the nature of the heat- ing effects accompanying the rays of light, it becomes desirable to inquire whether such changes in the heating power at differ- ent parts of the spectrum are accompanied by corresponding variations in the intensity of light: whether the greater heat be owing to a greater number of calorific and illuminating rays thrown into the same space, owing to the different law of dis- ersion followed by the different refracting media. It is very doubtful however whether there are any means of ascertaming this with certainty and accuracy by means of the illuminating powers, so as to arrive at any such conclusion. But if it were shown that the light is dispersed in different proportions to the same part of the spectrum by different prisms, and that such difference corresponded to the difference of heating power, Dr. _ Seebeck’s results would in this case present no objection to the idea of the heating effect being inherent in the light, or resulting merely from light so modified as to become caloric. The elaborate experiments of M. Frauenhofer on the refractive and dispersive powers of different substances (Edin. Phil. Journ. No. 18, Art. 16), exhibit instances of a considerable alteration in the relative dispersion of the rays by different media. This was ascertained with great precision by means of the well- defined bright and dark lines which he observed crossing the spectrum. It would be extremely desirable to ascertain what effect these lines have on the heating powers of the difierent rays. If this view of the subject were not established, it might seem a natural inference that these results favour the idea of the heat being due to a separate set of rays; forif the heating power in the different parts of the spectrum can be made to vary, and the maximum can be thrown at pleasure into different coloured rays, it might be argued that the effect must depend upon some inde- pendent agent or set of rays distinct from the luminous rays. Such a conclusion however is, perhaps, more than the facts will safely warrant. ‘Those who have rejected the idea of sepa- rate rays of heat have usually gone to the opposite extreme, and supposed the heat to be identical with the light; and that the heating effect is merely the display of the same agent, light, in another form. But is this the necessary alternative! Is there 204 ‘Mr. Powell on Solar Light and Heat. [Marcu, no medium between identifying light with heat, and maintaining a totally separate set of rays? It appears to me that if we reject either one of these opinions, we are not by any means obliged to adopt the other. Without identifying the two agents, or without supposing them inseparably united, without conceiving the heating power absolutely inherent in every particle of ight, and invariable in intensity, except as the intensity of light varies, on the one hand; or on the other hand, that the heat consists of a distinct set of rays analogous to the rays of light ; we may admit it to be in some very close state of union, combi- nation, or dependence, yet so as to be susceptible of variation without a corresponding variation in the other effects of light. And such indeed, antecedently to the inquiry here adverted to, would seem the most natural and obvious way of considering the matter; because we are ignorant whether light be matter, or whether heat be motion, does it follow that there is any neces- sity for explaining the phenomena in which both agents seem concerned, by assuming them to be one and the same thing, on the one hand; or by denying that there is any sort of union between them, on the other ? (64.) To adopt a view of the subject which shall be a medium between the two extreme theories hitherto adopted appears to me not only to be what is most natural and most analogous to the views we take of other natural phenomena, but what is required by many strong facts. To suppose that rays of heat exist distinct from those of light, either in the direct solar rays, or in the prismatic beam, requires the supposition of a new and peculiar sort of radiant heat, as different from common radiant heat as it is from light ; by, which means I do not see that we obtain any more satisfactory expla- nation of the phenomena than we did before. : (65.) It is certain that whatever we suppose to be the state in which the heat exists when it so inseparably accompanies the sun’s light, there must be some peculiar circumstance in the mode of its union which makes its effects sensible only under some particular circumstances ; and under others endows it with properties which heat in its simple radiant state does not possess. In ordinary cases there is a direct communication of heat to substances with which light comes in contact. This effect is produced on all substances in some degree, but on some much more than others; and these are of a character widely different from those on which simple radiant heat is known to produce its greatest effects. ' - Heat accompanying light passes through the densest sub- stances which are completely impervious to simple radiant heat (unless first thoroughly heated), and yet produces less heating effect on these than on any class of substances which are heated at all by the impact of light. 1825.] Mr. Powell on Solar Light and Heat. 205 From these and many more examples which might be adduced, it is evident that heat accompanying solar light must be com- pletely altered in its properties by the connexion subsisting between them. aie (66.) If we had any experimental proof of the materiality of light, and should observe heating effects accompanying it, we should not hesitate to say that they were nothing more than an ordinary efiect of a combination of heat with the material sub- stance in question. But in the absence of such proof can we be permitted thus to describe the phenomenon? Did the question involve no other difficulty than this, | should reply that as we can define matter by no other tests than its observed properties, it would be the proper course for the experimentalist to deduce the nature of light from its observed properties, and not to describe those properties merely in conformity with its supposed nature. And observing real effects of ordinary heat, and finding them coextensive with the luminous beam, I do not see any real difficulty on this ground which should hinder us from describing the phenomenon as a,combination of heat with the luminous particles. It may be objected that to attribute such an union with heat to light is to assume the materiality of light, and thus to adopt gratuitous suppositions. It is never objected, however, that we make hypothetical assumptions when we talk of ordinary matter possessing a sensible temperature or latent heat, &c. and yet what assumption do we make in the case of light which is not made here ? We conceive it allowable to say that ordinary matter is com- bined with heat, yet if we come to consider the matter accu- rately, it is only that we perceive a certain degree of solidity, extension, &c. united with a certain figure, and at the same time we find the sensation or effects of heat produced coextensively with those other properties cognizable by our other senses. Why then is it not allowable in the instance of light where we perceive a certain colour, extension, direction, &c. and heating effects concomitant and coextensive with the display of those properties, to say that light has heat in a similar sort of union ‘ with it ? (67.) In the preceding parts of these remarks, various proofs have appeared of the close connexion subsisting between the Juminous rays and the heating effects accompanying them, and of the exact proportion followed so long as the light is of the same colour, and derived from the same source. . If then we can show by experiment that heating powers belong to light; if these effects accompany light in a manner and degree strictly analogous to a given class of those pheno- mena which arise from what we call an union of heat with ordi- nary matter; why should we not be permitted to describe the facts by expressions framed upon such analogy? 206 Mr. Powell on Solar Light and Heat. [March, Those effects which we call effects of caloric in ordinary mat- ter, pervade it in different ways, and are exhibited in several sorts of union or connexion. In order then to adopt with pro- priety this mode of describing the calorific phenomena of light, the chief point is to examine carefully whether the analogy does hold good; and to show to what part of the phenomena of heat in its combination with ordinary matter, those of its union with light are to be compared. The first and most obvious idea is, can the effects be ascribed to what we might call the high temperature of light? Since light is known to pass through many very dense media, and communicate very little if any heat to them, it might be inferred that it possesses no sensible temperature of its own ; but this inference is obviously of no force: for in passing through transparent media, most of the luminous particles are never in contact with those of the medium, but pass probably between them and that with inconceivable velocity; so that whatever heat they may possess, they are incapable of communicating it. Some few rays are stopped and absorbed by the medium and more as it possesses a less perfect transparency ; and in propor- tion as this is the case, we know that heat is always communi- cated, and all transparent bodies, after being some time exposed to the sun’s rays, become heated. When we come to consider the different development of its heating power on bodies of different colour, the effects are totally unlike those of temperature. On this principle, the hea- ting effect would depend upon the impact of light rather than its absorption, and it should not be greater on a black than on a white surface. But perhaps the difference of calorific power in the prismatic rays is the strongest evidence against attributing the effect to temperature; for in this case how could such difference of temperature be maintained, supposing it could be originally communicated, when the rays are all in contact, and moving with equal velocities ? From these considerations, it would follow that the heat must exist in some state of combination with the light, more intimate and more connected with its changes and modifications than that belonging to heat of temperature. In order to be the better prepared for following up this inquiry, I propose shortly to bring forward some experiments and conclusions, which are supplementary to some researches on light and heat from terrestrial sources lately read before the Royal Society. (See reports of the Royal Society, Annals, p. 224.) (To be continued.) 825.] On the Climate of the Antediluvian World. 207 ArtTIcLe VII. On the Climate of the Antediluvian World, and its Independence of Solar Influence; and on the Formation of Granite. By Sir Alexander Crichton, Knight, St. W. FRS. &c. (Concluded from p. 108.) Havine endeavoured to prove, in the first part of this essay, that the laws of vitality, especially those to which the life of vegetables is subjected, afford an almost certain rule for Judging of temperature ; and having shown by tlie character of the fossi remains of the earliest plants of which we have any knowledge, that an uniformly high temperature exerted its influence over every part of the globe where they are found, I passed to the consideration of other geological facts, all of which are connected with the same subject, such as the similarity of the fossil remains in the transition and mountain limestone, and the dif- ferent temperature of hot springs according to their respective depths, and the heat of waters which issue from rocks in deep mines. From all these facts, the conclusion appears to be ine- vitable, that in the very early periods of time, the heat of the earth was greater and more uniformly diffused, than can be accounted for by solar influence. The analogy between crystalline substances (which we know to be of igneous origin) and granite, and the recent discoveries of Mr. Mitcherlich, were added as strong arguments in support of the doctrine. As chemical science has now opened a road by which we may account in a natural manner for the formation of granite, and also for the high temperature which resulted from its immediate production, we need not have recourse to any overstrained conjecture to account for the fact, such as the notion of a great and unaccountable change in the direction of the earth’s axis, an idea which is totally unsupported by analogy or reason. It is not possible for the imagination to conceive a state of chaos and disorder and of intense heat, like that which must have happened during the rapid ignition and oxidation of the metallic nucleus. Whether granite be the stratum of oxidized metals nearest the nucleus is very doubtful. From the exami- nation of many collections of volcanic ejections, | am much inclined to think that some micaceous beds lie under granite.* * The varietics of natural mineral compounds which assume the crystalline form of mica are numerous. If we except those compound substances which assume the form of garnets, there are none so diversified in their chemical constitution, arid therefore there may exist micaceous forms under granite which differ from those that belong to it, or which lie over it, or are connected with other rocks. Masses of purely micaceous rocks appear to have been ejected from Vesuvius on its first bursting forth at the same time that pieces of granite were also thrown out. 208 Sir A. Crichton on the [Marcu, If the supposition be well founded, that granite and its asso- ciates are of igneous origin, inasmuch as they are the result of quick oxidation and fusion, there ought not to be any great con- stancy in the super-position or juxta-position of these rocks, for it is clear that they may have varied according to the preponde- rance of any one metal, or any number of metals, in any given portion of the metallic nucleus. Other causes appear to have co-operated with this in produc- ing a considerable variety in the mechanical aggregation of the primitive rocks, as well as in their forms and relative position. In a paper expressly written on antediluvian temperature, it cannot be expected that I should enter fully into an examination of all these causes; yet a cursory view of some of them is una- voidable for the elucidation of what is to follow. The immediate effect of the oxidating process of the metallic mass would necessarily be a violent ebullition, agitation, and evaporation, of the surrounding fluid, and also the formation of yarious gases and gaseous oxides. Although the extinction of the ignition would result as soon as a crust of earthy oxides (the primitive rocks) was formed, yet during the consolidation of these, the action of the watery vapour, included between the intensely heated nucleus and the hot involucrum, would give an elastic force to the included vapour commensurate with its heat. When to this supposition is added the phenomena resulting from causes which we have every reason to believe to be similar, such as the sudden elevation of islands and of great tracts of land on the coasts, as well as the equally sudden depression of other tracts of continents, we are furnished with strong reasons for believing that many parts of the imperfectly solid and still heated granitic mass must have been elevated and rent in various places, giving birth to groups and chains of granitic mountains, the peaks of which, although greatly worn down since that period, still exhibit a character of ruggedness and rupture which peculiarly coincides with the theory. The tollowing account of the highest granitic peak in the Upper Oroonka district, taken from the justly celebrated Baron Humbold’s excellent work, entitled “ Personal Narrative,” is appropriate to the present subject, and so singularly interesting in itself, as to justify its insertion in this place. I may premise that the granitic peak called Duida is estimated by this scientific traveller at 1,300 toises above the level of the sea. “The granitic summit of Duida is so nearly perpendicular that the Indians have vainly attempted the ascent. It is known that mountains the least elevated are sometimes the most mac- cessible. At the beginning and at the end of the rainy season, small flames, which seem to change their place, are seen on the top of Duida. This phenomenon, which it is difficult to doubt on account of the agreement in the testimony concerning it, has 1825.] Climate of the Antediluvian World, 209 given this mountain the improper name of a volcano. As it stands nearly alone, it might be supposed that lightning from time to time sets fire to the brushwood; but this supposition loses its probability when we reflect on the extreme ditficulty with which plants are set on fire in these damp climates. It must be observed, also, that these little flames are said to appear often where the rock seems scarcely covered with turf, and that the same igneous phenomena are displayed on days entirely exempt from storms on the summit of Guaraco, or Murcielago, a hill opposite the mouth of the Rio Tamatama, on the southern bank of the Oroonoko. This hill is scarcely elevated 100 toises above the neighbouring plains. If the assertions of the natives be true, it is probable that some subterraneous cause exists in Duina and Guaraco, that produces these flames ; for they never appear in the lofty neighbouring mountains of Jao and Mara- uanca, so often wrapped in electric storms. “ The first cause of these igneous phenomena is at immense depths below the secondary rocks in the primitive formations : the rains. and the decomposition of water act only a secondary part. The hottest springs of the globe issue immediately from granite. Petroleum gushes from mica schist, and _ fright- ful detonations are heard at Encaramada, between the rivers Arauca and Cuchivero, in the midst of the granitic soil of the Oroonoko and the Sierra Parima. Here, as every where else on the globe, the focus of volcanos is in the most ancient strata ; and it appears that an intimate connexion exists between the great phenomena that heave up and liquefy the crust of our planet and those igneous meteors which are seen from time to time on its surface, and which from their littleness we are tempted to attribute solely to the influence of the atmosphere.” —(See Personal Narrative, vol. v. p. 552 et seq. and vol. ii. chap. 5, p. 291, and vol. iv. chap. 14, p. 44.) in the first part of this essay, it was stated in a general way, on the authority of Baron Humboldt, that the thermal springs of South America received their heat from the primitive rocks. The following passages are remarkable :—Speaking of thermal springs in the neighbourhood of the lake of Valencia, he says, “ These springs gush out at three points of the granitic cordillera of the coast; near Onato, between Turmero and Maracay ; near Murisa to the north-east of the Hacienda de Cura; and near Les ‘Trencheras, on the road from Nueva Valencia to Porto Cabello. I could examine with care only the thermal waters of Mariara and Las Trencheras.” The mountains of Mariara, he says, “ form a vast amphitheatre, composed of perpendicular rocks, crowned by peaks with rugged summits.” The granite which constitutes the peak of Calavera is separated, he assures us, by perpendicular fissures into prismatic masses. er These extracts | have inserted not with a view of proying any New Series, vou. 1x. P 210 Str A. Crichton on the [Marca, analogy between the igneous phenomena of Duida and volea- nos, but merely to justify the assertion concerning the deep fissures of granitic peaks, and the heat derived from their foun- dations: where it may be supposed there is a vicinity to the still hot nucleus of the earth. . The softening, elevation, and rupture, of the first formed gra- nitic mountains, and the action of the agitated ocean, would pros duce the separation of an infinite number of minute grains of the newly-formed crystalline substances, many of which would be suspended mechanically for a longer or shorter time accord- ing to their respective gravity on the one hand, and the greater or lesser agitation of the waters on the other. Some earthy oxides, such as the argillaceous oxide or clay, which have a kind of mechanical attraction for water, which is not perfectly understood, would be longer suspended than the minute crystals of mica, amphibole, quartz, or feldspar, and would be precipitated, all other things being alike, at a later period, and hence in the generality of cases gneiss lies under the argillaceous beds and rocks where these are found. The presence of anthracite in the fissures of primitive rocks demonstrates that carbon was an elementary ingredient in the nucleus of the elementary globe ; and it is therefore reasonable to conclude that, during the state of ignition, it would attract oxygen from the decomposition of the water, and form carbonic acid, which, after combining with the waters, would render it a solvent for all such metallic oxides as have a powerful attraction for it, and which are rendered more soluble through its agency, such as lime (oxide of calcium), and magnesia (oxide of magne- sium). The precipitation of such carbonated oxides (limestone and magnesian rocks) would depend chiefly on the agency of three well known causes; first, the continued formation of more oxides than the waters could dissolve ; second/y, the diminution of temperature ; and thirdly, the effects of evaporation. These few principles throw much light on the formation of jaspers and serpentines of aqueous origin, and of the limestone rocks, especially if to such causes be added the heat of the sub- jacent rock on which they fell, and the pressure of the strata which were precipitated after them: and the same principles lead to an explanation of the various anomalies we meet with in the forms and relative positions of the primitive rocks. All the formations from the granite to the deposits on which the diluvian boulder stones and gravel lie, demonstrate, by their organic remains, that there has been a gradual diminution of temperature from the earliest times till the earth was fitted for the creation of man, and the present race of animals, at which period it appears to have been entirely under solar influence and seasons. 1825.] Climate of the Antediluvian World. lr “During the long period of time comprehended between these remote points, the development of vegetable and animal life has passed through a great variety of remarkable forms, totally dif- ferent from each other, and unlike those which exist in our days; but what peculiarly characterizes the living forms of the ancient world in contradistinction to the present races is, that in each epocha we meet with genera and species which have a perfect resemblance with each other over the whole surface of the globe, at least as far as it has been explored. The ¢reat distances of thése parts which have been examined both as to latitude and longitude, justify in a great degree the accuracy of the assertion. A minute examination of these ancient relics with those which bear the closest resemblance to them among our present races of vegetables and animals, seems to prove that the process has been from the simplest forms to the more complicated structures, and from those which require a constancy of heat and moisture to those which were fitted for great alternations of heat and cold, and for a great variety of soil. As far as the great collection of facts which relate to the remains of organized bodies justifies their being generalised under this point of view, we seem to have a right to say, that the series of living forms which nature has observed is nearly as follow ; first, a few plants of very doubtful character in the oldest greywacke slate; then zoophites, and crustaceous moluscee with trilobites; afterwards an abundant creation of acotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants ; after these a great increase of marine testaceous and crustaceous molusce and zoophytes ; then fishes, birds, and oviparous quadrupeds, comprehending the Saurian family ; afterwards dicotyledonous plants ; then marine mammialia; and: lastly, terrestrial mammalia, and the present race of animals. The fossil remains of these lie buried in beds, which overlie each other, nearly in the order mentioned ; and between the beds or strata are generally found others which do not contain any fossil remains, and which mark intervals of time in the process of their extinction. The study of these remains and the strata in which they lie, cannot, I think, fail to produce an entire conviction on the mind of every impartial person, that their death was slow and gradual, there never having been at any one period a total and sudden destruction of the whole of the living races until the Deluge. When the character of the vegetables and animals of the ancient world is duly considered in a physiological point of view a8 testimonies of temperature, we are led to the belief that the various living forme appeared in regular succession accordingly as the temperature of the earth suffered diminution ; each suc- ceeding race becoming fitted by its peculiarity of organization to support a colder climate, and increasing vicissitudes of heat and cold. P2 212 Sir A. Crichton on the [Marcu, In the present state of the world, the ratio of dicotyledonous to acotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants is Known to imcrease (all other circumstances affecting climate being alike) in propertion to the distance from tropical regions. In the cooler regions of the temperate zones, the proportion is as 60 to l. Inthe torrid zones as 5 or 6 to 1. But in the very ancient world, all over the surface of the globe, we find nothing resem- bling a dicotyledonous plant until we come to the oolite, therefore, there is room to suppose that every part of the surface of the earth at that period was hotter than our hottest regions. _ We now know from various facts that certain forms of vege- tables and animals exist and multiply in a constant temperature which approaches nearly to the heat of boiling water. Dunbar and Hunter, in the journey they made along the river Ouachita, in Luisiana, found bivalves, and confervas, and other plants, in a hot spring, the temperature of which was between 40° and 50° of Reaumeur’s thermometer. Sonnerat and Prevost state, that they discovered in the island of Lucon a stream of hot water of HY° Reaumeur, and that the roots of the agnus castus and a spe- cies of aspalatus grew in it. Buta much more remarkable fact is mentioned by Forster, who found living plants growing at the base of a volcanic mountain in the island of Tanna, and that the heat of the soil in which they grew was 210° Fahr. In the strata of the lias we meet with a rich collection of fossil remains, but among them there are none which prove the exist- ence of any one terrestrial quadruped. There are plenty of cro- codiles, and we are introduced for the first time since the forma- tion of granite to the Saurian family. Previously to entering into the consideration of these, it may be observed, that the laws of animal life do not afford the natu- ralist quite so certain a rule for judging of heat and climate as plants do; for every animal, from its being indued with a locomo- tive faculty, can roam to a great extent in quest of food, and is fitted to live where that can be found in sufficient abundance. Nevertheless we know of many, the health and existence of which force them to keep within certain boundaries of tempera- ture. These, together with the antediluvian members of their families, are the only witnesses that can properly be brought forward to corroborate the testimony of the antediluvian flora, _ The examination of the analogies which have a reference to this subject is attended with difficulty, and confessedly with some want of precision, merely from the vague and loose manner in which the denominations of the geographical zones are applied to the residence of animals. Some are described as inhabitants of the torrid zone, others of the temperate zone, others of the polar regions. In many cases, this is sufficient for general pur- oses ; but as many genera and species of animals, both amphi- eon and terrestrial, are confined to a range of from 12° to 20°, 1825.] Climate of the Antediluvian World. 213 and as some live on the borders of the temperate and torrid zones, but not in every part of each, these regions ought to be better described. In the present essay, however, all that appears to be neces- sary is to point out the most striking instances of animals of hot climates which have an analogy with the fossil species of the same genera, and by stating the places in which their bones are found, to prove a similarity of temperature. Before doing so, however, it may be right to call the attention of some readers to the consideration of an opinion which still prevails, notwithstanding all that has been written on the subject, and notwithstanding the late discoveries of the celebrated Prof. Buckland, which ought to have set the matter quite at rest for ever. The opinion is, that the remains of crocodiles, hippota- moses, opossums, rhinoceroses, hyenas, and other animals of hot climates, which are found all over Europe, were not the inhabi- tants of the regions in which their skeletons and bones are dis- covered, but that they were scattered over the surface of the earth after their death by some great destructive catastrophe resembling the Noachian deluge, of which several are supposed to have occurred. Geology does not offer any collection of facts upon which it is possible to build an hypothesis of this kind ; for although we find in the oldest conglomerate and greywacke fragments of pri- mitive rocks (and this is the first or earliest appearance of any thing resembling diluvian detritus), yet the very agitated state of the waters occasioned by the intense heat of the subjacent strata would account for the phenomena. But allowing the argument its full force as to an analogy with a deluge, it is evident that it is not applicable to the question concerning the distribution of fossil remains, inasmuch as the creation of animated beings had not then begun. The next great series of geological facts which bear tes- timony to the destructive agency of some powerful and gene- ral set of causes, is not met with until after the formation of the transition limestone. Soon after this period, a general convulsion of nature appears to have happened, leaving the most indisputable testimonies of its violence :—I allude to the complete rupture and dislocation of the newly-formed strata. Previously to their consolidation, these do not appear to have suffered any other disturbance during their formation than such as the gentlest motions of the waters would account for. The trilobites, and the few shells which are found in the transition limestone, are entire; and if the stems of encrinites and pentacrinites are broken and dispersed, it is a phenomenon which is capable of easy explanation, inasmuch as the weight and tenacity of the precipitated magma (carbonated oxide of calcium) would be sufficient to crush the slender stems of such zoophites, and carry the fragments along with it to a short. 214 ‘f Sir A. Crichlonon the (Marcu, distance, which corresponds with the relative situation in-which the broken parts are found. That a stratum of a half liquid precipitate should be formed of nearly equal thickness im a highly inclined position is incredible ; and we, therefore, have a right to infer, that this position in which it is commonly found was one into which it had been forced long after its perfect consolidation by the operation of some powerful causes. ' There is one which may be reasonably conjectured to have exerted a great influence in producing the effect,—I mean the elastic vapours confined between the intensely heated metallic nucleus and the newly-formed crust of oxides.- This may have acquired a force greater than the pressure which was acting on it, and to have burst its fetters, rupturing and oyerthrowing the superincumbent strata in the same manner as we find in our days whole tracts of land overthrown by subterraneous agencies of a probably similar kind. It is to this period that we must refer the elevation of continents and mountains, on the summits and surface of which we find proofs of their submarine origin ; and it is to this period of general conyulsion that we are also to look for the subsidences of other parts, forming the greater basins into which the ocean retreated, and the lesser basins which afterwards were filled with fresh water torrents and rain. But at this period of time the great work of creation had made but little progress, and the only animals which existed belonged to the sea. None appear to have been destroyed by this great catastrophe, and if we find a difference between the zoophites and marine mollusce which were deposited afterwards, there is no way of accounting for the phenomenon but in the diminution of temperature which was gradually taking place. Since this period of disorder until the appearance of the dilu- vian boulder stones and gravel, I do not know of any geological appearances which have the mast distant resemblance to the wrecks of a deluge. The work of creation, on the contrary, appears to have proceeded with great regularity, varying and multiplying the living forms according as the temperature varied, and as dry land and alluvial soils were produced. It is impossible to deny that many ancient continents and alluvial deposits have been frequently overflowed both by salt and fresh water. “They have left indisputable testimonies of the fact. But these were ali of them partial in comparison with the- two events described, or with the deluge; and that the animals, the remains of which they covered with new deposits, were dead before the inundations, appears from the perfect state of their skeletons. ; When to these considerations are added the late remarks of Prof. Buckland on his discovery of the dens cf antediluvian hyenas, Xc. in this country, no doubt can be left on the mind of an unprejudiced person, that the animals of hot climates, the fossil bones of which are found distributed over both continents, 1825.) © Climate of the Antediluvian World. 215 and in every degree of latitude, were, in ancient times, the natu- ral inhabitants of the places in which their remains are disco- vered. Alligators and crocodiles, it is well known, are confined by their nature to the very hottest regions of the earth. They are chiefly found in the Niger, the Nile, the Ganges, the Amazone, and other rivers of the torrid zone. So de- pendent are they on a hot temperature, that it has been found impossible to protract their lives beyond a very short period when brought into a temperate one, except by artificial tem- perature. Bonnard, in his Dictionnaire d’Histoire Naturelle, copies the following passage from M. Perrault’s account of a living crocodile which was brought to Versailles. It is so much to the point that I cannot avoid inserting it :—“ Disons d’abord, que le spectacle de cet animal vivant, deja si propre par lui- méme a exciter la curiosité, parut surtout extraordinaire par la circonstance de la saison ot lon étoit alors, et par celle du climat. Car le froid est tellement contraire au crocodile qu’en Amerique et en Egypte méme, au rapport des auteurs, cet ani- mal ne peut passer les nuits d’été que dans l’eau, qui alors est beaucoup plus chaude que l’air. Ceux qui avoit apporté par terre depuis le Rochelle, le crocodile dont il s’agit, dirent qu’ils Vavoient cru mort plusieurs fois, et n’avoient pu le faire revenir -qu’en le mettant auprés du feu.” This crocodile lived only a little more than a month. The living crocodile is never found in any part of Europe, but its fossil remains are discovered all over it, and in various beds. The fossil remains of a species of didelphis or opossum have been found in the oolitic beds of England. No living opossum is ever found in a corresponding latitude, nor indeed do any exist in Europe. The living species are chiefly inhabitants of South America, and are principally found in Brasil, Guiana, Mexico, and range into Virginia. The chief residence of the hippopotamos is in Africa, between the river Senegal and the Cape of Good Hope, and in several tropical rivers of Asia, The bones of the antediluvian hippopo- tami are found in the upper valley of the Arno in great abun- dance ; and as Baron Cuvier assures, in almost as great numbers as those of rhinoceroses and elephants. They are also frequently met with in the neighbourhood of Rome, and in the county of Middlesex, in the neighbourhood of Brentford,—(See Mr. Trm- mer’s account of them in the Phil. Trans. for 1813.) Aloug with these there were also found the bones of rhinoceroses and elephants. As to fossil elephants’ bones, they are found all over the continents of Europe and America. Not only European Russia, but almost all Siberia, teems with them. It is surely needless to multiply facts of this kind. If more be required, the reader is referred to the classical and truly 216 On the Climate of the Antediluvian World. [Marcu, philosophical works of Baron Cuvier, especially to his Recher- ches sur-les Ossemens Fossiles. The fossil remains found in one of the uppermost of our strata, the London clay, indicate for all the places in England, as also for others on the continent of Europe where contemporaneous deposits are met with, a temperature equal to that of the West Indies and the north of Africa. In these deposits the fossil remains begin to bear a close analogy to living genera and species. We have no means of measuring the lapse of years from the period of these depositions to the creatiun of man. From the time of the Deluge to the birth of Christ is 2348, according to the Hebrew text, and consequently 4173 years from the present date. The creation of man is supposed to have been 1656 years before the Deluge, making altogether 5829 years since Adam. Now supposing a period of 1000 years to have elapsed from the extinction of those races of animals to the creation of man, we have a period of 6829 years, during which the climate of Great Britain has been reduced from the heat of the West Indies, or the north of Africa to its present standard. The whole surface of the earth seems to have suffered a great diminution of temperature by the action of the Deluge, the waters acting as a medium between the earth and its surround- ing atmosphere. On the retreat of the waters, another cause of cold arose in the immense evaporation. which followed ; and as the radiation of heat from the centre of the earth was constantly going on, we have a right to presume that the equality of tem- perature on the surface of the earth was greatly destroyed by that catastrophe, and that the loss of terrestrial heat has been much more rapid since the Deluge than in an equal lapse of time preceding it. Solar heat is insufficient to compensate the loss of caloric in the polar regions where the fields of ice seem con- stantly increasing. But at the period of the deposition of the London clay, and its contemporaneous formations, it appears probable from the animal remains they contain, that the heat on the surface of the earth was not much greater at the time of their existence than it is at presert in places which are inhabited by many of the human race. If the earth was not then fitted for man, it must have been owing to other causes than mere temperature ; it could not have lost much heat by radiation between that period and his creation. According to the Hebrew text, the human race began to be renewed after the Deluge in those regions where solar influence is great, and consequently in a temperature which corresponded the most with that which had been nearly universal over the earth at his creation and till the Deluge. At present the loss of terrestrial heat is so great that we’ are 1825. Prof. Renwick on Torrelite. 917 wholly dependent on solar influence. The glaciers descend the mountains; and regions which were green with vegetation, and inhabited, are now wholly frozen and deserted. The reflections to which this leads would be entirely out of place. My object has been merely to throw together a collection of remarkable factsin geology,whichit appeared to metobe time to generalize, so as to become more intelligible, and as elucidating each other. How far I have succeeded must be left to the decisions of those competent judges who peruse your journal, and whose remarks and criticisms I shall receive with pleasure. ArticLe VIII. Examination of a Mineral from Sussex County, New-Jersey. By Prof. Renwick.* THE substance in question exists intimately connected with, and disseminated through the ore of the Andover mine ; an ore that was at one period famous for producing the best iron in North America, and the only kind from which steel has been successfully manufactured. This ore appears, at the first glance, to be composed of three very distinct substances. The first is intermediate in appearance between granular Franklinite and large-grained magnetic iron ore : On a cursory examination, it seems to be a protoxide of iron with a slight trace of zinc. The second is an amorphous quartz, tinged with a colour varying from a pale rose colour to a deep vermillion. The third is of a dull vermillion red, and of a granular fracture; in some specimens fine, in others coarse- grained. This last was chosen as the subject of examination; it is hard enough to scratch glass; its powder is rose red; it slightly affects the magnet; and it effervesces with acids. It had been supposed to be a red oxide of zinc. My first experi- ments showed that it had no analogy with that substance, and it having been subjected to the action of the blowpipe by Dr. Torrey, he inferred that it contains cerium, as it formed with borax a glass that was green while hot, but lost its colour on cooling. Exposed alone to the blowpipe, it is infusible. To ascertain its nature, it was subjected to the following pre- liminary process : A. (1.) A small portion was separated, and reduced to fine pow- der inasteel dish. In this state it was acted upon with violent effervescence by nitro-muriatic and muriatic acids ; giving with the latter the peculiar smell of hydrogen. The action ceased in * Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York, 218 Prof. Renwick on Torrelite. [Marcn; about half an hour, leaving a considerable part of the mass undissolved, and but little altered in appearance. ; The muriatic solution being acted upon by tests showed, among others, the following phenomena: rot (2.) With ferrocyanate of potash a copious blue precipitate, (3.) With ammonia a precipitate ofa rich vermillion red, . (4.) With carbonate of ammonia a reddish white precipitate, (5.) With hydrosulphuret of potash, a milky appearanee, that, subsiding, left a scanty brown precipitate. (6.) The compounds of cerium being soluble in excess of acid, the nitro-muriatic solution was concentrated until the greater part of the free acid had evaporated, and was then neutralized to the point of nascent precipitation by carbonate of soda. (7.) A part of the liquor in No. 6 being diluted, crystals of sulphate of soda were thrown in ; these, after some hours, were dissolved, causing a white precipitate, (8.) To another portion of the concentrated and neutralized nitro-muriatic solution (6) tartrate of potash was added, on which a copious white precipifate ensued. The suspicion that the substance contained cerium being thus confirmed, it was subjected to a more strict examination, as follows ; B. (1.) A mass weighing nearly an ounce, and containing a very few small grains of the oxide of iron, was broken from the cor- ner of one of the specimens. Weighed by means of a very accu- rate hydrostatic balance, it appeared to have a specific gravity of 3°25, (2.) This mass being first crushed into fragments in a steel mortar, all the extraneous matter was carefully picked out with a forceps ; it was then reduced to impalpable powder by long grinding in an agate dish, (3.) Fifty grains of the powder were boiled for half an hour in nitro-muriatic acid, the solution assumed a rich yellow colour, and a considerable residuum was left, which, separated, washed, and dried, had lost in weight exactly 27 grains. (4.) The insoluble portion (3) was then put into a silver eruci- ble with 70 grains caustic potash ; water being thrown on, the mixture was boiled, evaporated to dryness, and finally fused. The fused mass was softened by water, and separated from the crucible; muriatic acid being then added, the solid matter swelled up into a gelatinous mass. This was evaporated to dry- ness, being constantly stirred throughout the process, and after- wards boiled for two hours in very dilute muriatic acid. The whole was then thrown upon a filter, and carefully washed; the insoluble portion when dry was found to weigh 16:3 grains, was white, with a faint and hardly perceptible tinge of rose colour. (5.) The nitro-muriatic solution and washings (3), and the 1825.] ° Prof. Renwick on Torrelite. 219 muriatic solution and washings (4), having been mixed, liquid ammonia was added in excess, which threw down a red preci- pitate; the supernatant clear liquor was poured off; the residue thrown on a filter and washed, and the liquor with the washings set by for further experiment. See (12). (6.) The precipitate (5) was redissolved in a small quantity of muriatic acid, and the solution concentrated ; tartrate* of potash was added until effervescence ceased, when crystals of tartaric acid were thrown in, by which a copious white precipitate was roduced. . ; (7.) This precipitate (6) was decomposed by heat, which, being pushed too hastily, a portion of charcoal was left ; lest any carbonate of potash should be present, in consequence of a portion of the precipitate (6) being the difficultly soluble bitar- trate of potash, the mass was washed with very weak vinegar, To separate the carbon, the mass was again acted upon by a small quantity of muriatic acid, and the solution filtered. (8.) The new muriatic solution was decomposed by ammonia, which threw down a red precipitate, that, when washed and dried, weighed 6°16 grains. (9.) Lest the acetic acid (7) had carried off any part of the mineral, it was tested with ammonia, but no precipitate ensued. (10.) Into the liquor remaining after precipitation by tartrate of potash and tartaric acid (6), ferrocyanate of potash was dropped; a milky appearance first took place, and finally a copious precipitate of a pale blue colour. ‘This precipitate, when dried, weighed 28-9 grains; which, supposing it to be a ferrocyanate of the protoxide of iron, and its equivalent number 99, gives on reduction 10:5 grains protoxide of tron. (11.) To the liquor yet remaining (10), carbonate of ammonia was added ; a white powder was thrown down, weighing 1°84 rains, $ (12.) The ammoniacal liquor and washings after the first pre- cipitation (5) were boiled for an hour, but no precipitate ensued ; being then acted upon by carbonate of soda, a greyish precipi- tate fell, weighing when dried 20°92, and manifesting the pre- sence of 12:04 grains caustic lime. C. (1.) Another portion of the powdered mineral was exposed for an hour to a red heat in a platina crucible; its weight was reduced from 50 to 48-25 grains. (2.) It was then treated as before (B. 3) with nitro-muriatic acid, the insoluble portion fused with caustic potash, &c. as in (B. 4), and the whole. of the liquors united, as in (B, 5). The mixture was then concentrated to separate the excess of acid, and again diluted with water. Crystals of sulphate of soda * Query Carbonate 2—C, 220 Prof. Renwick on Torrelite. [Marcn, thrown in were, after a few hours, dissolved; a precipitate ensued, which, washed, and dried, weighed 8-62 grains. Ifthe representative number of cerium be 92, this, when reduced, will — ive 6:06 grains of peroxide of cerium. (3.) The liquor whence the cerium had been precipitated (2), being tested by the oxalate and benzoate of ammonia, showed the presence of lime and protoxide of iron. The more important results of the analysis B. being thus con- firmed, it was not considered necessary to extend the process farther. The results may be, it is believed, depended upon, except so far as the equivalent numbers of ferrocyanic acid and cerium enter into the calculations of (B. 10) and (C. 2), and the doubt whether a small proportion of some other metal may not have been thrown down in (B. 10). This analysis shows the following to be the constitution of the substance : Grains. PR EA Ais. toe dieiaio nds Glee sols Cl a 16°30 Peroxide of cerium, B.(8) .......... 6:16 Protoxide of iron, B.(16) .......... 10°50 Alumines abs OL). ot cstetw chats wp sicvaas 1:84 BARTS, Fay (LS icesd « «nies nile, ost? (an a4) dee WV ter, Mish adh «sje vain, 6 opepnistsalatega aps aievors 1-75 LOSS, » «sai aps eioisye Sian Lnsbni'n etal hee 50-00 As this mineral neither agrees in external characters nor chemical constitution with any other compound of cerium, that has been hitherto described, I have little hesitation in announc- ing it as a new ore of that metal. It appears to possess the nearest analogy in its composition with the Allanite. This last, by the analysis of Thompson, quoted in Macneven’s edition of Brande’s Chemistry, has in 5( parts, lees # ck Te ee, af ted ht aye 2 15:80 Onide oF cerning ts eS AN 15°18 Alaumames ionietel sis tS See SEL: 1:83 Protoxidevohinon’. hk a. eo else 11°34 aries AAAS Ge iets ocdua hi See Biots Oe 4-1] WV erteralt. PSI WS, Planet ete RO 50:00 If my surmise in this respect be true, | should propose to name it the Torrelite, in honour of my friend Dr. John Torrey, to whom mineralogical science is under many important obligations, and to whom this tribute is fairly due, as it is to his nice tact in the management of the blowpipe, that the discovery of cerium in the substance is to be attributed. 1825.] Mr. Children on the Analysis of Torrelite. 221 Observations on the Analysis of Torrelite. By J. G. Children, FRS. &c. Several months before the second number of the Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York (from which we have copied the preceding article), arrived in this country, my friend Mr. J. F. Daniell, received a specimen of Torrelite from Professor Renwick, which he put into my hands for examination with respect to its containing oxide of cerium. I shall briefly state the results of the experiments to which I submitted it. Heated to redness in a small matrass, the assay gave off a little water; it did not decrepitate, nor suffer any change in its appearance. Before the blowpipe, with soda, on the platina wire, it gave in the oxidating flame. an opaque deep green globule, rather inclining to blue ; by the addition of nitre the colour became pure deep green. In the reducing flame, the assay became brown. With borax, it dissolved readily ; in the oxidating flame the globule was transparent, and of a fine amethyst colour. In the reducing flame, light yellow whilst hot, and colourless when cold. It remained perfectly transparent. Salt of phosphorus had very little action on a small fragment of the assay ; the globule in the oxidating flame was quite trans- parent ; yellow hot, colourless cold. In the reducing flame, colourless both hot and cold. The fragment remained enve- loped in the diaphanous glass, apparently very little altered. A portion of the assay reduced to fine powder was more readily acted on by the salt of phosphorus than the fragment, but the appearances were similar, except that the colour was rather deeper. A considerable silica skeleton remained in the fused globule, which, when cold, was slightly opaline. Alone in the forceps, the mineral fused with difficulty on the surface, bubbled up, and became covered with a vitrified greenish grey transparent coating. These experiments give no indication of the presence of oxide of cerium, but as that substance, when in combination with iron and silica, cannot be detected by the blowpipe, no certain infer- ence, as to its presence or absence, could be drawn from them. They demonstrate, however, that the mineral contains manga- nese in considerable quantity, of which the analysis takes no notice. It is stated in Mr. Renwick’s paper, that Dr. Torrey inferred, that the mineral “ might contain cerium as it formed with borax a glass that was green whilst hot, but lost its colour on cooling.” The characters which Berzelius gives of oxide of cerium with borax before the blowpipe are, “that itformsin the exterior flame a beautiful red or deep orange yellow glass, whose colour fades 222 Mr. Children on the Analysis of Torrelite. [Maren on cooling, and is ultimately reduced to a yellowish tint ; by flaming, the glass becomes enamel white. In the reducing flame it loses its colour.”* That these characters are accurately given, I can vouch from experiment. A portion of the mineral in fine powder was digested in nitro muriatic acid to dryness. The dry mass was redissolved in water, with the addition of a little muriatic acid, and afew drops of nitric. A part remained undissolved, which on examination proved to consist of silica with a little oxide of iron and oxide of manganese. This being separated by the filter, ammonia was added to the clear solution, which threw down an abundant dark*red precipitate. (a). The whole was thrown on the filter, and the ammoniacal solution set aside. On standing a few hours, it deposited a portion of pure oxide of manganese; and on the addition of oxalate of ammonia, afforded an abundant white precipitate, which was found to consist merely of oxalate of lime with a considerable quantity of oxalate of manganese. The dark red precipitate (a) was redissolved in muriatic acid with a few drops of nitric acid, the solution carefully neutralized by ammonia, and an excess of oxalate of ammonia dropped into it. At first that reagent occasioned no precipitate, but after a large quantity of the. oxalate had been added, the solution became turbid, and on standing deposited a small white precipi- tate. This was separated by decanting off the supernatant fluid and well washed. On examination it proved to be nearly pure oxalate of manganese, for being heated in a platina cap- sule over the spirit lamp to redness, it left a dark brown sub- stance, which gave with soda and nitre, before the blowpipe, an Opaque dark green globule in the oxidating flame, and with borax a transparent one of a beautiful amethyst colour, which disappeared when heated in the reducing flame. Ammonia added in excess to the solution from which the last precipitate had been separated, threw down a large quantity of red oxide of iron mixed with a little manganese, and on pouring in a solution of prussiate ‘of potash to the ammoniacal liquor, previously filtered, a considerable white precipitate of prussiate of manganese was immediately formed. As my object was merely to ascertain whether oxide of cerium be present in the mineral or not, the quantities of the several precipitates were not attended to ; the quality of each, however, was carefully examined, and no trace of cerium could be detected in any of them. A portion of cerite, similarly treated, instantly gave an abund- ant precipitate of oxalate of cerium, on adding oxalate of ammo- nia to the nitro-muriatic solution, previously neutralized by ammonia. * The Use of the Blowpipe in Chemical Analysis, &c. p. 100. 1825.] —S- Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. 223 _ The results of these experiments were communicated by Mr. Daniell to Prof. Renwick, who had the goodness to send me another specimen of Torrelite, and I received at the same time @ copy of his analysis, published in the work already alluded to. The results which I had obtained differing so much from those of Prof. Renwick, I considered it due to that gentleman to resume my labours, and I accordingly repeated his analysis on a portion of the mineral he had so liberally and obligingly furnished me with. To my surprise, I was as unsuccessfulas before in my attempts to discover any oxide of cerium. I therefore requested Mr. Faraday to have the goodness to examine a portion of the mine- ral, who informs me that he also has been unable to detect in it any trace of the oxide in question. To whatever cause it may be owing, therefore, Iam compelled to conclude that some error has crept into Prof. Renwick’s analysis, and that oxide of cerium forms no part of the constituent ingredients of Torrelite. It may be right to add, that both mine and Mr. Faraday’s experiments were made on the dull vermillion red portion of the mineral. ARTICLE IX. Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. ROYAL SQCIETY. Jan. 27.—The name of the Solicitor-General was ordered to be inserted in the printed lists of the Society ; and a paper was commenced, On the Anatomy of the Mole-Cricket ; by John Kidd, MD. FRS. Feb. 3.—The reading of Dr. Kidd’s paper was concluded ; and an Appendix to the Croonian Lecture, by Sir E. Home, Bart. VPRS. read, announcing the simultaneous discovery by himself and Mr. Bauer, of nerves in the human navel-string and pla- centa, drawings of which by Mr. B. were annexed to the paper. feb. 10.—Lord Viscount Strangford, and the Rev. George Fisher, MA. were admitted Fellows of the Society ; and a paper was read, of which the following is a brief abstract :— Notice of the Iguanodon, a Fossil Herbivorous Reptile found in the Sandstone of Tilgate Forest ; by Gideon Manteil, FLS.: communicated by Davies Gilbert, Esq. VPRS. In the sandstone of Tilgate Forest, near Cuckfield, in Sussex, which belongs to the iron-sand formation, and forms part of a chain of hills extending from Hastings to Horsham, are found the teeth and a few of the bones of the subject of this paper, together with those of a gigantic species of crocodile, of the megalosaurus and the plesiosaurus, and the remains of turtles, 224 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [MAncn, birds, and vegetables. The author, some time since, sent speci- mens of the teeth to various naturalists; in particular to M. le Baron Cuvier, whose opinion of them coincided with his own, that they belonged to an extinct herbivorous reptile hitherto undescribed. With the assistance of Mr. Clift he had subse- quently compared them with those of a skeleton. of the recent iguana of the West Indies, in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, with which he found them to possess a close affinity ; and he details, in this notice, the particular results of the comparison ; adverting, also, to the probable station of the extinct animal in the order. of Saurians. From the affinity just mentioned, and at the suggestion of the Rev. W. D. Conybeare, he had given it the name of Iguanodon. On the supposition that the proportions of the parts in the extinct animal were the same as in the recent, Mr. Mantell infers that the Iguanodon must have exceeded in size even the megalosau- rus, and have been upwards of sixty feet in length. From the fossils associated with its remains, he concludes, that if an amphibious, it was not a marine reptile, but inhabited rivers and fresh-water lakes. Drawings of the teeth and bones of the Iguanodon were annexed to this communication, Feb. 17.—Capt. J. Mangles, RN. was admitted a Fellow of the Society ; and a paper was read, entitled “ An Experimental Inquiry into the Nature of the Radiant Heating Effects from Terrestrial Sources; ” by the Rev. Baden Powell, MA. FRS. The object of this paper is to investigate an important question relative to the nature of the heating eflect, radiated or emitted from burning and incandescent bodies. The heat trom non-luminous sources has been shown by Pro- fessor Leslie to be entirely intercepted by a glass sereen ; that from luminous hot bodies, though in a considerable degree in- tercepted, is yet partially transmitted. M.de la Roche has shown, that the part transmitted increases in proportion to the part intercepted, as the body under trial approaches nearer its eee of luminosity, or is more perfectly luminous; and both . dela Roche, and his commentators, seem disposed to view these results'as showing that the effect is due to. one simple agent, the principle both of light and heat gradually passing from the state of the latter to that of the former, and in proportion becoming capable of passing through glass. This opinion, how- ever, is not absolutely proved; and the facts may be explained without adopting it. Luminous hot bodies may give off two separate sets of rays, or emanations, one of light possessing an inseparable heating power like the hght of the sun, and transmissible through glass; the other, simple radiant heat to- tally stopped by glass. To exaunne which of these hypotheses _ is the true one, was the primary object of the experiments here — 1825.) _ Royal Society. 225 undertaken, The principal experiments were conducted in this manner ; two thermometers, coated one with smooth black, and the other with absorptive white, were exposed together under exactly similar circumstances to the radiation from different lu- minous hot bodies, such as iron raised to a considerable degree. of incandescence, and the flame of alamp. This was done first with, and then without the interposition of a glass screen, After allowing for all the causes of error likely to have affected the results, the object was to observe the ratio of the rates at which the two thermometers rose when exposed; and to com- pare it with that similarly obtained when they were screened. If the screen (according to the theory of dela Roche, &c.) only intercepted a portion of one simple agent, the screened effects would be merely diminished in absolute quantity, but would, remain unaltered in ratio. If this be not the case, it will follow, that the transmitted portion of heating influence not only differs from the rest in the property of transmissibility, but also affects surfaces by a different law. In all the various experiments tried, one uniform result was obtained; viz., that the screened ratio was much greater than the exposed. For example, in one instance, with the flame of white _ white ‘black — black a lamp the screened ratio was about rt the exposed ae L — 18° The general conclusion deduced is, that the radiant heating influence is the united effect of two distinct agents; one is simple radiant beat, having the properties of ‘relation to texture and not darkness of colour, and stopped by glass; the other, having relation to coluur, and transmitted by glass, which may be denominated “ transmissible heat,” or (from its close association with light,) “ the heating power of light.” The distinct existence of two heating causes in the total effect from luminous hot bodies having Dak established in the first part of this paper, the object of the second part is to ascer- tain and compare the ratio subsisting between those two parts of the heating effect in different instances. ‘The instances tried are, the flame of a lamp, when the combustion was in different degrees of completeness ; the union of several flames compared with one; the increase of density in a flame; and the different: a re of incandescence in metals. 1 all these instances, a regular increase of ratio was ob- served, in correspondence with an increase in the completeness of combustion, with the junction of different flames; with the ineréase of density ina flame; and with the degree of incane descence in metal. Similar conclusions were also inferred from the experiments of Mr. Brande, Count Rumford, &c. New Series, vou. 1x, Q 326 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [MAnrcu, In the conclusion deduced from the whole, that part of the heat which belongs to the light is shown to be de- rived from the hot body, and to be abstracted or made to dis- appear from its sensible temperature, so as not to be given off as radiant heat. We have no right to assume that this portion of the heat is converted into light. But itis evident that’ it exists in some state of very close combination’ with light ; it is never rendered sensible till the light is absorbed, as by dark coloured bodies. All bodies become luminous by the applica- tion of acertain degree of heat. We can then form no other conclusion, than that the’ portion of the heat which is in the first instance lost, is, in fact, communicated in some way to the light, and this can be in no other way than by becoming latent in it ;.and in fact thus giving it the form of light ;. from which it is again given out and rendered sensible when the light is absorbed, or changes its state and enters into combination with other bodies. i eyhy This view of the subject is applicable to a variety of phano- mena. Those of phosphorescence (hitherto considered so ano- malous) are noticed. Most others are too'obvious to require parti- cularizing. ris le £0 These conclusions will perhaps be regarded as arguments in favour of the materiality of light, it being thus shown to pos-- sess those properties in respect to latent heat, which would belong to a substance of immense tenuity and elasticity. Feb. 24.—The reading was commenced of a paper, On the Materno-feetal ‘Circulation ; by David Williams, MD: commu- nicated by Dr. John Thomson, of Edinburgh, FRS. LINNEAN SOCIETY. The sittings of the Linnean Society for the Session 1824-5, were resumed on Nov. 2, when the following papers’ were read : A letter from Mr.J. De CarleSowerby, FLS. to Mr. R. Taylor, Sec. LS. stating that many specimens of a fresh-water shell, the mytilus polymorphus of Gmelin, which is anative of the Da- nube, had been found attached to timber in the Commercial Docks, where the species had probably been brought in timber. A. Description of three Species of British Birds, two of them new to the Ornithology of the British Isles ; Y N. A. Vigors, Jun. Esq. AM. FLS,: communicated by the Zoological Club. ‘The birds described in this paper are, Anthus Richardt, Vieillot, two specimens of which were taken’ a few years ago at Kings- Jand, near London; an undescribed Scolopax shot in Queen’s ‘County, in Ireland, in 1822, ‘and named by Mr. Vigors, S..Sa- ‘bint; and -Querquedula glocitans, or the Bimaculated Duck, taken in a decoy near Maldon within these. few years. - ped “A Description of Cowania, a new genus of: plants ; and: of a new species’ of Sieversia; by Mr. D. Don, *Librarian -to: the Linnean Society. These remarkable plants, belonging to -the 1825.] > Linnean Society. — * 227 family of Rosacez, are contained in an extensive collection from Mexico, part of the Herbarium of Mocinno and Sessé, now in the possession of A. B. Lambert, Esq. VPLS.—Cowania. Char. essent. Calyx 5-fidus. Petala 5. Ovaria 5-7, ovulo erecto. Styli terminales, continui. Achenia stylis plumosis persistenti- bus aristata. Embryo erectus.——WSveversia paradoxa, foliis fasciculatis lmearibus obtusis sessilibus integris 3-5-fidisve, floribus subcorymbosis, stylis plumosis, caule fruticose. _ Nov. 16.—A letter was read from John Atkinson, Esq. FLS. to Alexander Macleay, Esq. Sec. LS. accompanying specimens of a beetle found in a mummy sent from Egypt by Mr. Salt, and recently opened for the Museum of the Leeds Philosophical Society. The imperfection of the embalming appeared to indi- cate that the person had not been of high caste: the folds of the lien in which it was wrapped contained several hundreds of the larve of the beetle, and some of the perfect insects. Descriptions of several species hitherto unpublished of the genus Coccinella ; by George' Milne, Esq. FLS,: communicated by the Zoological Club. The new. species described: in ‘this paper, were C. circumdata, 4-fasciata, ephippia, parva, 6-gutiaia, decussata, abdominalis, and cyanea, from Brazil; 28-maculata and 18-macu/ata from New Holland; cordata and connata from North America. : ‘ . An Account of some plants belonging to the Natural Order called by Dr. Jack, Cyrtandracee; by Francis Hamilton, MD. FLS. The species described in this paper are Chelone filiforme, C. rubicunda, and C., latifolia. Observations on the Motacilla Hippolais of Linneus ; by the Rey. Revett Sheppard, MA. FLS.: communicated by the Zoo- logical Club. Mr. Sheppard concludes, from a particular exa- mination of the synonymy, Xc. ‘of this species of Motacilla, that itis the Greater Pettychaps of English writers. Dec. 7.--Mr. G. B. Sowerby, FLS. exhibited some Beryls, from the Morne Mountains, in the’county of Down, in Ireland. The reading of Dr. Hamilton’s Commentary on the third part of the Hortus Malabaricus was continued: the following were among the plants, the history and synonymy of which were inyestigated : Codda Panna, Niti Panna, Todda Pavnna, Katou come T'sjaka Maram, Ata Maram, Anona Maram, Ansjeli, Kato Tsjaka, &e. » Dec. 21.—A letter from J. Youell, Esq. ALS. stating that spe- cimens of Ardea Cayanensts and Tantalus viridis had been taken near Yarmouth, and deposited in the Norwich Museum; and correcting some erroneous statements of Bewick. respecting Rulica atra, | An Account of a remarkable Fungus; by the Rev. W. Kirby, MA.FR. and LS. Mr. Kirby gives the name of Alractus to this fungus, and places it between Clathrus and Phallus. aoe isha : Q2 ; 238 Scientifie Notices—Chemistry. [Marcn, A Description of such Genera and Species of Insects, alluded to in the Introduction to Entomology of Messrs. Kirby and Spence, as appear not to have been before sufficiently noticed or described; by the same author: communicated by the Zoo- logical Club. yep Jan. 18, 1825.—The reading of the Rev. Messrs. R. Shep- pard’s and W. Whitear’s Catalogue of the Birds of Norfolk and Suffolk, commenced and continued during the last Session, was resumed. Feb. 1,—On the Structure of the Tarsus in the Tetramerous and Trimerous Coleoptera of the French Entomologists ; by W.S. Mac Leay, Esq. MA. FLS. Feb. 15.—The reading of the Rev. Messrs. Sheppard’s and Whitear’s Catalogue of Norfolk and Suffolk Birds, and that of Dr. Hamilton’s Commentary on the third part of the Hortus Malabaricus, were continued. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. The fifth Annual General Meeting of this Society was held on the 11th of February, for the purpose of receiving the report of the Council upon the state of the Society’s affairs, electing Officers for the ensuing vear, &c. Every lover of astronomy must be gratified to learn that the prosperity of the Society con- tinues to increase ; but the late period of the month at which we received the account of the proceedings precludes its insertion in the present number. ARTICLE X. SCIENTIFIC NOTICES. CHEMISTRY. 1, On the Ingots of Copper obtained vit humida. By M. Clement. Tne beautiful experiments of Sir James Hall have demon- strated that pulverised carbonate of lime, a substance eminently decomposable by heat, may be fused, under great pressure, without losing its carbonic acid, and afford when cold a solid mass similar to marble. Inlike manner as it was heretofore imagined that that mineral was necessarily formed by deposition from its aqueous solution, and could by no means be a product of heat, so at present it is generally believed thata solid mass of metallic copper capable of extension under the hammer, must have undergone igneous fusion, and have acquired its cohesion by cooling. Copper precipitated from its solution by whatever agent, is always in the state of a fine loose powder. The following fact, however, will show that an ingot of copper may be formed vid humidd. I am 1825.) Scientific Notices—Chemistry. 229 indebted to M. Mollerat for the observation, which he commu- nicated to me a short time since, on my visiting his fine manu; Bitory for making vinegar from wood, in Burgundy. (% In a series of operations for preparing sulphate of copper by calcining copper with sulphur, solutions of the sulphate are obtained, which become turbid by the separation of an insoluble subsulphate. They are placed in a tub, half buried in the pratt in order to become clear, It is against the interior sides of this tub, and always at the junction of two staves that small buttons (champignons) of metallic copper are observed to form, which gradually increase in size, and would doubtless ultimately become considerable masses. 1 have some specimens which I Petached from the tub with a portion of the wood adhering to them. On one side we find these bits of copper moulded on the wood of the tub, whose strie are impressed on their surface ; on the other, they have the form of mammelle with very minute, brilliant, crystalline facets. : One of these specimens weighs more than 75 grammes (nearly 21 oz. English), , The chemical action by which the copper is revived is easily explained, The protosulphate of copper which unquestionably exists in the solution, in passing to the state of deutosulphate, deposits its base which gives up its oxygen andacid to form the new salt. It is evident that the revival of the copper may be effected in this manner without the assistance of any iron, and in fact there are no traces of that metal in theinterior of the tub. It is not, however, this part of the phenomenon that appears to me most remarkable, but the cohesion, acquired by the copper so precipitated from the midst.of a solution ; a cohesion which is so great as to allow the metal to be hammered in the cold and reduced to thin leaves; and whose specific gravity is equal to that of fused copper, viz. 8:78. I have, moreover, filed a morsel of this copper, and have produced a surface as brilliant and free from pores, as could haye been obtained by similar means with an ingot of common copper.—(Annales de Chimie.) : 2. Note on the Presence of Titanium in Mica. By M. Vauquelin. M. Vanquelin, at the request of Mr. Peschier of Geneva (who conceived that he had found titanium in several micas in such quantity as to be an essential constituent of the mineral), repeated his experiments, first on two varieties of mica, and afterwards on many others, in all of which he detected the pre- sence of titanium, but in very minute quantity, and in different yroportions ; the richest in titanium did not give more than one er cent. of that metal. . His mote of analysis was as follows :——He ignited the mica ‘divid d into thin laminw, and cut very small with a pair of , m 230 Scientific Notices— Mineralogy. [Marcn, scissars), with two parts of caustic potash, for half an hour, and digested the mass in 100 parts of water. Muriatic acid was gradually added to the mixture till it was slightly in excess’; the solution évaporated slowly to dryness; the residuum washed with cold water, and the silica separated by the filter: ©)" * If the silica was coloured, which often happened, he digested it in cold muriatic acid diluted with 10 parts of water, till it became white ; it was then washed, and wiile still moist: boiled in strong muriatic acid.’ The liquid was then evaporated to expel the greater part of the acid, diluted and filtered , and the solution, containing only a slight excess of acid, treated with an infusion of galls. If titanium was present the solution’ first assumed a yellowish red colour, and soon afterwards tannate of titanium separated in flakes of the same colour. aE The muriate of titanium is so easily decomposed by heat, that in general the greater part of the metal is found with the silica, which should always be carefully examined in all analyses ‘in which titanium may be expected to be discovered. If; on the other hand, the evaporation have not been carried far enough, a portion may remain in solution in the washings of the silica. To be certain, precipitate the solution by ammonia, wash the preci- pitate, and digest it in caustic potash, which will dissolve the alumina, and the oxide of titanium, and the latter may then be separated by saturating the alkali with muriatic aeid, and preci- pitation by infusion of galls. a Nearly two years since, I examined a dark brown mica, from Siberia, for titanium, without finding the least trace of that raetal.—C, MINERALOGY. 3. Harmotome. Dr. Wernekinck, of Giessen, has published a description and analysis of a new variety of this mineral in which the barytes is replaced by dime. Its constituents, according to his analysis, are : Maks ok Bad bik ble, cian Seo « hisdnl eed amines GREET, ULRAUAETS. Siecov aces «9 «© Pe 1 RSE Ree 2 oc. I i Dytra tery. ces hp elon be ie ay 8S: od Mi . 6:67 BP yeR IS WETS TG TS AU ch . 0:39 Oxides of iron and manganese. ...... 0:56 PAPER EG, ted oa nate AN WA! o's! wird soi Gen 99-09 {tis found in a basaltic amygdaloid, near the village of Anne- rode, at the distance of about a mile from Giessen, It always occurs in regular crystals, and the only crystalline form under which it has been hitherto observed is a perfect square prism, 1825.) _ | . Scientyfic Notices—Mineralogy.’ 23 terminated by a four-sided acumination, whose sides rest upon the edges of the prism,: The lateral planes of the prism are in every respect.similar, and none of. them are streaked. Some- times these prisms are found combined together in the form of twin crystals.i9 9 bo80. .. The ordinary harmotome he found to be composed of SOG lars cid iste cas p EK ot + 0.8 BR ee pe] -Alumina..... Bala greats sa tete atau oe cali Wah 0 SRR ERS ag peor 17:59 s PM Ermer coon; aoa Eg es ehh 1-08 1s a Oxides of iron and manganese ...... 0°85 arite| is PE Str. Malema sea tia es wee (hosed | 98°91 The specimen which he analyzed was obtained from the Schif- fenberg, a hill in the neighbourhood of Giessen.. Like the pre- ceding, its crystal is a square prism, but it presents itself under a variety of modifications. Its matrix is also a basaltic amyg- daloid. The calcareous harmotome appears from his analysis to be a compound of 5 atoms of bisilicate of alumina + 1 atom of qua- drosilicate of lime + 8 atoms of water. The barytic harmotome appears to contain a similar number of atoms of bisilicate of alumina and of water, combined with an atom of quadrosilicate or trisilicate of barytes.—(Annalen der Physik.) . 4. Cadmiferous Sulphuret of Zinc. A specimen of common blende, of a reddish colour, passing into lead grey, was found by Dr. R. Brandes to be composed of RE Lisik. sinks ts’ mies Sales aie . 309°838 RE dee aretec urs MRP Y thea 58°150 Camas. oss 66. te TA644 Meds 0:932 POO 5th. SC peisises, 2683 Pye eet. ep O28 100:548 (Trommsdorft’s Neues Journal der Pharmacie.) 5. Sulphuret of Lead and Aniimony. Trommsdorff found a specimen of this ore to be composed of MOABUE ers. ee P T RLA 20°9 MEY ait laistid ciel Stan Pade a atais cl attt ofo OY 22°4 MME Cs BRS’. 9 idb yipidicw os seetblatyis) svete 49-0) MOMMY Rs 212 Zi GhUi Wielel ets a bible sel Habs at 4:0 “ik Menwanese ii). finials. suited. oe! 120 1v Coppaniis siesakin vy. Ca Sate el dw Bidialitene 1:0 | at 0:7 Loss. eee eee eee e eee ee ee eee reer eeee 232 Scientific Notices~- Miscellaneous. [Marcn, _ The specimen had a colour intermediate between steel grey and lead grey, and an uneven fracture; it had no tendeney to soil, and was moderately hard. Sp. gr, 5477. Before the Dblowpipe it decrepitated strongly, and afterwards fused: with great facility —(Trommsdorff’s Neues Journal der Pharmacie.): MIscELLANEOUS. 6. The British’ Museum.—Mr. Goodwyn’s Manuscripis. Those who are interested in mathematical computations, and the tabulation of their results for practical purposes, will learn with pleasure that the curious and extensive tables of the late Henry Gvodwyn, Esq. of Blackheath, have, by the advice of Dr. Gaciitre rofessor of Mathematics in the Royal Military Academy, been deposited by Mr. Goodwyn’s family in the library of the British Museum. The following co y_ of Dr. Gregory’s account of the general nature of the manuscripts will serve to convey the requisite information to our readers. = The late Heuty Goodwyn, Esq. of Blackheath, being for several years kept by ill health from the more active pursuits of life, devoted a great portion of his time to the most labo- rious computations, many of them relating to topics and leading to results that are exceedingly curious and interesting :—some to annuities ; others, to the determination of powers and roots; several of these he applied to practical inquiries relative to interest, and others to the reduction and comparison of weights and mea- sures, whether British or Foreign; and to the formation of a general system; and others he rendered applicable to the rules of mensuration, and to still higher inquiries among mathemati- cians. Inthe pursuit of these researches, he developed various in- teresting properties, indicative of the mutual connection be- tween circulating decimals and prime numbers entering either simply or compositely into the denominators of fractions re- spectively equivalent to those decimals; of which properties some have been long known to mathematicians, while others had almost, if not altogether, escaped their notice. A few of these are explained in the quarto appendix to the pamphlet to which this paper is attached ;* and, in that appendix, one of Mr. Goodwyn’s ingenious improvements in computation is described and applied. The results of his persevering and long-continued labours have, as yet, been only very partially laid before the public ina few detached pamphlets, volumes, &Xc., copies of all which are herewith transmitted : but, histwo works of greatest labour, the one denominated A Table af complete Decimal Quotients ; and the other, 4 Tabulous Series of Decimal Quotients for all the * Entitled ** The First Centenary of a Concise and Useful Table of Complete De- cimal Quotients,’? with a Specimen of ** A Tabular Series,” &c, 1825.] Scientific Notices Miscellaneous. 238 Proper Vulgar Fractions, of which, when in their lowest terms; neither the numerator, nor the denominator is greater than 1,000, still remain in manuseript.. The former of these is comprised in four folio volumes of manuscript, lettered Table of Complete Quotients. Mr. Goodwyn had finished their compu- tation ; and, by subsequent calculations, had nearly, if not en- tirely, verified the correctness of the whole. He had, also, advanced considerably, in the computation of the Tabular Series, the results being entered, and duly arranged, in five volumes large quarto; in the last of which, however, the plat- form of his labour is above exhibited. A comparison of the re- spective manuscripts with the two royal octavo printed volumes, entitled Table of the Circles, and Tabular Series, and with the quarto pamphlet, to which this is annexed, will enable any competent judge to appreciate the extent of these classes of Mr. Goodwyn’s labours, their utility, and the comparative value of those portions which still remain unpublished. -Mr. Goodwyn’s family, anxious to consign these manuseripts of their revered relative to some institution where they may be occasionally consulted by the friends and promoters of mathe- matical science, do now, with the consent of the trustees of the British Museum, deposit them in the library of that mag- nificent national institution. i * Royal Military Academy Woolwich, Nov. 1824. OtintTHUs GRegory. 7, Important Work on Conchology. Messrs. Sowerby have recently issued a prospectus of a new work, which has long been wanting inthis interesting branch of natural history. They propose to publish in quarterly num- bers, descriptions, with coloured plates, of all the known species of recent shells. The first number will appear as soon as 100 subscribers shall have signified their intention of patronizing the work, which, from the acknowledged abilities of the authors, will (we have no doubt) very soon be done. The descriptions will be givenby Mr. G. B. Sowerby in Latin and Sich, together with atch observations as may be required, and the figures by Mr. J.D. C. Sowerby. The work will be ae on royal quarto, and each number will contain about 18 ighly finished plates, coloured from nature, and comprise about 100 species ; so that, when complete, there will be descriptions and figures of about 5,000 species. The authors are placed in cir- eumstances peculiarly favourable to the production of a work of this kind, from the sale of the celebrated Tankerville col- lection having been entrusted to Mr. G. B. Sowerby, the pos- session of which, though necessarily only for a short time, will enable them to secure drawings and descriptions of many shells that could not otherwise be easily obtained, In addition to this, 234 Scientific Notices Miscellaneous. [MArcw, the private collection of the authors, the immense number of spe- cies contained ‘in the collection, late the property of Mr. George Humphrey, and the free access which the liberality of their friends allows to. various other: cabinets, will enable them to render the above work by far the most splendid and complete of its kind. HA “Yo 7 . a Mf i _ 8. Electrical Conducting Power of Melted Res.nous Bodies... It is commonly stated, that melted resins become good con- ductors of electricity and freely allow of its transmission. The following experiments were made with the view of determining to what extent they possess this property. fii etre Common resin, shell lac, asphaltum, bees-wax, red and black sealing-wax, were melted in separate glass tubes, fitted with wires for taking the electric spark: they all slowly and with difficulty drew off the charge of a jar, and not with the facility usually supposed. The melted contents of the same tubes acted as non-conductors when made part of the voltaic circuit. Several thin glass tubes (previously tried by metallic coatings), were coated outside with copper foil, and about half filled with ‘the melted substances, having wires dipping into them, similar to small leyden phials. The resinous coating, however, distri- buted no charge over the interior of.the glass tubes, when con- nected with the machine, which would have been the case with conductors. Upon removing the copper coatings and wires, substituting pointed wires bent at right angles, resting against the interior of the glass tube beneath the melted bodies, and suspending them successively from an electrical conductor, placing a metal- lic rod outside opposite the points, sparks passed in all cases per- forating the glass. el _ The last cases would indicate that melted resinous bodies are not conductors, and the results obtained in the first instance may possibly be referred to heated air about the apparatus. T.G. —(Journal of Science.) 9. Lectures on the Phenomena and History of Igneous Meteors ; and Meteorttes. E. W. Brayley, Jun. ALS., will shortly commence, at the Russel Institution, Great Coram-street, a Course of Lectures on the Phenomena and History of Igneous Meteors and Meteorites, illustrated by a series of transparent diagrams of Meteors, an extensive collection of Meteorites, and various experiments in Chemistry and Natural Philosophy. vi Ben 1825.) New ‘Scientific’ Books. 935 ARTICLE XI... NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION. Principles of Political Economy and Population, including an Exa- mination of Malthus’s Essay. By John M‘Iniscon, | . _A new and enlarged. edition of.Dr. Prout’s Inquiry into the Nature and Treatment of Calculus, &¢. will’shortly:be ready for publication. _ . The Present State of the Mines in Mexico, Chile, Peru, and Brazil. 12mo. vise . : Practical Chemical Mineralogy. .. By Frederick Joyce. A Voyage in 1822, 1823, 1824, containing an Examination of the Antarctic Fics: to the Seventy-fourth Degree of Latitude ; and a Visit to Terradel Fuego. By James Weddell. 8vo. fash JUST PUBLISHED. A Lecture on the Origin, Progress, &c. of Shipping and Commerce, delivered at the Bristol Philosophical and Literary Society. By Charles Pope, Esq. .1s. 6d. A System of Pathological and Operative Surgery. By Robert Allan, FRSE. &c. Vol. 3. “i Evils of Quarantine Laws and Non-existence of Pestiiential Conta- gion. By Charles Maclean, MD. Second:-Edition. 8vo. 15s: Shaw’s General Zoology.’ Vol. 12. , The Botanic Garden, or Magazine of Hardy Flower Plants. By B. Maund. Nos.I. and If. with four coloured Figures, post 4to. 1/. 6s. foolscap 4to. 1/. Mages iy’ ‘ Unwin’s Companion of Medicine. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Parry's Pathology. Vol. 1. 8vo. 14s. Testimonies in favour of Salt as a Manure, and as a Condiment for the Horse, Cow, and Sheep. By the Rev. B. Dacre, ALS. 8vo. 6s. Narrative of the Unsuccessful Attempt to reach Repulse Bay. With a Chart, and Engravings by Finden.: By Capt.Lyon, RN. 10s. 6d. Observations on a General Iron Railway, or Land Steam Conveyance, &c. By Thomas Gray. Fifth Edition, enlarged. 8vo. 8s. 6d. Cards of Euclid. By the Rev. J. Brasse. 5s.6d. in a Case. ArTIcLE XII. NEW PATENTS. . ©, Heathorn, Maidstone, lime-burner, for his method of constructing and erecting a furnace, or kiln, for the more speedy, more effectually, and more economically manufacturing of lime, by means of applying, directing, and limiting, or regulating the flame and heat arising in the manufacturing or burning coal into coke, and thus making lime and in one and the same building, and at one and the same time.— ov. Il. 236 New Patents. (Maren, W. Leathy, Great Guildford-street, Southwark, engineer, for improvements in the machinery used in making bricks, and improve- ments in drying bricks, by means of flues and steam.—Nov. 11. P. Brunet, Wimpole-street, Cavendish-square, merchant, for a fur- nace made upon a new construction.—Nov. 11. J. C. Daniell, Stoke, Wilts, clothier, for improvements in dressing woollen cloth.—Nov. 20. ps ~ 1. Taylor, jun. Chipping Ongar, Essex, for a cock or tap for drawing off liquids.— Nov. 20. W. Rhodes, Hoxton, brick-maker, for his improvement in the construction of clamps for burning raw bricks,—Nov. 20. L. Lambert, Cannon-street, for improvements in the material and manufacture of paper.—Nov. 23. S. Wilson, Streatham, Surrey, for a new manufacture of stuffs with transparent and coloured figures.—Nov. 25, W. S. Burnett, New London-street, merchant, for improvements in ships’ tackle—Nov. 23. J. Osbaldeston, Shire Brow within Blackburn, Lancashire, calico- weaver, for his improyed method of making healds to be made in the weaving of cotton, silk, woollen, and other cloths,—Nev. 29. T. Hancock, Goswell Mews, Goswell-street. patent cock manufac- turer, for his method of making or manufacturing an article which may be in many instances substituted for leather, and be applied to other useful purposes.—Nov. 29. W. Furnival, Anderton, Cheshire, salt manufacturer, for improve- ments in the manufacture of salt.—Dec, 4. _W. W. Young, Newton Nottage, Glamorganshire, engineer, for improvements in mapufacturing salt, part of which improvements are applicable to other useful purposes.—Dec. 4. J. H. Suwerkrop, Vine-street, Minories, merchant, for an apparatus or machine, which he denominates ‘' A thermophore, or a portable- mineral or riyer-water bath and linen warmer ;” and also for other appa- ratus or machines connected therewith for filtering and heating water, Dec. 4. : G. Wycherley, Whitchurch, Salop, saddler, for improvements in making and constructing saddles, and side-saddles.—Dec. 4. R. Dickenson, Park-street, Southwark, Surrey, for his improved air- chamber for various purposes,—Dec. 7. J. Thompson, Pembroke-place, Pimlico, for his improved mode of making cast-steel.— Dec. 9. R. Bowman, Aberdeen, chain-cable maker, for his improved appa- ratus for stopping, releasing, and regulating chain and other cables of vessels.—Dec. 9. W. Moult, Lambeth, engineer, for his improvement in working water-wheels.— Dec. 9. Sir W, Congreve, Cecil-street, Strand, for his improved gas-meter. —Dec. 14. _ §. Davis, Upper East Smithfield, gun-lock-maker, for improvements in guns and other fire-arms,-—Dee, 18. D. Gordon, Basinghall-street, London, for improvements in carriages toaied machines to be moyed or propelled by mechanical means.— ec. 18. o5 1825.) New Putents. £37 S. Roberts, Parke Grange, near Sheffield, silver-plater, for his improvement in the manufacture of plated goods of various deserip+ tions.—Dec. 18. 4 -P. J. B. V. Gosset, Clerkenwell Green, for improvements in looms or machinery for weaving various sorts of cloths or fabrics.~—Dec. 18. * J. Gardner, smith, and J. Herbert, carpenter, both of St. Leonards, Gloucestershire, for improvements on machines for shearing or cropping woollen cloths.—Dec. 18. W. F. Snowden, Oxford-street, machinist, for his invented wheel- way and its carriage for the conveyance of passengers, merchandize, and other things along roads, rail, and other ways, either on a level or inclined plane, and applicable to other purposes.—Dee. 18. J. Weiss, Strand, surgical-instrument maker and cutler, for improve- ments on exhausting, injecting, or condensing pumps or springs, and on the apparatus connected therewith, which improvements are applicable to various useful purposes.—Dec. 18. . J.and W. H. Deykin, Birmingham, button-makers, for an improve- ment in the manufacture of military and livery buttons——Dec. 23. D. Stafford, Liverpool, for improvements on carriages.~Dec. 24. S. Denison, Leeds, whitesmith, and J. Harris, Leeds, paper-moulds maker, for improvements in machinery for the purpose of making wove and laid paper.—Jan. 1, 1825. P. Erard, Great Marlborough-street, musical-instrument maker, for improvements in piano-fortes.—Jan, 5. A. Tilloch, LL.D. of Islington, for improvements in the steam- engine or apparatus connected therewith.—Jan. 11, W. Henson and W. Jackson, Worcester, lace-manufacturers, for improvements in machinery for making bobbin-net.—Jan. 11. G. Gurney, Argyle-street, Hanover-square, surgeon, for his im+ proved finger-keyed musical instrument, in the use of which a per- former is enabled to hold or prolong the notes, and to increase or modify the tone.—Jan. 11. F. G. Spilsbury, Leek, Staffordshire, silk-manufacturer, for improve- ments in weaving.—Jan. 11. W. Hirst, Leeds, cloth-manufacturer, for improvements in spinning and shabbing machines.—Jan. 11. x J. F. Smith, Dunston Hall, Chesterfield, for improvements in the preparation of slivers or tops from wool, cotton, or other fibrous mate+ rials. —Jan. 11. J. F. Smith, Dunston Hall, Chesterfield, for improvements in dréss- ing and finishing woollen cloths.—Jan. 11. J. F. Atlee, Marchwood, Southampton, for a process by which planks and cther scantlings of wood will be prevented from shrinking, and will be altered and materially improved in their durability, close- ness of grain, and power of resisting moisture, so as to render the same better adapted for ship-building and other building purposes, for furni- ture and other purposes where close ot compact wood is desirables insomuch that the wood so prepared will become a new atticle of commerce and marufacture, which he intends calling “ condensed wood.”—Jan. 11. . G. Sayner, Hunslet, Yorkshire, dyer, and J. Greenwood, Gomersall, in the said county, machine-maker, for improvements in the mode of sawing wood by machinery.—Jan. 11, 238 New Patenis. [Marcn, T. Magrath, Dublin, for his composition to preserve animal and wegeenil ‘substances.—Jan. 11. T. Magrath, Dublin, for his improved apparatus for conducting and containing water and other fluids, and: preserving the same from the effects of frost —Jan. 11. J. Phipps,. Upper Thames-street, stationer, and C. Phipps, River, Kent, paper-maker, for improvements in machinery for making paper. —Jan. 11. W.S. Burnet, London-street, for anew method of lessening the drift of ships at sea, and protecting them in gales of wind.—Jan. 11. J. Andrew, G. Variton, and J. Shepley, Crumpshall, near Manches- ter, cotton-spinners, for improvements in the machine used for throstle and water. spinning of thread or yarn, which improved machine is so constructed as to perform the operations of sizing and twisting in or otherwise removing the superfluous fibres, and of preparing a roving for the same.—Jan. 11. J. Heathcoat, Tiverton, lace-manufacturer, for improvements in machinery for making bobbin-net.—Jan. 12. W. Booth and yale Wcaslecont, Tiverton, Devonshire, lace-manufacturer, for i improve- ments on the method of manufacturing silk. pa heb- lly Levee p "T pepes yy td: oy 3 ola ayee ces a ait 1825.) Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. ° = 239 Artic.ie XIII. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE. --—) — OL’ | i 30°89 29:62 5A 24 +92 05 The observations in. each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, beginning at 9 A. M. on the day indicated in the first column. A dash denotes that» the sey is inchided in the next following observation. vt 240 Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. [Manrcn, 1825. REMARKS. First Month—1. Fine. 2—4. Cloudy. 5, Fine. 6. White frost, and foggy morning: fine day. 1. Cloudy. 8. Very fine day, 9. Cloudy. 10. Overcast. ll. Ditto. 12. Foggy: gloomy. 13, 14. Gloomy. 15. Gloomy: fine afternoon. 16. Overcast: showery. 17. Fine. 18, Rainy morning: wind high: rainy 19, Fine. 20. Fine: some rain at night. 21, 22. Cloudy. 23, Cloudy: cold. 24. Cloudy. 25. Fine, 26. Drizzly. 27. Fine. 28 Very fine. 29. Hoar frost and fog. 30. Cloudy. 31, Cloudy. RESULTS. Winds: N,7; NE, 2; 8,2; SW,4; W,8; NW,7; Var b. Barometer : Mean height For the month. .......... cee ee tte ars aiuent a For the lunar petiod, ending thé }1th...........-.00- 30:240 For 13 days, ending the 8th (moon north) ........+. 30-401 For 14 days, ending the 22d (moon south). .......... 80°279 Thermometer: Mean height For the month. ....+.sece0 egisblnichls icaminnn ole cepie ceieene gene For the lunar period, ree ee se et easesssencess 42258 For 29 days, the sun in Capricorn. .........20e++5 39551 Evaporation... ...decceteceveee= Gaede eee ase ccesed Sedtceccerave ODS In Rain J, JS Sepec a eas chen MIM y Shine te bewr ee ae se reeeeestreces 0°95 Laboratory, Stratford, Second Month, 22, 1825. RR, HOWARD, ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY. APRIL, 1825. ArTICcLeE I. On the Origin of Alluvial and Diluvial Formations, By Professor Sedgwick. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Trinity College, Cambridge, March 11, 1825. Tue existence of widely extended masses of incoherent mate- rials separating the vegetable soil from the solid strata of the earth, is a fact which forces itself upon the attention of every practical geologist. These materials have for many years been divided into two classes. The first composed of a series of deposits originating in such causes as are now in daily action. The second composed of various materials irregularly heaped together, often transported from considerable distances, and supposed to have originated in some great irregular inundation. Since the publication of Cuvier’s great work on fossil quadru- peds, this distinction has been very generally admitted ; espe- cially as it seemed to be completely borne out by the zoological henomena exhibited by the two separate classes of deposits. Prof. Buckland was, I believe, the first geologist who adopted the terms diluvium and alluvium, diluvial detritus and post- diluvial detritus to designate the two classes of phenomena above alluded to. The propriety of this separation has been since confirmed by a long series of well-conducted observations ; and by the interesting discoveries brought to light by the same author within the last four years, some important errors have been corrected, and the whole subject has assumed a form and a consistency which it unquestionably never had before. Since the publication of the “ Reliquie Diluviane,” many objections have been urged against the opinions advanced in that work. The greater part of the objectors are undeserving of any animad- version, as they appear entirely ignorant of the very elements of geology, and far too imperfectly acquainted with the facts about which they write to have it in their power to turn them to any New Series, vou. 1x. R 242 Prof. Sedgwick on the Origin [APRIL, account, or to draw a single just conclusion from them. This censure does not, however, apply equally to them all. A writer in the two last numbers ofthe Edinburgh Philosophical Journal considers the present classification of the superficial detritus of the earth to be founded on an imperfect induction, and to be contradicted, or at least invalidated, by the distribution of the organic remains contained in it. ‘Though I am opposed to many of the conclusions of this author, and think that he has been misled from a want of a more extended knowledge of the pheno- mena in question, yet I willingly allow that his arguments are adduced with a sincere love of truth, and that his facts and inferences are entitled to a candid examination. li is not, how- ever, my intention formally to enter the field of controversy. Prof. Buckland is far too secure in his position, and incompa- rably too well armed to need any such assistance. The words alluvial and. diluvial detritus designate certain classes of phenomena which at the same time have a distinct character, and belong to distinct epochs. - The propriety of this assumption can only be made out by direct observation. If it appear that a/luvial formations commonly rest on diluvial ; that the: converse is never true ; and that the two formations neyer alternate : then the distinction just alluded to is completely made out, and rests on exactly the same evidence as the order of superposition of any known strata. We may further observe that this conclusion is quite independent of any zoological arrangements: When the order of superposition has been once made out, we may then proceed to examine the zoological pheno- mena of each successive deposit. Before that time, organic remains, however interesting in themselves, convey little inform- ation respecting the revolutions to which the earth’s surface has been subjected. It has been already observed that the words diluvial detritus were applied to certain materials brought into their present situation by great irregular inundations. In what sense all di/uwvial formations may be considered contemporane- ous ; to what extent, and in what manner, diluvial torrents have acted on the earth’s surface, are simply questions of fact to be determined by physical evidence, and by physical evidence alone. . The truth of any physical phenomenon can only be made out by physical evidence, and no appeal ought to be made to any other authority before that evidence has been completely inves- tigated. It is then obvious that every conclusion respecting the classification of formations, of whatever age, can only rest on the evidence afforded by direct observations. For this reason, f have drawn up, for insertion in the Annals of Philosophy, an account of some of the alluvial and diluvial deposits which I have had an opportunity of personally examining. Part of the succeeding statements may be considered unnecessary, and 1825.] of Alluvial and Diluvial Formations. 243 some of the facts may be thought too unimportant to deserve any notice. If, however, they should throw any light on a dis- puted subject, or should they in any way strengthen the chain of evidence by which one of the most important inductions of geology has been established, they will not be altogether with- out their use. I have the honour to be, Gentlemen, Your most faithful servant, A. SEDGWICK. —__a— Sect. 1.—Alluvial Deposits. All the principal vallies of England exhibit in their higher portions occasional examples of nearly horizontal deposits of comminuted gravel, silt, loam, and other materials accumulated by successive partial inundations. The nature of these alluvial deposits and the cause of them are so obvious, that it is unne- cessary to refer to particular instances. If we descend from the hilly and mountainous regions, and examine the courses of our tivers near their entrance into any widely extended plains, we frequently find their banks composed of incoherent materials of anew character. They are not made up of thin layers of com- minuted matter formed by successive inundations, or of silt and turf-bog accumulated in stagnant waters, but of great irregular masses of sand, loam, and coarse gravel, containing through its mass rounded blocks sometimes of enormous magnitude. It is at once evident that the propelling force of the rivers is entirely inadequate to the transport of such materials as these. We may observe, moreover, that they are not confined to the banks of the rivers, but spread over all the face of the country, and often appear at elevations many hundred feet above the level of any natural inundation. To such materials as these the term diluvial (indicating their formation by some great irregular inundation) is now applied by almost all the Enclish school of geologists. The rivers which descend from the western moors and unite in the great central plain of Yorkshire, afford a succession of beautiful illustrations of the appearances which have been just described. While rolling from the mountain chains, and uniting with their different tributary branches, they leave masses of alluvial matter in every place where the form of the valley admits of such a deposit: and after passing through the infe- rior region and escaping through many ravines and gorges into the great plain of the new red sandstone, they then tind their way through enormous masses of dilwvial debris which often mask the inferior strata through considerably extended tracts of country. If we follow any of these rivers into the central parts of the great plain, we may still find (with occasional interrup- tions) the diduval detritus descending with the surface of the R2 244 Prof. Sedgwick on the Origin [ApRIL, ground, often forming the channel of the waters, and, where the level of the country admits of it, sometimes surmounted by an accumulation of newer alluvial materials. By the ordinary action of the waters, the two distinct classes of deposits some- times become mixed and confounded ; but | have never seen an example where their order is inverted, or where, through any extent of country, they alternate with each other. The instances adduced are not exceptions to, but examples of, the general rule. There is not, I believe, a single river in England which does not afford a more or less perfect illustration of some of the phenomena above described. Perhaps the most important class of facts connected with alluvial phenomena, and which at the same time very strikingly exhibit their relation to all other deposits in this country, are to be met with in the low marshy regions near the mouths of some of our larger rivers. In proof of this assertion I shall proceed to describe some of the physical characters of the fenny tract of country which stretches from the south part of Lincolnshire to the base of the chalk hills of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridge- shire. If a section be made through this region in a direction which is transverse to the outfall of the waters, its profile will be represented, first, by a line descending from the higher part of Lincolnshire to the level of the fens; secondly, by a succession of horizontal lines exhibiting the several levels of distinct fenny regions, interrupted here and there by extensive protuberances of diluvial gravel;* lastly, by an undulating line ascending from the alluvial region to the top of the hills which form its south-eastern boundary. Ifa section were made in a direction transverse to the former, commencing at the south-west boun- dary of the low lands, and ending in the sea, its profile would be represented, first, by a line showing the descent of the high lands to the level of the fens; secondly, by a long line extend- ing almost at a dead devel (except where it is interrupted by some of the protuberances above-mentioned) to the eastern extremity of the fens in the immediate vicinity of the coast; lastly, by a line descending rapidly trom the level of the fens to low water mark.j The singular contour indicated by the second section has unquestionably arisen from the continued accumulation of alluvial silt which has choked up the mouths of the rivers, and raised their beds and all the contiguous country far above their ancient level. * During great inundations these diluvial hills resemble islands rising out of an inland sea. Most of the towns and villages in the Isle of Ely are built upon them, + Thus from Peterborough to Sutton Wash below Wisbeach (a distance of more than twenty miles), the fall of the water is on the average three inches and-a half for each mile, But from Sutton Wash to low-water-mark at Crabhole, the fall is more = wl feet for each mile.—(See Rennie’s Report on the Drainage of the Bedford evel.) . - $ Thus Thorney north fen is thirteen feet ; Peterborough low fen twelve fee: six 1825.7 of Alluvial and Diluvial Formations, 245 It is not, however, the external contour so much as the inter- nal structure of the district, which bears on the subject of this paper. The whole of the alluvial delta exhibits, as might be expected, a great uniformity in the arrangement of its consti- tuent beds. When the vegetable coating is removed from any part of it, we may generally find below a brownish black earth - which is formed of a variable mixture of common vegetable soil, of peat, and of alluvial silt. The different qualities of fen land arise out of the variable proportions of these constituents. In those tracts which are pent up between high artificial banks and upon which water frequently stagnates, the soil is almost exclusively composed of decayed vegetable matter converted more or less perfectly into the state of peat. In other more favoured tracts, more especially on the sloping skirts of the diluvial hills, the soil is of great fertility, and is composed prin- “ng of the accumulated silt of successive inundations. aterials possessing some of these characters are in many places accumulated upon the regular strata of the country to the thickness of nearly twenty feet. When they are laid bare by any artificial section, we may often see various modifications which are so far interesting as they throw light upon the ancient history of these deposits. In one part of such a section we may find the prevailing black earth interrupted by thin beds of peat, each of which indicates the temporary residence of stag- nant water. In another part of the same section, the prevailing soil is seen to alternate with layers of sand and silt which mark the effects produced by extraordinary land floods. Alternations like these are so common as hardly to deserve any notice. If the section descend still further, we not unfrequently find the whole series of alluvial deposits separated from the true substra- tum (which in many places is composed of astiff blue clay)* b a very thin bed of light coloured, unctuous, marly silt. This marly silt is, if I mistake not, of great antiquity, and must have been deposited by the waters prior to the existence of any por~ tion of the alluvial covering. If all the soil and accumulated detrztus were removed from the district I am considering, it is certain that the surface of the ground would present many considerable irregularities. It is further evident that such a surface must in ancient times have inches ; Peterborough great fen thirteen feet two inches above the level which ought to form the base of the drainage near the sea.—(See Bower’s Report of the New Drainage near Boston.) * In all the central parts of the fens, the blue substratum contains innumerable specimens of the characteristic gryphaa dilatata of the Oxford clay; but near Ely, under the alluvial and diluvial detritus, there is a bed which contains the ostrea deltui- dea of the Kimmeridge clay. If I mistake not, the coral-rag formation thins off before it reaches the fens, where the two clays are probably brought into immediate contact, Below Cambridge, the tracts of fen land rest on the galt or Folkstone clay. 246 Prof. Sedgwick on the Origin [ApRit, supported many varieties of productions which are now so deeply buried as to be reached only by occasional artificial excavations. This remark at once explains the variable thick- ness of different portions of the fen lands, and the extraordinary appearances we sometimes meet with in digging through them. For example: in excavating the foundations of the new Jock on the river Cam between Clay Hithe and Ely, they reached (after passing through ten or twelve feet of common fen soil) a bed of considerable thickness composed almost entirely of hazel wood and hazel nuts. The wood could not, I think, have been drifted from any great distance; and the enormous accumulation of nuts (many pecks of which might have been collected in the space of a few square yards) seemed to be the production of an ancient period when, year after year, the trees shed their fruit on the ground, and there were no inhabitants to collect it. In many other places, after passing through a thick coating of turf bog and alluvial silt, we meet with the branches, trunks, and even the roots of large timber trees. Some of these may have been floated down during great floods from the neighbouring high lands; but the far greater number of them have unques- tionably grown near the spots where we now findthem. Exam- ples of this kind are, 1 believe, supplied by almost all the exten-. sive fen regions in our island. Lastly, I shall briefly notice a class of facts which, although admitting of a very easy explanation, have sometimes led to erro- neous conclusions. In almost all the marsh lands which border on the sea, the alluvium is separated from the old subjacent strata by a quantity of marine silt, and sometimes by beds of sea shells which appear to have lived and died on the spot where they are now found. The extent of this marine deposit towards the interior of the country plainly indicates the extent to which the alluvial materials have been accumulated and pushed down within the ancient line of the sea coast. But the case is not always as simple as I have here stated it. The lower portion of the marsh lands in question sometimes exhibit several distinct alternations of marine silt and shells, with turf bog and other freshwater deposits. Facts of this kind were (if I have not been misinformed) observed in some of the lower parts of the Eau Brink cut which was lately completed in the neighbourhood of Lynn. We are not to suppose that such facts indicate any sudden change in the relative level of land and sea. All the alternations above described are below the level of high-water, and naturally result from the manner in which the fen lands have been formed. We have only to recol- lect that in the places alluded to, the tides have for many ages been ebbing and flowing along a system of planes which have been perpetually encroaching on the coast, and perpetually 1825.] | of Alluvial and Diluvial Formations. 247 changing their inclination. Ofsuch a state of things, the occa- sional admixture of marine and freshwater deposits, and the occasional alternation is the inevitable consequence.* Sect. 2.—Diluvial Formations. Tt remains for me briefly to notice the diluvial formations which appear within the limits of the tract I have been describ- ing. They seem to have been rapidly and irregularly accumu- lated by an inundation which acted with extrordinary violence ; for they aré partly composed of broken masses of more ancient strata, which are rounded and ground down by attrition, and which in many instances have been transported from distant parts of the country ; and they contain no alternations indicating (as in the case of alluvial deposits) the dong continued and lran- quil operation of the agents by which they have been produced. They rest on the ancient strata of the country without the inter- vention of any other deposit whatsoever, and in instances with- out number they form the basis of the whole alluvial detritus. The true relations of the di/uvial detritus are beautifully exemplified on the flanks of the chalk hills which skirt the south-eastern side of the marsh lands above described. It is constantly seen to rest immediately on the fundamental rock ; to follow all the irregularities of the surface ; to rise out from beneath all the alluvial lands, and sometimes to lie in scattered masses on the very top of the chalk downs. From thence it may be traced, almost in a continuous mass, still further to the south-east, where itis heaped up to an enormous thickness, and overlies the newest tertiary beds which exist in that part of England. From all these facts we are justified in concluding, that the diluvial and alluvial deposits above described are not only essentially different in their structure, but belong to two distinct epochs ; the former class of deposits having been pro- duced by some extraordinary disturbing forces prior to the exist- ence of any portion of the other class. Were the order above given contradicted by the arrange- ments of the superficial deposits in other parts of our island, we should of course be prevented from drawing any general conclu- sion from it. But I believe there is no inconsistency in the order of our superficial deposits, and that the counterpart of the * A fine instance of this kind of alternation may be seen in the lower Pentowan stream-worl: near St. Austle. The diluvial tin ground (which is nearly thirty feet below the level of high-water) is covered with a deposit (about seven feet thick) of com- pressed vegetable matter, leaves, roots, and trunks of trees, &c. all of which have evi- dently been drifted into their present position by floods, or perhaps by the s/ide of a half- formed turf bog. Over this deposit are a succession of marine beds (above twenty feet thick) obviously accumulated, while the lower part of the valley was an estuary. Lastly, a thick formation of peat, containing branches and trunks of trees, rises above the level of high-water, and is surmounted by common vegetable soil. For a detailed account of this section, see Geol. Trans. vol. iv. p. 404, &e. 248 _ Prof. Sedgwick on the Origin’ - [ApRit, | facts above stated may be found in every country which is simi- lazly circumstanced with that which has been described. My object is not, however, to make out a new arrangement, but, to confirm an old one; I shall, therefore, content myself with referring to one additional class of examples. In many parts of Cornwall the flanks of the central chain of hills are covered with a thick deposit of diluvial gravel, which, after resting immediately on the granitic and schistose rocks of the country, and following their inclination, often descends into the lower part of the transverse valleys, and from thence shelve down below the level of the sea. Near the mouths of these valleys the diluvium is always covered up by beds of a more recent detritus which in some places are nearly sixty feet thick. Notwithstanding their great thickness, many large excavations have been made through them for the purpose of extracting the tin ore which has been washed down from the mountains at the time the dzluvial rubbish was formed, and which (in consequence of its great specific gravity) has naturally subsided to the bot- tom of the formation. In various excavations of this kind (provincially called stream-works), conducted in different parts of the county, we may see in the clearest manner the true rela- tions of the several superficial deposits ; and (as far as any thing can be proved by single instances) the sections show; first, thatall the di/luvial detritus in that part of England oviginated in the same system of causes which, having produced their effects once, were never repeated; * secondly, that all the alluvial detritus, of whatever kind, is posterior to the preceding ; ‘because it constantly rests upon it, and never alternates with it. By the examination of facts like these, we become acquainted with the natural history of such superficial deposits as I have been describing. The facts are in strict accordance with every thing which I have myself observed, and they are, I believe, in accordance with the observations of all English geologists who have personally examined the evidence connected with this sub- ject. We may therefore conclude on an induction founded on a very wide range of consistent observations; 1.That alluvial deposits include a large class of formations which have originated in causes such as are now in daily action; 2. That the same causes have acted during a long period ; 3. That during that period the deposits have not been interrupted by any catastrophe which has interposed any other deposits of a distinct character ; 4. That diluvial deposits possess a distinct character from the preceding class, never alternate with them, and, from their posi- tion, evidently belong to an older epoch; 5. That during the epoch in question, the di/uvial gravel was produced by extraor- * This fact is of great importance and was, I believe, first remarked by Townsend in-his, ‘‘ Vindication of Moses.’’ (See vol, i..p. 227, &c.) J had repeated opportunitics of verifying this remark during a tour in Cornwall made jn the summer of 1819 -1825.} — of Alluvial and Diluvial Formations. 249 a rmmianaeneee 6. That the disturbing forces which pro- duced these’ inundations acted on the earth’s surface after the deposition of all the regular strata with which we are ac- quainted. The separation of the incoherent materials, which are heaped on the regular strata of the earth, into déduvial and post-diluvial detritus, 1s, therefore, a natural separation, which is at once descriptive of the things designated, and founded on the con- stant relations which they bear to each other. Moreover it is unconnected with any hypothesis whatsoever, and is indepen- dent of any argument drawn from the nature of the organic remains contained in different parts of the several deposits. Seer. 3.—Organic Remains in Alluvial Formations. I should not have dwelt so long in illustrating the preceding conclusions, had I not known that the nature of the evidence on which they are founded has often been entirely overlooked or misunderstood. In the next place, I shall briefly consider the organic remains contained in the two classes of deposits, espe- cially in those localities which have been already described. The following specimens were derived from the al/uvial debris which rests on the dt/uvial tin ground in various parts of Corn- wall. 1. A human skull buried 36 feet in alluvium, from the Carnon stream-work, 2, Horn of an ox 40 feet deep in alluvium, from the same place. 3. Fragments of a human skeleton, from the Pentowan stream-work. 4. An ancient earthen vessel, formed without the potter’s wheel, more than 40 feet deep in alluvium, and about 10 or 12 feet above the diluvial tin ground, from the same place. 5, Part of a culinary vessel buried 24 feet in alluvium, from the Levrean stream-work. A celt and some other rude works of art were found near the same place. To the preceding might be added a long list of spoils derived from the alluvial region which stretches out from the neighbourhood of Cambridge to the wolds of Lincolnshire, such as various specimens of trunks and branches of trees ; of freshwater and land shells ;. of implements of human workmanship ; of horns, teeth, and sometimes skeletons of animals which have been either drifted into the marshes, or have perished there by acci- dentor violence, &c. &c. To which catalogue might be added, the skeletons of four beavers found near Chatteris in the alluvial bed of the Old West-water, a river which in former times per- formed an important part in the dramage of the country, but which has been choked up for 200 or 300 years.* We look in vain into these lists for the bones of the cavern-bear, the mam- Bee a paper by John Okes, Esq. in the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosos phical Society, yol. i, p. 176. : 250 Prof. Sedgwick on the Origin + [ApRit, moth, the hyena, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, and other animals, the spoils of which are found in almost miraculous abundance in many parts of the world buried in the old déduvial detritus. , - When we consider the great extent of the alluvial tract above described, and the various cuts and drains which have been made through almost every part of it: and when we farther consider that the same tract of country is the growth and accu- mulation of at least 2000 or 3000 years ; the negative argument becomes complete, and we conclude, almost with certainty, that during this long period not one of the several species of animals last enumerated existed in the neighbouring parts of our island. Let these considerations be combined with the admirable details and illustrations supplied in the writings of Cuvier and Buck- land, and we readily extend the same conclusion to other parts of England, and indeed to every part of the world, which has been rigidly examined. It may, however, be urged that no accumulation of negative evidence can stand against the direct evidence of opposing facts. Is then the preceding conclusion opposed by any incontroverti- ble facts? To such a question I should not hesitate to reply by a decided negative. Ambiguous cases may occur near the base of a crumbling sea cliff, or near the bank of a river which is continually fallmg down from being undermined by the attrition of the waters; or in the silt and alluvial rubbish of a valley which for many ages has been modified and ravaged by succes- sive floods. In such'situations the spoils of alluvial and dilu- vial deposits may be mechanically mixed together so as to render it impossible to separate them. A sober-minded naturalist who makes his inductions after an extended examination of facts, and who does not view all things through the distorting medium of an hypothesis, will never derive from such localities as these any argument for the true arrangement of spoils found in different parts of the superficial gravel. The only way in which spoils derived from such situa- tions can be classified, is by comparing them with similar remains found in other deposits, the relations of which are clearly exhibited, and which have been modified by no subse- quent disturbing forces. Had this observation suggested itself to Dr. Fleming, he might have withheld more than half the examples he has brought forward in the Edinburgh Philoso- phical Journal (No. 22, p. 297, &c.) with a view of overturning the distinction which has been drawn between the organic remains of a//uvial and diluvial detritus. In regard to the mam- moth, he has not produced a single example of its remains found in undisturbed alluvium. Some of his examples may, perhaps, be ambiguous; but others are derived from localities which, had he taken the trouble to examine them himself, he would 1825.] of Alluvial and Diluvial Formations. 25) have known to be diluvial. A single example is given of the bones of the hippopotamus found under a peat-bog. But the fact is given without details, and without the shadow of a proof that the bones were buried in alluvium. The case of the great fossil elk may perhaps be ambiguous. A gigantic animal of that family would soon be marked out for destruction; or it may perhaps have been exterminated by beasts of prey before the peopling of Western Europe. All the spoils of this creature which | have myself seen zn seéu do, however, belong to diluvial deposits. ‘The three examples of horns of the rhinoceros found in alluvial mar\-pits and turf-bogs, and preserved in the museum of Edinburgh, seem at first sight to throw most formidable diffi- culties in the way of the received classification. Through the kindness of Prof. Jameson, | have lately seen the specimens in question, and I know from the Professor himself that there is no adequate evidence to prove them genuine fossils. Without this information, from their look and their condition, I should not have hesitated a moment in rejecting them as spurious. It is contrary to my present object to enter into any details con- nected with the examples to which I have referred. I do, how- ever, unhesitatingly assert, that as far as regards the purpose for which they were adduced, they are altogether without weight, and without importance. Seer. 4.—Organic Remains in Diluvial Detritus. The deluvium in the central parts of the fens of Cambridge shire, or on the sides of the low hills by which the region is skirted, is found to possess a great uniformity of character. It contains innumerable fragments of gryphites, echinites, shells, corals, lizards’ bones, and other fossils, all more or less perfectly mineralized, and all obviously torn up from the regular strata of the country by the same disturbing forces which formed the ancient gravel. Among these fragments, and among rounded blocks of stone chiefly derived from the same strata, are many minute fragments of bones, and sometimes entire teeth of various animals, more especially of the borse, the ox, the deer, and various graminivora. Among these, the remains of animals (such as the mammoth and the rhinoceros) now unknown as the inhabitants of any part of Europe are by no means uncommon: To describe, or even to enumerate, such specimens in detail would be foreign to my present purpose. I shall only refer, by way of example, to some of the organic spoils derived from the undistarbed diluvium in the neighbourhood» of Cambridge. 1. Fragments of the pelvis of amammoth, from the gravel south of St. Ives, Huntingdonshire. 2.Grinder of the mammoth, from the diluvium which stretches from St. Ives towards the centre of the fens. 3. Fragments ofa large mammoth’s tusk, from Foul- mire. 4. A very large grinder of the mammoth, from the gravel. 252 Prof. Sedgwick on the Origin [Aprin, beds at Hinxton. 5. Innumerable fragments of the bones of various animals from the beds of small flint-gravel, north-west of Cambridge. 6. Eight or ten fragments of mammoth’s grind- ers, from the thick gravel beds behind Barnwell. 7. Three or four large and perfect. grinders of the mammoth, from the fine flint-gravel south of Cambridge; along with which were found several bones- of the horse, and teeth of various graminivora. 8. Many teeth of various graminivora ; humerus of a very large mammoth ; several teeth of the rhinoceros ; horns and portions of two enormous skulls of the urus or buffalo; an atlas (probably belonging to one of the preceding species), in linear dimensions about twice as large as the atlas of a full grown ox; several perfect bones of the horse ; fragment of the horn of the cervus giganteus; &c. &c. all derived from the gravel beds at the north- west end of Barnwell.* Such are the organic remains contained in a small part of the diluvium of this country ; all of them differing in condition, and many of them differing in kind from the corresponding spoils of the alluvial beds of the same district; and the distinction is rendered still more complete by the fact, that not one work of human art, and not one fragment of a human skeleton, have yet been discovered in any part of the numberless excavations which are conducted in the lower and more ancient deposit. When we properly estimate these facts (which are but the counterpart of some of the admirable details given in the “ Reliquie Dilu- viane”), and consider how very small a portion of the superficial gravel has yet been turned over even in the most populous parts of our island. We are compelled to admit that animals almost without number must have inhabited all the lower parts of Europe before the commencement of those destructive opera- tions which produced the diluvial gravel-+ A further examina- tion of the facts already stated leads us also to conclude, that many pre-existing species of animals must have perished during the operation of the same destructive causes; because we do not find their remains in any more recent deposit. It is in vain for any one to attack these conclusions by demanding how it came to pass that one class of amimals perished during the formation of the diluvial gravel, and another class survived it. The same difficulty meets us in classing many of the regular strata of the earth, The suite of fossils derived from one formation may be widely different from the suite derived from another; yet we kaow by experience that both suites may contain many individuals of a common species. * Most of the specimens from this locality are in the possession of J. Okes, Esq, of Cambridge. + This conclusion had been completely demonstrated, in the opinion of most geolo- gists, from the number, the nature, and the condition of the organic remains of the gravel: had any doubt remained on the subject, it is now set at rest by the details con- nected with the Kirkdale cavern given in the “* Reliquie Diluviane.” 1825.} of Alluvial and Diluvial Formations. 253 Still less are the conclusions shaken by the hypothesis, that the weapons of the hunter completed the extinction of many species of animals, of whose former existence we have no knowledge, except through their bones, which are buried in the beds of old diluvial covering. From the only physical evidence which we can have on such a subject, we believe that not a single hunter had ever trodden in the woods of Europe at the time when the mammoth, the rhinoceros, and the hyena were its inhabitants. And the records of Europe afford no proof that such beasts ever inhabited this part of the world in times within the reach of history. Again, we know by direct evidence, which is inde- © endent of any zoological details and of any history, that the diluvial gravel is of great antiquity ; and we know from history that in ancient times large tracts of Europe existed in the form of unreclaimed marsh or almost impenetrable forest. Under such circumstances, are we to believe that a set of inhabitants, savage, almost naked, and few in number, should have waged a war of extermination with large and formidable beasts like the rhinoceros, the cavern-bear, and the hyena? The hypothesis which attributes the extinction of such animals to the agency of hunters in the early ages of the world is at once gratuitous and incredible. ; As the general result of all the preceding details, we may conclude that the separation of the superficial debris of the earth into two classes (di/uvial and post-diluvial detritus), formed by different causes, and during distinct epochs, is completely made out; first, by the direct evidence of natural sections prov- ing one formation superior to the other ; secondly, by the distinct suites of organic remains i;mbedded in the two deposits. The lower formation containing many organic remains which are never found in the upper; and the upper also containing many which are not found in the lower. In these respects, perhaps, no two contiguous formations in the crust of the earth are sepa- rated from each other by more clear and decisive characters. Sect. 5.—On the Causes of Diluvial and Alluvial Phenomena. The conclusions which I have attempted to vindicate in the preceding sections, however interesting in themselves, give us but scanty means of speculating on the causes which have pro- duced the diluvial deposits. lt may be asked, by what forces were the diluvian torrents first put in motion? In what direction did they sweep over the earth ? On what part of the earth’s sur- face have they acted? Did they operate almost simultaneously over all parts of the world, or did they act at intervals and dur- ing a long period of time ? What was the condition of the globe puior to their action, and what are the modifications in its external character produced by them? To some of these ques- tions, no answer can be given, and to none of them can we give 254 Prof. Sedgwick on the Origin [ApRIL, a complete answer in the present state of our information, If, however, a great many well observed facts seem to point to one conclusion, that conclusion must be considered probable until it is opposed by some other conflicting facts. One thing at least as certain, that no hypothesis can be admitted which is not borne out by that series of facts (however imperfect) with which we are now acquainted. _ On these grounds I do not hesitate a moment in rejecting the hypothesis which allows the formation of alluvial deposits in the manner above described, but accounts for all the diluvial phenomena by a succession of partial and transient inundations, occasioned by the bursting of lakes, and other similar catastro- phes.* In the first place, the cause assigned is inadequate to the effects produced. The physical contour and structure of the central and southern parts of England show the impossibility of any large lakes ever having existed among our secondary strata, capable of producing the enormous and almost continuous beds of gravel which stretch along the eastern coast. Several striking facts connected with this question have fallen under my own observation ; and, as far as they go, confirm the general views given in the ‘ Reliquie Diluviane.” As the description of these facts will lead me into some details, I hope to resume the subject in the next number of the Annals of Philosophy. Secondly, the hypothesis is gratuitous. In many parts of England, where there is abundance of superficial gravel, there is not the shadow of evidence to prove that any great body of water was ever pent up among the neighbouring strata, su as to form a lake which afterwards burst the barriers by which it was confined. Catastrophes of this kind sometimes happen in mountainous regions, and the effects produced are commensu- rate to the agents; but these effects have nothing to do with the great masses of superficial gravel even in the contiguous districts.+ Thirdly, the feeble agents which the hypothesis allows would require an indefinite extension of time before they could produce such effects as the earth’s surface plainly exhibits. But the quantity of marsh land and silt formed at the head of many lakes, the extent of different deltas, and other similar phe- nomena, appear to demonstrate that all a//uvial deposits have been completed within a very limited period.{ The hypothesis is, therefore, inadmissible, which makes alluvial and diluvial deposits contemporaneous, and implies an indefinite period of * This appears nearly to agree with Saussure’s opinions, and is still held by some geologists on the Continent. ’ + In consequence of the prevalence of local disturbing forces, such as those alluded to in the text, the great relations of the superficial detritus cannot be studied to so much advantage in the immediate neighbourhood of mountain chains, as in the lower regions of the earth’s surface. + Weowe this conclusion to Deluc who devoted the labours of many years to its con- firmation,: Had his labours terminated here, he had done great service to geology. 1825.) of Alluvial and Diluvial Formations. _ 255 time for their formation. Fourthly, the hypothesis: does not account for the different suites of organic remains found in each deposit. Lastly, it does not account for the constant order in the position of alluvial and diluvial debris. Had they been formed in the way which the hypothesis implies, they must sometimes have alternated. Each of these objections might be expanded and illustrated by many details ; but to. enter on them would be foreign to my present purpose. puny The details already given in the preceding sections sufficiently explain the origin of common a//uvial formations. But there are two classes of phenomena exhibited on several parts of the coast of our island, which are intimately connected with the present. inquiries, and do not always admit of easy explanation, viz. 1. Traces of recent marine deposits above the level of high- water. 2. Extensive traces of ancient forests in situations which are constantly overflown at high-water. Phenomena of the first class are generally met with on the banks of estuaries where the waters of the seanecessarily undergo great oscillations. By the extraordinary combination of a high spring tide, and a hurricane blowing in the direction of the curs rent, whales and other marine animals have from time to time been stranded on the banks of estuaries in situations 20 or 30 feet above the reach of common floods.* This is not mere hypothesis : we know that by the combination of such circum- stances as these, the.sea has two or three times, within the last 600 years, risen to an extraordinary elevation on the coast of Holland, and overwhelmed large and populous tracts of that country. The existence of submarine forests is not so readily accounte for. Some writers have supposed them to be the effects of earthquakes, which in ancient times have submerged large tracts of forest land bordering on the sea coast. Without pretending to exclude such agents in cases which without them admit of no explanation, I think that in a vast majority of instances. it is unnecessary to introduce them. The mean elevation of the sea about every part of our coast is unquestionably constant; but the actual level of high-water at any given place is dependent on the velocity and direction of the tidal currents, the contour of the coast, and a number of circumstances which are entirely. local. In proof of this assertion, it is only necessary to appeal to the fact, that in extensive bays and estuaries, the sides of which gradually diverge towards the open sea, the tides occa- sionally rise (through the operation of a common hydrostatical * Two examples of this kind are noticed by Dr. Fleming in the last number of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, p. 124. Such cases must be carefully distinguished from all tertiary deposits ; and fromsuch accumulations of marine shells as are seer’ in the crag-pils on various parts of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex. These latter instances’ unquestionably belong to no natural marine inundation, and are, at least. as old as the: diluvium in that part of England, : sui aos 256 Prof. Sedgwick on the Origin [ApRriL, Jaw) to an elevation which is many times greater than the rise of the same tides on more open parts of the coast. Any set of causes which greatly modify the form of a deeply indented coast, must, therefore, inevitably produce considerable local effects upon the level of high-water. Let these remarks be applied to the eastern shores of England. We know that during the last 1000 years, the sea has made enormous encroachments on many parts of Suffolk, Norfolk, Lincolnshire, and Yorkshire; not only modifying the whole con- tour of the coast, but at the same time forming chains of shoals and sandbanks by which the velocity and the direction of the tidal currents must have been more or less affected. The waters have, therefore, during successive ages, been propelled into the recesses of the coast by different forces, and up different systems of inclined planes ; and must in consequence have ascended to different levels. Such effects as these will reach their maximum on the shores of large bays and estuaries, like the Humber and the Wash of Lincolnshire. ; The form of the Wash of Lincolnshire must have been greatly changed since the epoch of the diluwial detritus, partly by the degradation of the neighbouring cliffs; but still more by the encroachments of a//uvial silt which has been pushed down into it by the waters of the Witham, the Glen, the Welland, the Nene, and the Ouse.* If an undulating line be drawn through these several rivers a few miles above the estuaries in which they terminate, it may be taken as an approximation to the form of a part of the coast in very ancient times before the great accu- mulation of alluvial matter. The country within this line then presented a low undulating surface, gradually rising on every side of the Wash towards the high lands ; and it was probably almost covered with forest trees, with the exception of a few very low regions through which the rivers descended to the sea, and which were partially flooded at the time of high-water. But in the present state of things, the flood-tides, after filling the lower part of the Wash, are pushed on towards the ancient line of coast through a number of estuaries, the sides of which con- verge towards the interior, and on that account force the waters up to a higher level than they could reach ona coast which was less indented. And after the flood-tides have been thus pushed up into the mouths of the rivers, they do not now, as in former times, mix with the freshwater and catsea reflux, extending far into the interior of the country ; but after rising, almost at once, to a high level,} they are pent up between arcificial banks, and soon stopped altogether by /ocks and other works connected * A long pote containing some-details connected with the drainage of the fens bor- dering on the Wash, arrived too late for the press, but will be affixed to the continua- tion of this paper.— Edit, + See note 2, p. 244, F ™ 1825.) of Alluvial and Diluvial Formations. 257 with.the artificial drainage and navigation of the country. It is almost certain that in such a state of things the tides cannot rise tothe exact level which they reached in ancient times ; and the change will, I think, be precisely of that kind which will explain the appearance of submarine forests in many places bordering upon the Wash. If through a combination of causes such as have been mentioned, the tides on any part of the coast rise toa level only a few feet higher than they did in ancient times, the whole difficulty we have been considering at once vanishes. The conclusions which have been deduced from a cousidera- tion of certain facts exhibited on the coast of Lincolnshire, may be extended to every country which is similarly cireumstanced ; and it seems probable that an actual change in the height of the tides produced by a change in the contour of the neighbouring coasts, is among the most general and efficient causes which have produced the phenomena of submarine forests. By this assertion it is, of course, never intended to exclude other agents from their proper share in producing the phenomenon. Forest trees may have grown in many low tracts bordering on the sea while they have been protected from the flood-tides by artificial, and sometimes, perhaps, by natural embankments ; and in sub- sequent ages the embankments may have failed, and the forests may have been submerged by a consequent incursion of the waters. Fen lands, after being drained and brought under cul- tivation, may have undergone a natural subsidence, and on that account have been exposed to the chance cf subsequent inun- dations. This at least was Deluc’s opinion, founded on obser- vations made in various parts of Holland. Lastly, large tracts of low alluvial land may (after the natural destruction of the bar- riers by which they were held in) be transferred by a slide to a lower level; and in that way productions once out of the reach of the high tides may become exposed to their constant attacks. By the gradual operation of such causes as have been enume- rated, the existence of submarine forests may in most instances be. satisfactorily explained without the intervention of earth- quakes or other irregular disturbing forces. The phenomena above deseribed (viz. the existence of land proguctions below, and of marine productions above the level of igh-water) are after all things suz generis, which are confined to a small part of the coast ; and, however interesting in themselves, throw no light whatever om the general classification of alluvial and diluvial deposits. (T0 be continued.) New Series, vou. 1x. 3 258 Corrections in Right Ascension of (April, Articte II. ADe| Corrections in Right Ascension of 37 Stars of the Greenwic Catalogue. By James South, FRS. a Ceti |Aldebaran| Capella | Rigel @ Tauri jz Orionis hem. s. |h.m. s. jh. m. s. |h, m. §. |h.m. s._ 8. 253 858 |4 25 53-445 3 46°61) 5 6 8°00 [5 15 1429/5 45 42°18 y Pegasi| Polaris | « Arietis h.m.s. |b. ms. {hom s. 0 4 14°25] 0 5817-5' |) 57 19°77 Mean AR 1825. 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Q2 62 | 17°34 28 02 12 40 719 32 13 23 64 | 16-76 30 04 13 Al 79 32 18 24 67 | 16:17 33 C6 14 Al 80 32 13 25 70 | 15:58 35 OT 15 42 80 33 a 26 73.) 14-94 37 08 16 43 81 33 14 27 76 | 14:39 40 10 17 43 81 33 14 28 79| 13°74}. 42 11 18 44 81 34 14 29 82] 13-08 44 13 19 45 82 34 14 30) 85] 12:32 47 14 31} 88 | 3165 | 49 1825.] Thirty-Seven Principal Stars. 259 Sirius Castor | Procyon | Pollux | @ Hydr#} Regulus | g Leonis [6 Virginis |Spica Virg. Meau AR) h.m.s. {h.m.s. {h. m. s./h.m. s. |hem. s. [/h,m. s. |h.m. s. [h.m. s. hom. s. 1825. § 16 37 26°11|7 23 25°30] 7 30 8°47|7 34 35°85|9 18 59°40/9 59 2°78 |11 40 7°80)11 41 34-98}13 15 59:22 April 1 + 151+ rl + 2°10") + 2-46"|+ 2-50") + 2°83") + ed + 3011+ 3°11” 2] 49 09 44 49 82 02 le 3} 47 44 07 AQ 41 81 02 02 13 4) 46] 45 05 4l 46] 80 01 03 14 5} 44] 41 04 39 45 79 01 03 14 6| 42] 40 03 38| 44 18 ol 04 15 1; 40 28 ol 36| 42 11 ol 04 16 8} 39 36} 1-99 34| 4 76 01 05 17 9} 37 34 91 32 39 15 00 05 18 lo] 35 32 95 30| 38 714} 00 06 19 ll] 33 20 93 28 31 73 00 05 19 1g} 32 28 92 27 35 72 | 299 05 20 13} 30] 21 90} 25| 34 71 99 04 20 14, 28 25 89 24 33 10 98 03 21 15] 26 23 87 22 32 69 98 02 21 Were at 22 86; 20} 30 68 98 01 22 Ip 23) 20 }-° 84 19 29 61 97 01 22 1s} 19 83 17 28 66 91 00 23 Ig} 19 17 81 16| 26 65 96 | 2°99 23 20/18 15] 79 14 25 63 96 98 24 21) 17 4| 18 12 24 62 95 98 24 22) 15 12 76 rT 22 60| 95 91 24 23) 14 10 15 09 21 59 | 94 97 24 24} 13 09 13 08 19 58| 94 96 25 25} 11 07 72 06 18 51 93 96 25 26 lo] 06 11 05 16 55| 93 95 25 271} 09 04 69 03 15 54| 92 95 25 28] 07 03 68 ol 14} 53 92 94 25 29} 06 ol 66 00 12 51 91 94 26 04} 1:99 65 | 1-98 11 50| 90 93 26 May 03 98 64 97 10} 49 89 92 26 02 96 62 95} o08| 48| 89 92 26 o1| »>95 61 v4] OT 46 88 91 26 0:99 94 60 93 05 45 87 90 26 98 92 58 92 04; 44| 86 89 26 91 91 51 90 03| 43 85 88 26 96 90| 56 89 01 42 85 87 26 94| 88} 55 #8 00 | 40 84 86 26 93 87 54 86 | 1-98 39 83 86 26 92 86 53 85 97 38 82 85 26 91 84 52 84 96 31 81 84 26 90| 83 51 83 95 36 80 83 26 89 82 50 81 93 34 19 83 | 2% ss 81 49 80 92 33 18 82 25 81 19} 48 19 91 32 11 81 25 86| 78 47 18 90 31 16 80 25 95) 71 re 89 30| 75 19 25 84] 16) 45] 16 87 28| 14 79 24 84| 75| 44 75 86 21 ig\\et 48 24 20) 83 14 44 14 85 26; 172 11 24 21) 83| 13| 43 73 84 25} TI 16 24 ge] 12 42 12 83 24/ | 15 23 s2} 72 42 A 8) 23 69 14 23 81 71 4\ 71 80 22 68 73 22 81 170} 40] 10 19 21 67 12 22 80 69} 40 69 11 20 66 71 22 80 69 39 68 16 18 65 10 2k 79 69 38 68 15 17 64 69 21 19 68 38 61 74 16| 68 68 20 18 68| 37 66 13 15| 62 67 19 78 68{ 37 66 12 4] 61 66 19 260 Correciions in Right Ascension of [Aprit, Arcturus | 2a Libra Cor.Bor.} Serpent. Mean AR) [D+ M+ s- |b. m. s. |h.m. Ss. April }) 4 2° ae 4 B11) + 2°55") 4 57 2 13 3 89 14 59 4 90 16 61 5 91 17 63 6 92 19 65 7 93 20 67 8 95 22 69 2 96 24 12 10 98 26 74 1) 99 27 16 12| 3:00 29 17 13 01 30 719 14 02 31 80 15 03 33 82 1§ 05 37 87 19 06 39 89 20 OT AO 91 21 68 Al 92 25 10 A6 98 26 11 AT 99 27 11 48 | 3-01 28 12 AQ 02 29 12 50 04 30 13 51 05 May | 13 52 06 2 13 53 07 3 13 53 08 4 13 54 09 5 13 55 10 6 14 56 11 7 14 56 12 8 14 57 13 9 14 58 14 10 15 59 15 1] 15 60 16 12 15 60 17 13 15 61 17 14 15 61 18 15 15 62 19 16 16 63 20 1% 16 64 21 18 16 64 21 19 16 65 22 20 16 65 23 21 16 65 23 22 15 65 24 238 15 65 24 24 15 66 25 2 14 66 25 26 14 66 26 27 14 66 26 28 13 66 26 29 13 67 27 30 13 67 27 Antares aHerculis| b. m. Ss. |h, m. s. 1825. — § 114 7 Al-06:144)] 12°92|15 27 16°97|14 35 39°42) 16 1841°97\17 6 40-44 6714 8-04""| + #30 O07 TL 09 73 12 15 15 18 18 80 21 82 24 84 26 86 28 88 31 89 33 9] 36 93 38 95 Al 96 A4 98 46 3°00 AY OL 52 03 54 05 56 06 58 08 61 09 63 11 65 13 68 15 70 16 72 18 14 19 16 20 78 21 80 23 82 24 84 25 86 26 88 27 89 29 91 30 93 31 95 32 Of 33 98 34 4:00 35 Ol 36 03 37 05 38 06 38 08 39 09 40 Il 41 12 41 13 42 15 43 16 44 17 Ad 19 Ad 20 AD 21 46 23 46 24 46 25 h. m. 5s. 2:18!"| + aOphinchi} «Lyre | y Aquile h, m. 5. Jh. m. 5, |h. m. Se 17 2649 :02}18 31 1:0)|1937 56°55 os Qs rue is 1:35! 3 Ye 14 38 17 42 a1 20 45 54 22 48 56 25 52 59 21 55 62 30 58 65 32 62 68 35 65 71 37 69 74 40 72 17 A2 ao 719 A5 19 82 AT 82 85 50 85 88 52 58 9 55 91 93 57 94 96 60 97 99 62 2°00 2°02 64 03 05 67 06 08 69 09 ll val 12 14 13 15 17 75 18 20 qT 21 22 719 24 25 8I 27 28 83 30 81 86 33 34 88 36 37 90 39 40 93 42 43 95 A4 AD 98 AT As 3-00 50 51 03 53 54 05 56 57 07 59 60 09 61 62 10 64 65 12 66 68 14 69 10 16 71 13 18 74 76 19 16 18 21 19 81 23 8i 84 25 83 87 26 85 89 28 87 92 29 89 95 31 92 97 33 94 3:00 34 96 03 1825.] Thirty-seven Principal Stars. 261 « Aquile} 6 Aquile » Mean AR} h. m. s. |h. m. s. 1825. ! |19 4214°84)1946 43-20 2 Capri.| « Cygni ja Aquarii Fomalhaut| a Pegasi |xAndrom. hem, s. {h. mm &. 22 56 3°16)23 59 21°74 h. m. s- |h. m. & {h. mM, Ss 2035 28°24 2156 47°77|23 47 57°67 Ce + 0°96") + 0-73" 98 75 h. m.°s. 20 8 20% + 0:68” + 0°50" 70 51 71 53 73 54 60 63 66 57 58 69 61 05 82 75 55 60 60 12 65 07 84 17 5T 63 63 15 68 09 86 19 38 65 66 i fr 12 12 89 80 59 82 61 84 62 80 83 M1} 74 15 86 82 19 95 86 64 12} 76 18 89 86 QI 98 88 65 158 al 80 92 89 24 1-00 90 67 14] 82 83 95 93 26 02 92 69 15] 85 86 98 96 29 04 94 70 16| 88 2-01 | 1-00 31 06 96| 12 17} 9 91 O04 03 34 09 98 14 18} 94 94 07 07 36 11| 100]. 76 19} 97 97 11 10 39 13 03]. ‘i 20| 200| 2:00 14 14 4l 16 05 79 21; 03 03 17 18 4A 19 08 81 22 06 06 20 21 A6 22 10 83 23 09 09 23 25 49 25 13 85 24 12 12 26 29 52 27 15 88 25 15 15 29 32 54 30 18 90 26 18 18 32 36 57 33 20 92 Q1 21 20 34 40 60 36 23 94 28 24 23 37 43 62 39 25 96 29 26 26 40 Aq 65 42 28 98 30 29 29 43 51 68 Ad 30 1:01 May ! 32 32 AG 55 71 48 33 03 35 35 49 58 74 51 36 06 | 38 38 52 62 17 54 38 08 Al 4) 55 66 79 51 Al 11 44 44 59 69 82 60 A4 13 AT 47 62 73 85 63 Al 16 50 50 65 q7 88 66 50 18 52 52 68 80 91 69 52 2! 55 55 72 84 94 72 55 23 58 58 15 88 97 15 58 26 61 61 92 | 2:00 18 61 29 64 64 95 03 82 64 32 66 66 99 06 85 67 35 69 69 2-03 09 88 10 38 72 72 06 11 9] 13 40 15 15 10 14 95 16 AS 18 18 13 17 98 18 46 80 80 17 20 201 81 49 83 83 3-01 20 23 04 84 52 20 86 86 24 26 08 87 55 21 89 89 27 29 11 90 58 22 92 92 31 32 15 93 61 23 94 95 34 35 18 96 64 24 97 98 31 38 21 99 67 25| 3:00) 3-01 Al Al 251 20 10 26 02 03 AA 44 28 13 21 05 06 41 AT 32 16 28 07 08 5l 50 35 19 29) 10 i! 54 53 39 82 30 12 13 517 56 * 42 85 “$l 14 5) 60 59 4 88 262 Corrections in Right Ascension of [Aprin, i y Pegasi | | Polaris |2 Arietis | a Ceti |Aldebaran| Capella | Rigel @Tauri j Orionis Mean AR) |h sii h. h. m.s. {h. h. the hem a. 1825, slo” 4 1425 0 381750 |I'57 19°77,2 33 o58l4 25 53-4415 3 a6 61 5 S “g00ls 15 1429/3 49 4218 June 1\4 1-91” —10-98"| + 1°52”, + 1:20"|4 1-23’) 4 1-49” + 084”) 4 1-377] 4 1-15" 2 94 10°32 54 22 24 50 | 84 38 15 3 97 | 9°65 57 24 26 51 | 85 39 16 4) 200 899 60 26 27 52 | 86 40 16 5 03 $'28 62 28 28 58 iy tay 41 17 6 = 06 737 65 30 29 54 87 42 17 "| 09 6°85 67 32 3l 55| 88 43 18 gs} 121 613 70 34 32 57| 90 44 18 9 15 | 5:40 13 31 34 59 = 90 45 19 10) 18) 4°68 16 39 36 61 |... 91 46 20 1] 21 3°95 19 42 38 62 92 48 al 1g 2 3°22 82 4A 39 64 94 49 22 13° 28 2:49 85 46 4l 66 95 51 23 14 31 1°76 88 49 43 67 96 52 24 15 34 1:00 91 51 45 69 98 54 25 16 31 |— 0°24 94 54 46 71 99 55 26 17 40 |+ 0°52 97 56 48 73 | 1-00 7 21 18 44 1:28 | 2:00 59 50 15 02 58 28 19 47 | 2:03 03 61 52 11 03 60 30 20 50 2°79 06 64 54 19 05 62 31 21 53 3°55 09 66 56 81 06 63 33 22 57 | 4°32 12 69 58 84 08 65 ae 23 60 | 5:09 15 71 60 36 09 67 35 24 63 5:85 18 14 63 88 | ll 69 37 25 66 6°65 21 16 65 91 12 11 38 265 69)| 17:46 24 79 67 93 14 73 39 27; 12 | 8:27 28 81 69 95 16| 75 41 28) 175, 9:09 31 84 72| 98 | Lis Wes, Te 42 29 #78) 9:90 34 87 74 | 2-00 LS yo ag 44 30 81 | 10-70 Sth. 90 761 O31 2) 81 46 Sirius Castor | Procyon Pollux ja Hydre | Regulus | B Leonis ig Virginis Boicei Mean AR } |h. h. m. s. hen s. |h. h. h. m. s. h, m, 1825. § 697 26117 23 25°30 7 30 S-i7\7'34 B5°65)9 ik 59-40 9 59 2:78) ae fh maa bmn June 1) + 0-78"\+ 1°67” |+ 1- 31” $165") + 171 + 2°13" + 2°60") + 2°65" + 5-18” 2 18 67 36 65 7 12 59 64 18 3 18 67 36 65 70 11 58 63 17 4 18 66 36 65 69 | 10 57 62 16 5 18 66 35 64 68 09 56 62 16 6 11 66 35 64 67 07 55 61 15 7 11 66 35 64 66 06 54 60 14 8 iff 65 35 64 66 05 53 59 14 9 17 65 34 63 65 04 52 58 13 10 71 | 65 34 63 64 03 51 57 12 1] 18 | 65 34 63 64 02 50 56 12 lo 18 65 34 63 63 02 48 55 i 13 18 65 34 63 62 Ol 41 54 10 14 19! 65 34 63 61 00 46 53 09 15 19 66 35 63 61 1-99 45 52 09 16 80 66 35 63 60 99 44 51 08 17 80 66 35 63 59 98 42 50 08 18 81 66 35 63 59 97 Al 49 07 19 81| 66 35 63 58 96 40 48 06 20 82 66 35 64 58 95! 39 41 05 21 8¢ 67 36 64 5T 95 38 46 OL 22 83 67 36 64 7 94 31 AS | 2 23 84 67 36 65 56 94 36 44 02 24 84 68 3T 65 56 93 35 43 02 25 85 68 37 65 55 92 34 42 ol 26 86| 69 38 66 55| 92! 38 Al 00 21 86) 69 38 66 54 91 32 40 | 2-99 26} 87| 70 39 || 67 |. 54] +91), o 8B) 430 | 98 29 88 | 7 39 67 53 90! - 30 38 97 30 89 72 40 68 53 90! 29 $1 96 1825.) \ Thirty-seven: Principal Stars. 630 © | Arcturus Rea la Cor. Bor.|a Serpent.! Antares |aHerculis|aOphiuchi) «@ Lyre |y Aquile | pMeedAR } Ib s. |b, m m.s. ih, m. s. /hom. s. |h om. s. [he m. s. |h. m. s. jh. m. s. 825. 4 7 an “06 tial 1298 m8 9716°97, 15 35 89°42 1618 41°57/17 6 40°44/17 26 49°02, 18 31 1-01 1937 56°55 June 1) + 3:19] 4 3°67”| + 3-27”) 4 3-47!" 4 4-267 + 341”) + 3-42” + 3:07" +315” 2 12 67 27 AT 27 42 43 .08| 17 se. 67 27 AT 28 43 44 10; 20 4 11 67 27 48 | 29 44 46 42 22 5) 610! ot| e271 4s! 30} 45] 47] 14/24 6 10,67 28 43; 31 46 48 16; 27 7 09) 67 28 48 32 AT 50 7 29 8 0967 28 49|} 33 48 51 19 32 | 9 08 67 28 49 3s 49 52 21 34 és 10/07 67 28 49) 34 50 53 22:1 | 36 11 07 66 97) 49 34 51 54 24 38 12 06 66 27 49 35 52 55 25 40 13 06 66 27 49 35 52 56 26 42 14 05 66 26 49-36 53 57 28 45 15} 04 65 26 50° = 36 54 58 29 AT 16 03 65 25 50; 37 55 59 30 49 ” 03 65 25 50 37 560i". 60M 32 51 18} 02 64 24 50 | 38 57 61 33 3 19° =O 64 24 50 | 38 57 62 35 55 20; 00 64 23 50} 38 58 63 36 57 21; 2-99 63 23 49 ~— 39 58 64 317 59 22 98 63 22 49 | 39 59} 64) 38 60 23 97 62 | 22 49 39 59 65 | 39 62 24, 96 62; 2 49 39| 59} 66 40 64 25, 96 61 | 2! 48°) 39 | Gores 67,4) AI 66 26 95 61} 20 48 39 | 60 67 42 67 27; 94 60-20 4S'}i 404) 60 67 | 42| 69 26 93 | 60) 19 AT) 40 61) 68 | 43 71 eur | 92"! > Sgr iRae 47 ek~ got whe est- | 4st 23 30 ore sete ayes lay 40 61 68 45 14 ‘a Aguile le Aquike |2 Caprivor a Uyeni ‘a Aquarii | Pomalhaut a Pegasi jaAndrom. Thaw tii m. s. em. 8. [he ms ib. m. s. hm. 8 ih. m. 8s. jh. m. 1825. 19 42 14-8419 46 43°20/20 8 20° 34/2039 98: 24: 2156 47°77/22 47 57°67|22 56 3° S cleige ‘oh "4 ces | 4 = eS June 1) + 3: nt + 3°18!" + 3:38" | + 2°63 + 2-62")+ 249” | 4 2-23" + 1-92" 2 19-80 Al 66) «65 52 26 95 F3ie Pepi! @ gs A3 69 | 68 55 29 99 4 24 25 46 m3 | 72 59 32 | 2-02 5 86 27 49 76 75 62 36 05 6 = 29 30} 51 79 18 66 39 09 4, 58h 32 54 82 8] 69 42 12 8 34 35 57 85 84 713 45 16 9). 36]. 4g 59 88 81 16 48 19 10 38 39 62 91 90 19 5! 22 1 40 Al 64 94| 93 &3 54 26 ly 42 44 67 97 | © 96 86 57 29 13 45 |. 46 69 3-00 99 89 61 33 14 AG 43| 72 03} 38°02 93 64 36 M5} 49.) 50] 74 06) (05 96 67 39 16 51 52 "1 09! 08 | 300 10 43 17 53 55 19 ‘Je | 11 03 13 46 18 56.| 57 82 15 14 07 17 49 19 58 | 59 84 17 16 10 80 |*° 53 20 60 61 86 19 19 13 63) 56 21; 62 63 89 22, «88 17 86 60 29 63 64 91 24 | 9 24 20 89 63 23 65 66 93 21 21 23 92 66 24 67 68 95 29 30 26 95 69 25 69 10 98 $2 33 29 98 13 fy 26 a 11 | 4-00 34 46 33 3:01 16 4 27 712 13 02 37 38 36 04 19 28 74 15 04 sy |) °'4l 40 07 88 29 fe) 497 06 41 44 43 10 86 30) 5 79 | 08 43 AT 46 13 89 Mr. Moyle’s Meteorological Register for 1824. [APRIL, 264 “ICT JO OGG 0} pajoediod £ [asay vas saoqe 3993 GOT » GLI I6T AS O00F-6F OF-EF TE IF 8GL:1¢ §&0:L¢ 009-1¢ 9618-66 ‘O79 ‘suvaul Tenuuy L VG MS 086-F 86-P 86-7 OL-LE 69:8 €0-LP 6166-63 ** daquiaaacy 6 16 MS CLG 68-G 6O-G 98-6F 00-29 09-67 IPIL 6a **TOQUIBAO NT 6 6 M OPL-F 8L-F OL-F 00-S¢ 08-09 &F-G¢ PECS-66 *** "1890799, iat 9t M OPL-§ 68-€ C9-§ 00-L¢ 00-19 €6-9G 6098-66 * raquiaydag 06 II M 0516 96-6 86-1 86-69 09-89 ¥9-09 9096-64 “oh gsnsny 06 Il AS OPIS €6-E COE OF-19 69-69 FI-19 GLIO-0E ame Ye SI él a Gbs-F 68h 08-F 79-8¢ ¢9-9 CB-8S 6098-66 >t 2 Saale 12 ot a ChE-§ EBS IF IL-6 2-86 06-88 9106-63 |-* °°" Key sI LI a 069% 69-3 19-8 60: LF CL-BG 09-LF 8198-66 |°""** tudy 81 gl MS 081-5 8S-F 98-6 10-FF 06-6F 19-6 #80663 |'°"* yorepy 6 08 AAS O1LS 68-6 £63 B0-0F 0¢-8h 39-tF 1911.63 |** Arenaqag UI tl MS CECT 19-1 OF-I &6-0F 68-9F 88-8F 088-62 |°** Avenues o < 2 isd om “= Boi BS on =] a a 8, iF : os 55 So 8 Sa 8 > < a E ae eg 2 0G, & 2.99, = ‘ ? 2 98 = 5+ 24 HES = #281 z a, Eg o° 4, @ es. @ 5 = g Be | B's E a ~ a . : . 5 5 ‘ Ss ? “Hd HLVA AA “GNI AA *SUALAWVIANT FG “SUALANOWYIH J, * “WOUVG, “AOW “dW UN AG “PEST ue Ypvmusog ‘uojspazy qv gday uagsrsayy poorsojoxoapzapyy vp fo syynsayy JIT Dway 1825.) Mr. Moyle’s Meteorological Register tor 1824. 265 BAROMETER. Highest, Jan. 16. Wind E........... 30°6692 Lowest, Oct.11. Windvar. fromWtoS. 284089 THERMOMETERS. Registering, in the Shade. Highest, July 23. WindSW. .......... 73° Lowest, Jan. 16. Wind E,.........;. git 329 Registering, in the Sun. Highest, Aug. 26. Wind E.......0e++9% 100° Lowest, Jani 16. .Wind«B J. se.essesie- 29 Common, in the Shade. Highest, July 23. Wind SW. .......4.. 73° ROW e ai AA toes WLEL, Kus. ecorste snaymedtever agen 3] Wet days comprehend rainy, showery, foggy, snowy, and those in which there was a fall of hail. One of the pluviameters is situated on the top of a chimney thirty feet from the ground, the other five feet only ; both are apparently free from the operation of local causes; but the lowest has been found, with scarcely an exception, to exceed consider- ably the other, and in the whole amounts to more than two inches in the year. The journal consists of three observations daily, viz. from 8 to9a.m.; 3p.m.; and from 10 to 11 p.m.; and from the means of those periods the barometer appears to be highest at the night observation, next high at the morning observation, and lowest at three, or the noon observations. The means of the three daily observations are always recorded. ' January.—-A very fine month. A few gentle hailshowers, but no snow, and scarcely ice enough to continue 12 hours. February.—Many days wet, but only two on which there was a little frost and snow. March.—A very wet month. A heavy storm on the night of the 9th, and morning of the 10th, of hail, rain, &c. Colder than February. April.—A boisterous and wet month, with principally an easterly wind, May.—A fine month, with much easterly wind. June.—Very wet, stormy, and cold, On the 9th there was much thunder, lightning, &c. with a variable wind from E to § and W. July.—This was also a wet month. On the 14th there was a severe thunder storm, and the tide on the sea coast was observed to recede suddenly below low water-mark, and instantly return with great velocity to full tide. 266 | M. Berzelius on Uranium. ’ [AprRiL, August.—Thunder and lightning on the day and evening of the 2d, accompanied with much rain. September.—Many days of heavy rain. 8.813 October —Remarkably wet, having 22 days rain. The baro- meter fell very low on Sunday the 10th and Monday the 11th, accompanied by a heavy gale of wind, with thunder and lght- ning. November.—A very wet.and gloomy month. A violent-hurri- cane on the night of the 26th and morning of the 27th ; wind S and SE. Rivers had overflowed their banks; the tide rose to an unprecedented height, and much damage was done along the southern coast. December.—There were 24 wet days in this month, and the remaining seven were so damp and disagreeable as to amount almost to such. There were but two decidedly dry days for the month. On the 4th, there was a heavy thunder storm in the evening. A fine meteor was observed on the night of the 29th, about nine o’clock. Altogether the mean temperature of the year is much below the usual standard. If there be added to the mean height of the barometer the sum of 0-121 in. for its elevation above the sea level, which is very near the truth, it will give for the mean height 29°8736 + 0-121 = 29-9946. It appears remarkable that there was nota calm day observed for the year; a few hours only of calm occurred at a time. In this observation, I consider it necessary that an extensive sheet of water should not be rippled; leaves of trees and long grass should not be perceived to move, and the smoke ought to ascend perpendicularly, to indicate a calm. This I believe to be a very rare circumstance for many hours in succession. ArTICcLE IV. Some Experiments with Oxide of Uranium and its Combinations. By Jac. Berzelius.* Tue Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1822, contain a copious memoir on uranium by M. Arfwedson, which has extended and at the same time considerably altered our former ideas respecting that metal. Among the experiments. which he made with a view to determine the composition of the oxide, one gave 5:56 parts of oxygen to 100 parts of uranium, and two others 6°24 and 6:37; on the contrary he found, with- out any variation in his results, that in the oxidule, 100 parts of + Kong. Vet. Acad. Handl. 1823, St. 1. . + For a translation of M. Arfwedson’s memoir, see Annals, vii. 253, New Seriess — 1825.) M. Berzelius on Uranium. 267 uranium are combined with 3-688 parts of oxygen. According to the former of the above results, which M. Arfwedson consi- ders as the most accurate, the ratio of the oxygen in the oxide and oxidule is as 3: 2; according to the latter, it is as 5:3. As the oxide of uranium readily acts as a weak acid, it appeared to me not unlikely that the latter ratio might be the true one, and I thought it of importance to determine the point with pre- cision. I undertook, therefore, an investigation of the compo- sition of the oxide of uranium, in order by that means to ascer- tain its saturating capacity as an acid;* but the experimental determination was accompanied with so many difficuities, that I began to doubt its possibility. The oxide of uranium or its hydrate cannot be obtained artificially in a state of purity. If we attempt its preparation by means of nitric acid, it passes into the state of oxidule just at the instant when we expel the last portions of acid. If we precipitate it with an alkali, it combines with the precipitant ; and when the latter is ofa fixed nature, the compound may be ignited without undergoing decomposition, Owing to the presence of ammonia in the hydrate precipitated by that alkali, it is impossible to analyse it with such precision, that the proportion of oxygen will be deter- mined to within less than +, of the weight of the oxide. I next hoped to gain my object by analyzing the carbonated oxide. 1 therefore precipitated a solution of the nitrate of oxide of uranium with carbonate of ammonia. No eflervescence took place at the commencement of the precipitation, and the preci- pitate, on being collected upon a filter, appeared at first to admit easily of a complete edulcoration ; but it speedily became whiter coloured, and at the same time so much of it passed into solution, that it imparted a distinct yellow colour to the filtered liquid. This liquid became turbid on the application of heat, and acquired a light yellowish milky appearance, but many days elapsed before the whole of the oxide of uranium subsided to the bottom. The residue upon the filter dissolved in acids without effervescence, and was therefore hydrate, instead of carbonate of uraaium. Thinking that this would prove: pecu. liarly serviceable for my purpose, I ignited a quantity in a suit- able apparatus, in which the expelled gas was collected over mercury, and the water by muriate of lime. By this means | determined with precision the weight of the oxidule and of the water; but the gas greatly exceeded the quantity of oxygen which ought to have been evolved, and proved to contain a considerable proportion of carbonic acid and azote. Conse-~ quently this hydrate was contaminated both with carbonic acid and with ammonia: it is probable that these two substances * Before commencing this investigation, I examined the oxidule in the same man- ner as had been done by M. Arfwedson, by reducing it with hydrogen gas, and found it composed of 100 uranium + 3-685 oxygen. f ded 968 M. Berzelius on Uranium. [APRiL, were associated together, and were retained by the hydrate in the state of carbonate of ammonia. I now examined the oxalate of the oxide. By submitting this salt to distillation, I decomposed it in one experiment into metallic uranium, carbonic acid, and water; and on the suppo- sition that one-fourth of the oxygen of the carbonic acid had been previously combined with the metal, it would have followed that the oxide is composed of 100 uranium + 6:14 oxygen: But in another experiment, I obtained a residue of oxidule of uranium, and totally different proportions of carbonic acid and water. In both cases the oxalate had been prepared with an oxide purified in the manner recommended by M. Arfwedson, and precipitated by a long continued ebullition from its solution in carbonate of ammonia. I shall return tothe consideration of this salt. I now ignited a mixture of determmate quantities of the oxidule and of nitrate of lead, with the expectation of form- ing an uranate of lead; but by this treatment, only a small portion of the oxidule combined with an additional dose of oxy- gen. I mixed the two substances together therefore in the state of solution, evaporated the mixture to dryness, and cal- cined the residue; but during the evaporation, the nitrate of lead crystallized in the first place, and the salt of the oxidule concreted into a mass over it; and during the ignition, the lat- ter salt first underwent decomposition, and the unequal mixture of oxidule of uranium and nitrate of lead which remained, afforded the same unsatisfactory result as in the first experi- ment. I now dissolved adeterminate quantity of magnesia in nitric acid, expecting, with its assistance, to precipitate a solu- tion of nitrate of the oxidule, by means of an excess of caustic ammonia; but both in this experiment, and when I mixed a determitiate quantity of magnesia with a solution of a determi- nate quantity of the oxidule in nitric acid, evaporating the mix- ture to dryness and calcining the residue, the results which I obtained were equally varying and undecisive. T next had recourse to more indirect methods. M. Arfwedson had found that oxide of uranium gives with sulphuric acid and potash a double salt, in which its oxygen is to that of the potash as 3:2. I determined therefore to examine this salt, and was the more induced to do so by the uncommonness of this ratio between the oxygen of the two bases. I mixed a saturated solution of the oxide with a smaller quantity of sulphate of potash than was necessary to form with it the double salt, and committed the liquid to spontaneous evaporation. I considered’ it not improbable that if the oxide of uranium contains 3 atoms of oxygen, it might, like alumina and the oxides of iron and manganese, form a salt crystallizing in a similar manner with alum, which would have afforded a decisive proof of its atomic. constitution, But no such salt could be obtained, and the 1825.) M. Berzelius on Uranium. 269 double salt merely formed an adhering crust of small erystals, which had no relation with the octahedron. 1:2 gramme of this salt, heated until it began to undergo fusion, gave off 0-042 grm. of pure water. The residue afforded a turbid solution in water, in consequence of its being partially decomposed into a sub and a super salt, but the liquid was rendered transparent by the addi- tion of a few drops of muriatic acid. The oxide of uranium was precipitated with ammonia, and collected upon a filter; and as it is soluble in pure water, it was washed with a weak solution of sal ammoniac. Ignited, it weighed 0°623 grm. and had ac- quired a green colour, The filtered liquid was evaporated to dryness, and the residue was calcined, in order to expel the ammoniacal salts. The sulphate of potash which remained weighed 03515 grm. Admitting that the oxygen of the oxide is to that of the oxidule as 3 : 2, and that the deficrency in the analysis consisted of sulphuric acid, ihe composition of the salt, according to this experiment, would be: Containing oxygen. Per cent. Mba aly ip kd. dyin. sehi9 oie BOO iy ntrtenrnse aoeny eer ied Dees Oxide of uranium. .. 63°40 ...... Ph Ee ee 58°833 _ Sulphuric acid...... 33°40. osc eee 2004 5025, 27834 sbi WY BECK 24 bes pieldcen biel SO neice’ SAB sie eres ORG 120-00 100-000 - Another portion of this double salt, prepared from a solution containing an excess of acid, appeared to possess exactly the same crystalline form with the preceding, but its yellow colour was considerably paler. On being analysed by the same pro- cess with the one employed above, with this exception that after the separation of the oxide of uranium, the sulphuric acid was precipitated by muriate of barytes, it yielded 6°5 per cent. of water, 50 per cent. of oxidule of uranium, 82 per cent. of sul- phate of barytes, and 27 per cent. of sulphate of potash. This is equivalent to Containing oxygen. eRe Lara Ce OP ee 2°48 Oxide of uranium.... 50°84 ........ 2°53 (2°652) Sulphuric acid ...... DBI SS 1692 Braver. War's chs «te « GPOO Stites fn ats 5°78 ' This experiment demonstrates that the quantity of oxygen is the same in both bases, and that the salt was mixed with a portion of an acid salt, which differed from it also in containing a larger proportion of water of crystallization. ‘| M. Arfwedson found the ratio between the oxygen of the oxide of uranium and of the potash to be nearly as 3 : 2. Henee it would appear that his salt contained a portion of sulphate of 270 M. Berzelius on Uraniun. [ApRIL, uranium, the more especially as he found alcohol capable of extracting sulphate of uranium from it, which was not the case with the salt which I analyzed. The aqueous solution of any salt gave a yellow precipitate with alcohol, but the supernatant liquid was colourless. I now prepared the double muriate of oxide of uranium and potash, whick may be obtained crystallized by slowly evaporat- ing a liquid’ containing an excess of the muriate of oxide of uranium. The crystals are sometimes four-sided prisms with obliquely truncated extremities, and sometimes four-sided rhom- boidal tables. I intended at first to have analyzed it by reduc- tion in hydrogen gas, but I found that the water of crystalliza- tion cannot be expelled, without carrying along with it a portion of the acid, after which the salt is no longer completely soluble in water. It was necessary, therefore, to perform the analysis in the humid way. 1:5 grm. of the crystals, previously dried in the state of powder in a temperature of 130°, dissolved in water without leaving any residue. The solution, precipitated with nitrate of silver, gave 1°61 grm. of fused muriate of silver. The excess of silver was separated by muriatic acid; the oxide of uranium was then precipitated by ammonia, and washed with a solution of sal ammoniac. It was converted by ignition into 0°82 orm. of oxidule. From the remaining liquid, after the dis- sipation of the ammoniacal salts, there was obtained 0°412 grm. of muriate of potash, = 0-2606 grm. of potash. If the deficit be regarded as water of crystallization, it will follow from this analysis that the salt is composed of Potash,......... 26°06 containing oxygen 4:43 Oxide of uranium, 83°46 4:47 Muriatic acid ..., 30°75 saturating capacity 9:05 WSU vo veccc cca da 8:93 By experiment. By calculation. Pee cers di aved Lead ace etees See Oxide of uranium. .. 55°64 .........-.. 95°98 IMaHIATIC ACG. ooo oc. CO'DO «cries ee ree (51) Woe oe Ge bieaeet 100-00 100-00 I have stated my results in conformity with the older theory respecting the constitution of muriatic acid, that I might be able to employ that acid as a standard. It is obvious that both the bases contain equal quantities of oxygen, and that the saturating capacity of the muriatic acid is exactly equivalent to the oxygen of the two bases. The differences between the experimental and calculated results are trifling, and may be safely imputed to the unavoidable errors of observation. I consider the result of 1825.] M., Berzelius on Uranium. 271 this analysis as more decisive than that of any of the preceding ; for if the oxide of uranium were otherwise constituted, a very different, quantity of muriate of silver ought to have been obtained. If, for example, we suppose that the uranium in this experiment had been combined with 4-96 instead of 4°47 parts of oxygen, the quantity of muriate of silver ought to have been 1-684 grm.; but the ditterence between this and the experimen- tal result greatly exceeds what could possibly be occasioned by any errors of observation. Indeed if the oxide of uranium con- tained 5 atoms of oxygen, it is not probable that it could have existed associated with potash in the above-mentioned relation, where the oxygen of the oxidule is two-thirds that of the potash, but that the oxygen both of the oxide of uranium and of the potash would most probably have been the same: still, on this supposition, there ought to have been received 1:67 grm. of muriate of silver. The proportions which, next to these, would approach most nearly to the analytical result, would be when the oxygen of the oxide is to that of the potash as 5 : 4; but this would presuppose still greater differences both in the quan- tity of muriate of silver, and in the relative proportions of the potash and oxide of uranium. Since the quantity as well as the number of atoms of the oxv- gen may in this manner be regarded as known, the information thus acquired may be applied to the analysis of other compounds of uranium. The oxalate of uranium gave, in one experiment, from 2°67 grm. of the desiccated salt, 0353 grm. water, 0°5835 grm. car- bonic acid, and 1-7335 grm. metallic uranium. This approaches to the neutral oxalate of uranium, combined with a quantity of water of crystallization whose oxygen is thrice that of the oxide. By calculation. By experiment. Oxide of uranium. .. 70°76 ........ 69°00 Oxaliesaeid .. 6. oecf DOT D 606s oc 37-99 er ries March 24.—Major C. Hamilton Smith was admitted a Fellow ofthe Society; and a paper was read,? containing Results of Meteorological Observations taken at the Madras Observatory ; by John Goldingham, Esq. FRS. These results are for a period of twenty-six years, extending from 1796 to 1822; and are given in. a variety of tables, with explanatory remarks. In consequence of the approaching fast and festival, the Society then adjourned over two Thursdays, to meet again on April 14. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. Feb. 11.—The fifth Annual General Meeting of the Society was this day held at the Society’s rooms in Lincoln’s Inn Fields, for the purpose of receiving the Report of the Council upon the state of the Society’s affairs, electing Officers for the ensuing year, &c. Xc. The President, H. T. Colebrooke, Esq: in the Chair. The Report, which was read by Dr. Gregory, and ordered to be printed for distribution amongst the members, commenced by expressing the gratification felt by the Council on witnessing the growing prosperity of the Society, and the increasing evidence of the utility of its institution. It proceeded to state, that. for the purpose of still further alleviating the labour of the practical astronomer (the Society having already published in vol. 1. part 2, of its Memoirs, tables for facilitating the computa- tion of the apparent places of 46 principal stars), the Council had deemed it desirable that tables ot precession, aberration, and nutation, should be computed, embracing, Ist, all stars above the 5th magnitude; 2nd, all stars to the 6th magnitude inclusive, whose declination should not exceed 30°; and 3d, all stars to the 7th magnitude inclusive, within 10° of the ecliptic ; and that a considerable portion had already been computed under the superintendance of Mr. Baily and Mr. Gompertz, and would be forthwith published, accompanied by an explanatory preface, drawn up, at the request of the Council, by Mr. Baily. The Report then noticed, in terms of well-merited panegyric, the very valuable collection of astronomical tables lately published by Dr. Pearson, the Treasurer; and it will be no little gratifica- tion to the scientific world to be informed, that the tables con- stitute only. a part of a comprehensive treatise on Practical Astronomy upou which Dr. Pearson is still engaged. It then adverted to the visit of Mr. Herschel, the Foreign Secretary,. te a 308 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [APRIL, Italy and Sicily, from which, besides other very considerable benefits, the Society had derived increased facilities of commu- nication with the continental astronomers, nearly the whole of whom the Society had now the honour of numbering amongst its Associates. The Report contained a just tribute of respect to the memory of the late Major-General John Rowley, of the Royal Engineers, FRS. and a member of this Society, of which he was a cordial friend from its commencement. After alluding to the acquired stability and acknowledged utility of the institu- tion, which might justify an application to the Crown for a Charter of Incorporation, the Report stated that the expediency of such an application would most probably engage the consi- deration of the Council for the ensuing year. It concluded by strenuously advising concert and co-operation, observing, that though much had been done to advance astronomical science, and much was in progress, much yet remained to be done. “ On the retrospect of the past, however, your Council derive confi- dence with regard to the future. Let the zeal, activity, and talent of the Members and Associates for the next ten years but keep pace with the efforts of the last five, and the most inter- esting, brilliant, and beneficial results may unhesitatingly be anticipated.” A list of the papers read at the ordinary meetings, followed by a numerous list of benefactors, and a gratifying statement of the Society’s finances, was then read, after which the Members pre- sent proceeded to ballot for the Officers for the ensuing year, when the following were declared to have been duly elected : President. —Francis Baily, Esq. FRS. and LS. Vice- Presidents.—Charles Babbage, Esq. MA. FRS. L.and E.; Rey. John Brinkley, DD. FRS. Pres. RIA. and Prof. Ast. Univ. of Dublin; Davies Gilbert, Esq. MP. VPRS. and FLS, ; George Earl of Macclesfield, FRS. Treasurer.—Rev. William Pearson, LL.D. FRS. Secretaries.—Olinthus G, Gregory, LLD. Prof. Math. Roy. Milit. Acad. Woolwich ; John Millington, Esq. FLS. Prof. Mech. Phil. Roy. Inst. Foreign Secretary.—J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. MA. FRS. L. and E. Council,—Captain F, Beaufort, RN. FRS,; Major T. Colby, Roy. Eng. LLD. FRS. L. and E.; Henry T. Colebrooke, Esq. FRS. L. and E. and LS.; Bryan Donkin, Esq.; Rev. William Dealtry, BD. FRS.; Benjamin Gompertz, Esq. FRS.; Stephen Groombridge, Esq. FRS.; Edward Riddle, Esq.; Richard Sheepshanks, Esq. MA.; Edward Troughton, Esq. FRS8. L. and E. The Society afterwards dined together at the Freemasons’ Tavern, to celebrate their fifth anniversary. ki: March .11.—There was read “ An Account of the Arrival and 1825.) Astronomical Society. 209 Erection of Frauenhofer’s large Refracting Telescope at the Observatory of the Imperial University at Dorpat :” communi- cated in a letter from Prof. Struve to Francis Baily, Esq. Presi- dent. Prof. Struve received this telescope in November last, and was happy to find that although it had travelled more than 300 German miles, its several parts had been so carefully packed that none of them had sustained the slightest injury. When in a perpendicular position, the height of the object glass is 16 feet 4 in. (Paris measure) from the floor, 13 feet 7 in. of which belong to the telescope itself; so that the eye-glass stands 2 feet 7 in. from the floor. The diameter of the object-glass is 9 Paris inches (about 92 inches English). The weight of the whole in- strument is about 3000 Russian pounds. It is so constructed that it may be used as an equatorial. The upper part of the instrument consists of the tube, with its axis of motion, two gra- duated circles, and a variety of levers and counterpoises, pro- ducing the most perfect equilibrium in every direction, and providing against all friction. The declination circle is divided from 10’ to 10’, but by means of the Vernier may be read off to 5”, The instrument may be turned in declination with the finger, and round the polar axis with still less force. The most perfect motion round the polar axis is produced by means of clock-work, which is the principal feature of this instrument, and the greatest triumph for the artist, the mecha- nism being as simple as itis ingenious. A weight, attached to a projection connected with the endless screw, overcomes the friction of the machine. The clock vibrating in a circle regu- lates the motion, by moving an endless screw connected with a second wheel in the above projection. The weight of the clock as wellas that of the friction apparatus may be wound up without the motion being interrupted. When the telescope is thus kept in motion, the star will remain quietly in the centre, even when magnified 700 times. At the same time there is not the least shake or wavering of the tube, and it seems as if we were ob- serving animmoveable sky. But the artist has done still more ; he has introduced a hand ona graduated dial of the clock, by which the motion of the latter can be instantly altered ; so that astar may be brought to any point of the field of vision to which it may suit the observer to carry it, accordingly asit is required to make the course of the instrument go faster or slower than the motion of the heavens ; and if once placed, it may be kept in that position by returning the hand to its original position. The same mechanism is also used to make the motion of the instrument coincide with that of the Sun and Moon. _This instrument has four eye-glasses, the least of which magnifies 175 times, and the largest 700 times. 310. Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [APRIL, M. Struve has compared the power of this telescope with Schroéter’s 25-feet reflector, by means of which that astronomer saw « Orionis, twelve or thirteen fold; whereas Struvé clearly ascertained the existence of sixteen distinct stars. This instrument is furnished with four annular micrometers of Frauenhofer’s construction, and an excellent net-micrometer' of the same artist. By means of these it appears that the probable error in the measurement of some minute distances of 7” and under, did not exceed the 18th part of a second. The expense of this instrument was about 950/. sterling. | There was also read a paper on “‘A New Zenith Micrometer ;” by Charles Babbage, Esq. FRS. &c. The object of the inventor in this instrument 1s to. supersede the necessity of extreme accu- racy in the divisions. The principle on which this instrument depends may be readily comprehended by imagining a parallelo- gram, admitting of free motion about its four angles, to be placed with two of its sides in a horizontal position, and the whole in a vertical plane ; and a telescope to be fixed at right: angles to the lower horizontal bar of this parallelogram. Here every motion of one of the perpendicular bars of the instrument round its upper joint will not change the angle which the tele- scope makes with the meridian ; but will merely remove it into anew position in which it will point to the same object in the heavens. But if either of the horizontal bars of the mstrument be lengthened by a very small quantity, this parallelism of the telescope will no longer be preserved, but any movement of the: upright bars round their axes will not only remove the telescope from its position, but will cause it to form a very small angle with its former direction. The magnitude of that angle will. depend ou the alteration in the length of the arm of the paralle- logram, and also on the angle which that arm makes with its. first direction. The minutiz of the construction depend upon these considerations, but cannot be rendered intelligible without a diagram. The arc which is actually measured in the heavens. by means of this instrument is determined by a formula, in which the sum of three arcs is taken from the semicircumference, one of them resulting from the actual observation; the other two from a cosine and a tangent, ascertainable by computation from the theorem itself. In an extensive use of this micrometer, tables may easily be formed to facilitate the computation. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Jun. 21,—A_ paper was concluded, entitled “On a recent Formation of Freshwater Rock Marl in Scotland, with Remarks on Shell Marl, and on the Analogy between the ancient and modern Freshwater Formations;” by Charles Lyell, Esq. Sec. GS. . 1825.] Geological Society. . 311 The rock marl described in this communication is an extremely compact limestone, in part of a crystalline structure, and tra- versed by numerous irregular tubes or cavities. | As a principal part of its geological interest is derived from its recent origin, the author has drawn a brief sketch of the physical structure of the county of Forfar, in order to explain distinctly its position. _ Those strata are also enumerated in which limestone is found, and its remarkable scarcity in Forfarshire pointed out. The districts to which shell marl is confined are next consi- dered, and it appears that deposits of this nature are accumu- lated only in lakes in two formations, viz. the inferior or transition sandstone, and the old red sandstone. The Bakie Loch, in which the rock mar! occurs, lies in a hol- low in sand and gravel. This gravel consists of the broken and rounded masses of the primitive rocks of the Grampians, which are heaped in large quantities upon the old red sandstone in the valley of Strathmore. The succession of the deposits of sand, shell marl, and rock marl, in the lake of the Bakie now drained, is then described. The shells and plants enclosed in the rock are the same as those in the soft shell marl, and are all still living in the waters on the spot. Among the plants are the stems and seed vessels of Chare, the latter being fossilized in such a manner as to present a perfect analogy to the gyrogonite of the ancient freshwater formations. Mr. Lyell then considers the probable origin of the rock marl, which appears to be derived from the subjacent shell matl, through which springs ascend, charged with carbonic acid. Some remarks are next offered on the shell marl of Forfarshire, and some which the author has examined near Romsey, in Hampshire, is described. The subjects of chief interest with regard to the shell marl are, its slow growth, the small propor- tion of full grown shells, which are found in it in Forfarshire, the greater rapidity of its growth in the vicinity of springs, its abundance in a part of Scotland in which limestone is very rare, and its searcity in the calcareous districts of England. The question is then considered whether the shell marl be exclusively derived from the exuvie of testacea, and the various arguments for and against this hypothesis are entered into. n conclusion Mr. Lyell takes a general view of the analogy between the ancient and modern freshwater formations. Both of these may be described generally as consisting of thin beds of calcareous, argillaceous, and arenaceous marls, together with strata of sand and clay, to which the consolidated beds bear upon the whole but a small proportion. The shells and plants contained in both are referable to the same genera, 312 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Aprttj The bones and skeletons of quadrupeds are found buried at various depths in the marls of Fo#farshisa as they occur in the lower freshwater formation of Paris. a Of the four desiderata mentioned by Messrs. Cuvier an Brongniart (Ess. on the Env. of Paris, p. 56), as being requisite to complete the analogy between the deposits of lakes now existing, and those of a former world ; three are supplied by the lakes in Forfarshire, viz. 1. A compact limestone; 2. Vegetables convertedinto the substance of their calcareous matrix; 3. Large beds of yellowish white calcareous marl. The rock marl of Forfarshire closely resembles the Travertino of Italy, part of which is a recent formation, but part has been proved by M. Brongniart to be of a date probably as ancient as the upper freshwater strata at Paris. The only difference remaining between the ancient and the modern freshwater formations is, 1. The absence in the latter of silica, which is only known as a modern deposit from water con- nected with volcanic agency; and 2. The small scale on which the recent accumulations proceed. If these differences are ascribable to a higher temperature prevailing where the ancient freshwater rocks were formed, they “may perhaps disappear when the hitherto unexplored tropical regions of the globe are fully investigated. MEDICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. The fifty-second Anniversary Meeting of this Society was held on Tuesday, March 8, at the London Coffee-house, Ludgate Hill: W. Shearman, MD. President in the Chair. The Officers and Council for the year ensuing, are : President.—H. Clutterbuck, MD. Vice-Presidents—H. J. Cholmely, MD.; J. Johnson, MD. ; Sir Astley P. Cooper, Bart. FRS.; and W. Kingdom, Esq. Treasurer.—J. Andree, Esq. Librarian.—D. Uwins, MD. Secretaries.—T. J. Pettigrew, Esq. FAS. FLS.; and T. Calla- way, Esq. Foreign Secretary.—L. Stewart, MD. Council—T. Walshman, MD.; W. Shearman, MD.; G. Dar- ling, MD.; T. Cox, MD.; J. Barne, MD.; J. Russell, MD.; J. B. James, MD. FLS.; E. Morton, MD.; G. Drysdale; E. Sutleffe, B. Brown, J. Dunlap, W. Lake, K. Johnson, 8S. Ash- well, E. A. Lloyd, J. Handey, E. Leese, H. Edwards, W. D. Cordell, J. Amesbury, W. Burrows, 8S. Wray, H. B.C. Hillier, M. Gossell, T. W. Chevalier, G. Langstaff, J. C. Taunton, H. Hensleigh, J. M. Mugglestone, J. S. Smith, R. W. Bamp- field, R. Brien, R. Blick, M. Ware, Esquires. To deliver the Oration in March, 1826.—J. Haslam, MD. Registrar.—J. Field, Esq. : 1825.] Scientific Notices—Chemistry. 313 Mr. E. A. Lloyd delivered the Annual Oration. The subject was, the “ Constitutional Treatment of Organic Diseases.” The Fellows and their friends then dined together at the London Tavern, Ludgate Hill. In conformity with the will of the late Dr. Anthony Fother- gill, the Society offers the annual gold medal, value 20 guineas, for the best dissertation on a subject proposed by them, for which prize the learned of all countries are invited as candidates, The subject for this year is “ The Nature and Treatment of Carcinoma.” 1. Each dissertation must be delivered to the Registrar in the Latin or English language, on or before the 1st of December. 2. With it must be delivered a sealed packet with some motto or device on the outside, and within the author’s name and designation,. and the same motto or device must be put on the dissertation, that the Society may know how to address the successful candidate. 4 3. No paper in the handwriting of the author, or with his name affixed, can be received ; and if the author of any paper shall either directly or indirectly discover himself to the Com- mittee of Papers, or any member thereof, such paper will be | excluded from all competition for the medal. 4. The prize medal will be presented to the successful candi date, or his substitute, at the Anniversary Meeting of the Society in March, 1826. 5. All the dissertations, the successful one excepted, will be returned, if desired, with the sealed packet, unopened. : *,* The subject of the dissertation for the year 1826-7 is * Contagion and Infection.” Medical Society’s House, Bolt-court, Fleet-street, March 17, 1825. ARTICLE XII. SCIENTIFIC NOTICES. CHEMISTRY. 1, Condensation of a Mixture of Hydrogen and Oxygen by pul- verulent Platinum. Dobereiner has ascertained that moist as well as dry platinum causes the mutual condensation of these two gases. The effect in both cases is equally complete; the only difference being in the length of time necessary to produce it. The best method of performing the experiment is to ignite at the bottom of a glass tube closed by fusion at one extremity, a gene of the double ammonio-muriate of platinum, or to ecompose in it a solution of platinum by means ofa rod of zinc. 314 Scientific Notices—Mineralogy. [Arria, In either case, a thin film of platinum is deposited. upon’the interior of the tube, and adheres with considerable firmness. Lf a tube thus prepared be filled with a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen (or atmospheric air), and inverted over water, the whole of the hydrogen will be condensed into water in the course.of.a few hours. A similar result is obtained by placing a mass. of spongy platinum well soaked with water into a receiver filled with the mixture of the two gases. He next examined what would be the effect of moistening the platinum with other liquids. With alcohol the experiment succeeded equally as well as with water; buf not the slightest condensation took place when the spongy metal was imbibed with nitric acid, or with liquid ammonia. He ascribes these differences exclusively to the gaseous mixture being absorbable by water and alcohol, but not by nitric acid or liquid ammonia: in the former case only, the gases would be conveyed into immediate contact with the metal. Dobereiner concludes with observing, that the existence of some peculiar and independent property in the platinum. is more decisively evinced by the present experiment than by any other which he had heretofore made. | These experiments suggested an easy method of depurating hydrogen from minute traces of oxygen. All that is necessary is to enclose it in a stoppered phial, a portion of whose interior has been coated by the process just described, with a thin incrus- tation of platinum. The oxygen will by degrees undergo con- densation.—(Schweigger’s Neues Jornal fiir Chemie und Physik, xii. 60.) MINERALOGY. 2. Sodalite. A mineral, obviously intimately associated with sodalite, has been examined by Wisehiraptetey It is found on Vesuvius incorporated with the garnet described in p. 71. Its colour is white, and it is in an imperfect degree transparent. It has a granular texture, and is brittle. Before the blowpipe it melts without giving off any water: itis more fusible than albite or icespar, but less so than mesotype or meionite. In borax, it dissolves with extreme slowness into a transparent glass. With solution of cobalt, the edges become faintly blue coloured. Muriatic acid cannot be detected by means of oxide of copper. The mineral is readily decomposed by nitric or muriatic acid, gelatinous silica remaining undissolved. Its constituents were found to be, Selteneane De. Giese ieee Eile he recevieis 4 OOO8 oAddearipii pian, ets es ease bias wines levers te A SOMA at Ss Male Re Ue eld cele cine 2OQ6 Muriatic acid eevee eeroee score ese ee 1-29 ——, 100°87 1825.] Scientific Noticees— Miscellaneous. 315 --Wachtmeister considers it a compound of | atom of bisilicate of soda’ + 2 atoms of silicate of alumina. His results differ materially from the analyses of sodalite which kave been made both ‘by Borkowsky and Arfwedson; and on comparing his ‘mineral with the specimen analyzed by the latter chemist, he observed several discrepancies between them, both in their external appearance and in. their blowpipe characters.—(Kong. Vet) Acad. Hand. 18235, p. 131.) 3. Notice respecting the Discovery of a Black Lead Mine in Inverness-shire. The only mines of black lead which have hitherto been wrought in Scotland are those of Cumnock, in Ayrshire, and of Glen- strathfarrar, in the county of Inverness.* This last mine was discovered so recently as 1516, but does not seem to have been wrought to any extent. Under such circumstances, therefore, it is with great satisfac- tion that we announce to our readers the discovery of another black lead mine in Inverness-shire, on the property of Glengary. The mine is situated near the top of a rocky ravine, close to the head of Loch Lochy, on the south-east side, and within a mile of the Caledonian Canal. The mine is so situated that an artificial trough or slide, of simple construction, hike that one used at Alpnack in Switzerland for timber, might be erected to convey the black lead ore by its own force of descent from the mine to the Caledonian Canal. The breadth of the vein is in many piaces, where it crops out, fully three feet in breadth. Not more than a ton or two of ore has been yet taken from the mine, and that too merely gathered from the surface.—(Edin- burgh Journal of Science.) MisceLtLANEous. 4. New Work on Fossils. We have the pleasure to announce the appearance of the first century of the Icones Mossilium Sectiles, by Charles Konig, Esq. of the British Museum. This work will be found to possess great interest both for the general naturalist and the geologist, and consists of eight folio lithographic plates, containing exceed- ingly accurate and well-executed figures of 100 species of fos- sils, with their descriptions in Latin. Some of the figures are copied from other works, which from their high price or rarity are not within every one’s reach: the rest are drawn from nature. The plates are divided by longitudinal and transverse lines into separate compartments, so that the subjects, as the name of the work implies, may be cut out, and arranged in orders and * Black lead has been found in Glen-Ely and Shetland. 316 Scientific Notices—Miscellaneous. [APRIL, genera according to the fancy of the purchaser; no systematic arrangement being adopted in the work. The explanations of the figures are short and confined to the descriptions of new genera, the localities of species, and the reasons that have induced the author, in some instances, to adopt new names, who reserves more ample details for a future work, which, from the manner he has executed this, we hope will not be long before it sees the light. The place which each genus occupies in Cuvier’s Regne Animal is given, and the primary section, class, order, and family, respectively denoted by a period, colon, semicolon, and comma annexed, the tribe being without any mark. Thus the name of the genus Ixa is followed by the words (Articulata. Crustacea: decapoda; brachyura, Canceres). We shall only add, that we wish the authors of modern works on natural history would write as elegant Latin as that in which Mr. Konig has couched the short preface at the beginning of his book. 5. On the Structure of Rice Paper. The substance commonly known by the name of rice paper is brought from China in small pieces, about two inches square, and tinged with various colours. It has been for some time used as an excellent substitute for drawing paper, in the representa- tion of richly coloured insects, and other objects of natural history, and has been employed in this city with still more success in the manufacture of artificial flowers. Although rice paper has a general resemblance to a substance formed by art, yet a very slight examination of it with the microscope is sufficient to indicate a vegetable organization. In order to observe and trace the nature of its structure, it was necessary to give it some degree of transparency, and I expected to accomplish this by the usual process of immersing it in water or in oil of the same refractive power. This operation, however, instead of increasing the transparency, rendered the film more opaque, and suggested the probability that, like tabasheer, it was filled with air; aud that the augmentation of its opacity arose, as in the case of that siliceous concretion, from the partial absorption of the fluid. In order to expel the air from the cells in which it seemed to be lodged, I exposed a piece of the rice paper to the influence of boiling olive oil. The heat immediately drove the air in small bubbles from the cells near the margin; but it was with some difficulty that it was forced to quit the interior parts of the film. As the olive oil had now taken the place of the air, and filled all the cells, the film became perfectly transparent, and displayed its vesicular structure when placed under a powerful microscope. The rice paper consists of long hexagonal cells, whose length is parallel to. the surface of the film; these cells are filled with 1825.] © New Scientific Books. 317 air, when the film is in its usual state; and from this circum- ‘stance it derives that peculiar softness which renders it so well adapted for the purposes to which it is applied. When the film ys exposed to polarised light, the longitudinal septa of the cells depolarise the light like other vegetable membranes. Among the three specimens of rice paper which I have pro- ‘duced, there is one from which all the air has been expelled b ‘the boiling oil; another in which some of the air bubbles still appear in the vesicles, the air having been only partially expelled by boiling water; and a third, which is in contact with water, without having been deprived of any of its air bubbles. ; _ Upon mentioning to Mr. Neill the preceding experiments, he informed me that the lady in Edinburgh, Miss Jack, who had employed rice paper with such success in the manufacture of artificial flowers, had learned from her brother, who was in China, that it was a membrane of the bread fruit tree, the arto- carpus incisifolia of naturalists.—(Edinb. Journal of Science:) | ARTICLE XIII. NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION, Shortly will be published, A Series of Tables, giving the French Weights and Measures reduced to the English Standard. By C.K. Sanders, of the Royal Engineers. _ The whole Works of the late Matthew Baillie, MD. with an Ac- count of his Life. By James Wardrop, Esq. Surgeon Extraordinary to the King. A Narrative of the Source of St. Peter’s River, Lake Winnepeek, &c. By W. H. Keating, AM. 2 vols. 8vo. Species Conchyliorum, or Descriptions of all the known Species of Recent Shells. By G. B. Sowerby, FLS. &c, Illustrated by coloured Plates by J. D. C. Sowerby, FLS. &c. The Mine Laws of Mexico, from the original and last enacted Code, are now translating from the Spanish, and, with Observations on Mines and Mining Associations, are nearly ready for the press, under the Editorship of a Barrister. / JUST PUBLISHED, A Description ofthe Faults or Dykes ofthe Mineral Basin of South Wales. By G. Overton, Civil Engineer. Part I. 4to. 9s. A General Critical Grammar of the Inglish Language, on a Sys- tem novel and extensive, exhibiting Investigations of the Analogies of Language written and spoken. By S. Oliver, jun. Esq. 8vo. 12s. A Key to the Knowledge of Nature, or an Exposition of the Mechanical, Chemical, and Physical Laws of Matter. By the Rev. R. Taylor. 18s. / Analecta Latina Majora, on the Plan of Dalzell’s Analecta Greca. 8vo. 9s. 6d. 318 New Patents. . [APRIL, ARTICLE XIV. NEW PATENTS. E. Lees, Little Thurrock, Essex, publican, for improvements in water-works, and in the mode of conveying water for the purpose of flooding and draining lands; applicable also to other useful purposes. —Feb. 19. T. Masterman, Dolphin Brewery, Broad-street, Ratcliffe, Middlesex, brewer, for an apparatus for bottling wine, beer, and other liquids, with increased economy and dispatch.—Feb. 19. E. Lloyd, North End, Fulham, for a new apparatus from which to feed fires with coals and other fuel—Feb. 19. Bb. Tarrow, Great Tower-street, London, ironmonger, for improve- ments in buildings, calculated to render them less likely to be destroyed or injured by fire than heretofore.—Feb. 19. J. Ross, Leicester, hosier, for a new apparatus for combining and strengthening wool, cotton, and other fibrous substances.—Feb, 19. J. Mould, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, Middlesex, for improvements in fire- arms.—Feb. 19. H. Burnett, Arundel-street, Middlesex, for improvements in ma- chinery for a new rotatory or endless lever action.—Feb. 19. J. Beacham, Paradise-street, Finsbury-square, cabinet-maker, for improvements in water-closets.—Feb. 19. J. Ayton, Trowse Millgate, Norfolk, miller, for an improvement or spring to be applied to bolting mills for the purpose of facilitating and improving the dressing of flour, and other substances.—Feb, 19. D. Edwards, King-street, Bloomsbury, writing-desk manufacturer, for an ink-stand, in which, by pressure, the ink is caused to flow to use.—Feb. 26. J. Manton, Hanover-square, gun-maker, for improvements in fire- arms.—Feb. 26. W. H. Hill, Woolwich, Lieutenant of Artillery, for improvements in machinery for propelling vessels——Feb. 26. G. A. Kallmaur, of the Friary, St. James’s Place, Professor of Music, for improvements in the mechanism and construetion of piano- fortes—Feb. 26. J. Heathcoat, Tiverton, lace-manufacturer, for his improved methed of producing figures or ornaments on goods manufactured from silk, cotton, &c.—Feb. 26. J. Bateman, Upper-street, Islington, for a portable life boat.— Feb. 26. C. Whitehouse, Wednesbury, Stafford, whitesmith, for improve- ments in manufacturing tubes for gas, and other purposes.—Feb. 26. T. Attwood, Birmingham, for an improved method of making nibs, or slotts, in copper or other metal cylinders used for printing cottons, &c.— Feb. 26. D. Gordon, Basinghall-street, London, and W. Bowser, Parsons- street, Wellclose-square, iron-manufacturer, for improvements. in writing and plating or coating iron with copper.—Feb. 26. 1825.]. Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. 319 ARTICLE XV. METEORCLOGICAL TABLE, ar = | BAROMETER, THERMOMETER, 1825. | Wind. | Max. Min. | Max. | Min. | Evap. 2d Mon. Feb. 1) W 30°53 30°26 48 30 a 25 Wi 3053 29°68 45 CT a ames 3} W }| 29°81 29°68 40 28 _ 4iIN Wi 29°86 29°81 45 25 — 5IN Wi 30°18 29°86 33 29 — 6IN Wj 30°36 | 30718 |°34 | 298 | — 7IN WI 30°36 | 3075 42 38 — 8} W | 30°49 30°15 45 30 — QIN W)| 30:60 | 30-49 45 32 — 10| W | 30°68 | 3060 48 28 —_ 11] W 30°71 30°69 48 26 — 12/8 W| 3071 30°69 42 28 — 13} W | 3072 30°59 38 32 — 144 W | 30°59 30°35 36 gr 15S E}| 30°35 30°20 41 39 “48 16S W] 30°22 30 20 45 37 — Wie cas 30°20 30°14 48 39 — 1s} E 30°34 30°14 48 in ree 19) E 30°44 30 34 52 49 _ 20/8 W\| 30°60 30°44 52 32 — 21\N WI 30:60 30°60 48 27 _ 22IN Wi 30°60 | 30:37 A5 38 — 23/8. El 30°40 °7|’ 30:37 42 | 30 | — 24, E 30°55 30°40 4§ 32 _— 25\IN E} 30°55 30°43 40 32 _ 26N E| 3043 | 2999 | 40 | 33 | — 27S 29-99 29°77 45 By ea 2N W) 29-92 29°77 44 | 30 “40 | satay fy SENS IESE SES eee | 3072 | 29°68 52 25 “88 The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, beginning at 9 A. M. on the day indicated in the first column. A dash denotes that the result is included in the next following observation. 320 Mr, Howard’s Meteorological Journal. *{Arnix, 1825, REMARKS. Second Month—\. Rainy. 2, 3. Fine. 4. Snowy morning. 5, 6, Fine. 7. Cloudy: rainy night. 8, 9. Fine. 10. Foggy morning: fine day. 11. The same. 12, The same: aclear night. 13. A very thick fog this morning: cleared a little, p.m. 14. Foggy morning: gloomy. 15—1l7. Cloudy. 18. Rainy, 19. Cloudy. 20. Overcast. 21. Foggy: fine, p.m. 22. Hoar frost: a fine day. 23. The same. 24, 25. Overcast. 26, The same: snow about noon. 27. Rainy morning: gloomy. 28. Fine. RESULTS. Winds: NE, 2; E,3; SE, 2; S,2; SW,4; W,7; NW, 8 Barometer: Mean height For the month. ..... ee Rot eae ot Skee Ce 80:315 inches. For the lunar period, ending the ]0th..,........-. zee, SUESS For 14 days, ending the 5th (moon north) ,,........ 30261 For 14 days, ending the 19th (moon south) ...... ceee SOAIT Thermometer: Mean height For the month.........++. cocesececces cececceceven, SIGABS For the lunar period. .......-.++++0+- eecereceeee eee STAB For 30 days, the sun in Aquarius........e0es+--.. 37133 Evaporation... ....+++6. Baie pisl pide oss @ diebeldipeie'eisie epscesecceceses 0°88 in. Rain oo. goceee © clanib Sinus clemiaje vein a wists Sinnina sels alent nig ods nintaie sx iapae Tae And by a second guage.....esecere.-:: side Pielyisisipiaia Jeceac. oboe = 1°02 Laboratory, Stratford, Third Month, 15, 1825. ’ L, HOWARD. ; ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY. MAY, 1825. ARTICLE I. Biography of Baron Abraham Nicolaus Edelerantz* Tue life and history of a man eminent for the zeal and success with which he has cultivated and advanced the arts and sciences, although more peculiarly the property of the country which gives him birth, belong nevertheless to his whole brethren of the Civilised world. It is, therefore, with no small degree of plea- sure that we present our readers with the following account of the life of Edelcrantz, whose estimation in Europe asa man of science, while he lived, was shown by the number of learned societies that chose him one of their body, and whose merits, now that he is no more, itis not less useful than it is agreeable, impartially to scan and study. A. N. Edelcrantz was born in Abo, on the 28th of July, 1754. While his birth-place was thus situated without the geographical limits of Swden, he is nevertheless most justly claimed as a brother by the Swedes. For his family was of that country, his own life was spent there, his whole exertions were devoted to its service, and reaped for him a rich reward both of emolument and honour. The father of Edelcrantz, Charles Abraham Clew- berg, was Professor of Theology in the University of Abo, deriving his family name from Klew and Alunda, in Upland, of which district an ancestor of his had been Judge. The wife of the Professor was Charlotte Agatha Fahlenius, a daughter of Bihsop Fahlenius, by a lady of Italian origin, whose name was Charlotte Teppati. Young A. N. Clewberg did not long enjoy the advantage of the example and direction of his learned father, whom he lost at the tender age of twelve years. But the powers of a mind, hap- dily gifted with natural ability, to which was jomned the invalu- able accompaniment of persevering assiduity, had already been * From the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Stockholm, New Series, vou. 1%. ¥ 322 Biographical Sketch of Baron Edelcrantz. [May, sufficiently developed to supply to the literary orphan all with which a. parent’s counsel would have endeavoured to'imbue it.” _ He became a student of the college at the age of fourteen, and in four years he attained the honour of having the degreeof Magister Philosophie conferred upon him in Abo, on the’ 24th of July 1772. ISHS When a young mind happens to possess a great versatility'of talent, like that of Clewberg, and is yet unwedded to any one exclusive pursuit, it not unfrequently happens that the tempta- tions to follow each of many various walks of science or of art are so equal, that the votary lingers long upon the threshold of them all, uncertain which shall be made his choice. Nor do we doubt that from this very cause many men, with the resources of whose minds the world has never become acquainted, have lost the fresh and early vigour of their talents, in skimming the surface of a number of studies without collecting their power to fathom the depths of any one. It very often occurs also that the first of many pursuits, in which it is the student’s fortune to attract attention or to gain applause, obtains thereby a place in his early esteem, which determines the course of his future studies, and thus often in the walks of science, as in those of politics or of business, the accident of a moment gives the tone to the events of a life or of an era. Clewberg had applied himself keenly to fathom the profounder depths of mathematical physics ; and it was by a work connected with these investigations that he first fixed the public eye upon his attainments. His work was entitled, “ Dissertatio de Obser- vationibus de Alemberti in disquisitionem Newtoniane legis Refrac- tionis Klingenstjernianam,” Ab. 1772. While this production was thus the first that particularly attracted public attention, his eminence in this line of study had already procured for him the distinction of Teacher (Docens) in Mechanical Philosophy and in Literary History. That he had already given his attention to the latter study, we learn from the disputation which he had previously published and defended: De causis florescentis et marcescentis reipublice Litterarie. P.1 and2. Ab. 1771, 1772. At this period of the life of Clewberg, it would seem probable that his whole pursuits were purely academic, and that his am- bition did not aspire to any thing beyond the desire of animating and directing the studies of the youth of the University. And accordingly, we find Count Ulr. Scheffer, on 16th Oct. 1778, as Chanceilor of the Academy, appointing him to the office of “« Assistant in Philosophy, in consequence of his eminent talents and attainments.” ! The early proofs of talent which he gave had fully entitled him to these honours ; and among these, one of the most remark- able was his Dissertatio de Scriptoribus et fontibus Philosophie naturalis, published in 1776; on the 24th January of which year, 1825.] Biographical Sketch of Baron Edelcrantz. 323 being the King’s birth-day, he had also enjoyed the distinction of publicly reading a poem of his own composition to the Aca- demy when solemnizing the occasion. Again im 1778, the recurrence of the same day furnished Clewberg with another theme for his muse, and his “ Discourse on the King’s Birth- day” was read before the Society Utile Dulci, and printed afterwards in the fourth volume of the Vitterhets-nojen (or Col- lection of Poetical Essays). [t seems probable that the attention of Gustavus III. was first attracted to the young Clewberg by the mode in which his poetic genius thus developed itself; and the monarch’s regard was probably afterwards confirmed when Clewberg tuned his lyre to strains of sorrow on the occasion of the death of the Queen Dowager Louisa Ulrica in 1782, in his “ Funeral Dis- course” on that subject. This appears the more likely, as it was the peculiar pleasure of that monarch to search out from among his subjects, those whose singularly happy mental endow- ments enabled them to unite to a talent for poetry, a zeal for the literature of Sweden. In the mean time, the young poet and philosopher was still allowed to remain in the Academy, where, however, he had been, in the year 1780, advanced to the situa- tion of Librarian, inthe room of Olof. Schalberg. In this office, his Majesty was pleased in 1783 to confer upon him, as a proof — of his personal regard, the compliment of having his salary placed on a similar footing with that of the Professors them- selves. The conferring of this privilege was not the only proof of the royal regard which the resolution conveying it contained ; for it is there expressly mentioned that “ the honour is owing not more to the recommendation of the Chancellor of the Aca- demy, than to the decisive proofs he had himself given of great acquirements, elegant taste, and superior genius.” The residence of Clewberg this year in Stockholm, and the surprising acquaintance he already displayed with the important yet delicate tactics connected with the management of the public theatres of the capital, induced the king, Gustavus ITI. to call the highly gifted young man from the country to the metropolis, in which the elegance and literature of the kingdom alike cen- tered. His Majesty’s mandate of 23d Sept. 1783, appointing the Librarian Clewberg to be Royal Secretary, stated this office to be conferred upon him as a testimony of the Royal esteem for his literary attainments and useful accomplishments: It was then by no meansrare, that the cultivation of letters alone, should lead to situations of the greatest elevation and trust in the State. The poetical reputation of Clewberg now became rapidly extended and established. ‘This arose in part from his labours for the theatre, among which we may notice his ‘ Epilogue to x2 324 Biographical Sketch of Baron Kdelcrantz. [{Mav, the Opera of Atis,” which was brought forward in 1784, and in part from the publication of several poems in the Vitterhets- nojen; yet perhaps more than either, from his famous “ Ode to the Swedes,” which was published in 1786. For these efforts he received a recompeuse of the most gratifying description, in his election upon 19th Oct. 1786, to be one of the eighteen of the Swedish Academy, after the death of C. T. Scheffer, Counsellor of State. Upon the 2d Dec. of the same year, he delivered an “Introductory Discourse,” of which his distinguished predeces- sor formed the theme. Clewberg’s connexion with the King and the capital now became more and more intimate. He was chosen Private Secretary by his Majesty on the 3lst May, 1787: he had already been appointed to the care of the Privy Purse ; he was moreover second in the management of the Spectaklerne, or Public Amusements, and he was named a Member of the Gene- ral Board of Customs on 17th Oct. 1787. After this period, the life of Clewberg could no longer be so exclusively devoted to the pursuit of letters or science as it pre- viously had been, but was divided between these and the labours of public office. And this crisis in his history was stamped by a distinguished mark of the Royal regard for his merits, by his elevation to the rank of nobility on the 28th April, 1789. After this event he was introduced to Court on the 9th Nov. of tht same year, under the No.2153, and with the name of Edelcrantz. That these new honours and duties did not induce him to under- value or abandon the cause of science or literature, we need hardly mention. Butit would be an omission not to state that at this time, though as yet he had had no means of accumulating money, yet such was his zeal for the cause of philosophy, that he now presented to the Academy of Abo a collection of books, for which a letter of the Academie Consistorium of 25th Sept, 1788, signed by Calonius, Porthan, and many others, conveys their grateful acknowledgments. During the years 1790 and 1791, the country of Edelerantz was deprived of his presence ; m which time it was not the im- mediate theatre of his exertions, but he laboured with the same zeal abroad in her service. He was then, at the special request of Gustavus, occupied in a journey through England and France, respecting which unfortunately no authentic details have been yet recovered. We may fix on the year 1793 as that in which the pecuniary circumstances of Edelcrantz were first established upon a more liberal and certain footing, by his obtaining, as Secretary to the King, 1100 rix dollars from the privy purse, and from the funds of the theatre. On the Ist Nov. of the same year was performed his opera of “ Alcides’s Entrance into the World,” which was then newly composed by him. At this time also, the title of 1825.) Biographical Sketch of Baron Edelerantz. 325 Counsellor of State was bestowed on him. On the 9th Noy. 1794, he obtained a seat and a voice in the Court of Chancery ; and on the 24th of the same month, he was made Keeper of the Records of the Royal Order of Gustavus. It is a distinguishing characteristic of the life of Edelcrantz, that his biographer’s direction needs only to be directed ina peculiar manner to the careful exposition of its earlier and Initiatory history ; for his merits soon develope themselves to an extent, and assume an importance, by which the actions of the individual pervade, and are inseparably blended with, the pro- gress of his country, and the advancement of his age. In whatever quarter of the world a discovery of magnitude or utility was made, it was the care of Edelcrantz immediately to transfer it to Sweden; and so felicitous were his exertions in this useful career, that he was often able to introduce the inven- tion to his countrymen coupled with a signal improvement of his own. Thus it happened with the mechanical system of the telegrapn; a system which, from the method of Chappe, was developed by the Swede into a perfect language of signs. In the year 1794, his investigation on this subject was commenced ; and by the month of November, he was able to promul- gate his improvements on a method so peculiar, that his tele- raph immediately received the name of Edelcrantz’s or the wedish. By the help of ten moveable tables, he succeeded in producing 2024 varieties of figure, each of which could be dis- cerned at the distance of 31 Swedish miles.* His treatise on the Telegraph, which was published in 1796, has been translated into many languages, and his invention received a prize medal from the Society of Arts, Agriculture, and Commerce, in London. In the Russian war of 1808, this Telegraph was employed in a long chain of observations, consisting of 45 different stations, between Landsort and Gefle ; and a particular corps was placed under his own superintendence, and disciplined by himself in the new system of telegraphic tactics. In 1797 the scientific merits of Edelcrantz, now sufficiently well known and appreciated, procured for him a seat in the Royal Academy, and in the year immediately following, he was raised to the honour of Preses of that body. When he retired from the situation of Preses, which he did on the same year of his election, he chose for the subject of his discourse, the uncer= tainty of our knowledge respecting electricity, and, in particular, respecting its power of penetrating the substance itself of bodies ; an instructive essay, which, we regret to say, he never published, The Essays submitted by him to the criticisms of the Academy were all of them such as had for their main object the applica- tion of scientific principle to some purpose of practical utility. * A Swedish mile is equivalent to about 6% English milee. 326 Biographical Sketch of Baron Edelcrantz. [May, As examples of these may be mentioned his Essay on a Steam Guage, the purpose of which was to ascertain the elasticity of vapour in steam engines ;* on an economical Method of heating Apartments; + on a Stove for drying Grain ; on the Bleaching of Linen in Holland; which last treatise was published in the Economical Annals of the Royal Academy of Sciences, 1807, p. 102. The description of an Air-pump, into the system of which Edelcrantz introduced the improvement of employing mercury to act. as a piston to rarify the air, was inserted in the Journals of Nicholson, Delametherie, and many others printed in foreign countries. _ In the year 1800, he was honoured by being appointed one of the Knights of the Order of the Polar Star. In the following year, once more at the special request of Gustavus, conveyed in a royal mandate given at Arboga on the 18th Dec. 1801, Edelcrantz undertook a scientific mission, of which the purpose was the same with that which we have already mentioned, but in prosecuting which, his route was on this occasion discretionary. He accordingly travelled through Germany, Holland, France, and England. The leading objects of this journey were to procure information respecting the best mode of distilling spirits from grain, especially as it was prac- tised in Scotland ;{ the most advantageous system of fundin the debts of the State; the comparative merits of the foreign processes for the manufacture of iron with those of Sweden ; &c. These were the main objects of his expedition; but while his attention was of course chiefly occupied with them, a mind like his found time and opportunity in sundry foreign places to make improvements upon the principle or mechanism of various instruments and apparatus. Thus, in Berlin, he invented a new and more perfect construction of Papin’s Digester; in Paris, a Tearing-measure (Slitningsmatare) ; § and there also an improve- ment upon Argand’s lamp; and in England, a safety valve for steam engines, Kc. The conclusion of this journey of Edelcrantz brought home a rich harvest of improvements in art, of discoveries in science, of amelioration in agriculture and manufactures, and of observa- tions containing the seed and embryo of many more inventions * Kongl. Vet. Acad. Handl. 1809, p. 128, ’ + K. V. A. Handl. 1812, p. 24, and 159. . t The result of Edelcrantz's investigations on this subject was to introduce the Scot- tish stills into Sweden. We do not know whether this improvement was or was not in fact carried over in diagrams and descriptions, but certainly the simplest and most effec- tual mode would have been to take over a few of that numerous body, the practical dis- tillers or smugglers of the hills and glens of Scotland, who have long been famous for the unrivalled excellence of their illicit manufacture.— Trans. § The purpose of which curious instrument would seem to be to estimate the strength of the principle of cohesion among the fibres of various bodies, as cloth, leather, &c. by marking the amount of force necessary to overcome it, and separate them by tearing.— Tran 1825-] Biographical Sketch of Baron Edelcrantz. 327 in'all these branches, so great was the acumen with which he at onde discerned a new principle of practical utility, and so excel- Fent'tlie tact with which he saw whether its transference would Suit’the capabilities of his native country. From England, in an éspecial manner, he carried off a fund of important observations upon manufactures, and remarks on chemical processes con- nected with the arts, which are there kept secret, and from seeing which, any thing useful could be extracted or carried away only by a person of the keenest acuteness. The account of this journey, which was communicated to his Majesty, has nevertheless been withheld from the public.* The agricultural implements alone which he carried home to Sweden have been delineated, and may be seen in the Annals of the Academy of Agriculture, for 1813. In the course of the travels we are just considering, Edelcrantz formed many acquaintances with the most learned and illustrious of each country through which he passed; and all these he maintained by a constant intercourse of correspondence till his death. Amongst others, we may mention as those with whom he thus formed connexion in Germany, the celebrated Thaer, Count Podeville, von Soden, &c.; in France, Lacepede, Guyton de Morveau, Prony, Lasterie, Frangois de Neufchateau; in Se Sir John Sinclair, Arthur Young, Sir Humphry Davy, be: The general result of this journey appears to have been, in no small degree, to cherish and develope that acquaintance with the important science of political economy, which honourably distinguished Edelcrantz, and which gave a character of depth and solidity to all the views he suggested, and to every measure he proposed, at the same time that it secured for them a useful adaptation to the necessities of practical commerce, and a whole- some dislike of all unnecessary shackles and restraints upon the intercourse of trade. The time, however, was not yet arrived when he had it in his power to devote himself exclusively to this favourite pursuit. There seems to be no more remarkable feature in the charac- ter of Edelcrantz than the perfect versatility of talent which he possessed, and which enabled him equally to fathom the depths of an abstruse science, or to shine among the first of the vota- ries of the fine arts, or of the muses. It was his eminence in this latter department which first gained him the public eye and the royal favour, and accordingly we now find that his merits as a man of science had never detached him from these pursuits. In * The manuscript of these interesting travels in Germany, Holland, and I'rance alone, occupies a space of 135 closely written folio pages. We may be allowed tohope, that a work like this, calculated to reflect so much credit upon Edelcrantz, and to diffuse genetally so much important observation, may yet be published among the posthumous writings of the author. 328 Buographical Sketch of Baron Edelcraniz. [May, 1804 he became Director of the Royal Spectaclerne, and he retained this charge until 1810. On the 5th May, 1805, he was appointed Superintendent to the Royal Museum, and perpetual President of the Academy for the Cultivation of the liberal Arts. The zeal with which he laboured for the improvement of this Academy is amply testified by the many Discourses which he composed, as well on other occasions, as also on the festival days held by the Society. And it was owing to his exertions in the Diet of 1809, that the pensions and salaries granted to artists were enlarged, and that twelve appointments (of which one-third, composing a first class, were placed on a handsomer footing than the others) were attached to the State for the sup- port and encouragement of students. The number and variety of Academies of which he was made a member, mark his varied tastes and pursuits, and the general esteem in which he was held. In 1806, he was chosen an ordi- nary member in the Mathematical Section of the Royal Aca- demy of the Military Sciences. He had already been elected one of the Academy of Music. In 1808, he became a Member of the Royal Academy of Literary History and Antiquities : on which latter occasion his ‘‘ Introductory Discourse ” is worthy of particular attention.* Nor must we here omit to mention a striking proof of the unwearied regard with which Edelcrantz examined and weighed all the various interests of the sciences and the arts, in the plan which he submitted to the Royal Academy of Sciences for the establishment of an Institution for Technological Education. This is a subject surely of the most extensive interest, and of the deepest importance; but how few of those who have once themselves overcome the difficulties that obstruct the access to science are able to look back upon them, and deign to study for their removal, that future tyros may no longer labour as their predecessors have done. Both the mode in which he proposed to arrange the system of instruction, and the person whom he recommended as qualified to fill the situation of Instructor, were implicitly chosen by the Academy. But some societies of which Edelcrantz was a member often required a more constant attendance and exertion on his part, than even those which we have enumerated. Thus he had at different periods been member of two Building Committees ; Chairman of the Committee for regulating the Mint; and more- over had the superintendence of the payment of the salaries connected with that establishment. He was President of the * Besides the Academies and Societies we have just mentioned, Edelcrantz was a member of every economical society in the kingdom ; he was chosen one of the Society of the Admirers. of Natural Philosophy (Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde) at Berlin in 1802 ; of the Societé d’Emulation, and of the Societé d’ Agriculture at Paris in 1803 ; Honorary Member of the Board of Agriculture, and of the Society of Arts, Agriculture, and Commerce, at London ; of the Societa Jtaliana at Livemo-in 1812, &c. 1825.] Biographical Sketch of Baron Edelcrantz. 329 Committee for the Improvement of the Machinery employed in Manufactures ; for the Establishment of a Fund for Civil Pen- sions ; of the Investigation-Committee on the Improvement of the Processes for manufacturing Saltpetre : he was member of the Committee for inquiring into the Composition of Fire- rockets, &c. Hehad, im addition to all this, been Chairman of the General Insurance Establishment since the year 1805; and to this establishment he gave a new constitution, possessing the double advantage of rendering it more useful and efficient as an Institution, at the same time that its revenue became more lucra- tive and flourishing ; thus combining and mutually advancing interests that had hitherto seemed essentially conflicting. Practical talents such as his are rare in a man of letters, yet so fully known and relied on was his capacity for conducting the executive department of the state, that in 1808 he received a situation under the government in the office of Chancellor of the Court. As a further mark of favour, on the 24th April of the same year, he was complimented with the distinguished honour of being made Commander of the Royal Order of the Polar Star. During the revolutions in politics which characterised the whole of this period, it was the constant endeavour of Edelcrantz keenly to scrutinize, and fairly to weigh, the merits of every proposal for a change, and next te explain fully the true conse- quences to which it would lead, and so possess his countrymen with a well-founded opinion of what should be warrantably hazarded to gain these results. This was the motive which actuated him to take the share he did in public business in 1809, at the Diet of which year he was President, as well as at those of 1810, 1812, 1815, 1817, and 1815, in the last three of which he was always a member of the Constitutional Committee. After the revolution which took place in the government, by which the present King of Sweden, then Crown Prince, was placed at the head of affairs, when Bernadotte considered that the institution of an Academy of Agriculture would materiall conduce to the advancement of the various arts connected wit the rural economy of the kingdom, Edelcrantz received a com- mission requesting his attendance and advice at its organisation. The precise details of what he then suggested cannot now be ascertained, but the general result of his activity and superin- tendence was immediately attended with the happiest effects. He became the Director of the Institution immediately on its formation in 1812, and by the principles on which he arranged its system of vestigation and research, he was able to commu- nicate to it a power of accurate yet extensive observation and inquiry, such as to make its efficiency as perfect as the country either admitted or required. The proofs of this are abundantly furnished in the Annals of the Royal Academy of Agriculture, and in the Annual Reports and Registers (Arsberattelser och 330 Biographical Sketch of Baron Edelcrantz. [May, Protocoller), and we have it yet more decisively established by looking at the correspondence which he personally maintained in uninterrupted frequency, with not fewer than 22 Economic Societies; a field of occupation surely sufficiently ample to engage the whole of an ordinary man’s attention, but which, as we have already seen, was shared by Edelcrantz with other engagements that alike surprise us by their number, their diver- sity, and their importance. Yet, perhaps, the strongest proof of the sincerity with which all these pursuits engaged his mind, may be confidently referred to the irrepressible ardour with which he laboured to stimulate the activity of the man of science, to awaken the energy of the philosophical agriculturalist or artizan, and the zealous alacrity which he ever evinced to disse- minate new facts, to promulgate discoveries, to abolish pre- judices of feeling or of habit, and to infuse life and health into the remotest ramifications of the arts ofhis country. On the 24th April, 1813, Edelcrantz was named President of the Royal and National College of Commerce. In this office his talents were admirably fitted to produce the happiest effects upon the most momentous interests of the country. He distin- guished himself particularly on the occasion of the discussion relative to the Baltic Company on Ist Nov. 1814; on the important point over which so many prejudices have balefully hung in every country, of permitting the use of foreign vessels for the exportation of Swedish wood, on the 12th May, 1817; on the regulation relative to the use of native shipping in the export of the commodities of the country (Product-placat), and its abrogation in favour of the vessels belonging to the Netherlands and North America, on the 30th Aug. 1819, &c. On these great questions of state economy, Edelcrantz always advocated the abolition of unnecessary and ill-judged fetters and restraints upon the freedom of commerce between nation and nation; nor did he hesitate acting on the dictates of conscientious duty, fully and freely to lay before the government and the public, his opinions on these subjects, even when he stood alone, or ina small minority of that Board of Commerce already mentioned, of which he was the official head. The merits of the principles of liberal intercourse which he then advocated, it is not the pro- vince of his biographer to enlarge upon; but even those who may choose to question the soundness of the principles on which he acted, must confess that they never were supported by a greater weight of reason, or experience, or practical detail, than when they were urged by Edelcrantz. There are few cases in which the proposal of any change must necessarily awaken more keenly conflicting and opposite interests than those that touch commercial regulations of old standing; but to the honour of Edelcrantz with respect to his conduct even here, hismemory has already received justice, and in proportion as. prejudices 1825.) Brographical Skelch of Baron Edelcrantz. 331 shall be cleared away, it will become more and more appreciated, and will take yet higher ground in the judgment of the country. Such were the numerous and strong proofs which Edelerantz received of the confidence and esteem of the government, and such was the honourable manner in which he always discharged the duties it imposed upon him. On the 9th May, 1815, he re- ceived the last public expression of regard from the King in being elevated to the rank of Baron, into which he was intro- duced on the 27th Nov. 1816, under No. 356. The many services rendered by Baron Edelcrantz to his coun- try are not to be found so much in separate writings or treatises, as in the actual practice or execution of those plans which it was their object to suggest, and which are embodied in the improve- ments and in the general system of the country. They were sometimes brought forward by himself as an individual, but not unfrequently their merits embraced interests too extensive and momentous, and spoke too plainly for themselves, to allow government to hesitate a moment in adopting and supporting them as their own. Some account of the greater number of them may, however, be found preserved in the Transactions of various Swedish and foreign learned bodies; and not a few of his proposals and reports have been deposited in the archives of the Court. We have already noticed the improvements made by him on the organisation of the Telegraph, so great as to procure for the new instrument the name of Edelcrantz’s; besides this, the pee mechanical inventions of his are as follow: a Steam ngine of a simpler construction than those formerly employed. This machine was applied to numerous purposes; as in mines to pump off water; to the Crown Distillery in the capital; to pro- mote the operations for excavating Telje’s Canal, &c. With a view toa construction of this engine on a plan still more simpli- fied than this, he has left behind him two different ameliorations of structure, of one of which there is now a model. The next invention we shall notice is his new Drying Stove for all Kinds of Grain, which he brought forward in 1812, and which gained at once for him the unanimous approbation of the Royal Aca- demy of Sciences, and of the Academy of Agriculture. It is constructed so as to give the power of correctly regulating the temperature in such a manner that the germinating power of the seed may be preserved unimpaired; while at the same time the heat can, when required, be raised. as high as 194°, or above that point, so as completely to destroy the weevil. Another signal benefit conferred by Edelcrantz on the manufacturers of Sweden was the introduction among them ofaSpinning Machine, extremely similar in principle and utility to the famous English mechanism, the secret of which is guarded by them with so much jealousy. 332 Biographical Sketch of Baron Edelcrantz. [May, - Among the mechanical apparatus invented by Edelcrantz for the promotion of experiment in mechanical philosophy, besides the improved Air Pump which we have already mentioned, he has left behind him a description of a new construction of Papin’s Digester, to which we have briefly adverted in a former part of this narrative, as having been made by him at Berlin. In this new form the lid is fixed more tightly than can be done either by means of a screw or of a leather covering, the elasti- city of the vapour is accurately measured, and the whole heat required may be applied by a common spirit lamp. Of the other relics of the practical applications of principle, suggested by his genius, we may mention the account of a curious Statie Lamp, in which the oil is placed in equilibrium with a small quantity of mercury ;—a piece of mechanism which, operating by the compression and expansion of aerial or gaseous bodies, is able to produce a greater degree of artificial cold than any other method can furnish ;—an Areometer, on a more minute scale, and capable of more nice and accurate adjustment than those formerly in use ; and a valuable apparatus for the maintenance of a determinate and equal temperature, during the process of chemically investigating a substance under the action of intense heat. Many of these subjects still occupied his mind as he lay on his last sick bed, and it was from it that he dictated some of those his valuable views regarding science and experiment, which form his last bequest, and which ought to preserve long in his country a fond remembrance of him who has left no family behind him to emulate his fame, or enjoy his title. Edelerantz died at Stockholm on the 15th of March, 1821. He was never married, and his name must be co-existent with his own individual reputation. But that name is surely madé more lasting by the merits of him who adorned it, than it could have been by his having his loss bewailed by the fairest number of an affectionate offspring. A man like him must long survive in the dearest recollections of his countrymen, associated in their minds with those comforts which it was his constant object to cherish and promote, and with those studies and pursuits in which it must be the object of the best among them to emulate him: a foundation for a name, surely not less enviable than it is lasting. He was a man of delicate constitution, and the age of 67, at which he died, was a period of life fully as advanced as his frame seemed to promise. Temperance and regularity in all his habits, a tranquillity of mind, and a cheerfulness of disposition long preserved to him an uninterrupted period of health which he spent in unwearied activity. The debilitating disease (Hema- turia) which carried him off, did not make its appearance until the last year of his life. Even within the very arms and embrace of death itself, the mind of Edelcrantz retained its 1825.] Biographical Sketch of Baron Edelerantz. 333 vigour, and his spirit of research its wonted ardour, and he now bent all his energies calmly to study the dissolution of the body, and the extinction of the vital principle. It is on the veracity of one who was aneye-witness of the melancholy yet interesting spectacle, that it is related that Edelcrantz, with the utmost clearness and precision, watched the ebbing of the tide of life, and measuring its progress, compared with the lapse of the pas- sing moments, foreknew and predicted the crisis of the instant when life should close.—It arrived, and Edelcrantz was no more. Few men have possessed a capacity for exertion equal to that of Edelerantz. His information was alike remarkable for its accuracy and for its extent. His judgment was distinguished by solidity and perspicacity,—his zeal in the cause of science and the arts was unbounded; and these qualities gave to him a power of clearly expounding and eloquently enforcing his views, which, whenever he brought forward zeny of his numerous plans of general benefit and practical utility, was sure to produce in him the most agreeably persuasive powers of oratory. In his private life his manners were most retired and unob- trusive, yet such as ever commanded respect, and sustained the dignity of his character. His house was ever hospitable, with- out exhibiting profusion; and his conversation was always easy and sprightly, yet never uninstructive. The company which he gathered round him, without being too rigorously exclusive, was always composed of those only who could fully appreciate and enjoy the intellectual and scientific topics about which he was fond of holding converse. Such a general conversation-party was held by him at least once each week during his residence in the capital. When the weather was fine, he used to make a practice of going from the city or from the cabinet to the tran- quillity of his country-seat Skugga, situated in the Royal Deer Park, and which he enjoyed as a gift from the King, where he looked out upon those buildings, plantations, and parks, around him, which had been all planned and designed by himself. In this place, however, the only recreation sought by his active and intelligent mind was a mere change of subject upon which to occupy it, a variety in the kind of employment which was to engage his hours. Even an imperfect delineation of the character, occupations, habits, and discoveries of Baron A. N. Edelcrantz, is more than the author of this little biography aspires to. His object has been to vather a few detached incidents of the life of Edelcrantz, from which the general utility of his proposals, the elevation of his designs, and the amiableness of his private character, may be felt by the reader better than the writer has been able to pourtray them : just as the placing before an observer's eye the appearance and dimensions of some of the parts of any well- proportional structure, enables him to rear up and place before 334 Dr. Prout on a new Portable Hydrometer. (May, his mind with accuracy that whole which they contribute to form; so the sketches here given may place it within the reader’s power to fill up the outline, and to form a somewhat just concep- tion of the penetration, the depth, and the solidity of judgment, of the uncommon versatility of talent, of the richly various pur- suits that ever aimed at adding to the happiness of the species, and of the excellent and warm heart that forms the character of Edelerantz. To those in whom this short notice of his life shall awaken a desire of more intimate acquaintance with the details of his history, we may recommend the masterly treatises of which he is the theme, and which have been already published concern- ing him. These are the Discourse over Baron A. N. Edelcrantz, already in the second edition, delivered on the 7th April, 1821, by Gust. Lagerbjelke : the Eloge over President Edelcrantz by J. P. Billberg, in the Transactions of the Royal Academy of the Military Sciences for 1821; and the Discourse (yet unprinted ) over Edelcrantz in the Swedish Academy, by C. P. Hagberg, within which society we fondly anticipate that his memory will long remain embalmed in the esteem and gratitude of all who revere virtue, or love their country. The translator’s office here expires: nor will he obtrude any observations of his own upon the reader, before whom he has endeavoured to place some of the merits and interesting life of Edelcrantz. He does not in the least doubt that his exertions in this sphere will be considered as well bestowed by the lovers of science in this country, to whom the plain and simple narra- tive just closed cannot fail to prove a subject of agreeable and useful meditation. Jt is his only regret that at this distance of time from the death of Edelcrantz, such a character as that of the illustrious Swede should not yet have found an abler pen, to do it the justice it deserves, either in an original treatise, or in a happier translation. ARTICLE II. Description of an Instrument for ascertaining the Specific Gravity of the Urine in Diabetes and other Diseases. By W. Prout, MD. FRS. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, April 2, 1825. As the specific gravity of the urine is a point of considerable importance in many diseases of that secretion, and particularly in diabetic affections, and as the common method of determin- ing this by weighing, &c. is troublesome and tedious, I was induced some time ago to have a small portable hydrometer 1825.} Dr. Prout-on a new Portable Hydrometer. 335 constructed for the purpose, of which the following is a sum- mary description. Fig, 1, represents the instru- ment of its natural size. There is nothing peculiar in its con- struction but the scale; the numbers on which are always to be added to1000,the assumed sp. gr. of water. Thus suppos- ing the number cut by the sur- face of the fluid be 30, this indicates that its spec. gray. is 1030, water being 1000, Qa, Fig. 2, represents the other side of the scale. W (opposite (1 on the other side) is the point at which the instrument stands in pure water. HS or healthy standard, is the mean point about which healthy urine usually ranges. The portion of the scale marked diabetes is that to which the instrument rises in diabetic affections, &c. Thus by the aid of this little instrument can every thing connected with the specific gravity of the urine be easily determined ina few seconds to a degree sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. The scale is graduated for the mean temperature of 60°; but the instrument may be used at all temperatures between 40° and 80° without any error of practical importance. When used, care should be taken to prevent the adhesion of air bubbles, and the scale should be depressed below the point at which it naturally stands in the fluid, in order that the instrument may 7%se to that point. The degree then cut (after it has stood a few seconds) by the surface of the fluid as seen from below is the specific gra- vity. When the operation is completed, the instrument is to be dipped into common water, and wiped dry to prevent the corro- sion of the metallic part. fam, Gentlemen, your obedient humble servant, W. Prout. Fig2 336 Mr. Children’s Summary View of [May, ArticLe III. A Summary View of the Atomic Theory according to the Hypo- thesis adopted by M. Berzelius. By J. G. Children, FRS. (Continued from p. 193.) Ir is obviously necessary for this purpose, that some sub- stance should be fixed upon, the weight of whose atom may be assumed as unity; Dalton chose hydrogen for his unit, as the substance of which the smallest weights enter into combination : he has been followed by Davy, Brande, Henry, Phillips, and various other writers ; whilst Wollaston, Thomson, and Berze- lius adopt oxygen as their lowest number, that substance being’ of all others most universally present in inorganic bodies. On the scale of chemical equivalents Dr. Wollaston reckons oxygen as 10, Thomson considers it as 1, and Berzeliusas 100. It is of small consequence which atom be selected for the purpose, or what relative value be assigned to it, whether 1, 10, or 100; but whichever be chosen, the weights of the atoms of all other bodies must be expressed in some function of that unit. The weight of the atom of any body is easily determined, if we know correctly the composition of one or more of the combi- nations it is capable of forming with any other body, the weight of whose atom has been previously ascertained. Sulphur, for instance, combines with oxygen in several proportions; in the lowest, 100 parts of sulphur take 50 of oxygen; in the next, 100 ; and in the third, 150;* numbers which are in the ratio of -1, 2,3; we may, therefore, assume that in the different oxides an atom of sulphur is united successively to 1,2, and3 atoms of oxygen, and the supposition is supported by various considera- tions of the other combinations of sulphur, as, for instance, those of the sulphurous and sulphuric acids. The lowest com- pound, therefore, may be considered as containing an atom of each element, and if we call that of oxygen 8, we find by a sim- ple proportion that that of the atom of sulphur is 16.+ This example is sufficient to show the method to be adopted in similar researches, and it is evident that when the weight of the atom of any one body is ascertained, it may be employed for determining that of other bodies. The results of a mineral analysis may be calculated on the atomic theory, and the inevitable small errors of experiment corrected by its means. * There is a fourth compound formed of an atom of sulphurous acid united to an atom of sulphuric acid, and containing 100 sulphur + 125 oxygen. Its atomic com- position may be stated as just mentioned, or, as consisting of 2 atoms sulphur + 5 atoms oxygen. Itis not necessary to say more about it in this place. + Ladoptthe numbers given by Brande and Phillips, in which hydrogen is taken as unity, 1825.] M. Beréelius’s Hypothesis of the Atomic Theory. 337. _ Suppose we have found that a sulphuret of lead is com- posed of LET ESA eae Cee ai hina a aantaoe OO BOIPRUP ce Soca s elstesed asses pistacoie Rates Here a certain number of atoms of lead, whose total weight 1s 86, were combined with a certain number of atoms of sulphur, whose weight is 14. If, therefore, we divide 86 by the number representing the weight of the atom of lead (which we find in the tables is 104), and 14 by that of the atom of sulphur, (16), suppressing the decimal point in both cases, we find that the compound contains 82 atoms of lead and 87 atoms of sulphur, numbers which are very neatly equal. Hence we conclude that the mineral is composed of | atom of lead and | atom of sulphur ; and if we calculate the results which our analysis ought to give on this supposition, we find the numbers to be Deceit SBisha'ae's't Sie.c aphinal may he pistes GOOG ed Oe anaes cet 13°33 which accord very nearly with the results of the experiment. A similar operation will enable us to find the atomic compo- sition of all other binary compounds, whose analysis is known. Let us now take an instance of some more complex compounds, and calculate them on the data and numbers assumed by Ber- zelius.* . Suppose an analysis of molybdate of lead (a ternary combina- tion) had given, Oxide of lead. wo... ec ee ee Peay Vit m6 Molybdic acid ........ ints PULA 39 : 100 We find in the annexed table, that the quantity of oxygen in oxide of lead is 7:171 per cent. and that in molybdic acid 33-45 ; consequently 61 of the former contain 4°37 of oxygen, and 39 of the latter 13°04; but 4°37 : 13°04 :: 1 : 3; or the oxygen of the acid is three times that of the base; but we observe in the tables that the base contains only 2 atoms of oxygen, whilst the acid contains 3; therefore to preserve the ratio of 1 : 3, there must be 2 atoms of acid to 1 of base. The results of the analysis calculated on these data give Cauieak adden... if dm alae Molybdic acid......... ofc te eae aiaOR 100-00 , * In which oxygen = 100, The examples are taken from Beudant, p, 225, et seq. New Series, vou. 1X. Z 388: Mr. Children’s Summary View of — = (Mays » Let us next take an analysis of copper pyrites, and suppose ES SSE Sulphur.. ........ Late tae ete nis Oe ae 36 100 The atom of copper by the table is 791-39; that of iron 678:43. Therefore aw = 429 atoms of copper ; nee = 442 Sane = 1789 atoms of sulphur. Now these numbers are nearly as 1, 1 and 4, and consequently the sulphur must be equally divided between the two metals, so as to form bisulphurets, each containing 1 atom of metal, and 2 atoms of sulphur. If we calculate the composition of the pyrites accord- ing to these numbers, we shall have atoms of iron, and Bisulphuret of copper........ PP ei 93° Bisulphuret of iron ..........0+.00. 47°52 100-00 Or if we take the elements separately, Copper....... ceeeee cevevecsceees 34°79 PPOM: cats BEI Dt fee OO SS MIEIST 's tas'o’atels Waldsrepiotd tereyare ececee GOOG 100-00 which agrees very nearly with the experimental results, and confirms their accuracy. Let us now take the analysis of a quaternary compound, a variety of emerald, which gave Atoms ae aa 68°64 or oxygen 34:52 = 8 Alumina...... 17-96 8:38 = 2 Gluema. ...... 13-40 417 =1 100-00 By the tables, we find the respective quantities of oxygen in the three elements of the mineral as stated above. Now we may consider this compound (says M. Beudant) in two ways, either as consisting of one base (glucina) united to a double acid (silica, and alumina), or as a double salt formed of the silicate of alumina and silicate of glucina ; both views lead to the same conclusion. In the first case the mineral is supposed to consist of 2 atoms of acid (composed of 4 atoms of silica and 1 atom of alumina). combined with 1 atom of glucina. In the second 1825.} M. Berxelius’s Hypothesis of the Atomic Theory. 389° manner of considering the compounds, the general law proposed by Berzelius requires that the acid of one of the salts should be’ a multiple by a whole number of the acid of the other, which may happen in different ways, but in consequence of the ten- dency of glucina to form salts with excess of acid, the most simple mode is to consider the silica as equally divided between the two bases, which gives us a quadrisilicate of glucina and a bisilicate of alumina. The first of these salts contains 4 atoms of silica and | atom of glucina, forming | atom of quadrisilicate ; the second contains 4 atoms of silica, and 2 atoms of alumina,’ forming 2 atoms of bisilicate, because all the oxides contain the same number of atoms of oxygen. The composition of the mineral on the first supposition is, Quadrisilicate of alumina. .......... 86:28 Glucina . ds ole wlacenie cp QwrEdicd eashaundaree 100-00 And on the second, Quadrisilicate of glucina. ..se..see, 407} Bisilicate of alumina. .............- 52°29 oo 100-00 which are composed of DM nal onan wavitetinnns an eae Glucina. . Piretit tics tara all sek SE ee ata tas cee cr cate eee eee oe 2? Alumina...... Ag Merrell ip sesevese 18°30 100-00 Or, Silica. @eeeeeeveeveees Lpunsiebenkith. Let us take another example of a quaternary compound as a good specimen of the mode of reasoning adopted in these ealcue lations. , » The analysis of zoisite gives Ox, . Atoms. Alumina. ......... vee. 33 = 154] ee 2 Silion oi deea es. wedes. 43 = 21-62 = 3 Lime 90) itil. d couye. 24 ao OIL = db 100 In this case the silica must be so divided between the two bases as to form a silicate of alumina containing 2 atoms of To 340. F oo Mr. Children’s Summary View of ~ _ [Maxy silica and 2 atoms of alumina, and a silicate of lime, in which the quantity of the. oxygen in the acid is equal to that. the oxide ; the oxygen in the first salt is, therefore, double the oxy- gen inthe second. Now lime contains 2 atoms of oxygen, and silica.3.atoms ; consequently to preserve the equality of oxygen in the two bodies, there must be 3 atoms of lime and 2 atoms of silica.. The total quantity of oxygen in this silicate is, therefore, 12, and that in the silicate of alumina 24; but in that compound there are only 6 atoms of oxygen ; therefore the salt must con- tain 4 atoms of silicate of alumina. According to this, we have Silicate of alumina............- sen hy ee Silicate of lime .......... oie cc bieaie lah (oat 100-00 which are composed as follows : POMINA, 60 vais Ba ists oo» nates UNEASE. capac aicpin lve te a aes tae a -- 28°81 me b waals wae Ue eeuale 5 Ailes, »» 26°13 Sted tose aks Coe ve eet ee bias oe ee Or, BRING: «604 ees ands eowsdnaldhiey ue REINS scweniondie dy wis nib oinnion oo prvi stuns Salas LE RS oe doa w ale sid Javea ishebamiee ahas Sea 5, eee Hence if the substance operated on was pure, a small portion of lime has, in the analysis, been confounded with the alumina. As another example, and one well worthy to follow the pre- ceding, we will take the analysis of a variety of topaz. The results gave Oxygen. Atoms. Alumina. .....220000... 99 = 27°55:= 5 Silica reise ba ore Yeas 6 34 2/17/10 ite Fln@fic. acids ss. sais. ices COs, JG ODiesik 100 zat » We may consider this mineral éither as a compound formed by the combination of a double acid (silica and fluoric acid). with alumina; or as a double salt, consisting of one base united to two different acids ; that is, as a fluate, and a silicate of alumina. In this instance, the alumina naturally divides itself into two portions, whose quantities of oxygen are 3 and 2. The first portion is combined with a quantity of silica, contain- ing 3 atoms of oxygen, and forms a silicate; the second is com- bined with a quantity of fluoric acid, whose oxygen is 1. Hence it follows that the oxygen of the first salt is to the oxygen of the second in the ratio 6 : 3,or2:1. -Now fluoric acid contains ‘2 atoms of oxygen, and alumina 3; the bi-aluminous fluate must, . 1825.) M. Berxelius’s Hijpothesis of the Atomic Theory. 341 therefore, be formed of 4 atoms of alumina and 3 atoms of acid, in order to preserve the ratio of 2 : 1; the oxygen of this salt, therefore, is 18; but an atom of silicate of alumina contains only 6 atoms of oxygen, because these two oxides have each 3 atoms ; and as the oxygen of the silicate must be double that of the fluate, there must be in this compound 6 atoms of silicate: On these data topaz is formed of Silicate of alumina ........see+0+2+ 68°70 Bi-aluminous fluate......+..ese02+++ 31°30 100-00 Or, taking the elements separately, ea thite Ja sey. Bw ds ae 4s ole /BBEOO Pbeaabaa 3 sis's on. 120k hee La als iia ABET Miuorie acid ol. ii), 2asueied ieee 6h Alominasss:y 3'33i6e 6 6848 3s we OTN BB07 100:00 Silica . @eeveeeeeoeeseeeeeeseeeeeees 33°00 Fluoric acid eoeveeeseeoseveea se eeeveee 761 Alumina. @eeeeeeeeeeoeveeoe es eneesnene 59°39 100-00 Or, on the first hypothesis, Fluo-silicic acid’... ...cseesseceses 40°61 PUA ibs Us Bes dieebiies ae 0 e' 6O-39 100-00 © In his Nouveau Syst¢me Minéralogique, Berzelius frequently calculates the results of the analyses of minerals consisting of metallic alloys, or sulphurets, from the quantity of oxygen which each ingredient would take if reduced to proportionate degrees of oxidation. _. An ore of antimoniated silver, analyzed by Klaproth, gave PR eER FP UNI RU AAGee ae embaesth Me TERA ia 23 100 and its atomic constitution is thus calculated by Berzelius,* . Argent 77) prenant oxygene in degrés (5.798, 2. 77 Antimoine 23 f proportionels d’oxidation. 12.850. 1. 23 * Nouveau Systeme, p. 50. 342 Oy WMrw Children’s Summary’ View of > (Max, a Now the weights of the atoms of silver and antimony in Ber- zelius’s table are, , . +o = 51 = | of glucina. *“ The weights of the atoms are from Phillips's table except that of alumina, which we take from Berzelius.for the reasons given in the note (p. 845). 348 Mr. Children’s Summary View of ° {Mavy, The sum of all the atoms = 188*, and by the rule of simple proportion,+ we find the theoretical composition of the mineral to be per cent. x SOSIAGA, int sles loiaso wipsvnin what ideeeies' tabs lerdal Ana «4.64 cere siaiesd Reel eehaemacannanct au INIA nie id wie wads w-8 WEES bas whe ec ane Ey 100-00 Analysis of zoisite (p. 339). The atom of lime = 28. Atoms. = = 268 = 3 of silica. sas = 194 = 2 of alumina. 2400 . Fag 85 = 1 of lime. The sum of the atoms therefore = 110, and the theoretical composition of zoisite is, Silica . eeseeeeseeseseoeeereenesen 43°63 Alumina. @eeveeceseeeeeeeereaseseses 30°90 DIE.» cauimd S oie ortieren sehontan ee ee 25°45 ee 99-98 It is needless to multiply instances, as any analyses compared in the same way must obviously give the same results. Thus we see that all the complicated statements, and still more complicated reasonings, on which they are founded, of which we have given examples in the preceding pages, may be just as well expressed with much greater simplicity, and that the simple statements equally furnish us with a test of the accu- racy of our analyses. Our after reasonings as to the mode in which the elements are severally united in the actual mineral, however probable, can only be conjectural, and we are just as likely to form a correct estimate on the simplest as on the most elaborate system. What good purpose then do these compli- cated statements answer? Do they teach us more accurately the true constitution of mineral substances, or the mode in which their elements are combined ? We cannot perceive how. They do indeed, as we have said of the formule, give a detailed view * 16 x 8 = 128 17x 2= 34 26 = 26 188 + 188 : 128 ; 100 : x, and « = 68:09, and so with the other atoms. 1825.) M. Berzelius’s Hypothesis of the Atomic Theory. 349 of their author’s hypothesis, but do they therefore prove its accuracy? It seems to us to be reasoning in acircle. The for- mulz are made for the hypothesis, and the hypothesis supports the formule; but what arguments can be deduced from both together to render it more probable that alumina and silica con- tain 3 atoms of oxygen, and lime, baryta, &c. 2, than that each of those substances is composed of | atom of base and 1 of oxy- gen? In point of fact, both views come to the same thing ; for if we assume lime to contain 2 atoms of oxygen, the weight of the atom of the base (as stated above) must necessarily be dou- bled, so that in reality whether we represent sulphate of lime by the formula C8, or Ca $2, we equally express a triple ratio of the oxygen of the acid to that of the base, and so in all other cases; for Al S = Al S*. The adoption of the latter formula, therefore, is as if one should expect to approach nearer to the truth of a proportion by writing 999 : 666, instead of 3 : 2. But perhaps it may be argued that the hypothesis presents a correct view of the analogies subsisting between all oxidated bases, and enables us to arrange them in separate orders accord- ing to certain characteristic properties by which the oxides of one order may be distinguished from those of another. The observations of M. Mitscherlich seem to demonstrate that such distinct orders actually exist, and as the subject is both curious and important, and because we would not willingly suppress any argument that may appear favourable to the hypothesis, we shall dwell a little upon it, although this paper has already exceeded the limits we bad originally prescribed for it. ~ We have another motive also for doing so. We know that one of the first crystallographers of the present day* thinks favoura~ bly of M. Mitscherlich’s theory, and our respect for his opinion would alone induce us to treat it with attention. It would give us ee pleasure if that gentleman would take up the subject, and correct any errors that either ourselves or others may have fallen into concerning it. - M. Mitcherlich observed that certain bases, saturated with the same acid to the same degree, affect the same crystalline forms, and that lime, magnesia, and the protoxides of iron and manga- nese compose in this manner one class of what he has called isomorphous bases ; whilst alumina and the peroxides of iron and manganese form another. He showed also that isomorphous salts have the property of crystallizing together, concurring in an uniform manner in the formation of one and the same crystal. M. Mitscherlich supposed that the primary forms presented by isomorphous bases are really identical, and that this identity necessarily results from a similarity in their atomic constitution, " M, Levy. 350 Mr. Children’s Summary View of - -[May,' that is, in the proportions cf oxygen contained in the elements’ of the isomorphous crystals; and that wherever this atomie’ similarity exists, identity of crystalline form will always be the’ result. Thus he says the oxygen in the phosphorous and arse- nious acids is to that in the phosphoric and arsenic acids as 3.25. In the biphosphate and binarseniate of potash, the oxygen of the base is to that of the acids as 1: 5, and tothat of the water of crystallization as | : 2. Hence the only difference between these salts consists in the: radicle of the acid of one of them being phosphorus, and that of the other arsenic; and all the salts, which differ only in this manner, are said to present identical crystalline forms. Berzelius has made considerable use of Mitscherlich’s hypo- thesis to bring together as one species all the varieties of garnet, as well as those of amphibole, mica, and several other minerals ; and in vol. ix. New Series, p. 70, of the Annals of Philosophy, our readers will find an abstract from Wachtmeister’s paper, In. ° the Swedish Transactions, containing a description ae analysis of 13 varieties of garnet, all of which, with only one exception, proved to be constituted of an atom of a silicate of a base con~ taining 3 atoms of oxygen, as alumina and peroxide of iron, combined with an atom of a silicate of a base containing 2 atoms. of oxygen, as lime, magnesia, protoxide of iron, aud. protox- ide of manganese. M, Beudant has the following remarks on the same subject. After observing that it is scarcely possible to obtain artificial salts in a state of purity by crystallization from a liquid holding several salts in solution, unless they differ very materially in point of solubility, in which case they crystallize in succession, one after the other, he says, “ if on the contrary they are nearly equally soluble, they all mix together in greater or less propor- tion, and not one of them will be pure. These mixtures often happen indifferently with every species of salts, so that they appear to be the mere effect of chance, and in that case the extraneous portion is always in very small quantity. But mix- tures occur under certain circumstances which it is very import- ant to understand, and may then take place in all sorts of pro- portions, wherefore sometimes no particular ingredient sensibly predominates. In general it is observed that salts of the same order of composition unite most readily, especially when they have nearly similar crystalline forms. Thus all the species of alum have such a tendency to mix together that it is extremely difficult to counteract it, and they cannot be completely sepa- rated when once united, even by repeated crystallizations. Mix- tures of the same kind occur between nitrate of baryta and nitrate of lead; between the nitrates of potassa and soda; and the sulphates of iron, cobalt, nickel, &c.; also between the sul- phates of zinc, soda, and magnesia, &c, &c. These mixtures 1825.] M. Berzelius’s Hypothesis of the Atomic Theory. 351 not only occur when a solution contains merely the salts of the above-mentioned groups, but if a great number of salts be dis- solved in the same liquid, they will form by preference, so that it may be said that salts belonging to the same order of compo- sition, seek each other, as it were, to crystallize together, and mix“tu every proportion. “In the case of the mixture of different salts of the same formula, it is observed that the crystalline forms are not sensibly affected, for such salts have, if not identical forms, at least forms of the same kind, and very nearly allied with respect to their angles; as was first observed by M. Mitscherlich. Hence we can imagine that at the moment of their becoming solid, a certain number of the molecules of one salt may be substituted for those of another without occasioning any irregularity in the crystalli- zation. This identity of formule is not only observed between salts with the same acid, and having different bases of the same degree of oxidation, but also between salts of the same base, or bases of similar degrees of oxidation, that have different acids of the same order of composition. Whence it results that not only salts of different bases have analogous forms, more or léss nearly allied, but also that salts having different acids are simi- larly circumstanced.’”* a « Mixtures of substances belonging to the same formula of composition are also extremely frequent in nature both in simple and multiple compounds ; but as we cannot in this case, any more than in that of artificial salts, separate at will the imme- diate principles of these bodies, it is only by the consideration of their analyses that we can arrive at a knowledge of those mixtures. Now by this consideration, we find in the simple compounds, that such or such an oxide is replaced by such or such another belonging to the same order of composition. For instance, in stones accidentally coloured by a combined oxide, we find that the colouring principle is some oxide which replaces either that which serves as base, or that which plays the part of an acid. Thus in the silicates with base of lime, or the bioxide of calcium, the colouring matter is frequently the bioxide ofiron, and its quantity is such, that its oxygen is precisely equal to that of the lime that is wanting. It follows that the sum of the oxygen of the lime, plus that of the bioxide of iron, is exactly equal to the quantity of oxygen, which the lime would contain in the pure colourless silicate. In silicates with base of alu- mina, or the trioxide of aluminium, the colouring matters are the trioxide of iron, the trioxide of manganese, &c. sometimes both ; and their quantity is such that their oxygen is equal to that of the deficient alumina. “ In multiple compounds, one or other of the immediate prin- * Traité Elementaire, &c. p. 244. 382 _... Mr. Children’s Summary View of © —* [Mavyy; ciples is often replaced by one or more principles of the same formula, whose quantity varies indefinitely in different analyses, but is always such that its oxygen is equal to that of the princi- ple replaced: hence if we take on the one hand the oxygen contained in the common acid, and on the other the sum of the quantities of oxygen contained in the bases, we obtain numbers which are precisely in the same ratio to each other that they would be if the compound were perfectly pure. We are even led to the- knowledge of cases in which one of the immediate principles is replaced by another with a totally different acid, the base either remaining the same, or being itself different. Thus silicates of lime are replaced by aluminates of the same base, or by aluminates of bioxide of iron, &c.”* M. Beudant then goes on to illustrate the preceding observa- tions by examples, and gives a sort of receipt for making garnets, or rather endeavours to show how one compounded of many elements may be divided into several others of more simple cnmposision, e shall quote, with some abridgment, his first example. _ “ There are garnets obviously of the following composition : Silica ...... 41 containing oxygen 20°60 or 2 atoms Alumina.... 22 10:27. al PURE onc) ana OE 10°39 = 100 “‘ which indicates 2 atoms of silicate of alumina, plus 1 atom of silicate of ime ; and a series of direct analyses presents a multi- tude of other results that can only be explained by calculating them on the atomic system. Thus the connexion between the following analysis and the preceding is by no means obvious. Silica. .........-.. 37°00 containing oxygen 18°61 ATineane. << o5/20.0>a.5 13000 6°30 WAC wee ack sec ss ee OD 8-14 Magnesia.......... 6°50 2°51 Trioxide of iron..... 7°50 2°30 Trioxideofmanganese 4°75 1-41 98°25 “If we collect the oxygen of the bases of the same order, namely, the alumina, trioxide of iron, and trioxide of manganese, on the one hand, and that of the lime and magnesia on the other, we find that the quantities of oxygen in the acid and bases are not far from the ratio of 2, 1 and 1, consequently the new gar- net very nearly harmonises with the former. * Traité Elémentaire, &c. p. 248. 1825.) M. Berxelius’s Hypothesis of the Atomic Theory. 353 “ Further to illustrate our analysis, let us insulate each of the species of garnet contained in the mixture. If we employ the trioxide of iron, to make a melanite garnet (en fatsant un grenat mélanite) of the formula 2 F Si + Ca’ Si?’ » we must take a quantity of Trioxide of iron, whose oxygen = 2°3 corresponds to 7°50 ras 6 8G iG sb selec ss 2 aU . O14 oe 8-19 24°83 “ There remains a portion of lime whose oxygen is 5°84, with which we may make a grossular garnet (dont ou peut faire un grenat grossulaire) of the formula 2 A Si 4+ Ca Si, by taking a quantity of Silica, whose oxygen = 11°68 corresponds to 23:22 PUI. «, s\ohs6d aia ots, « ork J 2-5 PNG hich: ae dussidisiiwie.> oré4 20°79 06°51 “ There then remains a quantity of silica whese oxygen is 2°33, and to use it up (pour Pemployer), we may first make a garnet of alumina and magnesia (vm peut faire d’ abord un grenat eee see @alumiac et magnésie) of the formula 2 A Si + Me Siz , by tak- ing a quantity of Silica, whose oxygen = 0°92 corresponds to 1-85 PAAR EMILE «fk clereirc eck Toye 0-46 0-8 Magnesia, ........ 0-460 I-19 4-00 “ Lastly, we shall make of the remainder (ou fvra de reste) a garnet of manganese and magnesia, of the formula 2 Ma Si + Me Si’, by taking the residual Silica, whose oxygen = 1:41 corresponds to 2°80 T Hakita of manganese 0°705 BR Magnesia. .<..'.... (705 1°82 7:00 “ All these products subtracted, there only remains Trioxide of manganese.............. 2°38 Magnesia. Pee aN oe Oe Ue Tay: a85 New Series, vou. ix. 2 354. Mr. Children’s Summary View of |. {Mavy, « which may be regarded as merely in the state of mixture ;” and of which M. Beudant cannot make any thing further. He continues, “« Thus we see that the garnet in question contains Melanite garnet ....e+ssesevccseee 24°83 Calcareous garnet. .....e22e0. save 6 ROO Aluminous and magnesian garnet .... 4°00 Manganesian and magnesian garnet .. 7:00 Trioxide of manganese (mixed)....,. 2°38 Magnesia (mixed) ....... saya bapa igo teak, 98°19 This is taking a peep into Nature’s workshop with a ven- geance, and it is really a pity that all the elements of the analy- sis could not be worked up; quite provoking that Nature should have employed nearly six per cent. of matter in her way of mak- ing a garnet, more than M. Beudant wanted for Azs, and still more so that all the elements should be in exact definite proportion in the first compound, and not in the last, so ingeniously dished up from the several ingredients of melanite, grossular, &c. &c. into this garnet olio! Other similar examples are given from the analyses of axinite and amphibole, but the reader will probably think the preceding quite sufficient. M. Beudant concludes the chapter by observing, that the above method of discussing the analyses of minerals is the only way to form a clearidea of their composition—every other mode of looking at them, he says, “ leads merely to vague ideas, or rather leads to nothing at all. The common plan of giving the weights of the insulated ingredients generally presents only a parcel of incoherences, and it is this bad method that has so long prevented the immediate application of chemical researches to mineralogy, by concealing all the advantages that may be derived from them.” We strongly suspect we shall adhere to the bad method, notwithstanding. With respect to the term zsomorphous, M. Beudant very pro- perly remarks, that it cannot be received in a rigorous sense, and that it frequently merely indicates a very strong analogy, the forms of substances, said to be isomorphous, differing only very slightly in the measurements of their corresponding angles. The late M. Haiiy was not a convert to the new views adopted by MM. Mitscherlich and Berzelius. After stating their ideas respecting pyroxene, he says,* “ they were not led to these conclusions by direct observations on the different silicates con- tained in the pyroxenes, but deduced them from observations made by M. Mitscherlich on different substances obtained sepa- * Traité de Minéralogie, Second Edition, p.39. 1825.] M. Berzelius’s Hypothesis of the Atomic Theory. 355 rately by chemical processes, and compounds of different bases combined with the same acid.” M. Mitscherlich has quoted three crystallized substances found in nature as analogous to those he obtained artificially, namely, the sulphates of lead, baryta and strontita. “These analogous compounds,” observes M. Haiiy, “ of three bases combined with the same acid should have the same primitive form, and M. Mitscherlich without doubt has examined closely into the matter to satisfy himself if this example be favourable to his views. The fact is obviously otherwise. The primitive form of sulphate of lead is a rectan- gular octohedron, and consequently incompatible with that of sulphate of baryta and sulphate of strontita, which is a right thomboidal prism. Moreover the angles and dimensions of this prism differ obviously in the two species, the angles of the base im the sulphate of baryta being 101° 52’ and 78° 28’, and m sul- phate of strontita 104° 28’ and 75° 12’. “«'M. Mitscherlich has not been more fortunate in the identity of form which he fancies he has discovered between two other natural substances, whose composition has nothing in common, namely, sulphate of copper andaxinite. The three angles which measure the incidences of the faces of the parallelopipedons, the primitive form of those two substances, are, for the sulphate of copper, the first 124° 2’; the second 128° 37’; and the third 109° 32’; whilst for axinite two are right angles, and the third is 101° 50’. Such are the contrasts which M. Mitscherlich takes for characters of identity.” The form of the crystals of sulphate of magnesia and sulphate of zinc is, according to Haiy, a right prism with a square base, terminated very commonly by a right quadrangular pyramid. M. Mitscherlich quotes them as “ another example, but the angle,” says Hatiy, “ formed by two of the faces of the pyramid taken on two opposite sides is about 10° greater in the sulphate of magnesia than in the sulphate of zine. ** Moreover, how is it that the results announced by M. Mit- scherlich are, on every side, in contradiction to those presented by natural productions, as if affinity played a different part in his laboratory to that which it acts in the laboratory of nature ? “ Take a view of the various crystals that are found in our cabinets containing different bases united to the same acid, and throughout their geometrical forms will be seen to differ more or less. The primitive form of phosphate of lime is a regular hex- ahedral prism, that of phosphate of lead a rhomboid, that of phosphate of iron an oblique rectangular prism, that of phosphate of copper a rectangular octohedron, and that of phosphate of manganese a rectangular parallelopipedon. If we take the muriates, the primitive form of munate of ammonia is a regular octohedron, that of silver a rectangular parallelopipedon, that of 2a2 356 —C Mr. Children’s Summary View of; \. {Max, iron aright rhomboidal prism, and that of copper.a rectangular octohedron ; and so of the rest.” Uy Meee > sabe It does not appear that M. Haiiy has taken into consideration the difference that water, chemically combined, may produce in crystalline forms; at least he says nothing about it in his argu- ments against isomorphism in the passages we have quoted, ,He continues thus :—“ According to these observations, if. the opinion of MM. Berzelius and Mitscherlich with regard to pyrox- ene, a natural mineral, be correct, it follows that its constitution is an exception to the general results of thé crystallization of ‘natural bodies, and appears to be inexplicable. eked “‘T must add, that on the preceding“idea, it would be very difficult to form a clear idea of what constitutes the species, pyroxene, in a chemical point of view. The different silicates which occur as constituent parts of that mineral have nothing fixed, either in respect to their number in the same individual, nor in their proportions. Supposing all the combinations. of which they are capable, taken one and one, two and two, three and three, to exist in nature, we shall have fifteen different. modi- fications of pyroxene; and if we reflect that in the analyses hitherto made of different pyroxenes, the quantity of magnesia ‘varies from 45 per cent. to 30, that of iron from 1-08 to 17-38, and that of manganese from 0°09 to 3, what a series ‘of shades shall we-obtain if we raultiply those analyses !” _ According to Haiiy’s views, all the pyroxenes contain a com- mon basis of elementary molecules, which determines their true composition, and by a necessary consequence the invariable form of their integrant molecule, and all the other ingredients, which he considers as purely accidental, are only interposed amongst the molecules of the essential substance without affecting its characteristic form. That substance he assumes to be silicate of lime, for in fourteen analyses the quantity of lime was nearly constant, and in the proportion of about 20 per cent. on the whole mass. ‘I do not know,” says he, “ why M. Berzelius has supposed that it may be replaced by magnesia ; how can it yield a place to that substance which it has never abandoned?” More lately Mr. Brooke has also questioned the stability of this hypothesis,* and has asserted (as we have seen that Haily had done before), that the supposed identity of isomorphous bases does not exist, and that the apparently similar forms belonging to substances which differ in composition, do really differ fvom each other in measurement, although in some cases by only so small a quantity as not to be appreciable by the ‘goniometer. Mr. Brooke remarks, that “ the instances which M. Mitscherlich has adduced in support of his theory, or we ¥ Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. xj, p12. wy 1825.) M. Berzelius’s Hypothesis of the Atomic Theory. 357. may almost say as its foundation, are not in accordance: with it;” and he then goes on to show the differences in the incli- nations of the planes, in the sulphates of lead, baryta and strontita, ‘ These,” he adds, “ are natural crystals, and evidently do not support our author’s theory.” Mr. Brooke then states, that the artificial salts of those three bases accord with it no better, and that the acetates present even much greater discordances than the sulphates. “The theory is not better supported by the carbonates of lime, iron, and zinc, which are stated to be isomorphous. The primary forms of these substances are rhomboids, and the inclination of P on P’ has been ascertained to be as follows :— Carbonate of lime. ba ea Rak on UNO Mit DRA te Sede he iy AO a> OO Based ibd wines, 107; ?40 Mr. Brooke adds, that he is informed that the theory on more mature consideration has been abandoned by the author himself. If that be so, his candour reflects the highest honour on M. Mit~ scherlich, whilst the necessity of relinquishing a favourite hypo- thesis furnishes an additional argument against the adoption of those dogmas which, in some measure at least, led to its original formation. For, if Mr. Brooke’s information be correct, we must object tothem, not merely their negative quality of useless- ness, but their positively mischievous tendency to induce or confirm error. But, to return to our original subject, however that may be, the assumption that the stronger bases must contain more than one atom of oxygen, should be established on a better foundation than mere analogy, or such arguments as we have met with in the preceding pages, before it is made the ground- work for superseding the beautiful simplicity of the atomic theory as promulgated by Dalton, and substituting in its stead the unnecessary intricacies introduced by Berzelius.: We aré not, however, surprised that the hypothesis should have made considerable progress amongst our fellow chemists on the Continent. Its ingenious pronialgator has, we believe, a large number of pupils, and it is perfectly natural that bred in his school they should warmly support and propagate the doc- trines of so admirable a master ; for in most respects, few che- mists in Europe deserve that epithet more justly than Berzelius. The accuracy of his analyses, the incomparable ingenuity which many of them demonstrate, the ‘indefatigable ardour with which he pursues his darling science, and the multitude of important facts with which his genius and industry have enriched it, give ‘him’ a high claim to the admiration of every chemist in the world. It does not follow, however, that he is therefore infallible, and after the best attention we have been able to bestow on his peculiar modifications of the atomic theory, we see no reason for 358 Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations, [May, preferring them to the simpler doctrines taught in England, and until they shall be fully convinced of their superiority by facts derived from experiment, we hope the great masters of our own schools will adhere to their present system, both in their lectures and their publications. (An abstract of Berzelius’s table ofatomic weights in our next ) March 17. March 18. March 20. March 24. March 27. April 3. April 12, March 26. ArTICLE IV. Astronomical Observations, 1825 By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. Bushey Heath, near Stanmore. Latitude 51° 37! 44°3” North. Longitude West in time 1’ 20-93”. Emersion of Jupiter’s erat Th RitGUICG = a Jagd sicasin ad» 7 Emersion of Jupiter’s first § 12 Satellite. «...¢ ele ccape eae 5 12 Emersion of Jupiter’s first § 7 Rabel oe ade cca makes re | Immersion of Jupiter’s third § 8 satellite Coos ols ac et oie «0 5 8 Emersion of Jupiter's first § 9 datellite.. 5.6 i.cee te sneee «9 Emersion of Jupiter’s first ¢ 11 satellite. .....02-seeeeees 11 Emersion of Jupiter’s first ¢ 7 satellite. ..-..+-sssseeees 5 7 56’ 33’ Mean Time at Bushey. 57 57 58 25 27 22 23 20 21 15 16 39 40 54 10 31 50 Il 29 50 32 53 27 A8 25 46 Occultation by the Moon. 14 38 Siderial Time. Immersion of a small star... 9 Mean Time at Greenwich, Mean Time at Bushey. Mean Time at Greenwich. Mean Time at Bushey. Mean Time at Greenwich. Mean Time at Bushey. — Mean Time at Greenwich, Mean Time at Bushey. Mean Time at Greenwich. Mean. Time at Bushey. Mean Time at Greenwich, ‘Mean Time at Bushey. Mean Time at Greenwich. Observed Transits of the Moon and Moon-culminating Stars over the Middle Wire of the Transit Instrument in Siderial Time. 1825. Stars. Transit. April 1.—47 Leonis........ 43 {nei dee 10h AT! 15°63” 1.—61 Leonis ........ deadadte oe .. 11 04 51-64 1.—¢ Leonis. ........ st oeeee wew LI OF ARTA Vga UNCONIN se ees cece ees ecenas 11 19 O1-04 W ersGESEONIS ei n're annie Sod ole tes wae 11 21 26°10 1,—Moon’s First or West Limb.... 11 25 26°49 1.—126 Virginis,.....,ceeeeeeeeee IL 29 31°30 He NOL VACRINIS, ore staraicta,sig sae 11 42 09°10 1.—213 Virginis...........0e0000- ll 52 O8-11 1.—230 Virginis,......2.22.+- woe. IL 57 06-02 2-17 Virgins. 4 j'sinn ste os cinve Sdeos L2 POR 92-18 Se NA VPPATIN 6 9.0 vieicccie sv elpiee'= “12 10 2434 2-63 Virginis, -.. 1.2.20. .00eees 12 14 14:17 2.—Moon’s First or West Limb.... 12 23 5601 Mo KPVITO IMIR, Sass 5 9) g's dine wel vin'es< 12 .30 14:37 S—196 Virginia <4 coe cs cece cece ne 12 42 21°53 2,—¥ Virginis...... IERt a TONS 12 45 20-07 1825.) Mr. Powell on Terrestrial Light and Heat, 359 ARTICLE V. On Light and Heat from Terrestrial Sources, and on the Theory of the Connexion between Light and Heat. By Baden Powell, A. FRS, (1.) In all investigations on radiant heat, one of the principal sources of difficulty consists in properly estimating the loss of heat by radiation from the bulb of the thermometer on the side not exposed to the radiant influence, and which depends on the rate of communication of heat through the bulb, and on the radiating power of its surface. External circumstances regulate the amount of this effect; the proximity of a glass screen of lower temperature increases it as we have already had occasion to notice ; and independently of radiation, there must be a trifling loss by conduction to the air in contact; but in all these cases, it is evident that the loss will be very different, according to whether we are observing the rise of the thermometer in a given short time, in a longer time, or its stationary indication. The communication of heat through the bulb will also be very different in a mercurial and in an air thermometer : in the latter also the expansion of the glass will be likely to produce consider- able error from the lower conducting power of the inclosed air. ‘All these circumstances, and perhaps others, have a great tendency to perplex the experimental results ; and I have been the more induced here to allude’to them, because I am inclined to think that I have not given some of my former arguments the advantage they might have had from attributing too great an influence to the loss by radiation. This probably need not have been taken into consideration in the formula, since it would seem that a greater length of time would be necessary in order to the communication of heat through the bulb so as to produce any sensible loss of heat. It would be easy to investigate a more general and correct formula ; but upon reconsidering those experiments (28) to which the formula applies, I am by no means sure whether they are of a nature sufficiently susceptible of pre- cision to determine with any exactness the proportion main- tained between the heating and illuminating intensity of the rays. In fact, until we possess that important desideratum, a photometer upon the principle of illumination, this part of the subject must remain involved in considerable uncertainty. (2.) The consideration above adverted to will apply to the experiments on the solar heat (8), and the remark upon them (ad), The conclusion is in fact thus very much strengthened ; and the effect of simple heat, if any were added by the removai of the screen, would be to diminish the ratio of the white to the black effect, by addition of quantities to its terms in the ratio of 360 Mr. Powell on Terrestrial Light.and Heat. (May, = = = These experiments may be igri with those recently communicated to the Royal Society, in which precisely the same method was applied to terrestrial light and heat, and a remarkable difference in ratio exhibited when the screen was removed. Similar remarks apply to the other experiments (19, 20, 42), which appear to me.to afford the most satisfactory means, and perhaps the most delicate, we at present possess, of deciding the question as to the existence of any perceptible portion of simple radiant heat in the solar rays. 63 The difficulties alluded to 1 have found to occasion much per- lexity in the experiments on terrestrial light and heat in which Rhaye been for a long time engaged. In those results which form an answer to the principal question existing on the subject, and which are contained in the paper just alluded to, I conceive all fallacy arising from these causes is sufficiently guarded against ; and I trust the same may be said of some further inves- tigations on the same topics, to which I alluded at the end of my last paper; and which were at first designed to form a second part to the paper communicated to the Royal Society ; but which upon further consideration I withdrew.* The principal part of these investigations, and the theory which I have deduced from them, together with some additional remarks, will form the subject of the present paper. (3.) Having by the former experiments, as 1 conceive, esta- blished the general fact of two heating radiations emanating from luminous hot bodies, it becomes obvious that we may apply this distinction to explain many results of former experimenters ; in particular those of M. de la Roche, before alluded to, will, upon this principle, exhibit an increase in the ratio of the heat- ing power of light to the simple heat in proportion as bodies are more completely luminous. Wishing, however, to examine this and other kindred phenomena upon a uniform principle, I adopted the following application of the differential thermometer, which, though it will not prove the existence of two radiations, enables us, when their distinct existence is assumed, to determine the ratio subsisting between their effect, though not with great accuracy, yet probably sufficiently so for the purpose here wanted. The method consists in placing a small screen so as to inter- cept the heat going to the plain bulb. The black bulb is then affected by the sum of the two radiations, or / + 4. Then observing without the screen in the usual way we haye ((), and thus obtain (/) and the ratio (;)- 1 here suppose the bulbs to “ I mention this because, owing to an accidental mistake, some account of them was given in the report in the Annals for March, p. 224. 1825.) Mr, Powell on Terrestrial Light and Heat. 36] be both alike absorptive of simple radiant heat. This was not exactly the case in the following experiments ; one bulb being coated with Indian ink, so that if the radiation were not sufficient to counterbalance the effect, the value given to (/) is too great when the instrument was used without its case ; but the differ- ence was probably very trifling as will appear by a comparison made in some of the experiments. The annexed sketch will, perhaps, assist in showing the nature of the effects: it requires no explanation. Light— — — — A. Hot body. LES toy a ee B. Differ. thermometer. C. Screen. This is precisely the same method as I formerly adopted for endeavouring to detect any sensible degree of non-transmissible heat in the sun’s rays. (5.) In the instance of the sun then, the heating power of light constitutes the total effect. In the instance of luminous terrestrial sources, we recognise the joint action of the two radiations ; and in non-luminous hot bodies only that of heat. In different instances of luminous bodies, these two causes operate in different proportions so as in some to approach the first, and in others the last of these descriptions ; and if so, what are the distinctive circumstances with which such variation is accompanied ? (6.) In addition to the inference before made from De la Roche’s experiments, it seems well established that (ceteris paribus) the light emitted from flame increases with the com- Cee of the combustion. Thus Count Rumford (Phil. ssays, 1. 304) found that with equal quantities of oil, the light of an argand lamp was to that of a common lamp as 100 to 85. I was desirous of comparing such a ratio with the correspond- ing one of the effects of simple heat; and the following are a few results obtained by the method just described, with the flame of an argand lamp (the diameter of whose cylindrical wick was (75 inch), by increasing the flame. The first experiment was made for the sake of comparison, in order to estimate the effect of the glass chimney : the instrument was one having the bulbs at the same height; the sentient bulb coated with Indian ink. 362. Mr. Powell on Terrestrial Light and Heat. (May, Rise in ] min. corrected for adventi- tious light. Number ‘Plain bulb " of experi- Both bulbsscreened = fe ments. Particulars. exposed = 7/1 + h. Hence h. h Argand lamp 7 inches : i x 3 from bulb with chimney 15 28 13 0-8 1 3 18 30 12 06 9 j Ditto no chimney...... : 1 14 31 7 12 1 2 Wick increased. .... oem 29 40 11 038 ] 1 More increased.....--. 30 52 22 07 It is obvious that there is a limit beyond which increasing the wick does not produce more complete combustion, Of several other experiments tried on flame, one case regards the alteration which takes place in a flame as exhibited in the simple experiment of placing salt in the wick of a spirit-lamp ; the effect being increased also by diluting the spirits with water. (See Dr. Brewster’s paper on a Monochromatic Lamp, Edinb. Phil. Journ. No. 19, p. 123.) This experiment gave the follow- ing results. , The instrument employed in this and all the subse- quent experiments was a small photometer, having its bulbs in the same vertical line. Number Rise in 30 seconds. of experi- See Rie L ments. Particulars. l l+h h h J Flame of spirit lamp. Distance 1 BiQMTea meh Sarees ct } i si | wy 3 3 \Spirits diluted, and salt placed in 9 "1 5 1 | ~the wick: the flame smaller. 25 (8.) Count Rumford found that, when by employing many flames near each other, the temperature of the flame was increased, the light given out increased in a much greater pro- portion. (See Phil. Trans. 1820, Part I. p.22; Davy’s Elements of Chem. Phil. p. 224.) If the simple heat radiated increases in a proportion not greater than the temperature of the flame, we shall here observe the same increase of ratio between the radiant heat and the light as in the preceding instances. : This point I proceeded to examine in the following set of experiments, in which I compared by the same method as before, the effects of light and heat produced from a single flame, and from the juxta-position of flames. 1825.) Mr. Powell on Terrestrial Light and Heat. 363 Number Rise in 30 seconds. of experi- AEE ORE L ments. Particulars. I lth aseulh h » Flame of wax candle, 3 1 a 5 inches distance ... : By 2 5 3 15 1 3 Two flames coalescing... . 5 9 4 a3 ps 1 Ae aHATIOUNEN Chie sd sta's o's, dcin'c 2 7 10 — Another set i 2 ei 2 ‘ - 1 3 Distance 14 inch ........ 3 19 14 a 1 3 Two flames coalescing, | 12 28 16 aa [Distance 3 inches. Thee |: = ] in] minute...,..... } MY 2 i Ox Two flames coalescing ....| 27 Ad 17 a In all these cases the increase of the ratio between the effects of light and those of simple heat is very conspicuous ; and it appears both from the results of Count Rumford, &c. as well as these, that thé increase of light is in a ratio greater than that of the increase of temperature ; the effects of light being in these experiments more than doubled when two flames were united, whilst the heat radiated was less than doubled. (9.) I now extended the inquiry to the radiation from metal at different stages of incandescence. For this purpose I employed a mass of iron of a cylindrical form, about six ches long and 1:5 diameter; heated to the brightest point which a common fire could communicate, and suspended vertically. The photo- meter was exposed to it at seven inches distance, placed oppo- site to the middle point of its length. In the first sets of these experiments, I observed the effect of light, using the glass case, and therefore could make no comparison of the effect of the light with that of the heat. I am well aware that these nume- rical results can only be regarded as rough approximations ; yet they will give some idea of the different law followed in the pro- gression of the two parts of the effect. The value of (/ + h) may have been somewhat too small from a trifling heating effect of the small screen on the lower bulb. 364 Mr. Powell on Terrestrial Light and Heat: [M&¥, Incandescent iron. Rise in 30 seconds. Distance 7 inches. Exp. |. | 2 ean te- 4 Minutes from com- mencement. | 1 (case) l+h 1 (case) 1+ h | 1 (no case) | ¢ (ne case) 0 12 4 8 9 10 1 | 36 36 4 en, 4 5 | 20 | 22 8 | ar oe | 9 10 (10.) In the following set of experiments, the effect of light was observed with the instrument in its glass case, with an addi- tional screen of plate glass several times replaced ; for (/ + A) there were two screens to the lower bulb; the outer one several times replaced. Incandescent iron. Rise in 30 seconds. Distance 7 inches. Minutes. | Seconds from L (glass case and screen), 1 + h (no case) commences |————— — ment. Exp. 1 2 | 3 | 1 2 0 18 12 16 36 ‘ : 2°30 4 22 22 5 2 3 2 18 { ll 7°30 1 0 18 10 10 0 0 0 14 ot 15 8 17:30 | 5 20 4 ) (11.) I subsequently made a similar set of observations with a ball of iron two inches in diameter. In the former case, the values of (/) and of (/ + ) were not so taken as to be compara- ble. In the present instance I attempted, by obtaining both results under similar circumstances, to deduce the value of (4) and the ratio as in former experiments. For this purpose, to obtain (/) the instrument was employed without its case, but with three screens of plate glass; and, as before, for (4 + A); the nearest screen was 1-5 inch from the bulb; here there might be some small cooling effect. After the experiment, the outer screen alone was found at all heated. ‘ a 1825,). Mr. Powell on Terrestrial Light and Heat. 365 ee Incandescent iron. Distance 6 inches. an Exp.1. Rise in 30 seconds. Minutes wh TMG Dun © eee from com- bo mencement. U Ith oeane h 500 roe 6 34 28 : at 088 3: 47 2 2 25 23 Bee 11d 4 0 10 10 6 0 8 8 Exp. 2 0 5 3T 32 : 6-4 i] 2 J 29 28 — 28 4 0 12. 12 6 0 10 19 (12.) For the sake of comparison, I here again repeated the observation of the light with the case: the indications were: Case. Case and two screens. (1) (2) (1) @) Rise in the first 30 seconds.. 8° 11 .... 8° 9 (13.) The general inference from these experiments is, that observing the progress of the radiation from a hot mass of metal, beginning with the heat of luminosity, we find the radiant heat increasing, and the heating power of the light distinct from it increasing also, but the former in a less ratio than the latter. Thus it would appear that this same law is followed in all the different cases of luminous hot bodies here considered, in propor- tion to the density of the flame, to the completeness of combus- tion, to the coalescing of several flames, and to the degree of ignition in metal. The heating power of light increases ina higher ratio than the wnpe radiant heat which accompanies it. (14.) The fact which I conceive is established in the first part of my experiments, viz. that in the radiation from luminous bodies, simple radiant heat exists distinct from the light and its heat, appears to me of some importance in regard to the validity of that theory which asserts that heat is merely light in a state of combination. According to that theory, as the temperature of a body is raised, it begins to give out the “ igneous fluid” in a free radiant state: this at first is simple radiant heat, but by degrees its properties and intensity become altered, and it begins to act upon our organs with an illuminating effect ; but is liable 366 Mr. Powell on Terrestrial Light and Heat. [May, to absorption again fromm bodies on which it impinges, in propor- tion to the darkness of their colour, and thus becomes heat, dis- playing its effects as temperature. ; The views to which I have been led as to the distinct nature of the two parts of the total heating effect, so far tend to disprove this theory, that we here evidently perceive a very considerable portion of the radiant matter not at all converted into light, but merely increased in intensity. If, therefore, we still adhere to the supposition that light is only heat in a different state, we must so far modify the hypo- thesis as to admit that only a part of the igneous fluid undergoes this change. But here we must further ask, whether such an admission can be made in consistency with the other parts of this theory, or even with its fundamental principles. For this pur- pose we must take a brief review of its leading features, and the grounds on which it is built. (15.) Prof. Leslie, in his Inquiry into the Nature of Heat, p- 150, maintains the opinion of the materiality of light, and of its existence in actual combination with bodies. He then examines the phenomenon of its absorption as connected with reflection, &c.; he attributes to light in its state of combination the heating property, from which he is led to the conclusion, that ‘“ heat is light in a state of combination,” p. 162. The ground upon which he adopts this theory is this; having come to the experimental conclusion that ‘‘ heat is an elastic fluid extremely subtle and active,” he asks (p. 150), “ Is ita new and peculiar kind of fluid, or is it one with which, from its effects, we are already in some manner acquainted? If any such can be discovered that will strictly quadrate with the phenomena, the spirit of true philosophy which strives to reduce the number of ultimate principles, would certainly persuade us to embrace it. But in searching further, we may, perhaps, educe direct proofs of identity ;” and then, from a comparison with the effects of light before mentioned, he. concludes their identity. We may; however, be permitted to ask, whether, to suppose two exist- ences (in some particulars at least), possessing such very differ- ent properties as light and heat do, to be merely the same sub- stance in different states, is not rather departing from the general simplicity of natural causes; and supposing a new sort of rela- tion between two existences with which in other parts of nature we are unacquainted, should we not be more in the true spirit of inductive philosophy, if, admitting the distinct existence of light and heat we sought to explain, the facts of the one being apparently produced by the other, according to some laws . already known to act in the constitution of things. Prof. Leslie shows (p. 175), that all rays of light from whatever source must issue from that source with the same identical celerity. ‘ It hence appears,” he observes, “ that light must 1826.) Mr. Powell on Terrestrial Light and Heat. 367 derive its projectile impulse from the sole operation of its pecu- liar elasticity while in the state of heat.”’ “‘ Its motion,” he then shows, “is exactly similar to that with which an expansive fluid will rush into a vacuum.” He concludes this profound investigation by remarking, that “We are forced to suppose that when bodies discharge light, they are thrown into a sort of convulsive state, having their adhesive attraction to it afiected by momentary intervals of suspension, during which fits, the luminous particles, being set free, are projected by their own intrinsic repulsions. Without admitting this hypothesis, it sees impossible to explain the equality of motion which belongs to every species of light, however variously combined with dif- ferent bodies as constituting heat, it is emitted from them all with the same rapidity ; and such we have seen is the remarka- ble property of an expansive fluid when liberated.” (P. 177.) He then proceeds by a highly curious computation to calculate the elasticity of light, the weight of combined light on heat, the waste of luminous matter in the sun, and other points connected with these. In thus explaining the projection of light from bodies, its existence as an expansive and elastic fluid is easily admissible, and appears conformable with all we know of its properties. But the hypothesis just quoted respecting the state into which budies must be brought in order to discharge it does not seem susceptible of experimental proof. Admitting the reasoning from which the phenomena of its emission are explained on the supposition of its being an elastic. fluid, we may ask is it necessary to suppose in order to its being thus emitted that it is identical with heat? Should we not avoid the part of the hypothesis last alluded to, if we supposed the light to exist in combination with the solid substance in the same way as gaseous fluids are known to exist in combination with such substances, and that by the operation of the heat which is employed in raising the body to the temperature of luminosity, the light before in combination is made to assume its elastic fluid state, and then is projected from the body according te the ace principles which Prof. L. has just before laid own. From this review, we shall be prepared tc perceive how the circumstance before adverted to presents a serious difficulty to the hypothesis. Ifthe heat of a body be converted into light, owing to the action of the causes here explained, we may ask how then it can happen that only part of the whole quantity of heat combined with the body is thus changed into light? or why the increase of elasticity only takes place in part of the combined fluid, and not in the whole; for the unaltered portion still con- tinues to be radiated as heat, but is neither converted into light, 368 Mr. Powell on Terrestrial Light and Heat. (May, nor in any way altered in its properties so as to approach the nature of light. It seems to be impossible to conceive that the mere continued and increased action of one cause, or a fluid of one simple nature can change a portion of it into a new sub- stance, and yet leave a very considerable part in its original state. Nor can the difficulty be diminished by supposing the heat to be a compound of two different species, one convertible into light, and the other not; because, as we have seen in these experiments, in the same body the proportions of the two will be constantly varying with the increasing intensity of ignition. (16.) After all it becomes a question, does any part of the simple heat disappear so that we can suppose it either converted into light, or in any other way changed in its properties ? It does not appear to me that this has been in any way established either by the supporters of the theory just alluded to, or any other experimenters ; yet its investigation is clearly a point of importance. If it should be shown that it does not take place, this theory (independently of the objections just urged) would entirely fall to the ground. If it should appear that some such phenomenon does take place, the above objections would not be in the slightest degree removed; and we might then, perhaps, have some ground for a more correct and inductive view of the subject. (17.) This was one principal point I had in view in these experiments, and I conceive to be by them sufficiently shown, that a portion of the heat which we know upon independent orounds is generated, is actually lost, or does not appear either as heat of temperature, or in a radiant form. The-general result of my second set of experiments is, that at first the heating of a body causes it to continue radiating heat m a proportion which is nearly that of the increase of temperature. At @ certain point which we call the temperature of luminosity, light begins to be given out, possessing a heating power when. absorbed again; the light estimated both by this power, and generally also by its illuminating effect, contmues to increase ; whilst the simple radiant heat, distinct from it, continues to increase also, but in a less ratio than the light. The radiant heat probably tends to increase in a certain ratio to the elevation of temperature ; at the same time (from the peculiar constitution of bodies) an increasing quantity of it is continually abstracted, or ceases to appear as radiant heat, and this loss corresponds to the increase of heating power in the light. This law applies to the case both of the same body at different stages of ignition, and to the comparison of different luminous bodies, as different flames, which have been shown to have different temperatures of luminosity, and which on arriving at a 1825.] Mr. Powell on Terrestrial Light and Heat. 369 certain stage of combustion continue at the degree of ignition which belongs to that point without further increase, that degree being different for different combustibles. It appears probable, if we extend the analogy from what we already know, that the general law is, that in proportion to the completeness of the combustion, more light and proportionally less heat are radiated ; and it seems natural to suppose that a greater energy of action would rather cause the heat to be em- ployed in evolving light, than simply to radiate away. In the sun’s rays it has been shown that the light produces the whole heating effect ; hence if the origin of the solar rays be from any process similar to combustion, it must be analogous to the most perfect kind of combustion. Mr. Brande has shown (Phil. Trans. 1820, Part I.) that the galvanic light approaches more in its chemical properties to the nature of the solar light than that from any other source. (18.) If any doubt should remain as to the actual disappear- ance of a portion of heat, let us only advert to the instances afforded in the above experiments. In increased intensity of combustion, a proportional increase of heat must be generated ; but from the more intense combustion a greater increase of heat- ing power is communicated to the light than is exhibited in the radiant heat. This increase, therefore, consists of heat derived from the hot body no longer forming heat of temperature, and no longer radiating as heat; but combined in a peculiar way with light. Again, solid particles volatilized in a flame acquire tempera- ture from it; but they hence give out much more heating light, but not as much more radiant heat. On the uniting of different flames, the same thing is most palpably shown. The two flames united give out less than the sum of their separate heats, and more than the sum of their separate heating powers of light ; the latter must be increased at the expense of the former. The heat disappears either as temperature or as radiant heat. From the experiments on incandescent metal, we might deduce exactly the same conclusion. ' (19.) That the extrication of light is in most cases owing in some way to the agency of heat has been long an established opinion. Thus Mr. Morgan (Phil. Trans. 1785, No. 11) consi- ders light as a substance united to other bodies by peculiar attraction, and separated by having that attraction overcome by heat. Blue rays he conceives to have the least, and red the rae affinity, and consequently the former are first separated y the heat, and it is not till the last stage of combustion that red light is given off. He considers the increased generation of heat to produce a corresponding increase in the evolution of light. New Series, vou, 1x. 2B 370 Mr. Powell on Terrestrial Light and Heat. [May, The experiments of Mr. T. Wedgwood also tend to the same point. (Phil. Trans. 1792, No.3.) He considers the light pro- duced by attrition to be evolved by means of the heat generated. The agency of heat in causing the evolution of light is clearly recognised by Count Rumford, in his experiments on the coales- cing of flames. He conceived the increase of light to be owing to the proximity of the flames ‘so as to communicate heat.” (See Mr. Brande’s paper on Combustion, Phil. Trans. 1820, Part I. and Sir H. Davy’s Chem. Phil. p. 224.) But there are cases in which light is extricated, where it does not appear that any elevation of sensible temperature is neces- ’ sary to 1ts production. Such are the instances of phosphorescent animals, of the light generated during putrefaction, &c. Any theory of the subject ought, therefore, to be sufficient to explain not only how the beat acts in evolving the light in the former cases, but how the same cause can produce the effects as in this latter case when the temperature is not increased. If then any theory should at once embrace these two apparently very oppo- site cases, it would probably be considered a strong argument in favour of it. (20.) We have not any precise ideas as to the mode in which the heating effect which takes place whenever light is absorbed, is produced, The theory which asserts that the light is trans- formed into heat is a wholly gratuitous assumption; it lays a great claim to simplicity 2f principle ; but this is, perhaps, more apparent than real. The simplicity of any hypothesis, considered as an explanation of phenomena, depends not solely on the absence of complicated combinations, but also on its analogy to some well established principles on which other similar classes of phenomena are explained. Thus it is easy to say, and to conceive, that light on absorption is converted into heat, or exists under a different form; but this, besides being a mere assumption answers very little purpose; and scarcely brings us one step nearer to an explanation of the phenomena than we were before ; in other words, it does not exhibit them in any such point of view as makes them analogous with any other class of phenomena. Not only, however, is this hypothesis wanting in the characteristic just mentioned, but it also appears to me to be fairly chargeable with being positively at varzance with all established analogy. According to this theory light is a peculiar and extremely subtle species of matter which, in its ordinary state, is distin- uished only by the property of illumination, but on being absorbed by bodies, enters into combination with them, and ~is changed into a new substance, or continues to exist under the form of another sort of matter, which is heat. Thus we haye an extremely subtle sort of matter undergoing an immense degree of condensation, and becoming a component 1826.) Mr. Powell on Terrestrial Light and Heat. — 37) part in a solid body; but, according to all analogy, we should here expect that in doing so, it would give out a considerable quantity of latent heat, which would be rendered sensible in raising the temperature of the body. The above theory, how- ever, will not allow of such a view of the matter; for the heat produced is here the substance itself which is united to the body, and not the result of that union. Moreover that a substance should at once be in combination with another body, and at the same time act upon other bodies as if it were free and uncom- bined, is still further contrary to analogy. If then we assume the materiality of light, and wish to take such a view of the mode in which its heating effects are produced as shall at once make the smallest assumption, and be most analogous with other phenomena, we must seek for some other hypothesis than that just alluded to. (21.) It may be considered as established that the portion of light which is not reflected from a surface undergoes an absorp- tion, and changes its state; whether it form a true chemical combination with the body is a point which is probably beyond our means of investigation. It is, however, certain, that imme- diately on the absorption taking place, heat is produced in the body ; but since we are in ignorance of the nature of the combi- nation formed by light with the body, it is surely a most unwar- rantable-assumption to say, that the combined substance ¢s heat. On the other hand, seeing an extremely subtle substance enter into combination with a solid body, and finding heat produced in that body, what idea can we more naturally and indeed una- voidably form, than that the increase of temperature is here, as in all other cases, occasioned by the giving out of latent from the absorbed substance. (22.) In conformity with the phenomena of the changes of. state in all other sorts of matter, we here readily perceive that, first, when light is absorbed and enters into combination with common matter, heat is given out, and difierent degrees of heat by different species of light; secondly, light is not generated without a certain degree of heat. All bodies at some temperature become luminous, and after arriving ata certain temperature, an excess of heat, which continues to be generated, is employed in giving the form of light to some particies of the body by becom- ing latent in the elastic matter into which they form. (23.) The view which I have taken of the subject appears to” me to be one to which we are directly led by the phenomena of the experments, It has long appeared to me a very vague opinion, as well as one very much at variance with all analogy, to say, that “light and heat mutualiy evolve each other,” or, that they are modifications’of the same substance. The view I have adopted exhibits the circumstances of the union and sepa- ration of these agents in a way perfectly conformable to other, 232 872 = Mr. Phillips’s Analysis of Tartarized Antimony. [{May, physical changes. We universally observe a tendency in nature to avoid a multiplicity of causes, and to produce a variety of different effects by the intervention of one and the same cause differently modified. In strict conformity with this principle, the explanation I have attempted indicates a beautiful extension of the great law of latent heat, long since so successfully applied to the investigation of the different states in which matter exists, and to the phenomena of the combination and separation of different forms of matter ; and if any agent or principle in nature should exhibit phenomena exaetly analogous to those presented by the changes of ordinary matter in relation to heat, we may without impropriety describe such phenomena by analogous terms, and speak of the absorbing or giving out of latent heat by such agents, without assuming any particular hypothesis respect- ing their materiality. The observance of such analogies holding good with these agents or principles, would, however, be so far @ presumption in favour of their materiality. e have become acquainted with matter in three different forms, or states, solids, liquids, and gases; but there is nothing in nature to prevent the supposition that there may be other states in which matter is capable of existing, which may form an extension of this series at either end, and owe their differ- ence to the same cause, viz. the possessing or losing a certain quantity of latent heat. ' May not then light be one of such forms of matter? aterm in the series occupying a place beyond gaseous bodies (though not necessarily next to them), and owing its peculiar form to the absorption of a certain quantity of latent heat. It would be easy to go on without limit in noticing the analo- gies which might be found between the properties of elastic fluids and those which might belong to an order of bodies beyond them in the scale of latent heat; but upon these speculations I forbear entering. That the analogy holds good in respect to latent heat is all that I am now concerned to maintain ; and this, I think, has been fully made to appear from experimental deduc- tion. Arric.e VI. Analysis of Tartarized Antimony. By R. Phillips, FRSL. & E Accorpine té Dr. Paris (Pharmacologia, vol. ii. p. 64), this “saline body was first made known by Adrian de Mynsicht in his Thesaurus Medico-Chymicus, published in 1631; although it appears probable that the preparation was suggested by a trea- tise, entitled ‘ Methodus in Pulverem,’ published in Italy in 1620.” Long as this medicine has been employed, no regular analysis of it, as far as I can learn, was attempted until 1801, 1825.] Mr. Phillips's Analysis of Tartarixed Antimony. 373 when M. Thenard published the result of his analysis in the 38th volume of the Annales de Chimie, p. 301. Before, however, I offer any observations on this analysis, I shall state the atomic weights of the constituents of tartarized antimony. Bitartrate of potash consists of 2 atoms of acid 66 x 2 = 132, and 1 atom of potash 48, and consequently the atomic weight of the anhydrous bitartrate is 180; these are the results of Dr. Thomson’s experiments, and I believe them to be perfectly accurate; according to Berzelius’s table of equiva- lents, the proportions of acid and base are nearly as above given, but he states the salt to contain 4°74 per cent. of water, and, therefore, 180 of the anhydrous salt must unite with 8-95 of water; so nearly 9, that we may conclude, if the experiments be correct, that the crystals of bitartrate of potash contain 1 atom of water. Dr. Thomson, however, in a very important work which he has very recently published,* considers this salt to contain 2 atoms of water; but, for reasons which I shall now state, I still consider the determination of Berzelius to be correct: having prepared some pure bitartrate of potash, I suf- fered it to dry by exposure to the air; 189 grains of this salt, containing, of course, hygrometric moisture, were boiled in water with 54 grains = 1 atom of dry carbonate of soda ; the solution was slightly alkaline, but upon adding 3 grains of bitartrate of potash, it reddened vegetable blues strongly; now if the salt had contaimed 2 atoms of water, it would have required more than 198 grains of bitartrate of potash, instead of less than 192, to have supersaturated 54 of carbonate of soda. I heated some crystals of the common bitartrate at a temperature but little below that required for their decomposition ; they lost only 0°95 per cent. and IJ, therefore, conclude that this salt cannot be ren- dered anhydrous by heat. With respect to the atomic weight of antimony and its compounds, I also adopt Dr. Thomson’s num- bers, viz. 44 for the metal, 52 for the protoxide, and 60 for the peroxide and sulphuret. M. Thenard analyzed tartarized antimony in the following manner :—100 parts of the crystals were subjected to heat, by which they lost 8 parts of water, the remaining 92 parts were dissolved in water, and the oxide of antimony was precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen ; 50 grains of dry precipitate were obtained, which were calculated to contain 38 parts of oxide, such as it exists in the salt: by means of acetate of lead, 100 grains of tartrate of lead were procured, which are estimated to contain 34 of tartaric acid ; and, lastly, 100 parts of the salt being treated with nitric acid, there were obtained 30 of nitrate of * An Attempt to establish the first Principles of Chemistry by Experiment. By Thomas Thomson, MD. FRS. Regius Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow, &c. s 374 Mr. Phillips's Analysis of Tartarized Antimony. [May, potash, and these were calculated to contain 16 of potash. From these results, M. Thenard concludes, that tartarized antimony 1s composed of RTA GLC AGI. «: occ ccs cleckadters Rave weniger otashs tists sche alow > REL ae ae a Ree Oxide of antimony. ....eeeeegeeee a Agee WViatetacto Scuene cioae Liab ant PihoMe 3 anh hee LORS ce tiptecs thacauatate By. ts eB lanes site» haere 100 M. Thenard asserts, that bitartrate of potash contains more tartrate of potash than is necessary to saturate the tartrate of antimony, and he states that this excess of the salt remains in the mother water. This is certainly a mistake, for crystals of tartarized antimony are procured from almost the last drop of the solution. Now if, as already supposed, 2 atoms, or 132 of tartaric acid combine with | atom or 48 of potash to form the bitartrate, it is evident that M. Thenard’s analysis must be incorrect, for in that we find the quantity to be 34 to 16, or 1382 to 62-11; nor will the error be rectified by supposing the 4 parts of loss to ‘be tartaric acid, for the proportion even then would be 132 to 65°57. In his Essai sur la Théorie des Proportions Chimiques, Berze- lius has given the following formula to represent the constitution of what he terms tartras kalico-stibicus, 3 KT: Aq? + 4 Sb Ts Aq’. These symbols I have not attempted to decypher, nor -was it necessary to do so, for the composition of the salt is stated in 100 parts as follow: Tartaric adid. ...... Soe Slee PGtaS a teeuc Ges cliwin cee Cohen Seed b.85 553 Ogide of antitOny. ii. ora ane stave = 27°10 VIAN OES CT oie trcme crt ito eabia- 6 nveonais a a ld, 100-00 Examining these results on the same principle asthe analysis by M. Thenard, it will appear to be also incorrect, for if 132 of tartaric acid combine with 48 of potash, 53-20 should unite with 19°34 instead of 12°53 as above quoted ; the quantity of oxide of antimony is also very incorrectly given, and the only statement which approaches exactuess is that of the quantity of water. Dr. Gobel, in Schweigger’s Journal (Annals, vol. vill. p. 151, N.5.), states the results of his analysis to be, 1825.] Mr. Phillips’s Analysis of Tartarized Antimony. 875 Pattaric acide cecsccesssdsvices ces 45:00 Potashve ca retaeeiaacanazanet ed doy GSO Oxide of antimony ....6.eeee eee - 42:60 RECT bec. cits beatevenatyrs Heres 101-15 Dr. Gobel considers the atomic constitution of the salt to be equivalent to | atom of tartrate of potash, 2 atoms of subtartrate of antimony, and 2 atoms of water; but as 132 of tartaric acid require 48 of potash, 45 must unite with 16°36 instead of only 9-8 as stated : this analysis is also incorrect as to the quantity of water; but that of the oxide of antimony is not very far from the truth. Mr. Brande, in lis Manual of Chemistry, vol. iil. p. 85, states that “ Mr. Phillips has shown that emetic tartar consists of 160 supertartrate of potassa + 66 protoxide of antimony. If we con- sider it, with Dr. Thomson (System, 11. 670), as a compound of 2 proportionals of tartaric acid, 2 of protoxide of antimony, and 1 of potassa; or as containing 1 proportional of tartrate of potassa and of subtartrate of antimony, its components will stand thus: ‘Partarie: acid 6275, x) Dist. 2... is sezieee, 125 Protoxide of antimony 52°5 x 2=... 105 Potaptayes, i¢ wisi dv aide nopveods cade 48 275” Now it is to be observed that my statement respecting the solvent power of supertartrate of potash (Experimental Exami- nation, p. 85), is that when equal parts of the salt and oxide are boiled together in water, 70-100ths of the oxide are dissclved. It is, however, to be remarked, that the composition of tartarized antimony cannot be inferred from the oxide dissolved by the common bitartrate of potash, for it always contains about 6 per cent. of tartrate of lime. In addition to this, it must also be proved, either that the bitartrate of potash and the antimonial salt contain no water at all, or only that quantity which pre- viously existed in the bitartrate. In his Manual of Pharmacy lately published (p. 254), Mr. Brande observes, the “ composition has been variously stated, and experiments are still wanting to demonstrate the relative proportions of its component parts: its most probable composi- tion is | proportional of tartrate of potassa, and ! of subtartrate of antimony, or, 376 Mr. Phillips’s Analysis of Tartarized Antimony. [May, Tartrate of potassa.....eeeeesseeee = 11S MRMATIC ACIG. ... + «0.50.0 say einenncmal eee Protoxide of antimony (53 x2). .... = 106 988” This, however, is an incorrect view of the subject, for it sup- poses the salt to be anhydrous, which it is not, and the quantity of oxide of antimony assigned is too small. Indeed having men- tioned the results of my experiments to Mr. Brande, he has stated the composition differently in the table of equivalents, adding in a note, “ According to Mr. R. Phillips: in the text at p- 254, the quantity of protoxide is underrated by one propor- tional.” Still, however, the statement is incorrect, as I shall presently show. The quotation just made from Mr. Brande’s Manual of Che- mistry contains the opinion of the atomic constitution of tartar- ized antimony expressed by Dr. Thomson in his System. In his new work, already alluded to, Dr. T. observes (vol. 11. p. 440), “ No accurate analysis of this useful salt having been hitherto made, I took the following method of ascertaining its consti- tuents: 50 grains of picked crystals of tartar emetic were dis- solved in distilled wat:r, and a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas passed through the liquid as long as any precipitate fell. The bydrosulphuret of antimony thus obtained, when dried in the open air, weighed 42°21 grams ; but when heated in a glass tube, water was driven off, and a black matter remained, which weighed 24°59 grains, and which was sulphuret of antimony, equivalent to 18-032 grains of antimony, or 21-31 grains of pro- toxide of antimony. “The liquid thus freed from antimony was evaporated cautiously, and a quantity of bitartrate of potash obtained, which weighed 28-69 grains. But the integrant particle of bitartrate of potash weighs 24°75 ; and 28°60 : 24°75 :: 21-31 : 18384 = the pro- toxide of antimony united to an integrant particle of bitartrate of potash. Now the protoxide of antimony weighs 6:5, and 65 x 3 = 19:5; this is a little more than I actually found, because part of the sulphuret in my experiment adhered to the glass tube, and could not be collected without loss. From this experiment, which I thrice repeated, | have no doubt but the constituents of tartar emetic are, Pat OMS taleaMee ACU es ce. ne eee ciate ale 16°5 3 atoms protoxide of antimony...... 19°5 PRE OUAR Secs ska ies sa ass 6:0 DUOMO ATED Te tert ose cle tole as wreytionate 2°25 44-25” I shall now proceed to state the results of my analysis, having already quoted from Mr, Brande, that I had obtained, 1825.] Mr. Phillips’s Analysis of Tartarized Antimony. 377 as Dr. Thomson has, 3 atoms of protoxide of antimony from this salt. A. 100 grains of brilliant small crystals of tartarized antimony reduced to powder were heated during eight hours at the tem- perature of 212°; they lost only 2°1 grains; but as bitartrate of potash retains the water of crystallization when exposed to a much greater heat, I subjected 100 grains of tartarized antimony reduced to powder to a higher temperature. Taking the mean of several experiments, I found that the salt lost 7°38 per cent. by several hours’ exposure to a sand heat. When one portion, which had lost 7:4 per cent. in this way, was heated by a spirit-lamp, so as to suffer a further diminution of 0:4, it was decomposed, and becoming of a brown colour, it emitted the smell of decomposing tartaric acid. I consider, therefore, 7°4 per cent. as the quantity of water. B. I attempted to ascertain the quantity of oxide of antimony in two different modes. First, I decomposed a solution 100 grains of the crystals by carbonate of soda, assisted with heat ; the mean of two experiments gave 41°35 per cent.; but the alkalies being imperfect precipitants of antimony, I treated the solution afterwards with sulphuretted hydrogen, which gave a mean of 2°8 of precipitate dried at a moderate temperature, and which I conceived to be hydrosulphuret of antimony composed of J atom of sulphuretted hydrogen 17 + 1 atom protoxide of antimony 52 = 69; if then 69 contain 52 of oxide 2°8 = 2:11, which, added to 41°35, gives 43-46 as the quantity contained in 100 parts of the salt. C. After this, and in order to confirm the above statement, [ treated two solutions each of 100 grains of tartarized antimony with sulphuretted hydrogen gas; the precipitates after being dried on a sand heat gave a mean of 51:25 grains. Now, if we admit, as above supposed, that this precipitate is hydrosulphuret of anti- mony, and of which it possesses the appearance, tartarized antimony contains only 38°6 irstead of 43:46 of protoxide of antimony as by Experiment B, for 69 : 52 :: 51:25 : 386. It may be further observed that the quantity of precipitate obtained in C, as well as the inference as to the quantity of oxide which it contains, agree very nearly with the previous determinations of Thenard. These discordant results, repeatedly obtained, puzzled me exceedingly, and I adopted two modes of determining the quantity of oxide existing in the dried hydrosulphuret. D. I dissolved 45:6 grains of protoxide of antimony in a solu- tion of bitartrate of potash, and then precipitated it by sulphur- etted hydrogen, after washing and drying in the same mode as before, the precipitate weighed 52°8 grains; and, as it had the appearance of being an hydrosulphuret of antimony, I sus- pected that it was subhydrosulphuret consisting of 1 atom of sulphuretted hydrogen, and 2 atoms of oxide of antimony, on 378 Mr. Phillips’s Analysis of Tartarized Antimony. [May, which supposition I ought to have obtained 53:05 of precipitate instead of 52°8; and it will be observed that supposing this to be the true constitution of this substance, the results of B will agree with those of C as nearly as 43°46 to 44-04, for subhydrosul- phuret of antimony must consist of 52 x 2 + 17 = [2], and $23): 104 :: 5225 ; 44:04. E. Further to examine this view of the subject, I dissolved 100 grains of sulphuret of antimony and 100 grains of the pre- cipitate in question in separate and equal quantities of muriatic acid, and decomposed the solutions with similar portions of water; the precipitate from the sulphuret weighed 86-7 grains, and that from the hydrosulphuret $7 grains ; and asin | atom of subhydrosulphuret, 17 of sulphuretted hydrogen, and 16 of oxygen=33, would supply the place of 2 atoms of sulphur=32 in 2 atoms of sulphuret of antimony, it is evident that equal weights of these compounds, should yield nearly equal quantities of precipitate by solution in muriatic acid and the affusion of water. F. The nature of this precipitate was then examined by heat- ing 50 grains in a small flask by a spirit-lamp, and I found to my surprise, that it was readily converted into black sulphuret of antimony, losing only 1-2 grain of water. It appears, there- fore, that instead of a subhydrosulphuret as I had suspected, the precipitate was sulphuret, containing a small quantity of hydro- sulphuret, but yet sufficient to give so much colour as to conceal the nature of the sulphuret. The difficulty of the case was increased by the fact already alluded to, viz. that 2 atoms of oxygen and | atom of sulphuretted hydrogen are so nearly equal in weight. G. As then 50 of the precipitate contain 48:8 of sulphuret of antimony, 51:25 the whole quantity obtained, (C) must contain 50:02 = 43-35 of protoxide of antimony, which is the quantity contained in 100 grains of crystallized emetic tartar. We have thus obtained 7:4 as the quantity of water, and 43°35 as the weizht of the protoxide of antimony; and having found, as already mentioned, that crystals of tartarized antimony are obtained even from the last portions of the solution in preparing the salt, the remainder of 49°25 will give the weight of the bitar- trate of potash in 100 parts, or it consists of Bitartrate of potash (anhydrous) .... 49°25 Protoxide of antimony. ......... w+. 43°35 Wille ek MeO BUN Me eat eee cee at OAD 100-00 Calculating its constitution, according to the weight of the atoms already mentioned, tartarized. antimony will appear to be @ compound of 1825.] Mr. Mill on changing the Residence of Fishes. 379 In 100 parts. 1 atom of bitartrate of potash .............. 180 .... 49°58 3 atoms of protoxide of antimony (52 x3).... 156 ..., 42:97 Satonis of water (Poway! PEST TERE EP OP Oe” TAR 363 100-00 According to Dr. Thomson, as already quoted, the atomic weight of tartarized antimony is 354, differing from the above by | atom less of water. ArticLe VII. On changing the Residence of Fishes. By Nicholas Mill, Esq. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, In reading Dr. Mac Culloch’s paper on “ Changing the Residence of certain Fishes,” in the 34th number of the Quar- terly Journal, I was impressed with the importance of the sub- ject to society, and I conceive that any facts which can be col- lected in corroboration of his statements, cannot fail to be interesting and useful. I therefore take the liberty to forward you some facts which have come under my observation respect- mg the habits of the salmon, and the likelihood of its being domesticated (if I may use the expression) in fresh water lakes and ponds. The salmon has many peculiarities in its history and mode of living which are common to most of the finny tribe that are inhabitants alike of fresh and salt water, and some which others have not. The salmon during certain months of the year is an inhabitant of fresh water rivers and lakes that communicate with the sea, and apparently for the sole purpose of depositing its ova or spawn. It then again betakes itself to tne sea to recruit its strength and vigour, but, unlike other migra- tory fishes, its retreat cannot be traced; for it is a singular fact, that salmon have never been taken or seen in the salt water far from the mouth of some river, and there only at certain seasons of the year. The herring, the pilchard, the mullet, and the mackerel, may be followed from one sea to another, and from one creek to another, but not so with the salmon whose /Aiding- place is a mystery, yet to be solved by naturalists. The general opinion entertained upon this subject is, that they do not wan- der far from the shores of the fresh water rivers they frequent, from the well known fact that the same salmon will always return to the same river to deposit its spawn; and if they do migrate to the northern seas (which some naturalists maintain where they are found in abundance, but always, it must be remembered, in 380 Mr. Mill on changing the Residence of Fishes. [May, communication with some fresh water lake or river), it is giving the species credit for greater sagacity than we usually find amongst the animal creation. In ascending fresh water rivers, they surmount the most surprising difficulties; wears or dams of 15 feet in perpendicular height do not present an effectual obstacle to their progress, they are enabled by a spring or leap to pass them with ease. After having deposited their spawn, they become lean and covered with vermin, and fishermen assert, unless then suffered to return to the sea, they die; but this is one of the vulgar notions which it is my business to controvert. In order to ascertain whether sea water was necessary for the exist- ence and growth of the salmon, I caught some of the fry of this fish as they were retreating to the sea with an artificial fly, and preserved them alive in order to transport them to a fish-pond ; the dimension of which was about 30 yards square, with a clay bottom covered with mud; the depth of the water was from three to four feet, and the pond supplied with a running stream ; when first caught they measured from the tip of the nose to the tip of the tail four inches: about twelve months afterwards, the pond was overflowed, when some of the fish, together with some trout, were left dry; they now measured in length eight inches, and assumed the shape and appearance of a lean salmon. If, therefore, the young salmon will live for twelve months in a space of thirty yards square, and three feet deep, and increase in size, the presumption is, that in water where it may range at large, and procure that food and situation which are most congenial to its habits, it would attain its usual size. In propagating this fish in fresh water, the greatest facility presents itself by trans- porting its ova or spawn, which is readily discovered in places frequented by salmon, to the places intended for its propagation, choosing as nearly as possible the same situation as that from which it has been removed. The Chinese far exceed even the ancient Romans in the care they bestow upon the propagation of the finny tribe. At certain seasons of the year, they carefully collect all the ova as fast as it is deposited by the fishes to prevent its being devoured by the other tribes; they then procure some eggs, and after making a hole in each end, and blowing the inside of it through, the ova is introduced ; and the ends being closed, the egg is placed in an oven of a certain temperature until the young fry nearly make their appearance, when the shell is broken, and the contents put ito water warmed by the sun’s rays. When the young brood procured by this means attain a certain size, a portion of it is applied for the purposes of food for the larger species of fish, and the remainder is destined for the table. Your obedient servant, N. Miu. 1825.] Rev. Mr. Emmett on the Solar Spots. 381 ArticLe VIII. Onthe Solar Spots. By the Rev. J. B. Emmett. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Great Ouseburn, March 20, 1825, I seNp a few remarks and observations on the solar spots, which may, perhaps, not be uninteresting to your readers. In common with the generality of astronomers, I supposed the solar spots, which are carried round by the rotation of the sun with tolerable uniformity, to be visible and invisible for equal intervals of time: being a convert to the hypothesis of the late Sir W. Herschell, no doubt seemed to remain, since the equality of the periods follows of necessity. In the notes to the third volume of the Jesuit’s edition of Sir Isaac Newton’s Principia, the observations of Stannyan and Cassini are quoted, proving that the time during which the spots are visible, is twelve days, and that they are invisible 15; the learned commentators observe that of all the observations which they have seen, none prove that a spot has remained in view more than twelve days, or returned before the 15th. Kirchius observed one from April 26 to July 17, 1681; it was twelve days visible, and fifteen invisible. This observation is recorded in Chamber’s Enclyclopedia, the author of which work assumes this period as well known, and received generally by astronomers. In the Phil. Trans. 1704, the observations of Stannyan in 1703 are quoted ; a spot which he observed for some days, was visible in the morning of May 23 (civil time), again at, and after noon, but then upon the edge of the disc; but at 3” it had entirely vanished ; it was upon the edge June 7‘ 3°; again it was on the limb, and disappeared June 194 2". Now from May 23, 3" afternoon, to June 74, 3 afternoon, is precisely 15 days; also from June 74, 3" afternoon, to June 19¢, 2", is 114 23". In the Phil. Trans. 1767 (when telescopes had received great improvement), the Rev. S. (late Bishop) Horsley, from these phenomena, calculates the altitude of that part of the solar atmosphere which the spots occupy ; the commentators of Newton instituted a similar problem; Mr. Horsley takes it for granted that the spots are visible for 12 days, and disappear during 15; whence it follows that the sun’s radius being |, the spots are at the distance 1,013767 from his center. Yet all more modern astronomers assume that the spots are concealed behind the disc, and appear upon it during the same interval of time. Besides the observations quoted, I might have advanced many others ; yet I cannot find any which show the return of a spot before the fifteenth day, or continue it on the disc more than twelve. Some may reply that the early observations may be erroneous 382 Rev. Mr. Emmett on the Solar Spots. [May, in consequence of the imperfection of the telescope, before the reflecting and achromatic ones were invented : however, we must bear in mind that Cassini, and some others quoted, were good observers ; their telescopes showed the division ‘of Saturn’s ring —his belts—the spots on Jupiter, and shadow of his satellites— the spots of Venus and of Mars, as well as many other of the most delicate objects, some of which, as the spots of Venus, are not easily seen, even with our improved instruments ; besides, the telescopes then in use could trace a spot to the very edge of the sun’s disc; than which more cannot be desired, especially since they showed the entire structure of the spots, which requires distinctness of vision. Also I have lately constructed two aerial telescopes, precisely such as were formerly used ; one has an aperture 1°7 inch, and focus 18 feet; the other an aper- ture 3 inches nearly, and focus near 50 feet: the former has powers of 35 and 70; the latter 95 and 190; in distinctness they are very nearly, if not quite equal, to an excellent Newto- nian reflector of six inches aperture, which shows the quintuple belt and double ring of Saturn, with a power of 800, and showed the spots of Venus, Feb. 21, of the present year, with powers 120,200,400. The shape of the nuclei and structure of the umbre of the solar spots are beautifully seen with all the instruments: indeed from observation I am certain, that the long focal lengths of the telescopes whose object- glass is a single convex lens, gives them an advantage of no small magnitude over every other instrument in certain cases. As I shall trouble you with some observations made with these instruments, when those I shall have had opportunity to make are sufficiently nu- merous, I shall dismiss the subject for the present, assuring those who will make trial of a good plano-convex lens of crown glass, of from 20 to 50 feet focal length, that they will find, under judi- cious management, a distinctness of vision possessed by few instruments. These remarks I have been induced to make, to prove that I am convinced from actual and long continued observations, that this extraordinary phenomenon is not to be ascribed to imper- fection of the instruments; nor can it be attributed to any want of care, for perhaps a more indefatigable and careful observer than Cassini never lived; and besides it is not a little remarka- ble, that until very recently the two periods were not considered to be equal, but were believed to be 12 and 15 days; yet no journal, nor observations that I have seen, have been advanced in support of the recently received opinion. Accordingly I have instituted a series of observations; but not having yet made a sufficient number to enable me to discover to what extent the period may appear to vary in consequence of the proper motion of the spots, [ do not propose them as infallibly decisive; I wish to make them public rather for the sake of inducing other —_— 1$25.] Rev. Mr, Emmett on the Solar Spots. 383 astronomers to examine the phenomena. In the observations, I have received much assistance from my triend Dr. Wasse, who is a very good and careful observer. A small spot disappeared between the 8th and 9th of Decem- ber last, atthe western limb; on the 9th, 1", there was no trace of it, nor of the fecule, which I had constantly seen about it. On the 24th, 1" 45’, there was no trace of the same spot on the east limb; but on the 29th, the intermediate days being cloudy, it had advanced nearly half way over the disc. By this obser- vation, the precise time is not ascertained ; yet it follows from it, that the spot was invisible, at least 15 days. Feb. 4, 1825.—I discovered a cluster of spots: on the 12th, 1* 30’, the most easterly spot was very near the edge of the sun’s disc ; its breadth was extremely narrow ; it was observed witha Newtonian reflector of six inches aperture, with powers of 70 and 120, until about 5", when it was not more than its own breadth from the edge of the disc, which certainly was not 4” of a great circle. Now the apparent diurnal motion of a spot is 13°—20’ at a mean rate ; hence the v sine of the arc described by a spot in 24 hours, being on the edge of the disc at the beginning or end of the time, is 25”,8816; from which data I conclude, that the spot must have disappeared about Feb. 12*, 10" astronomical time. On the following morning there was no trace of it; therefore, the computed time of its disappearing cannot be far wrong. Feb. 28°, 11", Dr. Wasse observed the same spot, with an achromatic by Dollond, of three inches aper- ture, and power about 150. The nucleus, or black spot, had just entered, and the eastern part of the umbra was coincident with the limb: its magnitude was certainly not 4”; hence it cannot have been on the disc above five or six hours; but I will suppose 12"; upon this hypothesis, it cannot have appeared before 274, 13 30’, which leaves 15% 3" 30’ for the time it remained invisible. The observations cannot be minutely accu- rate, because the spot came into view, and disappeared in the night ; but calculating from the number of observations which I have made upon the solar spots, during several years, I am cer- tain the error cannot exceed five or six hours. I have not employed a micrometer in calculating the short intervals of time during which the spots could not be observed, because since the extent of the radius of the path which the spots describe is not known, such measures cannot be used without involving hypothetical views ; the only certain plan is to observe the spots when just upon the very edge of the disc, which may be done during the long days in the summer, and it is on this account that I wish to call the attention of astronomers to the subject, as early as possible. Had the time, which I calculate to be 15 days, been but half the sun’s period, the difference would be 384 Rev. Mr. Emmett on the Solar Spots. [May, 1¢ 15" 30", a quantity far too great to be considered an error of observation. aidaial The same spot disappeared 124 2; and having come into view Feb. 274 13" 30”, leaves 124 8" 30™ for the time they were visible. Whether this be the true period, or the spots have a proper motion of their own, subject to no known regular laws, which sometimes lengthens the time they are invisible (but then it ought as often to increase the time during which they are in view) must be determined by observing them when upon the very edge of the disc; and this will rarely be observed at the entrance and exit of the same spot. Should the period which I have deduced be proved to be the true one, Sir W. Herschell’s hypothesis cannot-be supported ; for the luminous stratum forms’ what is called the sun’s disc: below this are the opaque clouds, and below these the dark globe; therefore, the nucleus ought first to disappear, which is not the case. It certainly may be seen when the umbra becomes invisible by reason of its proximity to the edge of the solar disc: indeed in 1818 I traced a spot which was surrounded with a fine umbra to the very edge; when there was a fine line of light beyond the spot, both the nucleus and‘ umbra were very distinct ; about half the nucleus projected beyond the umbra towards the sun’s center. According to his hypothesis, the nucleus should disappear first, and even before it comes very near the limb, which is contrary to observation ; then the umbra should disappear upon the limb, and return after 131 days. His hypothesis does not explain the reason why the margin of the umbra is darker than the interior, nor the clouded mottled form which large umbre commonly assume. I do not presume to produce any hypothesis; their structure is very remarkable, and totally dissimilar to that of any objects . with which we are acquainted. When viewed with a telescope of sufficient power and great distinctness, their form presents many inexplicable phenomena ; they are best seen with a large aperture, and power of from 70 to 200. Two pieces of plate glass, each smoked on one side, glazed with the smoked sides towards each other, interposing a margin of card paper to pre- vent their touching, is a preferable screen to any of the coloured elasses ; and if made sufficiently large, the glass is not liable to be split by the heat, an accident to which | have always found coloured glass fixed into a brass ring so liable, that I can rarely use such a glass more than two or three times, allowing a suffi- cient aperture to the telescope. The mottled appearance of the solar disc, first particularly noticed by Sir W. Herschell, may be constantly seen with a considerable aperture, if the telescope be very distinct ; if a screen of very white paper be placed where the focal image is formed by a good lens of about 50 feet ——_ 1825.] Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. 385 focus, which focus is above four inches in diameter, as I judge by the eye, the whole surface is seen to be covered with ridges of different degrees of brilliancy ; indeed I have never seen it so conspicuously as in this manner. I remain, Gentlemen, yours very sincerely, J. B. Emmerr. P. 8. In my last paper on the Mathematical Principles of Chemistry, I have made calculations on the supposition that gravity in the ultimate particles of matter is proportional to the density and volume jointly. In making the selection of matter, I omitted a problem which ought to have been at the commence- ment, viz. that in this case, cohesion, and all corpuscular forces, may be produced; this follows as a corollary from the ordi- nary problem in every treatise on Fluxions, ‘ To find the attrac- tion of a corpuscle to a right line,” or from Prop. 90, of Newton’s Princip. yol.i.; by substituting an evanescent or elementary prism: then the force becomes infinite in contact, and indefi- nitely great, at indefinitely small distances. The corollary admits of two cases ; first, where the force acts in the direction of the prism; secondly, where perpendicularly to it—J. B. E. ARTICLE IX. Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. : ROYAL SOCIETY. April \4.—M. Gay-Lussac was admitted a Foreign Member, and Henry Harvey, Esq. a Fellow of the Society. The reading was commenced of a paper, entitled, “‘ A Mono- graph on Egyptian Mummies, with Observations on the Art of Embalming among the ancient Egyptians; by A. B. Granville, MD.FRS. ay 21.—The reading of Dr. Granville’s paper was conti- vued, ; LINNEAN SOCIETY. March \,—The readings of Dr. Hamilton’s Commentary on the third part of the Hortus Malabaricus, and Messrs. Shep- hard’s and Whitear’s Catalogue of Norfolk and Suffolk Birds, were continued ; and on March 1, the reading of the atter communication was further continued, ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. April 8.—A paper was read, “On the Results of Computa- tions on Astronomical Observations made at Paramatta, in New New Series, VOL. 1X. 2¢ 386 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. (Mat, South Wales, under the direction of Sir Thomas Brisbane, KCB. ; and the application thereof to investigate the exactness of observations made in the northern hemisphere. By the Rev: John Brinkley, DD. FRS.” Anxious to throw some new light on the subject of the discordance between the north polar dis- tances of the principal fixed stars, as determined by Continental and English astronomers, Dr.-Brinkley wrote to Sir Thomas Brisbane, to request his Excellency to make some observations at Paramatta. Sir Thomas immediately commenced the import- ant labour; and on a series of three months’ observations, from November, 1823, to February, 1824, communicated to this So-: ciety as well as to Dr. Brinkley, the Doctor has founded the computations and comparisons which are communicated in this paper. The sum of the polar distances of a star observed in the two hemispheres ought to be exactly 180°, if both are correctly observed. Also, on the hypothesis that the mean refraction 1s the same in both hemispheres, we have an opportunity of ascer- taining the united effects of refraction, instead of the difference between the refraction of a star near the pole and of a circum- polar star remote therefrom. = In regard to the distance between the north and south poles, by combining Dr. Brinkley’s observations with those of Sir Thomas Brisbane, the result is that the mean of 141 south polar distances deduced from 141 of his observations, and applied to Dr. Brinkley’s north polar distances = 179° 59’ 58”,92 or 1”,08 in defect. Dr. Brinkley’s refractions were applied to the south- erm observations, using the znfertor thermometer. The same mean, obtained by using Mr. Bessel’s north polar distances. and computing by Mr. Bessel’s refractions (Astron. Fundam.), using the exterior thermometer, is 180° 0’ 1,72 or 1,72 in excess. 1°. Among the observations are some by reflection. These afford us the means of determining the zenith point, and thence the distance between the zenith and polar points, or the co- latitude. Co-latitude by Canopus 56° 11’ 87,63 Sirius 9 ,16 Fomathaut 9 ,95 Mean = 56 11 9 ,25 Latitude = 33 48 S50 ,75 9° he results of observations on both the solstices of 1822 appear to show the latitude of Paramatta = 33° 48’ 42”,— (No. 37, Der Ast. Nachrichten.) The observations of the Dec. solstice of 1821 give the mean zenith distance of the solstial point, Jan. 1, 1822,=— 10° 21% 2’;23. (Ne, 20, Der Ast. Nach.) . 1825.) Geological Society. 387 The mean obliquity of the ecliptic, taking the mean obliq. of Jan. 1, 1816, = 23° 27’ 497,21 =25 27 47,06 and secular diminution = 43’. ....++++ee++ el Latitude 33 48 49,29 If we use Mr. Bessel’s obliquity = 93° 07’ 45”,66, the lati- tude will be = 33° 48’ 47”,89. The result of all the observations shows that Dr. Brinkley’s constant of refraction (57,72) is as exact as can be desired, when the refractions are computed by the infernal thermometer ; also that, when computed by the eaternal thermometer, Mr. Bessel’s refractions require no correction worth notice. A communication was also read from Colonel Beaufoy, in- closing a series of observations of Jupiter’s satellites, at Bushey Heath, near Stanmore, between April, 1816, and December, 1824; and another series of observations of solar and lunar eclipses, and occultations of stars by the Moon, occurring in the same interval of time, from 1816 to 1824 inclusive. ‘The eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites are so recorded as to show the. mean time at Bushey, mean time at Greenwich, and then the same as exhibited in the Nautical Almanac. The discrepances between the results of observation and the Nautical Almanac are in some cases very considerable. Even with regard to the first satellite, the differences sometimes exceed a minute and a half in time; and with regard to the other satellites, the differences exceed 2, 3, 4, and in one case (July 15, 1818), seven minutes of time. In this case the discrepance is the same with respect to the. Connaissance des Tems. The others the reporter has not had leisure to compare. The reading of Mr. Atkinson’s paper on refraction was also resumed and continued. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Jan. 21.—A paper was read, entitled, ‘‘ On the Freshwater Formations recently discovered in the Environs of Sete (Cette), at a short Distance from the Mediterranean, and below the Level of that Sea;” by M. Marcel de Serres, Prof. of Min. and Geol. to the Faculty of Sciences of Montpellier. The freshwater formations described in this communication have been examined by means of several wells sunk at about the distance of about three-fourths of a mile, and a mile and a half from the Mediterranean, near Sete, in the south of France. A detailed account is given of the several strata passed through in the three different wells, and of the organic remains which they contained. The strata are for the most part parallel, and nearly horizontal. From the sections it appears, there are two freshwater forma- gem 388 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [May, tions with an intervening formation of marine origin. The strata of the upper freshwater were found to vary from about 30 to 40 feet in thickness, those of the lower from 13 to 28 feet, the latter being sometimes lower than the present level of the Mediterra- nean. The marine beds which are interposed are from 10 to 11 feet — thick. The, freshwater strata are composed of numerous alternating calcareous and argillaceous marls, and compact limestones ; and their organic remains consist of a few bones of land quadrupeds much decayed, a variety of freshwater and terrestrial shells, the latter in the greatest abundance; the shells differing in species but not in genera from the present inhabitants of the same country ; and lastly, some traces of vegetables, chiefly reeds. The marine formations contain ostree, cerithee, &c. A com- plete list is added of the organic remains; and from the state of preservation in which the freshwater shells are found, M. Marcel de Serres infers that they lived and were deposited where they are now found ; and from the resemblance of those occurring in the upper and lower freshwater beds, he concludes that the periods at which these two formations were deposited were not very remote from each other. The author considers all these formations to be more recent than the calcaire grossiere, and ascribes the alternations of marine and freshwater strata to a return of the sea, such a sup- position being rendered the more probable by the neighbourhood of the Mediterranean, where similar returns are still known to take place. Feb. 4.—This day being the Anniversary of the Society, the following gentlemen were chosen as the Officers and Council for the year ensuing. Presxdent.—Rev. W. Buckland, FRS. Prof. Geol. and Min. Oxford. Vice-Presidents.—Sir A. Crichton, MD. FR. and LS. Hon. Memb. Imp. Acad. St. Petersburgh; W. H. Fitton, MD. FRS. ; C. Stokes, Esq. FRA. and LS.; and H. Warburton, Esq. FRS. Secretaries.—C. Lyell, Esq. FLS.; G. P. Scrope, Esq.; T. Webster, Esq. Foreign Secreiary.—H., Heuland, Esq. Treasurer.—J. Taylor, Esq. Council.—Hon. H. G. Bennet, MP. FRS. and HS.; R. Bright, MD. FRS.; Sir H. Bunbury, Bart.; H. Burton, Esq. ; , Clift, Esq. FRS.; H. T. Colebrooke, Esq. FRSL. and E, FL. and Asiat. S.; G. B. Greenough, Esq. FR. and LS.; T. Hors- field, MD. FLS.; G. Mantell, Esq. FLS.; Hugh Duke of Nor- thumberland, KG. FHS.; W. H. Pepys, Esq. FRS. LS. and HS. ; and J. Vetch, MD. 1825.] Scientific Notices—Chemistry. 389 ARTICLE X. SCIENTIFIC NOTICES. CHEMISTRY. 1. Cold produced by the Combination of Metals. The elevation of temperature and even brilliant ignition which take place at the instant of the combination of certain metals, as of potassium or sodium with mercury, of tin or zinc with platinum, &c. have been long familiarly known; but chemists were not, we believe, acquainted with the existence of any analogous instances, in which the combination of metals is followed by the production of cold. Sir H. Davy, indeed, ascertained that the solid amalgams of bismuth and of lead become fluid upon being mixed ; but he does not appear to have examined whether or not any depression of temperature: results from this sudden liquefaction. Some curious examples of this latter description have been lately noticed by Dobereiner. According to him, the fusible metal is a compound of 1 atom of lead (=103°5), 1 atom of tin (= 59), and 2 atoms of bismuth (= 2 +71); or it consists of 1 atom of the atomic combination of bismuth and lead, united to 1 atom of the atomic combina- tion of bismuth and tin (Bi Pb + Bi Sn); and it becomes fluid when exposed to a temperature of 210°. The melting points of these alloys of bismuth and lead and of bismuth and tin in a separate state, are respectively between 325° and 335°, and between 268° and 280°. If 118 grains of filings of tin, 207 grains of filings of lead, and 284 grains of puiverised bismuth (the constitutents of fusible metal), be incorporated in a dish of calendered paper with 1616 grains of mercury, the temperature instantly sinks from 65° to 14°. He is of opinion that it Would even fall so low as the freezing point of mercury, were this experiment performed in temperatures somewhat under 32°. n like manner, when 816 grains of the amalgam of lead (composed of 404 mercury + 412 lead = Pb Hg), were mixed, in a temperature of 68° with 688 grains of the amalgam of bismuth (composed of 404 mercury + 284 bismuth = Bi Hg), the temperature suddenly fell to 30°, and by. the addition of 808 grains of mercury (also at 68°), it became so low as 17°: the total depression amounting to no less than 51 degrees.— (Schweigger’s Neues Journal der Chemie und Physik, xi. 182.) Nothing can be a more decisive proof that metallic alloys are true chemical combinations, than the foregoing experiments of Dobereiner; and it is to be regretted, therefore, that our 390 Scientific Notices—Chemistry. [May, nomenclature in its present state scarcely affords a concise, and, at the same time, a definite appellation for this class of com- pounds. The German chemists express them without difficulty, and on precisely the same principles by which they express the compounds of metals with sulphur, &c. We have already no hesitation in employing the terms seleniuret, arseniuret, &c. Might we not extend the usage somewhat further, and designate metallic alloys in general by the termination wret : thus, potas- siuret, plumburet, stannuret, &Xc. ? 2. Conversion of Gallic Acid into Ulnin by Oxygen Gas. According to Doberemer, when a solution of gallie acid in liquid ammonia is placed in contact with oxygen gas, it gra- dually absorbs as much of the latter as is requisite to convert the whole of its hydrogen into water. 100 parts of the acid absorb 38:09 parts of oxygen. In the ordinary atmospheric temperatures, the absorption is complete at the end of from 18 to 24 hours. While this change is gomg on, the solution becomes intensely brown coloured and opaque, and on the addi- tion of muriatic acid, it lets fall a a pale brown coloured flocculent substance, which possesses all the characters of Ulmin. From this experiment Dobereiner considers it probable that ulmin con- sists of an atom of oxide of carbon (= 12 carbon + 8 oxygen) in combination with an atom of water (= 1 hydrogen + 8 oxy- gen): it is certain, at least, that if the details of the experiment be accurate, the constituents of the gallic acid (according to Berzelius’s analysis) taken in conjunction with the absorbed oxygen, are resolvable into this simple ratio of atoms. Gallic acid prepared by Scheele’s process, even after having been crystallized from absolute alcohol, absorbs considerably less oxygen than the sublimed acid, and it appears, therefore, to be still contaminated with tannin, or with some other foreign admixture.—(Pneumatische Chemie, Vierter Theil.) 3. Formic Acid.— Formic Ether. Formic acid may be easily analyzed by mixing it either uncom- bined, or in the state of a neutral salt, with from 6 to 10 times its weight of concentrated sulphuric acid : it is instantly resolved with effervescence into 24:30 parts of water, and 75°70 parts of carbonic oxide gas. Hence it may be regarded as constituted of 1 volume of the vapour of water + 2 volumes of carbonic oxide gas. This sup- position is strengthened by the facility with which it is converted into carbonic acid and water by the action of the oxides of silver and of mercury. When formic ether stands in contact with water, it is gradually decomposed into formic acid and alcohol: during the decompo- 1825.] Scientific Notices—Mineralogy. 39f sition, no elastic fluid is either absorbed or disengaged. To ascertain the proportion. of formic acid which is set at hberty during the decomposition of a given quantity of the ether, four grains (previously rectified by distillation of chloride of calcium) were let up into a solution of bicarbonate of potash standing in a glass tube over mercury. The disengagement of gas commenced after a few minutes, and lasted for about three days: it was most copious. when the. light of the sun was strongest. The gas evolved measured 3-893 (German) cubic inches, = 2103 grains.. This is equivalent to 1:768 gr. of formic acid. Now the atomic weight of formic acid is 37, and that of alcohol. is 46; and 1-768 : 2:282 (4 — 1:768) :: 37 :46°8. Consequently formic ether may be regarded as constituted of an atom of formic acid in combination with an atom of alcohol. Formic ether does not become acid in alcohol slightly diluted with water, and behaves, therefore, in an analogous manner with many. of the compounds of chlorine with the acid metals (tellurium, arsenic, antimony, &c.) which are dissolved by alco- hol without undergoing any alteration, but are decomposed into aaa acid and metallic oxides when mixed with water.— (Ibid.) - MINERALOGY. 4. Table of the Specific Gravities of several Minerals. The specific gravities of the following substances, which are disposed nearly in the order of the system of Prof. Mohs, were taken by William Haidinger, Esq. F SE. Orper I.—HALoIDE. 1. Gypsum, a perfectly. white transparent crystal from Onsforeditesl 254 tt 2d 0 eal of 2 by He SOLD eale n Sihed ds 2-310 2, Anhydrite, a rectangular four-sided prism, obtained by cleavage, grey, semitransparent, from Hall, Tyrol .. 2°899 3. Alumstone, the crystallised variety on the surface ex- posed in the drusy cavities, from Polfa y dese ace oink. Rema . Ankerite, in granular compositions consisting ofsmall individuals of a grey colour, from the laiding MOU. Stiria.-... slip kts oebss Seat eS 3°0 . Ankerite, a greyish white granular variety, from the valley of Rotz, in Stiria .............. at deh eta aa . Ankerite, large cleavable masses, of a cream yellow colour, from Golrath, Stiria. ....... J TGRPER I 2°931 2715 2-721 2:721 2°727 2-731 2508 2°842 2°861 2-870 084 089 1825.] Scientific Notices—Mineralogy. 31.* Breunnerite, 2 clove brown, perfectly cleavable variety, forming. imbedded crystals, from the Tyrol. scccse cece cence seesences 32. Wavellite, globular shapes of a dirty asparagus gree colour, from Barnstaple, Devonshire. ........++ 2 OrpeEr II.—BaryTE. ‘1. Red manganese, a massive variety, compound parallel to the planes of R—o, like slate spar, from Bes- chertgliick mine, near Frieburg......++++++ oui. 3 . Sparry iron, crystals from the Pfaffenbergmine, near ac) . Prismatic zinc baryte, yellowish white, semitranspa- rent crystals, from Rossegg, Carinthia ........-. 3° 3 4. Rhombohedral zinc baryte, honey yellow crystals, in the shape of rough six-sided pyramids, from Alten- berg, near Aix-la-Chapelle ....++++e+sessereees 4: . Tungsten, a fragment of a yellowish white translu- cent crystal, from Schlaggenwald, Bohemia. .... 6° . Strontianite, delicate white crystals, aggregated to globular groupes, from Braunsdorf, Saxony i 5 6 7. Celestine, fragment of a cleavable white translucent 8 9 mass, engaged in trap, from the Tyrolic i ose tees. 3 . Witherite, a cleavable variety ; yellowish white, and semitransparent, from Anglesark, Lancashire .... 4 . Heavy spar, very thin tabular bluish white semitran- sparent crystal, of the form primitive of Haiiy, from Harzgerode, in the Hartz. .....++- essere eeeees 3° 393 dan cioete cures SOGE Kremnitz, Hungary . ..6+-. sees ee ee ee eees wee. 4412 10. Heavy spar, a number of small transparent columnar crystals, of a white colour, from the Hartz ...... 4415 11. Heavy. spar, cleavable, very pale yellowish grey, and translucent, from Marienberg, Saxony ...... coos 4415 12. Heavy spar, the variety called prismatic heavy spar by Werner, pale yellow, transparent crystals, very perfectly formed, and imbedded in a large translu- cent crystal of straight lamellar heavy spar...... 4426 13. Heavy spar, prisms obtained by cleavage, white, and semitransparent. ...eseeeee eee sere rece recees 4-430 14. Heavy spar, yellowish translucent crystals, from Kremnitz ...... eS SE Le eh ek 4°430 15. Heavy spar, similar crystals from Beschertgliick, Fiteberg. sic. ccc ce cece dee cease ecee ee coms 4-445 16. Heavy spar, white, semitransparent crystals, from Beschertgliick ...... 0 eee eee ee cree ener ceeees 446 * This is the brachytypous lime-haloide of Mohs, the carbonate of iron and manga- nese of Brooke. 394 Scientific Notices—Muineralogy. [May, 17. Heavy spar, small blue transparent tabular crystals, from Offenbanya, Transylvania ........... wewee 4473 18. Heavy spar, a white transparent crystal, from Dufton, Westmoreland ......... 60. seeeseeeceeees . 4480 19. Heavy spar, in white faintly translucent columnar compositions, commonly called columnar heavy spar, from the abandoned mine of Lorenz Gegent- mica, -F hebertiis.s. cid isi. 9 sweeney ee .« 4488 20. Heavy spar, a single columnar crystal, pale smoke grey, translucent, from Hiskow, near Nissburg, Bohemia, where it oceurs with copper pyrites, | blende, and calcareous spar, in a kind of septaria. 4-493 21. Heavy spar, pale yellow transparent columnar crystals, from Przibram, Bohemia. .....+.6+-.+.6- taes 4210 22. Heavy spar, prisms obtained by cleavage from wax yellow, translucent, tabular crystals, from Bleiberg, Carinthia... «cians any SUMMiedhenids awe eae 4:679 20. Di-prismatic lead baryte (carbonate of lead) columnar ; compositions, perfectly white, almost opaque, from the} Harte s(::i2. tialevis haw. edeaileds aaa 6°339 24. Di-prismatic lead baryte, similar composition, but of a yellowish colour, superficially almost brown, from. the Hartz.) aii. axe. caale is beet pengeeen 6°417 25. Di-prismatic lead baryte, greyish white, easily cleay- ' able crystals, from Bleiberg, Carinthia ........+. 6°461 26. Di-prismatic lead baryte, fragmentof a white strongly — | , translucent crystal, from Leadhills,..........45 6465 27. Rhombohedral lead baryte (phosphate of lead), a single green crystal, from Zschopau, Saxony. .... 7°098 28. Arseniate of lead, bright yellow crystals, from Johann- georgenstadt, ‘Saxony . ACSY «1G Mantoega iG T7212 29. Hemi-prismatic lead baryte (chromate of lead), peneral isolated crystals from Siberia . ........ 00.0000 6-004 30. Pyramidal lead baryte (molybdate of lead), longish deep wax yellow crystals, from Bleiberg, Carin- thias.. shades ealiousas atiyeedus te aa eeenabeins 6698 31. Pyramidal lead baryte, fragments of an orange yellow, | perfect crystal, from Annaberg, Austria. ... . 6760 32. Prismatic lead baryte (sulphate of lead), broad, deeply striated crystals, of a white colour, and faint translucency, from Leadhills.........+.... « 6-228 33. Prismatic lead baryte, a white translucent tabular crystal, from Leadhills...... Pe ee 6:298 35. Prismatic lead baryte, fragments of a large semi- transparent crystal, from Lendhills /...0« setadeste 6°309 36. Axotomous lead baryte (sulphato-tri-carbonate | GE uk lead), the acute crystals commonly called rhom- 1825.] Scientific Notices—Mineralogy. 37. 38. ie) SIO 10, bohedrons, of a dark yellowish grey colour, and translucent, from Leadhills........ 0.022. 0000 ee Axotomous lead baryte, the six-sided lamine, of a pale yellowish white colour, semitransparent, from Meats! | PS SSS aa sen ae ce ot SOMA Kast White antimony, transparent crystals, about 1’” in diameter, yellowish white, from Bratinsdorf, Sax- wietarih fiw. 8 Sitabeahiiats de wee ieee ee rir aH Orpver IJI.—Kerare. . Horn-ore, a very pure, greyish white, translucent variety, compounded of granular individuals, from Perey set Pes ser: See). Senn os Orper IV.—MALAcuitTeE. . Copper green, massive, fracture conchoidal; colour, dark verdigris green, translucent, from Siberia. .. - Copper green, thin botryoidal coats upon compact brown iron ore, pale green, faintly translucent, Weare ty, er hcsetiiys : hee daa Seer. oS . Prismatic lirocone malachite (lenticular copper) sky- blue crystals, from Cornwall . Prismatic azure malachite (blue carbonate of copper), fragments of very pure crystals, from Chessy. .... . Malachite, a cleavable dark green variety, from Chess . Malachite, a fibrous dark green variety, from Siberia . Malachite, perfectly compact, of a pale green colour, opaque, from Schwatz,; Tyrolisseseser cere. oe. Prismatic habroneme malachite (phosphate of copper), dark green crystalline coat, from Rheinbreitbach, Gir PaO eS". SP Sek EL cate ee oak ae . The radiated acicular olivenite of Jameson, oblique prismatic arseniate of Phillips, globular shapes of a dark blue colour, a little greenish, translucent. . Scorodite, pale green, semitransparent crystals, from Stamm Asser am Graul, Saxony. ........eeeeee Orver V.—Mica. . Vivianite (phosphate of iron), fragments of transpar- ent crystals from St. Agnes, Cornwall ..... & wide . Cobalt-bloom (arseniate of cobalt), red acicular crys- tals, perfectly cleavable, from Schneeberg, Saxony . Cobalt-bloom, showing red and green colours in the same crystals, from Gotthold-Stolln, near Platten, Bohemia Ce ee J . Tale, apple green lamine, from the Greiner mountain MD SAIZDOIE Coes cccsscecerccececcses a a A 395 6:266 6-364 5566 4-206 4-192 3:162 2-661 2-946 3°033 2744 396 Scientific Notices— Mineralogy. [May, 5. Chlorite, loose scaly particles of a dark green colour, earthy chlorite of Werte Up aitks d'ste eee see 2706 6. Chlorite, massive, composed of large granular indivi- duals, dark green, from the Rothen Kopf moun- tain in Salzburg. ...... en wile eu dele ein sieht . 2713 7. Chlorite, of the same kind, only the individuals Raallet Wa. & Sete ST PRR RY Ue tata jh. 2729 8. Chlorite, a similar variety, consisting of still smaller MMUTviaudlse VON span: s Gees con sae 6 site a eee 2:731 9. Chlorite in large lamine, and most perfectly cleava- ble, more translucent, from the same locality.... 2°775 16. Chlorite, liver brown rhombic prisms, imbedded in compact green chlorite, from the same locality. .. 2°781 11. Chlorite, composition almost impalpable, and fracture slaty, of a dark mountain green coloursoeee. 28". 2°799 This variety contains minute crystals of rutile. 12. Green earth, a compact, celandine green variety, from Monte Baldo, near Verona. ........ Pee 2°834 On account of the difficulty of obtaining it free from mechanical admixtures, this specific gravity is, perhaps, not quite exact. 13. Mica, perfectly cleavable individuals, engaged in granite, showing iridescent fissures parallel to the lamine, colour oil green perpendicular to the axis, more brown parallel to it, from the Schwamberg Alps in Stirla. ....... aie hts A tes ah we A vrei ia 2°883 It has two axes of double refraction, like the _ white mica from Siberia. 14. Mica, perfectly black, in a granular composition, exhibiting a tendency to slaty structure, from the district of Pinzgan, in Salzburg... .........2.08 2-911 15. Mica, silver white crystals, from Zinnwald, Saxony .. 2-945 16. Mica, greenish black, in large perfectly cleavable TAT CIGUAIS WOUDETIA, @i,5 2 vals ls Je, = aSie ees waned dp, ota eae 2-949 17. Lepidolite, peach blossom red, compound of granular individuals, from Rosena, Moravia ...........-- 2°831 18. Another specimen of the same. .....e.-seeeeeeees 2°833 19. Pearl mica, perfectly cleavable, reddish white crystals 3-022 20. Hydrate of magnesia, white lamine, perfectly cleava- ble and translucent, from Unst ..........02 008 2°350 (Edinburgh Journal of Science.) 1825.) New Scientific Books. 397 ArticLe XI. NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION, Dr. Olinthus Gregory has in the press a work on Pure and Mixed Mathematics, with their Practical Applications, intended especially for the Use of Mechanics and Civil Engineers. In 1 volume, 8vo. iJlustrated with numerous Diagrams and Wood-cuts. JUST PUBLISHED. On the Safety Lamp, for preventing Explosions in Mines, Houses, &c. By Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. Pres. Royal Society. With Ad- ditions. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Forsyth’s Medical Pocket Book. 6s. Keating’s Travels to St. Peter’s River, &c. 11. 8s. An Attempt to establish the First Principles of Chemistry by Expe- riment. By T. Thomson, MD. &c. 2 vols. 8vo. 1/. 10s. Nicholson's Operative Mechanic. 100 Plates. 8vo. 1/. 10s. ArTICLE XII. NEW PATENTS. Chevalier Joseph de Mettemberg, Foley-place, Mary-le-bone, phy- sician, for a vegetable mercurial and spirituous preparation called Quintessence Aulepsorique, and also a particular method of employing the same by absorption as.a specific and cosmetic.—Feb. 26. J. Masterman, Old Broad-street, for an improved method of cork- ing bottles.—March 5. A. H. Chambers, and E. Chambers, Stratford-place, Mary-le-bone, and C. Jearrard, Adam-street, Manchester-square, for a new filtering apparatus.— March 5. W. Halley, Holland-street, Blackfriars-road, iron-founder and blowing-machine maker, for improvements in forges, and on bellows or apparatus to be used therewith or separate——March 5. R. Winch, Steward’s Buildings, Battersea Fields, engineer, for im- provements in rotary pumps for raising water, &c.—March 5. W. H. James, Cobourg-place, Winson Green, near Birmingham, engineer, for improvements on rail-ways, and carriages to be employed thereon.—March 5. W. Hirst and J. Wood, Leeds, for improvements in cleaning, milling, or fulling cloth.—March 5. J. L. Bond, Newman-street, Mary-le-bone, architect, and J. Turner, Well-street, Mary-le-bone, builder, for improvements in the construc- tion of windows, casements, folding sashes, and doors, by means of which the same are hung and hinged in a manner adapted more effec- tually to exclude rain and wind, and to afford a free circulation of air. —March 9. 398. ~~ New Patents. (May, T. Hancock, Goswel Mews, St. Luke’s, patent cork-manufacturer, for a new manufacture which may be used as a substitute for leather and otherwise—March 15. |. T. Hancock, Goswel Mews, for improvements in making ships’ bottoms, vessels and utensils of different descriptions and various ma- nufactures, and porous or fibrous substances, impervious to air and water, and for coating and protecting the furnaces of different metallic and other bodies.—March 15. T. Hancock, Goswel Mews, for improvements in the process of making or manufacturing ropes or cordage and other articles from hemp, flax, &c.—March 15. J. Colling, Lambeth, engineer, for improvements on springs and other apparatus used for closing doors.—March 15. Rk. B. Bate, Poultry, optician, for his improvement on the frames of eye-glasses—March 15. * H. Nunn, and G. Freeman, Blackfriars-road, Jace-manufacturers, for improvements in machinery for making that sort of lace commonly known by the name of bobbin net.—March 15, S. Brown, Saville-row, Middlesex, for his apparatus for giving motion to vessels employed in inland navigation—March 15. ~ J. Barlow, New Road, Middlesex, sugar-refiner, for his process for bleaching and clarifying and improving the quality and colour of sugars known by the name of bastard and piece sugars.—March 15. W. Grisinthwaite, King’s Place, Nottingham, for his improvement in air-engines.—March 15. R. Whitechurch and J. Whitechurch, Star-yard, Cary-street, Mid- dlesex, for an improvement on hinges for doors, &c. which will enable the doors, &c. to be opened on the right and left (changing the hinges), and with or without a rising hinge.—March 17. a M. Cosnahan, Isle of Man, for a new apparatus for ascertaining the way and leeway of ships, also applicable to other useful purposes.— March 17. R. Hicks, Conduit-street, surgeon, for an improved bath.—March 22. -F. Ronalds, Croydon, for a new tracing apparatus to facilitate the drawing from nature.—March 23. R. Wilty, Kingston-upon-Hull, civil engineer, for an improvement in the method of lighting by gas, by reducing the expense thereof.— March 25. J. Martin Hanchelt, Crescent-place, Blackfriars, and J. Delvalie, Whitecross-street, Middlesex, for an improvement in looms for mak- ing cloths, silks, and different kinds of woollen stuffs, of various breadths.— March 25. J. Manton, Hanover-square, gun-maker, for an improvement in shot. —March 25. J. G. Ulrich, Bucklersbury, London, chronometer-maker, for im- provements on chronometers.—March 25. A. Jennins and J. Belteridge, Birmingham, japanners, for improve- ments in the method of preparing and working pearl-shell into various forms and devices, for the purposes of applying it to ornamental uses in the manufacture of japan ware and of other articles. —March 29. 1825.) . © Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. 399° ARTICLE XIII. METEORQCLOGICAL TABLE. a Barometer, | THERMOMETER. \s 1825, | Wind. Max. Min. Max. | Min. | Evap.| Rain. 3d Mou. | March 1} W 29°92 | 20:39 45 34 — QIN Wi 29°60 | 29°56 48 32 = 48 3IN W! 29:80 | 29-60 45 39 aitt 2 4IN WI 30°39 29°80 42 28 — 5} N 30°43 30°33 42 30 — 6} Ss 30°33 29:89 AS 32 | — 7| SSE 30°39 20:89 47 Bait nity | SIN W)| 30°42 30°39 50 39 — 11 9S WI 30°42 30°41 50 45 —= — 10S W)| 30:41 50°32 53 48 — 10 1115S Wi 30:30 30:26 52 37 — 02 12] 'N 30°30 30°29 50 37: — — 13/5 WI 30°29 30°26 46 30 — — 14, E 30°33 30°26 38 29 _— 05 15; E 30°41 30°33 38 7 55 16] N 30°61 30°41 41 21 — —_ 17\S E| 30:70 30 61 40 25 — 18| ESE | 30°73 30°70 45 21 = 19) E 30°77 30°73 45 24, — 20IN E| 30°78 3071 53 26 — 21N E| 3071 30°49 54 36 — 22IN E| 30°49 30°34 40 34 _ 23) E 30°34 30°26 48 28 — 24IN EE} 30°26 30°04 52 30 — 25, E 30°16 30°04 52 34 = 26IN E) 30°23 30°16 50 32 43 27| E 30°23 30°22 | 58 30 — 28IN E| 30°22 30°18 52 35 = 29} E 30°18 30°14 48 38 — 301 E 30°43 30°14 48 34 — 31| E 30°61 3043 | 52 33 "32 30°78 29°36 58 21 38 76 The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, beginning at 9 A. M. on the day indicated in the first column. the result is included in the next following observation.’ A dash denotes that 400: Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. [May, 1825.. REMARKS. Third Month—\, Fine. 2. Fine day: rainy night. 3. Fine. 4. Some hail, p-m.: cold wind all day. 5, 6. Fine. 7. Cloudy. 8. Fine. 9. Cloudy. 10. Gloomy. 11. Rainy morning. 12. Cloudy. 13. Gloomy. 14. Some snow this morning. 15. Fine. 16. Some snow at intervals during the day. 17—2I. Fine. 22. Cloudy. 23—26. Fine. 27. Fine: a lunar corona at night. 28. White frost: cloudy. 29—31. Fine. ; RESULTS. i Winds: N,3; NE, 6; E,9; SE,3; 5,1; SW,4; W,1; NW, 4. Barometer: Mean height Par qe WOGE. ele + vreiaiereleln soe mini ses dase ses vais 6 004. SOs. SOHO For the lunar period, ending the IIth...... sevdis nvelne pongo For 13 days, ending the 4th (moon north) .......... 30°140 For 14 days, ending the 18th (moon south) ...... soos SOSTZ Thermometer: Mean height Bor the months «ccc sec aves 0cecie o\cesn sees owminain sin leeeeteem For the lunar period; ending the 11th. .scsecceecceane SITIA For 29 days, the sun in Pisces. .........-+e0+- ceeven A0ieas Evaporation .. 2.2.04. Rea veiae Sela ici aishsiaidelaiers eter eoc eve coccccee $90 i0, RAM snaidive ogcle sale epga pwelpedste's sais cep spo aaiale escccceses OT6 And by a second guage ......-. a Sincises es ia «inl Gaeta a ininisiin oS olaleiniess 9°80 Laboratory, Stratford, Fourth Month, 15, 1825. R. HOWARD. ANINALS PHILOSOPHY. JUNE, 1825. ; ArTICcLeE I. Additional Experiments and Remarks on Light and Heat. _ By Baden Powell, MA. FRS. _(1.) In my last communication I mentioned several experi- ments I had tried, by way of varying:the principal ones, on. which my conclusion relative to the existence of two distinct species of heat, in the emanation from luminous hot bodies, depended. I now beg leave to lay before the readers of the Annals one or two other experiments having the same object in view. These were made with a large differential thermometer having the bulbs differently coated, as hereafter expressed. It, was placed with the bulbs exactly in a line from the source of heat, each being alternately nearest; and each being tried with and without the intervention of a glass screen. If the effect were due to one simple radiating agent, the ratio of the effects on the smooth black and the absorptive white with the screen, ought to be the same as without: the following results however. indicate a considerable difference ; the divisions are not Lesliean degrees. The first column describes which bulb was nearest the source of heat. They were nearly three inches asunder, and at about two from the flame, and six from the hot iron. Flame of a candle, Effect in ] min. Screened. Exposed, Badia MK . vie o ee ewes ere Ce bela Age” Ae ED DrOWM Silk... oe versie ou Oe x cits 5 Argand lamp. No chimney. WeiGiatinks O00. tee. 8. ve BO Ue 8 4 Thin brown silk.......-... PMS e Set 3 Incandescent iron, Effect in 30 seconds. PUGIA ANG ik aa c oid clad vic 1D ab wlenene A Talsy THCOCOE AEs bs. niaieredd 5 eb) b co. 0ie-aenen 5 New Series, vou. 1x. 2p 402 Mr. Powell on Light and Heat. [JuNE, Argand lamp. Instrument stationary at, Screened. Exposed. Indian ink...... Se fee Par scke ke ssher 12 BNR Iho anonee aby e's ei ernl gs (0 ly Ih aha esteaty 8 (2.) In an account given by Dr. Wollaston of his celebrated researches on the chemical effects of solar light (Nicholson’s Journal, 8vo. vol. vill. p. 293), after showing that the green colour which is communicated to guaiacum by the violet rays, is removed on exposure to the red; and that the same effect is produced by the application of hot metal by conduction, Dr. W. makes the following remark :—- ‘The last experiment may possibly appear to have been unnecessary; but until it is explained why the heat that accom- panies the sun’s rays penetrates the substance of transparent or semitransparent bodies, while the radiant heat from a fire has scarcely power to enter even the most transparent, but princi- pally scorches the surface, and is thence slowly conducted into the interior parts : no degree of caution upon a subject so imper- fectly understood should be deemed superfluous.” P. 297. I have quoted this instance of the distinguished author’s judi- cious and well known caution as a contrast to many passages which might be found in the writings of some of our most eminent philosophers. The confessedly imperfect state of our knowledge upon these subjects must show the importance of every step we can with caution and certainty take towards the elucidation of them. Instances are not wanting in the produc- tions of very distinguished men which exhibit a great vagueness and obscurity of ideas on these points, an evil which has proba- bly been much increased by the adoption of theoretical views respecting ‘“ calorific rays,” ‘luminous caloric,” “ non-lumi- nous light,” &c. (3.) As bearing upon an important part of the subject, Iam led to notice the following theoretical view of the mode in which a glass screen acts, on the supposition of an actual radiation of heat through it, given by Biot: (Traité de Phys. iv. 636)...... « Si Pair a travers lequel la transmission s’opére, absorbait une portion sensible de ce calorique, et ‘ui laissazt un passage d’au- tant plus libre, qu’il émanerait d’un corps plus chaud. On verra tout-d-l’heure que cei effet a leu pour les lames de verre, quand on les interpose dans le courant calorifique ;” ...... &e. If this were the case, it is difficult to conceive how a thin plate of glass should cause a less diminution of effect than a thick piece, for the thin glass would certainly abstract much less heat, and the more heated the glass became, the less heat it would absorb, and therefore transmit less, both which we know are contrary:to the fact. ; (4.) In reference to the history of investigations respecting 1825.] Mr. Powell on Light and Heat. 403 light and heat, itmay not be irrelevant to remark, that ina late pub- lication, the originality of Prof. Leslie’s theory seems to be brought into question. His “ Inquiry” was published in 1804, and in his preface he states, “ that the leading facts presented themselves in the spring of 1801.” In the Life and Remains of Dr. Clarke (4to. 491), will be found a letter from that philosopher to Mr. Malthus, dated from Egypt, Sept. 9, 1801, in which he describes some discussion he had had with the scavans in that country, in which he had proposed and maintained the theory that light and caloric are identical, but only existing in different states. (5.) In reference to the history of the investigation, the fol- lowing notice may also not be uninteresting. Dr. Fordyce ina paper on the light produced by inflammation (Phil. Trans. 1776, p- 504), makes a distinction between the light produced from the inflammation or ignition of bodies, and that derived from their decomposition. He proves that the latter is the case with phosphorus. This light he maintains to be totally independent of heat ; but there is nothing in his paper which can amount to a proof of this. He considers the blue part of flame to be pro- duced by decomposition, not by ignition or inflammation, which is subsequently effected in the other parts of the flame. He has pointed out the fact that light may be evolved from some sub- stances, as sulphur, by the application of a less degree of heat than that requisite to evolve it from the other ingredients of gunpowder, though he considers this to arise from the former process being not a true ignition, whilst for all real ignition one particular temperature is required. These views must be considered curious; and were perhaps the first steps towards the correct theory of inflammation, since so fully established by Sir H. Davy, &c. (6.) In the Annals for May, 1824, Art. 5, p. 352, the lovers of theory will find a view of the generation and nature of light, as deduced by Mr. Herapath from his ingenious and recondite theory of evaporation, heat, &c. which exactly accords with that here deduced upon principles entirely different. That phi- losopher I believe in some other parts of his speculations opposes the commonly received views of latent heat, and consequently could not consistently bring light under the dominion of these laws ; but it would seem that he regards light as in every respect analogous to vapour; and thus if we admit the doctrine of latent heat in the one case, the way is so far smoothed, even by an opponent, for its admission in the other. (7.) The difficulty which I before adverted to as attaching to the theory of the conversion of heat into light, viz. that only a part of the heat undergoes this change, will, on the theory here advanced, no longer exist. Any given body has only a definite quantity of light in combination, and only a definite quantity of heat is requisite to liberate it; the remainimg portion therefore 2 D2 404 Mr. Powell on Light and Heat, (Jung, continues to act its natural part without undergoing any alter- ation. (8.) (Brande’s Chemistry, i. 297, 2d Edit.; Davy’s Elements, p- 215.) “ Newton has put the query whether light and com- mon matter are not convertible into each other? and if we con- sider sensible heat in bodies to depend upon vibrations of their particles, a certain intensity of vibrations may send off particles into free space ; and particles moving rapidly in right lines may, in losing their own motion, communicate a vibrating motion to the particles of terrestrial bodies.” Without any hypothesis as to the nature of heat, it is obvious that the principle above adopted will readily explain the conver- tibility of common matter into light, or at least of light existing in a state of material combination, into light in a free radiant state. Whether the light consist of particles of the bodies from which it is generated combined with latent heat, or of peculiar particles entirely of a separate species, at first existing in com- bination with solid matter, and then liberated and brought, into the state of luminous elastic fluid by the agency of latent heat, we have probably no means of deciding. It is possible that light may be formed from certain particles of the body which are made to assume a radiant state in a way analogous to the forma- tion of vapour ; but the opinion that the light is a peculiar sub- stance in combination with the body from which it is extricated seems to be the more probable one from the fact of the absorp- tion of light by various bodies. (Phil. Trans. 1817, Part I. p.75.) Sir H. Davy has concluded that the luminosity of flames is greater in those cases where solid particles are volatilized and ignited. This is exactly con- formable to the principle here advanced. Solid particles ought to be more readily convertible into light, c@leris paribus, than those of elastic fluids. They have less capacity for heat; there- fore of the heat communicated to them, a larger share can go to the evolution of light, and a greater quantity of light, is con- densed in the same space. Hence it would follow also that the less solid the product the less luminous would the flame be, and therefore the less heat would be employed in producing light, and consequently the more in raising temperature. It may arise from the peculiar constitution of bodies, that their heat may in some cases be more employed in producing light, and in others more in increasing temperature or radiating heat: thus the ratio of heat really produced in flames may be very different from what appears. een Ihave alluded to the production of light from. some particular sources only. There are, as is well known, several others from which it is generated, and to these must the examination be, extended before we can, strictly speaking, consider the conclusion as 1825.] Mr. Powell on Light and Heat. 405 universally true. Upon these topics I shall probably offer some remarks at a future opportunity. (9.) The following remarks of M. Biot in reference to the colour of flames are interesting in connexion with the present inquiry. (Biot, Traité de Physique, vol. iv. 617.) ‘ Enfin, puisque, selon les observations de De la Roche, le calorique obscur, émané d’un corps que lon échauffe graduellement, approche aussi graduellement des conditions et des propriétés que posscde le calorique lumeux, on concoit que, lorsque l’émanation com- mence a devenir visible, eile doit ¢tre Wabord analogue a la partie la moins calorifique du spectre, qui se trouve & l’extrémité violette. Aussi observe-t-on que teutes les flammes, lorsqu’elles commencent a naitre, sont d’abord violettes on bleues, et n’atteignent la blancheur que lorsquwelles ont acquis un plus haut degrée d’intensité. Note. ‘‘ Cette progression de teintes a méme lieu pour la lumiére que l’étincelle électrique exerce dans lair. Je m’en suis assuré en tirant ces étincelles 4 diverses distances, entre une pointe mousse et une sphére métalliques : disposition qui per- mettait d’obtenir un jet continu, dont on moderait a volonté Vintensité par l’éloignement.” According to the theory I have proposed, we may make the following remark upon the points just specified. Violet rays have less latent heat than red ; and iftwo flames be equal in other respects, but one of a red, and the other of a blue colour, the temperature of luminosity for red rays will be less than that for blue rays. Less of the heat will be occupied in converting the matter into blue than into red light. Or again when the chemical action is less, less heat can be afforded for the formation of light, and blue rays will be formed. When more heat is generated by an increased action, yellow, red, &c. rays may result. (10.) The incandescence of metals may clearly be regarded as the lowest stage of combustion : a combination with oxygen is evidently going on, which, in the instance of iron at a white heat, becomes very perceptible, from the oxide breaking off in scales. Thus taking the whole range of the phenomenon from a dull red heat up to the most intense combustion in oxygen gas, we may observe the metal giving out light which passes through all the tints successively from the deepest and almost invisible red to nearly perfect whiteness. The observation of the process of combustion in some other cases, as in flames, exhibits a different succession of appear- ances. Here at the lowest or most imperfect stage, the rays given off are violet or blue, and these gradually pass with the increasing completeness of combustion into whiteness. Thus we have two classes of the phenomenon of combustion, 406 Mr. Powell on Light and Heat. [June, in which the effects seem to pass through two different orders of changes, but both receive their completion at the same point ; and this difference would seem to depend on some peculiar difference in the nature of the sources from which the light emanates. ' If we attempt to enumerate the various sources of light which comprise the two classes described, the only distinction which, as far as I know, we can fix upon, is that of the one class con- sisting of metals and carbon; the other of sulphur, phosphorus, and hydrogen. (11.) To Sir H. Davy we are indebted for the most important acquisitions which have been made to our knowledge o the nature of flame. The observation of the different peculiar tem- peratures required in order to produce luminosity in different species of inflammable gas, and the constant maintenance of that temperature, while the emission of light of the same inten- sity is continued, are circumstances clearly indicating the employment of heat in some way in the production of light. A body of gas must be raised to a particular temperature to enable it to combine with oxygen, and to evolve light and heat. But one of the most curious circumstances connected with this inquiry is the different proportion which is maintained in differ- ent instances between the degree of heat required for combus- tion, and that produced by the combustion. (See Sir H. Davy’s paper, Phil. Trans. 1817, Part I. pp. 48,52.) These differences would seem very difficult to explain or account for on any known principles; but if I rightly apprehend the author’s meaning, it would seem by no means an improbable conclusion, that a portion of the heat disappears as heat, and becomes the latent heat of the light: of this inference, however, I only speak doubtfully. (12.) I have made these various brief remarks, being fully aware that they give nothing like a complete view of the subject ; but I am desirous of laying them before the readers of the Annals, in the hope that some persons possessing the requisite chemical knowledge will be induced to give a more complete examination to that very interesting topic of inquiry, the con- nexion between the colour and heating power of the light, the radiant heat, and the chemical or electro-chemical nature of the process which evolves them, and of the substances from which they are produced. 1825.] Mr. Gray on some Species of Shells, &c. 407 ArtTIcLeE II. A List and Description of some Species of Shells not taken Notice of by Lamarck. By John Edward Gray, Esq. MGS. (Continued from p. 140.) Emarcinota Sicula. Testasubconvexa conica, albida, tenuis, costellis longitudinalibus striisque minutis transversis cancellata ; vertice recurvo, subcentrali; apertura ovata; fissura angustissima elongata. Emar. octoradiata. a. tricarinata, Born. t.18, f. 62. 6.P. octo- radiata, Gmelin, List. 532, f. 11. Emar. squamata. Testa subconvexa conica; costellis longi- tudinalibus ineequalibus, confertis, squamatis ; vertice recurvo sub- centrali; margine crenato; fissura brevissima. Emar. notata, Patella notata, Lin. Chemn. x. vig. 25, f. C. D. Emar. elongata. Testa subconvexa conica, pellucida albida ; striis confertis longitudinalibus, transversisque cancellata; vertice recurvo submarginali ; apertura oblonga; fissura brevissima. FissurE.ua cancellata. Patella greca, Montague. Fis. crenulata. Sow. gen. Fis. ventricosa. Patella ventricosa, Gmelin. Fis. clypeiformis. Sow. gen. PriLeopsis rosea. Testa oblique depresso conica; apertura orbiculato-ovata, intus rosea, long. 1 unc. Pil. mitrula; subrufa; pennata et squameformis should be removed to the second section, to which also belong Pil. crenulata. Testa rotunda, oblique conica, rufo concen- trice sublamellata, dense radiatim striata; apice incurvo sub- spirali; margine minuté crenulato. Pil. albida. Testa rotundata, oblique conica, albida, concen- tricé substriata, dense radiatim striata ; vertice recurvo acuto, Catyprrma Dillwynii. Patella equestris, Dillw. C. eques- tris. Lam. is P.Neptuni, Dil/w. C.Tectum Chinensis appears to be a variety of the former. Calypt. auricula. Patella auriculata, Gmelin. Patella dupli- cata, ae Cat. Calypt. extinctorium, Sow. not Lam. Calypt. puncturata. ‘Testa orbiculata-tenuis, albido-fusca, nigro-punctata, levis, irregulariter subcostata, margine sinuato angulato ; vertice recurvo, subcentrali. Calypt. spinosa. Sow. gen. f. 4. f. 7. Calypt. striata. Testa ovato-orbiculata, convexo-conica, alba, densé striata; apice recurvo acuto ; margine crenulato. Calypt. costata. Testa ovato-orbiculata, crassa, convexo- conica, pallidé fusca, radiatim striata et oblique irregulariter cos- tata; apice acuto recurvo, 408 Mr. Gray on some Species of Shells [June, Calypt. albida. Patella Chinensis, Montague, t. 13, f. 4. 6 rosea, intus rosea. Calypt. lineaia. MitellaChinensis alba, Martini, t. 13, f. 121, 122. Bet. Gax.t..21, f. il. Calypt.undulata. Calyp. extinctorium, Lam.? Mitella Chi- nensis undulata, Mart. t. 13, f. 123, 124. List. t. 546, f. 39. Calypt. alba. Testa subdepresso-c onica, albida, linea spirali fusca notata, concentricé substriata, subtuberculata; apice subspirali anfractu unico; columella perforata. Calyptrea comma notata. Sow. gen. Ancytus Spina Rose, Drap. and Lam. is a species of crus- taceous animal, and should therefore be excluded from the list of shells. Buiuima orientalis. Testa ovata albida pellucida. Bullea aperta similis sed ovata. Bullea lignaria, Bulla lignaria, Lam. on account of the form of the shell, gizzard, and animal, should certainly be placed in this genus, as should also one or two of the fossil species. Bulla alba, Hasselt, Buta australis. Testa ovato-oblonga, subpellucida, levis, fusco rufoque marmorata; yvertice umbilicato, long. 2 unc. New Holland, Berry. South Seas, Barnard, Capt. G. King. Bulla elegans. Testa ovato-cylindrica, albido-lutea, pellucida, dense spiraliter striata; vertice umbilicato ; columella costato- marginata ; apertura patula, long. 3-4 unc. Mare Britannicum et Mediterraneum. Bulla Wallisii. Testa ovata, oblonga, lutea, pellucida, minu- tissimé spiraliter striata, concentricé substriata ; margine colu- mellz subreflexo albo; vertice imperforato; apertura posticé coarctata; long. ]-4 unc. Nov. Hollandie, Capt. Wallis. Bulla Savigniana. Testa ovato-oblonga, lutea, tenuis, pellu- cida, levis; vertice imperforato ; apertura angusta; margine co- lumelle subreflexa ; long. 1-2 unc. Red Sea, J. E. Savigny. These three shells are allied to B. hydatis, Montague, and there are several other distinct species in the Museum. Bulla lineata. Testa ovato-oblonga, pellucida, densé spira- liter striata, alba; fasciis duabus spiralibus, et lineolis coccineis concentricis ornata; spira conica; apertura elongata, itegra. 8 spira depressa, lone. 2-3 unc. New Holland, Mr. E. Barnard. Bulla nitidula, Dillwyn. Priori affinis. Bulla soluta, Dillw. Bulla solitaria, Say. Bulla, Say. TESTACELLA scutulum, Sow. gen. f.3, 6. Test. ambigua, Fer, t. 8, f.4. Parmacella calyculus, Sow. gen. Virrina Cuviert. Helicarion, Fer.t.9, f. 8, t. 9, f. 1,2. V. Freycinetti.. Helicarion, Fer.t. 9, f. 3,4. V. brevis. Helicolimax, Fer. t. 9, f. 2. 1825.] not taken Notice of by Lamarck. 409 V. Lamarckii. Helicolimax, Fer. t. 9, f. 9. V. Pyrenaica. Helicolimax, Fer. t. 9, f. 3. V. annularis. UHelicolimax, Fer. t. 9, f. 7. V. pellicula. Helicolimax, Fer.t. 9, A f.5, 6,7. Hex brevipes, Drap. Fer. t. 10, fe. HH. zufas Fer, t. 10, f. 2. H. Cafra, Fer. t. 9, A f. 8. HM. globulosa. Fer. t. 25, f.3, 4. fa8 ‘versicolor, Born.) Fer. t./ f.95 25 at H. follis. Fer. t. 17, f. 4. A. xonulata. Fer. t.15,f. 1,2. Last, t. 1055, f. 4. fH. conformis. Fer. t.25, Af. 10. Hi. crispata. Fer. t. 16, f. 7,8; t.25, f. 7, 8. Hi, cincta, Muller. Fer, t. 22, f. 7,8. H. ligata, Muller. Fer. t. 20, f. 1—4; t. 24, f. 4. H. prunum, _Fer, t. 26, f. 7, 8, 9. South Sea. Hi, gilvus. Fer.t.21. Bf. 1. H. gyrostoma. Fer.t. 32, f. 5,6. Tripoli. oe Hi. addita. Fer. t. 25, B. f. 2, . H. torulus. Fer. t. 27, f. 3,4. NewHolland. Teneriff. Hi contusa. Fer. t. 31, £.13 t. 39; B.£.5;6. Hi, deformis. Fer. t. 32, A. f.1. Hi. papilla, Muller. Fer. t. 25, B. f. 53; Chemn. ix. t. 122, f. 104, 105 H. Dt at Fer. t..25; ee 2 Hi. irregularis. Fer. t. 28, £3 , H. maculosa. Fer. t. 28, f. 9, 10..) a. Fer.t.'32;'A: £79510. H. Niceensis, . Fer. t. 28, f. 1, 2. HAH. ligulata, Fer, t.. 31, f. 2, 3. HI, simplex, Lam. Fer. t. 2 Bit. 6: HI, Otaheitana. Fer. t. 29, f. 4, 5. Hi, similaris. Fer. n, 262, 't. 20; 11D: H. signata. Fer. t. 30, f.3. Italy. _ H. Melitensis. Fer.t. 25, f. Vd) ke.''Malta: H. aspersa, var. scalaris, ‘Cornucopia, Born, t. 13, f..10, 11. Corn. helicina, Shaw. Serpula Cornucopia, Dillw. R. 8. 1081. _ HH. guttata, Oliv. Fer. t. 38, f. 2. i. spiriplana, Oliv. Fer. t. "38, f, 3, 6. - Hy marmorata. Fer. t. 40, f. 8. H. Carseolana. Fer. t. 41, fa. H1. circumornata. Fer. t.41, 2 H. squamosa. Fer. t.41,f. 3. H. muralis. Fer. t.41, f. 4. Gualt.t. 3, f. F. H. modesta. Fer. t. 42, f..1. . HH. consobrina. Fer. t. 42, f. 2. | GI, Pouchet, Fer. t.42, f.3. Adans, t.1,f. 2. H. cognata. Fer. t. 44, f. 4. H, aspera. Fer.t.44, f.1—3. 6 List, t. 94, f. 95. 410 Mr. Gray on some Species of Shells [JuneE, HI. discolor. Fer. t: 46, f.3, 6. Hi. Tima. Fer. t. 46, f. 1, 2. Hl. indistincta. Fer. t. 38, f.1. HT, formosa. Fer, t.47,f.1. List, t. 74, f. 742 H, sobrina. Fer. t. 48, f. 6, 7, 8. H. Carmelita. Fer. t. 32, f. 4. HI. orbiculata. Fer.t. 42, f. 3, 4. HI. dentiens. Ler. t.49, A.f. 2; t. 48, f. 2. H, punctata, Born. t. 14, f.17, 18. Fer. t. 48, f. 3. H. parilis. Fer. t. 49, f. 2. H, elevata, Say. H. Knoxvillina. Fer.t. 49, f.5, 6. HI. Thyroidus, Say. List. t. 91, f.91. 6 edentula. HI, avara, Say. H. auriculata, Say. List, t. 93, f. 93. HA. hirsuta, Say. List, t. 93, £..94. H. convexa, Rafinesque. Fer. t. 50, A. f.2. HT, palliata, Say. H.denotata. Fer. t. 49, A. f. 5. I. clausa, Raf. WH. reflexa, Say. Fer. t.51, f. 2. H. tridentata, Say. List, Syn. t. 92, £.92. Fer. t. 51, f. 6 edentula. H, monodon, Racket. Lin. Trans, xiii. t. 5, f. 1. HI, holosericea. Fer. t. 51, f. 5. HH, plicata, Say. Hi. caribanata. Fer. t. 51, B. f. 3. Hi, labyrinthica, Say. Fer. t. 51, 6.1. HI. Imperator. Fer. t. 52. H. Soror. Fer. t. 54, f. 4. “"\ -H. bidentata. HH. bidens, Chemn. ix. t. 126. H. Cobresiana, Alten. H. unidentata, Drap. t. 7, f. 15. Fl. edentula. Drap. t.7, f. 14. HI. Pyrenaica. Drap. t. 13, f.7. H, Quimperiana. Fer. t. 75, B. f. 1, 2,3. a. t. 74, f. 2. i, wonalis.’ Fert. 70 fe 8. Hi, excepituncula. Fer. t. 73, A.f. 1; t. 70, f..1. H, bigonia, Fer. H, pernobilis, Martyn. U.C. t.5, f. 117. i, zodiaca. Fer. t:'75, £52: H, bipartita. Fer. t. 75, f. A.f. 1. H. dilata. Fer. Perry Conch. t. 51, f. 4. Hi. collapsa. Fer. Perry Conch. t. 51, f. 5. — H. divaricata. Fer. Perry Conch. t. 51, f. 3. H, Senegalensis. Chemn. ix. t. 109, f. 917, 918. HI. concisa. Fer. t. 78, f. 3-4. H, trifasciata. Chemn, xi. t. 213, f. 3016, 3017. H, ungucula. Fer, t. 76, f. 3. H. ungulina. Cheman. ix. t. 125, f. 1098, 1099. a. Fer. f.4. @lab. int. unidentato. Mus. Cracherode. Hi. circumdata, er. t.76, f. 1; t. 77, f. 1. 1825.} not taken Notice of by Lamarck. 411 H. polygyrata. Born, t. 14, f. 19, 20. Brazil, Mus. Crach. H. lineata, Say. H. rudis. H.yotundata, Turton. H. perspectiva, Say. H. pygmaa. Drap.t. 8, f. 8,9, 10. H. umbilicata. Montague, t. 15, £.6. H. rupestris. Drap. te kathy Sails H. glaphyra. Say, t. 1, f.3. H. nitidula. Drap.t. 8. H. nitidosa, Fer. H.mtidula var. Drap.t. 8, f. 21, 22. H. nitens, Racket, Lin. Trans. vill. Oe H. subrufescens. Miller, Ann. Phil. iii. 379. As H. arborea. Say, t. 4, f. 4. ’ H. crystallina. Drap. t. 8, f. 13—20. H. candida. Martin, N. Magn. iv. t. 3, f. 22, 23. H. levipes, Muller. Fer. t. 92, f. 3,4, 5, 6. H. leucas, Lin. H. cicatricosa, Muller. Chemn. ix. t. 109, f. 923; xi. t. 218, f. 3012, 3013. H. nemorensis, Muller. Born, t. 16, fi. 1g2. H. Janus bifrons. Chemn. xi. t. 213, f. 3016, 3017. H. Javacensis. Fer. t, 92, f. 2. H. ewilis, Muller. Chemn. xi. t. ix.t. 129, f. 1149. Fer..92, f.1. H. Rapa, Muller. Chemn. ix. t. 131, f.,1176. H. Clairvillia. Fer.t. 91, f. 1. B.f.2, 3. Manilla, Humph. H. Trochiformis, Montague. H. fulva, Drap. H. aculeata, Muller. WH. spinulosa, Montague. H. fasciola, Drap.t. 6, f,-22; 23, 24. H-limbata. Drap. t. 6, f. 29. H. Olivieri, Fer. Drap. t.7, f. 3, 4, 5. H. Cantiana. Montague, t. 23, f.1. H. palida, Don. H. strigella. Drap. t. 7, f.1, 2, 19. H. villosa. Drap.t. 7, f. 18. H. glabella. Drap.t.7, f. 6. H. rufescens, Montague, t. 23, f.2. H. hispida, Don. H. sericea. Drap.t.7,f. 16, 17. H. scabra. Chemn. ix. t. 133, f. 1208. H. variegata. Chemn. ix. t. 133, f, 1207: H. carnicolor, Fer. Chemn. ix. t. 182, f. 1186, 1187. H. Trochus, Muller. Chemn. ix. t. 102, f. 1055, 1056. H. subdentata. Fer. t. 27, f. 1, 2. H. pyramidata. Drap.t. 5, f. 6. H. conica. Drap.t. 5, f. 3, 4 H. ochroleuca. Fer. t. 30 1106. H. unidentata. Chemn. xi. t. 208, f. 2049, 2050. H, pellicula. Fer. t. 105, f. 1. ; 7 > oO. tf Har) Chemn. ix. 126, f. 1105, 412 Mr. Gray on some Species of Shells [JuNE, Aincerta, Fer. t. 105, f. 2. H. mirabilis. Fer. t. 105, f. 3; t. 31, f.4; t..104, f. 6, A H. Studeriana. Fer. t. 103, f. ie H. strobilus. Fer. t. 103, f. 1. Hi. avellanea. Fer. t. 103, f. 4, 5. hy 3 Hi. alauda,; Fer, t. 103, f. 2,3; t. 104, f. 4,5 ee H{, diaphana. Fer. t. 104, f. 1. ase HT, Rossiana. Fer. t. 104, f. 2, 3. Hi. coniformis. Fer. t. 108, f. 1. H. subplicata. Sow. Zool. doar: 1, 56, t. oy fs a. punctulata. Sow. Zool. Jour. Ty OKs Get H. nivosa. Sow. Zool. Jour. i. 56, t. 3, f. 3. ~e Hi. nitidiuscula, Sow. Zool. Jour. i, 57, t,.3,f. 4. H. Portosanctane. Sow. Zool. Jour. i. 57, t. 3, f,.5, vee Hi, tectiformis. Sow. Zool. Jour. i. 57, t. 3, f. 6. H. bicarinata. Sow. Zool. Jour. 1. 58, t..3, 47, HI. innominata. Nob. Zool. Jour. i. 58, t. 3, £8, Carocouna, Julia, Helix, Fer. List, t. 83, f. 872 C. angustata, Helix, Fer. t. 61, f. 1. G, angulata. Helix, Ler. t. 61, f. 2. . Lampas. Helix, fer. t. 60, £.2. pyrostoma, Helix, Fer. 1. 15, f.3, 4. . marginata. Helix, Fer.t. 63, f. 3— . scabrosa. Helix, Fer. t. 63, f. 1, 2. . Pileolus. Helix, Fer. t. 63, A. f. 1, 2 . bifasciata. Trochus, Burrows, t. 27, f. 2. . Turcica. Trochus, Chemn. xi. t. 209, f. 2065, 2066. .cariosa. Oliv. Voy. t. 31, f.4. Helix, n. 84, Lam. . Tripolitana. Testa or biculata, supra convexo-conica, mar- ginibus carinatis, crenatis, infra convexa, imperforata, alba, pellu- cida, tenuis, concentricé acute corrugata ; Peristomate completo albo, reflexo; axis 1-2, diam. 3-4 unc. Tripoli. Ritchie. iy C.. Lister. Last. t. 66, f. 64, Mus, Brit. ‘ C. orientalis, nob. Testa supra convexiuscula, infra: convexa ; umbilicata, cornea, pellucida; anfractibus, 7v.8, acute cafinatis, superne dense concentrice _ striatis ; apertura lineari-Iunata, miei reflexo, albo ; axis 1-4, diam. 1-2 unc. India ss talis Pura, Auris Leporis.. Auricula Leporis, Lam n. 4. P. Auris Sileni.. Auricula Sileni, Lam. n. 3. i P. Auris cervina. Helix Auris cervina, Fer. Mawe pies. f. 4, P. goniostoma. Helix goniostoma, Fer. Zool. Jour, et P. Caprella. , Auricula_caprella, Lam. Caprella_ undulata, Guilding. Born, t. 9, f.3, 4. P. distorta. Val. australis, Dillw, Chemn. x. t. 149, f. 1395, 1396. ; prety es BP. Johnii. , Chemn. xi, t.'230, £076,207, 8 12. scgaseasss 1825.] not taken Notice of by Lamarck. 413 P. Auris vulpina. Chemn. xi. t. 210, f. 2086, 2087. Struthi- olaria crenata, Lam. P. melanastoma. List, t.29, f. 27. Figura pulcherima ; neg- lecta, Mus. Sloane. Bul. melanastomus, Swain. P. Auris Malachi. Chem. ix. t. 121, f. 1037, 1038. P. Auris Bovina. Chem. ix. t. 121, f, 1089, 1040. Auricula Bovina,. Lam. ; P. odontostoma. Bulimus, Sow. Zool. Journ. i. 59, t. 5, f. 3. P. decumana. List, 588, f.47. Hel. decumanus, Fer. P. Doliolum. Drap.t. 11, f. 41, 42. P. Listeri.. List, t.31, f.29. H. Listeri, Fer. P. Brasiliensis. Mawe Trav. f.6. H. Brasiliensis, Fer. P. tridens: “‘Pult. Dors.t,19,f. 2. 4H. Goodalli, Fer. pik cylindra. Chemn. 1x. t. 136, f. 1256, 1257. H. cylindrus, rer. P. truncata. Cyclost. fasciata, Lam. Ency. Method. t. 461, fa P. tortuosa. Chem. xi. t. 195, A. f. 1882, 1883. P. Tristensis. Balea, nob. Zool. Jour. i.t. 6, f. A. P. ventricosa. Balea, nob. Zool. Jour.i. t. 6, £7: P. Chemnitziana. Helix, n. 512, Fer. Chemn. ix. t. 112; f, 956. P.edentulz. Drap. t. 3, f. 28, 29. P. muscorum. Drap. t. 3, £.26, 27. P.pygmea. Drap.t.3, f. 30, ol. P. antivertigo, Drap. t. 3, f. 32, 33. P. vertigo. Drap. t. 3, f. 34, 35. _ P. contracta, Say. P. exigua, Say. P.ovata. Vertigo, Say. P.pentodon. Vertigo, Say. Ihave removed several of Lamarck’s Auricule to this genus, as they agree better with his character, and with some of the species that he has placed in it himself, than with any of the for- mer genus, “tre Crausiiia bidens. Drap. t. 4, f. 5, 7. Turbo laminatus, Montague. C. ventricosa. Drap.t. 4, f. 14. C. Montagui. Turbo biplicatus. Montague, t. VI, f..5. _C. solida, Drap. t. 4, 1.8, 9. T. labiatus, Montague. C. plicata. Drap. t. 4, t. 15, 16. nyt _C, dubia, Drap. t.4, f. 10. Wilt eC; Rolphii, nob. Med. Rep. #. Everetti. Miller, Ann. Phil. M4. iii 377 205 ~ Butimus metaformis. Welix, Fer. t. 108, f. 2. B. maxima. Cochlogena maxima, Sow. | B. ventricosus, Brug. (not Drap.) Chemn. ix. f. 1007, 1008. B. decoratus. Helix, t. 112, f. 3,4. List, t. 18, £83 414 Mr. Gray on some Species of Shells (June, B. Dufresnii. Leach, Zool. Misc. ii. t. 154. B. Taunaisii, Helix, Fer. t. 118, f. 4, 5. B. papyraceus. Helix, Mawe Introd. t. 1, f.7. B. septenarius. Helix, n.46, Fer. Pet. Gaz. t. 17, f. 4. B. iostomus. Sow. Zool. Jour. i. 58, t.5, f. 1. Bul. strigatus, Brug. Helix, Fer. B. striatulus, Brug. Helix, Fer. B. flammeus, Brug. Chemn. ix. f. 1024, 1025. B. stramineus. Bulimulus stramineus, Guilding, Lin. Trans. xiy, L2st,'t.3, thoy B. rufescens.. Testa ovato-conica, perforata, glabra, minutis- simé striata, luteo-albida ; apice acuto fusco. Peristomate sim- plici, long. 1 une. Jamaica. B. Bontia. Helix Bontia, Chemn. ix. t. 184, f. 1216, 1217. B. Columba, Brug. Seba, t.71, f. 6. B. levus, Brug. Chemin. ix. t. 111, f. 940, 949. B. trifasciatus, Brug. Bul. zonatus, Sow. Helix trifasciatus, Chemn. 1x. t. 134, f. 1215. Helix trizonatus, Fer. B. lineatus, Brug. Chemn. ix. t. 136, f. 1263. B. Goodalli. Helix Goodalli, Miller, Ann. Phil.iii. Helix Clavulus, Fer. n. 381? Bulimus pulcher. Testa ovato-conica, tenuis, albida; fasciis tribus purpureo-fuscis ornata; anfractibus convexiusculis. Peris- tomate simplici, labio interiori roseo long. 1-2 une. Bulimus cylindricus. Testa conico-cylindrica, perforata, al- bida, dense concentricé striata, fascis 6 fuscis interruptis or- nata; anfractibus 9 v.10; convexiusculis ; apertura suborbiculata; peristomate tenui, long. 6-10; diam. 3-10 une. Bulimus Kingii, Testa conico-ovata, perforata, albida, pellu- cida transverse nigro fusco lineolata ; anfractibus convexiusculis; apertura spire longitudine; peristomate tenui, intus purpureo nigro, long. 1, diam. unc. New Holland, Capt. King. - ACHATINA exarata. Bulla exarata. Chemn. ix. t. 120, f. 1031, 1052. A. melanostoma, Sw. H. regina, Fer. t. 119, f. 3, 4. 6 sinis- tra. A. perversa, Sw. A. vittata, Sw. sinistra. A. fulvescens. List, t. 582, f.35a. Born, t. 10, f. 2. A. marginata, Sw. Lllust. 30. A. rosea. List, t. 1059, f. 4 (non Pupa goniostoma). Helix, Fer, t. 136, f. 89. ' A, striata. Chemn. ix. t. 120, f. 1030. Helix, Fer. n. 557. A, Boreti. Helix, n. 358. Fer. t. 136, f. 1—5. A.decora. Helix, Fer. Chemn. xi. t. 218, f. 3014, 3015. 6 dextra. A. lugubris. Helix, Fer. Chemn. xi. t. 209, f. 2059, 2060. A. Terebraster. Bulimus Terebraster, Lam. List. t. 20, f. 15. A. octona. Bulimus octonus, Lam. Chemn.ix.t. 136, f.1264. 182d.) not taken Notice of by Lamarck. 415 I have removed thése two species, because they have the truncated columella of this genus, and are very nearly allied to A. acicula, as are also the two following. A. sulcata. Testa turrita, pellucida, cornea, apice obtusa, anfractibus 8v.9 convexis, medio concentricé sulcatis, basi levibus ; Jabro tenui; long. 7-10, diam. 2-10 unc. A. nitens. Testa ovato-conica, turrita, hyalina, cornea, levi polita, apice obtusiuscula ; anfractibus 8 convexis; apertura vata, peristomate tenui, axis 7-10, diam. 3-10 unc. Succinea tigrina, Leseuer. Fer.t. 11, A.f. 4. S.ovalis, Say. Fer.t.11, A.f. 1. S. australis. Helix, 11. Fer. t. 11, f. 11 S. campestris, Say. Fer, t. 11, f. 12. S. angularis, Helix, n. 13. Fer. t. 11, A. f. 5. S. sulculosa. Helix, n. 14. Fer. t. 11, A. f. @. Parruta, Ferussac. Testa ovata, spira conica. Apertura longitudinalis, antice integerima, peristomate reflexo ; columella anticé callosa. Animal. Tentacula 2 retractilia, apice oculata. This genus is most nearly allied to Lamarck’s Auricule, but the animal has retractile instead of contractile tentacula, and pedicelled instead of sessile eyes. P. pudica, Fer. Chemn,. ix. t. 121, f. 1042. List, t. 24, f. 22. P. australis, Fer. Chemn. ix. t. 121, f. 1044. P. unidentata, Sow. P. gibba, Fer. P. fragilis, Fer. P. otaheitana, Fer. Chemn. ix. f. 950, 951, 8 dextrorsa. P. auricula, Fer. Avricuta lineata. Drap. t. 3, f. 20,21. A. corticaria. Odostonia. Say, t. 4, f. 5. _ A. plicatus. Scarabus, n. 2, Fer. List, t. 577, f. 32. A. Petiverianus. Scarabus, n. 3, Fer. Pet.Gaz.t. 4, f. 10. "A. ponderosa. Fer,n.4. Mus. Kere f. 412. -bidentata. Fer.n.9. Vol. bidentata, Montague, t. 30, f.4. _alba. Fer.n.10. Vol. alba, Montague, t. 14, f. 27. .ornata. Fer.n. 11, _ Matoni. Vol. fluviatilis, Maton, Lin. Trans. . bidentatus. Melampus, Say. @ lineatus. . obliquus. Melampus, Say. A. fabula. Fer, n, 24. A-nucleus. Fer. n. 26. Helix nucleus, Gmelin. A. bullasides. Vol. bullaoides, Montague, t. 30, f. 4. Tor- natella, n. 7, Fer. A. pedipes. Tornatella pedipes, Lam. Adams, t. 1, f. 4. A. mirabiles. Pedipes, n. 2, Fer. A. ovulus. Pedipes, n.3, Ler. A. affinis. Pedipes, n. 4, Fer. be be bs py fe 416 Dr. Henry on the Action of [JuNE, Articxie III, On the Action of finely divided Platinum on Gaseous Mixtures, and its Application to their Analysis. By William Henry, MD. FRS.* SrvERAL years have elapsed since the President of the Royal Society, in the further prosecution of those Researches on Flame, which had already led him to the most important ractical results, discovered some new and curious phenomena in the combustion of mixed gases, by means of fine wires of platinum introduced into them at a temperature below ignition. A wire of this sort being heated much below the point of visible redness, and immersed in a mixture of coal gas and oxygen gas in due proportions, immediately became white hot, and continued to glow until all that was inflammable in the mixture was con- sumed. The wire, repeatedly taken out of the mixture and suffered to cool below the point of redness, instantly recovered its temperature on being again plunged into the mixed gases. The same phenomena were produced in mixtures of oxygen with olefiant gas, with carbonic oxide, with cyanogen, and with hydrogen; and in the last case there was an evident production of water. When the wire was very fine, and the gases had been mixed in explosive proportions, the heat of the wire became sufficiently intense to cause them to detonate. In mixtures, which were non-explosive from the redundancy of one or other gas, the combination of their bases went on silently, and the same chemical compounds were formed as by their rapid com- bustion.+ Facts analogous to these were announced, in the autumn of last year, by Prof. Dobereiner of Jena, with this additional and striking circumstance, that when platinum in a spongy form is introduced into an explosive mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, the metal, even though its temperature had not been previously raised, immediately glows, and causes the union of the two gases to take place, sometimes silently, at others with detona- tion. It is remarkable, however, that platinum in this form, though so active on mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen, produces no effect, at common temperatures, on mixtures of oxygen with those compound gases, which were found by Sir Humphry Davy to be so readily acted upon by the heated wire.t Carbonic oxide appears, indeed, from the statement of MM. Dulong and Thenard,§ to be capable of uniting with oxygen at the tempera-: * From the Philosophical Transactions, for 1824, Part IT. + Philosophical Transactions, 1817, p. 77. $ Débereinerin Ann. de Chim, et de Phys. xxiv—xcvi, § Ditto xxiii. 442. 1825.]' jinely divided Platinum on Gaseous Mixtures. 417 ture of the atmosphere, by means of the sponge; but though this is in strictness true, yet the combination, in all the experi- ments I have made, has been extremely slow, and the due dimi- nution of yolume has not been completed till several days have elapsed. On mixtures of olefiant gas, of carburetted hydrogen, or of cyanogen, with oxygen, the sponge does not, by auy dura- tion of contact, exert the smallest action at common tempera- tures. ‘It was this inefficiency of the platinum sponge on the com- pounds of charcoal and hydrogen in mixture with oxygen, while it acts so remarkably on common hydrogen, and also, though slowly, on carbonic oxide, that suggested to me the possibility of solying, by its means, some interesting problems in gaseous analysis. I hoped, more especially, to be able to separate from each other the gases constituting certain mixtures, to the com- position of which approximations only had been hitherto made, by comparing the phenomena and results of their combustion with those which ought to ensue, supposing such mixtures to consist of certain hypothetical proportions of known gases. It might, for instance, be expected, that from a mixture of hydro- gen and carburetted hydrogen with oxygen, the platinum sponge would cause the removal of the hydrogen, leaving the carbu- retted hydrogen unaltered. To ascertain this, and \a variety of similar facts, I made artificial mixtures of the combustible gases in known volumes ; and submitted them, mixed with oxygen, sometimes to contact with the sponge, and sometimes with the balls made of clay and platinum, described by Professor Dobe- reiner.* ) Szct. I.—On the Action of finely divided Platinum on Gaseous Mixtures at common Tt emperatures. ‘1e.Mivtures of Hydrogen and Olefiant Gases with Oxygen. ‘When to equal volumes of olefiant gas, and an explosive mixture (which is to be understood, whenever it is so named, as consisting of two volumes of hydrogen and one of oxygen gases), one of the platinum balls, recently heated by the blow- pipe, and allowed to cool during eight or ten seconds, is intro- duced through mercury, a rapid diminution of volume takes place; the whole of the hydrogen and oxygen gases is con- densed ; ‘but the olefiant gas is either not at all, or very little *'"Phe~proportions which I used, but which perhaps are, not of much importance, were-two parts of fine china clay, and three parts of spongy platinum mixed with water into a paste, which was moulded into small spherules, about the size of peas. The sponge, best adapted to the purpose of acting on mixed gases, is obtained by using a little pressure to the ammonia-muriate, after putting it'mto the crucible. _ If too light and porous, the sponge is apt to absorb mercury by being repeatedly passed through it, and to become amalgamated. In order that the balls or sponge might be removed after their full action, they were fastened to pieces of platinum wire. j New Series, vou, 1x. 2E 418 Dr. Henry on the Action.of [JuNE, acted upon. In a few experiments, when the tube was narrow, and the quantity of mixed gases small, the olefiant gas escaped combustion entirely ; but, in general, an eighth or tenth of it was converted into water and carbonic acid. It is difficult, however, to state the precise proportion of any gas which, when added to an explosive mixture, renders the latter insensible to the action of the balls or sponge; for much depends on their temperature when introduced into the gaseous mixture, the diameter of the containing vessel, and. other circumstances, which, in comparing different gases, should be so regulated as to be equal in every case. ) When the proportions of the gases are changed, so that the explosive mixture exceeds in volume the olefiant gas, there is a more decided action upon the latter, manifested by an increased production of carbonic acid. Thus, for example, the explosive mixture being to the olefiant as 24 to 1, about one-fourth of the olefiant gas was consumed ; and by increasing the proportion of the explosive mixture, the olefiant gas was still more acted upon. On using oxygen sufficient to saturate both the hydrogen and the olefiant gases, the ball acted much more rapidly ; in several instances it became red hot; all the hydrogen was consumed ; and the whole of the olefiant gas was changed into water and carbonic acid. In this case the use of the sponge is inadmissi- ble, as it kindles the gases, and occasions their detonation. 2. Mixtures of Hydrogen and Carburetted Hydrogen Gases with Oxygen. When carburetted hydrogen, procured from stagnant water, was added to an explosive mixture, in various proportions be- tween equal volumes, and ten of the former to one of the latter, the action of the hydrogen and oxygen on each other took place as usual, on admitting one of the balls. When, reversing the proportion, the explosive mixture was made to exceed the car- buretted hydrogen, but not more than four or five times, the latter gas was entirely unchanged. With a larger proportion of the explosive mixture carbonic acid was always found to have been produced; but still the carburetted hydrogen was very imperfectly consumed, and fully three-fourths of it were gene- rally found to have escaped unburned. When, to a mixture of hydrogen and carburetted hydrogen, oxygen enough was added to saturate both gases, the effect of the sponge was found to vary with the proportion of the simple hydrogen. In several cases, where the hydrogen did not exceed the carburetted hydrogen more than four times, the. latter gas remained unchanged; when in larger proportion, there..was a decided action upon the carburetted hydrogen. But it was much more easy to regulate the action of the balls upon such a mixture, so as to act upon the hydrogen and oxygen only, than 1825.] finely divided Platinum on Gaseous Mixtures. 419 in the case of olefiant gas, which, under similar circumstances, is always more largely converted into water and carbonic acid. 3. Mixtures of Hydrogen and Carbonic Oxide with Oxygen. The addition of one volume of carbonic oxide to two volumes of an explosive mixture produces a distinct effect in suspending the action of the platinum balls, and even of the spongy metal itself. The action of the gases upon each other still, however, goes on slowly, even when the carbonic oxide exceeds the explosive mixture in volume ; and after the lapse of a few days, the oxygen is found to have disappeared, and to have partly formed water, and partly carbonic acid. I made numerous experiments to ascertain whether the oxygen, under these cir- cumstances of slow combustion, is divided between the carbonic oxide and the hydrogen, in proportions corresponding to the volumes of those two gases. The combustible gases being in equal volumes, and the oxygen sufficient to saturate only one of them, it was found that the oxygen, which had united with the carbonic oxide, was to that which had combined with the hydro- gen, as about 5to lin volume. Increasing the carbonic oxide, a still larger proportion of oxygen was expended in forming car- bonic acid. On the contrary, when the hydrogen was increased, a greater proportional quantity of oxygen went to the formation of water. But it was remarkable, that when the hydrogen was made to exceed the carbonic oxide four or five times, less oxygen in the whole was consumed than before; the activity of the carbonic oxide appearing to have been diminished, without a corresponding increase in that-of the hydrogen. In cases, where the proportion of the carbonic oxide to the explosive mixture was intentionally so limited, that the platinum ball was capable of immediately acting upon the latter, the carbonic oxide was always in part changed into carbonic acid, the more abundantly as its volume was exceeded by that of the explosive mixture. Increasing the oxygen, so that it was adequate to saturate both gases, and causing the hydrogen to exceed the carbonic oxide in volume, a speedy action was always exerted by the ball, and the whole of the combustible gases was silently converted into water and carbonic acid. ‘The introduction of the platinum sponge into such a mixture was almost always found to produce detonation. 4. Mixtures of Hydrogen and Cyanogen with Oxygen. When one of the platinum balls, after being recently heated, is introduced into cyanogen and explosive mixture in equal volumes, no phe action takes place. With half a volume of cyanogen there is a slight diminution ; and as we reduce the proportion of that gas, the action of the elements of the explo- sive mixture on each other becomes more and more distinct. 252 420 Dr. Henry on the Action of [June, There is not, however, as with carbonic oxide, any production of carbonic acid ; but in the course of a few minutes the inside of the tube becomes coated with a brownish substance, soluble in water, and communicating to it the same colour; having a smell resembling that of a burnt animal substance; and yielding ammonia on the addition of a drop or two of liquid potash. It was produced in too smalla quantity to enable me to submit it to a more minute examination; but its characters appeared to resemble those of a product, obtained by M. Gay-Lussac, by mixing cyanogen with ammoniacal gas.* If oxygen be added to a mixture of hydrogen and cyanogen, in quantity sufficient to saturate both the gases, it is still neces- sary, in order that an immediate effect should be produced by the sponge, that the hydrogen should exceed the cyanogen in volume. A decided action then takes place; an immediate absorption ensues; fumes of nitrous acid vapour appear, which act on the surface of the mercury; and, after transferring the gas into a dry tube, carbonic acid is found to have been pro- duced, equivalent in volume to double that of the cyanogen. 5. Effect of adding various other Gases to an Explosive Mixture of Hydrogen and Oxygen. It had been already ascertained by Prof. Dobereiner, that one volume of oxygen, diluted with 99 volumes of nitrogen, is still sensible, when mixed with a due proportion of hydrogen, to the action of the sponge. Carbonic acid, also, even I find when it exceeds the explosive mixture ten times, retards only in a slight degree the energy of the sponge. Oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrous oxide gases, when employed to dilute an explosive mixture, are equally inefficient in preventing the mutual action of its ingre- dients. Ammonia may be added in ten times the volume of the explosive mixture, and muriatic acid gas in six times its volume, with no other effect than that of rendering the action of the sponge less speedy. 6. Mixtures of Carbonic Oxide and Carburetted Hydrogen with Oxygen. When mixtures of these gases are exposed to the sponge, the carburetted hydrogen seems to stand entirely neutral. The carbonic oxide is converted into carbonic acid, in the Same gradual manner as if it had been mixed with oxygen only, and the carburetted hydrogen remains unaltered. WOIDY | { ‘ * Annales de Chimie, xcv. 196, ~ + Inanalysing atmospheric air by adding hydrogen to it, and acting on the mixture by a platinum ball, I have generally obtained a diminution indicating more than 2] per cent. of oxygen. This I find to be owing to the absorption of a small quantity of nitro- gen by the ball, especially when. after being heated, it has been rapidly passed ‘hot through the mercury. 1825.] finely divided Platinum on Gaseous Mixtures. 421 7. Mixtures of Hydrogen, Carburetted Hydrogen, and Carbonic Oxide with Oxygen. “In mixtures of these gases, it is of little consequence whether the oxygen be sufficient for the hydrogen and carbonic oxide only, or be adequate to the saturation of allthree. The circum- stance, which has the greatest influence on the results of expos ing such mixtures to the sponge, is the proportion which the simple hydrogen bears to the other gases, and especially to the carbonic oxide; for in order that there may be any immediate action, the hydrogen should exceed the other gas involume. In that case the hydrogen is converted into water, and the carbonic oxide into carbonic acid; but the carburetted hydrogen, unless the excess of hydrogen be very considerable, remains unaltered. If the proportion of hydrogen be so small, that no immediate action is excited by the sponge, the ingredients of the mixture nevertheless act slowly upon each other; and after a few days, thé whole of the hydrogen and carbonic oxide are found to have united with oxygen, and the carburetted hydrogen to remain of its original volume. 8. Mixtures of Hydrogen, Carbonic Owide, and Olefiant Gases with Oxygen. When the oxygen, in a mixture of these gases, is sufficient to saturate the first two only, and the proportion of hydrogen is so adjusted that the action of the sponge is not very energetic, the hydrogen and carbonic oxide only are acted upon; but if the diminution of volume, which the sponge produces, be rapid and considerable, part of the olefiant gas is converted into water and carbonic acid. This effect on olefiant gas takes place still more readily, if the oxygen present be adequate to the saturation of all three combustible gases. It is remarkable, that if to a mixture of hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and oxygen, in such proportions that the sponge would act rapidly in producing combination, olefiant gas be added, the action of the gases on each other is suspended. Thus 20 mea- sures of carbonic oxide, 31 of hydrogen, and 28 of oxygen, were instantly acted upon by the sponge; but the addition of 20 measures of olefiant gas to a similar mixture entirely suspended its efficiency. By standing fourteen days, rather more than half the carbonic oxide was acidified, and about one-twelfth of the hydrogen was changed into water, but the olefiant gas remained unaltered. 9, Mixtures of Hydrogen, Carbonte Oxide, Carburetted Hydro- “i gen, and Olefiant Gases with Oxygen. In mixtures of these four gases with oxygen, it was found, by varying the proportion of hydrogen, that hydrogen and 422 Dr. Henry on the Actionof .\. [June, carbonic oxide are most easily acted upon; then olefiant gas ; and carburetted hydrogen with the greatest difficulty. "When the action of the sponge was moderately intense, only the hydro- gen and carbonic oxide were consumed, or at most the olefiant gas was but partially acted upon. Adding more hydrogen, so as to occasion a more rapid diminution, the olefiant gas also was burned ; but the carburetted hydrogen always escaped combus- tion, unless the hydrogen were in such proportion that the ball or sponge became red hot. From the facts which have been stated, it appears that when the compound combustible gases mixed with each other, with hydrogen, and with oxygen, are exposed to the platinum balls or sponge, the several gases are not acted upon with equal faci- lity ; but that carbonic oxide is most disposed to unite with — oxygen; then olefiant gas; and lastly, carburetted hydrogen. By due regulation of the proportion of hydrogen, it is possible to change the whole of the carbonic oxide into carbonic acid, without acting on the olefiant gas or carburetted hydrogen. With respect indeed to olefiant gas, this exclusion is attended with some difficulty, and it is generally more or less converted into carbonic acid and water. But it is easy, when olefiant gas is absent, so to regulate the proportion of hydrogen, that the carbonic oxide may be entirely acidified, and the whole of the carburetted hydrogen be left unaltered. This will generally be found to have been accomplished, when the platinum ball has occasioned a diminution of the mixture, at about the same rate as atmospheric air is diminished by nitrous gas, when the former is admitted to the latter in a narrow tube. Secr. I1,—On the Effect of finely divided Platinum on Gaseous Mixtures at increased Temperatures. The effect of varying the proportion of free hydrogen to the compound combustible gases, on the degree of action which is excited by the platinum sponge, will perhaps admit of being explained, by examining the facts that have been stated, in con- nexion with the degrees of combustibility of the compound gases under ordinary circumstances. The precise degree of temperature at which any one of them burns is not known, on account of the imperfection of our present methods of measuring high degrees of heat. It has been ascertained, however, by Sir Humphry Davy,* that ata heat between that of boiling mercury, and that whan renders glass luminous in the dark, hydrogen and oxygen gases unite silently, and without any light being evolved; that carbonic oxide is as inflammable as hydrogen ; that olefiant gas is fired by iron and charcoal heated to redness ; * On Flame, 8vo. p. 72. 1825.]’ finely divided Platinum on Gaseous Mixtures. 423: but that carburetted hydrogen, to be inflamed, requires that the wire*should be white hot. Now this is precisely the order in which the three compound gases require hydrogen to be added to them, in order to be rendered susceptible of being acted upon by the platinum sponge ; carbonic oxide being acted upon with the smallest proportion of hydrogen ; olefiant gas requiring more hydrogen ; and carburetted hydrogen a still larger proportion. It is extremely probable, then, that the temperature, produced by the union of the hydrogen and oxygen forming part of any mixture, is the circumstance which determines the combustible gases to unite, or not, with oxygen by means of the sponge. It was desirable, however, to ascertain the exact temperature at which each of those three gases unites with oxygen with the intervention of the spongy platinum. For this purpose the gases, mixed with oxygen enough to saturate them, were seve- rally exposed in small retorts containing a platinum sponge, and immersed in a mercurial bath, to a temperature which was gradually raised till the gases began to act on each other. In this way the following facts were determined. lst. Carbonic oxide began to be converted into carbonic acid at a temperature between 300° and 310° Fahrenheit. By raising the temperature to 340°, and keeping it at that point for 10 or 15 minutes, the whole of the gas was acidified, the condensation of volume in the mixture being equivalent to the oxygen which had disappeared. 2dly. Olefiant gas, mixed with sufficient oxygen, and in con- tact with the sponge, showed a commencement of decomposi- tion at 480° Fahrenheit, and was slowly but entirely changed into carbonic acid by a temperature not exceeding 520° Fahren- heit. MM. Dulong and Thenard* state the same change to take place at 300° cent. = 572° Fahrenheit; but having repeated the experiment several times, I find no reason to deviate from the temperature which I have assigned. drdly. Carburetted hydrogen, exposed under the same circum stances, was not in the least acted upon by a temperature of 555° Fahrenheit, the highest to which, by an Argand’s lamp, I was able to raise the mercurial bath. This, however, must have been near the temperature required for combination; for on removing the retort from the mercurial bath, and applying a spirit lamp, at such a distance as not to make the retort red hot, a diminution of volume commenced, and continued till all the carburetted hydrogen was silently converted into water and carbonic acid. 4thly. Cyanogen, similarly treated, was not changed at a tem- perature of 555° Fahr. and on applying the flame ofa spirit lamp to the tube, it produced no action till the tube began to soften, * Ann, de Chim, et de Phys, xxiii, 443. 424 Dr. Henry on the Action of [June, 5thly. Muriatic acid gas, mixed with half its volume of oxy- gen, began to be acted upon at 250° Fahr. Water was evidently formed ; and the disengaged chlorine, acting upon the mercurial vapour in the tube, formed calomel, which was condensed, and coated its inner surface. 6thly. Ammoniacal gas, mixed with an equal volume of oxy- gen, Showed a commencement of decomposition at 380° Fahren- heit. Water was also in this case distinctly generated ; and at the close of the experiment, nothing remained in the tube but nitrogen and the redundant oxygen. I proceeded, in the next place, to examine the agency of finely divided platinum at high temperatures, on those mixtures of gases, which are either not decomposed, or are slowly decom- posed, at the temperature of the atmosphere. When carbonic oxide and hydrogen gases, in equal volumes, mixed with oxygen sufficient to saturate only one of them, were placed in contact with the sponge, and gradually heated in a mercurial bath, the mixture ceased to expand between 300° and 310° Fahrenheit, and soon began to diminish in volume. On raising the temperature to 340°, and keeping it some time at that point, no further diminution was at length perceptible. From the quantity of carbonic acid, remaining at the close of the experiment, it appeared that four-fifths of the oxygen had united with the carbonic oxide, and only one-fifth with the hydrogen. When four volumes of hydrogen, two of carbonic oxide, and one of oxygen, were similarly treated, the hydrogen, notwithstanding its greater proportional volume, was still found to have taken only one-fifti of the oxygen, while four-fifths had combined with the carbonic oxide. These facts show that at temperatures be- tween 300° and 340° Fahrenheit, the affinity of carbonic oxide for oxygen is decidedly superior to that of hydrogen; as, from the experiments before described, appears to be the case also at common temperatures. But a similar distribution of oxygen between carbonic oxide and hydrogen does not take place when those three gases are fired together by the electric spark, This will appear from the foliowing table, in which the first three columns show the quan- tities of gases that were fired, and the last two, the quantities of oxygen that were found to have united with the carbonic oxide and with the hydrogen. Before firing. After firing. —_ =, = —_~ cr ——_—_- Measure of Measure of Measure of Oxygen to, Oxygen to carb. oxide. hydrogen. oxygen. carb. oxide. hydrogen. Te ee a ee Ae cele ae gO) eee De rad a dae; eth eeesieg ols wae >and ay ae SO OO ee AO cue OO nie ng On a When equal volumes of carbonic oxide and hydrogen gases, 1825.] finely divided Platinum on Gaseous Mixtures. 425 mixed with oxygen sufficient to saturate only one of them, were exposed in a glass tube to the flame of a spirit lamp, without the presence of the sponge, till the tube began to soften, the combination of the gases was effected without explosion, and was merely indicated by a diminution of volume, and an oscil- latory motion of the mercury in the tube. At the close of the experiment, out of twenty volumes of oxygen, eight were found to have united with the carbonic oxide, and twelve with the hydrogen, proportions which do not materially differ from the results of the first experiment in the foregoing table. At high temperature, then, the attraction of hydrogen for oxygen appears to exceed that of carbonic oxide for oxygen ; at lower tempera- tures, especially when the gases are in contact with the platinum sponge, the reverse takes place, and the affinity of carbonic oxide for oxygen prevails. Extending the comparison to the attraction of olefiant and hydrogen gases for oxygen at a red heat, I found that when six volumes of olefiant, six of hydrogen, and three of oxygen were heated by a spirit lamp till the tube softened, a silent com- bination took place as before; all the oxygen was consumed; but only half a volume had been expended in forming carbonic acid, which indicates the decomposition of only one quarter of a volume of olefiant gas. On attempting a similar comparison between carbonic oxide and olefiant gas, by heating them with oxygen in the same proportions, the mixture exploded as soon as the glass became red hot, and burst the tube. The property inherent in certain gases, of retarding the action of the platinum sponge, when they are added to an explosive mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, is most remarkable in those which possess the strongest attraction for oxygen; and it is probably to the degree of this attraction, rather than to any agency arising out of their relations to caloric, that we are to ascribe the various powers which the gases manifest in this respect. This will appear from the following table, the first column of which shows the number of volumes of each gas required to render one volume of an explosive mixture of hydro- gen and oxygen uninflammable by the discharge of a Leyden jar; while the second column shows the number of volumes of each gas necessary, in some cases, to render one volume of an explo- sive mixture insensible to the action of the sponge, and in other cases indicates the number which may be added without pre- venting immediate combination. In the first column, the num- bers marked with an asterisk were determined by Sir Humphry Davy ; the remaining numbers in that column, and the whole of the second, are derived from my own experiments. 426. 1 vol. of explosive mixture was rendered incapable of being inflamed by electri- ’ city when mixed with Dr. Henry on the Action of | (JuNnE, Effect of adding the same gases to 1 vol. ' of explosive mixture on the action of the sponge. —— SS a oe — About 8 vol. of hydrogen. .. | not prevented by many vols. . 6 nitrogen.. .. | ditto. rts Yo oxygen. .... | not prevented by 10 vol. * 11 nitrous oxide | ditto. 1:5 cyanogen... | prevented by 1 vol. * 1 carb. hydrog. | not prevented by 10 vol. 4 carbonic ox. | prevented by 4a vol. * 0:5 olefiant gas.. | prevented by 1-5 vol. * 2 muriatic acid | not prevented by 6 vol. 2 ammonia... | not prevented by 10 vol. 3 carbonicacid | ditto. From the foregoing table it appears, that carbonic oxide pro- duces the greatest effect, in the smallest proportion to an explo- sive mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, in preventing the action of those gases on each other, when exposed to the sponge at temperatures below the boiling point of mercury. In general, those gases which either do not unite with oxygen, or unite with it only at high temperatures, have little effect in restraining the efficiency of the sponge. There is an apparent exception, how- ever, in cyanogen, which it would require more research than I have yet had time to devote to an object merely collateral, to reconcile (if it be capable of being reconciled), with the general principle. From the fact that carbonic oxide, olefiant gas, and carbu- retted hydrogen, when brought to unite with oxygen by means of the platinum sponge assisted by heat, undergo this change at different temperatures, it seemed an obvious conclusion, that by exposing a mixture of those gases with each other and with oxygen to a regulated temperature, the correct analysis of such mixtures might probably be accomplished. Mixtures of two or more of the combustible gases were therefore exposed, in con- tact with oxygen gas and the platinum sponge, in tubes bent into the shape of retorts, which were immersed in a mercurial bath. This bath was gradually heated to the required temperatures, and by proper management of the source of heat, was prevented from rising above that degree. Ist. By subjecting 25 measures of carbonic oxide, 15 of olefiant gas, and 57 of oxygen, in contact with the sponge, toa heat which was not allowed to exceed 350° Fahrenheit till. the diminution of volume ceased, all the carbonic oxide was con- verted into carbonic acid, and the olefiant gas remained in its original volume. 2d. By exposing in a similar manner 20 measures of carbonic oxide, 21 of carburetted hydrogen, and 36 of oxygen, to a tem- 1825:] finely divided Platinum on Gaseous Mixtures. 427 perature below 400° Fahrenheit, the carbonic oxide was entirely acidified ; and on washing out the carbonic acid by’ liquid potash, the carburetted hydrogen was found sualiend mixed with the redundant oxygen. 3d. A mixture of 10 measures of olefiant gas, 10 of carburet- ted hydrogen, and 58 of oxygen, being heated in contact with the sponge to 510° Fahrenheit, the olefiant gas was silently but entirely changed into carbonic acid, while the carburetted hydrogen was not at.all acted upon. 4th. By acting with the sponge upon 42 measures of carbu- retted hydrogen, 22 of carbonic oxide, 22 of hydrogen, and 28 of oxygen, first at a temperature of 340° Fahrenheit, which was raised gradually to 480°, all the carbonic oxide was changed into carbonic acid, and all the hydrogen into water; but the carburetted hydrogen remained undiminished in quantity, and was found, after removing the carbonic acid, mixed only with the redundant oxygen. In this experiment, the diminution of volume had continued some time before there was any percepti- ble formation of water, the attraction of carbonic oxide for oxy- gen appearing to prevail over that of hydrogen. The same precedency in the formation of carbonic acid is always apparent, when carbonic oxide and hydrogen, mixed even with oxygen enough to saturate both gases, are raised to 350° Fahrenheit. By thus carefully regulating the temperature of the mercurial bath, the action of oxygen upon several gases (carbonic oxide, olefiant, and carburetted hydrogen for example) may be made to take place in succession; and by removing the carbonic acid, formed at each operation, it may be ascertained how much of each of the two first gases has been decomposed. The carba- retted hydrogen indeed always remains unchanged, and _ its quantity must be determined by firing it with oxygen by the electric spark. If hydrogen also be present, it is difficult to prevent the olefiant gas from being partially acted upon; but this is of little consequence, as I have shown that it is easy to remove that gas in the first instance by chlorine.* It may be remarked, that this method of operating on the aériform com- peands of charcoal gives more accurate results than rapid com- ustion by the electric spark, being never attended with that precipitation of charcoal, which is often obseryed when the gases are exploded with oxygen. A regulated temperature, also, effects the analysis of such mixtures much more correctly than the action of the sponge or balls, because in the latter case the heat produced is uncertain; and though sometimes adequate to the eflect, yet there is always a risk that it may exceed, or fall short of that degree, which is required for the successful result of the analytic process. * Philosophical Transactions, 1821, p, 1AT. 428 Dr. Henry on the Action of [JUNE, From the facts which have been stated, I derived a method of obtaining carburetted hydrogen gas perfectly free from oletiant gas, hydrogen, and carbonic oxide, and mixed only with a little oxygen, which, had it been necessary to my purpose, might also have been separated. The early product of the distillation of pit-coal was washed with a watery solution of chlorine, and afterwards with liquid potash, to remove a little chlorine that arose into the gas from the solution. The residuary gas was next heated with one-fourth its volume of oxygen, at the tem- perature of 350° Fahrenheit, in contact with the sponge ; which converted the carbonic oxide into carbonic acid, and the hydro- gen into water. The carbonic acid being removed by liquid potash, there remained only the carburetted hydrogen, the redundant oxygen, and a very minute quantity of nitrogen intro- duced by the latter gas. Hitherto, 1 have prepared this gas only in a small quantity, but it would be easy to extend the scale of the operation, and to remove the excess of oxygen by obvious methods. Sect. Il].—Application of the Facts to the Analysis of Mixtures of the Combustible Gases in unknown Proportions. At an early period of the investigation described in the first section, I proceeded to apply the facts of which I was then pos- sessed, to the analysis of a mixture of gases in unknown propor- tions. For this purpose, I caused a quantity of gas to be collected from coal, by continuing the application of heat to the retorts two hours beyond the usual period, and receiving the gas into a separate vessel. Gas of this quality was purposely chosen, because, from former experience, I expected it to con- tain free hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and carburetted hydrogen, but no olefiant gas, the production of which is confined to the early stages of the process. After washing it, therefore, with liquid potash, to remove a little carbonic acid, and ascertaining its specific gravity when thus washed to be 308, I proceeded at once to subject it to the new method of analysis. Having ascertained, by a previous experiment with Volta’s eudiometer, that 10 volumes of the gas required for saturation 9 volumes of oxygen, I mixed 43 measures with 43 of oxygen (= 41 pure) and passed a platinum ball, which had been recently heated, into the mixture. An immediate diminution of volume took place, attended with a production of heat, and formation of moisture. The residuary gas, cooled to the temperature of the atmosphere, measured 43°5 volumes. Of these 4:5 were absorbed by liquid potash, indicating 4°5 carbonic acid, equivalent to 4°5 carbonic oxide; the rest, being fired in a Volta’s eudiometer with an additional quantity of oxygen, gave 11 volumes of car- bonic acid ; the diminution being 22 volumes, and the oxygen consumed 22 also, circumstances which prove that 11 volumes 1825.] finely divided Platinum on Gaseous Mixtures. 429 of carburetted hydrogen were consumed by this rapid combus- tion. But of the loss of volume first observed (viz. 86 — 43°5 = 42:5) 2:25 are due to the carbonic acid formed ; and deduct- ing this from 425, we have 40°25, which are due to the oxygen and hydrogen converted into water; and 40°25 x 3 = 26:8 shows the hydrogen in the original gas. But the sum of these numbers (26°8 + 4:5 + 11) being less by 0°7 than the volume of gas submitted to analysis, we may safely consider that frac- tion of a measure to have been nitrogen. The composition then of the mixture will stand in volumes as follows : Hydrogen ..)¢ 000 800% (208) sieges 62°32 Carbonic oxide..... wees LEB ie ome sag LOAD Carburetted hydrogen... 11:0 ...,... 25°56 INUIORED sryis' gid oe keen CART OT Lpaislas peiy IRD 43-0 "100-00 On calculating what should be the specific gravity of a mix- ture of gases in the above proportions, it was found to be *503,* which coincides, as nearly as can be expected, with the actual specific gravity of the gas submitted to analysis, viz. 308. To place the correctness of the results beyond question, I mingled the gases in the above proportions, and acted on the artificial mixture in the same manner as on the original gas, when I had the satisfaction to find that the analytical process again gave the true volumes with the most perfect correctness for the hydro- gen and carbonic oxide, and within the fraction of a measure for the carburetted hydrogen. Notwithstanding this successful result, which was twice obtained, 1 should still prefer, for the reason which has been stated, having recourse to a temperature carefully regulated, for the analysis of similar mixtures, in all cases where the hydrogen is in moderate proportion, and where great accuracy is desirable. Whenever (it may again be remarked) olefiant gas is present in a mixture, it should always be removed by chlorine, before proceeding to expose the mixture to the agency of the spongy metal. It can scarcely be necessary to enter into further details respecting methods of analysis, the application of which to par- ticular cases must be sufficiently obvious, from the experiments which have been described on artificial mixtures. The apparatus required is extremely simple, consisting, when the balls are employed, of graduated tubes of a diameter between 0°3 and 0°6 of an inch ; or, when an increased temperature is used, of tubes bent into the shape of retorts, of a diameter varying with the quantity of gas to be submitted to experiment, which may be * In this estimate, the specific gravity of hydrogen is taken at ‘06945 that of car- bonic oxide at 6722; of carburetted hydrogen at "5555; and of nitrogen at *9728, 430 ~ Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations. . [Junr, from half a cubic inch to a cubic inch or more. These, when in use, may be immersed ina small iron cistern containing mercury, and provided with a cover in which are two holes, one for the tube, and the other for the stem of a thermometer, the degrees of which are best engraved on the glass. The gas is, of course, confined in the tube by keeping the open end immersed in a small basin of mercury. By means of these improved modes of analysis, I have already obtained some interesting illustrations of the nature of the gases from coal and from oil. I reserve, however, the com- munication of them, till I have had an opportunity of pursuing the inquiry to a greater extent, and especially of satisfying myself respecting the exact nature of the compound of charcoal and hydrogen, discovered some years ago by Mr. Dalton, in oil gas and coal gas, which agrees with olefiant gas in being con- densible by chlorine, but differs from it in affording more carbonic acid and consuming more oxygen. ArtTIcLE IV. Astronomical Observations, 1825. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. Bushey Heath, near Stanmore. Latitude 51° 37’ 44°3” North. Longitude West in time 1’ 20:93”, April 19. Emersion of Jupiter’s first § 9 34’ 03” Mean Time at Bushey. ¢ satellite. ......--eeceeees 9 35 24 Mean Time at Greenwich. April 25. Ingress of Jupiter's third § 9 08 55 Mean Time at Bushey. satellite... ....cccceseeee @ 9 10 16 Mean Time at Greenwich. April 30. Emersion of Jupiter’s second § 9 32 05 Mean Time at Bushey. satellite. .....c0ceeeeee es 9 33 26 Mean Time at Greenwich. May 6. Enmersion of Jupiter’s third ¢11 53 20 Mean Time at Bushey. satellite........-scccereee ; 11 54 41 Mean Time at Greenwich. Ail 24 Impenion of «small ser Y2 11 59.108 Sideril Tine Observed Transits of the Moon and Moon-culminating Stars over the Middle Wire of the Transit Instrument in Siderial Time. 1825. Stars. Transit. April 29.—167 Virginis............++0. .- ILh 49! 09:98” 29,—Moon’s First or West Limb.... 11 55 07°57 29,—14 Virginis. .....cceseessceses 12 10 2417 1825.] Mr. Gray on the Chemical Composition of Sponges. 431 ARTICLE VY. On the Chemical Composition of Sponges. By John Edward Gray, Esq. MGS. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, British Museum. 'In my paper on Sponges in the Zoological Journal, I observed that the sponges “all appear to be essentially formed after the same manner, that is to say, of longitudinally placed transparent fusiform spicule,” and further, that “ the fibres are composed of spicule united by a cartilaginous substance.” I collected a quantity of spicule, by washing them fromasponge in which they were very large and distinct. I accidentally found that they scratched glass, when rubbed hard against it. My attention having been attracted to this fact, having before considered them as mostly composed of carbonate or phosphate of lime, I applied to my friend Mr. Children, stating the circumstance, when he informed me that he had just observed that a sponge- like body lately given to him by Mr. Heuland, which proved to be a Tethya (a genus, which, in the before referred to paper, I stated to be formed almost entirely of spicule), consisted wholly of pure silica, and a little animal matter. On subjecting some sponges to experiment, considerable quantities of silica were found in the ashes of Spongilla fluviatilis, Spongia tomentosa, and two or three other allied species; and a small quantity in Spongia officinalis, and a distinct trace, sufficient to form a glo- bule before the blowpipe, in the ashes of a piece of the axis of Gorgonia Flabellum. - The quantity of silica appears, as might be expected, to be in proportion to the density of the fibres of the sponge. Shortly afterwards, on looking over Ellis’s Zoophites, p. 178, I found that he, in his description of Gorgonia Briareus (which is now considered to be an anomalous species), states, that its hard part (axis) or bone is composed of beautiful purple glassy spicule lying lengthways almost parallel to each other.” After considerable search I have not been able to get or even see a specimen of this interesting species, but there can be very little doubt but that these spicule are also siliceous. This fact is exceedingly interesting in several points of view ; first, because silica is very rarely found as a product of the ani- mal kingdom, and has never hitherto, that I am aware of, been said to be found in the zoophytes, but only spoken of as a con- stituent of hair and horn, to which the axis of the sponges and gorgonie have some resemblance ; secondly, as proving a consi- derable affinity or resemblance in chemical composition, as well as in external structure, to exist between the sea and freshwater 432 On the Red Colour of Crystallized Felspar. [Junx, sponges, a fact which several naturalists, since the appearance of my former paper, have appeared to doubt; and lastly, which is of much more consequence, it proves a considerable affinity to exist between the Sponges (both the marine and fluviatile) and the Gorgonia, which latter are known to be the habitation and pro- duction of individuals belonging to the animal kingdom ; and this greatly strengthens the idea of Ray, Lamarck, and others, that the sponges are true corals, nearly allied to Anthipates and Gorgonia, and not vegetables ; nor anomalous animals, like the Infusoria. | ArTICcLE VI. On the Red Colour of Crystallized Felspar. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Ir has often occurred to me as a peculiarity in crystallized felspar, that it exhibits a decided red colour, though analysis points out no substance in its composition to which that colour can be attributed ; and that this colour, after exposure to a strong heat, entirely disappears, leaving a very pure cclourless glass. It cannot be attributed to iron even if a minute quantity should exist in the felspar, because the colour of iron is not destructible in this manner ; and if a few iron stains exist on the felspar, the same heat which destroys the red colour of the crystal only makes those stains stronger. Hence a question has suggested itself, are chemists justified in supposing, as they uniformly do, that the colour of a mineral may always be referred to some specific colouring ingredient? It appears to me that felspar is an instance to the contrary, and an accidental experiment has enabled me to show that substances may be produced, which, though composed of perfectly colourless materials, shall, under certain circumstances, exhibit a decided colour. If a chemist should undertake to analyze the substance (of which I now send specimens), he would find only lime, alumina, silica, soda, and. boracic acid, and he would be much puzzled to account for the red colour which it exhibits, particularly when he should find that the colour might be made to appear and disappear at pleasure, according to the degree of heat and of comminution to which he might expose it. The method of producing the substance was as follows :— The ingredients above indicated were coarsely mixed together and exposed to a strong white heat, which produced a semi- vitrified mass of a pure white; a portion of this was finely ground, and after exposure to a low red heat not above that of melting silver, was found, much to my surprise, to have assumed 1825.] On the Red Colour of Crystallized Felspar. 433 a red colour; which colour, with the increase of heat, was found entirely to disappear, and the substance assumed at last as pure a white, as it possessed after the first fusion. A lump of the original mass was found to undergo no change of colour at the same heat, and I have uniformly found, after several trials, that the depth of the colour depends on the fineness of the grinding. A portion was mixed with nitre, which almost entirely destroyed the colour, a proof that it cannot be attri- buted to manganese, which might perhaps be suspected, as nitre always deepens the colour of manganese in a remarkable manner. I observe some doubts were expressed in your January num- ber as to the nature of some specimens from Caernarvon: for my own part, as soon as I found that parts of the rock naturally of a red colour became white in strong fire, I had no doubt those parts consisted of felspar. No. ] is the result of the first fusion, the materials having been imperfectly mixed, it is porous, and not uniform, but of a ood white. No. 2 is the same substance finely ground in a porcelain dish. No. 3 is a portion of No. 2, which has been exposed to a low red heat, nearly that of melting silver.* No. 4 is another portion of No. 2, which has been exposed to a heat somewhat stronger.+ No. 5 is another portion of No. 2, which has been exposed to a moderate white heat.{ No. 6 is another portion mixed with one-fifth nitre, and exposed to the same heat as No. 3.§ —E——- *,* The phenomena related in our correspondent’s paper are probably merely optical, owing to the different action of the substances on light from their different states of aggregation, according to the degrees of heat to which they have been exposed.— Edit. * This specimen has a peach blossom colour. + Pale bluish lilac colour. t Slightly greenish white enamel. § Similar tint to No. 4, but lighter. New Series, VOL, 1X. 25 434 Explanation of the Theory of the {[JunE, ArticLe VII. Explanation of the Theory of the Barometrical Measurement of Heights. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Tue barometer is an economical instrument capable, even in the hands of the most unscientific, of readily furnishing data sufficiently exact for the computation of accessible heights. The consequent calculations, in spite of repeated sacrifices of accu- racy to dispatch, are however disgustingly tedious, and not a little liable to error. In the most approved formule, approxi- mations seriously affecting in many cases the accuracy of the result are admitted, whilst minor corrections strictly constitut- ing part of the value of the coefficients are unnecessarily kept distinct, and form a notable portion of the labour of the com- puter. The tables expressly constructed to facilitate and ensure accuracy to the nicer calculations of the philosopher, as well as those designed to abridge the labour to the geologist, the bota- nist, and the general traveller, for whom the approaimate height may be sufficient, are capable of valuable improvement, not only in regard to accuracy, but to the attainment of the other object in view. To point out these errors, to remedy the defects, and to render the theory of the instrument and the various formule intelligible to general capacities, will form the principal object of the present paper. The task imposed is sufficiently difficult ; the execution will therefore require the extreme indulgence of your readers. Having formed a correct idea of the theory, we shall be able to propose some alterations in the construction of the instruments, trifling in themselves, yet enabling the observer materially to reduce the number of the data requisite for the calculations without affecting in the slightest degree the correctness of the result. Definition of Difference of Level, Vertical Height, &c. 1. The earth being a sphere at rest, any two or other number of points equally distant from its centre are termed level points, —on a level,—or level with each other, 2. A level surface con- sists of such points, and is every where at the same distance from the centre of the earth. The level surface being of incon- siderable extent will be sens¢bly a plane, parallel to the horizon, and is consequently occasionally termed a horizontal surface or plane. 3. The difference of level, or the vertical height, eleva- tion, or altitude of one point, or of one level surface above 1825.] Barometrical Measurement of Heights. 435 another, is equal to the difference of their distances from the centre of the earth. Of the Pressure of Fluids. 4. Fluids gravitate in lines directed to the centre of the earth (also that of gravity), and are so constituted that their particles yield to the action of the slightest pressure in any direction. 5. Every point of the surface of a fluid when at rest is equally distant from the centre of the earth. 6. The pressure downwards on the horizontal plane A (or upwards against the similar plane B) in contact with the uniformly dense fluid contained in the vessel V (placed in a vacuum), will vary directly as the vertical height of the surface of the fluid above the plane A (or the plane B), without regard to the figure or volume of the fluid ; for the pressures are as the weights, and the weights are as the heights of the incumbent columns of the fluid. 7. The pressure depending so/ely on the vertical height of the fluid above the planes, without regard to its horizontal extent, depth below the planes, &c. the surface of the mercury (or other uniformly dense fluid) contained in an inverted syphon, will be level (or stand at the same height) in both branches, however different or irregular their diameters, and without regard to the degree of inclination of either. (The tubes are supposed to be erereniy wide to render the effect of capillary attraction insen- sible.) 8. The pressure downwards : within the shorter branch of the aut inverted syphon 8, exerted on the surface A of the mercury (or other uniformly dense fluid) therein, in EB contact with the fluid contained a = s = in the vessel W (placed in a \Z vacuum), will be equal to the v9 weight of a cylinder C, having its base of the same area as the hori- zontal surface A; of the same vertical height as that of the sur- face of the fluid above A, and uniformly of the mean specific gravity of that intercepted portion of the fluid. 9. The equiponderant uniformly dense cylinder D, representing the weight of the counterpressure upwards of the mercury in the syphon 8, will have a base equal Ai that of the cylinder C; its 2F 436 Explanation of the Theory of the [Junn, height will be equal to the difference of level of the two branches ; its specific gravity the same as that of the mercury. 10. Any ratio of the height of a cylindrical column uniformly dense is the same proportion of its weight, and of its volume. 11. The diameters and weights of the two cylinders being equal, their heights will be reciprocally as their specific gravities. The mean specific gravity of the column of the fluid in the vessel W, intercepted between its surface and A, being less than that of the mercury in the syphon, in the ratio of 20 to 1, the vertical height of the fluid above A will exceed that of the difference of level of the mercury in the same proportion. 12. To ascertain the vertical height of the section 6 c situated below the surface a of the fluid contained in the vessel T; note the heights (differences of level) of the mercury in the syphons S and S’, placed at band c. Conceiving = =" a the fluid above the level of b to be removed, the difference of these heights, in addition to the mean , specific gravity of the intercepted = *--- a fluid and that of the mercury, form the whole of the requisite data. Theory of the Barometer. 13. Mercury (water, or other heavy incompressible fluid) being poured into the vessel U, will ascend, and finally stand at the same vertical height, or level / 7, as well in the tube Oe and in the inverted syphon B fixed within it as in the vessel itself,, and in the erect tube D, and the inclined one A forming part of it. 14. The whole being ina vacuum, if we introduce into the 1825.1]: Barometrical Measurement of Heights. 437 r ‘ Oo fluids). Remark.—The subsidence of the level of the mercury in the vessel from / / to ’, I’, is occasioned by that part of its original volume having ascended, on the introduction of the superior fluid, into the closed tubes A, B, C, D. Conceiving the light fluid pressing upon the exposed surface of the mercury tc represent the atmiosphere, then will the vessel U with its various tubes form so many varieties of the barometer having one common cistern. 15. Whatever the construction of the barometer, the vertical height of that surface of the mercury to which the atmosphere has not access above the surface in contact with it, equals, and ‘ys termed the pressure of atmosphere, or more generally the height of the barometer. Of the Density of Dry Air. Variation from Pressure —16. A volume of perfectly dry air? of any temperature, contained in the cylindrical ves- sel C, supporting only the pressure of the gravitat- ing uniformly dense cylindrical weight W, will have Ww its volume and height diminished in proportion to the augmentation of the weight (height) of the com- pressing column. 17. The weight (height) of the superincumbent Cc cylinder W being diminished in any ratio, the volume (height of the column) of air will be increased in the same proportion. 18. Hence the elasticities of perfectly dry air are directly, and the volumes and heights veciprocally as the pressures (or heights of the compressing weights). “19. The volume occupied by any fluid being increased or , _ diminished in any ratio, its density will be altered anverse/y in the same proportion. The densities will consequently be 438 Explanation of the Theory, &e. (June, directly as the pressures, and reciprocally as the volumes or heights. Variation from Temperature.—20. The dry air, uniformly of the temperature of 32° F. contained in the cylinder C being exposed to increased temperatures, will have its volume, elasti- city, and height, augmented, without regard to the pressure it supports at the uniform rate of -1, per degree. 21. Diminution of temperature will occasion a corresponding decrease of volume, elasticity, and height, in the same ratio. Examples. Temperatures ...... +32°F. + 8° + 80° + 512° Volumes and heights 1:00000 0:95000 1:10000 2-00000 Densities .......... 100000 1:05263 0:90909 0-50000 Mr. Daniell has adopted, in his barometrical tables, &c. a most erroneous method of calculating the alterations of density from variation of temperature. Calling the volume of dry air under a given pressure (30 inches), and of the temperature of 32° F. = 10, he proceeds to find the densities at other (more elevated) temperatures by subtracting the corresponding increase of volume from 1-0, the assumed density at 32°. Had Mr. Daniell extended the table to 512°, at which temperature the original volume becomes doubled, the incorrectness of the method would have been detected,—the density would have come out 0! The heights computed from his table will consequently exceed the truth, especially when the mean temperature of the air was high, or the elevation of the mountain considerable. The altitude being 5000 feet, the error at 80° F. would be about 50 feet. Well might the author of the Lratté de Physique make the remark,..... . “semblabies a un riche ma/azsé qui n’a point d’ordre, au milieu de nos théories les plus brillantes, nous mam quons souvent du plus simple nécessaire.” (To be continued.) 1825.) Alphabetical Table of the Weights of Atoms, Sc. 439 Articte VIII. Alphabetical Table of the Weights of Atoms, according to Berze- lius, corresponding with Phillips’s Table, Annals of Philosophy, vol. xxiv. p. 185 (vol. vii. New Series). Formule. Weights.| — Acid, acetic .......... A 64112 AYSENIC. ceeseceees ne 1440°77 AYSENIOUS. »-..00.- As 1240-77 Led 150955 boracic. .......... B 269'65 carbonic....+....- c 275°33 chloric. 2.2.20 M 942-65 |(Acidum oxymuriaticum.) chromic....2-++- Ch 130364 eieic. ibucdids ee. Cc 121-85 columbic........./Ta 192315 |(Acidum Tantalicum.) flucbotic..+.:.....(F B 544-68 fluoric....c0e+0+.-(E 215-03 Pilla 0 ble 463-93 fludeilicic..«.«--»- (2 Sit 2017°93 ante 862.20 lee | 791-78 27 SUA | 2066-10 |(Acidum oxiiodicum.) molybdice.....+..(Mo 896'80 et ae TAPE (Considered as composed of the mu- MHatICe ieee M 342°65 | riatic radicle = 142-65, and two - atoms of oxygen.) nr ee ae 1 67 7°26 MUEGILSs) cele se =1e + «> N 417-26 O° 2710°6 sees saeee perchloric. «....+,.|M 1142°65 |(As deduced from the composition of Hyperoxymurias kalicus.) ORANG rs cclivisiase'e’els phosphoric. ...+++-|P 892°30 phosphorous ...... P 692'30 Ls pa 627-85 420 Formule. Acid, sulphuric......../S- sulphurous........ s HATLANIC/ «5 ae eis o's T tungstic ...0-...+- Ww WERTONESTS co nop seman ais Al sulphate.......+.. Al $3 Aluminum........ Foor fs! Ammonia .......+. ...|NHS Acetaterelivielslasiets'e NHS A bicarbonate. ...... NHS C? borate . ...... ....|NHS B carbonate ........ NHS ie CUMATC arateicia « Space NHS G iodate....... 20. NHSI molybdate........ NH Mo PRUMALC |. os ctials cs.s NH M MItMALGsreisiels cetcce NHS N Oxalates ec rinsincie ss NH°O phosphate ........@NH6 + P phosphite. ........ 2 NHS + P succinate, ......0. NHS ‘Ss sulphate....... wee N HS sulphite.........: NH® S tartrate .-..ecc0es NHS T t Antimony ..... woes ss (SD chloride........ a Sb Ms iodide....... BSdce Sb B deutoxide ........ Sb ; PEXO KUM eseet< waters vie Sb protoxide. ........ Sb sulphuret. .,......(Sb $3 W eights. ee |] 50116 AO1*16 834-49 1507-69 642°33 2145:80 342-33 214-67 85656 766°10 485-09 490-77 943:33 2289:14 1112-24 55809 891-83 667-21 1321-44 1121-44 842-42 T15°73 615-73 1049-06 1612:90 2940-85 6313-0 2012-90 211290 1912-90 2216:38 Alphabetical Table of the Weights of Atoms, (Acidum Wolframicum). (Oxiodas ammonicus.) (Stibium.) (Acidum stibiosum?) (Acidum Stibicum ?) [JuNE, 1825. } Formule. ——ee —— = icici Arseniate of ammonia . .|2 NHS Ae 1871-65 potash ........... K As soda... Sy ie As * Arsenic ..eesseecs eeee As AZOLE minalaietastenict ses PERAY UE initat atwels o'oiessorne ais .|N Ba chloride ._......-. Ba M: iodide ............|Ba T° peroxide. ..6...... Ba? phosphuret ....... Ba P? Barytes...... ss Ae acetate.... Ba re arseniate. .......- Ba Aa arsenite ..ereceees Ba As? benzoate ....+-... Ba B? borate. ......-ce00 Ba B? carbonate. .....+.. Ba ren chlorate ........--|Ba iw chromate ....-++e Ba Ch Citrate.....+.. .-- [Ba C hydrate ...-.eceee Ba + 2Aq wpe ca cosa tite aitiemtess ics, behaaes muriate (cryst. 1 : Ba Me +4 Aq j water) >...05- IEAIBLES \olele wicic'sia ois Ba O? phosphate......... Ba Pp phosphite. ........ Ba P succinate, .....00. Ba $? sulphate.....+.... sulphite .....60406! 2620°60 2222°61 940-77 11726 1713°86 2599°16 4847°26 2013°86 2106-16 1913°86 3196°1 3354-62 4395°40 4932-96 2453-17 2464-52 3799°16 3217-50 3369°56 2138-73 6047-26 3268°38 3048-90 2817:40 2806°16 2606°16 3169°56 291618 271618 according to Berzelius. 441 (pees (Considered as a protoxide of nitri- cum, the imaginary base of azote, whese number is 77°26.) 442 Alphabetical Table of the Weights of Atoms, [Jun#, (Wolframias baryticus.) correct nameé fhan the one we use $c a Hydrogenii, a more in this country.) acetate ....ceecer> arseniate. ...seees benzoate. ereceees Giallo ..te. soo E! Citrate. oeeeeccess I Se eee | ba Boron......- elenistels Cadmium.....-...+.+.|Cd (As deduced from its Salts. See also 208 Essai, p. 145.) carbonate, ....- ad chloride .....-..-- iodide. ....- Hepawe 1825.] Formule. Galonimnp aids Sinc's's 00's Ca chloride....+sses- Ca M? Anoridele:. sitscece. Ca ¥ iodide.. ........-.(Ca I? oxide (ime) ......|Ca phosphuret ....... Ca P? Calomel .......s0e00-(H M Carbon. ........+6 eee-|C Ce Ee en sulphuret, ........|C S? Carbonic acid. ........ Cc Carburetted hydrogen, . |H* C (CST Cog copeeeUpba: Ce Chlorine.............|M Chromium......++.-..(Ch deutoxide ........ ch (AAR S hock ee th Cobalttiistlels ccuarcsc'awce Co acetate. ..cceceunis Co A? arseniate . .....0.- Co As penzoate......«..(Co B? POLAtE soe Se ve a s08| CO B carbonate. ..... See Co ro chloride.......... Co Ms citrate. .....+. eos Co C iodide..........+- CoP nitrate . Biase erin Ne oxalate .... ee evelCo O# peroxide.......+.- Co phosphate »..s-..- CoP according to Berzelius. 443 Weights. 512°06 1397°36 987-09 3645-46 712-06 904°36 2974°25 75°33 175-33 ATT 65 275°33 101°86 |(Carburetum bihydrogenicum) 1149°44 221°325|(Radicle of muriatie acid = 142°65, sata See Essai, p. 125.) 110364 1003-64 738°00 2220°2 2378°T7T 3957410 1477-31 1488-66 1623°3 2393°T 3871-4 2292°52 1841+54 1038-00 1830°30 444 Alphabetical Table of the 'W eights Cobalt, protoxide...... 938-00 sulphate ...++.--- 1940-32 sulphuret. ....-++- 1140°32 tartrate .eeeeeeees 260698 Columbium. ...-++++- 1823°15 Copper. ...-eeeeeeree 79139 carbonate. .... rica jodide....se+ sees perchloride. ...... Ci pernitrate ..e...+- ; 234591 persulphate. ...... 1993-71 perphosphate. ....- 1883-69 ‘protochloride ..... Fluorine. -eeeeeeeeee 15:03 Glucina ...-++: Glucinum ....--+.++ +: Goll. wo ccvccccccccess 2486-00 chloride ..++.-.00. 3813°95. protoxide. ....+... peroxide. ...-++-- sulphuret. ..+0.%++ 3089°48 Hydrogen .....- coos 62177 Jodine. ...ccceerseces 1266°7 Tron. . cocseceeceeess 678-43 protochloride...... 1563°73 2006°38 perchloride. ...+.- Weights of Atoms, [JuNne®, TT (Tantalum, a name the metal has no right to.) 962°56 |(Oxidum beryllicum.) 662°56 \( Beryllium.) 1825.]. ©. ©» © according to Berzelius. Formule. |Weights. a Tron, peroxide. ........ Fe 978-43 protoxide. .....00. Fe 878-43 sulphate. ....2.4.- Fe $3 2481-91 persulphuret ......|Fe S# 1483-07 protosulphuret ..../Fe S* 1080°75 WuCAhes a's, succinate. ......0- ( 1967-76 sulphate. .... .-.. 1714°38 sulphite .......++- 1514-38 tartrate. ....eccce: Ca its 2381-04 tungstate. ......+- Ca W? 727-44 |( Wolframias calcicua.). Lidia. .. Scene L 455°63 carbonate ...s.-.- L C 1006°29 reais ic ct ee 1810-15 flinaptinte faecal P 1347-98 sulphate, ....+++++ Le 1457-95 Lithium.......220+6+- L 255-63 chloride....... “Oc L M2 1140°93 Side clus cnce EE 3389-03 Magnesia, ..+.cscseeee 1825,] Formule. | eee Mg B A Mg C Magnesia, borate ,....-. 1056:03 carbonate. .....++ 1067-38 hydrate ....,.+++(Mg + 2/Aq| 741°59 nitrate ......++-+-(Mg Ne 1871-24 phosphate ........ sulphate.,.....+. {Mg S* 1519-04 tavivate - oc -ssscieg Me T° 2185-70 Magnesium. .......--|Mg 316-72 chloride..........|Mg M? {1202-02 iodide. ...........|Mg P 345012 Manganese. ......+++- Mn T1157 acetate. .....- Mn A? 2935°0 benzoate .......0- Mn B 5540:22 earbonate,.... «+. Mn c 1462°33 chlorate .........- Mn M2 2196-81 chloride....... ..-{Mn M? 1596°87 Citrate. .ececccesss deutoxide ........ ..(Mn 101157 oxalate........ ..-(Mn O3 2366'88 Mercury... scsccsseeess bisulphuret. ,.++-- 2933°92 perchloride....... Hg Mw? 3416-9 periodide, ........{Hg I? 5665°0 peritrate ....... dig N® 4086-12 according to Berzelius, W eights. 447 eee SST Sy ee eee (Oxidum manganicum.) (Superowvidum manganicum.) (Oxidum manganosum.) (Hydrargyrum-) 448 Alphabetical Table of the Weights of Atoms, (June, Weights. | Formule. —_——— —— Mercury, peroxide. .... 2731°6 |(Oxvidum Hydrargyricum.) perphosphate. .... 3623°9 persulphate. ....-- He 3 3633-92 |(Sulphas hydrargyricus.) protochloride......|H M protonitrate.....-- N protosulphate. .... 3132:76 |\(Sulphas hydrargyrosus.) protoxide..... «+. 2631°6 |(Oxvidum Hydrargyrosum.) Molybdenum. ...-..--|Mo 596-80 protoxide,.....+++ Wickelis cots esiereeres @fNa 739'51 slash ase ye INRA 2991-7 EES ee ee ee Ni As 9380:28 Ni OP phosphate ...+++- Ni P? 1831-81 protoxide, .....+++(Ni 939°51 sulphate... ..++++=|NiS? 1941-83 sulphuret, -.....+-|Ni S? 1141°83 tartrate. ....e.ee0- Ni T 2608°49 Nitric oxide .......4:- 317°26 |(Ovidum nitricum—gas nitrosum.) Nitrogen. ...-s++ee- 117-26 |(Subowidum nitricum ; see Azote.) Nitrous oxide. .....-- 277'26 |(Oxidum nitrosum.) 100-00 Formule. Palladium ............ Pa Gill honda iz eas Pa Phosphorus. .......... P MAGNO 3s aoe cee ss ces Pt chloride .......... PtM perchloride ....... Pt M? peroxide... 2.0... Pt protoxide. ..5.5..% Pt SOLAS 5!75/21s.c'sisalsi sine & K acetate .........., K ve arseniate. ........ K ‘ay BINEMIEC ic cicie iss 3. Ag B 3442-52 carbonate. ......+ Ag c 3453-87 chlorate ...eeeees- Ag MP 4788°51 Ag MP 3588-51 Jag Ch ‘1420685 (Berzelius gives another oxide of po- tassium, viz. Suboxidum kalicum, K = 1079°83.) (Oxidum rhodicum. According to Berzelius there is a deutoxide, Oxidum Rhodeum, R=1700:10.) 1825.] at ust noi “Yo sido Wi ght Yo lout \ooiindndal A Formule. |Weighits. ; ———— | eel Silver, citrate ........ Ag Cc 4358-91 ro aa eae Tt 7036'61 aides ..+-.-.--lAgl 5836-61 molybdate........|Ag Mo? — [4696-81 = Gena Ne NO 4257-73 oxalate, ...+.02--+ Ag 0? 380675 GEIAC 6 ojoistenee oe 2903°21 phosphate ...... a AgP 3795°51 sulphate... .....-- Ag S? 3905°53 sulphite........ Ag $ 3705°53 sulphuret........-. Ag S? 3105°53 7 Ag T? 4572-19 tungstate........ Ag Ww 5918°59 Soda ....... SHdaadaeoe 781-84 |\(Oxidum ndtricum.) acetate ...ecceess- Na A? 2064-0 arseniate. ..ee.-0- Na 2222°61 arsenite ......- 43h N a Ast 3263°38 benzoate. ........ N a B 3800:94 bicarbonate ....... Na Cat 1883-16 DOrate.. oo see. e ces Na B? 1321°15 carbonate. .......- Na c 1332750 chlorate .......4+. Na M2 2667-14 chromate. .....-.. Na Ch 2085'48 GUREC Tse aie n'y s\<:0« Na © 2237°54 hydrate .........- Na +2 Aq {1006-71 aD 4915:24 molybdate ........ Na Mo? [2575-44 TRA Osi a tasieidces pC SP succinate .....es.- according to Berzelius. - 2136:36 451 (oe | ee ee SE ST Formule. Ich 452 Soda, sulphate......... Nas? sulphite.......... NaS tartrate. .......00- Na "3 Sodium.........00....|Na Ebel. csc use Na M? AOUMME\iaveeins aise atale Na P peroxide. ... sees. Na protoxide, ........ Na sulphuret.........|Na S? Strontia....ccccceccess/OF acetate...ssceceese(or A? OLAS ciclo vie ceic (SK ES" carbonate. .....-..|9r C? CLUNBEE Cs afe'cisiecsteitse Sr Cc? hydrate ......... Sr + 2Aq oxalate. .ov...s.. Sr O? TATETACE:. cisiere ee sip o Strontium . .....00.0.-|SF chloride .......... Sr M2 ios et ee eae Sr P Sulphur ........0200..|S carburet........+.|C S? Sulphuretted hydrogen. .|H2 S Tellurium........ saeale chloride.......... Te M OXIAE o:. 0 ener eiece. Te seececcce ec (SD Tin. ....+. bisulphuret.......|Sn S4 Weights. 1784:16 “1584-16 2450-80 581°84 1467°14 3715:24 881-84 78184 98416 1294-60 2576°8 1833-91 1845-26 2750°3 1521-13 2198°14 2186-90 2296°92 2963°58 1094-60 1979-91 4228°0 201-16 ATT65 213-60 806:45 1691-75 1006°45 1470-58 2275°22 2ssShass th OF Gash toste : .éset Alphabetical Table of the Weights of Atoms, (June, ec ee (Natrium.) (Superoxidum natricum. Berze- lius also gives a suboxidum natrie cum, N = 681°84.) (Sulphuretum carbonict.) (Stannum.) . 1825.) according to Berzelius. 453 «eRe hood Yo Sayhiee. bap | Formulz. rl od as stanhosus. The periodide, or Tin, iodide .....+.+--- | Todas stannicus, Sn. P=7131. 38.) peroxide.......... Sn protoxide, .......- pa “| : oe | perchloride....... Sn Ms protochloride.....-|Sn M? 9241-18 | (Muriel Siig ae Sdet Tiel oT oS}. Otaiixet 2355°88 |(Murias stannosus.) xO Wh). case cece neces eAilODIIS sulphuret, ...+0-0+ rete pevene ce nes MIMHIO0TIN, Titanium, .........00 Wolframium: Tungsten. ... ccccstese W TF {bb07;69. ars. Tungstic acid ......... MOKAMLIN ia. op vse ¢ cone 97 (ORME on piieiale epee ps “2 peroxide... Ser a ls a Ae $9 ese es . 3 7c] SS -of18it-2o0 br T Yetriums. 620.0... J 190519 aludw ded i i aw Blea. sdeson- chore tf if F beds ; 84 ita) ews QV , 2: poetate La ae. Z 4 OOM hil VoLoin i eel a chyarpeniate; yeospteny / re i we | miig Dsz0q4ip yi (id Sail wIOW GS To moiIDs 1 Possess espe vid SOV ¢ | tp S97 Hevea , ° “ae A ny eee ve vrei 2B sith “2 sat woud ow iud ;9tpat “earbe mates. 2s ye eae daisd ¥ Sms uM 963 ya DoAatonny (o" (late ens jolouboig yeoull yievs 3s Iosi itlaogolidc + o} fanrmiolisg isvem H chlor eset ‘ eM cd “BO LS >JevNsKSIO $0 mis isv9l 90T OF QUIMsOasST fa 9 (eitkatesss. .Lachae. -| svsd SW eanunl ® 29id misdisat 9u3 lo bsjeovib wrt [ 7 iL ie {GQ DSIf , iodate . Sota aia seis 5 2 ols 2719 DAB Fis IBILGGH 1 tHlezsoont ont duodtiv Idotedidesyloasuods|Za Tsing 98HS88dihicas od} aove bus ydqerg 2 { . fy x S99 1QUG92009 SLs « OMS NIIISAeiD yd Dn \ — MItTAte. .. .eveeecee ‘ : pope: * SON9DMID ‘QUI ae IS Os egies IOMmSIOMRs eUOVomalates 96! isu) nonolie ei sebslwoud Ise to isaatb saiuasg to edit sriidg2 edi io bra fa bas Mula Jetq lo enous boli Pets AV6Y Tip 1g.ebain iqoaolidg phosphate .......+ emavsse) sldetiaths ajontatl ik jeeala vids mort pevewod »bhuloxs wun aW * B irr veg wadeenaivi swolb bor sat 9 aon bah yHoews, ok Tethers face) 454 Analyses of Books. UNE, Ladgie Wt wslearoT | a a Bi Formule. | Weights —~"—— £0 Spl O179q 204 EMAGRAS TS BHI § ee Se 5 eb pace a aay we \. | 82° G0) oe eer TR Sy. Yeore. ior . A ges ee j xe “—< Zine! sidcinates? ssoMyaie se * ) 9262-15 u ae hese | Raed ac | BG oy ey eas SbixoTEg sulphate.......... Zn S? }2008-77 a stan , a 08... .c005 obixotorg sulphite....,...,-/Z2n S?. .. }/1808; w~ P (ceisdtsr cove ah ish); 1808/1 SN Ga! sc. odie abizol:lossq RALETALE tools wigic sie tie Zn T?2 12675: pea | {suncuhats tah ll), Etna as PM a@’..., .. sbinoldoatorg Zirconia..... widjavc awe s PLE OX {[teloet } GO-ET8s "2 02)... 25. dotdglue Zirconium..........-.|Zr 2 = vey ; Bk tes sic wake suai vv cceeecaune liglegiul (asst OR wwhihR FICLE IX. W.......... hiss oitegavT | ) } paanys es ANALYBES OF Booxs Uj insi+- ste and, dat’ Jo red ere gest Adim qorsb-s1 i, Sir H Dageyen hn ay Lome. 4h last I arrived at the conclusion that a metallic tissue, howeve Ati daa SP AAih ‘he apertices ‘fled ihre Spee Miah stitfade,’ $6 “as ‘td? be peritieabile “to “air “anid light, Hfédt Battier” t8'eXplosion, froin “the “foree’ bang! unica mene” It STIG =H “My first safety laps coisticted of ede priticiples; ave light. in® explosive ‘mixtures’ containing “a “Bréat’ excess of air, but Bedatiie extine wished in'exy sive iatetats in Which the fires! damp Was ‘ih sufficient’ quantity to absorb’ fie! whole Of the’ otyeeh of ‘the air, ‘bo that ‘such’ mixturés nevet ‘burnt contifitt!’ oft Sabana air-feedérs, “which ‘in’ Idmp f : a Khidll 'oolinge ‘Subface,’ would "have, alteréd “the conditions oP secu YAISIsBT VO Dsfleinomgxs Viless 9a liw Ji moileaucmeos Pe tat ch tata) me tae toe ; aha should’ answer in All mixtures of fire-damp; Sit H. Davy ‘hit? pon the simple and effectual pxpedens of sutrounding' ‘the’ ght “etitirely with wire” etine and makiiie thé same’ tisste NIST f DsunnaAOS ‘ A ee Of structtite was consequently adopted oatid in Jahwaty; 4816; the oH alae pe introduced’ in the coal’ flauie,; Sir’ niphiry Davy miadé an ’intiportant practical: addiv: tiott to “the thik, ‘founded “entirely” i spendéd’a' little’ by ‘téans of Which : much contar a ated... ith, Te; GAorp 40, b Mts los YE 5 sow OW combination; mates eated: qth e: Me arama teelinda ali “aio (User touites ealginaing sent daidw ai sud ,ytiweoen Vo eolqionixg goqu bsionwe at -squctsd EN oof Books. Th we ching! Ecce ait sskiy in “6 ded} noleuloaos edt dc ant sasl elements, of th .gan.and oxyget which’ produces sufficient heat ta Keep the metals of) ‘to A ondacing pare and low, vee for, heat. tpemanently pignited , wh henever, there, AS) aif, “enough to, support i fe, apitont sutits 109 gas Ae bsbyvib Sir Humphry avy, to s om we ‘are “init for jhe ach correct jotions, on, the, nabars: of, fame fs GBDES «: « aénitosp. or gaseous matter; heated, to’ such a, degree cde be, lnminous ;.flames are. SOR lnbeeave She Be arses iit olf 3a the,centre,, of mah and m aN heated: ad raph Gex through. Fpl sea ‘of, fame; is, repo nal to. FADO 0 Con inatio he. ensity a! f., the gases,, con bining 3: imo iminis ch by rarefaction: and increases, by con, ensation,, tome asegns xture, require, a hi gh, tem rature, or its combustion, it wil ine oa Coated “by rarefaction, or, by, cooling, agencies; if, it, Teae a. very, Jaw, temperature pate 4G. Wilk yb Bupa 1 in ‘highly rarif ed ah Pam eh FAR erable, ing agencies. ° to .3 gx [sutos Gases, that bumn. with, ‘du dculty, are easily ‘kept Be a tal eh Estee inflammation i Sig be. st rongly . heater fey maakers.of safety, amps ga Bh L090. panei bly. poy dah mixtures. of, fire-damp bs ; oe i from,. 8 stems |, of _ tubes. canals, ,.or;, metallic Dlates, aa have, Sl vag ae & cooling , surfaces, howe eo become dangerous, as | th e heated,*, : where stent hs pouch sioned which congentats x explosive mixtur re BY th 1e, alr daesdete, in-lamps being .below,* made, fi tl canals, there, being, an . increment, of; heat. with Lin, sand fe this small, radiating, surface, without, as ‘the, heat mere ate 1 e¢ bustion of; the Lemplosive mixture. awl, g gra uall extend ;, fart Nery, ae at. last.communicate with the. ‘external aw, for exp sion, “will, be, Zesseyeranatested. by any, ARTHAS bearener small, BPlidee Lone tly heated,” ge cubes Bane as. it, off ars a, fare extent ie at radiating Ait est mater al for, rkiyy requixing. ciate ra than those of our atnereh ene ; but, the/apertures, must; be. ‘small er, and igRe Re ees sur faces, currents. of, explosiye, mixtures, acting eyen ie a ied sth oft ‘time, may be; stopped by, neduplicaans, of wire Laie ‘Wire = iy combs Baek > 8 bre wire 8 dimproper, on,, cent “4 Grey aviay (appear? tobe cons these principles cannot really exiat.” vole want ie al! says’ ty a t silt fet Bel bled ey ai bap ais me day structed upon paineigls of security, mcs in whi axngty ; Ahook. Yo eoylnn hk. Hp 1825.] Sir H. Davy on the Safety Lamp. 459 -oeolinda Sagishtib yd ,2zasbt uwo tied} of enibiooes .baatslaxs bas The body of the lamp should be of copper riveted together,..or ‘of massy oastibrass,{ or castiron;| the serews should, fit tight 5 novapertures Aoweverssmall, shouldbe suffered to exist.in,.the body, ofthe lamp, and! the trimming, wire should. move through, along tight tube. ;;The-temperature of, metal, even when, white, hot, isofav below, that of flame; and, henee..red;hot ,ganze,:in, sufficient quantity,and of the proper degree of fineness,,.will abs strat ‘sufficient heat fromthe:flame, of, the |fre-damp, ito ».ex4 tinguish at,’ too rrovons bus ;sisgyxo o3 tosqao1 diiw eyitigoy baWeshave dweltise icopiously, ono the first, section, ,of;,this in tetesting|ibook,:from-ats great :practical »importance, that we. ean spare.very little space.-for, the: others, .which occupy; by, far the lazger; portion ofithe;volume, and consist of, extracts trom papers published yby: the | author, in othe, Philosophical ;Transac; Bopsecielarip dolgetns of Seiences.-0ng the; Kine, Damp, >t Safety damp, and on Kame ;asdeseription, of the plate at the beginning of theywork-—and, some) extracts from, cpmmunt- cations} Ons then application, of, the «safetyiqlamp,,, from, Mr. Buddle; and . other; gentlemen, practically connected - with, t coak mines, igi ie cet MAR lid pd § merits and, efficacy: p this, important, diseoyerys: 3 viroqorg Igor JWe-shall,quote!one more;important, practical, remark, from the sconclusion ws Thednergased heat preduced by an,explosive miixture,in rapid. motion; aiequires, that; theradiating, or,cooling urface of; theclamp should;ibe/inereased, or :the.cireulatiqn ain diminished. ;-For this purpose twilled. gauze; gr.a; doub, or triple fold of wire gauze on one side of the lamp, or,a,sereen ‘of metal, opposite, to thedivection lofi the; eurtents| or. ay seml- inder ofiglass, or. micawithin, ‘answers, perfectly the. abject abpseyentng che heat diow rising toisednesssitos-ontin bas lapa , short Appendix is adéed.in the present publigation, contain, ing five artidles..oThe!finst, states that the author, has received @ paper from, Mi. Gay-Lussac, sutitten, some, -years.ago yby,M. de Humboldt,and, himself the results of which are confirmatory, 0 sit) Humphry Dayy’s, principles.on-theicauses, of, combustion an explosion, 'jand.showsthat, aR oxygen.aud hydrogen, in proportions. not, inflammable) by, the jelectaic, spazk,, may, still be made to combine,,and/ form jwater.by: artificially, raising, their sempefattPsiiiw sonobnouzenos scioe bed syed 1 hb .0o%.» -» Lhe seoond article relates, to-the, aphlogistic Jamp,,and th recent, experiments, of Dabereinen. and others. onthe . effect... spongy platina to promote the; union of oxygen, and hydrogen gases; xespecting which| Sin Humphry Davy offers the following . ‘| obseryationsin ie xo fi sisi) ys Tol aAtow O83 bouldeo ote granny ao “A: probable explanation of,the;phenomenon may} think, be founded, npon the-clectraghemical.hypothesis, which Laid ators the Royal Society in 1806, and which has been since adopte Analyses of Books. #3 ens ising aa} of. yoo) Fi Wiz exe t and explained, according to their own ideas, by different pane. Plier: tego bajevir 194q09 to od bluoda qaisl odi To ybod oT : Sa pposing oxyeend avid hydrogene to be in the telations of pion positive, it is necessary to effect their combination their electritities® should ‘be’ brought’ into“ equilibtiui oF dixéharged! This is dotie by the electrical spark or flamé, which ers'a donductitic medium for this purpose, or by: raisirig’ thetti £0 4 teinperature in which? they become’ themselves conductors: Now platinur ); ‘palladium; and-iridiumy are ‘bodies-very’slightly positive with respect to oxygene; and though good doniducters of electricity; they are bad conductors and radiators of heat, dnd sippésing? theta 1 exceedingly small masses; ! theyCoffer'to the ases the! condiictitic: thedium Necessary! for ‘carrying’ off? and Bi ifig ‘itt equilibrium their electricity without any interfering enerey; and accumulate’the ‘heat prodacedyby this equilibrium) Other Miétals°@0. not! possess the same union ‘of qualities be niost “of them “assist conibination “at lower temperatdres than dis) cWhichhis!'a nonJeonductor oftelectricity??) 19 yaianrge “4 That ‘spongy platinum, even whenmoistened,’ as‘ M. Dobe~ reiher has very lately shown, should’ facilitate‘ the combination of oxygene and hydrogene, may depend upon thes peciiliar' elec+ trical property ; and why' foilof'platinum’ should have its power of ‘causing’ see ee ‘and hydrogeneé ‘to combine, increased ‘ by being ‘placed, for’ a'short time, in nittie acid, as MM. Dulong and "Phetiard ‘have shown, may’ be ‘owing’ to this, that‘ the sheht ositive ‘charge’ it ‘acquires ‘may, in’being brought’ into‘equili- rium; bea first’step im the operation ; and ‘there are-analogous tit to » NO SXuUSP SHW 1 ot alqii3 to instancés.” 0%! i 4 lob coal and nitro-muriatic acid, has ‘not its power of acting upon HSeOus mixtures sensibly increased?” 09 — x10 Gogg / sion Ff the’ Salt Works at’ Aussee,' by whichse eralpersons were killed, . « a yeoruou (euoge Cases to'the carelessness of workmen. 010% 08 61 “ferp should strongly’ recommend: double lamps'itv cases where iners are obliged to work for any time in explosive mixtures, ot «wherever ‘cuirrents are expected jor lamps “with mica,’ or fitt-pla.c wit /tin thie wire ‘gauze to prevent too-great a:cireulation Xgobs soute nosd and Moilw bas USL ai Ytoivee Isyosl ott aut} *risis0e Insidqozoli ATL Yo eomshsssorF. coh 1825.].. «.;Proceedings of Philosophical Societies... _-, 461 of air. It is very easy to extinguish a lamp in which the fire- damp is burning, by sliding a tin-plate cylinder over it, or by a circle of wire gauze fitting the interior in a rim of copper, and moved by the termination of the trimming wire; but it is much better, in all cases of danger, to use lamps which under no cir- cumstances can explode. Such as those described in p. 97. “‘ Having often trusted my life to the safety lamp under the most dangerous circumstances, I cannot but sometimes smile when the public papers endeavour to invalidate its security upon the opinions or evidence of certain persons who have their own nostrums for preventing the accumulation of inflammable air in mines. “1 have sometimes to read letters on the improvement of the invention by plans, most of which are discussed in the foregoing pages ; such as using glass or mica as a part of the surface for transmitting light, using double lamps, or double lamps contain- ing a reflecting surface to prevent explosions from currents ; and I have actually seen a lamp upon the rudest model of those I first made, having thick glass above, and wire gauze below, called ‘ the newly invented safety lamp!’ “ No. 5. For gas manufactories or houses where gas is exten- sively used, I should recommend the safety lamp with iron wire gauze; but for the use of the navy, those with copper wire gauze are less liable to rust. As the latest instance of a ship lost for want of a safety lamp, I may mention the Kent East Indiaman, which was burnt, as I am informed by the Shipping Committee, in consequence of the inflammation of rum, by means of a com- mon lantern.” We cannot conclude our remarks on this subject without expressing our surprise and regret, that it has not been taken up by Parliament in the manner it deserves. Ifanation’s gratitude be due to her heroes and defenders, it is not less so to those who promote her internal resources and welfare ; and in a moral point of view, the philosopher whose happy application of science pre- serves the lives of his fellow creatures, is even more entitled to it than the warrior who destroys them. We hope those who have the power to confer the reward will not, late as it is, alto- gether neglect what we cannot but feel is as imperious a duty, as we trust they will find it a grateful one. ARTICLE X. Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. April 28.—Capt, E. Home, R.N. was admitted a Fellow of the Bociety ; and the reading of Dr. Granville’s Monograph on 462 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. (June, Egyptian Mummies was concluded: Wee are’ Silabled to! State shortly the principal object of this interesting communication, and to allude to some of the curious facts it details on the sub- ject of embalming. It appears, that in the year 1821, Sir A. Edmonstone pre- sented Dr. Granville witha mummy he had brought from Upper Egypt, which, after the removal of innumerable bandages, proved to be that ofa female, and a more perfect specimen of the kind than any that had heretofore been examined. Dr. Granville deemed this an excellent opportunity of investigating the yet unsettled question of the mode of embalming by the ancient Egyptians; and proceeded to dissect the mummy for that pur- ose in the presence of several medical and scientific friends ; instituting, at a more recent period, several experiments on its various parts and envelopes, tending to discover the process of mummification, in which object he appears certainly to have succeeded. This discovery he endeavoured to prove to the satisfaction of the persons present at the reading of his communication, “synthetically as well as analytically; for after the meeting, an exhibition of the dissected mummy took place in the library of the Society, where every assertion contained in the paper was illustrated by preparations, including several specimens of imi- tative mummies prepared by the author, some of which bore the closest resemblance to the Egyptian, and had withstood putrefaction for upwards of three years, though exposed to all the vicissitudes of a variable climate without any covering or other precautionary measure. Independently of this, which is evidently the mdin object of Dr. Granville’s researches, the author has been able to advance many very curious facts connected with the mummy in question, He has, for instance, given the dimensions of its various parts, which, by a singular coincidence, happen to be precisely those assigned by Carpet and Winkelmann to the celebrated statue of the Medicean Venus, the prototype of ideal beauty. These dimensions, moreover, prove, that this Egyptian female did not belong to the Ethiopian race, thereby contradicting the assertion of some writers, who consider the ancient Egyptians to have been Ethiopians. He has also fairly made out the age at which the individual died ; and the disease of which she died; and he has rendered it evident, from anatomical demon- stration, that she had borne children. All these circumstances may be considered by some as possessing no interest; but when it is considered that they are deduced from a minute and accurate examination of the body of a female, who, according to the best authorities of the pre- sent day with respect to Egyptian antiquities, and judging of the excavation out of which the mummy was taken, must have 1825 Ro al Society. .. 3 463 aut Os8IIGe joass auyal Seg RY tgnibourord bop lived about 3000 years ago; it will be admitted, that the pre- serving power of the mummifying process employed by the ancient Egyptians, and now discovered by Dr. Granville, must be great indeed. This mummifying process consists in the thorough impreg- nation of every part, soft or bard, with bees’-wax. There are besides, myrrh, gum, resin, bitumen, and even tannin (an- other new fact brought to light by the author of this paper) in the composition of the mummy; but none of these, either singly or conjointly, appear to be sufficient without the bees’- wax, to preserve the body, or convert it into a perfect mummy. Dr. Granville has proved this by successive steps, and con- vinced those who saw the exhibition after the meeting of its accuracy, by showing one of the nates of the mummy wholly deprived of the wax by ebullition and maceration, which was beginning to putrefy, and which now looked no longer like its mummified fellow, but more like the preparation of a recent specimen of that part. The disease of which the female died was ovarian dropsy ; and the uterine system, with the sac that had contained the morbid fluid during life, forming the oldest pathological pre- rates of its kind in existence, was exhibited to the society. he heart, lungs, diaphragm, one of the kidneys with the ureter, the gall bladder, and part of the intestines, were also shown. ti May 5.—Dr. H.-H: Southey was admitted a Fellow of the Society ; and a paper was communicated by Peter Barlow, Esq. FRS., in a letter to Mr. Herschel, On the Magnetism imparted to Iron Bodies by Rotation. May 12.—John Taylor, Esq. was admitted a Fellow of the Society; anda paper was read, On the Magnetism produced in an Iron Plate, by Rotation ; by 8. H. Christie, Esq. AM. FRS. May 19. Mr. George Harvey, John Smirnove, Esq., and the Rey. Dr. Morrison, DD. were respectively admitted Fellows of the Society ; and the following papers were read :— A Description of the Transit Instrument by Dollond, erected at the Observatory at Cambridge; by Robert Woodhouse, AM. FRS. On the Fossil Elk of Ireland; by Thomas Weaver, MRIA., &c.: communicated by Professor Buckland. During his recent ‘avocations in the North of Ireland, Mr. Weaver had enjoyed, he stated, an opportunity of determining some facts showing that the Elk whose fossil remains so fre- quently occur in Ireland, lived and died in the countries where it is now found; and similar facts had been ascertained about the same time, in the West of Ireland; by the Very Rey. Arch- deacon of Limerick ; particulars of which had been communi- cated to the Royal Dublin Society, and would form, Mr. Weaver ry Aintin wines e ‘ab Proceeding SF Resseeicat Societies. [ oa, See ml Se, 88 tes oO Og SF EE Ben lat Ga eremen RET a ae ee hoped, a distinct publication on the subject: but he: gave some account of them in the present paper, as they directly con- firmed his own deductions. Mr. Weaver’s researches were made in the county of Down, which presents hills of 300 or 400 feet in height, consisting of alternate beds of} clay-slate and fine grained greywacke, traversed by many contempora- neous veins of calcareous spar and quartz, and also intersected by some true metalliferous rake veins. Between two of these hills, at about four miles distance from the town of Dundrum, was the bog of Kilmegan, in which the facts were observed. ‘It appears to have been a lake, which has been gradually filled up by the growth and decay of successive races of aquatic plants, and the consequent formation of peat; but on ac- count of the water still remaining, it had never been worked as a peat-bog until the present Marquis of Downshire drained it by means of a level. The peat was found to rest upon a bed. of marl, from one to five feet in thickness, consisting of a -cal- careous base mingled with comminuted fragments of, freshwater shells, which it likewise contained in an entire and but slightly altered state, all referable to three still existing species, viz. Helix putris, L. Turbo fontinalis, and. Tellina .carnea. Many bones and horns of the Elk had been found from time to time in this bog, all of which, Mr. Weaver ascertained, from: the concurrent testimony of the tenantry, were found either pense the peat and the marl, cr slightly impressed in the atter. Theresearches of the Archdeacon of Limerick had been made in : a bog in that county: the bones were found under circum- stances precisely similar, and upon marl of the same kind. From them the Archdeacon had been enabled, with the assistance of Mr. Hart, MRCS. to frame a nearly complete and, gigantic skeleton, which he had given to the Museum. of the Royal Dublin Society. Some of the bones presented indications of. disease ; one leg had evidently been broken and healed again,,. a rib had a perforation about one-eighth of an inch wide, .the edges of which were depressed on the outside,. and raised.on the inside; it was such as could only have been made bya thin sharp instrument, which did not penetrate far enough, to, cause a mortal wound; for, as the edges of the perforation were quite smooth, the animal must have survived the injury at least a twelvemonth. The bones seemed to retain all their principles, with the addition of a portion of carbonate of lime imbibed from the contiguous marl. Some of them still retained , their marrow, which had the appearance of fresh suet, and,, blazed when applied to the flame of a candle.. With,them. were found a pelvis, apparently belonging to a Red-Deer, and’. the skull of a Dog, of about the size of a Water-Spaniel.;).o.;;42.| From all these circumstances, which accord with, those, under . 1825.] Geéological Society: 465 which the remains of the Elk occur in the curraghs of the Isle of Man, as described by Mr. Henslow, Mr. Weaver infers that these Elks must have lived and died in the countries where they are now found; that the period when they lived must be considered as modern in the physical his- tory of the globe ; and that their destruction is to be attributed to the constant persecution of their enemies, and in some cases to the operation of local causes; and not to a catastrophe acting on the entire surface of the globe: thus, that their re- mains are not of diluvial, but of post-diluvial origin. Mr. Weaver conceives that they fled to the lakes, which have since become bogs, as a refuge from their enemies, and so often found a grave where they had sought protection. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. feb. 18.—A paper by Professor Buckland was read on the valley of Kingsclere near Newbury, and the evidence it affords of disturbances affecting the green sand, chalk, and plastic clay formations. he object of this paper is to describe the phenomena of a small valley near Kingsclere, in which the green sand strata are protruded to the surface through the chalk and plastic clay, at a spot situated within the area of the chalk basin of New- bury, and affording a remarkable exception to the general regularity of that basin. This irregularity of structure has apparently originated from a sudden elevation of the chalk, accompanied by fracture and an inverted dip; its position is remarkable as being near Inkpen hill, a point where the chalk rises to 1011 feet, the highest elevation it attains in England. In the valley subjacent to the Inkpen ridge, and near its north base, the chalk dips rapidly in two opposite directions nearly N and S on each side of a central axis or anticlinal line ; and a little further east the green sand also emerges with a similar double dip, and forms the small valley of Kingsclere, surrounded on all sides with an enclosing escarpment of chalk. The N frontier of this valley is in close contact with well characterized deposits of plastic clay dipping like itself rapidly towards the north. Four similar valleys are adduced in the counties of Wilts and Dorset; and the author concludes re- specting them all, that it is utterly impossible to explain their origin by denudation alone, nor indeed without referring the present position of their component strata to a force acting from below and elevating the strata along the line of the central axis of the valleys in question. To valleys of this kind the author applies the appellation of valleys of elevation, to distinguish them from, those which owe their origin simply to diluvial denudation. He then proceeds to show, that the New Series, vou, ax. 2" 466 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Junz, valleys of Pewsey near Devizes, and of the Wily and the Nadder above Salisbury, have also, to a certain degree, been affected by a force acting from beneath, and elevating the strata ata period antecedent to their being submitted to denudation; and concludes, that not only these enclosed valleys similar to that of Kingsclere, but many open valleys also (though in all cases modified by subsequent denudation), had a prior origin arising from the fracture and elevation of their component strata: this must have happened in the case of the Weald of Kent and Sussex, enclosed as it is with an escarpment of chalk dipping every where outwards in opposite directions, and sometimes very rapidly, along the North and South Downs. The author proceeds to illustrate, by the position of the strata of plastic clay in this same district, the important Geological question whether the chalk was disposed in its present form of troughs or basins, before or after the deposition of the tertiary formations now enclosed in them, and to show that the present inclination of the strata along the S frontier of the basins of London and Hants took place since the deposition of the plastic, and probably also of the London clays; and that these two basins were once connected together across the now intermediate chalky strata of the downs of Hants, Wilts, and Dorset; since it appears that the plastic clay formation is so far from being limited to the lower levels of the present basins, that large residuary fragments of it still occur on the summits of the most elevated portions of chalk in these coun- ties, e. g. on the summit of Inkpen near Newbury, and on that of Blackdown near Abbotsbury, as well as on the top of Chid- bury and Beacon hills in the highest part of Salisbury plain. The strata that covered the intermediate spaces have probably been removed by diluvial denudation, and the destructible nature of their component materials would render them pecu- larly liable to be swept away by the transit of violent currents of water. The wreck of the harder portions of the sandy strata thus destroyed, forms the sandstone blocks called grey weathers that lic loosely scattered on the naked surface of the chalk in all these counties, and of which Stonehenge is con- structed. In lower levels, within the existing basins, these same strata have been less destroyed, in consequence of. the greater protection from the ravages of diluvial denudation which their low position has afforded them. sf The author concludes by referring to the occurrence, of similar tertiary strata as well as of chalk and green sand:on the summit of the Savoy Alps, nearly 10,000 feet above the level of the sea, where they seem to bear the same relation to the tertiary strata of the valleys of Italy, France, and Ger- many, that our trifling elevations of Inkpen, Blackdown, &c. bear: to the basins of London and Hants, and concludes that: 1825.] "Geological Society. 467 since the deposition of these beds, either by the elevation of the mountains, or the depression of the valleys, or the united effect of both these causes, the relative level of the one to the other has been changed to the amount of many thousand feet. March 4.—A notice was read on some silicified wood from the desert between Cairo and Suez, in a letter by George Francis Grey, Esq. to the Rev. W. Buckland, Pres. GS. “Large masses of silicified wood, resembling in form the trunks of palm trees, lie scattered, the author observes, over a tract of gravel in the desert about fifteen miles from Cairo, and for two days’ journey all the way from that place to Suez. A notice was also read on the bones of several animals found in peat near Romsey, in Hampshire, extracted from a letter from Charles Daman, Esq. to the Rev. W. Buckland, Pres. GS. Mr. Daman mentions that the skulls of several beavers, as well as the bones of oxen, swine, stags and roebucks, have been dug out of the peat near Romsey, and out of the shell mail provincially termed “ malm,” which occurs in the same alluvial tract. In one place several human skeletons have been taken out of the marl. “A paper entitled “ Observations on the beds of clay, sand, and gravel belonging to the red marl formation of the midland counties, and.on the rocks from which they are derived, by the Rev. James Yates, MGS.” was read in part. March 18.—The paper entitled “ Observations on the beds of clay, sand, and gravel belonging to the red marl formation of the midland counties, and ou the rocks from which they are derived, by the Rev. James Yates, MGS.” was concluded. In this communication Mr. Yates enters into some description of the rocks which are found zu situ on the confines of Wales and Shropshire, in order to show, that from the disintegration of these rocks, the clay, sand, and gravel of the red marl for- mation have for the most part been derived. The first line of section which is particularly considered is near the river Dee and Valle Crucis ; the second, a line drawn from Oswestry westward to Llansilen, which crosses within the space of five miles the basset edges of all the strata from the new red sand- stone to the slate. The author then takes a view of the rocks occurring in the direction of the road from Welchpool to Ludlow. The fourth district then noticed is the vicinity of Church Stretton. Mr. Yates then mentions some particulars of the rock near Bewdley, and in the Clent hills, and the neighbourhood of Dudley, and adds some remarks on the Broomsgrove Lickey, as supplementary to Professor Buckland’s paper in the fifth volume of the Geological Society’s Trans- actions. ‘The range of hills is also described which extends from NW 2u2 468 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [JuNE, to SE beside the course of the Coventry canaland ‘the ‘river Anker; and lastly, a district in Leicestershire, a few? miles E from Hinckley, consisting of a coarse grained crystalline green- stone. 10S The author then proceeds to show, how the strata belonging to the older formations, which he has described, may be viewed in connexion with the general physical structure of England, and then points out from what various sources the beds of sand} clay, and gravel of the red marl formation, as well as the super- ficial debris which is strewed over the midland districts of England, may have originated. Mr. Yates concludes with some remarks on the excavation of valleys, and on some opinions on that subject now generally received among English geologists, from which he is inclined to differ. ‘ April 15.—A paper was read entitled ‘‘ On a New Species’of Gyrogonite from the lower freshwater formation at Whitecliff bay, in the Isle of Wight, with some account ofthe ‘strata in which it occurs.” By Charles Lyell, Esq. Sec.'GSi'4 9) to Mr. Lyell describes this species of gyrogonite as very distinet from the three species which have been found in’ France.) The spiral valves form nine rings, each of which are ornamented with a row of tubercles, from which he has given it’ the namie of chara tuberculata. An account is given of the strata of the lower freshwater formation at Whitecliff bay in the Isle of Wight, in which this gyrogonite occurs very abundantly. They consist of beds of very compact limestone, alternating with whitish calcareous marls, and in most of them the casts or shells of various freshwater univalves are common. Gyrogonites appear not to have been noticed before in the freshwater strata on the east side of the Isle of Wight. Those which have been noticed as abounding in the limestone of the lower freshwater strata at Garnet Bay are chiefly referable to the chara medicaginula of the French authors. In that locality, fossil stems accompany them whose structure is identical with that of some recent chare, as for example C. Hispida. bi The author concludes by observing, that from the remark- able toughness of the integument of their seedvessel, and’ from the large proportion of carbonate of lime which they contain in a living state, most of the chare are peculiarly adapted for becoming fossil, and that they are accordingly preservéd" in the recent marls in Scotland, both in a vegetable and a’ mine- ralized state, when the other aquatic plants which lived and died in the lakes with them are entirely decomposed; or canitio longer be recognized. NOD, IAS EAT An extract of a letter was read from Jer. Van Rensselaer, Esq. on the Discovery of the Skeleton ofa Mastodon-at New York; and of the Tertiary Formation in New Jersey.) (°° In this letter Mr. Rensselaer mentions, that in a late expe- OJ28 fo & 1825.) Scientific Notices—Miscellaneous. 469 dition which he had made with some friends to examine the geology of the state of New Jersey, they had discovered, dis- interred, -and.afterwards brought to New York, the skeleton of a mastodon very nearly perfect. They also satisfied themselves that. much of the region which lies between the Atlantic and the.range of primitive mountains was referable to the tertiary formation, and that the secondary do not make their appear- ance for some hundreds of miles. A. paper was read entitled ‘‘ Account of a Fossil Crocodile recently discovered in the Alum Shale near Whitby.” By the Rev. George Young. Mr. Young describes the osteology of this fossil animal, which has been deposited in the museum at Whitby, and of which a drawing accompanied this communication. Its length exceeds fourteen feet, and when perfect must have reached eighteen. o: The;-author mentions that these are not the only remains of the crocodile which have been discovered near Whitby, although, they had been generally confounded with those of the plesiosaurus; of which animal, however, as well as of three,,or four species of the icthyosaurus, undoubted remains occurin the Alum Shale of Whitby. Viltis ARTICLE XI. SCIENTIFIC NOTICES. MIscELLANEOUS. 1. New Scientific Jouenal. oi) In spite of the old adage, that two of a trade can never agree, ‘@which by the bye, for the sake of human nature, we hope is not moxejtrue than it is liberal,) we have much pleasure in an- nouncing the appearance of the first number of the Dublin Philosophical Journal and Scientific Review, and in bearing our testimony.to its merits. If it be carried on in future with as;much ability as is shown at its outset, it will prove a va- luable, addition to the scientific journals of the day, and reflect great,credit on the zeal of its editors and the talents of our fellow labourers.in the sister kingdom. The present number -contains many original and valuable articles, particularly one oby,, Dr.,, Brinkley, which opens the work, On the Method of finding the Longitude from the Culminaéion of the Moon and Stars; aypaper by, Mr. Lloyd on the Composition of Forces ; yanother, on the, Crystallization of Precipitates, by Mr. Stokes ; one by Dr. Jacob, on the Generic Characters and Anatomical wiz ater! « 470 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [JuNE, Structure of the Whale; a description of an ingenious Appa- ratus for filtering out of Contact with the Atmosphere, by Mr. Donovan, and several others. In the Review department, we have particularly to notice an excellent account of Mr. Daniell’s Meteorological Essays, in which, though the critic does not always agree with his author, much well merited praise is bestowed on that very interesting volume. The review of a book called The Young Brewer’s Monitor, is pretty severe (not unjustly so, however, as it should seem) and very entertaining, and a good specimen of the ridiculum acri, as well as the sub- sequent one on Brown’s Principles of the Differential Calculus. In our next number we intend to make our readers more intimately acquainted with some of the articles in this promising journal. 2. New Magnetic Phenomenon. At the sitting of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris, on the 7th of March, M. Arago exhibited an apparatus for showing, in a new form, the action which magnetized and non magnetized bodies mutually exert on each other. In his first experiments, M. Arago proved, that a disc, of copper, or any other solid or liquid substance, placed beneath a magnetic needle, affects the extent of its oscillations, . without sensibly altering their duration. The phenomenon in question may be considered as the converse of the preceding. Since a needle in motion is stopped bya disc at rest, M. Arago imagined that a needle at rest would be moved by a disc in motion. In fact, if a plate, of copper for instance, be made to turn with any determinate velocity under a magnetized needle contained in a perfectly closed vessel, the needle will no longer assume its usual position; it stops without the magnetic me- ridian, and so much the farther from that plane as the revolu- tion of the disc is more rapid. Ifthe rotatory motion be suffi- ciently rapid, the needle itself, at whatever distance from the disc, turns continually round the wire on which it is suspended. —(Annales de Chimie.) 3. Hyena Caves in Devonshire. Professor Buckland has lately examined two caves inj De- vonshire, in both of which he found, in a bed of mud beneath a crust of calosinter, gnawed fragments and splinters of bones, with teeth of hyenas and bears. There were no entire bones, except the solid ones of the toes, heels, &c., as at Kirkdale, which were too hard for the teeth of the hyena. They appear simply to have been dens, but less abundantly inhabited than that at Kirkdale. In the same cave, Professor Buckland found one tooth of the rhinoceros, and two or three only of the horse.—(Edin, Phil. Journ.) A wedge 1826.] New Scientific Books. 471 4. Quantity of Blood in Animals. Those who have not considered the subject, must be sur- prises at the quantity of blood which passes through the eart of any moderately sized animal in the course of 24 hours, In man, the quantity of blood existing in the body at any given moment is probably from 30 to 40 pints. Of these, an ounce and a half, or about three table spoonfuls, are sent out at every stroke; which multiplied into 75 (the average rate of the pulse), give 1125 ounces, or seven pints, in a minute; i. e. 420 pints, or 25°5 gallons, in an hour; and 1260 gallons, i. e. nearly 24 hogsheads, in a day. Now, if we recollect that the whale is said to send out from its heart at each stroke 15 gallons, the imagination is overwhelmed with the aggregate of the quantity that must pass through the heart of that animal in 24 hours. It is a general law, that the pulse of the larger animals is slower than that of the smaller; but even if we put the pulse of the whale so low as 20 in the minute, the quantity circulated through the heart, calculated at 15 gallons for each pulsation, will be 432,000 gallons, equal to 8000 hogsheads in 24 hours. The consideration cf this amazing quantity is, how- ever, a subject of mere empty wonder, if not accompanied with the reflection, that, in order to produce the aggregate amount, the heart is kept in constant motion; and that, in fact, it is incessantly beating, as it is termed, or throwing out the ‘blood into the arteries, from the first period of our existence to the moment of our death, without any sensation of fatigue, or even without our consciousness, excepting under occasional corporeal or mental agitation(Dr. Kidd, Edin. Phil. Journ.) ArTICLE XII. NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION. Mathematical Tables. By W. Galbraith. Flora Fossilis, or a Description of the Fossil Vegetable Remains found in the Coal Districts of Durham and Northumberland, with a - particular Account of the concomitant Stratification. By J.B. Tay- or, FSA, Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan, with some Account of the North-east of Persia. By J. B. Fraser. A Complete History of the Cistus or Rock Rose. By Mr. Sweet. « JUST PUBLISHED. ) Dendrologia Britannica, or Trees and Shrubs that will live in the open Air of Britain throughout the Year. By P. W. Watson, l'LS. 2 vols. royal 8vo.; 172 coloured Plates. 51. 5s. 472 heute tk _ New: Patents... (June, The Study 0 of Medicine. By J. M. Good, MD. ‘Second Edition, enlarged and remodelled. 5 vols. 8vo. 3. 15s. Excursions to Madeira and Porto Santo, during the Autumn of 1823. By the late Edward Bowdich, with an Appendix, containing Zoological and Botanical Descriptions. Plates, 4to. A Series of Tables, in which the Weights and Measures of France are reduced_té the English Standard, By the late Christopher Knight Sanders. S8vo. 7s. 6d. boards, or 8s. 6d. half-bound. A Treatise on Mineralogy, translated from the German of Frederic Mohs. By W. Haidinger, FRSE. 8 vols. post 8vo. 17. 16s. ~-Narrative ofa J ourney across the Cordilleras of the Andes, and of a Residence in Lirna,’&c! “By Robert Proctor. 8vo, 12s. Voyage of Discovery’ in the Interior of Africa, from its Western Coast to the Niger. By Brevet Major Gray. 8vo, Plates PE 18s. i The Surgical Anatomy of the Arteries of the meh aul By Robert Harrison, AM. &c. Vol. IT. 5s. 5 ArticLe XIII. NEW PATENTS. R. Roberts, 1 Manchester, civil. engineer, for improvements in the mule, billy, jenny, stretching frame, or other machines used in spin- ning cotton, wool, or other fibrous substances, and in which either the spindles recede from and approach the rollers or other deliverers of the said fibrous substances, or: in which such rollers or deliverers recede from and approach, the spindles. —March 29. J. H. Baker, Antigua, now residing in St. Martin’ s-lane, forimprove- ments in dyeing and calico-printing by the use of certain, yegetable materials,— March 29. Maurice de Jongh, Warrington, cotton spinner, fopai improvements in spinning bnaehoies and mules, jennies, slubbers, &c.+-March 29. E. Sheppard, clothier, and A. Flint, Uley, Gloucestershire, engineer, for i improvements in machinery for raising the wool or pile on woollen or other cloths by, points, also applicable | to brustling; smetphing, and dressing cloths.—March 29. ‘T. Parkin, Bache’s-row, ,City-road, merchant, for ja mode of paving parts of public roads, whereby the draft of waggons, Partiis coaches, and other carriages, is facilitated:—Mareh 29., R. Cabanel, Melina-place, Westminster-road, enginger, Palen ments on,engines or machinery for raisingywater, part’ of othich ma- chinery ig, applicable to other useful purposes~—March 30. J. Heathcoat,. Tiverton, lace-manufacturer,. for secteranemn methods of figuring or ornamenting various goods manufactured from silk, cot- ton, ‘flax; “ke: ~—March 31. gaat at Ee Oe ae to; beer feat thereon, atl % A 0 ja-ucingle S. Broadmeadow, “Abergavenny, civil\engineer; for dis apparatus: for exhausting, condensing, or propelling air, smoke, gas, &c.— April 2. 1825.)) ~~ | ~Mr, Howard’s Meteorological Journal. 478 ARTICLE XIV. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE. ai BaroMETeER, THERMOMETER, , 1825, | Wind. Max. Min. Max. | Min. | Evap. | Rain. 4th Mon. , April JIN. E 30°61 52 25 = Recline = 30°51 59 32 _ 3S W 50°40 62 35 — 4, N $0:40 62 30 — 5IN E 30°42 62 38 _ 6| E 30°48 | 55 25 _ 7/\\ 30°49 55 35 — 8| E 30°39 58 28 _ gN E 30°39 68 34 95 10IN> °E 30°30 69 44 — LN W - 30°20 69 44 ~ 12)> W 30°20 60 A4 44) = , 13)) W 30°22 54 40 —_ — 14) W 30°26 64 A+ — 15| W 30°27 64 40 —_ 16iIN: W 30°27 64 40 a i7IN W 30°36 55 29 _ 1s} N 30°36 54 26 "84, 19) N 30°31 58 35 = 20) W 30°15 58 36 — 2118 - W 29°82 58 36 — 12 ; 2218 W 29:66 60 46 — 17 23/5 W 29:60 66 49 — 19 24; S 29°60 66 40 _— 40 L 1Q518 i 29°79 65 40 _ 02 250 26) LE 29°48 66 48 — 53 27, E 29°45 61 39 — 10 s7o1gmgg! SE 29°52 62 38 _ 02 sat dotigg}io SE 29'64 66 42 07 30} O'S! 29 88 63 43 14 bodsenor b4ve -— lie how Lobogo6n | 29-45) 69 | 25 | 3-34 | 1°55 ° | The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, beginning at 9 A. M. on) the day indicated in the first column. A dash denotes that theresult:isincluded in the next following observation. Shiigt 474 Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal, (June, 1825. REMARKS. Fourth Month—1\1—8. Fine. 9. Foggy morning: very fine day. 9—I1. Fine. ‘13. A little gentle rain this morning. 14—2I. Fine. 22. A gentle rain this morning : showery day. 23. Fine. 24, Showery afternoon. 25. Fine: some thunder this afternoon. 26. Thunder at intérvals during the day, with showers of rain and hail, aT. Showery. 28—30. Fine. RESULTS. Winds: N,3; NE, 5; E,5; SE,3; S,2; SW,4; W,5; NW, 3. Barometer : Mean height Poy they mionthrtae 2s css tee e's vecdeecccccnece SU'108 inches. For the lunar period, ending the JOth...........-..+. 30-414 For 14 days, ending the Ist (moon north) ...... wees 30315 For 13 days, ending the 14th (moon south) .......... 30°387 For 14 days, ending the 28th (moon north) .......... 29961 Thermometer: Mean height For the month....,.. s0aajas oie o6.ca.eisih bis Surnieikv@ Mla aaa For the lunar period, ending the L1th . ....s.seseeeee 41°30 For 31 days, the sun in Aries. ....,.0ssseerseerees ADAGT PRPMROLAON 2s CONSE she deca nee avd sOgmacgnavaduetessncadcse OE Ile Rain. PPS eee OAEEET AEST BEET EESER HEE SH Peters eh ss tH SORE EEPEEEES 155 And by a second guage ....seseveesecssee siald cam oidls hw sasib Neb apeeeen P 31 esi Laboratory, Stratford, Fifth Month, 12, 1825: L; HOWARD. INDEX. meee BACUS, rhabdological, 147. Acid, cobaltic, 69. —— formic, 390. gallic, 390. Air, dry, on its density, 437. Alluvial and diluvial formations, on their _» origin, 241. Almanac, Nautical, 387. Alum, its action on vegetable blues, 152. Ammonia, solubility of oxide of cobalt in, 69. Analysis of a combination of nitrate of silver and cyanuret of mercury, 133— of tourmalines, 149—of boletus sulphu- reus, !50—of white precipitate, 151— of torrelite, 217, 221—of chlorides of titanium, 20—of garnets, 70—of bary- tic harmotome, 230—of common har- motome, 231—of cadmiferous blende, 23 1—of sulphuret of lead and antimony, 231—of potash-sulphate of uranium, 269—of potash-muriate of uranium, 270—of oxalate of uranium, 27!—of uranite, 276—28 |—of the animal earth of Kiihloch, 284—of chromates of lead, 303—of sodalite, 314—of tartarized on 372—of gaseous mixtures, 16. Anglesea, selenium from, 52. Annales de Chimie, origin of, 94. Animal charcoal, on its use as a flux, 30. -—— earth of Kiihloch, 284. Animals, quantity of blood in, 471. Antediluvian world, climate of, 97, 207. Antimony, hew compound of, 151, sulpho-iodide of, 152. tartarized, 372. and lead sulphuret of, 231. Arago, M. on a new phenomenon, 470. Astronomy, its present state, 65. Astronomical observations, 31, 13), 200, 302, 358, 430. Atkinson, Mr. H. notice of his paper on refraction, 149. Atomic capacities for heat of various bo- dies, 117. diameters of various bodies, 111. expansions by heat of various bo- dies, 120. theory, Mr. Children’s summary ‘view of, according to the hypothesis of Berzelius, 185, 336, Atomic weight of titanium, 20. —— — weights, Berzelius’s table of, 439. B. Babbage, C. Esq. notice of his paper on a new zenith micrometer, 310. __ Badams, J. Esq. on scarlet subchromate of lead, 303. Baltic, level of the, 74. Barometer, construction of, 144, — theory of, 436. Barometrical measurement of heights, explanation of the theory of, 434. _ Beaufoy, Col. meteorological table by, 109 —astronomical observations, 31, 131, 200, 302, 358, 430. ; Berthollet, M. memoir of his life. and writings by Colquhoun, 1, 8], 161. his discovery of the com< position of ammonia, 11. his researches on chlorine, 16. ——— — list of his works, 181. ——— on dyeing, 87. —_—_—— on chemical statics, 167. Beryls, Irish, 227. Berzelius, M. on fluoric acid, 124—on bo- ron,152—on lithia,152—-Mr.Children’s view of his hypothesis of the atomic theory, 185, 336—on uranium, 266— his table of the weights of atoms, 439. Beudant, M. strictures on his application of the atomic theory to mineralogy, 350. Black-lead mine, 315. Bleaching by chlorine, discovered by Ber- tholler, 82. Blende, cadmiferous, 231. Blood, quantity of, in animals, 471. Blowpipe, on its use, 57,73. Blues, vegetable, action of alum upon, 152. Boiling points of ether and water, 196. Boletus sulphureus, 150. Books, new scientific, 17, 157, 237, 318, 398, 471. —— analyses of, 56, 315, 454, 469. 476 Boron, its preparation, 152. Bostock, ve, on the boiling point of ether, 196... Bowdich, T. E. Esq. notice of his paper on fossils foundin Madeira, 149. Brewster, Dr. on rice-paper, 316; Bricks, saline efflorescence on, $3. Brinkley, Dr. his:merits.as an astronomer, 63—notice of his paper on Sir’T. Bris- bane’s astronomical observations at. Pa- _ Tamatta; 386, Brisbane, Sir -Thomas, notice of his astro- nomical observations, 145, 386. British Museum, 232. Brookite, a new minerals description. of, 140. , Buckland,-Prof. on the cave of Kihloch, 284—notice of his paper on the valley of Kingsclere, 465—on hyzna caves in - Devonshire, 470. bg: Oadmiferous blende, 231, ‘Capacities for heat, atomic, of various bo- dies, 117. Cerium, is not contained in torrelite, 221. Cette, freshwater formations at, 387. Chemical attraction, its force in various bodies, 112, philosophy, mathematical prin- ciples of, 109, 381. — statics, Berthollet on; 167.. Chevreul; -M. -his -examination . of -the Kithloch animal earth, 284, : Children, J. G. summary view of the atomic theory according to Berzelius, 185, 336—on torrelite, 221—on sele- nium from Anglesea, 52—on titanium in mica, 230—on silica in Sees 431, ‘Chiorides of titanium, 18.. - “Circulation, materno-fetal, 306. Clement, M. on i of copper obtained wid humidh, 228 eine of the antediluvian world, $7, 0 vag oxide of, solubility in ammonia, Cobaltic acid, 69. Cold produced by the combination of me- tals, 389. Collimator, floating, 143. Colour, red, of felspar, and of an earthy compound, 432. Colquhoun, Mr. his memoir of Berthollet, ni b> Shy 16K ‘Comet, anew, 146. Comfield, Mr, R. notice of his paper on i occultation of Jupiter ty ‘the’ moon, Index. Compound of nitrate of silver and pam ret of mercury, 131. 0°” Conchology, important work on, 233; - Copper, ingots of, obtained vid humidd, 228. Copper sheathing of ships, Sir H, Davy on its preservation, 297—other experi- ments on the subject, 299. Corals, contain silica, 431. ° Crichton, Sir A. on the climate of the an- tediluvian world, &c. 97, 207. Crocodile, fossil, 469, ; Cyanuret of mercury and nitrate of silver} compound of, 131. D. Daniell, J. F, Esq. notice of his paperon the construction of the barometer, 144, Davy, Sir H. notice of his’address to the Royal Society, Nov. 30, 1824, 61—ad- ditional experiments, &c, on preserving the copper sheathing of ships, 297— analysis of the second edition of ‘his work on the Safety Lamp; 454—on the action of spongy platinum on gaseous mixtures, 459, Density of dry air, and its variations from pressure and temperature, 437. Dictionary, Explanatory, of the apparatus and instruments employed in the various operations of philosophical and: expeti- mental chemistry, analysis of, 56:- Diluvial and alluvial formations, on their origin, 241. : Distillation, on the acceleration of, 157. Deebereiner, M. on the action of platinum powder on gaseous mixtures, 313—on cold produced by the combination o¢ metals, 389—on gallic acid ‘and’ vein 390—his eudiometer, 416, °° °°" Dry air, its density; 437: FT nil Dorpat, observatory of, 309. Dyeing, Berthollet’on, ‘87, whookt sjirent) i seer Edelcrantz, Baron, biography of, 3212») Egyptian mummies, Dr. ' Granville: on, 462, g Electrical conducting power of melted re. sins, 234, ise A907) Elk, fossil, 463. soiton a pererges Embalming, process‘of, among the ‘ancient Egyptians, 462. if atrywhoow Emmett, Rev. J:°B? on the/mathematical principles of chemical philosophyy109, 381—on the solar spots, S8P:0 "0" Indea.. Ether, onvitsyboiling point,:196... —- formic, 390. Eudiometry, 416, 420. F. Faraday, Mr. M. on torrelite, 223. sola ccystalliaeel, on its red colour, Fires, saferpchood for, 281. + Fishes, on changing their residence, 379. Fitton, Dr. reply 'to:his paper on the beds . between the chalk) and Purbeck lime- stone, by Mr. Webster, 33. Flame, 404, 458. Fluids, pressure of, 435. Fluoric acid, Berzelius on, 124, Fluosilicates, 129, Forces;ef:chemical. attraction of various ibodies, 112. Formation of.granite, 97, 207. — freshwater, 310, 387. Formic.acid, 390, -— ether, 390. Fossil elk, 463. Fossils, new work on, 315. Frauenhofer, M. his micrometers, 148. G. Gallic acid, 390, Garnet, composition of, 70, 352, Gaseous mixtures, action of platinum upon, 416. Gases combined by means of. platinum, 313. Gay-Lussac, M. on the mutual action of magnetic particles, 154. Geology, 33, 74, 97, 149, 223, 241, 387, 463, 465, 470. Gmelin, Prof. on oxide of cobalt, 69—on the composition of tourmalines, 149. Goodwyn, H. Esq. his rhabdolugical aba- . cus, 147—MS. mathematical tables, 232. Granite, formation of, 97, 207. Granville, Dr. A. B. notice of his paper on Egyptian mummies, 462. Grays J.\E. Esq, on shells not noticed by inion Toe & 407—on the structure of pearls, 27—on the chemical com- Position of sponges, 431. Gace sand, 36. Gregory, Dr. notice of his paper on. the thabdological,, abacus, , 147—~on. Mr. Goodwyn’s MSS, 232. \Grouvelle; ;M, (his, errors Teepe titel chro- 20 mates 893, y wssley Gyrogonites'3 11. 477. H. Haidinger, W. Esq. on ppeestla ae of minerals, 391. Hillostrém, Prof. on temp: of max. den- sity of water, 165, 9)" Harmotome, new variety of, 230. Heat and light, 201, 224, 359, 401, Hennel, Mr. on composition of white pres - cipitate, Ib1 0 + Henry, Dr. W. on the action ‘of finely di- vided ‘platmum on™gastous mixtures, el its’ application’ to” their ' Ses tee Herapath, Mr. omhis theory of light, 408. Home, Sir E. notice of his Croonian lec- ture on nerves-in’the placenta, 59; — ve his paper on the ovum of tg frog; Horsfall, C. Esq. on the preservation of- the copper sheathing in a ship, 301. Hortus Malabaricus, 227. Howard, Mr. meteorological tables, 79, 159, 239, 319, 397, 473. Hyena caves in Devonshire, 470. Hydrogen and oxygen condensed by Lng tinum, 313. Hydrometer for urine, 334, Hydrophobia, 154, pot I. and J. Iguanodon, 223. Johnson, Dr. J. R. notice of his paper or: the planriz, 306. K. Kater, Cant notice of his paper on a float~ ing collimator, 143. Konig, C. his Icones Fossilium, 315. Kihloch, soil of the cavern there, anbtyets of, 284. lL. Lamarck, catalogue of shells not. ‘noticed by him, 134, 407. Lamp, Safety, Sir H. Davy on the, A54. Lead, native, 154. —— subchromate of, scarlet, 303. —— and antimony, sulphuret of, 231. Lectures on meteorites, 234. Lévy, M. his description of brookite, 140. Light and heat, 20), 224, , $a Lithia, preparation ; of | Localities of rare miner a vapid 478 Lyell, C. Esq-notice of his paper on shell- marl, &c. 310—notice of his paper on a Rew species of gyrogonite, 468, M. Macintosh, Major, on tumuli near the falls of Niagara, 122. Madeira, fossils of, 149. Magnetism, 154, 470, Mantell, Mr. notice of his paper on the iguanodon, 223. Marcel de Serres, M. notice of his paper on the freshwater formations of Sete, 387. Marl, freshwater, &c, 310. Maseres, Baron, 61. Materno-fetal circulation, 306. Mathematical principles of chemical phi- losophy, 109, 381, ———_——--— tables, 232. _ Mercury, cyanuret of, combination with nitrate of silver, 131. Metals, cold produced by their combina-. tion, 389. Meteorites, lectures on, 234, Meteorological table kept at Bushey Heath, 109. —— at Helston, 264. New Malton, 194. Stratford, 79, 159, 239, 319, 399, 473. Mica, on the presence of titanium in, 229. Micrometers, M. Frauenhofer’s, 148—Pr. , Amici’s, 146—Mr. Babbage’s, 810. Mill, N. Esq. on changing the residence of fishes, 379. Mineral, a new, 140, Minerals, collections of, 72. — specific gravity of, 391. —-——- rare, localities of, 153, Mineralogy, application of the atomic theory to, 350, Moyle, Mr. M. P. his meteorological ta- ble, 264. — Egyptian, Dr. Granville on, 62. Muriate of titanium, 20. Mytilus polymorphus ‘Thames, 226. found in the N. Native lead, 154. Natron lakes of Egypt examined by Ber- thollet, 163. Nautical Almanac, 387. Nerves in the placenta, 59, 223: Ender. Niagara, falls of, tumuli neat, 122, — Nitrate of silver and cyanuret of mercury, compound of, 131. ' Oo. Observations, astronomical, 31, 131, 200, 302, 358, 430. Observatory of Dorpat, 309. Occultations, 147, 149. Oersted, Prof. on accelerated distillation, 157. Optical deception, explanation of, 67. Organic remains in alluvium, 249. SSS diluvium, 251. Oxalate of uranium, 271. Oxide of cobalt, its solubility in ammonia, 69. : Oxygen and hydrogen, condensed by pla- tinum, 313. gas, conversion of gallic acid into ulmin by, 390, : Paratonnerres, on, 32. ; Patents, new, 76, 159, 235, 318, 397, 472, Pearls, Mr. Gray on their structure, &e. 27. Pepys, Mr. preserves fine eutting instru-’ ments by cases lined with zinc, 299. ° Pharmacopeia, London, 53, Phillips, Mr. R. reply to Mr. Whipple on the London Pharmacopeia, 535; on tartarized antimony, 372. ; Photometer, a new, 68. Placenta, nerves in, 59, 223. Planariz, 306. ‘ Platinum, finely divided, its action on ga- seous mixtures, 313, 416, 459. re Potach, sulphate of, its preparation, 54. Potash-muriate of uranium, 270, ‘ ——— sulphate of ditto, 269. Powell, Rey. B. on solar light and heat, 201—on light and heat from terrestrial sources, 359—notice of his paper on ra- diant heat from terrestrial sources, 224, —his additional experiments and re- marks on light and heat, 401. dsl Precipitate, white, 151. ye Prize dissertation of the Medical Society, 318: —— questions of the Astronomical So- ciety, 146. ——— Index. Prout, Dr. on s hydrometer for urine, 534. . Prussian blue, applied to dyeing by Ber- thollet, 89. R, Radiant heat from terrestrial sources, 228. Red marl, 467. Refraction, 149. Renwick, Prof. on torrelite, 217. Resins, melted, their electrical conducting power, 234, Rhabdological abacus, 147. Rice paper, 316. Ritchie, A. notice of his paper on a new photometer, 68. Roberis, J. his safety fire-hood, 281. Roget, Dr. notice of his paper on an opti- cal deception, 67. Ross, Capt. notice of his paper on the oc- cultation of Jupiter by the moon, 147— on the occultation of Herschel by the moon, 149, Ss. Safety-hood and mouth-piece for entering burning houses, 281. Safety Lamp, Sir H. Davy on the, 454. Saline efflorescence on bricks, 68. Sedgwick, Prof. on the origin of alluvial and diluvial formations, 241. Selenium from the pyrites of Anglesea, Messrs. Thomson and Children on, 52. Sete, freshwater formations at, 387. Shells not noticed by Lamarck, 134, 407. Sheppard, Rey. R. notice of his paper on motacilla hippolais, 227. Ships, copper sheathing of, Sir H. Davy on its preservation, 297—other experi- ments on the subject, 299. Silica, contained in sponges and corals, 431, Silicated fluates, 124, Silver, nitrate of, combination of it with cyanuret of mercury, 131. Snowdon, its geology, 74. Société d’Arcueil, origin of, 177. Society, Astronomical, proceedings of, 145, 228, 307, 385, ——- Geological, proceedings of, 310, 387 465, -——— Linnean, proceedings of, 226, 385, —-— Medical, 312. ——~ Royal, proceedings of, 59, 143, 223, 306, 385, 461. 479 Sodalite, 314. Solar spots, 381. South, Mr. corrections in right ascension- of 37 principal stars of the Greenwich catalogue, 21, 258. Sowerby, Messrs. their Species Conchylio- tum, 233. Specific gravity of urine, instrument for determining, 334—of minerals, 391. ~ Sponges, Mr. Gray on their chemical composition, 431. " Stars, right ascension of, 37, corrections in, 21, 258, eT Stockton, Mr. his meteorological table kept at New Malton, 194. wit Sub-chromate of lead, scarlet, 303. Sulphate of potash, its preparation, 54, - ————_— uranium and potash, 269, Sulpho-iodide of antimony, 152. Sulphuret of lead and antimony, 231. Sun, spots on the, 381, T. Tables, meteorological, 79 et seq.—109, 194, 264, 307. Tartarized antimony, 572. Telegraph, Edelcrantz’s, 325, Telescope, notice of Frauenhofer’s large, 309. Thomson, E. P. Esq. on selenium from Anglesea, 52, Titanium, M. Vauquelin on its presence in mica, 229. atomic weight of, 20. chlorides of, 18. ——— muriate of, 20. Torrelite, does not contain oxide of cerium, 221. Tourmalines, composition of, 149, Traill, Dr. communication from, on the copper sheathing of ships, 300. Tumuli near the falls of Niagara, 122. U. and V. Vauquelin, M. on titanium in mica, 229, Vigors, N. A. Esq. notice of his paper on British birds, 226. Ulmin, 390. Uranite, 276, Uranium, M. Berzelius on, 266, ores of, 274, Urine, hydrometer for, 334. W. Wachtmeister on the composition of gar " net; 70.-on sodalite, 314. 480 Water, on some phenomena. of its ebulli- tion, 200. temp. of its max. density, 155. Weaver, Mr. notice of his paper on the fossil elk of Ireland, 463. Webster, T. Esq. his reply to Dr. Fitton on the beds between the chalk and pur- beck limestone, 33. Whatton, W. R. Esq. on Roberts's safety fire-hood, 281. Whewell, Mr. notice of his paper on cal- _ culating the angles of crystals, 61. Whipple, Mr. on the London Pharmaco- peia, Mr. Phillips’s reply to, 52. White precipitate, composition of, 151. Williams, Dr. D. notice of his paper on the materno-fectal circulation, 306. Index. Wehler, Dr. F: on @ peculiar tlass of combinations, 131, ¥: Yates, Rev, J. notice of his paper on the red marl, 467, Yenite, 153. Z. Zenith micrometer, Mr. Babbage’s new, 310. END OF VOL. IX. EAGT Ao EET CES Oe Printed by C. Baldwin, New Bridge-street, London.