saan nd en eae +> a Er ese ean — fi i Uh Bty MT i itt Ta holes elt pens ors Sea a artnet pein —_—_—_ aa =Sturgis Libraru~ ite ee a ee — oe ee — BARNSTABLE, ee —__—— a! e ie P y Pe f i Bios oe ‘ wie a. UB; , an tY: em: ee 1 ine ap ‘va gitar’ | ° Ae Lox is aU -) ik ANNUAL RECORD OF SUIENCE AND ANDUSTRY: Annual Record of Science and Industry for 1876. Prepared by Spencer F. Batrp, Assistant-Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, with the Assistance of some of the most Eminent Men of Science in the United States. Large 12mo, Cloth, $2 00. Uniform with the volumes of the Annual Record of Science and Industry for 1871, 1872, 1878, 1874, 1875. These Stx Votumes constitute a complete and continuous His- TORY OF THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY FOR THE LAST Srx Years. Price $2 00 per volume. PusLisHeD BY HARPER & BROTHERS, New York. t2- Harrrre & Broruers will send any of these volumes by mail, postage prepaid, to any part of the United States or Canada, on receipt of $2 00. ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY FOR 1876. EDITED BY SPENCER F. BAIRD, WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF EMINENT MEN OF SCIENCE. NEW YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE. os a rf Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, by HaRPER & BROTHERS, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. PR dae, E:. Tuer present volume of the “ Annual Record of Science and Indastry ” constitutes the sixth of the series, and is in- tended to present an intelligible and popular account of the more important facts of progress in the various depart- ments of the physical and natural sciences, and their ap- plications to the conveniences and luxuries of mankind. Its distinguishing features, as compared with other works intended to answer the same general purpose, are as follows: First, a series of summaries of progress in the different branches of physical, natural, and industrial science, pre- pared by a number of the most eminent specialists in the United States, whose collaboration the editor has been so fortunate as to secure. , Second, a series of abstracts, more or less systematically arranged, of special papers, memoirs, or other publications, by various writers, and with references to the title, volume, and page of the source of information; these abstracts very rarely being transcripts from the original, but digests in which only the points of special novelty and interest are presented, with omission of irrelevant matter, and not unfrequently with critical remarks and elucidations. These have been for the most part edited and prepared by the specialists referred to. Third, a list of the losses in scientific circles by death during the year. Fourth, a list of the more important publications in science for the year embraced. within the scope of the fecord, with references to critical notices, serving as a guide to students and purchasers of books. In connection (ii) PREFACE. with this is a list of the principal serial works from which extracts or quotations are to be found in the volume. Fifth, an extremely minute alphabetical index of authors and subjects. Sixth, a systematic and analytical table of contents, by means of which reference can readily be made to whatever the volume contains, bearing upon any particular line of inquiry. Seventh, in compliance with a generally expressed wish, the names of the authors of the different portions of the Scientific Summary are given for the first time in the present volume of the /eecord, in connection with their respective communications, all of them men occupying the front rank in America as authors and investigators. Other collaborators not contributors to the first division of the volume are Professor C. I*. Himes, of Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa.; Professor I’. W. Clarke, of the University of Cincinnati; Professor I. D. Cope, of Philadelphia; Profess- or F.V. Hayden; Major J. W. Powell; Lieutenant George M. Wheeler, U.S. A., and several others who prefer to re- main unmentioned. it will be readily understood that the present volume is prepared for the general public, who desire to become acquainted with the more prominent steps of advancement during the year, without the trouble of resorting to the sources of original information concerning the same. Specialists may find little or nothing in it to merit their attention, and, indeed, they may naturally be inclined to criticise the work for not being more complete. It must be borne in mind, however, that the work is limited in extent, and that,in view of the enormous subdivision of labor at present in the line of scientific investigation, any attempt at exhaustiveness would involve a vast increase in the size of the book. At the present time there is scarcely a branch of science which is without one or more journals as its organs and an annual record devoted exclusively to its history; and to these reference should be made for more minute information. It is hoped, however, that but little of general or popular interest has been overlooked. PREFACE. (iii) In the selection for the Scientific Bibliography the editor has been chiefly guided by the commendatory no- tices which have appeared in the more prominent scientific journals of the day, and references to the pages of the journals wherein the works catalogued and reviewed are given. As the journals in question are generally easily accessible, the reader is thus furnished with a trustworthy guide in his selection of books. Spencer I. Bartrp. SMITHSONIAN InsTITUTION, WASHINGTON, March 1, 1877. nop onl 2A an , i = aid 8 e ote at HE 2 . coe ll back Bo aoitnalad alah at oh % b eced hms a wate en Oe = ye a? at day: re a if ra <3 F i . » pC eet a Feehie er ar on es uh ry ae _ Mp AST Ad TABLE OF CONTENTS. Ea] OGTR IT chen eet se 2 a ee Page (i) PALL. I. GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. ASTRONOMY. By Epwarp S. HoLpen, Professor of Mathematics, Mat Otls SAGES UNBY Viciraia cid ais -\had acim aici edn ; |Make of Pig-|Make of Pig-| Make of Pig- Make of Pig- iron in 1872, | iron in 1873. | iron in 1874. | iron in 1875. Net Tons. Net Tons. Net Tons. | Net Tons. STATEs. pletaa Stacks, ec, 31, 1878. Whole No. com of Blast 31, 187 1875. No. of Stacks out Whole No. com- No. of Stacks in Blast, Dec. 31, 780 1,661 2,046 1 aie a 2,000 3,100 3,450 2,400 + 17,070 21,136 27,991 21,255 5 22,700 26,977 14,518 10,880 26 291,155 | 296,818 | 326,721 266,431 New Jersey... 6 103,858 102,341 90,150 64,069 Pennsylvania| 262 118 1,401,497 | 1,389,573 | 1,213,133 960,884 Maryland....| 22 1 63,031 55,986 54,556 38,741 Virginia 35 8 21,445 26,475 29,451 29,985 8 Ke 1,073 1,432 1,340 800 8 5 2,945 7,501 9,786 16,508 6 12,512 22,283 32,863 25,108 c= 619 280 1,012 sca 4 20,796 23,056 30,134 25,277 8 67,396 69,889 61,227 48,339 7 49,454 43,134 48,770 28,311 54 399,743 | 406,029 | 425,001 | 415,893 4 39,221 32,486 13,732 22,081 3 78,627 55,796 37,946 49,762 4 100,222 123,506 136,662 114,805 6 65,036 74,148 50,792 62,139 6 101,158 85,552 75,817 59,717 1 oes Bae 2,500 1,000 on 200 150 Total......] 657 | 693 | 713 | 293 | 420 | 2,854,558 | 2,868,278 | 2,689,413 | 2,266,581 A recapitulation of the foregoing statistics, showing the relative proportions of the various kinds of pig-iron, and the magnitude of the several branches of the industry, is given below: Kinps Bete sae Sais og 33 | y sHn{sonn|sn=(S2 |Z 2 .|Make of Pig-\ Make of Pig-|Make of Pig-|Make of Pig-| QA OF Aan |Zem|\Zee (0. |= 2s) iron in 1872. | iron in 1873. | iron in 1874. | iron in 1785. | Ey fi Ry ‘5 as fie} Net Tons. Net Tons. Net Tons. Net Tons. Pic-IRoN. $22 222 $28 se roared SES Te Sc a eit oe Anthracite. ..| 207 | 217 | 225 | 100 | 125 | 1,369,812 | 1,312,754 | 1,202,144 908,046 Chareoal.-... 279 | 295 | 281 95 | 186 500,587 577,620 576,557 410,990 | Bituminous Coal and 171 | 181 | 207} 98) 109 984,159 977,904 910,712 947,545 | Coke .... Total... | 657 | 693 | 713 | 293 | 420 | 2,854,558 | 2,868,278 | 2,689,413 | 2,266,581 The New York Jron Age has published a valuable statistical re- port, showing in detail the condition of the blast furnaces of the country on September Ist, 1876, which enables us to draw the in- ference that the production of the year just past will show a con- siderable decrease as compared with 1875. The journal in ques- tion affirms that the reports it publishes are nearly complete. One of the notable facts shown by the report is that a much larger pro- portion of furnaces are out of blast than at corresponding dates of 1874 and 1875. The following table shows comparatively the re- sults of reports made to the journal referred to during the last three years: eCxcvl GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND In Blast. Out of Blast. 1874. 1875. 1876. 143 109 70 ; 161 152 122 86 70 121 155 83 89 76 107 1383 1874. 1875. 1876. 1874. 1875. 1876. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 69 40 32 3L 60 68 61 42 31 39 58 69 46 45 36 54 5d 64 The following gives a comprehensive summary of the condition of things: at tugs E ser bk peas |. degen Sw jem B=) °o H = 8S : SH |e z ces % Src os “4 op Sys a2 sR a Rs FurEL 71 Seo Siw =n + as oS fQ . ro) Pee) nS Ooown eae" OCcon an 2s es FQ eos Soe: meso = ° . o Se . Dae =o S S ofo8 6 o.500 = Z Z e Z e cs Following the published statistics of the association, we are en- abled to affirm that the total production of rolled iron in 1875 was 1,890,379 net tons, against 1,839,560 tons in 1874, and 1,966,445 tons in 1873. These figures embrace all kinds of rails, including Besse- mer cut nails and spikes, bar, band, hoop, plate, sheet, angle, girder, beam, boat, guide, rod and bridge iron, and rolled axles, and are exclusive of forged iron, such as anchors, anvils, hammered axles, cranks, ships’ knees, etc. The total production of iron and steel rails of all sizes in 1875 was 792,512 net tons, against 729,413 tons in 1874, 890,077 in 18738, and 1,000,000 in 1872. Of this total for 1875, 501,649 tons were iron rails (against 584,469 tons in 1874), and 290,863 tons were Bessemer steel rails (against 144,944 tons in 1874). The increase in the production of Bessemer rails during the year 1875 was therefore more than 100 per cent. over the production of 1874. 'The increase in the quantity of street rails produced was also noteworthy, the product of 1875 being 16,340 tons, as compared with 6,739 tons in 1874. There were during the year 1875 ten completed Bessemer estab- lishments in this country in more or less active operation. Two of INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. exevii these, the Edgar Thompson and the Lackawanna, were started in that year, as noticed in our last year’s Record. During the year 1876 one new establishment, the Vulcan, at St. Louis, which made its first blow in the month of July, was added to the list, making the total number of Bessemer works in the country eleven. The following table of Bessemer rail production, drawn from the association’s sta- tistics, completes our annual réswmé of this important branch of the iron industry up to January 1st, 1876: Net Tons. Net Tons. 186% (ascertained)... 2,500 | 1872 (ascertained)........... 94,070 1868 ele i fd ie dB ais 7,225 | 1873 ‘ peta oes od 129,015 1869 Phare S22 oeanror 9,650 | 1874 Serer ‘04 aie Jest 144, 944 1870 Seer pi. css ORs 34,000 | 1875 O6 seat BN cicereh 290,865 1871 oe VEER Bee 38,200 As will be observed, by the inspection of our last year’s comments, the secretary’s estimate for 1875 was somewhat below the mark. The use of Bessemer steel for general purposes is rapidly increasing. The total quantity of pig-iron (including spiegeleisen) converted by the pneumatic process in 1875 was 395,956 net tons, as compared with 204,352 tons in 1874, and 183,534 tons in 1873. Not less than one sixth of our total production of pig-iron in 1875 was converted into Bessemer steel; and so active is this industry that a notable in- crease may be expected for the year 1876. Some 33,245 tons of spiegeleisen were used in the Bessemer establishments of the country in 1875, of which 7832 tons were produced in the United States. No new spiegeleisen furnaces went into operation during the year 1876. The details of the domestic Bessemer industry appear in the fol- lowing tabular statement : 1874. 1875. Tons of pig-iron and spiegel converted....... 204,352 395,956 Lous Of inc ots, prod Wee Ge cars a0 sfc} de; ta seraneais + 191,933 375,517 TORS Of Tails PrOGUGE As wie sicie cits quad Tie 144,944 290,863 Great Britain’s product of Bessemer steel ingots during the year 1875 was 592,000 tons, as compared with 540,000 tons in 1874. An inspection of the table of domestic production given above will show that the rate of increase in this country is far greater than in Great Britain. The aggregate product of the fifty-four establishments in this coun- try making steel other than Bessemer was for the year 1875 61,058 net tons, as compared with 49,681 tons for 1874. Of this total, 39,401 tons were crucible steel, and 21,657 tons were puddled, blister, and open-hearth steel. The association publishes the following table, showing the production of steel (other than Bessemer) by states during the year 1875 in net tons: exevili GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND Puddled, Open-! STATES. Crucible Steel. | hearth, and Total. Blister Steel. New Bhprlandfice 2 t.0... o's! 1,620 6,150 INS yy Ere eo one wptnie 2,300 2,800 ew Ey cee cc cee Bonne 7,098 7,208 Penfisyivaniase: 20). 050) 5.08 26,615 38,155 Maryland and Georgia.......... 268 1,768 ee Se 4967 The production of open-hearth, or Siemens-Martin steel, as noted in our last year’s report, shows a steady increase, the production for 1875 being 9050 tons, as compared with 7000 tons in 1874, 3500 in 1873, and 38000 in 1872. The secretary of the association reports that the product of 1875 was made by twelve establishments. The accompanying memorandum of the Siemens furnaces built and in course of construction during the year 1876 to date of writ- ing is given on the authority of Dr. Siemens’ American agents, Messrs. Richmond & Potts: Iron and steel melting-furnaces of various capacities, from 15 $0.00 tons inZt hops pti. saik .j.) {2G sls eeth cbse, sabe 39 furnaces. Open-hearth steel-melting for the manufacture of homogene- ous iron or steel. upon the open hearth 2... .......--.2--00 a ae Donble puddlino-Tarn acess. «10. vc cmiss ee weppcsee aiew tacos ce sce i as Crucible-steel melting-furnaces of 54 pots’ capacity........... red oes: Spiegel melting-furnaces for the manufacture of spiegel ...... 2 int otal cis) Gi. TIMNVR WERE ICL. CE i The same authority places the product of the forges and bloom- aries in the country in 1875 at 49,243 tons, as compared with 61,670 tons in 1874. The following, then, are the leading facts in connection with the number, capacity, and character of the iron and steel establishments of the country, as gleaned from the association’s tables, bringing the record up to January Ist, 1876: Whole number of blast furnaces, excluding abandoned furnaces, SANTA MEL MOMGEES Lees. Vlei... STR Se ee 715 Annual capacity of all the 715 furnaces, in net tons............... 5,489,280 Whole number of rolling-mills, January Ist, 1876 ................ 332 ,Whole number of single puddling-furnaces (double furnaces count- ATID 2S “LW'O) os epee ees Sie ee ins ain on o's oo 2-6 ne ee 4,475 Total annual capacity of all rolling-mills in finished iron, net tons 4, 189, 760 Annual capacity of all the rail-mills in heavy rails, net tons SA 83 iia 940, 300 Number of Bessemer steel-works, January Ist, 1876 Gda sa biliaceme 11 Annnal wapacity in ingots, Reb hares: co egos oe = weil). -'- Sa ocas op 500,000 Nutaber or Bessemer Converbersece seer ee tebe at bk vise o's saa s 24 Number of open-hearth steel-works, January Ist, 1876............ 22 Annual capacity im ingots, net tons... 5 Shee see ee cr thee ce eee ae 45,000 INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. excix Number of crucible, German, blister, and puddled steel - works, marina wy deb hee Gat es. . i. Js. stent antekt avd ara oid Meade lis 39 Annual capacity of merchantable steel, net toms.................. 108,250 Of which there. were of crucible steel, in net tons................ 45,000 Number of forges making blooms direct from the ore, January Ist, DORE e re Pee ee tc da ss 3 bod ous ee Pee ake cae ae. 39 Annual capacity in blooms and billets, net tons .................. 59,450 Number of bloomaries, January 1st, 1876, making blooms from pL LAL eS Se Sees amen A. Se 59 AnnnaY capseny im blooms; Net tOnss .. 2. sis ces weneree te les «sae 60,200 We add, in conclusion, the following table, presenting a summary of the production of the various branches of the iron and steel in- dustries of the country, completing the similar table in our last year’s fecord up to January 1st, 1876: | Products. 1873. | 1874, 1875. Net Tons. Net Tons. Net Tons. Drie aris = avi a stale 5) chen: «axsrandl at's ails 2,868,278 | 2,689,413 | 2,266,581 All-rolled-iron, including rails.......... 1,966,445 | 1,859,560 | 1,890,379 All-rolled-iron, excluding rails.......... 1,076,368 | 1,110,174 | 1,097,867 ail oF all eind a). Society, Dr. R. J. Mann states that Professor Melsens, of Brussels, has been for some time engaged in an interesting 172 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. series of experiments as to the capacity of copper and iron to transmit electric force. He states that Melsens demonstrates that an electric discharge does not of necessity pursue the shortest and easiest path. As to the density of copper and iron when subjected to the disintegrating dispersion of elec- trical discharges of high tension, he states that under the same circumstances the copper wire used as a conductor for a charge from fifteen very large Leyden jars is completely dissipated into a trail of black dust, while the iron wire is not even broken under the same circumstances, but is simply beaded along its entire length by a series of successive pro- tuberances. Professor Melsens has adapted a very elaborate system of about 428 points belonging to as many iron rods to the protection of the Hotel de Ville at Brussels from light- ning. The rods are collected ultimately into a group of eighteen larger stems, which are soldered into a continuous metallic mass, from which they ultimately diverge under- ground to the water-pipes, gas-pipes, and moist ground; se- curing a triple earth contact which would seem to present perfect assurance against danger. Melsens entertains the magnificent design of protecting the entire town of Brussels in one continuous system of rods, so that by securing a very ample development of earth contacts beneath, and air termi- nals above, no possible danger can be apprehended for the whole surface of the town.— Quarterly Journal British Me- teorological Society, 1876, 48. LIGHTNING-CONDUCTORS. Dr. R. J. Mann states that the following conditions are in- dispensable for protection against lightning: first, ample dimension and unbroken continuity in the lightning-rod; second, free earth contacts, with frequent examination by galvanometers of the condition of these to prove that there is no gradual impairment through the operation of chemical erosion; third, the employment of points enough to dominate all parts of the building; fourth, the addition of terminal points to the conducting system wherever any part of the structure of the building comes near to the limiting surface of a conical space, having the main point of the conductor for its height, and a breadth equal to twice the height of that point from the earth for the diameter of its base; fifth, the C. GENERAL PHYSICS. 173 avoidance of all less elevated conducting divergences within striking distance of the conductor, and especially such dan- gerous divergences of this character as gas-pipes connecting with the general gas-main, and therefore forming good earth contacts. —12 A, XII., 80. SURFACE TENSION OF LIQUIDS. Cintolesi has experimented on the relation which the sur- face tensions of various liquids sustain to each other under various conditions. Of these conditions, temperature is one of the most important. A drop of olive, almond, or castor oil placed upon distilled water at 100° retains its lenticular form, and does not spread into a film. At 65° the drop be- gins to flatten, and at 50° the film forms, but is silver white, showing no color. If, however, water at 100° be allowed to fall on a surface of cold oil, a membrane is formed, which at first shows colored rings, but which soon contracts into a drop as it cools. Hxamining solutions of various salts in the cold, he observed the well-known wide differences of behavior with different oils. Repeating the experiments at 40°, he found that even so slight an elevation of temperature com- pletely reversed the phenomena in many cases, making the surface tension of the solution less than that of the oil. He used alcohol, ether, and benzene, copaiba balsam, the fixed oils of olive, castor, almond, and linseed, and the ethereal oils of cinnamon, clove, mint, lavender, and bitter almonds. With cinnamon and clove oils there was at first a spreading out into a film; then the film was ruptured, forming numerous flat drops, which became round, and showed phenomena re- sembling ebullition, finally breaking up into smaller particles. The influence of the vapors of certain liquids on these films is often remarkable. A drop of ammonia on the end of a rod, when brought near an oil-drop resting quietly on the surface of water, causes its rapid expansion. If the experi- ment be made on a glass disk covered with a layer of water on which the oil-drop rests, the expansion begins when the rod is six or seven centimeters distant, and on closer ap- proach the water is driven out and the oil-drop falls to the glass. Examining the phenomena under the microscope, Cintolesi found, Ist, that the films always contain swell- ings, which produce holes by their rupture, thus causing the 174. ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. parting of the films; 2d, that the ebullition phenomenon was present in all the cases observed; 3d, that decrease of press- ure or movement of the air in contact with the surface ac- celerated the formation of the film; 4th, that heat may in- crease the rapidity of expansion, or may stop it entirely, ac- cording to the conditions; 5th, that the ebullition disappears as the development of the film is more rapid; 6th, that no contractile liquid surface is necessary for this expansion, since it may take place within a mass of liquid or on the sur- face of solids. Closer microscopical examination showed that whenever a drop expands to a film, there is a development of gas, appearing to the eye under the form of round swell- ings, which move under the film from the thinner border to the centre, and reveal their true nature if the film becomes thin enough to break and allow them to be diffused. The phenomenon is well seen when almond oil is placed on a glass disk. Moreover, the appearance of ebullition above re- ferred to arises from this development of gas, the two or three bubbles first formed uniting, and becoming the centres of action toward which the other bubbles tend. But as the larger bubbles do not continue to increase in size with the arriving bubbles, the gas would seem to be only the vapor of the expanded liquid. The bursting of these gaseous ac- cumulations produces rents in the films, the spreading out of which, the author believes, is due to the fact that the gase- ous molecules, moving in all directions, force the liquid mole- cules out horizontally in all directions, 7. ¢., along the sur- face. The previous researches of Mensbrugghe, of J. Thomson, and especially of Tomlinson, had vastly extended our knowl- edge of the action of the surface-tensions of various liquids upon each other. But it appears that Cintolesi has reached a new manifestation of the phenomena which, though doubt- less always accompanying surface-tension, is independent of it in many cases.—18 A, October 6 and 20, 1876, 85, 136. . METALLIC FILTRATION. Professor Lampadius, of Freiberg, concluding that at a cer- tain low temperature of fusion the metallic impurities pres- ent in the more easily fusible metals would separate, par- tially as such, and partially as definite crystalline com- C. GENERAL PHYSICS. 175 pounds, and float in the fused mass, from which they could be removed by filtration, made experiments in this direction, which were so far successful that the expected definite com- pounds were found upon the filter, though the metallic fil- trate was still very impure. The filter was made of quartz sand, slag, etc., which was not wet by the molten metal. Subsequently Curter, in attempting to apply this method to the purification of Bohemian tin, as a commercial operation, sought to use for a filter a material which should be wet by the material to be purified, and at the same time should not be dissolved by it. For this purpose he chose iron, which, while it has a comparatively high temperature of fusion, has a strong adhesion to tin, as is evident in the tinned iron plate of commerce. Five hundred strips of tinned iron, as thin as paper, about 0.6 of an inch long, and one fourth as broad, were packed tightiy in a square iron frame by the aid of wedges, and the frame was then luted into a suitable open- ing in the bottom of a graphite crucible. The tin, melted in a second crucible, was allowed to cool until the separation of fine crystals on the surface was noticed, the thickening metallic mass being then poured into the filtering crucible, when the still fluid pure metal passed through and a pasty magma was left, in which iron, arsenic, and copper, concen- trated to a great degree, were found combined with tin, while the filtered tin proved to be almost chemically pure. Fifty hundred-weight were purified in the crucible described. Other forms and other materials for filters are suggested, and other possible applications of the method, as in the sep- aration of silver from lead containing the former metal.—18 A, October 6, 1876, 89. RESISTANCE OF THE ELECTRIC ARC. Ayrton and Perry, of the Imperial College of Engineers, Tokio, Japan, desiring to determine theoretically the best ar- rangement of cells for the production of the electric light, have measured, as a necessary preliminary, the resistance of the electric are. The first experiments were made with sixty new Grove cells—the immersed platinum plate be- ing thirteen, and the zinc plate twenty-five square inches —used with a Duboscq regulator. The known resistance introduced consisted of many meters of bare copper-wire 176 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. hanging in the room, the thickness of the wire being suffi- ciently great to, prevent any rise of temperature in it. By means of a Thomson quadrant electrometer the difference of potential between the carbon points was measured, and compared with that between the wire of known resistance. Since at any given moment the same current is flowing through the electric arc and the wire, the differences of po- tentials are proportional to the resistances. The alternate measurements succeeded each other closely, and were repeat- ed many times. The resistance obtained never exceeded twenty ohms, and had an average of about twelve ohms; the variation being considerable even when the light was apparently steady. In a second series of experiments, eighty Grove cells joined in series, which had been in use occasion- ally for three hours after being set up, were connected with a differential galvanometer, in one circuit of which was a high resistance, in the other the electric arc, each galva- nometer-coil being shunted with a wire of small resistance. When balance was obtained, the resistance of the are, which, as before, varied greatly, never exceeded twenty-nine ohms, and averaged twenty ohms. From these results the authors draw the important conclusion that with such cells as they used no attempt should be made to join any of the cells in parallel circuit until at least two hundred have been joined in series; for if the resistance of each cell is about 0.2 ohm, two hundred of them would have a resistance of forty ohms—a re- sistance certainly less than double the electric arc for that bat- tery corresponding with brightest light. Moreover, the au- thors have previously shown that the cells of a battery should be joined in series until the resistance of the battery is donble the external resistance, at which point the battery should be joined in two rows, each containing half the number of cells in series, and the two rows connected in parallel cireuit.—12 A, October 19, 1876, 544. ACTION OF LIGHT ON EBONITE. Herbert McLeod has called attention to the production of acid drops upon surfaces of ebonite or vulcanite exposed to the air by the action of light. It has long been known that the insulation of electrical apparatus made of this material is impaired by the formation of this conducting layer, which is C. GENERAL PHYSICS. 177 sulphuric acid due to the oxidation of the sulphur used in vulcanizing the rubber. It now appears that the production of ozone by electric sparks is not, as Wright supposed, the sole cause of the phenomenon. A plate of ebonite polished on both sides was sawed into four strips, each 52 mm. by 22 mm. by 8.5 mm., exposing therefore about 3500 sq. mm. of surface. One half of each piece was varnished with shellac. Two of these pieces were placed in wide test-tubes plugged with cotton-wool, and the other two were sealed hermetical- ly in similar tubes. One of the sealed tubes and one plug- ged with cotton-wool were placed in a dark drawer, and the other pair exposed to light in the laboratory, and during the latter part of the experiment to direct sunlight. The ex- periment was commenced on December 26, 1874, and after some time minute drops of liquid were perceived on the ebonite exposed to light and air, the remaining three pieces retaining their original appearance. Between September Ist and 21st of this year the sealed tube exposed to light was accidentally broken, so that for a period of less than three weeks the ebonite in it was exposed to both light and air. On September 21st the tubes were opened, the ebonite wash- ed with water, and the amount of acid determined by stand- ard solution of caustic soda. No trace of acid could be de- tected on either of the pieces of ebonite which had been kept in the dark. On the one which had been exposed to light in the closed tube 0.343 milligrammes of sulphuric acid was found, and on that exposed to light and air 2.646 milligrammes. In confirmation of these results, the author notices an excellent instance of the action of light on vulcanite which occurred in the laboratory of Warren De la Rue. An apparatus with an ebonite base with three adjusting screws was standing at some distance from a window. The surface of the plate was covered with a fine dew of an acid liquid, except at the parts where the shadows of the heads of the screws fell. The sur- face at these places completely retained its original polish.— 12 A, October 12, 1876, 525. AMALGAMATION OF IRON. In a paper read before the American Chemical Society, Casamajor describes a new method of amalgamating iron, which promises to render this metal useful for many novel H 2 178 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. purposes. That iron may be made to combine with mercury is a fact discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy, whose process consists in immersing sodium amalgam in a saturated solu- tion of ferrous chloride or sulphate. Cailletet, in 1857, show- ed that iron may be coated with mercury by means of am- monium amalgam, or by means of electrolysis. As the iron in both cases does not amalgamate till hydrogen appears, Cailletet concludes that the effect is due to the nascent hy- drogen. Desiring to test the soundness of Cailletet’s theory, Casamajor placed mercury in a beaker glass, covered it with acidulated water, and introduced a horse-shoe nail of Norway iron. Though a moderate escape of hydrogen took place, no trace of amalgamation appeared, even in twenty-four hours. Having to amalgamate a piece of zine for another experi- ment, he placed the zinc in the beaker glass with the iron. The evolution of hydrogen from the nail increased at once very perceptibly, and after a short time the nail was found thoroughly amalgamated. Hence all that is necessary is to place the iron in acidulated water in contact with the mer- cury, and to add a few pieces of zinc; in a few minutes the iron will be coated with mercury. Since the zine is attack- ed only when a more negative metal touches it, the con- sumption is very slight. The coating of mercury thus pro- duced is not a superficial layer; the mercury sinks into the metal, modifying its physical and chemical properties, as is seen on fracture. No alteration in the tenacity of soft iron is observed, while hard-tempered steel has its brittleness much increased. In the voltaic circuit the amalgamated plate is positive to an unamalgamated one, and hence is more rapidly attacked. The quantity of mercury combined with the iron is very small. A piece of sheet-iron, present- ing on both sides a total surface of three square inches, was amalgamated, and left to soak in mercury for over an hour. The mercury was then wiped off very thoroughly and the piece of sheet-iron weighed. The increase over the original weight was three centigrammes, which showed an absorption of mercury equal to a little over four centigrammes per square inch. The increase in weight of this thin sheet of iron was only three and a half per cent. ; yet the fracture was silvery, and globules of mercury stood on the rough edge of the fracture. Platinum, palladium, aluminum, nickel, and C. GENERAL PHYSICS. 179 cobalt, all take mercury under the same conditions as iron. Aluminum, however, shortly after amalgamation, becomes hot, the mercury seems to boil, and the aluminum remains covered with a chalky crust, on removing which the metal is found beneath without a sign of amalgamation.—Proc. Am. Chem. Soc., I., 1876, 49. MUSICAL SAND. In a communication to the California Academy of Sciences, Frink has stated that in order to ascertain, if possible, the cause of the sound that is produced by the musical sand from Kauai, previously exhibited to the Academy, he had inves- tigated its structure under the microscope, and believed that the facts he had ascertained fully explain the manner in which the sound is produced. As the grains of sand, though small, are quite opaque, it was necessary to prepare them so that they should be sufficiently transparent to render their structure visible. This was effected by fastening them to a glass slide, and grinding them down until one flat surface was obtained. The grains were found to be chiefly composed of portions of small coral and apparently calcareous sponges, and presented under the microscope a most interesting ob- ject. The sand contained smail black particles, which the microscope showed to be formed principally of crystals of nepheline and magnetic oxide of iron, imbedded in a glassy matrix. These were undoubtedly volcanic sands. The struct- ure of these grains, Frink thinks, explains the reason why sound is emitted when they are set in motion. The motion against one another causes vibrations in their substance, and consequently in the sides of the cavities they contain; and these vibrations being communicated to the air by the cavi- ties under the most favorable conditions for producing sound, the result is the loud noise which is caused when any large mass of sand is set in motion.— Proce. Cal. Acad. Sct., 1876. CAUSE OF SOUND IN ORGAN-PIPES. It is stated in the ordinary text-books that in the mouth- piece of the so-called flute pipes of an organ the current of air which causes them to sound breaks against the upper lip into a series of intermittent impulses, by which the air in the pipe is set into vibration. Gonuch, however, who is an or- 180 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. gan-bnilder of Cologne, has thoroughly examined this sub- ject, and has come to quite a different conclusion. He states that when a pipe is sounded, the blast being so arranged as to brush the upper lip of the pipe, the current thus produced carries continually out with it air particles from the interior of the pipe, the particles of course being those which lie nearest to the opening. Though a small portion of the cur- rent in passing to the lip goes into the pipe, yet the quan- tity of air which the current pulls out is considerably great- er. Hence then arises, first of all, a rarefaction in the lower layer of air in the pipe. The exterior air now seeks to bal- ance the rarefaction, but it can not at once reach it, either by the upper or the lower opening of the pipe. The air-column at rest in the pipe only yields to the outer atmospheric press- ure when the rarefaction has extended to the middle of the pipe, where in the fundamental note of an open pipe the node is formed. At the lower opening of the pipe the blast cur- rent of course closes the aperture, and prevents the equilib- rium there. Now at the moment in which the rarefaction in the lower part of the pipe has reached such a degree that the pressure of the external air is able to press the blast cur- rent inward, an air wave is cut off from the blast current at the upper lip, and a small momentary condensation is the re- sult. This wave is propagated along the pipe, and at the middle it collides with the condensed wave which the press- ure of the external air has simultaneously produced in the upper opening of the pipe or the air-column. ‘Thus in the middle of the tube is formed a strong condensation, which may be called the acoustic wave, since from that time forth the peculiar vibration of the column and the phenomenon of sound are produced. It is evident, moreover, that at the moment when an air wave has detached itself from the blast current, and has removed the rarefaction in the lower part of the pipe, the blast current returns to its former condition or direction, and produces again its effect upon the air in the pipe. Again a rarefaction is produced, the blast current is again pressed inward, and with the consequent condensation the return of the acoustic wave of the node of vibration co- incides. ‘Thus the hypothetical impulses heretofore assumed are resolved into a pendulous oscillation of the blast current, which has its greatest amplitude at the edge of the upper lip, C. GENERAL PHYSICS. 18] is dependent on the elasticity of the air-column of the pipe and the pressure of the outer air, and so is subject to the laws of vibration of the air-column.—Poggendorf?’s Annalen,1876. OBLITERATION OF ONE SOUND BY ANOTHER. Mayer, in the eighth series of his researches on acoustics, communicates certain striking results which he has obtained on the obliteration of one sound by another, from which he . draws conclusions as novel as they are important. The in- vestigation was suggested by observing the ticks of a watch -making five per second, in conjunction with those of a loud- ticking clock making four ticks per second. On regulating the distance of the watch the fifth tick became fainter, until it disappeared entirely. An old silver watch, making four ticks per second, was then made to gain thirty seconds an hour on the clock, so that at every two minutes the ticks of the two coincided. When the watch was held at nine inch- es from the ear, its ticks were wholly obliterated for three seconds; and when at twenty-four inches, for nine seconds. As the time of coincidence approached, the short ticks of the watch glided tick after tick under the long ticks of the clock, more and more of the duration of each successive watch-tick became extinguished by the tick of the clock, un- til only the tail end of the short tick of the watch was left audible; and at last even this also crept under the long tick of the clock, and the whole of the ticks of the watch were rendered inaudible for nine seconds, at the end of which time the front or head of the watch-tick protruded beyond the clock-tick, and then slowly grew up into a complete watch- tick as before. Experiments were then made to measure the relative intensity of the two ticks, by placing both succes- sively in the open air during a still night, and observing the distance at which they could be heard. The general result shows that the sensation of the watch-tick is obliterated by a coincident tick of the clock when the intensity of the clock- tick is three times that of the watch-tick. Extending the observations to musical sounds, Mayer observed in general the same phenomena. But he discovered here the new and remarkable fact that a sound higher in pitch than another can not obliterate it, no matter how intense. A curious ef- fect of this law is observed if, while a man reads a sentence 182 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. over and over again with the same tone and modulation of voice, a c’ pipe of 256 double vibrations be strongly sounded ; it appears as if two persons were reading together, one with a grave voice (formed by a combination of all the reader’s real vocal sounds below ¢’ in pitch), the other with a high-pitched voice, generally squeaky and nasal, and of course disagree- able. This obliteration of higher by lower sounds, the au- thor believes, has an important bearing on orchestral music. In the first place it will require the conductor of the orches- tra to change his position to one nearer the midst of the au- dience. In the second, it will require a study of the relative intensity of the components of typical musical tones used in orchestral performances, so that those can be heard which the composer desires should be.—4 D, Vovember, 1876, 329. NEW METALLIC PYROMETER. Though much improved of late years, pyrometers are not exactly all that could be desired. Hence the frequent ap- pearance of new forms of that most desirable instrument. M. A. F. Huet, of Paris, has recently obtained provisional protection for an invention of this kind, being an instrument consisting of a rod of copper contained in a porcelain tube. The characteristic feature of the invention is said to be the particular arrangement of the bar of copper, which with its porcelain tube is inclosed in the wall of a furnace, into which the porcelain tube penetrates a suitable distance. Outside the furnace the tube terminates in a foot or support screwed down upon a plate. Inside the tube is the rod of copper, which is fixed at the inner end by means of a screw-nut at the end of the tube. This rod is prolonged outside the fur- nace, and terminates in a fork which embraces the vertical branch of a lever. To avoid all contact of the porcelain socket with the copper rod, an asbestus washer is arranged on each side of the screw-nut which fixes the rod and the socket at one end. ‘To render the action of the heat from the furnace more direct upon the copper rod, small holes are pierced in the part of the socket which is inside the furnace. The lever is free to oscillate on an axis. The extremity of the other branch of the same lever is fastened by a joint to the top of a rod which carries a regulating screw-nut, this being terminated at the bottom by a piston destined to press C. GENERAL PHYSICS. 183 upon liquid in a cistern in connection with a glass thermome- ter or siphon tube up which the liquid passes, and indicates upon a gauge the heat of the furnace. The defect of this ar- rangement, apparently, lies in the fact that, after being sub- mitted to high temperatures, the rod of copper would take up a permanent elongation, and refuse to expand or contract to the desired extent or with the desired accuracy.—18 A, 553, CONDUCTION OF HEAT IN GASES, The question of the conducting power of gases for heat is one which has received a large share of the attention of emi- nent physicists. ‘The most recent of these researches is that of Winkelmann, who employed for measurement of the heat- conduction the same method which other observers have used ; ¢.¢., he measured the rate of cooling of a thermometric body within a vessel filled with the gas to be examined. The difficulty of these experiments lies in the fact that the cooling is caused not only by the conduction of the gas which surrounds the cooling body, but also by the currents which are set up in the gas, and especially by radiation through it. Winkelmann addressed himself particularly to the task of eliminating these currents and the radiation. He effected this in one case by varying the pressure of the gas between 760 millimeters and one, since with diminishing pressure the action of the gas currents becomes less. In an- other experiment, he employed various apparatuses in which the cooling body within was always of the same dimensions and the same material, while the outer envelope was varied in size. The value of the radiation was then in all appara- tuses the same, while the conduction varied with the size of the outer vessel, and so furnished data by means of which the radiation could be calculated and eliminated. The re- sults obtained with several of the more common gases are as follows: Conductivity. Gases. Conductivity. PAU co «50's oi eee 0.0000525 || Nitric oxide......... 0.0000460 Pivarogen.. .<.asanes 0.0003325 || Carbonic oxide...... 0.0000510 Carbonic acid........ 0.0000317 || Oxygen............. 0.0000563 Ethylene... .// w ce cp se see ns 250.00 Indianapolis, Main Depot track.................06. 721.75 Gaito, "city base Or Tevels: ot .e9, eras oe. Coe, eee 291.23 Sto Louis; City Diréetrikeed (eo. 0. RR 428.29 Chicago, City Directrix assis 2scna- wer dugerees ise 587.15 Rock Island, C. R. I. and P. Depot track.......... 568.68 Burlington, Iowa, Main Street Depot.............. 551.61 Omaha, top of abutments of railroad bridge........ 1,049.40 Kansas City, mark of high water of 1844.......... TVOSTE Denver; Ku PoR: ReiDepotitrack 220s a IAG 5,196.58 Cheyenne, U. ©. Depot trackeg ox. b cus wuts .§ eencice 6,075.28 Pikes Weak ooo. pase a nao betel eu: 14,146.68 NO eme MRC OL oycies says bm oiaSors sais ao wiega = Bi Vorege tetador 14,296.66 These heights are largely different from previous estimates. Our great railway centres and entire states are raised 10 to 115 feet in altitude. The whole of some parts of the conti- nent seems to be much higher above the sea than was sup- posed. One of the most interesting results of the investiga- tion is that it shows our American railroad levels to be very accurate when long lines are considered. The New York Central and Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroads joined with the Illinois Central and Southern Railroads to New Orleans make a continuous line of levels 1800 miles long from New York Bay. They reach the Gulf of Mexico with an error of only two and a half feet. The two great in- dependent lines—the Union Pacific and the Kansas Pacific Railroads—reach Denver with a difference of only five feet. Such accuracy in American leveling speaks well for our en- gineers. ‘The careful determination of altitudes of high and low water at a number of points on the Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri Rivers is one of the most important contribu- tions, establishing, as it does, the true fall of these rivers at different stages of water—a subject of which our previous knowledge was very inaccurate. Mr. Gardner closes with a F. GEOGRAPHY. 935 list of altitudes of 150 carefully located points. Those es- pecially interested in the paper will find it in the Report of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey un- der Professor F. V. Hayden for 1873. THE BATHOMETER OF DR, C. W. SIEMENS, F.R.S. In a report to the Secretary of the Navy on the Loan Exhibition of Scientific Instruments at South Kensington, by Professor E. 8. Holden, U.S. N., are some interesting remarks upon this ingenious instrument. Professor Holden says: The best description of this instru- ment is to be found in Nature for March 30, 1876, from which the following account is taken: A paper has been presented to the Royal Society “ On determining the depth of the sea without the use of the sounding-line,” by Dr. C. W. Siemens, who gave at the meeting of the 24th of February, 1876, a description of the instrument which he has designed with this object. He commenced by giving a mathematical statement of the effect of local attraction, to a certain depth, on a body placed at the surface of the earth, assuming it to be of uniform density, spherical in form, and unaffected by centrifugal action. For small values of depth () this at- traction is 2xh. The original formula from which this is ad- duced is: sae onh (5 a ) 3V OR)? and by substitution of 2/ for A in this, Newton’s statement f 4 t : of the total attraction gltn is obtained. Now, if in place of the solid substance which forms the exterior crust of the earth, whose density may be taken to be the mean density of superficial rock, water, a material of less density, is substituted, it is shown that the total attrac- tion must be diminished, and the measure of this diminution is a measure of the depth of light substance which has been substituted for heavy. Ifwe were in possession of the exact mean density of the earth, of that of the surface-rock, and of sea-water, a scale could be calculated beforehand to show what depth would agree with a certain diminution of the measured effect of gravitation. Such an approximate 293g ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. calculation was made in designing the instrument, but Mr. Siemens has preferred to compare the readings of the instrument with actual soundings, in order to obtain a scale. The instrument, which is called a bathometer, consists of the following parts: A weight, being a column of mercury affected by variation of gravitation; a counterbalance, being springs unaffected by variation of gravitation; and an ar- rangement by which variations in gravitation can be read as depths in units. The column of mercury is maintained in a vertical steel tube having cup-like extensions, the lower por- tion being closed by a corrugated diaphragm of thin steel plate, and the upper portion containing an aperture for filling the instrument, having a screw stopper. The internal diam- eter of the tube is reduced at the upper portion, in order that the vertical oscillations of the mercury produced by the mo- tion of a vessel in a sea-way may be reduced to a minimum; and the instrument is suspended in a universal joint above its centre of gravity, so that it may always hang in a vertical position at sea, and is inclosed in an air-tight casing, so that it may not be under the influence of atmospheric changes. The weight of the column of mercury is balanced at the cen- tre of the diaphragm by the elasticity of the steel springs, and the modus operandi of the instrument is evident; as the mercury diminishes in potential through the effects of di- minished attraction, the action on the springs diminishes, and these shorten upon themselves. There are some peculiarities in the mechanical arrange- ment of the instrument which repay examination. Both ends being open to the air, its indications are not affected by va- riations of atmospheric pressure, With regard to tempera- ture, the instrument is parathermal. Professor Holden states that by the courtesy of Dr. Siemens he was enabled to see the manuscript account of soundings taken with this instrument on board the Faraday in October and November, 1875, and in March and April, 1876. During her voyage across the Atlantic at that time frequent sound- ings were made with the piano-wire sounding apparatus of Sir William Thompson, and at each one of these soundings the bathometer was read by Dr. Hicks, who had it under his charge. The results are exhibited in the following table: F. GEOGRAPHY. 237 A. B. A-B. Bathometer. | Piano-wire. permert Fathoms. Fathoms. Fathoms. Proportion of Error. 201 197 +0.020 99 100 O10 63 54 .185 82 $2 -000 218 214 .019 78 69 .130 56« 54 .037 55 54 O17 .107 .150 .138 048 .122 rg .065 .160 .LLO O75 .078 .000 000 .L05 .099 .1438 .206 .108 .029 .025 .050 0.083 }+t+++ +14 [++++ +1 | | 4 1 9 0 + 9 2 1 6 8 3 9 9 3 t+t+++4 | +++++44 | [++++4+4| The following soundings were taken in March and April, 1876, by Alexander Siemens, Esq., near Nova Scotia. Some sources of error had in the meanwhile been removed: 238 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. It will be seen from the table that the mean error is a lit: tle over eight per cent. for the first trials, during which time the instrument (which was the first of its kind) was subject to various sources of error, some of which have now been removed by better mechanical arrangements, and a few of which remain to be overcome. It will also be observed from the second part of the table that in April, 1876, after certain of these mechanical difficulties had been overcome, the per- centage of error was much reduced, so that a sounding by the instrument and one by the line agreed on the average to within about four per cent. Dr. Siemens is now engaged in incorporating some improvements into a new instrument of this kind, and in particular in substituting for the corru- gated diaphragm, which supports the column of mercury, one made of steel which is sawed through in a spiral form and covered by a sheet of India rubber. In the trial of this first bathometer, Dr. Siemens took it to the top of the great clock-tower of the Houses of Parliament (315 feet), and it was found to read very closely what theory demanded. It may be reasonably hoped that the mechanical difficulties, which are very great, can be so far overcome as to cause the instrument to be read in the open sea within one or two per cent. of the true depth on the average. It must be remembered that the piano-wire apparatus gives the depth of water immediately below the ship, while the ba- thometer gives an indication of an attraction (or of a defici- ency) which is the result of the depth of water for several miles in every direction. It gives the mean depth over a certain area. A difficulty will always arise in the use of this device as a navigating instrument in general, as on approaching close to the land it will give an indication due not only to the depth of water beneath the ship, but partially due to the height of the neighboring land above the level of the sea. Thus we may expect to find always a reading of the instru- ment near the shore which will be different from what it would give in the open sea over the same depth of water, and hence, for general cruising, such an instrument will be an uncertain guide of a close approach to land. When, how- ever, the water shoals gradually, so that the 100-fathom line is twenty-five to forty miles from shore in which case the F. GEOGRAPHY. 239 disturbing effect of the distant shore would be very small, it would indicate with great certainty the shoaling of the water, and a simple observation of the rate of shoaling could not fail to be of service to the navigator. The foregoing objections would not apply, however, in a case where the instrument was placed on a packet-ship which was continually making the same voyage, as on one of the Atlantic steamers for example. If whenever the ship’s position was known the bathometer was read and the reading entered on the chart, and if after ten or twenty voyages a particular instrument was constant- ly seen to have the same reading when the ship was in a given position (as it undoubtedly would), it could not fail to be trusted as a warning and as an aid. By an experience of this kind a table of the bathometer readings which corre- sponded to particular positions could be made and thoroughly tested on such a vessel, which is constantly crossing in the same track, so that after a time the reading of this particu- lar bathometer would become an important sign of nearing a coast. In this way, with intelligent officers who would not fail to put the necessary tests to it, it may yet be deemed suitable to serve as an important aid to navigation. Its great use will be, for the present, on board of special surveying ships, to indicate not so much the actual and absolute depths as the changes of depth. If, for example, a ship is engaged in making soundings with a trustworthy apparatus on board, and if it is found that a given depth by the piano-wire al- ways corresponds very nearly to the same reading of the instrument (as it would), and if this continues to be so, then a change in the reading of the bathometer would indicate to the commanding officer the passage over shoaler or deeper water, as the case might be, and it would show the necessity for a new sounding—a necessity which otherwise would be overlooked. In the hands of intelligent officers this instru- ment, which is now an experiment merely, may become of great value, and it is quite within reasonable expectations to hope for valuable aid from it in its perfected form. It is understood that an instrument of this class will soon be in the possession of the Navy Department, and one has been proposed for use on H. M.S. Fawn, and upon the re- 949 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. ports of the officers who will have it in charge a correct appreciation of its practical usefulness can be based. WORK ACCOMPLISHED BY THE CHALLENGER. The thoroughness of the equipment of the Challenger, the abilities of the several officers and assistants, and the favor- able circumstances generally combined to render this expedi- tion one of the most fortunate and successful of any on rec- ord. Indeed, it may well be considered as marking an epoch in the scientific history of the world. The first important advance made by the Challenger on our previous knowledge of the deep seas was in the discovery of a vast extent of red clay on the floor of the ocean at pro- found depths, and the comparative absence of life there. This extends far into the South Atlantic, merging into gray ooze to the north, while to the south a remarkable deposit of silicious matter covers the Antarctic Sea floor. The small amount of carbonate of lime and large amount of alumina and oxide of iron contained in it render its formation ex- tremely difficult to understand. An important deduction is made that while this formation is going on to an immense extent, with but little trace of organic life in the depths be- low, the sea above teems with a variety of animal forms, thus having an exact analogy in well-known terrestrial strata. The cause of the absence of organic remains, as suggested by Professor Thomson, lies in the large amount of carbonic- acid gas held in suspension by the sea at great depths, which acts as a solvent on the carbonate of lime, leaving only the decomposed residuum to increase the thickness of the sea bottom. Another result of the Challenger’s work has been to estab- lish as general principles what was only known to exist in isolated instances, namely, the universal lowering of the tem- perature of the great seas with increasing depth. Previous expeditions have shown that the fauna of the deep seas contained species, genera, and groups which ex- isted during past ages, many of them being forms known only as fossils, thus surviving the various alterations that accom- panied the geological periods. Numerous additional illustra- tions were found in connection with the expedition of the Chal- lenger, which will doubtless in due time be brought forward. F. GEOGRAPHY. 241 In addition, however, the Challenger has shown that many of the species occur over very wide ranges in portions of the sea bottom far apart, especially those of great geological antiquity, forms being found in the New Zealand seas having a general resemblance to those at the same depth off Portu- gal and North Africa. Some extremely curious forms of animal life were obtained by the Challenger, among them one crab that appeared to be all eyes, and another without any. The two remarkable sea-urchins obtained in the Porcupine expedition, Salenta and Pourtalesia, were found by the Challenger, the latter over a wide area. A great hydroid was found, as large as a young tree, and many sponges of exquisite beauty. The globigerina, under the careful examination of surface specimens, proved to have a spiny coat surrounding the holes, through which the contractile and motile yet structureless protoplasm pro- trudes. The deepest Atlantic sounding was made nearly ninety miles north of St. Thomas, in 3875 fathoms; the deepest in the Pacific was about five degrees east of Jeddo, 3950 fath- oms, with a bottom of red clay. In the Pacific there were some very important observations made in regard to the existence of confined basins at the sea bottom, having a uni- form temperature for a considerable depth. The depth of these submarine basins was ascertained by noting the dis- tance over which the same temperature was maintained. When the thermometer indicated a gradual lowering of tem- perature to a certain point, and then remained unchanged with increasing depth, it was concluded, with great show of reason, that the area was surrounded by a barrier without any opening through which the bottom waters could pene- trate. No such basins were found in the Atlantic.—13 A, June 3, 1876, 538. SWEDISH ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS TO 1875. The Swedish government publishes in a small pamphlet a general account of Sweden, and a catalogue of the objects presented by the Swedish government for exhibition in the International Geographical Congress at Paris in 1875. In this volume we find noticed the following Swedish expedi- tions for the exploration of the arctic regions: In 1837 L 242 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. Professor Sven Loven began an expedition to Spitzbergen which continued until 1838, in which year the French gov- ernment sent out a similar expedition, generally known as the Commission du Nord. In 1857 Torell explored Iceland, and in 1858 Nordenskjold visited Spitzbergen. In 1859 Dr. Torell explored a portion of Greenland. In 1861 a gov- ernment expedition left Troms for Spitzbergen, Dr. Torell being chief, with Nordenskjéld and others as his collabora- tors. In 1863 Dr. Quennerstadt undertook an expedition to the island of Jan-Mayen and the neighboring seas. In 1864 a third Swedish expedition was sent to Spitzbergen, Dr. Nordenskjéld being chief of the scientific corps. In 1865 Dr. Paijkull explored Iceland. In 1868 a fourth Swedish ex- pedition was made to Spitzbergen, under the direction of Nordenskjéld and a considerable corps of scientists, in which expedition Beeren Island was visited. In 1870 Dr. Norden- skjéld undertook a voyage to Greenland, hoping to make use of Esquimau dogs for sledge journeys. The principal field of their explorations was the west coast of Greenland, between the 68th and 71st degrees of latitude. This expe- dition was very successful in the collection of large masses of meteoric iron. In the spring of 1871 an expedition to Greenland was made by a vessel of the Swedish Navy, under the command of Baron Von Otter. In 1872 an expedition intended to pass the winter at Spitzbergen was sent out, consisting of three vessels, under Palander and Crazensteon ; and two other Swedish expeditions were also sent to Spitzbergen under private expense—one in 1870, with the object of exploring the phosphatic strata. The second expe- dition of 1872 was also urged in the same interest, but accom- plished much for geology. Finally, the expedition of 1875 to Nova Zembla was carried out entirely at the expense of Oscar Dickson. It was under the scientific direction of the indefatigable Professor Nordenskjéld. EXPLORATIONS MADE UNDER THE DIRECTION OF F. V. HAYDEN IN 1876. For reasons beyond the control of the geologist in charge, the various parties comprising the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories did not com- mence their field work until August. Owing to Indian hos- F. GEOGRAPHY. 243 tility, the labors of the Survey were confined to the comple- tion of the Atlas of Colorado. Therefore the work of the season of 1876 was devoted to finishing the entire mountain- ous portion of Colorado, with a belt fifteen miles in width of Northern New Mexico, and a belt twenty-five miles in breadth of Eastern Utah. Six sheets of the Physical Atlas are now nearly ready to be issued from the press. Each sheet embraces an area of over 11,500 square miles, or a total of 70,000 square miles. The maps are constructed on a scale of four miles to one inch, with contours of 200 feet, which will form the basis on which will be represented the geol- ogy, etc. The point of departure the past season was Cheyenne, Wyoming Territory. The primary Triangulation party was placed in charge of A. D, Wilson, and took the field from Trinidad, the southern terminus of the Denver and Rio Grande Railway, August 18th, making the first station on Fisher’s Peak. From this point the party marched by the valley of the Purgatoire, crossed the Sangre de Christo Range by way of Costillia Pass, and followed the west base of the range northward as far as Fort Garland, making a station on Culebra Peak. About six miles north of Fort Garland is located one of the highest and most rugged mountain-peaks in the West, called Blanca Peak, the principal summit of the Sierra Blanca group. On the morning of August 28th the party started to ascend this peak. They found no difficulty in riding to timber line, which is here about 12,000 feet above sea-level. Here they were compelled to leave the animals, and carry the instru- ments themselves. The main summit is about two miles north of the first point, in a straight line, and connected with it by a very sharp ridge, difficult to pass on account of the. loose rocks and the constant fear of tumbling. After diffi- cult climbing they found themselves on the summit. From here a magnificent view was spread out before them. A large portion of Colorado and New Mexico could be seen. This point is the highest in the Sierra Blanca group, and, as far as is known at the present time, is the highest in Colo- rado, The elevation was determined by Mr. Wilson. First a mean of eight barometric readings, taken synchronously with those at Fort Garland, gave a difference between the 944 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. two points of 6466 feet ; secondly by fore and back angles of elevation and depression, which gave a difference of 6468 feet. The elevation at the Fort was determined by a series of readings compared with the Signal Service barometer at Colorado Springs, giving an elevation of 7997 feet, making Blanca Peak 14,464 feet above sea-level. This peak may be regarded therefore as one of the highest in the United States. A comparison with some of the first-class peaks in Colorado will show the relative height: Feet. Blanca Peak above sea-level.................. 14,464 Mount Harvard Se ee Ce. eee cetne Graeme een or 14,384 Gray’s Peak EN PRE Eee Serato Risks etalcte a aero 14,341 Mount Lincoln Samp oan SsRtieawn Toe 14,296 Mount Wilson S896 6) oo Ab aes coe lied Shalala 14,280 Long’s Peak PEO aN SANE wee PER NT 5 ‘isi pl deudel: WMCOmp alee PCa eg ime ee dee Meats one baie 14,235 Pike’s Peak BW ee ee rate weg easier eee 14,146 The foregoing table will afford some conception of the dif- ficulty encountered in determining the highest peak, when so many occur that are nearly of the same elevation. About fifty peaks are found within the limits of Colorado that ex- ceed 14,000 feet above sea-level. From this point the party proceeded westward across the San Luis Valley and up the Rio Grande to its source. From the head of the Rio Grande the party crossed the continental divide, striking the Animas Park, thence by trail to Parrott City. After making a station on La Plata Peak, the party marched northwest across the broken Mésa country west of the Dolores, making three stations on the route. After making a primary station on the highest point of the Abajo Mountains, the party turned westward to Lone Cone; thence crossing the Gunnison and Grand Rivers, they proceeded to the great volcanic plateau at the head of the White River. The final station was made between the White and Yampah Rivers in the northwestern corner of Colorado. During this brief season Mr. Wilson finished about 1000 miles of topog- raphy and made eleven geodetic stations, thus connecting the whole of Southern and Western Colorado. In company with the Triangulation party, Mr. Holmes made a hurried trip through Colorado, touching also portions of F. GEOGRAPHY. 245 New Mexico and Utah. He was unable to pay much atten- tion to detailed work, but had an excellent opportunity of taking a general view of the two great plain belts that lie— the one along the east, the other along the west base of the Rocky Mountains. For nearly 2000 miles’ travel he had con- stantly in view the cretaceous and tertiary formations, among which are involved some of the most interesting geological questions. He observed, among other things, the great per- sistency of the various groups of rocks throughout the east, west, and north, and especially, in the west, that from North- ern New Mexico to Southern Wyoming the various members of the cretaceous lie in almost unbroken belts, while the ter- tiaries are hardly less easily followed. Between the east and the west there is only one great in- congruity. Along the east base of the mountains the up- per Cretaceous rocks, including Nos, 4 and 5, are almost wanting, consisting at most of a few hundred feet of shales and laminated sandstones. Along the west base this group becomes a prominent and important topographical as well as geological feature. In the northwest, where it forms the “ Mésa Verdé,” and the cap of the Dolores platean, it comprises upward of 2000 feet of coal-bearing strata, chiefly sandstone, while in the north it reaches a thickness of 3500 feet, and forms the gigantic hog-back of the Grand River Valley. While in the southwest he visited the Sierra Abajo, a small eroup of mountains which lie in Eastern Utah, and found, as he had previously surmised, that the structure was identi- eal with that of the four other isolated groups that lie in the same region. A mass of trachyte has been forced up through fissures in the sedimentary rocks, and now rests chiefly upon the sandstones and shales of the lower Creta- ceous. There is a considerable amount of arching of the sed- imentary rocks, caused probably by the intrusion of wedge- like sheets of trachyte, while the broken edges of the beds are frequently bent abruptly up as if by the upward or lateral pressure of the rising mass. He was able to make many ad- ditional observations on the geology of the San Juan region, and secured much valuable material for the coloring of the final map. He states that the northern limit of the ancient cliff build- 246 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. ers in Colorado and Eastern Utah is hardly above latitude 37° 45', The Grand River Division was directed by Mr. Henry Gan- nett, topographer, with Dr. A. C. Peale as geologist. Mr. James Stevenson, executive officer of the Survey, accom- panied this division for the purpose of assisting in the man- agement of the Indians, who last year prevented the com- pletion of the work in this locality by their hostility. The greater portion of the work of this division lay north of the Grand River, limited on the north by the parallel of 39° 30’, and included between the meridians of 108° and 109° 30’. This division took the field at Cafion City, Colorado, about the middle of August. The party traveled nearly west, up the Arkansas River, over Marshall’s Pass, and down the To- michi and Gunnison Rivers to the Uncompahgre (Ute) Indian Agency. Here they secured the services of several Indians as escort in the somewhat dangerous country which they were first to survey. This area lying south of the Sierra La Sal was worked without difficulty. It is a broken plateau country, and presents many curious pieces of topography. Eleven days were occupied in this work. The Grand River, from the mouth of the Gunnison to that of the Dolores, ¢. ¢., for nearly a hundred miles, flows along the southern edge of a broad valley, much of the way being in a low cafion, one hundred to two hundred feet deep. The course of the river is first northwest for twenty-five miles, then, turning abruptly, it flows southwest, and then south for about seventy-five miles. This valley has an average width of twelve miles. It is limited on the north and west by the Roan, or Book Cliffs, and their foot-hills, which follow the general course of the river. These cliffs rise from the valley in a succession of steps to a height of about 4000 feet above it, or 8000 to 8500 above the sea. From its crest, this plateau (for the Book Cliffs are but the southern escarpment of a plateau) slopes to the N.N.E. at an angle of not more than 5°. It extends from the Wahsatch Mountains on the west to the foot-hills of the Park Range on the east, and presents every where the same characteristics. The Green River crosses it, flowing in a direction exactly the reverse of the dip. It borders the Grand on the north for F. GEOGRAPHY. 247 one hundred and fifty miles, the east forming the divide be- tween the Grand and the White. On the south side of the crest are broken cliffs; on the north side, the branches of the White cafion immediately. This leaves the divide in many places very narrow, in some cases not more than thirty to torty feet wide, with a vertical descent on the south toward the Grand River, and an extremely steep earth slope (35° in many cases) at the heads of the streams flowing north to the White River. This crest, though not over 8500 feet in height, is the highest land for a long distance in every direction. After leaving the Uncompahgre Agency, the party followed Gunnison’s Salt Lake road to the Grand, and down that river to the mouth of the Dolores, in latitude 38° 50’, longitude 109° 17’. At this point they turned northward, and went up to the crest of the Book Plateau. They followed this crest to the eastward for upward of a hundred miles to longitude 108° 15’, and thence via the White River (Ute) Indian Agen- cy to Rawlins, where they arrived on October 23d. The whole area worked is about 3500 square miles, in sur- veying which about sixty stations were made. The geological work of this division, by Dr. Peale, connects directly with that done by him in 1874 and 1875. Sediment- ary formations prevail on both districts visited the past season. The country first examined lies between the San Miguel and Dolores Rivers, extending northward and northwestward from Lone Cone Mountain. The general character of this region is that of a plateau cut by deep gorges or canons, some of which, especially toward the north, extend from the sandstones of the Dakota group to the top of the red beds. The depth of the cafion, however, is no indication of its importance as a stream-bed, for away from the main streams they are dry the greater portion of the year. There are not great disturbances of the strata, what folds do occur being broad and comparatively gentle. The San Miguel River, leaving the San Juan Mountains, flows toward the northwest, and with its tributaries cuts through the sandstones of the Dakota group, exposing the variegated beds lying beneath, that have generally been re- ferred to the Jurassic. About 25 or 30 miles north of Lone Cone the river turns abruptly toward the west, and flows 948 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. west and southwest for about 15 miles, when it again turns, and flows generally northwest until it joins the Dolores. Between the San Miguel and Lone Cone, the sandstones of the Dakota group (or No.1 cretaceous) are nearly horizontal, forming a plateau which, on approaching the mountains, has a capping of cretaceous shales. Beyond the bend, the San Miguel flows in a monoclinal valley, in which the cafion walls are of the same description as in the upper part of its course. As the mouth is ap- proached the red beds appear. Between this portion of the course of the San Miguel and the almost parallel course of the Dolores, which is in a similar monoclinal rift, there are two anticlinal and two synclinal valleys parallel to each other. They are all occupied by branches of the Dolores. Lower Cretaceous, Jurassic, and Triassic strata outcrop, and present some interesting geological details, which will be fully considered in the report on the district. The Dolores River comes from a high plateau in a zigzag course, flowing sometimes with the strike and sometimes with the dip of the strata. Its general course on the western line is about northwest, from which it turns to the northward and west- ward, finally changing to northwest again to its junction with the Grand. It is in cafion the greater part of its course. In the region of country north of Grand River the geological formations extend uninterruptedly from the red beds exposed on Grand River to the white tertiary cliffs forming the summit of the “ Roan Mountains,” or Book Cliffs. The Grand is generally in a cafion in the red beds. On the north side the No. 1 cretaceous sandstone forms a hog-back sloping toward the cliffs. Between the crest of this hog-back and the cliffs there is a broad valley formed by the erosion of the soft cretaceous shales which ex- tend to the base of the cliffs, and in some places form their lower portion. The cliffs are composed mainly of cretaceous beds, rising one above another in steps, until an elevation of about 8000 feet is reached. The summit is the edge of a plateau sloping N.N.E. This plateau is cut by the drainage flowing into the White River from the south. These streams rarely cut through the tertiary series. Coal of poor quality is found in the sandstones of the Dakota group, and also in the sandstones above the middle F. GEOGRAPHY. 249 cretaceous beds. Wherever noticed, it was in thin seams and of little economic importance. The White River Division was directed by G. B. Chit- tenden as topographer, accompanied by F. M. Endlich as geologist. The district assigned to this party as their field for explo- ration during the season of 1876 commenced from the east- ward at longitude 107° 30’, joining on to the work previous- Jy done, and extended westward 30 miles into Utah Terri- tory. Its southern boundary was north latitude 39° 30’, while the White River formed the northern limit. In order to take the greatest possible advantage of the short time that could be allowed, it was determined to make the White River Agency the head-quarters, and in two trips from there complete the work. About 3800 square miles comprised the area surveyed. In working up the topography of the district, the party spent 48 days of absolute field- work, made 41 main topo- graphical stations and 16 auxiliary ones, and traveled with- in the district about 1000 miles. The party ascertained the course of all the main trails, the location and quality of nearly all the water—which is scanty throughout—and can map with considerable accuracy the topographical forms and all the water-courses. The area is almost entirely de- void of topographical “points,” and the topographer is obliged to depend to a considerable degree on those far to the north and south for the triangulation. The country has been heretofore almost entirely unexplored, and was de- scribed by the nearest settlers as a broken cafion country, extremely dry. It was marked on the maps as a high un- dulating plateau, with fresh-water lakes and timber. The party saw no lakes of more than four hundred yards in diam- eter, and only two or three of those. The country is nearly all inhabitable both winter and summer, and considerable por- tions of it valuable, and, though three quarters of it is with- in the Ute Indian Reservation, the advantage of a more ac- curate knowledge of its character can readily be seen. Altitudes were determined by the mercurial barometer, with a base at the White River Indian Agency, and checked by a continuous system of vertical angles. The altitude of the Agency has been determined by a series of barometric L 2 2950 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. observations extending over two years and a half, and re- ferred to railroad levels, and can probably be depended on to within a few feet. The general topography is a gentle rise from the White River toward the south, and a sudden breaking off, when the divide is reached, into ragged and often impassable cliffs, known on the maps as the Roan or Book Mountains. The gentle plateau slope of the White River side is cut by almost numberless and often deep cafions, and in many cases the sur- face of the country has been eroded away, leaving broken and picturesque forms, the lower benches generally covered with cedars and pions, and the upper rich in grass. There are four main streams draining into the White River within the limits of our work—a distance of some- thing over 100 miles. All of these streams have more or less good water at their heads. They traveled nearly the whole length of all these water-courses, but found good trails only in the middle ones. ‘Trails, which traverse the whole district in every possible direction, keep mostly on the summit of the ridges and plateaus, and, by taking care not to cross the cafions, the country is very easily traveled through. The country is almost entirely destitute of timber, and has but little good water. It is, however, abundantly supplied with grass, and, especially in the winter season, must be well stocked with game. In the far western portion, and outside the limits of the Reservation, one large vein of asphaltum and several small veins were found, and also running springs of the same ma- terial—all of which, if once reached by railroad, will prove of great commercial value. These deposits have been spoken of before, but their location has not been accurately determined. According to the report of F. M. Endlich, the geology of the district is very simple, though interesting. Inasmuch as but one divide of importance occurred within the district, the work was somewhat simplified. This was formed by the Book Cliffs—between the drainages of the Grand on the south and the White on the north. Both of these rivers flow a little south of west into the Green River, which they join in Utah. From the junction of the Grand and Green down- ward, the river is called the Great Colorado, Orograph- F. GEOGRAPHY. 201 ically the region surveyed is comparatively simple. The Book Cliffs are the summit of a plateau about 8000 feet above sea-level, continuing unbroken over to the Green River. To- ward the south these cliffs fall off very steeply, forming deep canons that contain tributaries of the Grand River. On the north side, with the dip of the strata, the slope is more gen- tle, although in consequence of erosion numerous precipitous cliffs are found. Descending in that direction, the character of the country changes. Instead of an unbroken slope, we find that the plateau has been cut in parallel directions by the White River drainage, and the long characteristic mésas of that region testify to the character of erosion. Approach- ing the river, constantly descending with the slight dip of the strata, the bluffs become lower and lower. Though the creek valleys are wide, and at certain seasons no doubt well watered, the vegetation is that of an arid country. Dwarf pines, pilons, and sage-brush abound, to the almost entire ex- clusion of other trees or grass. Traveling down White River, this character is again found to change. A new series of bluffs, occasioned by heavy superincumbent strata, gives rise to the formation of deep cafions. For 45 miles the party followed the cafion of the White, which, no doubt, is analogous to that of the Green, and prob- ably closely resembles that of the Colorado in its detail feat- ures. Vertical walls inclose the narrow river-bottoms, and the slopes of the higher portions are ornamented by thou- sands of curiously eroded rocks. Monuments of all kinds, and figures that can be readily compared to those of animated beings, enliven the scenery, which otherwise would be very monotonous. ‘Two to three thousand feet may be stated as the height of the walls inclosing the White River. Geologically speaking, the district was one of singular uniformity. Traveling westward, the older formations, reach- ing back as far as the Jurassic, were found. This was fol- lowed by cretaceous, which in turn was covered by tertiary. About three quarters of the region surveyed was found to contain beds belonging to this period. Owing to the lithographical character of the strata, water was a rare luxury in this region, and men and animals were frequently dependent upon finding springs. Farther west still the Green River group sets in, forming 252 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. those numerous cafions of which that of the White River is one. Having completed their work by October 14th, the party marched eastward through Middle Park, and, after twelve days of rain and snow, reached Boulder City, Col- orado. The field-work of the Yampah Division during the past season was principally confined to a district of Northwestern Colorado lying between the Yampah and White Rivers, and between Green River and the subordinate range of mount- ains that lies west of and parallel with the Park Range. The area is embraced between parallels 29° 30’ and 40° 20’, and meridians 107° 30’ and 109° 20’. The party consisted of Mr. G. R. Bechler, topographer di- recting, accompanied by Dr. C. A. White, the well-known geologist. They proceeded southward from Rawlin’s Springs, a station on the Union Pacific Railroad, August 6th, toward their field of labor. From Rawlin’s Springs to Snake River, a distance of eighty miles, table-lands form the chief feature of the topography; while from Snake River to the Yampah River the distance is more undulating, and thickly covered with sage. Between the Yampah and White Rivers, a dis- tance of fifty miles, the country is mountainous; and on the divide between the Yampah and White Rivers the eleva- tion is 8000 to 9000 feet. Mr. Bechler, after having formed the geodetic connection with the work of previous years, con- cluded to finish the more mountainous portion of the area assigned to him, which began from a line of meridian with the White River Agency, and extended westward to about 108° 10’. Here the party found water and grass in abun- dance, with one exception. The plateau country, however, was so destitute of water, and so cut up with dry gorges or cations, with scarcely any grass or timber of any kind, that traveling was rendered very difficult. The party, therefore, made White River its base of supply for water and grass, making side trips into the barren hilltops or plateaus in every direction. From the Ute Agency, which is located approximately in lat. 38° 58’ and long. 107° 48’, the White River takes an al- most due west course for fifteen or eighteen miles, most of the way through an open valley, with here and there narrow gorges. About fifty miles from the Agency the river opens F, GEOGRAPHY. 253 into a broad, barren valley, with only here and there scanty patches of vegetation. Soon after it enters a deep canon with vertical walls, 1000 feet or more in height, and con- tinues to increase in depth until its junction with the Colo- rado River of the West. The Yampah or Bear River devi- ates from a westerly course only for a few miles occasion- ally. Like White River, it flows through a plateau country which rises gently from the river, back for a distance of about eight miles, South of the river lie the Williams River Mountains, which have a gradual slope to the north. Will- iams Fork, flowing from a southeastern direction, joins the Yampah River. West of the junction, the Yampah traverses the country more or less in a cafion, cuts through the Yam- pah Mountains, when it joins with the Snake River. The place of junction resembles a fine park, surrounded on all sides with eroded terraces and plateau spurs, that rise by steps to the divide on either side. This park is about eight miles in length from east to west. After leaving this park, the river enters a huge fissure in the mountains, where it remains until, completing its zigzag course, it joins the Green River in Jat. 32° and long. 109° 40’. After the junction with the Yampah, the Green River con- tinues in a cafion for fourteen miles, when it passes through the picturesque palisades of Split Mountain into an open, broad valley (lat. 40° 28’, long. 109° 15’), from which point it takes a southeastern direction through the Wamsitta Valley, where it unites with the White River. Into both the White and Yampah Rivers numerous branches extend from either side, forming deep cations the greater por- tion of their length. We may say, in brief, that the sides of the valleys expand and contract, at one time forming the beautiful grassy valleys which in olden times were celebrated as the favorite wintering-places for the trappers, or contract- ing so as to form narrow cations or gorges with walls of va- ried height. The walls of Yampah Cafion average about 1000 feet, while the mountains, receding to the northward, attain an elevation of 4200 feet, the highest point of the plateau on the south side being 3400 feet above the river level. Of the plateaus between the White and Yampah Rivers, Yampah Plateau is the largest, and occupies an area of 400 954 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. square miles. The surface of the summit is undulating, pre- senting on the south side a steep face, several hundred feet in height, covered with débris, rendering it almost inaccessi- ble. This plateau is covered with excellent grass, and gives origin to numerous springs, all of which dry up within a short distance of their source. As a whole, this district is very arid, and almost destitute of tree vegetation. The total number of stations made by Mr. Bechler, in the district assigned to him, was forty, and the entire area about 3000 square miles. Barometric observations were made when- ever needed, and about 2000 angles of elevation and depres- sion with fore and back sights, so that the material for ob- taining the correct altitudes is abundant. The rocks of this district embrace all the sedimentary for- mations yet recognized by the investigators who have studied the region that lies between the Park Range and the Great Salt Lake, namely, from the Uintah quartzite (which under- lies the carboniferous) to the group or latest tertiary, in- clusive. Not only have the geographical distributions of these formations been mapped, but all the displacements of the strata have been traced and delineated, the latest-named investigations bringing out some interesting and important facts in relation to the orographic geology of the region, especially as regards the eastern termination of the great Uintah uplift, and the blending of its vanishing primary and accessory displacements with those of the north and south range above mentioned. Much information was also obtained concerning the distribution of the local drift of that region, the extent and geological date of outflow of trap, etc. The brackish water-beds at the base of the tertiary series containing the characteristic fossils were discovered in the valley of the Yampah. They are thus shown to be exactly equivalent with those now so well known in the valley of Bitter Creek, Wyoming Territory. These last-named local- ities were also visited at the close of the season’s work, and from the strata of this horizon at Black Buttes station three new species of Unio were obtained, making six clearly dis- tinct species in all that have been obtained, associated to- gether in one stratum, at that locality. They are all of either distinctively American types or closely related to species now living in American fresh waters. They represent, by F. GEOGRAPHY. 255 their affinities, the following living species: Unio clavus, La- marck; U. securus, Lea; U. gibbosus, Barnes; U. metaneorus, Rafinesgue; and U. complanatus solander. They are associ- ated in the same stratum with species of the genera Corbula, Corbicula neritina, Viriparus, etc.,and which stratum alter- nates with layers containing Astrea and Anomia. The close affinity of these fossil Unios with species now living in the Mississippi River and its tributaries seems plainly suggestive of the fact that they represent the ances- try of the living ones. An interesting series of facts has also been collected, showing that some of the so-called American types of Unio were introduced, in what is now the great Rocky Mountain region, as early as the Jurassic period, and that their differentiation had become great and clearly de- fined as early as late cretaceous and early tertiary times. Other observations present the probable lines of geograph- ical distribution, during the late geological periods, of their evolutional descent, by one or more of which they have prob- ably reached the Mississippi system, and culminated in the numerous and diverse forms that now exist there. The work of the past season shows very clearly the har- monious relations of the various groups of strata over vast areas; that, although there may be a thickening or thinning out of beds at different points, they can all be correlated from the Missouri River to the Sierra Nevada basin. The fact also that there is no physical or paleontological break in these groups over large areas from the cretaceous to the middle tertiary is fully established. The transition from marine to brackish-water forms of life commences at the close of the cretaceous epoch, and, without any line of separation that can yet be detected, continues on upward until only purely fresh-water forms are to be found. Dr. White, an eminent paleontologist and geologist, says that the line must be drawn somewhere between the cretaceous and tertiary epochs, but that it will be strictly arbitrary, as there is no physical break to the summit of the Bridger group. EXPLORATION OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION, BY J. W. POWELL. As soon as the appropriation for the fiscal year of 1876- 77 could be used, the surveying corps left Washington and 956 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. proceeded to the rendezvous camp at Gunnison, Utah Ter- ritory, where the field parties were organized under the general superintendence of Professor A. H. Thompson, geog- rapher of the expedition. While en route they were joined by Captain Clarence EK. Dutton, of the Ordnance Department U.S. A., who had been assigned by special orders from the Secretary of War for duty with this survey, and directed to make an examination of the immense fields of igneous rocks in Southeastern Utah. The field organization as finally completed differed some- what from previous years—the geographic and geological work being assigned to separate parties, each practically independent in all movements, though working under the same general plan and within the same territorial limits. It is believed that better results can be and have been se- cured by this separation of distinct branches of the survey than by the old method of attaching a geologist to a geo- graphic party, or a geographer to a geological party. Five parties were organized: one, under Professor A. H. Thompson, to continue the triangulation ; one topographic party under Mr. Walter H. Graves, another under Mr. John H. Renshaw; one geological party under Mr. G. K. Gilbert, another under Captain C. E. Dutton. The party under Professor Thompson continued the ex- pansion of the primary triangulation, resting on the base- lines measured in preceding years at Kanab and Gunnison, Utah. The area embraced in this season’s work amounts to about 10,000 square miles, the instrument used being a 10- inch theodolite of peculiar construction, designed especially for this work by Professor Thompson. Topographic party No. 1, under the charge of Mr. Graves, extended the secondary triangulation over an area of 6000 square miles, lying between the Wahsatch Mountains on the west and the Green and Colorado Rivers on the east. Mr. Graves also made a complete plane-table sketch of the country surveyed, which, taken in connection with his angles for location and perspective profile sketches, will enable him to construct a map of his district on a seale of four miles to the inch. The principal topographic characteristics of this re- gion are long lines of unscalable cliffs, which are the esearped edges of terraced plateaus of which the country is composed, F. GEOGRAPHY. 257 and deep, narrow cations with vertical walls, both present- ing well-nigh impassable barriers to travel. The only con- siderable bodies of irrigable lands found are along the valleys of the Green and San Rafael Rivers. The only timber lands are on the Sevier plateau, at an elevation of from 8000 to 11,500 feet. The work of topographic party No. 2, under Mr. Ren- shaw, was confined to Southwestern Utah and Southeast- ern Nevada, one of the most rugged and barren sections in the Great Basin. The methods of survey were the same as those adopted by party No.1, except that perspective profile sketches were made by the aid of the orograph, a newly designed instrument that promises to be of great use in topographic surveying. The work of Mr. Renshaw and his able assistant, Mr. O. D. Wheeler, was extended over about 4000 square miles. In all this area no considerable bodies of irrigable lands are found—probably not one half of one per cent. possessing any value except for pasturage. A topographic survey of the Henry Mountains was made in 1875, and a map constructed on a scale of four miles to the inch; but this being thought too small a scale to admit of correct representation of the details of the geology, Professor Gilbert, in addition to his geological work, made a more detailed survey of the topography, carrying a com- plete system of secondary triangulation, and a connected plane-table sketch, over more than 1000 square miles. The data collected are sufficient to make a topographic map of the Henry Mountains on the scale of two miles to the inch, OF gs000 The Rocky Mountain region of the United States (not in- cluding Alaska), or that portion west of the meridian of 99° 30’, was by a former Secretary of the Interior divided into districts for surveying and mapping purposes, and these dis- tricts numbered ; the area of each district is 23° in longitude, 14° in latitude. The region of country surveyed by the parties under the direction of Professor Powell is embraced in dis- tricts numbered 75, 85, 86, 95, 96, 104, and 105, the first five lying directly west of the region in which Dr. Hayden is en- gaged, while districts 104 and 105 lhe immediately south of the other districts in which he himself has been at work. During the earlier part of his work, before these districts 958 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. were established by the Department, Professor Powell’s work extended in an oblique direction from northeast to southwest along the general course of the Green and Colo- rado Rivers through the districts above designated, but the work was in such condition that no one district was com- plete. During the present season his parties have been en- gaged in extending the survey over the unsurveyed fraction- al districts, so that final and complete maps of each may be constructed. The methods of survey during the present season are essentially the same as those employed during the last, being modified to a slight extent as experience has suggested ; the chief improvements being in the method of triangula- tion. In addition to the determination of geodetic positions and general geographic features, the system of classifying the lands inaugurated in former years has been continued during the present, the object of this classification being to determine the extent and position of the irrigable lands, timber lands, grass lands, mineral lands, and waste lands— the latter being composed of rugged mountains and desert plains. The practical importance of this classification, if carefully made, is great, not only in presenting the informa- tion desirable to those who wish to settle in the country, but also in the collection of facts necessary to intelligent legislation concerning these lands. In the region embraced in this survey, a very small por- tion of the country can be redeemed by irrigation for agri- culture, and no part of it can be cultivated without irriga- tion. It appears from the reports that less than one per cent. can thus be made available. Especial care has been given to the determination of the extent of such lands, so as to ex- hibit their position on the maps. These irrigable lands and timber lands, together with some small districts of coal-bear- ing lands, are the only parts of the country that should be surveyed into townships and sections. Having in view economy and convenience in the linear surveys of this district, the geodetic points of the general geographic survey, under the direction of Professor Powell, have been carefully marked, that they may hereafter be used as datum points by the officers of the General Land Office. Extensive coal-fields exist in the region surveyed, but, as F. GEOGRAPHY. 259 in many other parts of the world, these coal-fields are of prac- tical value only at comparatively few places. The general characteristics of these coal-fields have been the subject of much investigation, and some very interesting and valuable results have been reached. These will appear in the final reports. The quantity of available coal is practically inex- haustible, and the mines that can be economically worked are of great number. In the Uintah Mountains silver and copper mines have been discovered, and worked by private parties. The extent of these silver and copper bearing rocks has been determined, but their value can be established only by extensive working. Mr. G. K. Gilbert devoted much of his time to the study of the structure of the Henry Mountains, of which enough had been learned in the preceding season to warrant the be- lief that they embodied a type of eruption hitherto unknown. The attention given to them has been amply repaid by the elucidation of the manner of their constitution. They are volcanic; but their lavas, instead of finding vent at the sur- face of the ground, and piling up conical mountains there- upon in the usual manner, ceased to rise while still several thousands of feet underground, and lifted the superincumbent strata, so as to make for themselves deep-seated subterranean reservoirs, within which they congealed. Over each of these reservoirs the strata were arched, and a hill or mountain was lifted equal in magnitude to that which would have been formed if the lava had risen to the surface; but the material of the hill was sandstone and shale, instead of hard volcanic rock. Subsequent erosion has carried away more or less completely the arching strata, and laid bare many of the voleanic masses. It has revealed also a system of reticulating dikes, which go forth in all directions from the main masses, intersecting the sedimentary rocks. The lava masses, the dikes, and those portions of shale and sandstone which have been metamorphosed by contact with the molten rock, are harder than the unaltered sedimentary strata which sur- round them, and yield to the agents of erosion more slowly. The wash of rain and streams by which the face of the sur- rounding land has been degraded, has been resisted by these hard cores, and in virtue of their obduracy we have the Henry Mountains. The deposits of lava are not all in juxta 960 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. position, but are scattered in clusters, and each cluster has created a mountain. Mount Ellen is constituted by a score of individual lava-masses; Mount Pennell and Mount Hillers each by one chief mass, accompanied by several of minor im- portance; Mount Holmes by two masses; Mount Ellsworth by a single one, with many dikes and sheets. Each of the mountains is an individual, topographically as well as struct- urally, and together they constitute a group of mountains, notarange. Mr. Gilbert’s note-books contain many sketches, by the aid of which he will be able to illustrate all the feat- ures of the peculiar types of structure. Before commencing the main work of the season, Mr. Gil- bert made an excursion in search of the outlet of Lake Bonne- ville, the great fossil lake of Utah. During an epoch which was probably coincident with the glacial epoch, the broad interior basin of Utah was covered by a great lake, which overflowed its rim, and sent an outlet to the ocean by way of the Columbia River. When the climate became grad- ually warmer and dryer, the evaporation grew greater and the rainfall grew less, antil finally the overflow ceased, and the lake began to dry away and shrink within its shores; to- day only Great Salt Lake and Sevier Lake remain, but high up on the mountain is carved the Bonneville beach, a perma- nent record of the old flood tide. The search for the point of outlet was successful, and it was found at the north end of Cache Valley, a few miles beyond the boundary of Utah, in the territory of Idaho. The bed of the outflowing stream was traced for a number of miles. ‘The beach lines were seen to run quite to the pass through which the channel was cut, but beyond, on the side of the drainage of the Columbia, no trace of them could be seen. Of no less interest was the discovery of a recent orographic movement at the western base of the Wahsatch Range. A great fault runs along that base—-one of the faults by which the mountain was produced. The block of the earth’s crust which lies to the westward of the fault-plane was dropped down, and the block which lies to the eastward was lifted up, and from the eastward block subsequent erosion has carved the range. Along this plane of ancient movement there has been a recent movement. The mountain has risen a little higher or the valley-floor has dropped a little lower, and this F, GEOGRAPHY. 261 so recently that the Bonneville flood is ancient in compari- son. Captain C. E. Dutton resumed this year his study of the large area of igneous rocks in Southern Utah, in the vicinity of the Sevier River, and has brought back additional infor- mation, which he purposes employing in the preparation of a monograph of the entire track. He has worked out the struct- ure of the component features and the approximate age of the eruptions, and is engaged in classifying the various lth- ologic members. The older outbreaks appear to be of early tertiary age (eocene), and to have been nearly continuous through a long period. The volcanic beds thus formed were subsequently traversed by great faults, and tables were up- lifted with deep valleys between them; the structure thus produced conforming to the general type prevalent through- out the plateau country. The degradation of these lofty tables gave rise to conglomerate beds of great extent and thickness, which are composed entirely of volcanic materials. Captain Dutton has compared the details and arrangement of these conglomerates with the alluvial beds now accumu- lating in great volume in the valleys out of the waste of the adjoining tables, and finds an agreement between them so close that he ascribes the same mode of origin to both. He also finds considerable metamorphism, not only in the under- lying sedimentary beds (early tertiary), but in the super- posed conglomerate, and which he thinks must have occurred comparatively near the surface. The greater portion by far of the erupted rocks he classes as trachytes and trachy-dole- rites. The rhyolitic varieties are of very limited occurrence, being found only in the vicinity of the Beaver or Tushar Range. In the southwestern part of the field (near Sang- quitch) extensive fields of basalt are found. Captain Dut- ton distinguishes two ages of the basalt, one prior to the development of the present structural features of the region, the other subsequent to it—the former being more properly dolerite or anamesite, the latter typical basalt. Under instructions from the Interior Department, Profess- or Powell and his parties have also been engaged in general ethnographic work in the Rocky Mountain region. One of the special items in these instructions was the classification of the Indian tribes, such classification being not only of 262 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. scientific interest, but of great importance in the administra- tion of Indian affairs. Tor the eastern portion of the United States this work had been accomplished, first, by the unofficial labors of the Hon. Albert Gallatin, and subsequently by the Hon. Henry R. Schoolcraft, as an officer of the government ; and some additions had been made to this work by various persons for scientific purposes. This work has been renewed by Professor Powell, and has been pushed with all the en- ergy possible with the funds at his command, and a large amount of material has been collected by himself and by members of his corps, and by residents in and travelers through the country. In addition to this, a large amount has been collected by the Smithsonian Institution through various channels—materials as yet unpublished. The officers of that Institution have placed all this matter in the hands of Professor Powell, to be combined with his own collections. In the preparation of the results of these collections for pub- lication, he has the assistance of J. Hammond Trumbull, Professor F. L. O. Roehrig, and Mr. W. H. Dall. The first volume of the reports on this subject will soon be issued. It treats of the tribes of Alaska, the western half of Washing- ton Territory, and Northwestern Oregon, and is accompanied by maps exhibiting the geographic distribution of the tribes of these regions. A second volume, on the tribes of Califor- nia, has also been sent to the government printer, which will be succeeded by others as rapidly as they can be prepared. Dr. Elliott Coues, U.S. A., is engaged on a “ Report on the Birds of the Valley of the Colorado,” based primarily on the collections made by the several parties under Professor Powell’s direction. This report was sent to the government printer early in the spring, and about 200 pages have already been set up. Mr. L. F. Ward, the botanist of the corps, assisted by sev- eral gentlemen of scientific ability in this department, has been engaged during the entire year in the preparation of a “Report on the Botany of the Valley of the Colorado,” which is now nearly ready for publication. EXPLORATIONS IN 1876 OF LIEUT. GEORGE M. WHEELER, U.S. E. The expedition of 1876 was delayed in its departure for the field because of the lateness of action by Congress in F. GEOGRAPHY. 263 making appropriations. Six parties were, however, organ- ized and placed in the field for the full season, and a seventh for a part of the season, until the near approach of winter necessitated the termination of the field-work about Decem- ber 1st. The work of the year was, as in 1875, divided into two sections, designated as the California and Colorado sec- tions, the work being limited to areas in California, Nevada, Colorado, and New Mexico. In the special branches of Natural History the number of scientific observers was un- avoidably reduced from the limited appropriations of money which were available. The year marks a gratifying improvement in the grade of the geodetic and topographic work, one of the features being the collection of materials for a detailed topographical map of Lake Tahoe and the surrounding Sierra Nevada region on a scale of one inch to a mile; and of the section embracing the famous Comstock lode and its surroundings upon a scale of one inch to 500 feet. This implies no departure from the original plan of confining the general topography in the more sparsely settled regions to the amount necessary for the con- struction of a map on a scale of one inch to eight miles, or SUBEEU! The astronomical stations occupied in 1873 by parties of this survey on the divide between Virginia City and Gold Hill, Nevada, were connected this season with the extrem- ities of a base-line, more than four miles long, measured in the valley of the Carson River. Triangles developed from this base form the basis of the system of triangles extended over the entire area. Main astronomical stations, with the adjacent measured bases, had been determined along the east face of the Rocky Mountains from Hughes, Colorado, on the north, to Las Vegas and Santa Fé, New Mexico, on the south, and the scheme of triangulation already begun was farther carried out. A noteworthy feature of the past season’s work is the greater attention paid to the determination of the boundaries of areas of marked natural resources, such as those valuable for agriculture, with or without irrigation, for grazing, for timber, and for mines, as contrasted with the arid or abso- lutely sterile parts. The outgrowth of this system will be 964 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. the preparation for the use of the government of a series of charts indicating, with a close approximation, the nature of the surface as found, and its consequent adaptability to the various industries. A small office force has been constantly employed in con- structing the maps for the finished atlas from the large amount of original material already collected. The San Juan mining region of Southwestern Colorado has been delineated upon a scale of one inch to two miles, and shows effectively the peculiar mountain structure of this wonderful region, in which nestle the heads of seven large streams—the Rio Grande, the Lake Fork of the Gunnison, the Uncompahgre, the Unanup, the San Miguel, the Dolores, the Mancos, and the Las Animas Rivers. During the year Vol. V. (Zoology) of the 4to Reports has been issued, containing 1023 pages, with forty-five plates and three wood-cuts. A catalogue of the mean declination of 2018 stars, used for the determination of latitude by the zenith telescope, by Professor T. H. Safford, is passing through the press, and a volume by Professor Cope upon the Vertebrate Paleontology of portions of New Mexico is soon to be issued. The regu- lar Annual Report of the Survey for 1876 is accompanied by seven atlas sheets, and has, in addition to the usual matter, several papers on subjects relating to Natural History, and a discussion of the possibility of diverting the Colorado River of the West for the purpose of irrigation. Two trips were made during the season of 1875 and the subsequent winter by a party under Lieutenant Bergland, U.S. A., to make cer- tain measurements, as well as a general examination of the subject, with unsatisfactory results as regards any information pointing to a successful accomplishment of such a scheme. These results are set forth in Appendix II. of the Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers for 1876. The report upon the collections from Indian mounds, in Southwestern Cali- fornia, by Drs. Yarrow, Rothwell, and others, in 1875, is un- dergoing examination by Professor W. F. Putnam, of Har- vard College, and will soon be published. G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. 265 G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY. PROFESSOR ABBE ON THE MICROSCOPE, Mr. W.E. Fripp has translated for the “‘ Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalists’ Society ’? Professor Abbe’s papers on the microscope. The whole is very obscurely worded, and, either from the defects of the original or the miscon- ception of the translator, it is so difficult of comprehension that it will prove of small value to the working optician. There are, however, many valuable suggestions, and some very extraordinary and positive statements; e.g., that an adequate compensation of spherical aberration is, as a mat- ter of fact, impossible in a dry lens when the angular aper- ture exceeds 110°; and that hence it must be concluded that a dry objective will be less suited for ordinary scientific | use 1n proportion as it renders visible such finer systems of lines as exceed the limits of resolving power answering to that angle. And he states that the greatest possible in- crease of resolving power can be obtained in a rational way only by means of immersion objectives. The immersion lens may be made, according to Professor Abbe, with an aperture of about 100° in water, somewhat more than would corre- spond to 180° in air—a statement directly opposed to what Mr. Wenham has claimed. Professor Abbe states positively that there exists no microscope in which there has been seen, or will be seen, any structure which really exists in the ob- ject and is inherent in its nature, that a normal eye can not recognize with a sharply defining immersion lens magnify- ing eight hundred times (diameters ?). LIMIT OF VISIBILITY IN THE MICROSCOPE. In his recent annual address to the Microscopical Society of London, the president, Mr. H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., discusses the relation between the limits of the powers of the micro- scope and the size of the ultimate molecules of matter. to b& bo MA oO —- RS) 588 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. . 15. Annales des Sciences Naturelles: zoologie et paléontologie. Milne- Edwards. Occasional. Paris. 16. Revue et Magasin de Zoologie pure et appliquée. Monthly. Paris. 17. Archives de Zoologie experimentale et générale. H.Lacaze-Duthiers. Quarterly. Paris. 18. Annales des Sciences geologiques. Hébert and Alphonse Milne-Ed- wards. Occasional. Paris. 19. La Chasse Illustrée. A. Didot. Weekly. Paris. 20. Materiaux pour Il’ Histoire primitive et naturelle del’Homme. Month- ly. Toulouse. 21. Revue d’Anthropologie de M. Paul Broca. Quarterly. Paris. 22. Bulletin Internationale de l’Observatoire de Paris. C. Germany and Austria. 1. Aus der Natur. Die neuesten Entdeckungen auf dem Gebiete der Na- turwissenschaften. Weekly. Leipsic. 2. Archiv der Pharmacie. Monthly. Halle. 3. Das Ausland. Ueberschau der neuesten Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der Natur- Erd- und Volkerkunde. Weekly. Augsburg. 4, Badische Gewerbezeitung fiir Haus und Familie. Monthly. Karlsruhe. 5. Deutsche illustrirte Gewerbezeitung. Weekly. Berlin. 6, Deutsche Industrie- Zeitung: Organ der Handels- und Gewerbekam- mern zu Chemnitz, etc. Weekly. Dresden. 7. Gaea. Natur und Leben. Zeitschrift zur Verbreitung und Hebung naturwissenschaftlicher, geographischer, und technischer Kenntnisse. Month- ly. Koln and Leipsie. 8. Industrie-Blatter : Wochenschrift fiir Fortschritt und Aufklarung in Gewerbe, Hauswirthschaft, Gesundheitspflege, etc. Weekly. Berlin. 9. Kurze Berichte iiber die neuesten Erfindungen, Entdeckungen und Verbesserungen im Gebiete des Gewerbewesens, des Handels und der Land- wirthschaft. Monthly. Mannheim. 10. Landwirthschaft und Industrie; Monatsschrift fiir Landwirthe, Fabri- kanten und Geschiftsleute jeder Art. Monthly. Berlin. 11. Die neuesten Erfindungen im Gebiete der Landwirthschaft, des Berg- baues, des Fabrik- und Gewerbewesens und des Handels. Illustrirte Zeit- schrift. Semi-monthly. Vienna. 12. Oberlausitzer Gewerbeblatt. Organ der Gewerbe- und Handwerker- Vereine des Kénigreichs Sachsen. Semi-monthly. Bautzen. 13. Polytechnisches Central-Blatt. Semi-monthly. Leipsic. 14. Polytechnisches Journal, ete. Dr. E. M. Dingler. Semi-monthly. Augsburg. 15. Polytechnisches Notizblatt fiir Gewerbtreibende, Fabrikanten und Kiinstler. Bi-monthly. Mainz. 16. Blatter fiir Gewerbe, Technik, und Industrie. Leipsic. 17. Mittheilungen aus Justus Perthes’ geographischer Anstalt iiber wich- tige neue Erforschungen auf dem Gesammtgebiete der Geographie. _ Dr. A. Petermann. Monthly. Gotha. 18. Chemisches Central-Blatt. Repertorium fiir reine, pharmaceutische, physiologische, und technische Chemie. Weekly. Leipsic. Q. INDEX .TO THE REFERENCES. 589 19. Der Naturforscher. Wochenblatt zur Verbreitung der Fortschritte in den Naturwissenschaften. Weekly. Berlin. 21. Neues Jahrbuch fiir Pharmacie. Monthly. Heidelberg. 22, Landwirthschaftliches Central-Blatt fur Deutschland. Monthly. Berlin. 23. Das Deutsche Wollen-Gewerbe. Organ fiir die Woilen waaren-Indus- trie,etc. Weekly. Griineberg. 24, Farber-Zeitung. Organ fiir Farberei, Druckerei, Bleicherei, Appretur, etc. Dr. N. Reimann. Weekly. Berlin. 25. Muster-Zeitung. Zeitschrift fiir Farberei, Druckerei, Bleicherei, Ap- pretur, etc. Dr. F.Springmiihl. Weekly. Berlin. 26. Deutsche Firber-Zeitung. J.C. H.Geyer. Bi-monthly. Mihlhausen. 27. Preussisches Handelsarchiv. Wochenschrift fiir Handel, Gewerbe und Verkehrs-Anstalten. Weekly. Berlin. 28. Central-Blatt fiir Agrikulturchemie und rationellen Wirthschaftsbe- trieb. Monthly. Leipsic. 29. Bayerisches. Industrie- und Gewerbeblatt. Monthly. Munich. 30. Correspondenz-Blatt der deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte. Monthly. Braunschweig. 31. Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien. 8vo. Vi- enna. 32. Allgemeine deutsche Polytechnische Zeitung. Herausgegeben von Ds. H. Grothe. Weekly. Berlin. 33. Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie. Herausgegeben von F. Wohler, J. Liebig, H. Kopp, E. Erlenmeyer, J. Volhard. Monthly. Leipsic and Heidelberg. 34. Neue deutsche Gewerbe-Zeitung. Bi-monthly. Leipsic. 35. Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin. About Monthly. Berlin. 36. Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie. Siebold & Kolliker. Oc- easional. Leipsic. 37. Astronomische Nachrichten. Altona. 38. Repertorium der Naturwissenschaften. Monatliche Uebersicht der neuesten Arbeiten auf dem Gebiete der Naturwissenschaften. Monthly. Berlin. 39. Die Natur. Weekly. Halle. D. America. 1. Journal of the Franklin Institute, devoted to Science and the Mechanic Arts. Monthly. Philadelphia. 2. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Monthly. Philadelphia. 3. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. Quarterly. Boston. 4, The American Journal of Science and Art. Sillimanand Dana. Month- ly. New Haven, Ct. 5. The American Naturalist : a popular illustrated Magazine of Natural History. Monthly. Salem, Mass. 6. Scientific American: a weekly journal of practical information in .Art, Science, Mechanics, Chemistry, and Manufactures. New York. 590 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 7. The American Chemist. Monthly. -New York. 8. Journal of Applied Chemistry. Monthly. New York. 10. The Rod and Gun: late American Sportsman. Weekly. New York. 11. Forest and Stream. Weekly. New York. 12. The Spirit of the Times. Weekly. New York. 13. The Popular Science Monthly. New York. 15. Turf, Field, and Farm. Weekly. New York. 16. Field and Stream. Weekly. Chicago. 17. The Engineering and Mining Journal. Weekly. New York. 18. The Live Stock Journal. Monthly. New York and Buffalo. 19. The Poultry World. Monthly. Hartford. 20. The Iron Age. Weekly. New York. 21. The Railroad Gazette. Weekly. New York. 22. The Metal Worker. Weekly. New York. 23. The Engineering News. Monthly. Chicago. 24. The Polytechnic Review. Monthly. Philadelphia. E. Netherlands. 1. Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences exactes et naturelles, publiées par la Société Hollandaise des Sciences 2 Harlem. Occasionally. La Haye. F. Switzerland. 1. Bibliotheque Universelle et Revue Suisse. Archives des Sciences phy- siques et naturelles. Monthly. Geneva. G. Ltaly. 1. Rivista Scientifico-industriale compilata da Guido Vimercati. Month- ly. 8yvo. Florence. H. Denmark. 1. Tidsskrift for Fiskeri. Semi-annual. Copenhagen. ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Abbe, 5, 98, 101, 108. on the microscope, 265. Abel, Prof., 463. Abercrombie, Hon. Ralph, 111. Aberration of light, 8. Acanthospermum xanthoides, 355. Acclimatization of plants, 548. Achrematite, a new mineral, 223. Acids, do they coagulate the blood? 284. Acworth, J. J., 197. Adams, Dr. A., Leith, 300. Adulteration of beeswax with paraffin, 500. Adulterations in coffee, detecting, 208. Aerolite, an interesting, 225. Aeronautics in the arctic regions, 452. recent progress of, 450. African locust in Germany, 329. Agassiz, Alexander, 228. Agricultural station, Connecticut, 376. Agriculture and rural economy, 365. Air, determination of ozone in, 194. elasticity of purified, 143. pushed in front of a projectile, 144. temperature of, 105. Air-cooling, method of, 420. -germs, 272. -movement on the barometer, ST. -pressure in bnildings, 117. -tight joints, 520. Airy, Prof., 232. Alaska Commercial Company, 389. seal islands, 389. Albumen for preserving flowers and bou- quets, 357. Alcohol, physiological action of, 286. Algol, period of, 19. Allen, J. A., 302, 304, 309. Alloys of silver and copper, 205. Allston, Edward R., 301. Alps, covering the slopes with forests, 365. Altitude at Be River Indian Agency, 49. influence of, upon the health, 531. Altitudes in the United States, correction of, 233. Amalgamation of iron, 177. Amber, dredging for, 224. Ameghino, Florentine, 293. America, fossil birds in, 311. heath in, 358. American bromine, 194. fossil insects, 330. gooseberries, 355. mining methods, 434. woods at the Centennial, 355, Ammonia in sulphuric acid, 196. in the atmosphere, 85. 7 Ammonia-soda process, improvement in, 00. Ammonium nitrite, 197. Amyot, 349. Anacharis alsinastrum, 345. Anastatica hierochuntina, 353. Ancient discovery of a variable star, 31. André, 29, 31. Andrews, Dr., 164, 199. Anemometer, Hipp’s, 113. Aneroid barometer, accuracy of, 88. the, 116. Aneroids and hypsometry, 221. improvements in, 111. Angelin, Nils Peter, 541. Angot, 110. Angstrom and Kirchoff, 11. Anguillula stercoralis, 535. Aniline black, discharging from fabrics, 489. red, new, 492. Angart, Captain, $9. Ansell, 540. Antifouling composition, 435, 471. Antimony, hydrogen in so-called explo- sive, 193. Antiquity of the burning mirror, 146. Antiseptic action of salicylic acid, 423, 425. bisulphite of carbon, an, 207. Ants and wasps, wrestling-match between, 325. Apollo, problem of, 1. Apparatine against incrustation, 436. a substitute for gum, 498. Apples, fodder value of, 382. Aquaria, management of, 307. Aquarium at Westminster, new, 308. Aquometer, the, 471. Archebiosis, 281. Archer, Prof., 415. William, 345. Archimedea remex, 345. Arctic explorations, Swedish, 241. regions, aeronautics in, 452. Argelander, T. Arkansas Fish Commissioners, 401. Armatures, influence upon magnets, 15S. Armieux, Dr., 125. Army Signal-office, award to, 109. worm of the North, 330. reproduction of, 332. Arsenic, medico-legal examination for, 217. Artemia, influences of external agencies in, 335. salina and mulhausenii, 335. aie conversion of, into venous blood, 284. Artificial alizarine, prohibition in Russia, culture of pearl-oysters, 409. ultramarine industry, 489. Artillery practice, sharp, 455. Asiatic cholera, 532. 592 Asphaltum, vein of, 250. Asten, Von, 49. Asthma, treatment of, 534. Astronomical observations ab Somali, 8. at Milan, 3S. Astronomy and mathematics, 1. Atmosphere, alot of solar heat by, 50. ammonia in, 85. constitution of, 105. moisture in, 91, 94. of Venus, 27, 29. over the Libyan desert, 130. upper currents of the, 106. Atmospheric dust, iron in, 133. Tasuetl particles in, 32. electricity, 170. lines of the solar spectrum, 154. moisture and forests, 77. pressure and phases of the moon, 1383. pressure, distribution of, 90. refraction measured, 187. Atomic weight of cerium, 201. Atrophia and morphine combined, 534. Atwater, Prof. W. O., 371. Aunbel, 480. August’s psychrometer, 96. Aulacodiscus oregonus, 341. Aurora and terrestrial magnetism, 75. Borealis, height of, 132. periodicity of, 96. Australian fishes, some curious, 319. Autumn planting of potatoes, 568. Auwers, 18, 33. Award to the Army Signal-office, 109. Awnings, water-proof, 511. Axis of the earth, changes in, 78. Axolotl, habits of the Mexican, 317. Ayrton and Perry, 175. B. Baden-Pritchard, 482. Bagley, Governor, 399. Bailey, Prof., 273. Baird, Prof., 304. Balard, 541. Balbiani, Prof., 280. Balfour, 296. Ballooning, scientific, 449. Balloons, clouds and winds observed from, dint snow-formation observed from, 11S. Bamboo cultivation in France, 366. Barham, 72. Bark, growth and pressure of, 347. Barometer, a very delicate, 10S. accuracy of aneroid, SS. acted on by air in motion, ST. convenient form of mercurial, 108. the aneroid, 116. Barometric gradient, 100. pressure during winds, 115. pressure in Europe, 83. Barral and Salvetat, 502. Barrett, 192. Barth, 45. Bartlett and Son, 386. Barycentric theorem, Somoff’s, 54. INDEX. Baryta-green, 493. Basalt columns, formation of, 70. Bastian, Prof., 287. and Tyndall, controversy of, 281. Bastie, De la, 512, 513. Bathometer of Dr. C.W. Siemens, 235. soundings, table of, 237. Bathybius, 342. Baton, useamong Egyptians and Jews, 291, Batrachia, blood-corpuscles of, 274. Baube, 185. Baudeira, Marquis Sa de, 541. Baudet, 31. Baudrimont, 358. Bauer & Co., 487. Baumhauer, 219. Bayer, Vou, 119. Beardslee, Commander L. A., 187. Beccari, Dr., 359. Becher, Rear-Admiral A. B., 541. Bechler, G. R., 252. Becquerel, 77. Beech-bark, waxy matter on, 349. Beer, condensing for preservation, 519. Beetles, metamorphoses of, 325. Belavenetz, 162. Bele, Von, 429. Bell, John, 407. Bennett, A. W., 360. Bergland, Lieut., 264. Berkeley and Desmaziéres, 364. Bert, Paul, 28S, 450. Bertelli, 72. Berthelot, 197, 214, 216. Berthold, 498. Bertrand, 221. Bessel, 23, 24. Bessels, Dr., 344. Bessemer process, 432. Beta Persei (Algol), 19. Betelli, 207. Bezold, Von, 122, 130. Bichromated gelatin for water - proofing, 489. Biereus de Haan, 43. Binnie, A. R., 92. Biot, 231. Bird, Freder, 541. Birds, habits of, 312. in Massachusetts, decrease of, 309. migration of, 311. of Guadalupe, 360. Bischoff and Leuckart, 275. Bisulphide of carbon as an antiseptic, 207. Black for straw hats, 491. with cerium salts, 491. for wool, new, 491. spots on the scales of fish, 323. Blackboards, varnish for, 495. Blaen, W.J., 31. Blake, Dr. James, 167. Blanford, Henry, 126, 127. Blazek, Prof., 65. Bleaching sponges, 501. Bleek, Dr. W. H. D., 541. Blochmann, 149. Block, Dr. Eugene, 152. Blood, conversion of arterial into venous, 284 do acids coagulate the, 284. in typhoid fever, 532. photographs of, 308. preparation of, as powder, 520. Blood-corpuscles of batrachia, 274. INDEX. Blood-stains, microscopic determination of, 270. spectroscopic examination of, 270. Blower, automatic hydraulic, 414. Blue for cotton, 493. Boats, submerged chain for towing, 446. Bobretzky, Dr. N., 338. Boeck, Dr. William, 541. Bohemia, rainfall in, 93. Boéhmer, Dr. W., 1. Boiler incrustation, prevention of, 436, 437. Boisbaudran, 203, 204. Bollaert, William, 541. Bolton and Sayce, 476. Boltzmann, 157. Bond, G. P., 21. Bong, Gaston, 199. Bonnafont, Dr., 532. Bonneville Lake, 260. Bontemps, C., 448. Bora of Southern Russia, 129. Borax lake of California, 223. Borchardt, 3. Border-line between plants and animals, 280. Boring for coal, 225. Borlan, Alexander, 541. Botany and horticulture, 347. of the valley of the Colorado, 262. Bothkamp Observatory, 51. Bothriocephali, 337. Bottger, Prof., 193, 491, 493. Bouart, 515. Boucard, 310. Bouchardat, Prof., 185, 538. Boucherie, 431. Bouguer, 13. Bourget, 25. Boussinesq, 141. Boussingault, 185. Bowring, J. C., 331. Brachelli, 437. Brai liquide, 464. Brain, nature of the invertebrate, 287. Brainard, 427. Brass and copper, coating with zinc, 514. Braun, 166. Brayton ready motor, 473. Bredichin, Dr, T., 26, 35, 37. Bretschneider, Dr. E., 10. Brighton aquarium, 307, 318, 320. Bromide of lithium, action of, 530. Bromine, American, 194. Brongniart, Adolphe, 541. Brontotheride, the, 301. Bronze period, female clothing in, 294. Bronzing iron castings, 515. Brooks, Dr. W. K., 338. Broom-plant as a fibre, 367. Broun, 102, Brown, Dr. Christian, 529. oA, 26% Brown stain on oak, 495, Brownish patina on zine, 516. Bruce, J. H., 398. Bruchmiller, 361. Brucine, conversion into strychnine, 207. Bruhns, Dr., 15. Brunow, Prof., 33. Brushes from squirrels’ tails’ hair, 503, Buchan, 83, 116. Buchholz, Dr. R., 541. Buchwalder, 146. 593 Buckland, Frank, 188, 308, 313, 407, 408. Buds, prevention of the freezing of, 369. Buffalo, rapid destruction of the, 302. Biibrig, 201. pues materials, conduction of heat by, 45. Bilow, Von, 51. Bunsen, Prof., 109, 201. Burnell, A. H., 319. Burnham, 8. W., 23. Busch, 144. Busk, Prof., 337. Bussey Institution, 375. Butea, 526. Butter, detection of oleomargarine in, 424. Butterflies, mimicry of, 283. Buys-Ballot, 83. and Scott, 115. C. Cabien, 383. Cailletet, 150, 178. Calenlating machines, 43. Calcutta Observatory, 40. California, borax lake of, 223. culture of carp in, 403. deer, a new, 304. Fish Commission, 401. Calluna vulgaris, 358. Calorimeter, new, 148. Canada, meteorology in, 80. report of fisheries of, 1875, 391. Canals, single-rail steam towage, 445, Candle in a walking-cane, 419. Candolle, A. de, 353. Caoutchouc from milkweed, 367. Cape Ann Family Almanac, 386. Cape of Good Hope Observatory, 22. Capillarity, Gauss’ theory of, 142. Capronnier, 275. Carbolic acid, manufacture of, 207. action of, on wood, 431. Carbon dioxide in mineral cavities, liquid, 198. from a gas-retort, 198. monosulphite, 199. Carbonic oxide, cleue alarm against, 540. non - oxidation by ozone, 213. of, Carbonnier, 321. Carius, 210. Carnivorous plants, glands of, 563. Carp in California, 403. Carpenter, Dr., 273. reclamation of, 344. Carpentier, F., 64. Carre’s carafe machine, 522. Carrier-pigeons, 463. Carrington, H. A., 146. R. C., 541. Carson River valley, 263. Casamajor, 177. Case, Theodore S., 464. Caspari, 81. Castelnau, 319. Castracane, Count, 273. Cast steel for locomotive boilers, 432. Cast-steel wire ropes, 445. Catalogne of all the birds known, 310. of new double stars (Cincin- nati), 47. Catalogues of double stars, 17. Caton, Judge, 304. 594 Caucasus, climate of, 123. Cauchy’s method, 37. Cavallero, 439. Celestial photometry, 7. Cellar-walls, repairing leaky, 428. Cement, a new, 510. for ovens, 509. of gelatin and bichromate of pot- ash, 512. Centennial, American woods at the, 355. living trees at the, 356. Centipedes, 336. Cephalization in the development of ani- mals, 278. Cephalosiphon, 345. Cerium, atomic weight of, 201. metals, the, 201. salts for dyeing black, 491. Chabas, 291. Chain for towing boats, submerged, 446. ‘‘Challenger,” work accomplished by the, 40. Chandon light, 415. Change of texture in sandstone by heat, 146. Chapelas, $9. Chapman, Dr. A. W., 355. Charpentier, 327. Chekanoffsky, 541. Chemical action of solar rays, 193. balances, 135. Chemistry and metallurgy, 195. Chilognathes, 337. China, peculiar disease among dogs in, 533. Chittenden, G. B., 249. Chloral and picrotoxine, 529. Cholera, Asiatic, 532. effects of, on the mucous mem- brane, 532. Chrome-alum, modifications of, 502. utilization of, 501. -yellow poisonous, 538. Chromis paterfamilias, incubation of, 322. Chronometers, accuracy of, 6. Chrysardhin, 526. Ciaccio, G. V., 326. Cicada, the seventeen-year, 326. Cienkowsky, 280. Cinchona plantations in British Sikhim, 529. Cincinnati catalogue of new donble stars, AT hams, 538. Cintolesi, 173. Circles divided on glass, 46. Cirrus clouds, direction of, 98, Cissoid of Diocles, 1. Clamond, 189. Clarifying a shellac solution, 499. Clark, Latimer, 190, 447. Clarke, George, 399. Classeyron, 467. Classification of double stars, 24. Cleaning silver-ware, 424. Clerk-Maxwell, Prof., 266. Climate and trees in Sacramento Bay, 111. of the Cancasus, 123. preceding the glacial epoch, 110. Climatic changes in Scotland, 116. Clocks, mysterious, 412. Cloez, 357. Close time for seals, 389. Cloth of feathers, 422. INDEX. or and winds observed from balloons, Clusters and nebula, 15. Coagulation of fluids, 285. Coal, boring for, 225. gases inclosed in, 209. in Dakota group, 248. sections of, 226. Coal-fields, extensive, 258. -fields of Spain, 226. -gas, hydrocarbons of, 214. sulphur in, 418. Coast Survey, latitude stars employed in, 47 (. Cobalt and nickel, magnetism of, 192. Cobbold, Dr., 337. Cochin China, capture of eels in, 403. diarrhcea, 535. Cockroach, a fossil, 330. digestion in the, 32S. Cockroaches and earwigs, how they fold their wings, 327. Coatish, utilizing the offal of, 391. Cod-liver oil and quinine, 529. Coffee, detecting adulterations in, 208. Coggia’s comet, spectrum of, 37. Cohausen, 485. Cohn, 126. Cold, mechanical production of, 147. waves of air, origin of, 104, Colding, 101. Collett, John, 300. Coloring matter in the murex shell, 333. of the eggs of birds, 304. Colors of double stars, 17. Combustion, influence of pressure on, 150. Comet IT., 1840, 36. IIT., 1862, 35. VII., 1873, and comet I., 1818, iden- tical, 57. the periodic, of D’Arrest, 37. Comets, calculation of the absolute per- turbations of, 36. Comil, 532. Compass, curious Japanese, 18S. deviation of the, 162. in iron ships, deviation of the, 163 observatory of Cronstadt, 162. Composition, anti-fouling, 485. of American wheat prod- ucts, 375. of coral, 226. Comstock lode, 263. Conduction of heat in gases, 183. Conflagrations, extinguishment of, 464, 465. Connecticut agricultural station, 370. Fish Commissioners’ Report, 394, River, salmon in, 409. Conochilus volvox, 324. Cooking meat by cold, 422. of leguminous vegetables, 426. Coombs, Dr. S. W., 398. Cooper, Dr., 111. Dr. J. G., 316. Cope, Prof., 264, 276, 303, 304, 315, 316. Copper-alloy adhering to glass, 512. Coprinus radiatus, 362. Copying apparatus, 487. | Copying-ink pencils, imitation of, 484. preparation for, 455. -paper, photographic, 482. INDEX. Coral, composition of, 226. Corchorus capularis, 362. olitorius, 362. Cornelissen, Lieutenant J. E., 542. Coronal-line 1474 K, 44. Corrosion of platinum stills by sulphuric acid, 212. Costa Rica, reptiles in, 315. Cotton, 291. covering with silk, 502. silicate, 457. Coues, Dr. Elliott, 262. Court-plaster, increasing the adhesive- ness of, 430. Cracknell, 16S. Cramp & Sons, 468. Cremation in France, 185. Cresson, John C , 542. Crocé-Spinelli and Sivel, 449, 450. Crocker, Charles, 402. Crookes, Prof., 520. Crosby, 99. Crossley’s observatory, 18. Crotch, Duppa, 299. Cruickshank, 34s. Crustacea, metamorphosis of, 334. Cryohydrates, 195. Crystallization, instantaneous, 138. Crystals, polarizing, 272. Cuban tishes, Poey’s catalogue of, 320. Cuir-li¢ge, a new fabric, 505. Culley, 447. Culture of plants among the aborigines, 370. Cunningham, Capt. Allen, 141. Currents of air in different directions si- multaneously, 89. of the atmosphere, the upper, 106. Curter, 175. Curves and equations, curious, 4. Cuvier, 276. Cyanides, a new class of, 199. Cyclones, laws of, 89. mechanical theory of, 101. origin of, 127. D. Dahmen, Dr., 2. Dall, W. H., 262. Dallas, W. S., 341. Dallinger and Drysdale, 267. Dalton’s law and the constitution of the atmosphere, 10d. Damoiseaa prize for astronomical work, 2 52. tables of, 32. Damour, 222. Dana, Prof., 226, 278. Danforth, Dr., 532. Darbey, P. H., 398. D’Arrest, 16, 37, 48. D’Arrest’s periodic comet, 37. Darwin, 276. Date & Eichbaum, 417. Daubrée, 83, 227. Daubreite, a new mineral, 220. Davidson, 106. Davies, Prof. Charles, 542. Davis, Henry, 324. Davy and Brewster, 19S. Marié, 94, 162, 384. Sir Humphrey, 17S. Death of fishes, one cause of, 405. 595 Decaisne, 534. Decomposition of water, 195. Decrease of birds in Massachusetts, 309. Deep-sea sounding by photography, 161. soundings, red clay of, 273. Deer, a new Californian, 304, Defiections of the plumb-line, 67. De Fonvielle, 14. De Haldat, 160. De la Blanchere, 405. Delachanal & Mermet, 415. De la Rive, Prof., 75. De la Rue, Warren, 177. Delphi, problem of, 1. Delvigne, Gustave, 542. Dembowski, 23. Dental process, improved, 536. Denza, 129. Deposition of fine sediments, 229. De Rossi, 72. Desilverization of argentiferous zinc, 204. Desmoulins, Charles, 542. Desor, 229. Destroying the Siberian marmot, 382. Destruction of field-mice by fumigation, 381. of the buffalo, rapid, 302. Detroit River, whitefish hatching in, 403. Development of salpa, 338. es. sulphuretted hydrogen, 96. Deviation of the compass, 162. in iron ships, 163. Deville, 195. and Debray, 195, 206. De Vries, 347. Dewar and Tait, Profs., 147. Diameter of the inferior planets, 29. Diarrhea, Cochin China, 535. Diatoms in wheat straw, 342. Dickson, Oscar, 242. Dietheroscope, the, 187. Digestion in myriapods, 336. in the cockroach, 328. Digitalis purpurea, 527. Diminution of water in springs, etc., 131. Diocles, cissoid of, 1. Direction of cirrus clouds, 9S. Discoveries, Marsh’s recent, 297. Disease among dogs in China, peculiar, 533. of olive and orange trees, 364. the potato, 363. Dispersion of light by prisms, 152. Distoma crassum, 337. Distribution of atmospheric pressure, 90. of public time, 60. Doberck, 44. Dohrn, Dr., 338. Déllen’s determination of local time, 5. Dolores River, 24S. Domestic and household economy, 411. Domesticating the prairie chicken, 310. Domeyko, 220. Donnadieu, A. L., 332. Doppler’s theory, 20. D’Orbigny, Prof., 542. Dorn, Dr., 120. Double star = 634, 18. stars, catalogue of, 17. colors of, 17. Double-balance method in duplex teleg- raphy, 169. 596 Dove-color on raw wool, 494. Dozen, value of the, 2. Dragometer, Palmieri’s, 497. Draper, Dr., 142, 269. Drawbridges, revolving, 467. Dredging for amber, 224. Drosera, secretion of, 359. Dry thunder-storms, 128. Dry-dock, a new, 468. Drying of hay and grain, artificial, 378. Duane, General, 459. Dubois, 471. Duderhof Mountain, 6. Dufour, 113. Dumas, 380, 381. Dunker, Dr., 119. Dunn, M. H., 401. Duplex telegraphy, 168, 169. Durable glue, 511. Durnof, 450. Dust, exclusion of, from the lungs, 538. Dust-shower, remarkable, 83. Dutton, Capt. Clarence E., 256, 261. Dyeing black with cerium salts, 491. cotton pure blue, 493. parchment paper, 489. silk, 490. Dymond, 66. Dynamometer, simple, 135. HK. Earth, interior structure of the, 121. internal heat of the, 74. interual temperature of the, 119. rotation of the, influenced by the tides, 130. temperature at Kénigsberg, 120. temperature of the, 98. Earth's axis, changes in the, 7S. rotation, influence of the, on river currents, 119. Earthquakes in Italy, 72. East Indian telegraphy, 170. Eastward progress of storms, 124. Ebermeyer, 361. Ebonite, action of light on, 176. Eclipse of the sun, an ancient, 10. a total, in 1871, 11. solar, April 16, 1874, 58. Economy, domestic and household, 411. Edwards, F. E., 542. Eels in Cochin China, 403. Eggs of birds, coloring matter of, 304. Egyptian chronology, 42. Ehrenberg, Prof. C. G., 542. Eleococca Vernicia, 357. Elasticity of gases, 1438. of purified air, 143. of rock-sait, 136. Electric apparatus for railroads, 170. arc, resistance of, 175. light for signaling, 461. light-house, 460. machine, the Gramme, 165. Electrical alarm against carbonic oxide, 540 new, discharges, phenomena with, 167. illumination of factories, 413. ; light, curious, 167. Electricity and light, new relation be- tween, 163. INDEX. Electricity, atmospheric, 170. conduction by compounds of sulphur, 166. ee ee metals in fluids, hatching silk-worms by, 331. Electro-capillary motor, 142, 439. Elephant, probable extinction of, 304. Elephants, dogs, etc., of New Mexico, fos- sil, 303. Elk, remains of the Trish, 300. Elliott, Major, 411. Henry W., 389. Elm of Boston Common, the, 347. Elodea Canadensis, 287. Embryological data for the classification of vertebrates, 296. Embryology of gastropods, 338. Emma Furnace, the, 433. Enameling on brass and German silver, 515. Endemic pellagra and Indian corn, 535. Endlich, F. M., 249. Energy and gravitation, 135. Engelmann, Dr. George, 350. Engineering and mechanics, 431. Engraving on wood, French method of, 483 Entomological specimens, preservation of, 275. Eosin, a new fluorescent dye-stuff, 492. Eozoon Canadense, 341. Epigeea, heteromorphism in, 351. Equilibrium of forces, 2. Erck, W., 18. Ericsson, John, 40. Ertel, 6. Erva de Rato, 526. Esbeth, Dr., 272. Etching photographs, 479. Ethnographic work in the Rocky Mount- ains, 261. Euler, 3. Euplectella, gathering of, 340. Europe, barometric pressure in, 83. frequency of thunder-storms in, 1129: mineral products of, 1874, 437. European drought of 1875, 91. fresh-water fishes, new work on, 319. Evaporation from the skins of fruit, 369. Evolution, Cope’s theory of, 276. of the horse, 281. Ewald, 285. Exner, 141. Experiments on steel, 202. upon non-luminous flames, 149. Explorations around the North Cape, 296. made under the direction of F.V. Hayden, 1876, 242. of Lieut. George M. Wheeler, 262 of the Rocky Mountain re- gion by J.W. Powell, 255. Explosions in flour-mills, 428. Explosives for fog signaling, 462. researches on, 459. Extinction of the elephant, probable, 304. Extingnishment of conflagrations, 464. | Eye of flies, the, 326. INDEX. EF. Falb, Dr., 95. ‘“Waraday,” soundings on board of the, 236. Farini, 331. Farlow, Prof. W. G., 364. Farwell, 401. Fatio, 323. Faulquier, 196. Fauna of the deep seas, 240. Fautrat, T7. Faye, 86, 87, 89, 93. Faye’s theory of storms, 84, 86. Fearn, Thomas, 542. Feathers, cloth from, 422. Feeding value of salt-marsh and bog hay, 377 Feilner, Captain, 312. Female clothing in the bronze period, 294. Ferrel, Prof., 65, 9S, 100, 106. Fertilizers, German potash salts, wood- ashes, etc., 372, 373. Fertilizing material, new, 383. Fichtner, 479. Field mice, destruction of, 381. Filter, new form of paper, 519. Filtration, metallic, 174. rapidity of, 518. Fir and pine tree leaves, new products from, 507. Fire-engines, relief valve for, 438. -hydrant and street-lamp, 414. -places, improvement in, 420. -proof paper and ink, 484. Fischer, Prof., 295, 430. Fish, the rainbow, 321. Fish Commission of California, 401. Commissioners of Arkansas, 401. of Connecticut, Re- port of, 394. of Iowa, Report of, 399 of Kentucky, 398. of Maine, Report of, 392. of Massachusetts, Re- port of, 393. of Minnesota, Report of, 400. of New Hampshire, Report of, 393. of New Jersey, Re- port of, 397. of New York, Report of, 395. of Wisconsin, Report of, 400 Fish-bones, utilization of, 372. -culture, warmed waters in, 406. Fisher, Osmond, 121. Fisheries and pisciculture, 385. of Canada, Report of, 391. Fishes, curious habits of, 324. of the Ohio, Rafinesque’s, 318. ike arkable structure of young, 23. some curious Australian, 319. Flames, non-luminous, 149. Flammarion, 24, 27. Fleitmann, Dr., 518. Fletcher, Prof., 338. Fleurcote de Langle, Vice-Admiral, 112. Flies, the eye of, 326. Floating seeds, 353. 597 | Flood-marks and gravel banks, 230. Floor oil-paint, 497. Flora of Guadalupe Island, 360. Flour-mills, explosions in, 428. Flow of metals, 137. Flowers and bouquets, preserving, 357. changing colors of, artificially, 356. Fliickinger and A. Kopp, 349. Fluid columns, vibration of, 140. Fluids, causes of coagulation of, 285. Fluke-worm, large human, 337. Fluorescence of solutions in castor-oil, 156, Fodder value of apples, 382. Fog-signaling, 462. -whistles, steam, 459. Folsom, Dr., 537. Foraminifera, 343. cleaning, 342. Forbes, 128. David, 542. Force of sea waves, 123. Forchhammer, 227. Forcot, 451. Fordas and Rommier, 492. Forestier, 420. Forests, covering the slopes of the Alps with, 365. destruction of, 366. influence of, on water-flow and moisture, 77. Formation of basalt columns, 70. of natural magnets, 158. Formhals’ patent, 495. Fossil birds in America, 311. elephants, dogs, etc., of New Mex- ico, 303. giant birds, new, 313. insects, American, 330. reptile with mammalian characters, 315. France, cremation in, 185, cultivation of bamboo in, 366. hail-storms in, 125. magnetic map of, 162. maritime fisheries of, 1874, 385. Frankland, Prof., 149, 359. Franklin Institute, 432, 43S. Fraser, Prof., 410. Frecher, Siemens, and Halske, 168. Freden, Von, 387. Freezing, effect of, on the color of fabrics, 488. French investigation of hay-fever, 534. Fresh-water fishes, new work on Euro- pean, 319. rhizopods, 845. Fresnel, 151. Frictional resistance of water, 139. Friedelite, 221. Frink, 179. Fripp, W. E., 265. Fritz, Prof., 13, 96. Frogs, remarkable habit of, 316. Frost, smoke protection against, 369. Fruit, protecting preserved, 427. Frustulia saxonica, 341, Fuckel, Leopold, 542. Fuel, peat as locomotive, 447. Fulling woolen goods, 503. Fulton, Charles, 507. Fumago salicina, 364. Fungi, development of, 362. Furnace for burning hay, straw, etc., 376. 598 Furnace-bars, revolving, 433. Fusisporium solaria, 341. solani, 363. G. Gabb, Dr. William M., 315. Gaffard, 485. Gallatin, Hon. Albert, 262. Galle, Prof., 51. Gallium, 203, 204. Galvanic currents, glow due to, 166. resistance, new theory of, 165. Gamond, Thome, 542. Gannett, Henry, 246. Gardner, James T., 233. Garnierite and noumeite, new minerals, 221. Gas for light-houses, 461. from bones, 417. from cork-waste, 417, from night-soil and dead animals, 418. from wood and petroleum, 417. Gas-retort, carbon from, 19S. Gases, elasticity of, 143. from the stomach, 205. jinclosed in coal, 209. spectrum dispersion by, 153. Gastropods, embryology of, 338. Gaudoin, 515. Gauss, 3. Gauss’ theory of capillarity, 142. Gautier, 217. Gay safety mattress, 412. Geisler, Lr., 287. Gems, artificial, 514. General physics, 135. Genow, Dr., 367. Genth, Dr. F. A., 222. Geographical variation among American mammals, 302. Geography, 231. Geology and mineralogy, 219. Geophilus, 336. George, Staff Commander, 108. Georgine, a new yellow dye, 493. Gerard, 498. Gerbe, 409. German pot-ash salts, 374. Seewarte in Hamburg, 78. Germany, African locust in, 329. meteorology in, 78. Germination, rapid, 353. Germs, air, 272. Gernez, 502. Geyser of Iceland, temperature in the, 109. Giant birds, new fossil, 313. Gibbs, William Alfred, 378. Giebel, Dr., 119. Giffard, Henry, 450. Gilbert, G. K., 121, 256, 259. Gilding on glass, 496. Gillot, 481. Gillotype, the, 481. Gintel, Dr., 168. Girard, Aimé, 211. Glacial epoch in the Rocky Mountains, 228. North erosion, sub-alpine lake basins due to, 229. Gladstone and Tribe, 195. Glaisher’s observations of moisture in the atmosphere, 91. Glass, a new, 512. circles divided on, 46. INDEX. Glass, gilding on, 496. hardening, 513. Gleason, F. A., 517. Gledhill, 17. Crossley, and Wilson, 44. Gleitsmann, Dr., 531. Glires, division of the, 301. | Gloucester fisheries of 1875, 386. Glow due to galvanic currents, 166. Glue, durable, 511. Glue for leather and metal, 510. liquid, 511. prevention of cracking, 412. Glycerine for illumination and heating, 41 poisonous properties of, 537. Glycerine-gelatin, 427. Gobba, Prof., 356. Godeffroy, 416. Goessmann, Prof., 372, 373, 374. Goette, 296. Gold, a new test for, 205. varnish for metals, 496. Golden-olive on cloth, 490. Gonuch, 179. Goodale, Hon.§. L., 390. Gooseberries, American, 355. Goppelsréder, 488. Gorrie, Dr., 147. Grad and Hagenmiller, 69. Gramme light in railroad depots, 190. machine, 164, 165. Grandjean, Henry, 42. Grant, George B., 43. Grass, an intoxicating, 352. Grassi, Dr. G., $8, 231. Grate-fires, reflecting-plate for, 419. Grattoni, Severino, 542. Gravel banks and flood-marks, formation of, 230. Graves, Walter H., 256. Gravitation and energy, relation between, 135. Gray, Prof. Asa, 351, 355, 358, 542. Greef, 346. Green, baryta, 493. Green River, 250. Green, Seth, 159, 395. Greene, Licut. F. V., 67. Grohan, 141. Groombridge, 1830, parallax of, 32. Groth, Prof., 136. Groves, 526. Growth in certain fishes, rapidity of, 405. Grubb, 40, 153. Guadalupe Island, flora of, 360. Guericke, Otto von, 81. Guichenot, Alphonse, 542. Gulliver, Prof. G., 270, 274, 308. Gum copal and oleic acid, 500. Gunpowder, prismatic, 458. Gunther, Dr., 323. Gurgun balsam, 526. | Gurt, Dr., 108. Guthrie, Prof., 195, 531. Gyldeén, Prof. H., 36. Hi. Haast, Dr. Julius, 311. Habit of frogs, remarkable, 316. | Habits and anatomy of the Nereid worm, 36 of birds, 312. of fishes, curious, 524. Habits of the Mexican axolotl, 317. of the salmon, 320. Hadley’s theory, 9. Haeckel, Prof., 276, 281. Haeckelina of Dr. Bessels, 344. Hagen, Dr. H., 330, 331. Hager, 488. Hahn, Otto, 341. Hail, on the theory of, 93. Hail-storms in France, 125. Hall, Prof., 21, 23. Halo about the planet Venus, 29. Hamilton, Dr., 135. Hams, Cincinnati, 538. Hand-book of paleontology, new, 297. Jiankel, 219. Hann, 101. Hannecker, 414. Hansen’s method of partitions, 36. Hanstein, Prof., 287. Harcourt, Vernon, 418. Hardy, 528. Hartley, W. Noel, 19s. Harvard Observatory, fundamental stars | | Hoy, Dr., 400. observed at, 53. Harvest, predicting the coming, 384. Hatching silk-worms by electricity, 331. Hatier, 110. Hay and grain, artificial drying of, 37S. Hayaux du Tilly, 304. Hayden, Prof. F. V., 233, 257. Hayden’s explorations in 1876, 242. Hay-fever, investigation of, 534. Hearder, Dr. Jonathan, 543. Heat, conduction of, by building materi- als, 145. conduction of, in gases, 183. of the earth, internal, 74. Heath in America, 358. Hebert, Governor, 406. Heerman, Dr., 312. Height of the aurora borealis, 132. Heights in the lake region, 234. Heis, Dr., 35, 95. Helie, 82. Heliozoa, 346. Hellman, Dr., 80. Helmholtz, Prof., 274. Hendricks, 26. Henneguy, 280. Hennessey, J. B. N., 11, 154. Henry Mountains, 257, 259. Henry, Prof. Joseph, 12. Henshaw, 312. Herland, 200. Hermit crab, strange parasites of the, 335. Herring-fisheries and the weather, 387. Herschel, Capt., 11. Sir John, 17, 23. Sir William, 23. Herschell, Clemens, 467. Hertwig and Lisser, 345. Herve, 451. Herwig, 165, 166. INDEX. Hesse, 335. Hesz, 516. Heteromorphism in epigea, 351. Heyrowsky, 432. Hibiscus cannabinus, 362. Hickie, 341. Hicks, Dr., 236. Hidding, Dr., 408. Hildebrandsson, 98, 106. 599 Hill, George W., 25. Hillebrand, 201. Hinge, self-closing, 411. Hipp, 113. Hirsch, Prof., 41. Hofmann, 212. bape gett German agricultural station at, 376. Hohnhborst, Dr. Hermann, 33. Holden, Prof. E. 8., 16, 52, 235. Hollbaur, 119. Holmes, 244, Holtzman, A., 464, Hooker, Dr., 529. Hops, preservation of, 383. Horeau, 505. Horner, Charles, 157. Horse, evolution of the, 2S1. Horsley, 424. Horticulture and botany, 347. Hour-glasses, measure of time by, 64. House-fly, the life of the common, 328. Hovey, 347, 348. Howe, H. A., 47. Hudson, Dr. C. T., 345. Huet, A. F., 182. Huggins and Vogel, 20. Hull, Prof., 227. Human fluke-worm, large, 337. Humble-bees, carrying, from England to New Zealand, 308. Humidity, computing relative, 110. Humming-bird, a new North American, 312. Hunt, Dr. T. Sterry, 229. Huntington, Prof., 36s. Hurricane of Sept. 9th to 17th, 1875, 97. Hurricanes, periodicity of, 112. Huxley, Prof., 281, 342, 344. on deep-sea soundings, 344. Hydraulic blower, automatic, 414. cement, new, 470. engine, stationary, 439. investigations in India, 141. Hydrocarbons of coal-gas, 214. Hydrocellulose, 211. Hydrogen in antimony, 193. Hygiene, 525. Hygrometer, a new form of, 118. Hygrometric studies of Dufour, 113. Hyperbolic functions, 4. Hypodermic injection of lactate of soda, Hypsometric tables, new, 231. ie Ice calorimeter, new, 148. cellars on Brainard’s plan, 427. machine, Carré’s, 522. plasticity of, 137. Iceland, temperature within the great geyser of, 109. Tilinois, triassic fauna of, 300. Illumination, electrical, 413. Improvement in aneroids, 111. in fire-places, 420. in spectroscopes, 153. Incubation of Chromis paterfamiiias, 322. India, hydraulic investigations in, 141. rainfall and evaporation in, 92, winds and rains of, 126. rubber, varieties of, 357. Indian corn and endemic pellagra, 535. 600 Indian Ocean, magnetic observations in, 162. Indications of spring, $2. Inerasible ink, 485. Infusorial earth, new application of, 519. Ink, marking, inerasible, etc., 485. removable printer’s, 486. Insect-life and the weather, 291. -powder, substitute for Persian, 424. Insects, American fossil, 330. Lubbock on the senses of, 288. sense of smell in, 290. with larval heads, adult, 330. Instruments, increasing the tone of stringed, 145. Intensity of twilight, 99. Towa Fish Commissioners’ Report, 399. Treland, volcanic history of, 227. Iridium and platinum, pure, 206. Iron, amalgamation of, 177. and steel for boilers, etc., 432. castings, bronzing, 515. in atmospheric dust, 133. meteorite, interesting, 224, sleepers, 444. tacks, tinning, 514. Tsinglass, bleached, 500. Isomerism, physical, 215. Istaldi, 229. Italy, earthquakes in, 72. rainfall, wind, and pressure in, 129. temperature observations in, 128. Jaborandi, 527. Jacob, Capt., 22. Jacobi, Lieutenant-General, 3, 543. Jacobsen’s copying-peucils, 484. Jade and nephrite, 295. James, Dr., 543. Jamin, 158, 159, 161. Janssen, 451. Japanese compass, curious, 188. radish, new large, 367. Jelinek, Dr. Carl, 543. Jesty’s composition, 435, 436. Jevons, Prof., 370. Jobert, 451. Jobson, Campbell, 408. Johnson, Dr. C., 226, 341. Johnston, Dr. C., 270, 318. Joints, air-tight, 520. Jolly, Dr., 525. Jones, Prof. T. Rupert, 343. Rev. George, 35. Jordan, 193. Prof. D. S., 318. Jourdanet, Dr., 288. Judd, Orange, 371. Jupiter, brightness of satellites of, 27. dimensions of satellites of, 21. physical observations of, 26. theory of the satellites of, 32. Just, 369. Jute-plant, the true, 362. K Kaolin in Nebraska, 221. Kars, Dr., 83. Kathweiner, 508. Kattus, 500. Kaylor, Dr., 496. Kemmis, Capt., 448. Kennett, 478. INDEX. Kent, W. Saville, 307, 324. Kentucky Fish Commissioners, 398, Kenzie and M‘Murtrie, Profs., 334. Kern, Sergius, 205, 458. Kerr, Dr., 163. Ketteler, 151. Kiefer, 231. Kieser, Dr., 91. King, 156. Dr. Richard, 543. S. A., 450, 478. Kingston, Prof., 80. Kirk, A. C., 147. Kirkwood, James P., 537. Kirpitschoff, 148. Kirscher & Ebner, 486. Klein, Dr. Hermann J., 95, 104. Klinkerfues, 118. Knapp, 149. Koch, 411. Kochlin, 48s. Kohlrausch, 117. Konigsberg, earth temperature at, 120. Kopp, Prof. E., 543. Koppen, 122. Kowalczyk, Dr., 36. Kowalevsky, Dr. J., 296, 543. Kramer, Dr., 333. Kreil, 93. Kronecker, Dr., 3. Krupp, 457. Kummetr’s theory, 4. Kundt, 140. L. Laboulaye, 413. Lactate of soda, 525. Lafont, Rev. E., 40. Lake basins due to glacial erosion, 229. region, altitudes in, 234. Tahoe, 263. Lalande, 494. prize for astronomical work, 52. Lamarck, 276. Lambrecht, 118. Lambrosa, Prof., 535. | Lamp for nitric-oxide gas, 415. Lampadius, Prof., 174. Lancaster, 91. Lander Brunton, Dr., 286. Lane, 232. Lang, 145. Langley, Prof., 9, 12, 13, 15, 56. Lankester, Prof. Ray, 338. Lantern, new safety, 414. Lanthanum and Didymium, 201. La Place, 13. Laplace, Admiral Cyrille, 543. Lasaulx, Prof. Von, 222. Lassell, 21, 52. Latitude stars employed in the Coast Sur- vey, 47. Laubenheimer, 215. Laugier, 16. Laurium silver mine, 293. Laussedat, 463. Laval, Dr., 525. Laws of cyclones, 89. Lea, Carey, 155, 478. Leafing-time and age of tree, 353. Leather, attaching, to metal, 510. Russia, 508. waste, utilization of, 506. water-proofing, 488. INDEX. Leaves absorb and radiate heat, 76. Le Bon, 520. _Ledum palustre, 424. Lee, Henry, 317, 320. Legendre, 3. Lesueur, 318, 436, 437. Letheby, Dr., 543. Le Veau, 37. Levees, effects of, 469. Le Verrier, 46. Levy, Dr., 530. Ley, Clement, 98, 106. Liais, 57. Libyan desert, constitution of the atmos- phere of, 130. Liebermann, 492. Life-saving device, new, 412. Light, action of, on ebonite, 176. and electricity, 163. curious electrical, 167. dispersion of, by prisms, 158. ee of the Gramme machine, 90. influence of, upon the conductivity of crystalline seleninm, 166. mathematical theory of, 151. new incandescent, 414. photographic power of, 483. reflected by the sky in the daytime, quantity of, 99. the Chandor, 415. Light-house, electric, 460. -houses, gas for, 461. Lightning from a clear sky, 171. protection against, 171. Lightning-conductors, 172. Lignose, a new explosive, 457. Lime-water on wood, 431. Limit of visibility in the microscope, 265. Limits of vision, Sorby on, 273. Helmholtz on, 274. Limon, Dr., 509. Lindemann, 7. Linen, Tyrian-purple ink for marking, 429. Lippmann, 142, 439. Lippmann’s experiments on capillary at- traction, 142. Liquid glue, 511. Liquids, surface tension of, 173. Lisbon, observations of meteors at, 28. Lithium, bromide of, 530. Lithobius, 336. Liversidge, Prof., 221. Lockwood, 519. Locomotive boilers, cast steel for, 432. Locomotives, self-watering, 439. Logarithmic tables, 43. Lohrmann, 45. Lihse, Dr. O., 51. Loigné, 444. Loisant, 4. Lorenz, 153. Lortét, 322. Lostal, 431. Loven, Prof. Sven, 242. Lowe and Gill, 207. Lubbock on the senses of insects, 285. Cec 601 Lubische and Riederer, 513. Lucas, Louis A., 543. Lucioperca, 401. Ludicke, 133. Lukowski, 207. Lunar maps, 45. theory, the, 3S. Luvini, Prof., 187. M. McAdam, Dr. S., 428. McCloud River salmon, 402. McDougall, A., 198. McLeod, Herbert, 176. McNabb, 116. Macaya, de Castera, 543. Machines, calculating, 43. Mackintosh, 512, 514. Madamet, 140. Madan, 153. Maddox, Dr., 478. Madeira wine, production of, 423. Madler, 23. Magnetic iron, vanadic acid in, 198. map of France, 162. observations in Ocean, 162. particles in atmospheric dust, 13 the Indian Magnetism and light, theories of, 157. distribution of, in a magnet, 159. in bundles of infinitely long, very thin plates of iron, 161. in short thick magnets, 159. of cobalt and nickel, 192. Magnets composed of compressed pow- der, 160. formation of natural, 15S. influenced by armatures, 158. Magnus, 119. Main, Rev. Robert, 45. Maine, Report of Fish Commissioners of, 392. Maitland, Major, 462, 472. Male rotifer, 324. Mallet, Prof., 223. Robert, 70. Mammoth, the Siberian, 297. Man in the post-pliocene of Buenos Ayres, 293. in the tertiary period of Europe, 293. Management of aquaria, 307. Mandril for bending metal pipes, flexible, 517. Mann, Dr. R. J., 171, 172, 313. Mannheim observations, 38. Manufacture of carbolic acid, 207. of soda from sea-weed, 200. Manyon, 451. Maps, lunar, 45. microscopic, 482. Maquenne, 76. March, William T., 544. Marine glue, 510. Mariot, Lieut., 409. Marking-ink, 485. Marsh, Prof. O. C., 282, 297, 298, 301, 311, 313, 314. on the brontotheride, 301. recent discoveries of, 297. Marsham, Robert, 82, 349. Marth, 53. Martin, Liecut., 6. 602 Martinet, 452. Marvine, A. R., 544. Mason, 329. Mass of Uranus and Neptune, 34. Massachusetts Board of Health Report,537. decrease of birds in, 390. Fish Commissioners’ Re- port, 393. Horticultural Society, 347. Materia Medica, 52. new substances of, 526. Mathematical theory of light, 151. Mathematics and astronomy, 1. Matthieu and Urbain, 285. Maxwell’s theory, 157. Mayer, 181. Maynard, Lieut., 390. Mayr, 421. Measure of time by hour-glasses, 64. Meat, cooking, by cold, 422. Meat-powder instead of extract, 427. Mechanical production of cold, 147. theory of ocean-currents, 65. Mechanics and engineering, 431. Medico-legal examination for arsenic, 217. Mediterranean Sea, temperature of, 69. Meehan, Thomas, 356. Meek, Prof. Fielding B., 544. Meister, 492. Melanophlogite and rinite, new miner- als, 222. Meldrum, 89. Melsens, Prof., 171. Melville, Andrew Smith, 544. Mendelef, 108. Mendelejeff, 143, 204. Menetti and Musa, 425. Menhaden oil and guano association, 390. Menhaden-fishery, 1875, 390. Mercurial Danomelers convenient form of, 108. horizon, new form of, 232. Meridian instrument at the Rio Observa- tory, a new, 57. Merrill, Dr., 312. Merriman, C., 272. Mésa Verde, 245. Metallic filtration, 174. pyrometer, new, 182. Metallurgy and chemistry, 193. Metals acted on by nitric acid, 197. flow of, 137. Metamorphoses of beetles, 325. Metamorphosis of the crustacea, 334. Meteorologia Italiana, supplement to, 231. Meteorology and terrestrial physics, 65. and herring-fisheries, 387. in Canada, 80. in Germany, 78. in the 17th century, $1. in the Sieben-Gebirge, 79. of Mount Washington, 80. Meieors, spectra of gases in, 28. of August 10-11, 1875, 28. Method of estimating color in water, 156. Mexican onyx, 222. Michigan Fish Commission, 404. Micro-photograpby, 482. Microscope, Prof. Abbe on the, 265. limit of visibility in, 265. Microscopic determination of blood-stains, 270 : objects, mounting, 18s. Mignon, 515. INDEX. Migration of birds, 311. of the lemming, 299. Milan, observations at, 38. Milk, action of cold on, 425. solidified, 425. Miller, 500. Mills Brothers, 503. Mimicry in butterflies, 283. Minascalchi-Erizzi, Connt, 544. Mineral Ceviee, liquid carbon dioxide in, 8 products of Europe, 1874, 437. slated of the colony of Victoria, wool, 157. Mineralogy and geology, 219. minute work in, 219. Minerals, new, 223. Baennro~cle ye properties of, 9: Mining methods, American, 434. nero Fish Commissioners’ Report, Minute work in mineralogy, 219. Mirror, antiquity of the burning, 146. Mirrors, coating with an alloy of gold and platinum, 516. Mississippi, shad in the, 406. Missouri, Report of the State Entomolo- gist of, 333. Mitchell, Dr. S. W., 405, 530. Mites, structure and development of, 332. Moa, additional remains of, 311. Mode of mounting microscopic objects, improved, 188. Mohl, Prof. Jules de, 544. Mohr, Prof., 74, 119. Moisture in the atmosphere, 91, 94. Moller’s probe-platte, 267. Monckhoven, 483. Monosulphide of carbon, 199. Monsoon, the, 162. Montigny, 87, 115. Montoison process, 509. Montsouris Observatory, 99. Moon, phases of, and atmospheric press- ure, 133. Mognin-Tandon, 275. Morley, Prof. W., 267. Moscow Observatory, 26. Moser, 496. Moss-bunker, use of scrap from, 390. Moth, a parasitic, 331. Motor, electro-capillary, 439. for small machines, new, 442. Brayton ready, 473. Mouchot, 146. Mount Washington, meteorology of, 80. Moutier, 142. Moyle, 73. Miller, C. J., 166, 346, 502. Fritz, 283. Munzinger, Werner, 544. Murex shell, coloring matter in, 333. Murray, Captain J. H., 188. Museum, in Washington, National, 315, Musical sand, 179. Muzzy, Rev. Dr., 348. Myriapods, digestion in, 336. N. Nail-machine, self-feeding, 517. | Napier, Dr., 536, 544. | Natterer, 338. INDEX. Natural history and zoology, 265. Nature of the invertebrate brain, 287. Nebraska, Kaolin in, 221. Nebulae, exact observations of, 50. spectra of, 26. Negri, De, 333. Nephrite and jade, 295. Nereid worm, habits and anatomy of, 336. Nessler, Dr., 381. Neubauer, Dr. C., 423, 500. Neumayer, Dr., 151. New, Charles, 544. , New Guinea, plants of, 359 New Hampshire, Report of Fish Commis- sioners of, 398. New Jersey Fish Commissioners’ Report, 397. New Mexico, fossil elephants, etc., of, 303. New York Fish Commissioners’ Report, 395. New Zealand, sending salmon eggs to, 407. Newcomb, Prof. Simon, 34, 52. Newmann, Edward, 544. Newton, 478. Prof, He AT ja Sir Isaac, 1. Nezereaux and Garlandal, 420. Nichols, Prof., 537. Nickel-plating process, 515. -plating solution, 516. Nitrate of amy], action of, 531. Nitrates, Schonbein’'s test for, 210. Nitric acid, action of, on metals, 197. oxide gas, lamp for, 415. Nitrite of ammonium, 197. Nitro-glycerine, influence of heat on, 458. Nobert’s test-plate, 267. Noble, Captain, 456. Nocturnal radiation, 72. Nolan, Captain, 454. Noltke, Ernst Ferdinand, 544. Nordenskj6ld, Dr., 83, 242, 297. Normand, Dr., 535. North Cape, exploration around the, 296. Norton, Dr., 201. Numbering silk threads and fabrics, 504. Nutritive value ofshorts, shipstuff, etc.,376. Nyrén, Dr., 78. O. Oak, an aged, 349. Oak-wood, rendering orange-yellow, 495. Oaks of the United States, 350. _ Size of famous, 350. Obliteration of one sound by another, 181. Observation of polar bands, 95. Observations of nebule, 50. Observatory of Washington, 21, 34. Ocean currents, mechanical theory of, 65. Ohio Fish Commissioners, 405. Oil, a new drying, 357. Oil-car, new, 442. paint for floors, 497, Oils, purification of vegetable, 497. Oleandrine, 207. Oleic acid and gum copal, 500. Oleomargarine in butter, 424. Olive and orange trees, disease of, 364. Olive-oil and glycerine as substitute for yolk of egg in tanning, 508. Oliver, Dr., 534. Olivier, 451. Omega nebula, changes in, 16. Onyx, Mexican, 222. 603 Optical notes by Lea, 155. Orbit of star y Corone Australis, 22. of star 70 (p) Ophiuchi, 23. Ore, 284. Organ-pipes, cause of sound in, 179. Organisms, action of ozone-water on low- er, 2S7. Origin of cold waves of air, 104. of cyclones, 127. of the red clay of deep-sea sound- ings, 273. of volcanic ashes, 66. Osmium, 206. Otter, Baron von, 242. Ovens, cement for, 509. Overbeck, 96. Owen, Prof., 315. Owsjannikow, 296. Oxide of sulphur, a new, 211. Oxychloride of phosphorus, 198. Oxyrrhopus plumbeus, 316. Oyster-culture in France, 385. Oysters, fattening of, 410. reproduction of, 409. Ozone acts on colors, 488. in the air, determination of, 194. non - oxidation of carbonic oxide by, 213. thermo-chemistry of, 216. Ozone-water on lower organisms, 2S7. r Pacific coast of South America, elevation of the, in recent times, 228. Pacinotti, Dr., 164. Packard, Dr. A.S., Jun., 328. Paijkull, Dr., 242. Palander and Crazensteen, 242. Paleontological discoveries, Marsh’s, 282. Paleontology, new hand-book of, 297, Palm-tree, occurrence of, 361. Palmer, Dr. Edward, 360. Palmieri, Prof., 497. Palmieri’s dragometer, 497. Papier-macheé ornaments, etc., 487. Paraffin hardens plaster, 488. in beeswax, 500. Parakite, the, 453. Parallax of 1830 Groombridge, 32. Parasites on the hermit crab, 335. Parasitic moth, a, 331. Parchment paper, dyeing, 489. Paris Medical Journal, 529. Observatory, 29. pneumatic tubes in, 44S. telescope, the great, 39. Parker and Brady, 343. Parkes, Dr., 204, 544. Parthenogenesis in vertebrates, 275. Parville, 451. Pasteur, 272. Peaks, table of highest, 244. Peale, Dr. A. C., 246. Pearce, N. B., 401. Pearl-oysters, artificial culture of, 409. Peat as locomotive fuel, 447. beds, importance of, 368. Pecuniary success of the Brighton aqua- rium, 307. Peinture hydraulique, 471. Peiper, 512, 513. Peirce, C.S., 48. Péligot, 138. Pellagra, endemic, 535. 604 Peltz, 499. Pénaud and Godard, 451. Perigraph, Cohausen’s, 485. Periodicity of hurricanes, 112. of the aurora, 96. Peronospora infestans, 341, 363. Perris, 325. Perrotin, 23, 51. Perry, Alexis, 72. Persian insect-powder, substitute for, 424. Perturbations of comets, 36. Pertz, Chevalier, 544, Peslin, S6. criticises Faye’s theory, 84. Peters, Prof., 316. Petroleum, utilization of the light prod- ucts of, 522. Pettenkofer, Von, 194. Peziza eruginosa, 492. Pfaff, Prof., “137, Pfunds, Dr. -, 044. Phenomena attending electric discharges, 167. Phocena lineata, 304, Phenix Iron Company, 442. Phosphate of lime, 525. gelatinous hydrated, 499. Phosphor-bronze for wire ropes, 446. Phosphorus oxychloride, 198. Photographic copying-paper, 482. power of artificial light, 483. Photographs, etching on zinc, 479, of the ‘blood, 308. of the solar corona, 60. Photography for deep-sea sounding, 151. recent progress in, 475. Photolithographic process, new, "480. Photometry, celestial, 7 Phylloxera, ravages of, 381. remedy, new, 380. the grape-vine, 334. Physical isomerism, 215. observatory near St. Petersburg, 96 Physics, general, 135. Physiological action of alcohol, 286. Pic-du-Midi, red snow on, 125. Pickering, Prof., 99. Pictet, Adolphe, 545. Pierce, Dr., 339. Pile-dwellinginhabitants,skeletons of, 292. Pilocarpus pinnatus, 527. Pilot fish, the, 319. Pisciculture and the fisheries, 385. Planet, an inter-mercurial, 46. movement of a, in a resisting me- dium, 33. Planetary perturbations, theory of, 25. Plantamour, Prof., 53, 106. and Loomis, 36. acclimatization of, 348. and altitude, 361. glands of carnivorous, 363. of New Guinea, 359. Plaster fants, preservation of, 487. Paris, improvement in, 48S. Plasticity of ice, 137. Plastico-dynamics, 138. Plateau, Prof. Felix, 142, 275, 328, 336. Platinum and iridium, pure, 2(6. decomposition of water by, 195. stills, corrosion of, by sulphuric acid, 212. Plants, INDEX. Plazenet, 515. Plesiosaurs and ichthyosaurs, 318. Plumb- line,abnormal deflections of the, 67. Pneumatic tube, the, 447, 448. Poey, Prof. Felipe, 320. Poey’s catalogue of Cuban fishes, 320. Poisson, 537. Polar bands, observations of, 95. Polarizing crystals, 272. Polygonum amphibium, 507. Ponier, Porter, 545. Poppe, J. A., 403. Porpoise in New York Bay, a new, 304. Potash-salts, 372, 374. Potato disease, the, 363. Potato-beetle, 334. -water for cleaning silver-ware, 424, Potatoes, autumn planting of, 36S, Potomac River fisheries, 388. Potsdam Observatory, new spectrum ap- paratus for the, 154. solar observatory, 56. Potter, E. B., 399. Poulkova Observatory, 5. Powell, Prof., 228, 257, 261. Powell’s exploration, 255. Prairie chicken, domesticating the, 310. Preece’s signalizing instruments, 170. Preservation of entomological s specimens, 15. of hops, 383. of wood, 431. Pressure gauge for 54,000 pounds, 487. of the air, effect of the, upon human life, 288. on combustion, influence of, 150. Prevention of boiler incrustation, 436, 437. Preyer, Dr., 525. Price, W. He lizoe Prime numbers, 3 Prince Edward Island, fossil reptile in, 315. Printer’s ink, readily removable, 486. Priority of discovery of the principle of the Gramme machine, 164. Prismatic gunpowder, 458, Pritchard, Prof. 53. Prize essays on Jaborandi, 528. Prizes for astronomical works in 1876, 52. Probe-platte, Méller’s, 267. Problem of Apollo, or of Delphi, 1. Projectiles, influence of wind on, 472. resisted by the air, Si. rotation of rifled, 456. Proper motions of southern stars, 22. Eropubige of air by a jet of air or vapor, 44 Protection against lightning strokes, 171. Proteus, ee in, 317. Prunty, John E., 488. Prussian blue, fixing on fabrics, 494. Pterosauria, new order of, 314. Publications of the Bothkamp Observa- tory, 51. Puiseux, 25. Purification of fixed vegetable oils, 497. Purpurine from alizarine, 494, Putnam, Prof. W. F., 264. Pyrometer, new metallic, 182. Pyrrhopheena riefféri, 312. Q. Quennerstadt, Dr., 242. Quetelet, E., 114. INDEX. Quincke, 164. Quinine, cheap, 529. R. Radcliffe catalogue of stars, the third, Radde, Dr., 123. Radiation, nocturnal, 72. of leaves, 76. Radiometers, observations on, 146, 147. Radish, new Japanese, 367. , Ratinesque’s fishes of the Ohio, 31S. Ragona, 128. Railroad, new plan of elevated, 442. Railway signals and blocks, 440. Rainbow-tish, the, 321. Rainfall and evaporation in India, 92. in Bohemia, 93. wind, and pressure in Italy, 129. Range-finder for artillery practice, 454. Realis, 4. Reciprocity of prime numbers, 3. Red, new aniline, 492. Redding, 401. Redfield, 106. Redmond, M., 545. Redtenbacher, Dr. Ludwig, 545. Reflecting-plate for open grate fires, 419, Reflector for moulders, 517. Refraction, terrestrial, 6. Reid, Capt. Mayne, 317. Reimann’s Firber-Zeitung, 490. Reitz, 117. Relief-valve for steam fire-engines, 438, Remains of the Irish elk, 300. of the moa, additional, 311. Remsen, Ira, 198. and Southworth, 213. Renou, 93. Renshaw, John H., 256. Report of statistics, 386. of the State Entomologist of Mis- souri, 333. Reproduction in the proteus, 317. of the army-worm, 332. Reptiles of Costa Rica, 315. Researches on explosives, 459. Resistance of the air to the movements of projectiles, 81. of the electric are, 175. Resisting medium in space, 49. Respighi, Prof., 11. Reuschel, Dr. C. G., 3. ' Reuschel’s table of prime numbers, 3. Reuschle, Prof. K. G., 545. Rhizopods, fresh-water, 345. habits of American water, 299. Richardson, Dr., 270, 308, 531, 538. Riche and Bardy, 483. Rikatcheff, 83, 90. Riley, 326, 330, 332, 333. Rio Observatory, 57. Riotti, C. N., 316. Risbee, 140. River currents as affected by the earth’s rotation, 119. Rizaux, Prof., 545. Robert, Dr., 292, 412. Roberts, 205. Robin, Dr. Albert, 528. Robinson, Col., 169. RochpDr 101. Rock-salt, elasticity of, 136. fresh- 605 Rocky Mountains, glacial epoch in the, 228. Rodgers’ history of agriculture in En- gland, 370. Roehrig, Prof. F. L. O., 262. Rogers, William A., 53, 267. Rohlfs, Dr., 130. Romilly, 144. Roscoe, Henry E., 193. Beco and psittacinite, new minerals, 223. Rotation of rifled projectiles, 456, Roth, Prof. Von, 66. Rothney, 325. Rothwell, Dr., 264. Rotifer, male, 324. Rousseau, Henry, 545, Roux and Sarranu, 459. Rowland, Prof., 159. Rugby School Observatory, 17. Ruhlmann, 231. Rural economy and agriculture, 365. Russell, Alexander, 545. He Cs 29: Russia leather, 508. prohibition of artificial alizarine in, 490. Southern, bora of, 129. Rutherfurd, L. M., 44, 46. S. Sabine, General, 80, 447. Sacc, Dr., 499. Sachs, 351. Sacramento Bay, climate and trees in, 111. Sadler, 17. Safford, Prof. T. H., 49, 264. Sagittarii, variable stars, 54. St. Louis bridge, effects of temperature on the, 466. St. Petersburg, new physical observatory near, 96. St. Robert, 231. Saint-Venant, 138. Sales, 125. : Salicylic acid, antiseptic action of, 423, 425. from Andromeda Lesche- naultii, 527. Salmon eggs in South Africa, 408, sending to New Zealand, 407. habits of the, 320. in the antipodes, 408. in the Connecticut River, 409. Salpa, development of, 338. Salpetre against the taste of turnips in milk and butter, 383. Salt-marsh and bog hay, 377. San Juan mining region, 264. San Miguel River, 247. Sand, musical, 179. Sandahl, Dr., 344. Sandstone, change of texture of, by heat, 146. Sardine-fishery in France, 385. Sartiaux, 190. Satellites of Jupiter, 21. of Saturn, 21. of Uranus, the inner, 52. Saussure, Dr., 327. Savin, 508. Saw-fly, inequality of the sexes in a, 329. Sawiczevosky, Dr., 422. Sawitsch, 6. Scacchi, 224. Scheelia regia, 361. 606 Schenz], 99. Scheurer, 494. 4 Scheurer-Kestner, 212. Schiaparelli, 35. Schiff, Hugo, 207. Schimper, Prof., 297. Schjellerup, 38. Schlosing, 85. Schluter, 33. Schmankiewitsch, 335. Schmidt, 19, 35, 45, 54. Schmitz, Eloy, 483. Schneebeli, 167. Schneider, 442. Schonbein, 210. Schonfeld, 7, 16, 38. Schonfeldt, Dr., 158. Schoolcraft, Hon. Henry R., 262. Schott, 69, 106. Schreiber, Prof., 116. Schroeder, H., 154. Schiller and V. Wartha, 148. Schulte’s Archives, 1874, 346. Schultz, Dr., 16, 50. Schulze, Franz E., 317. Schumachoff, 297. Schiitzenberger, 284. Schwarz, 482, 512. Schweitzer’s solvent for cellulose, 500. Schwendler, Louis, 169. Schwendler’s method in duplex teleg- raphy, 169. Sclerostoma pinguicola, 338. Scotland, climatic changes in, 116. Scrope, George Poulett, 545. Scudder, S. H., 327, 330. Sea, temperature of the, 66. Sea-waves, force of, 123. -weed, soda from, 200. Seal Islands, Alaska, 389. Seal-fisheries on the Greenland coast, 389. Secchi, Father, 9, 14, 20, 55, 57. Secretion of Drosera, 359. Sections of coal, 226. Sediments, deposition of fine, 229. Seeds, floating, 353. self-burying, 352. Seeley, Prof. H. G., 318. Seismographs, self-registering, 72. Selenium, conductivity of crystalline, 166. Self-registering instruments, time of set- ting, 95. Séna, Baron von, 545. Serpent, a tame, 313. Serpieri, 72. Seventeen-year cicada, 326. Sevier plateau, 257. River, 261. Sewage question, the, 538. Sewers, construction of, 467. Sexes in a saw-fly, 329. in vegetables and animals, 2S0. Shad in the Mississippi, 406. Shafting accidents, to prevent, 521. Shaw, B. F., 399. Thomas, 437. Shellac solution, clarifying, 499. Shooting-stars seen from balloons, 14. observed Aug. 5, 1875, 14. Shower of dust, remarkable, 83. Siberian mammoth, the, 297. marmot, destroying the, 382. Siderazot, a new mineral, 221, Sidot, 199. INDEX. Sieben-Gebirge, meteorology in the, 79. Siebold, Prof. Von, 319. Siemens, Alexander, 237. Dr. C. W., bathometer of, 235. Dr. Werner, 166. Siemens-Halske telegraph works, 461. Sierra Banca group, 243. Signaling, electric light for, 461. Silicate cotton, 457. Silk dyeing, 490. threads and fabrics, numbering, 504. Silk-worm, transformation of, into the moth, 331. Silk-worms, hatching, by electricity, 331. Silphium, 525. Silver and copper alloys, 205. in Uintah Mountains, 259. mine, waurium, 293. Silver-ware, cleaning, 424. Silvestri, Prof., 221. Simmons, 453. Simon, Dr., 545. Simskowsky, George F., 545. Sinderman, A., 415. Singer, 493. Sirius, the companion of, 1S. Sivel, 452. Skeletons of pile-dwelling inhabitants, 292. Slack, Dr. J. H., 397. Smell in insects, sense of, 290. Smith, George, 545. G. B., 329, 432. Hamilton L., 1SS. Prof. J. L., 28, 225. W. G., 341, 362. Smithsonian Institution, 262, 302, 304. Smoke as a protection against frost, 369. Snake-eating snakes, 316. Snell, Prof. Ebenezer S., 545. Snow on the Pic-du-Midi, red, 125. Snow-formation observed from balloons, 118. Soap, cheap, 421. Soda from sea-weed, 200. process, another direct, 520. Soil, temperature of, 77. Solar and terrestrial phenomena, correla- tion of, 8. atmosphere, absorption of, 15. and radiant heat, 40. corona, photographs of, 60. eclipse, April 16, 1874, 58. Dec. 11, 1871, 11. heat, absorption by the atmosphere, 150. observatory at Potsdam, 56. parallax, 51. rays, chemical action of, 193. spectrum, atmospheric lines of, 154. spots, 53. and protuberances, 55. snd terrestrial electricity, 122. and terrestrial phenomena, 13. temperature of, 12. system, motion in space, 49. Solutions n castor-oil, fluorescence of, 56. on a growing vine, 358. Somoff’s barycentric theorem, 54. Sonnenschein, 207. Sorby, H. C., 265, 273, 304. Sodrensen, 506. INDEX. Souillart, 32. Sound in organ-pipes, cause of, 179. obliteration of one, by another, 181. Sounding, deepest, 241. South, 42. South Africa, salmon eggs in, 408. Foreland Light-house, 460. Southwell, 83. Spain, coal-fields of, 226. Spectra, measuring bands of, 266, of gases in meteors, 28. of the nebule, 26. Spectroscopes, improvement in, 153. Spectroscopic diameter of the sun, 57. examination of blood-stains, 270 observatory at Calcutta, 40. Spectrum apparatus for the new observa- tory at Potsdam, 154. dispersion of gases, 153. observations of the stars, 48. of Coggia’s comet, 37. Spence-Bate, 334. Sperenberg, near Berlin, 119. Sperm and whale oil, 386. Spermophilus citillus, 382. Spider, a noise-producing, 329. Sponges, bleaching, 501. Sporer, Prof., 56. Spottiswoode, 290. Spring, indications of, 82. Springmihl, Dr., 435. Squirrels’ tails’ hair for brushes, 503. Staircases, construction of winding, 411. Standard time in Switzerland, 41. Stanford, Governor, 402. Star, ancient discovery of a variable, 31. Beta Leporis, 23. y Corone Australis, 22. 61 Cygni, 24. 70 (p) Ophiuchi, 23. Stars, classification of double, 24. in daytime, visibility of, 64. pao oe toward and from the earth, 9 observed at Harvard Observatory, fundamental, 53. proper motions of southern, 22. Radcliffe’s third catalogue of, 45. spectrum observations of, 48. treatise on double, 44. U, W, and X Sagittarii, variable, 54. Stas, 201. Stationary hydraulic engine, 439. Statistics of steam, 435. report of the Bureau of, 386. Steam fog-whistles, 459. statistics of, 435. towage on canals, 445. Steam-pipes, casing for, 435. Stearns’ duplex system, 168. Stebnitzky, 6. Stedman, J. R., 401. Steel brushes for cleaning iron castings, 498 tempered, 51S. compressed while fluid, 453. experiments on, 202. influence of foreign ingredients upon the physical properties of, 202. Steele, John A., 398. Stein, 287. Stephanoceros on submerged plants, 339. Stevenson, David, 123. 607 Stevenson, James, 246. Stewart, Prof. Balfour, 8. Stillman, 478. Stipa, new species of, 352. Stockholm Observatory, 36. Stolba, Prof., 519. Stomach, nature of gases from the, 285. Stone, Dr., 145. E. G., 22. EK. J., 58. Livingston, 401. Stone-pine tree, use of, 365. Storer, Prof. F. H., 196, 210, 372, 375, 376, 382. Storey, 266. Storm, James A., 310. Storm of March 12, 1876, 114. Storms, eastward progress of, 124. Faye’s theory of, 85, 86. Stowe, 150. Straw, leather, and wicker - work, imita- tion of, 430. Street railways, a new rail for, 448. Street aD and fire-hydrant combined, 414, Strohmeyer’s process, 501. Structure and development of mites, 332. of the earth, interior, 121. of young fishes, remarkable, 323. Struve, Otto, 18, 33. formule of, T. Strychnine from brucine, 207. Studnicke, Prof., 93. Substitute for bark in tanning, new, 507. Suds from the washing of wool, use of, 49S, Sulpho-carbonates of alkalies, 380, 381. Sulphur, a new oxide of, 211. as fire-extinguisher, 465. in coal-gas, 418. compounds as conductors of elec- tricity, 166. Sulphuretted hydrogen, development of, 196 Sulphuric acid, ammonia in, 196. Sun, an ancient eclipse of the, 10. spectroscopic diameter of the, 57. relative temperature of various por- tions of the, 13. views of Secchi and Langley on the, 9. Sun-spots and price of grain, 370. Survey of the Territories, Bulletin, 302. Swan, new star in the breast of the, 32. Swedish arctic explorations to 1875, 241. Sweeney, Dr. R. O., 400. Swiss Jake-dwellings, new hypothesis in regard to, 292. Switzerland, standard time in, 41. fe Table for computing relative humidity, 110. Tacchini, Prof., 40. Tait, 135, 359. Tanning, new substitute for bark in, 507. process, rapid, 509. Technology, 475. Telegraph-lines, underground, 464. Telegraphy, duplex, 168, 169. East Indian, 170. Telescope, the great Paris, 39. Telescopes, large, 40. Temperature in the great geyser of Ice- land, 109. observations in Italy, 128. of solar spots, 12. 608 Temperature of the air, 105. of the earth, 98. internal, 119. of the Mediterranean Sea near the coast of Algeria, 69. of the sea, 66. of the soil, 77. of various portions of the sun, 13. Temperatures, underground, 69. Tempered steel brushes, 51S, Tennant, Colonel, 11. Robert, 124. Tension of liquids, surface, 173. Terrestrial electricity and solar spots, 122. magnetism and aurora, 75. physics and meteorology, 65. refraction, 6. Tessié du Motay, 203. Test for gold, anew, 205. for nitrates, 210. Test-plate, Nobert’s, 267. Theorem in the equilibrium of forces, 2. Theories of magnetism and light, 157. Theory of Crookes’ radiometer, 147. of cyclones, mechanical, 101. of evolution, Cope’s, 276. of galvanic resistance, new, 65. of hail, 93. of the aberration of light, 8. of the flow of water or gas, 141. the lunar, 38. Therapeutical value of silphium, 525. Therapeutics, 525. Thermal springs of the United States, 121. Thermo-chemistry of ozone, 216. -electric battery of Clamond, 189. propertiesofminerals, 219. Thermometer, wet and dry bulb, 96. Thomas, 209. Pack, 398. Thompson, Dr. Wyville, 273, 342. Prof. A. H., 256. Thomson, Prof. James, 70, 240. Sir W., 135, 236, 266. Thomson’s dead-beat arrangement for chemical balances, 135. Thorneycroft, 472. Throckmorton, 401. Thunder-storms, dry, 128. in Europe, 129. Thurston, Prof., 137. Tides, effect of, on the rotation of the earth, 130. Tilden, Dr. W. C., 371. Timber, new process of injecting, 432. Time, determination of local, 5. measure of, by hour-glasses, 64. Time-signals, 60. Tinning iron tacks, 514. Tissandier, 118, 132. Tisserand, 14, 23, 425. Todd, D. P., 32. Tone of stringed instruments, increasing the, 145. Torell, Dr., 242. Torrey Botanical Club, 354, 370. Tracing-paper, 486. Transon, Abel, 545. Trees at the Centennial, living, 356. time for cutting, 365. Tresca, 138, 191. Tréve and Durassier, 202. —_ INDEX. Triassic fauna of Illinois, 300. Troost, 185. Troschel, Prof., 418. Trouvelot, 51. Trumbull, Dr. J. Hammond, 262, 370. Tritzschler-Falkenstein, 457. Tschangtschung, a Chinese monk, 10. Turnbull, F. M., 336. Turnip taste in milk and butter, 383. Twilight, intensity of, 99. Tylor, 130. Tyndall and Bastian, 2S1. Typhoid fever, the blood in, 532. Tyrian-purple ink, 429. U Uintah Mountains, silver and copper in, o9. Ultramarine, artificial, 489. Umbrellas, water-proofing, 430. Underground telegraph lines, 464. temperatures, 69. Ungerer, 427. Unio, new species of, 254. United States, correction of assumed alti- tudes, 233. Fish Commission, 402. thermal springs of, 121. Uranian and Neptunian systems, 34, Uranus, the inner satellites of, 52. Usher, R., 301. Ute Agency, 252. Utilization of fish-bones, 372. Vis Value of the dozen, 2. Van der Mensbrugghe, Prof,, 142, 170. Van der Willigen, 20. Van Houtte, Louis, 545. Van Patten, Dr., 316. Van Tieghem, 353. Vanadic acid in magnetic iron, 198. Vanadium minerals, new, 222. Vapor of water in the air, 105. Variations in plants with altitude, 361. Varnish for blackboards, 495. for negatives, 483. Vasey, Dr. George, 355. Vegetable substances, removing from wool, 502. Vegetables and animals, origin of the sexes, in, 2S0. cooking of, 426. Venus, atmosphere of, 27, 29. Venus’s flower-basket, 340. Verkriizen, 296. Verrill, Prof., 338. Vertebrates, embryological data of, 296. parthenogenesis in, 275. Vertical movement of vessels under high speed, 472. Vibration of fluid columns, 140. Victoria, mineral statistics of the colony of, 220. Viedt, 485, 495, 520. Vienna, Geographical Society of, 366. Observatory, 57. Vignolles, Charles B., 545. Villarceau, S, 37. Villeneuve, 112, 450. Vinard, 369. Vision, limits of, 273, 274. Viacq, $1. Vogel, Dr. H. C., 15, 53, 154, 155. INDEX. Vogt, 120. Volcanic ashes, origin of, 66. dust, 227. history of Ireland, 227. Vossius, Isaac, 81. 7 Wagner, 296. W. Wahsatch Range, 260, Walker, Robert, 109. Wallace, Sir William, 348. Walnut stain for light woods, 495. Waltenhofen, Prof. Von, 166. Waltershausen, Dr. Von, 546. Waltl, Dr., 485. Walz, Dr. Isidor, 198, 492. Ward, L. F., 262. Water, decomposition of, 195. diminution in springs, rivers, etc., By le estimating color in, 156. or gas, theory of the flow of, 141. resistance of, to motion of vessels, 139. Water-glass for washing cotton, 514. -proof awnings, 511. dressing for leather, 488. -proofing fabrics, 489. umbrellas, 430. Waters, G. F., 348. Watson, Prof., 27. Sereno, 360. Waves and vessels at sea, movements of, 140. Waxy matter on beech bark, 349. Weather and insect life, 291. Weatherby and Moore, 431. Weber, 35, 46, 211. Weed, a new noxious, 354. Weilemann, 117. Weiss, Dr., 57. Welch, William, 399. Welger, 495. Wenham, 265. Wesleyan University, 371. Western State Fish Commissioners, 399. Westminster, new aquarium at, 308. Westwood, Prof., 331. Wet and dry bulb thermometer, 96. Wex, 131, 366. Weyrauch, 467. Wheeler, Lieut. George M., 262. O. D., 257. Wheels, construction of, 448. Whitcher, 392. White, Dr. C. A., 252, 255. Whitefish eggs in California, 402. hatching in the Detroit River, 403. Whitley, 73. Whitney, Prof. J. D., 303. Whitworth, Sir Joseph, 453. Whyte, Dr., 440. Wibel, 149. Wichmann, 33. Wicklow and Waterford, 227. Wild, Dr., 96. Wilder, 347, 348. Wiley, 514. Will, Prof., 359. Willemoes-Suhm, Dr. R. von, 546. THE 609 Williams, 99. Williamson, Prof., 343. Willis, 479. Wilmot, Samuel, 404. Wilson, A. D., 243. Prof. P. B., 342. Wilson and Seabroke, 17. Wind, infiuence of, on projectiles, 472. velocity and the barometric gradi- ent of, 100. Winds and barometric pressure, 115. and rains of India, 126. Wing, Rev. Augustus, 546. Winkelmann, 183. Winlock, Prof., 51, 53. Winsor, Dr., 537. Wire ropes, cast-steel, 445. of phosphor-bronze, 446. Wiscousi Fish Commissioners’ Report, 00. Wittstein, 208. Witz, 489. Wolf, Dr. Rudolph, 46, 64. Prof desk Wolf and deer from the Upper Mississip- pi, new extinct, 303. Wolff, 376. Wolff hugel, 195. Wood engraving, French method of, 483. preservation of, 431. Wood-ashes as a fertilizer, 372. Woodward, Dr. J. J., 270, 271, 341. Wool and cloth from pine-tree leaves, 50T. removing vegetable substances from, 502. Woolen goods, fulling, 503. Wormley, Prof. T. G., 308. Worms in the heart of dogs, 533. Wrangell, Baron, 129. Wricht, A. W., 28. Dr. Thomas S., 546. Wullerstorff-Urbair, Von, 117. Wyman, Prof. Jeffries, 303. Wyndham, T. Heathcote G., 546, x Xylindein, a new dye-stuff, 492. x Yampah cafion, 253. Yarrow, Dr., 264. Yellow dye, new, 493.° light preserves entomological spec- imens, 275. Youl, 408. Young, 44, 133, 135, 146, 386. Z. Zenger, Prof., 60. Zier, 451. Zinc, brownish patina on, 516. coating on brass and copper, 514. desilverization of argentiferous, 204. Zittel, Dr., 110,130. - Zittel’s Hand-book of Paleontology, 297. Zodiacal light, 35. Zollner, 7. Zoological station, 338. Zoology and natural history, 265. | Zoospores, grouping in water, 351. END. 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