Ee ehs (CdSe oie fe Grditetians STAT TN é at Beary z a SAYRE ee ¢ .) AY ERIE AS 2 Sa Gin es ; Piss pes Bat 4 tf : v ee ey t os is SAYS Ut seer, ret Ei aan on ana rh ¥, 4 Yt ¥, i + ie Aavate ae ena pt Ors 5} ( if Ly: set = eZ DES aS? t i Ge Py 5 EAs i ‘ AMA Trae. Be apnea if “ AX anes: Botan jes MANE Ai - i i te ‘ See x re’ eos NA en iY tz a Las Le ~ * . .%. «ssf. 22 PS ssa dag Sharia « 27 THE VANE ES aN DATEL IMUEES. fe = Satcher tet acen at) puke sake =) e212» 30 Ae NOOB oy ab ah ta ato Sia 25, deranarsteee de merrrueet Myete eo Son. . 34 Comets; METEOR STREAMS. Ed oat KG Oe Oe ne 36 ZopIACAL LIGHT; Mecrnomeres oS eat bam tetera tp Eh asian roa tees icaana = a7 New OBSERVATORIES, New INSTRUMENTS, ETC.........- hs Sa ae od ASTRONOMICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY, ET®............2.-06- She patton as 39 MISCELLANEOUS; NOTES........027o 7 OO PARR SEE ae cst Sins 42 Reports OF AMERICAN OBSERVATORIES...........5.005: {ig i Soe . 46 Allegheny City, Pa.: Allegheny Observatory...............-- eRe, Brooklyn, N. Y.: Private Observatory of H. M. Parkhurst.......... 49 Buffalo, N. Y.: Private Observatory of Henry Mills.............. 49 Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard College Observatory..............-+-- 49 “Physical Observatory of L. Trouvelot........... 51 Chicago, Ill.: Dearborn Observatory....0....0. 20000: cece cece eee . oD Clinton, N. Y.: Litchfield Observatory of Hamilton College......... 5d Columbia, Mo.: Observatory of the University of the State of Mis- SOMTH ita corse aie 3 eo saree Se ae Smears oes Su REE Se . 06 Columbus, O:- Ohio State Unversity... .-....- 2:0 seas 52-00 aba aeeiciit 58 Easton, Pa.: Lafayette College Observatory..........----0--+ eee 59 Elizabeth, N. J.: Private Observatory of Charles W. Pley er, Esq.... 59 Fordham, N. Y.: Private Observatory of W. Meikleham, Esq......- 60 Fort Dodge, Ia.: Private Observatory of F. Hess, Esq....-..-..+--- 60 Germantown, Pa.: Private Observatory of Henry Carvill Lewis, Esq. 65 Gettysburg, Pa.: Observatory of Pennsylvania College.......----- 64 Glasgow, Mo.: Morrison Observatory....... aaphade> ee eee 64 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS. ASTRONOMY—Continued. Hartford, Conn.: Private Observatory of D. W. Edgecomb, Esq. Page 65 Hastings, N. Y.: Private Observatory of Henry Draper, Esq........ 69 Haverford, Pa.: Observatory of Haverford College..............-. 6d Jackson, Mich.: Private Observatory of O. Mulvey, Esq...........-. 65 Lowell, Mass.: Private Observatory of O. C. Wendell, Esq.......... 66 Mt aoonout, O.: Cimemnat Observatory... ....0.6..n0nn0s sso. ccces 66 Nashville, Tenn.: Private Observatory of Edward C, Barnard, Esq.. 67 New Brunswick, N.J.: Schanck Observatory of Rutgers College.... 67 New Haven, Conn.: Observatory of Yale College..............-++. 68 New York, N. Y.: Private Observatory of William T, Gregg, Esq... 69 Oxford, Miss.: Observatory of the University of Mississippi........ 69 Peconic, Suffolk Co., N. Y.: Private Observatory of George W. Fitz, Ce OA Se nt a ee ee. pap ones op betel 69 Phelps, N. Y.: Private Observatory of William Robert Brooks, Esq.. 70 Poughkeepsie, N. Y.: Observatory of Vassar College..............- 70 Providence, R. I.: Private Observatory of F. E. Seagrave, Esq...... 70 Rochester, N. Y.: Private Observatory of Professor Lewis Swift..... 71k San Francisco, Cal.: Office of The James Lick Trust”............ a South Bethlehem, Pa.: Sayre Observatory of Lehigh University... 73 St. Louis, Mo.: Observatory of Washington University............ 73 Tarrytown, N. Y.: Private Observatory of C. H. Rockwell, Esq...... 74 Proven V:+ ProudheOUseevanary es acs ccc ccc oe vices toe eh eee 74 Washington, D.C.: U.S. Naval CPDSORV AGONY. in cacta «warn cose 75 Willet’s Point, N. Y.: Field Observatory of Engineer Battalion..... 76 Yellow Springs, O.: Observatory of Antioch College............... 76 @ar OBSERVATORIES OF ITALY. (0: a nee eke seeing oon bs apes =f 76 The Observatory of Palermo peeect Seem. $s) Uo ase eee. Ff The Observatory .of Naples. ...cne eee ae eee «ht eee < ate Observatory of the Roman College..,........2 200...) dade eeels = 7 Observatory of the Capitol.c<2s:agest) qsceoaee: Sees PAL 7 Observatory of Florence... ss.wiskiih 8, Se Se eee = 79 Observatory of Bologna,: .. ::.-:ti0 J.<1a. Gia ts San ee eee «aim 79 Observatory jof Modena. 51 essen de See i es sg 79 Observatory of Paduwais 4 .-/i': et pa ees eee a a's ai 80 Obseryaters of. Miloni<.i::0 u.5. 0. ieee eee veces ae ae 80 Observatory of Turin. .....2%.Jc.oced toe onl) eee 80 THE OBSERVATORIES OF PORTUGAL........... Ss Se ihe ite te Ret ate lites pal 81 The Lisbon Royal Astronomical Observatory.......... BE ones 81 dhe Combra Observatory... .... «««'\s cs sam py ss ee oo e 81 THE OBSERVATORIES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND DEPENDENCIES....... 82 Geeanwick Observatory... so...) ens 82 Madchtte Observatory, Oxford... 6: 00.4 oe ea 82 University Observatory, Cambridge........ 2.0. cc ctecescccecesess 82 Dremerie papaervatory.. 63. a 82 BOW APOOIVREOTY (se ise kk cca oe ee ee 85 emple Observatory, Rugby... 6.2... 5. oe 83 > TABLE OF CONTENTS, Vil ASTRONOMY— Continued. Dr Huapeins’s Obsenyatoryy, ssi terocidc! cis. '2 4 Ives Deeks Page 83 Cane of Geod Hope Obseryatonyez:::.<<.<.-...,0.<..0.0,8° EIDE bs ss 83 Melboume: Qbservaterye. 5.) .cefeleusA ods Je). alee wee 83 Orure Onser VATORIES OF -HUROPE.-A 0.00002 TOE oe. 83 Observatory of the Academy of Sciences, Berlin.................. 83 (Sees meting Boe se) 3 e850) rr ere 84 Bray OSE GAL ORY DEUSOE Sait le Soo cin Sooo siaiy sj0 5 s% sours os 0 oye 88 Waiversity Observatory, Stockholian..... 2... = as'05'50,50¢,n.scuhy one 2s 88 iniversily Observatory, StraSDUR ee. 6... .:.s.ee oes oa anes cs ReneS 88 Dmiversity Observatory: Warsaw’. .'..'.'.'- e's’ ae e's ses o ae 89 dmperial: QHSerVALOFY ) VACUUA 5 apprencdarsrcyajana adnate = store eee AM 89 Bawemity Observatory, Zurich ;. « s-5... 50+ << adnan Bb Idle sss 89 SEAS EPSP EDN aon Pagers yoni aieynke. music lov ain, ie ieadnts eet hele Ie Fe- «= . 89 PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. By CLEVELAND ABBE, with the assistance of Professor C.G. Rockwoop, of Princeton, N.J........... ete seme a 1! THe EARTH: mpernal) Cone UM <<< <5 3.2... Ree. bitths PSS e RIS Sakis os 6 2 91 Underground Temperature......... ago a: ee Jeo bE Siete sen sss 92 Winleanolocsge: Se EON ong tod deeds ions eae es a eee Shae 96 PISSED OY see eo Dede hen arn Sins SeSicle Soaie Ana ace eo ta'd eis oes 2Yi Notable Earthquakes and Eruptions..................20ceeeeeee 102 PcrrenGeial Nia cmetiSttlae a 4% 70f- lato alata sala alates ce oe Pow ee soe og 105 THE OCEAN: Le SR eo SRE ee a DR a nee eee Bree 112 DCUS yrs scant eee ee See CS tty 3 Pros wee ee bee vine 114 CuErenisste 2 be2sccGc2 66222 esRSRe te ete rite cece coe oc were sees 115 Equality of the Surface Levels of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.. 117 ‘Euigh Currents in-tae Gall of Maine vo 22.2 foes. cane cn cee ee 117 RIGEA, ANGIW AVERE Osa tase tse Aa ede oe eee een ere see 118 THe ATMOSPHERE: Institutions, Observers, General Treatises, etc............. Set? on 119 General Tyeatises.........00..sseee eee e cece eee c ete eceencnens 134 Apparatus and Methods..........-esseeeeererrereerseeterenees 148 Vill TABLE OF CONTENTS. PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE—Continued. Chemical and Physical Properties of the Air.......... 0.2.04. Page 157 TOMPCTAure ...cawuvcccrceccccneecascseesesene Seem MnmIns ya 'ale\s's 162 Movements of the Atmosphere..........U202 [Goh St acaweenes ves 168 Barometric Pressure... .. ....2.+0ac- deh same ee eee eis t3. 171 Evaporation and Precipitation ........«.»--724. 5 sumageewery «<.\- 174 UUM Goins vc cc es ccccewvscos 9 9s :erach ei piniecg ales’ oc 177 Atmospheric Electricity...........-+--++ er ren. ee ae 184 Obptical Phenomena. ...... 5.22. 00. sce oie miele eG oe as 188 Miscellaneous Relations and Applications,....................06- 190 Samspot Periods... .-. .... .-< - ccr¢ 6-yeinie nie pees 190 PRCQHN 05 kc ccc t eens ct ons ok cee ei 194 EX YPSOMEUY . ooo no oie cia cvepme Sree yO caiaia eee ieee eee ee 198 Physical Geography and Geology. co cp inancie My uaeain- =. = 200 Botany and Zoology... 2. oc 0.2 sect eer eines ee ee 201 Refraction of Light. and Sound, .27 epee eee 5 204 Poeumatics and Aeronautics. 22243. ok ee ae = 206 Meteors and Zodiacal Light..c 0. ae eee eee Sine. o. < 209 PHYSICS. By Georcr F. Barker, Professor of Physics in the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. .. .-.:;.::: semen en oo eer . 211 GENERAD 2 0.2 one oo ang sisine 6 opiayeie se erage ie eee ee me ee 211 MECHANICS. 0.55. 2 2 one o +2 anne ein 0 etait ee een ene oe 213 Lot Sonids.*.*:. 2. .79522 eae Mo cap ia Aaa by 2 213 2.0Of Liquids, i......... 5%... Jae eee seek eh hen eee eS, 215 Be OF Gases soi... 0: «5. ee oe eee eee eee 2 218 ROOUSTICS.:.. 2.5... TIPE eho ope sabi) ae ee eee es 219 il Se oor ne enn arene Ne eo eS 226 1. 'Thermometry and Change ‘of State..2-ayis ees soe eet 227 2..Conductivity and Radiation.....<.:.c..ebeweewenee ee oe ss 232 3. Specific Heat and Thermodynamics......................00088 233 LIGHT: 1. Reflection and Refraction........... by Hasksaaietanec Ayelet Ser ciexele 235 B, Dispersion...» .22.555+s+252+ 50 22. eee oa 236 ® interference and Polarization. . . < :2.9eeeReee ol ~.% . Poem bts bhi Balen oes 5 5e esos dre e eae Ler PHYSIOLOGIGAL. 25 : 3.08. : aN Sits saat ae sits atone 2s "TROHNIC AIRES Otc ce eet we Fe Bie iis OIC noe OO Ene SG arreia MINERALOGY. By Epwarp 8. Dawa, Ph.D., Yale College, New Haven, Sonny. 245 Pe On ee AD OOGae Drees e SS ee ree CGENne Al VINE RATOGIGAT IROGREISS 55, oc c/se'sce siarc.cs cein owls oes Pon ee TECHNIE, LU BLECATIONS se oe.cctee cn SS SOR RC OPES eee chest ae ae , RESEARCHES IN PHysICAL MINERALOGY AND CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.... RESEARCHES IN CHEMICAL MINERALOGY......... Nee ee ES ee ARTIFICIAL FORMATION OF MINERALS......... DA tea it dale Tea ‘ DeEscRIPTION OF NEW MINERAL LOCALITIES...... Lone Bock ieee nee INEW SPHCIES# ins tesco es Rea ee ed es ALE IO eee eee MirnTEORITESS 028.0% be ele See See ee BER sc aise GEOLOGY. By T. Sterry Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Geology, In- stitute of Technology, Boston, Mass............. hit ASCE =e ts Prr-CAMBRIAN ROCKS. 6.65.0. 0: >: PE ee ey ae by ie, SA Mahe 3 ACME Sern meee rte oe So roe RATE Meee las ct ine ih ae A ied oe We a SCOTEANT I ose 522s Ree Bra Re. aver lence ee Die eb ay ove etal si Sh eee “its TRAN Deere yes tee oe ee See ee eee Shaan h ine oo eth te : LEON STE SEM MAYS Be ee oe Bano). 58 caret ots eM alata o Sie ot Ae ee SHROE SHURE MA meee SNe ce, 2 naa SRE ee Oe erg hedth cs Sess ese 0s RD IGNNE Ss) foo. cis we ht « 6.6 5.< 5 pee RSPR ats vs be att bi Aieueditinc 8” yay ict hans Se we tN ISG REE EM EIN ES co. ous ves on shoe tae Bice a ee Oe ee oe BLE ieee WISCONSIN... ..... yesaraterersec eae Sit oe Brine REE A iain On a ee aaa Rene Ee phe ooo ae Noe Coes oe ere ches Sienna Ieee bt JIASTERN CANADA....-...%. w8.2 SAL AIBA ORAS AM P35, eh SORIA PALEOZOIG PROCKSAL ois 3) a tetova: Tress easton as wfensieys ao aye seSehcrs a Bon ae SALT WRPOSIPOT oft % 404 hc, «pest ayonyetlgits bs arsye ats fatel era 6 tee eee GEOLOGY. OW INDPAS 0k ck ool nw css: PAS gaa oe Me eae c 5 hee See GEOLOGY OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS........... ae | SEES < one, 3 MErsozOlCe.On. SCOELAND:. 5 o..J< 4-2. 2beaesid A: PE TT ere et eee PER TEAR Ne BIVADAL 28677, wad erro LEY Bian. eis 2 brodatlectl «hvsnre/srd ites < « « Loss: FORMATION OF CHINA. «.:..%<.caee0ei0) is ereriteb ne: Fens Ae WOSSUE! SEONGER a: oo cave slo eects Sershgyts ote Surtees oss 3 Recrn® BORMADION: OW MMENERALS: « 5 sctaaecisks Erorsislact >. sicheeretsya dk oiers RUE Thy ROCKS fag sie ee BP SES ie. oo aise ones oe eet - seh INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGICAL CONGRESS.) £2. oc.cs.g00-005.000066+ 40 HYDROGRAPHY. By Francis M.Greey, Lieutenant-Commander, U.S.N.. GEOGRAPHY. By Francis M. Green, Lieutenant-Commander, U.S.N.... NortrH AMERICA......... 5 Ry Ae a ee ae be Cas deere a eis GRUEDUANIY fa retest by cin ok ee ohs wie ee Se eT ova ties ol etatteraiene se CENTRAT. AMERIOAs sock ota. tee oi Sct dea aes tN Gd he ol SA : ve SoutH AMERICA....... Tee ote ee eee ee eta ‘ ©> © OO i % x TABLE OF CONTENTS. GEOGRAPH Y—Continued. el 2S ki» ait aed Sie eaten aks wieMin iA Mein ba = iesensabage 344 BW AUB, |... d,| poate eS 0) Insect Dissection........ Re his ance 6 Siti te Mere TABLE OF CONTENTS. x1 MICROSCOPY—Continued. Pedesise ogee a cee eS OO lV dN ee TS i. Page 375 New Journals: 35.743 eRe ee sa ie8 s a5 Aw AR PIE. od National MicroséopientConmpresss 52s... 6 0 2. ks hate wiwidipe ea cies 377 The Limit of Accuracy of Measurement with the Microscope...... 378 Microscopic Tracings of Lissajous Curves.............2-+-eeees 378 ANTHROPOLOGY. By Professor Or1s T, Mason, Columbian University, WiashmetonsD Ope Mo oS ijom 4 te ates 2 tas eiercge cit 2 aie Sayan aie 9 ...) 5 5370. goeee ae eee 484 1ST COE 01st: _ ee ee Po yg ee 487 Suborder Microchiroptera) mauamy Vespertitionids.. > ........ «.<..50stccbeni ene 490 Group 1. Plecoti....... ) Whales of-the Ziphiid Family ........ 5: <0....16eeneeneee 491 RMS OF ENG Tagen 6 Fo acata eos so cicelete 5 6 a cca tat 492 The Alleged Hermaphrodism of the Ayena.:: 2 ..2u eae 493 The Placental Characteristics of the Sirenians...............0... 494 ma euppoged: New Gorilla, 5 405.56 eec.cs cad cov PO oe 495 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xlll VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY—Continued. Chronological Paleontology of the Vertebrates.............. Page 496 The Dipnoans a Predominant Type of the Paleozoic Age......... 496 Ceratodusim the Americam Jurassic.) : .. oR Taek Se eee ee 497 An Amencan Ichthyosauroid/ Horm. : <2. 22 Sodio... oe Sees 498 An American} barassig@vrammabcs. Ss: Sos lh SST. . cece ce: 499 The Miocene Mammalian Fauna of Oregon...................... 499 BOTANY. By Professor W. G. Fartow, Boylston Hall, Harvard College, Cami bridve,; Miasngres aie ee Pier £02 SO eae tO OTL, oa cca 501 PROGRESS EN AMIRI a are ar Baan eR oie ols Fkigge uci eyes 0: «0's 501 PRaneresams Fe ee eae see nee ee te os on 541 Absorption without Exchange of Bases.................++. 542 Restoration of AbsorptuvetPewers552555'.0.00.. see. es oa 30 542 Absorptive Powers of Different Layers of the Same Soil....... 542 Use-of Lime‘and:-Marl gnats tee ee 543 Value of Lime in-Poor Samdyaallgayeeee sents. eee: ss 544 Further. concerning Chemistry sof Soilssie eee tee eee ae 2 vnc 544. Carbonic Acid in Soils, 72 55-eeeeeee eee tees aceoae ss 544 Fertility of Volcanic Soils! )0e. serene eee ee seh wens 545 Analysis of Soils, ; . )20¢.0 eRe ee on EEE. 545 PUMEANCALION,. «...-.2)<) Seve En eo oy oe ae en Ee 546 Nitrification by Organized Ferments..................0e+005 547 Experiments on Nitrification by Warrington................ 547 Professor Storer on the Ferment Theory of Nitrification...... 548 Further Experiments by Schloessing and Miintz............. 548 What Kinds of Organisms Cause Nitrification?..............- 548 Agency of Metallic Oxides in the Formation of Nitrates...... 549 Gh a 8. | a name Diisries nOi M E 549 Chemistry and Vegetable Physiology.........e..ceececeeaseeeees 549 Chlorophyl and the Formation of Starch............00.e0ee% 590 What Becomes of the Carbohydrates that are Formed in the BRIG Fons ae ss svn nse os ss» «0s 018 sale 550 Chemistry of the American Grape..............0see+-eeee- 551 Acids and Sugar in Grapes at Different Periods of Growth.... 551 Feeding Capacities of Plants.....;.... 0.200. eh... 552 The Feeding Capacity of the Maize-plant..................- 552 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY—Continued. Compositioncet Planign. io ces San: « scistas oh Ri eioencartasek Page 553 Nitrogenous Constituents of Beets, Mangolds, and Potatoes.... 554 Nitrogen Compounds in the Cereals............0.00 cece ees . dd4 Application in Estimating Feeding Values.................. 504 V. MANURES AND VEGETABLE PRODUCTION: .........0..0c00cececec0e 555 Artificial Mermuzersia.¢ ceri - Bt KIM Soir. oS ele edd Ba) Continuous Use of Chemical Manures.— Experiments of Messrs; LawesinteGalbert?s, sovs2aa. ins) aikl to. oss ee 555 Experience on the Farm of Mr. Prout, in England............ 556 Experiment in Corn-growing by the Sturtevant Brothers..... 556 Arinicialt Peetilizers, in. Fmgland 2. tare dar ee eee bakes 507 Ferimlizersifor ook Crops..ieraass 22. Ses A. ete JOR dew ries 558 Fertilizers for Grain Crops.—Guano and Nitrate of Soda...... 558 Manures for Bemmanent(Pastiteigrg macnesaal. lege dS. elk 509 Raotasie Salts. .....3 .cieked tase ee eret ain Waar is 559 Wommony Saltese. ars east). gus Oe eA Sk 559 Application, of Farm-yard ;Manurez2) .2san% 216 2883/8005 23 560 Farm: Experiments with: Fertilizers. .o- 2i:.-222sakPeabeOuk Wes 560 Effects of the Different Fertilizing Materials.—Artificial vs. HarmoMertiliz ersh4 sses8 12k. 32 23.53091 E.R IY 561 ‘Phe; Dilferenees- in: Sails. 9 4s ce <- ans seta Sa iore ade 562 Principles respecting the Deficiencies of Soils................ 562 Beets of the Beruilizers on Corte. cohen eras ryomimescd oma 562 ME Tar NOPerrion. OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 25. <5bo sec ces oes on 0% 563 Feeding; Bx periments nih a45 447 oe dca; ee oer ea vies! 08k t 564 Digestion of Woods: bythe Horse... . 2: 2ase4). exerctcss? 564 mource Gb Muscular: Boteec, m2 )s rs, acetate slotted Ve 564 Experiments at the New Hampshire Agricultural College.... 565 Feeding Stuffs.—Digestibility, Value, and Use..............-...-. 56d Digestibility of Green and Dry Fodder....................2. 563 Maize vs. Oats for Herses$. cis aotehdda e Yess as 556s oy det ee ee Sea ee eS eae ii 0: CONDITION OF THE BLAST-FURNACES OF THE Unirep SrarEs, OCTO- 2 EIS a ee RR ow Grat are%e Pisa «O00 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XVll INDUSTRIAL STATISTICS—Continned. Propuction or Iron Ratrs (Bessemer excluded)......... ere Page 607 Rait Propucrion IN 1877 (Bessemer included).......... eae eeee sé 607 cj RYE De] BY DISS) 080s ON REISTI DDD] Otel] HL CA 1 6 eg ened, een eer 608 STEM OTHE PEVAN) DSEISSEMERID 691 A nb O3h ana: om ~~ T Ae Tit pds. o- ; ee gircwrele roel . orca as. * rite! i ous Sas TA AIT ye epkashe! ‘a, fag pel .e on La f tis bst¢ a ‘~~ i’ An | SoS e Be Pe ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. LS 7 S- A SB IGOEN O MY, By EDWARD S. HOLDEN, U. S. Navan OBSERVATORY, WASHINGTON. INTRODUCTION. By far the most important astronomical event of 1878 was the total eclipse of July 29. An appropriation of $8000 for observing this was liberally made by Congress, and was spent by the Naval Observatory in putting parties in the field. This Observatory not only sent six of its own obsery- ers, but paid, in part or entirely, the expenses of twenty-seven other persons selected from the astronomers of the country. Invitations were extended to every well-known astronomer in the United States, and the services of every one able to go were accepted. Many had, however, already made their ar- rangements to take the field under other auspices. An ar- rangement was made by the Naval Observatory with the Pennsylvania Railroad, by which foreign observers of the eclipse were transported to Denver and return at half-fare. Their instruments were also admitted duty-free by the Treas- ury Department. As in the case of the transit of Mercury, instruments were A 2 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. lent by the Observatory to various astronomers, who sub- mitted reports of the work done. The excellent results reached have been a gratifying proof of the heartiness of the co-operation on both sides. The detailed account of these results is given in the sec- tions on Solar Eclipses and on the Transit of Mercury. These and other subjects are spoken of briefly under their appro- priate heads. It must be remembered that the accounts here given are necessarily the barest summaries, and are intended mainly to call attention to work which has been done, in or- der that a reference may be made to the original sources if desired. At the same time, it is clearly impossible to give references to all the memoirs consulted. For such biblio- graphical information the reader is referred to Darboux et Houél’s Bulletin des Sciences Mathématiques et Astrono- miques (monthly, Paris), to Mature (weekly, London), to the Observatory (monthly, London), and other journals. Free use has been made of reviews by writers in these and other periodicals. An important feature of the Astronomical Summary for 1877-78 are the reports from American observatories (p. 46), furnished by the directors themselves in answer to a circu- lar letter. It is hoped that by means of these replies accu- rate knowledge of the activity of our observatories may be had, and it is intended to continue these in the future. A similar series of reports for European observatories is yearly made to the German Astronomical Society. These have been translated and condensed, and are given here (p. 76). An abstract of an official report on the observatories of Italy, by M. Rayet (of the Observatory of Marseilles), is also given (p. 76). The various important communications of Professor Wat- son on the subject of the discovery of Vulcan are given un- der that heading. NEBULA AND CLUSTERS; NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS; CON- STRUCTION OF THE HEAVENS. In the journal of the Italian Spectroscopic Society for No- vember, 1877, Professor Celoria has a paper on the general distribution of the stars in space. In this paper he combines the gauges of Herschel, the results of the Durchmusterung ASTRONOMY. 3 and of the Uranometria Nova, and of a zone examined by himself at Milan from 0° to +6° (6), and deduces the relative distances of (1) the lucid stars; (2) the Durchmusterung stars of 7.5, 8.0, and 9.5 magnitude; (3) the stars of the Mil- an zone; and (4) those of Herschel’s sweeps. This paper is an abstract of a longer memoir published by the Milan Ob- servatory. The principal conclusion of M. Celoria is as to the existence of two rings which together make up the Milky Way. The two absolute maxima of star-density are in 62 50™ and 19" 20™ R. A., and in the first region there is a maximum of lucid stars. Ifit is admitted, as has been shown by Gyldén, that the different brightness of stars is in general a function of their different distance, the conclusion follows that towards 6" R. A. the stars nearest us are accumulated, and that towards 19" the stars farthest away are situated. In the curves of star-density two maxima are shown in the Milky Way, the first being smaller than the second; and it follows that the branch of the Milky Way which comes first to the meridian contains the stars nearest us. “The Milky Way is thus formed of two rings whose planes are inclined about 20° to each other, which cross each other; and the sun is situated a little outside of their planes.” Data for a re- view of this kind have been collected from the star-maps of Dr. C. H. F. Peters, of Clinton, by Professor Holden, of Wash- ington, who has counted the number of stars per square de- gree in all of Dr. Peters’s star-maps, and in many of Chacor- nac’s charts, which have been completed by Dr. Peters by filling in the small stars. In this way statistics of the dis- tribution of stars of the first fourteen magnitudes over the ecliptic regions have been collected. The Monthly Notices, R. A. 8., for January, 1878, contains the following papers: Sefior Ventoza, of Madrid, has a note on the real motion of the stars in space, which is an abstract of a larger work to appear shortly. Mr. 8. Waters, to whom we owe several charts of the same kind, has given a chart of the southern sky, on which the results of Sir John Herschel’s star-gauges are plotted, and it serves to give a rough idea of the distribution of the southern stars. Professor Winnecke, of Strasburg, brings evidence to show that the nebula H ii. 278 (G. C. 551) has periodically va- ried. From 1785-1827 it was p B; 1856-65 it was v F 4 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. or v v F; from 1868-77 it was again p B. It deserves at- tention. In Vol. IIL. of the Moscow Observations, Professor Bredi- chin has given his observations to determine the parallax of the nebula H iv. 37. The series extended over sixty-five nights, and comprised eight measures of Aé on each night. The observations are grouped into twelve groups. The par- allax resulting is 0.065” + 0.040". This includes the tem- perature correction of the screw. If the mean value of the screw be used without such correction, the parallax results as 0.009” +0.041”. Thus this nebula appears to be at the same distance as the (single) comparison star. Dr. Dreyer has published his supplement to the “General Catalogue of Nebul and Clusters of Stars” (Herschel). It contains, first, notes and corrections to the catalogue; and, second, a continuation of this. The numbering is continued from 5079 (Herschel’s highest number) to 6251. Of course this sum includes errors, duplicates, possible comets, etc., and on this account it has been doubted whether the time for the systematic catalogue of Herschel had come in 1864. The immense convenience of it as a printed working-list quite overbears any possible want of logical arrangement ;, and Dr. Dreyer’s work is a much-needed supplement, and is edited with great care. Dr. Doberck has given in Nature (February 14, 1878) an abstract of D’Arrest’s Undersogelse on spectra of nebulous stars, which will be valuable to English readers, the original paper being almost unknown. About 6000 nebule were known in 18723; of these 150 have been examined with the spectroscope—only one-fortieth part. Of these about three fourths give the continuous spectrum, while only one fourth are true gaseous nebule. Gaseous nebule are, with few ex- ceptions, characterized by greenish-blue light, sharply defined circular or elliptic disks, and often have bright condensations within, almost stellar in appearance. ASTRONOMY. 19 may be—were in such quantity and condition, and rose so high above the solar surface that their lines were conspicu- ous in the coronal spectrum, and attracted the attention of observers far more forcibly than the feeble continuous spec- trum of the light emitted from, and reflected by, the minute solid or liquid particles which also constitute an essential element of the corona. At present the condition is reversed. The gases are either too small in quantity or too cool to be conspicuous. The lesson, and it is an important one, is sim- ply, as has been said, that, to a certain extent, the corona sympathizes with the sun-spots. “Tt certainly looks probable, also, that while the gaseous elements of the corona are strictly solar, the non-gaseous matter—the coronal dust or haze—is of extraneous and very likely meteoric origin. At any rate, the extent of the corona was certainly not less than on former occasions, whatever may have been the case with its brightness. In fact, it has never been traced quite so far from the sun before, as this time by Langley and Newcomb, who followed it out for 6° along the ecliptic, a success partly, of course, due to the clearness of the air at their elevated stations. Now, this is quite consistent with the theory that meteor streams furnish the hazy matter of the coronal envelope, since, so far as we can judge, they have nothing to do with sun-spots. “ A very interesting problem relates to the effect of solar forces upon this meteoric matter, if such it really be, and the material for the study is furnished in rich abundance by the numerous drawings made by Langley, Abbe, Penrose, Boss, and others, and by the photographs, which in excellence and number excel those obtained on any previous occasion. Among the best which we have seen are the magnificent se- ries made by Rogers at La Junta, those of Draper at Raw- lins, and those of the Princeton party at Denver; undoubt- edly there are others of at least equal excellence. “To sum up: the eclipse of 1878 has probably added a new planet to the system, and has rendered it likely that the unknown cause, whatever it may be, which produces the pe- riodical sun-spots at intervals of about eleven years, also af- fects the coronal atmosphere of the sun. “The result of the late eclipse goes to show such a peri- odical change in the state of the solar atmosphere as might 20 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. very possibly produce a sensible effect upon the earth; whether it does or not is a question which can be settled only by a careful and systematic investigation of the facts.” The detailed reports of the various parties sent out by the Naval Observatory have not yet been printed. The follow- ing abstract of their principal work is taken from the Re- port of the Secretary of the Navy for 1878. It was seen that in order to obtain thoroughly satisfactory photographs of the corona, it would be necessary to use far more powerful apparatus than had been employed hereto- fore, and it was proposed by Professor Harkness to con- struct two equatorial cameras of six inches aperture and thirty-six inches focus. This plan was adopted, the objec- tives being furnished by Dallmeyer, of London. Two of the Transit-of-Venus 5-inch telescopes were removed from their equatorial mountings, and the cameras were substi- tuted in their places. In this way two very serviceable in- struments were obtained which were subsequently used by the parties of Professors Hall and Harkness. It was finally decided to adopt dry plates, and Mr. Jos. A. Rogers kindly furnished the observatory with some of his own manufact- ure. The results subsequently obtained with them upon the corona prove that there is every reason to be thankful that his generous offer was accepted. As the liberal appropriation made by Congress enabled the observatory to fit out quite a number of parties, the co-operation of all the best-known astronomers in the coun- try was solicited, and they responded heartily. While the observatory was able to assist them both pecuniarily and by the loan of instruments, they were left entirely free to plan their own observations; thus securing a wide range of in- vestigation. The final arrangement of the parties, and the work accomplished by each, were briefly as follows: The party under charge of Professor Hall was stationed at La Junta, Col. The principal results of the work of this party were: 1. Professor Hall made an unsuccessful search for Vudean with a 5-inch Clark equatorial, magnifying power one hun- dred and fifty diameters. The space south of and following the sun was swept over, keeping near the ecliptic and sweep- ing about 10° east of the sun. ASTRONOMY. 2] 2, Mr. Wheeler made an unsuccessful search for Vudean with a 5-inch Clark telescope, magnifying one hundred and fifty diameters, and mounted as an alt-azimuth. The space swept over was below and preceding the sun, where Profess- ors Watson and Swift discovered Vadlean. 3. Mr. J. A. Rogers made five photographs of the corona. The exposures were 3, 5, 10,60, and 20 seconds. The image of the moon was 7% of an inch in diameter. As the expos- ures were increased, more and more of the corona was shown, and the longest exposure gave a corona twenty minutes of are in extent each side of the sun. These photographs show a great amount of detail, and in connection with those of other parties will probably give more information in regard to the minute structure and ex- tent of the corona than has yet been obtained from photo- graphs. Professor A. W. Wright determined the plane of polariza- tion of the corona, and the percentage of polarized light pres- ent, and took two photographs. Dr. Thorpe determined the magnetic elements of La Jun- ta, and photographed the corona. The party under direction of Professor Harkness was sta- tioned at Creston, Wyoming Territory. Professor Harkness, assisted by Lieutenant E. W. Sturdy, searched the violet and ultra-violet portions of the coronal spectrum for bright lines, but found none. Mr. Alvan G. Clark and Mr. A. N. Skinner managed the equatorial camera, and obtained six photographs of the coro- na, which are thought to be at least as extensive and as rich in detail as any ever taken. The exposures were, respective- ly, 3, 15, 30, 60, 8, and 5 seconds. Professor Otis H. Robinson used the polariscopic camera, and obtained four photographs which distinctly show the polarization of the corona. They are now in the hands of Professor A. W. Wright, who is making a special study of that subject. The party under direction of Professor Eastinan selected as an observing-station the town of West Las Animas, Col. Professor Eastman observed contacts, and, with a single- ptism spectroscope attached to a 5-inch equatorial, traced the limit of the substance in the corona which gives the 29 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. bright line “1474” in the green portion of the spectrum, on the north,east, south, and west limbs of the sun. The exist- ence of this line was demonstrated to a distance from the sun’s limb equal to about four tenths of the solar diameter, and the limit was about the same in the four different direc- tions. Professor Boss determined the latitude and longitude of the station, observed contacts, and during totality devoted himself to the study of the details of the structure of the corona. Professor Pritchett observed contacts, and during totality devoted a portion of his time to an unsuccessful search for Vulcan, and the remainder to a study of the solar promi- nences, and one or two portions of the corona. Assistant Paul observed contacts, and’ during totality sketched the outline of the corona projected on a finely ground glass plate in the focus of a telescope of 48.5-inch focus, with an objective of 3.5 inches. Mr. H. 8. Pritchett observed contacts, and during totality pointed the telescope which carried Professor Eastman’s spectroscope. The party under Professor Holden was stationed at Cen- tral City, Col. The work done was as follows: Professor Holden made an unsuccessful search for Vedean, and a sketch of the corona. Dr. C.S. Hastings made six independent determinations of the plane of polarization of the coronal light. Professor E. W. Bass made a minute examination of one half of the corona, and observed the four contacts. Lieutenant 8. W. Very, U.S.N., determined the latitude and longitude of Central City, and assisted Dr. Hastings during totality by pointing his telescope. ' Mr. J. E. Keeler made a crayon drawing of the corona. Mr. C. H. Rockwell made a sketch of the corona, and noted time for Professor Bass. Mr. Peers, of Central City, took a photograph of the co- rona. This photograph is noteworthy, as it gives more of the outer corona than any other, and is a valuable supple- ment to the photographs of Professors Hall and Harkness, which give so much detail in the inner corona. (The outer corona is shown over 60’ on each side of the sun.) ASTRONOMY. 23 The party under Professor 8S. Newcomb was stationed at Separation, Wyoming. This party observed contacts and exposed a large number of (dry) photographic plates in a photoheliograph. When these plates came to be developed, no image of the sun was seen. The plates were certainly sensitive, and the cause of the failure is unknown. Commander W.'T. Sampson, U.S.N., who observed the eclipse at Separation with Professor Newcomb, describes briefly his examination of the spectrum of the corona in Zhe American Journal of Science for November. The result he sums up as follows: “The conclusion forces itself upon my mind that the light of the corona is not all reflected light. Several considerations lead to this conclusion. Until this eclipse, no observer has ever seen the dark lines in the spectrum of the corona except M. Janssen, who reported dark lines, notably D, in 1871, but much more difficult to see than the bright lines. Several observers during the recent eclipse failed to see the dark lines, though they looked for them carefully. While I do not question the results of observers who report the presence of dark lines, I think all the observations taken together show that the continuous spectrum of the corona is not the spectrum of the sun. Aside from this, Professor Ar- thur W. Wright made measurements of the polarization of the light of the corona—the first time, I think, it has been at- tempted—and has found the polarization to be but a small percentage of the whole light emitted. Although all re- flected light does not reach us as polarized light, yet I think the small percentage of polarization, taken with the faint- ness of the dark lines, indicates that the corona is to a considerable extent self-luminous. The meteoric dust not only reflects the sun’s light, but it is continually shower- ing upon the sun, and in its passage through its atmosphere is rendered incandescent. No photographs of the spec- trum of the corona can probably throw any light upon the matter.” A party consisting of Professors 8. P. and J. W. Langley occupied the summit of Pike’s Peak. They were engaged in photometric determinations of the light of the corona, etc., and secured valuable drawings; and Professor 8. P. Langley was able to trace the corona for several degrees on 24 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. each side of the sun, and to see it after the reappearance of the sun. Mr. G, W. Hill made a drawing of the corona at Denver, Col. Professor O. Stone and Mr. W. Upton observed the eclipse a few miles east of Denver. Contact and other observations were secured. Messrs. L. and G. H. Trouvelot observed at Creston, and a fine pastel drawing of the corona has been received from them. Mr. D. P. Todd, of the Nautical Almanac Office, was sta- tioned at Dallas, Texas, and, in spite of cloudy weather, ob- served contacts. He also secured a number of observations of the duration of totality from volunteer observers stationed near the limits of total eclipse. The discovery of Vulean by Professor Watson is men- tioned elsewhere. TRANSIT OF MERCURY, MAY 6, 1878. The transit of Mercury was observed by Professor Hall at Washington. Seventy-two photographs of the planet, when on the disk of the sun, were made at Washington by Mr. Jo- seph A. Rogers with one of the photoheliographs used in pho- tographing the transit of Venws in December, 1874. Professor Harkness went to Austin, Texas, to observe this transit. Although the first half of the transit was lost in clouds, he was favored with a clear sky and a steady atmos- phere during the latter half, and succeeded in making twen- ty-five measures of the polar diameter of Mercury, the same number of measures of its equatorial diameter, excellent de- terminations of the instants of third and fourth contact, and a very satisfactory observation of the physical phenomena attending these contacts. The transit was observed by Professor Eastman with the 9.6-inch equatorial at the Naval Observatory; and by As- sistant Astronomers Frisby and Skinner with smaller equa- torials. Professor Eastman observed the second, third, and fourth contacts, made several series of measures of the di- ameter of Mercury, and made a careful study of the physical phenomena at the time of contacts. Assistant Astronomers Frisby and Skinner observed contacts. ASTRONOMY. Os Professor Holden, in connection with Dr. Draper at Has- tings-on-the-Hudson, observed the third and fourth contacts, and secured nineteen good photographs. Assistant H. M. Paul observed the transit at Hanover, N. H. Professor James C. Watson and Professor E. C. Pickering photographed the transit of Mercury with instruments fur- nished them by the Naval Observatory. Professor Watson exposed seventy-two plates, but, owing to bad weather, Pro- fessor Pickering exposed successfully only twenty-six. The plates were returned to the Naval Observatory and there developed. The London Academy, May 18, states that cloudy weath- er prevailed over England during the transit of Jercury on May 6, but that Scotch observers were more successful. From the Observatory the following is extracted: “In ad- dition to the observations given in the report of the meeting of the h. A.8., reports have been received from a number of observers abroad. M. Janssen, at Meudon, was able to see Mercury outside the sun’s disk before external contact; and by means of the spectroscope he succeeded in establishing the existence of an atmosphere round the planet, and its constitu- tion. He also obtained some photographs, of which two are excellent. Captain Mouchez and MM. Henry at the Paris Observatory observed internal contact, though the observa- tion was bad, owing to cloud, as was also the case at Algiers and Bordeaux. “At Toulouse M. Perrotin observed internal contact through cloud so dense that a dark glass was not used. Under these circumstances, he remarked a dark aureole or penumbra round the planet, but this disappeared when the light became too bright. “The French expedition to Ogden, Utah, was perfectly suc- cessful, seventy-eight photographs of the transit having been taken by MM. André and Angot, as well as observations of contact. Satisfactory observations and photographs were also taken at the observatory of West Point, N. Y. “The transit was also observed in Spain,at San Fernando and Cadiz. At the latter place M. Arcimis records that no are of light was seen before internal contact, either outside the sun or round the part of the planet’s limb on the sun. At inter- nal contact the planet assumed a balloon or pear shape, and B 26 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. for a long time after no ring was seen round the planet. About an hour and a half after ingress, however, a dark ring, not so black as the planet, and about 8” or 10” broad, was seen, the sky being then quite clear.” Mr. Talmage, of Leyton, observed a luminous ring about Mercury, which was very well defined. He had, however, only a few seconds of clear weather. In this country it was extensively observed, and many photographs were made. These are now being measured at the Naval Observatory, Washington. Professor Langley, at Pittsburgh, observed the transit of Mereury under favorable conditions. The planet was seen outside the sun about half a minute before first contact, the whole disk being seen. Haze prevented similar observations at egress. No bright point or annulus was seen. The dark- est part of the planet was the centre, the edges being less gray, but the planet was certainly not black. Photometric measures of the absolute amount of light from Mercury were attempted, but Professor Langley interprets the results as measures of the minimum effect to be assigned to the earth’s atmosphere in inflecting the solar light. The observations of contact published up to the present time agree closely with the predicted times based on Lever- rier’s tables, the general accuracy of which is thus supported. TRANSIT OF VENUS AND SOLAR PARALLAX. The publication of the results of the French Transit-of- Ve- nus reductions has been delayed through the illness of the editor, M. Puiseaux. The results of the eye observations have been deduced, however, and harmonize well, being between 8.82” and 8.88” from pairs of stations, and the general result will not be far from 8.85". The difference between this and the English result, 8.77”, is marked. The French photograph- ic results are not yet published. A somewhat unexpected result is obtained by the reduc- tions of the British observations on the last transit of Venus. The data used are the eye observations (telescopic) in Egypt, Honolulu, New Zealand, Rodriguez, and Kerguelen. The photographic observations, of course, were not combined with these, and there are also eye observations taken in India and Australia that may be utilized; but it is not believed that any ASTRONOMY. 24 great change in the result will be effected by the figures ob- tained from the latter source. The new British calculations give for the value of the sun’s parallax 8.76”, with a proba- ble error of 0.013”. This corresponds to a distance for the sun of 93,300,000 miles, with a probable error of 140,000 miles. The British photographs of the transit of Venes have been twice measured, and are discussed by Captain Tupman. His conclusions are that the English method was fundamentally wrong (as, indeed, was predicted), and the two results (8.25 and 8.08”) are of no value, and must be rejected. Lord Lindsay has published the second volume of the An- nals of the Dun-Echt Observatory—a quarto volume of 212 pages. It contains the determination of the solar parallax by observations of Juno, and a description (with plates) of the heliometer employed. The method employed is the de- termination of the diurnal parallax, and this experiment was tried to determine the advantages or disadvantages of the method. The authors (Lord Lindsay and Mr. D. Gill) think that this method has been shown to be one of the very best, and the resulting solar parallax 8.77” +0.041" is regarded as a close approximation, to be subsequently corrected by sim- ilar observations of Mars and asteroids which have been made ’ by Mr. Gill at Ascension Island. The description of the he- liometer, with the investigation of its constants, is very full, and will serve as a manual for similar investigations. It is concluded that it is possible with this instrument to deter- mine the distance of a minor planet relative to two stars with a probable error of less than 0.1”. THE DISCOVERY OF VULCAN. The reports of Professor James C. Watson, of Ann Arbor, Mich., and Mr. Lewis Swift, of Rochester, on their discovery of a new star or stars during the eclipse are given below in the form of letters to the Superintendent of the Naval Ob- servatory, Washington. Subsequent letters give changes in matters of detail, but the most important facts are given be- low. Professor Watson says: “T am now able to give you more precise information in reference to my observations of a supposed new planet dur- ing the recent total eclipse of the sun... . Before the com- mencement of the eclipse, the adjustment of the equatorial 28 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. had been attended to, so that the error to be feared on this account will be very small. A few minutes before the total phase, I swept over regions east and west of the sun from eight to fifteen degrees distant; but I did not see any star. Immediately after the totality, I began sweeps east and west, extending about eight degrees from the sun. The first sweeps were towards the east. On the fifth sweep I found between the sun and Zheta Cancri, and farther south, a star of the 44 magnitude, as estimated at the instant, which immediately attracted my attention on account of its general appearance. Thad committed to memory the relative positions of the stars in the neighborhood of the sun, and I had placed the chart of the region conveniently before me for ready reference when- ever required. There was a fainter star west and north of Theta Cancri, as shown on the chart, and I could not be sure of the place without an actual measurement. The object which I had in the field shone with an intensely ruddy light, and it certainly had a disk larger than the spurious disk of a star. ... Having made the record, I placed my eye again at the telescope, and saw that there had been no disturbance of its position. I noticed, further, that the object in the field did not present any elongation, such as might be expected if it were a comet in that position. The sweeps were then con- © tinued, and I finally brought into the field what I supposed to be Gamma Cancri, although it appeared very much bright- er than Delta Cancri, which I had seen near the sun at the commencement of the search during the totality. I proceed- ed to record its position on the circles. Before this was com- pleted the total phase had ended, and I ran across to where Professor Newcomb was observing, in hopes of being able to direct his larger telescope, with graduated circles, upon the object first seen before the sunlight would interfere; but he was reading his circles for an object which he had in the field, and his telescope could not be disturbed. Thereupon I returned to my own telescope; but the sunlight had already become so bright that further observations were impossible, and hence I could not assure myself that a gust of wind had not disturbed the instrument before I had marked the last pointing. ... The places of the sun were again recorded and verified at suitable intervals, so that the position of the star (which I believe to be an intra-Mercurial planet) can be de- ee 40 ASTRONOMY. 29 termined relatively to the sun... . In the brief time allotted it was not practicable to change the eye-piece and observe the star in question under a higher power. Its light was quite red, and, so far as my recollection of its appearance in the telescope will enable me to determine, I am of the opinion that it was situated beyond the sun. . “Tn regard to the star B, which I consider to be the planet sought, there is no uncertainty whatever, beyond the una- voidable errors of the record as made. I consider the place given to be trustworthy. ... I have further observations of contacts, and also some sketches of the corona made by members of my party, which I will send you in due season. Meanwhile, I doubt not that yon will agree with me that the observations above detailed establish the existence of one new star in the vicinity of the sun, and point possibly to the existence of two.” Professor Watson is now inclined to believe that both of the new objects seen by him are planets. Mr. Swift’s observations were made at Denver. He says: *“ About one minute after totality I observed two stars, by estimation three degrees southwest of the sun, pointing to- wards the sun, of about the fifth magnitude, or what I estt- mated at the time, as bright through the telescope as Polar- is is to the naked eye. How much allowance ought to be made in estimating magnitudes so close to a totally eclipsed sun I do not know. I saw them three times, and attempted, at the last moment, to get another observation; but at the critical moment a little cloud passed over the sun, and I has- tened to observe again the sun for the third contact and at- tending phenomena. At each of the observations, by care- ful comparison, they appeared exactly of the same magni- tude, and both as red as Mars. I looked closely for twink- ling, but they were as free from it as the planet Saturn. They both, at the time, seemed to my eye and mind to have a small round disk about like the planet Uranus. Whether the disks were imaginary or real I cannot tell, but every time I saw them (the stars) the disks attracted my atten- tion.” Professor Pliny E. Chase writes to the Smithsonian Insti- tution that “ Gaillot’s orbit for Watson’s second intra-Mer- curial planet represents his tenth subsidence-node |% Jupiter 30 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. +-(2%—1)], and gives the ninth verification to his harmonic prediction. Gaillot 0.1803; Chase 0.1826.” THE PLANETS AND SATELLITES. Mercury. —'The principal observations of Mercury are spoken of under the heading Zvansits of Mercury. Venus.—M. Boutigny has called the attention of the French Academy to the fact that Varro (31 B.C.) spoke of changes in the diameter, color, figure, and path of Venus. The passage referred to is quoted in a work of St. Augustine. Venus has been observed during the last year with the 26- inch Washington equatorial. No markings on the disk were seen, but the illumination of the dark hemisphere was fre- quently noted by several observers. Mars.—F rom the recent discussion by Professor Hall of his observations of the satellites of Mars, we extract the follow- ing: ‘* The planes of the orbits of both satellites are very near- ly coincident with the equator of Mars. The elements of these orbits are determined with tolerable accuracy, except- ing the periodic times, for an accurate determination of which we must wait until the satellites have been observed in an- other opposition. The times that have now been found will serve to carry forward an ephemeris to 1879. In the orbit of Deimos, the value of the eccentricity being small, the posi- tion of the line of apsides is of course uncertain. This eccen- tricity is so small that circular elements of this satellite may be considered as sufficient for the observations. In the case of Phobos, the eccentricity of its orbit has, I think, a real ex- istence. It will be noticed that in the comparison of the observations of Phobos with the assumed circular elements, every comparison of distance confirms the existence of an eccentricity. It is true that the observations of this satellite were always difficult on account of its closeness to the planet, and also because of the brightness of the planet; and it may be suspected that some systematic error has influenced the result. Such an error would indeed have more influence on the eccentricity of the orbit of the inner satellite than on that of the outer one. But the resulting eccentricity is too large, I think, to be explained in this manner, and I conclude that the orbit of Phobos is really eccentric.” The mass of Mars can be determined from the motion of ASTRONOMY. 31 these satellites. ‘“ Expressing the mass of the planet in the common unit, we have, from the above values of the elements, the following results: ‘ 1 imos: Mass of Mars=,—___—__—__ ; Deimos: Mass of Mars 3095313 £3485 ' 1 : Mass of Mars= +10104£° Phobos ass ars 3078456 £10104 “These results agree so nearly within the limits of their probable errors that I have taken the mean by weights as the final result from the Washington observations. In this way we have 1 ” Mass of Mars= 5793500 £3005" The recent report of Professor Pickering, Director of Har- vard College Observatory, states that it has been decided to devote the large refractor chiefly to photometry. In this way a field is taken up which has too long been unoccupied. Besides a great number of photometric observations on dou- ble stars, asteroids, and satellites of the outer planets, the satellites of J/ars have been studied. Assuming the albedo, or intrinsic reflecting power of these bodies, to be the same as that of Jars, it is concluded that the diameters are for Deimos (outer satellite) about 6 miles, and for Phobos (inner) about 6.5 miles. Following are some previous values of the mass of Mars which are interesting for comparison with Professor Hall’s results: Laplace assumed the mass of Mars to be psz)o OBSERVATORIES OF THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE. In the Veerteljahrsschrift der Astronomisehen Gesellschaft, 1878, there have been collected short reports on the activity of various Eu- ropean observatories, of which reports we give an abstract here. The observatories chosen are usually such as do not regularly pub- lish an annual (or other) volume; so that these abstracts, taken in connection with the published volumes, furnish a record of trans- atlantic work similar to that which we have collected for American observatories. Observatory of the Academy of Sciences, Berlin. Director of the Observatory, Professor W. Forrster; Director of the Computing Bureau, Dr. Tiersen. The principal instruments are: a 7-inch Meridian Circle (PIstoR & MARTIN’s), under the immediate charge of Dr. Becker; and a 9.6- 84 ANNUAL RECORD-OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. inch Hquatorial (Merz), under charge of Dr. Knorre. The smaller Meridian instruments are under Dr. Tietjen’s care. The principal work of the Meridian Circle was the continued ob- servation of the 521 fundamental stars of the V. Y. 8S. Catalogue. This work was interrupted in 1876 by the operations for deter- mining the longitudes of Berlin, Vienna, and Odessa from Green- wich. One thousand three hundred and thirty transits and 1328 declinations were observed in 1877. Various other stars have been added to the observing list, among others 360 stars of Tobias Meyer’s catalogue, stars for Mr. Gill's Mars observations, ete. Publications have been made of the work of Dr. Schmidt on the division errors of the small Meridian Circle, and of Dr. Miiller on the Micrometer screw of the Equatorial. The time-service has been carried on as usual. Clocks are con- trolled at the Time-ball Stations of Neufabrwasser, Swinemiinde, Bremerhaven, and Cuxhaven, as well as six different public squares in Berlin. The principal work of the Computing Bureau has been, as before, the computation of the Berliner Jahrbuch. Twenty minor-planet cir- culars have been issued. Of the thirty-six planets whose new ele- ments are given in these, twenty-seven were computed in the Bureau. Of the sixty-four ephemerides, forty-seven were computed in Berlin, University Observatory, Bonn. Professor E. SCHOENFELD, Director. The Meridian Circle is engaged on the zone observations (zone +40° to +50°). Dr. Hugo Seeliger observes at the Telescope ; Dr. Deichmiiller at the Microscopes. . Five hundred and seventy-four partial zones were observed up to December 31, 1877, and about four hundred and eighty reduced. Comets’ a, }, c, e, and f, 1877, were observed. The Durchmusterung has been carried on, and 70,517 star-positions determined. _ For comparison, the catalogues of Lalande, Rumker, Piazzi, Schjel- lerup, Bessel’s and Argelander’s zones, and the Anonyme of Yar- nall’s Catalogue, have been completely reduced to 1855, For the cluster M. 23 (h. 1990) G. C. 4346, a special Durchmusterung has been made. Over 145,000 star-positions have been fixed during 1876-77. The variable stars Mira and T Monocerotis were observed. Royal Observatory, Brussels. F. Qvuetecet, Director. A new Equatorial, by Merz, of 0.038" (—14.96 inches, English) aperture, has been ordered, and will be mounted by Cookr. A Meridian Cirele, similar to the Strasburg Circle, has been ordered from REPSOLD. ASTRONOMY. 85 Another Equatorial, 0.015" (=5.91 inches) aperture, is employed for spectroscopic work. Drawings of Mars were made with it by M. L. Niesten. : / : The new instruments, when installed, will be devoted to three prin- cipal objects : yirst, to double-star observations of binaries and proper- motion stars; second, to observations of Jupiter's satellites in transit ; third, to spectroscopic observations, particularly of binaries, The sun is now observed spectroscopically by M. Fiévez. Dusseldorf Observatory. Dr. Rogert LuruHer, Director. In 1877 thirty-seven Ring-micrometer observations of fourteen plan- ets were made. Since 1847 there have been made 856 observations of 103 planets. Private Observatory of Dr. Eppstein, Frankfort-on-the-Main. The principal instrument is a Newtonian feflector of 6.3 inches aperture, made by Brownine, costing £26. The minimum visibile is an 11.12 magnitude star. The work undertaken with the instrument is a continuation of Herschel’s sweeps. The field of view of the sweeping eye-piece is 30’,and two hundred fields have been swept and 6700 stars counted (1877—September, October, and November). Gotha Observatory. Dr. A. Krvucer, Director. During the necessary repairs of the Meridian Circle (0.075™ aperture, 1.160" focus), the Helsingfors University has lent its Transit Instru- ment to Dr. Kriiger, and this has been used for zone observations (zone +-55° to +65°), Private Observatory of Herr Von Konkoly, 0’ Gyalla, near Komorn. This observatory has three domes, a Meridian room, and a chem- ical laboratory. The instruments are: a Brownrine feflector, 101 inches aperture, 7 feet focus; a Merz Refractor, 6 inches aperture, 6 feet focus; a small Telescope, 3 inches aperture, for sun-spot observations; a STARKE Me- ridian Cirele, about 3 inches aperture, circles reading to 1’; two Comet- seekers and minor instruments, and several Spectroscopes ; a ZOLLNER’S Photometer. The work of 1876-77 has been the formation of a catalogue of one hundred and sixty stars (1™-6™) whose spectra have been observed. Dr. Schrader is assistant, and has conducted a regular series of sun- spot observations. 86 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. Hamburg Observatory. Dr. Geore RumxKer, Director. The zone obseryations (zone 80°-81° N. P. D.) were continued on forty-five nights. Marswas observed fourteen nights. Observations of nebul, star-spectra, comets, etc., were made with the Equatorial. The Time-ball Stations of Cuxhaven, Bremerhaven, etc., are pro- vided with time-signals, and the Chronometers of the Priifungs-Insti- tut are compared. Dr. Georg Koch is assistant. University Observatory, Leipsic. Professor C. Bruuns, Director. Herr Weinek observes with the Meridian Circle. Mars was ob- served on 42 nights, and major and minor planets are regularly ob- served. Dr. Peter, with the Hquatorial, has observed on 129 nights, making 176 observations of 35 asteroids, 84 observations of 6 com- ets, etc. Herr Leppig has observed sun-spots on 195 days with the small Hguatorial. Uerr Harzer has drawn a number of nebule with a 44-foot Refractor, and with the Comet-seeker. Herr Harzer has investigated the orbit of Brorsen’s comet from 1842 to 1846. The first volume of “ Leipsic Observations,” contain- ing Observations of Nebulee and Double Stars, is printing. The Transit-of-Venus observations are computed at this observa- tory for the German Commission. Private Observatory of Dr. Hugo Gericke, Leipsic. The instrument is a SrersuerL Refractor, of 4 inches aperture, and 154 observations of 38 asteroids have been made. University Observatory, Lund. Professor A. MéiuER, Director. Dr. Lindstet, assistant, has investigated the division errors of the Meridian Circle. Mars was observed on ten nights. Double stars and comets have been observed with the Hquatorial. University Observatory, Milan. Professor M. ScH1APARELLI, Director. Eight hundred and forty measures of double stars have been made with the 84-inch Hquatorial (MERz). 2165, =Herculis 281 B, was found to be triple. Comets were also observed, and the surface of Mars studied, and a map made. ASTRONOMY. 87 Professor Celoria is computing the longitudes of Monaco, Padua, Vienna, Milan, Naples, and Genoa. The time is furnished to the city of Milan. University Observatory, Mannheim. Dr. W. VALENTINER, Director. The cluster G. C. 4410 has been observed assiduously, so that to determine the positions of its 40 stars about 2000 differences in ri ght ascension and about 1000 differences of declination have been made. Two other clusters, G. C. 1166 and G. C. 1454, are observed also, and will probably be completed during 1878. The reduction of the Meridian observations of Barry is so far complete that the printing has already begun in the Jahresberichte of the Mannheimer Verein fiir Naturkunde. Nine hundred and thirty-two stars were observed by Barry (about 1805) 2573 times, or an average of 2.8 times per star. The probable error of a right ascension of such an average star is +0.089°. The library of the observatory contains 1400 titles. University Observatory, Moscow. Dr. Tu. Brepicuin, Director. In brief, the work of this observatory has been Meridian-circle ob- servations of Mars for parallax, and of various stars; micrometric observations of the cluster in Perseus ; comet observations; spectrum of comet 1877, II.; spectroscopic observations of the sun; and pho- tographic observations of the sun and of groups of stars. Vol. IV. of the Moscow Observatory, 1878, has arrived in this country. It is in quarto form, and in two parts. Part I. contains: 1. Meridian-circle observations of stars of a selected list. 2. A second memoir on the anomalous forms of comets’ tails, by Pro- fessor Bredichin. This deals with comet 1861, IJ. 3. Meridian observations of Mars in opposition and comparison stars, by M. Gromadski. These observations extend from July 18 to Septem- ber 24. The probable error (Ad) of a single observation is £0.58”. Each observation of this series combined with one of the same weight in the southern hemisphere would give the solar parallax with a probable error +0.19”, and hence from twenty such corresponding observations we may expect a value of this doubtful by +0.04”. 4. This section is devoted to Meridian observations of a special list of stars. 5. Spectrum of comet 1877, 6. Dr. Bredichin finds this to be: A,556.4+1.7; B,515.4+0.7; C,469.7+2.2. For Coggia’s comet these numbers are: A, 563.0; B, 516.0; C,471.1. For the spectrum of “benzine” they are: A, 563.2; B, 516.4; C, 471.2. Part II. con- tains: 1. Observations of Mars and comparison stars with the Egua- torial. 2. Measures of stars in the cluster in Perseus. 38. Photomet- 88 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. ric observations with a ZOLLNER’s Photometer; observations of com- ets, of bands on Jupiter, of a lunar eclipse, etc., and some photo- heliographic observations. Astrophysikalisches Institut, Potsdam. The buildings are well under way, and some of them are now oc- cupied. Besides the 5-inch StTemHerL Lefractor, one by GRuBB, of — 8 inches aperture, has been in use. The principal instrument of the institute, a ScHROEDER fefractor, of 11.7 inches aperture, is now fin- ished, except the mounting. Dr. Spoerer observed the sun on 229 days in 1877, and on 103 days it was free from spots. The protuberances were also observed. Dr. Vogel has investigated the spectrum of Nova Cygni, and, togeth- er with Dr. Miiller, has made photometric measures in the solar spec- trum. Mars and Jupiter have been studied by Dr. Lohse, who has also examined the structure of solar spots. Dr. Miiller has begun a series of photometric observations on the major planets. University Observatory, Stockholm. Dr. Huco GyLpEn, Director. A 7-inch Refractor (REPSOLD) has been mounted, as well as a Port- able Transit. The principal work of the observatory has been in computation of tables (now published) for general perturbations in comet orbits. University Observatory, Strasburg. Professor A. WINNECKE, Director. The Meridian Circle is not yet mounted, and so could not be used on Mars observations as was hoped. Physical observations of Mars were secured on 19 days. With the small Refractor (6-inch) on 48 nights 124 nebule were observed in connection with neighboring stars. Observations of six comets, of Nova Cygni, of double and variable stars, have been made with the Hqguatorial. The Transit Instrument has been employed by Dr. Schur, who has also observed 38 diame- ters of Mars, the diameter of the moon (during the total eclipses of February 27 and August 23), and a few double stars with the Heli- ometer. This instrument will next be employed in measures of the solar diameters; and this series it is intended to continue for a pe- riod of eleven years. Dr. Hartwig has already made measures of the polar diameter on 64 days, of the equatorial on 65 days, without detecting the slightest difference. The diameter of Ma7s has been measured 30 or more times, and that. of Venus on 21 days. ASTRONOMY. 89 University Observatory, Warsaw. Dr. I. Wostoxorr, Director. The instruments of this observatory are: Vertical Cirele, 3 feet di- ameter; Transit, 44 inches aperture; and a 6-inch Equatorial. Dr. Kowalczyk observed with the Meridian Circle stars of the zone —1° 50’ to —7° 10’, on the plan of the German Astronomical Society. Fifteen hundred observations have been made. Three determinations of the latitude have been made at this observatory : 1830-43, Meridian Circle, 52° 13’ 5.6”; 1846, Universal Instrument, 52° 13’ 5.7’; 1877, Vertical Circle, 52° 13’ 4.6”. Imperial Observatory, Vienna. _Dr. Palisa, with the 6-inch Fraunhofer, has observed asteroids and comets. Dr. Weiss has used the same instrument in observing suspected variable stars discovered by him. One of these stars is Ll. 28607, which varies from 7.0 to 8.8 magnitude in a period of four months. This star has proper motions of —0.08° and —0.35”. The neigh- boring star Ll. 28590 apparently has a proper motion of —0.2’’. Another adjacent star, Ll. 28590 (double), is slightly variable. Dr. Holetschek is observing, with the Meridian Cirele, the funda- mental stars of the Vienna zones, +15° and +18°. The new observatory buildings will probably be completed in 1878. The crown-glass of GruBB’s 27-inch Refractor is not fin- ished. The Cuarx 12-inch is not yet mounted. University Observatory, Zurich. Dr. R. Wo rr, Director. Sun-spots have been daily observed ; in 1877 on 307 days. Draw- ings of Mars, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, the moon,a few nebule, etc., have been made by Dr. Wolf: ADDENDUM. The report of the Dudley Observatory, which should have been inserted among those of other American observatories, has not been forwarded to the compiler, although, had time allowed, it would have been prepared by the Director, and inserted here. From data kindly furnished by the Director, the following abstract is given of one important paper; and it may be further mentioned that actual work has commenced on the zone undertaken by this observatory. In a paper on the Transit of Mercury, read before the Albany In- stitute, Professor Lewis Boss, the Director of the Dudley Observatory, 90 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. has discussed a large number of observations of contacts, and de- duced the corrections to the American Ephemeris and the British fautical Almanac, respectively. In the former, Leverrier’s old the- ory of Mercury is used; and in the latter, his later tables; and the importance of the comparison lies in the circumstance that these lat- ter include a term due to the supposed attraction of an intra-Mercu- rial planet. The mean corrections to the predicted times of contact resulting from the observations are as follows: Ss. Ss. Ist contact, 6 ob. corr. to Am. Eph. — 45.7 to N. A. — 4 ee oe 2d ie 15 — 61.8 os —20 8d ce Taf oe “ee — 194 4. ce ies ach fe 10 Be ne —141.7 2 —35 1 VEE pleut ai, 9 eae pee — 93.4 —49.25 Thus it appears that the later tables, with the term due to an intra- Mercurial planet, give a satisfactory representation of the fact. The apparent corrections to the Nautical Almanac range from —10* to —1: for first contact ; —382° to —10° for second contact ; —26° to —4° for third contact; and —41* to —24* for last contact. Taking simply the discordances from the mean in each case in the tables given by Mr. Boss, the mean error of an observation is 2° for first contact, 6° for second, and 5° each for third and fourth. Considering the small number of observations of first contact, we should not be far wrong in taking the mean error as about the same for all four contacts, and equal to 5°. Micrometrical measures of the diameter of Mercury during the transit gave 11.30’+0.14”, uncorrected for irradiation or possible expansion of the screw. This value would give 176.6° as the inter- val between external and internal contact. The observed interval was 172.4° between first and second, and 171.2* between third and fourth. ————— PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. By CLEVELAND ABBE, Or tur Army SIGNAL OFFICE. THE EARTH.* INTERNAL CONDITION. Professor H. Hennessy read before the British Association, at Dublin, an important paper on the Limits of the Hypoth- eses regarding the Properties of the Matter composing the Interior of the Earth. He maintains that the views long ago proposed by himself, in opposition to Hopkins, are those that now are coming to be generally accepted: that the mathe- matical investigations of Hopkins, Thomson, Darwin, ete., have little or no bearing upon the question, because these authors have assumed an incompressible homogeneous fluid nucleus to be surrounded by a solid elastic compressible shell; whereas we now know that the fluid nucleus is vastly more elastic than its rocky envelope—a reversal of conditions that entirely changes the problem. He finds evidence in the most recent writings of Thomson and Darwin of these more correct physical views. A comparison of the diverse views of modern scientists upon the condition of the interior of the earth is given by Dr. F. Toula, in a lecture published in Vienna. In a recent address, Sir G. B. Airy inferred from obserya- tions on internal temperature, and from the phenomena of hot springs and volcanoes, that “a large proportion of the interior of the earth is fluid and hot,” and that this is sur- rounded by a solid crust of varying thickness and density, traversed by cracks which afford opportunities for voleanoes to burst forth where the crust is thin. * Prepared with the assistance of Prof. C. G. Rockwood, of Princeton, N. J. 92 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. The report of the British Association Committee on Under- ground Temperature, by Professor Everett (ature, vol. Xvil, p. 476; American Journal of Science and Arts, IIL, XV1., p. 134), gives results of observations, on a very elaborate scale, at Schemnitz, in Hungary, and also in England and in India. The former series was undertaken in response to a request from the Secretary, in 1873, to the Imperial School of Forests and Mines at Schemnitz, and was carried out by Dr. Otto Schwartz. It consisted of observations in no less than thirty-eight galleries connected with six shafts of the mines. Comparisons were made between the temperature of the deepest gallery of each shaft and the assumed mean an- nual temperature of the ground at the shaft-mouth, and also between the deepest and the shallowest observation in each mine. The result of the former was an average increase of 1° C. for 41.4 meters, or 1° Fahr. for 75.5 feet; of the latter 1° C. for 39.8 meters, or 1° Fahr. for 72.5 feet. The mean of these two would be 1° Fahr. in 74 feet. The report brings out inci- dentally the important variations of rock temperature, which may arise from the decomposition of metallic sulphides—as pyrites, the disturbing effect of which needs to be guarded against. The English observations were made at Boldon Colliery, between Newcastle and Sunderland, in two holes bored upward to a distance of 10 feet from some of the deep- est seams. The results indicated, for the interval between the two holes, a rate of increase of 1° Fahr. in 87 feet; and for the whole depth from the surface a rate of 1° Fahr. in 49 feet. The Indian observations, published in the Records of the Ge- ological Survey of India, vol. x., part i1., were made in 1875, under very satisfactory conditions, in a bore 310 feet deep, at a place named Manegaon. The results indicate an average increase of 1° Fahr. for 68 feet. Professor Everett has suggested a method of observing temperature in filled-up bores by a sort of modified thermo- pile. Two wires of different metals—as iron and ecopper—hav- ing been joined at both ends and covered with gutta-percha, except at the junctions, were to be placed with one junction buried in the bore, and the other above ground. Then a gal- vanic current would be generated in the wire whenever the PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 93 two junctions were exposed to different temperatures; and by regulating the temperature of the outer junction until a galvanometer indicated no current, that of the buried junc- tion would be known. This is essentially the method em- ployed by Becquerel for many years past. (Nature, vol. XVill., p. 505.) | Sir William Thomson (Philosophical Magazine, May, 1878, p- 870) proposes several problems regarding the conduction of heat through rock, the principal of which is this: “A fire is lighted on a small portion of an uninterrupted plane boun- dary of a mass of rock, of the precise quality of that of Cal- ton Hill, and after burning a certain time, is removed, the whole plane area of rock being then freely exposed to the at- mosphere. It is required to determine the consequent con- duction of heat through the interior.” The mathematical discussion leads him to a series of conclusions which may be found stated at length in the American Journal of Science and Arts, III, xvi., p. 132. The temperatures in the St. Gothard Tunnel have been ac- curately observed by the engineers, and their observations discussed by Stapff and Hann. They, however, can give little or no reliable information as to the temperature of the earth in its interior, and the whole of our present knowledge on this subject is thoroughly unsatisfactory. Mr. William Morris, of Earl’s Hill Colliery, publishes an earnest remonstrance against accepting temperatures of the c¢round as observed in coal- mines, as having anything to do with the temperature of the earth at that depth. Such fig- ures, according to him, are wholly dependent on the ventila- tion of the mine. The temperatures of the spring-waters for two different springs in Tokio, Japan, are given, apparently by Knipping, in the last number of the Wittheilungen of the German-Asiatic Society for each month of the years 1873 to 1877, and from these he deduces a table for the correction to reduce any month to the mean of the year. These corrections he has then applied to observations of springs in other portions of Japan, from which he deduces the mean temperature for the year. The influence of artificial coverings and of shade upon the temperature and moisture of the soil form the subject of a 94 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. volume by C. Wolling, whose investigations of this subject are, we believe, almost the only ones at present accessible, and form a portion of his work “ On the Influence of Cover- ing, ete., etc., on the Fertility of the Soil,” Berlin, 1877. The temperature observations were taken at 8 A.M. and 5 P.M., at 6 A.M.,and 2 and 10 P.M., for three years at depths of one tenth of a meter, or about 4 inches. Wolling finds that during the warm season the ground that is shaded by plants or otherwise is colder than the fully exposed: the daily vari- ations are considerably less. In cold weather the snow-cov- ered earth is considerably warmer than the naked earth: its temperature changes are less decided. The earth freed from all stones larger than peas is in summer slightly cooler than that on which large stones are allowed to remain, but in win- ter is slightly warmer. The temperature changes are greater in the latter kind of earth, since at the time of the daily max- imum the temperatures are higher, and at the time of mini- mum are lower. Messrs. Ayrton and Perry communicate to the Philosoph- ical Magazine the results of an elaborate determination of the heat conductivity of stone. The methods of experiment occurred to them during the lectures of Sir William Thomson in Glasgow, in 1874, and admit of highly accurate results. The results bear directly on the accuracy of Fourier’s equa- tion for the flow of heat in solids of poor conductivity. The authors acknowledge their indebtedness to the Japanese stu- dents of the Tokio College of Engineering for assistance in their work. The distribution of heat in a homogeneous spherical shell, whose surfaces have a temperature varying with the time, has been studied as a mathematical problem in an inaugural dissertation by Dr. P. Langer, of Jena. He elucidates many details in a problem whose general solution has been already treated of by Fourier, Poisson, and Riemann, and a modifica- tion of it by Neumann. The temperature of the earth at St. Petersburg and Nukuss has been discussed in a memoir by Wild. The observations were made with an apparatus similar to that of Lamont. The observations at Nukuss were made by Dohrandt, with a sim- ilar apparatus, thrice daily for two years; and the tempera- tures close to the surface were also observed every two hours, PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 95 day and night, during eleven and a half months. These lat- ter observations are, so far as he knows, the only complete ones that have ever been made anywhere for the determina- tion of the daily period of the earth’s surface temperature. His discussion of the diurnal variation, with his numerous references to preceding works, constitutes a very important addition to our knowledge. The theory of Poisson gives a very crude approximation to the truth, on account of the dis- turbances introduced by rainfall, air currents, ete. By comparing his results for Nukuss with the observations at Melbourne, he finds that both the daily minimum in the temperature of the air and that for the surface of the earth occur almost simultaneously, namely about sunrise; but the maximum occurs in the earth sensibly earlier than in the air. According to the theory, however, the difference should be even greater than is found by observation, so that the maximum temperature on the upper surface of the earth should occur only a short time after midday. In order to reduce observations of the earth’s surface for diurnal varia- tion, a table of corrections is given for such combinations of hours as ordinarily occur. In discussing the annual varia- tion of temperature, he shows that the observations of the thermometer lying upon the earth’s surface are an important addition to the series, not only on account of their direct practical bearing on vegetation, but especially for their the- oretical bearings, as enabling us to determine the thermal constant. The irregular variations in the earth’s temperature could scarcely be determined from the five years of observation hitherto treated of; but a parallelism with the air tempera- ture is shown to exist. The absolute mean temperatures of the ground are for both places found to be very materially higher than the tempera- ture of the air. At 3 meters depth the temperature is at St. Petersburg so much higher than it is at the surface as to show the presence of a large disturbing cause, probably the water of the Neva. The next chapter of Wild’s work is an exhaustive collation, discussion, and criticism of all ob- servations of earth temperature made by twenty-two previ- ous observers, which is followed by recommendations as to the best method of determining earth temperatures. His 96 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. summary of his results is too long to be given here. We need only endorse his expression of the importance of obser- vations immediately above and below the earth’s surface, and of hourly observations at a number of stations in Amer- ica, as well as other parts of the world. In connection with the subject in the previous paragraph, we call attention to a novel application of our knowledge of earth temperatures, to be found in the recent report of the U.S. Entomological Commission, p. 431, where Mr. Abbe at- tempts to estimate beforehand the amount of heat received up to any given date by the eggs of the Rocky Mountain locust, which are usually deposited in a warm, dry, soft soil from 1 inch to $ an inch below the surface. In executing this work, which was published before receiving the above-men- tioned memoir of Wild, Mr. Abbe made a large collection of data relating to the diurnal variation of the earth’s tempera- tures, and by assuming a mean value appropriate to the dry soil of the West, has prepared a table of predicted dates, which agrees well with the observed dates of the hatching of the grasshoppers. VULCANOLOGY. Under the title of “ Vulcanologische Studien” (Wien, 1878) Dr. Edward Reyer has published a memoir in which he dis- cusses the nature of the materials which remain in a volean- ic vent after the eruptive action has ceased, and the features presented by those volcanic cones which are formed by the quiet outwelling of liquid lava. The same author in his “ Beitrige zur Physik der Eruption- en,” published in 1877, discussed the part which the demon- strated capacity of various substances in a state of igneous fusion for absorbing certain gases may have in accounting for many of the phenomena of volcanoes. A. H. Everett shows (Nature, xvii., p. 200) that the im- pression is erroneous which regards the island of Borneo as having for ages represented an area of entire quiescence, near- ly encircled by an active volcanic belt. Four recent earth- quakes in the island are noted—one in 1874 and three in 1876. And the existence of thermal springs, in association with ba- saltic rocks, and the frequent occurrence of igneous rocks are thought to indicate an outbreak of volcanic activity in com- paratively recent geologic ages, PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 97 Professor Doelter, of Gratz, has reported to the Vienna Academy of Sciences upon the extinct volcano Monte Ferru, in Sardinia, Professor F. W. Clarke discussed the alleged volcano at Bald Mountain, N.C., before the American Association for the Advancement of Science at St. Louis. The Rev. Samuel Haughton and Edward Hull delivered in 1875 a joint-report, but recently received by us, to the Royal Irish Academy on the chemical, mineralogical, and microscopical character of the lavas of Vesuvius from 1631 to 1868. Twenty specimens were examined chemically by Haughton, who shows that augite is always present in the maximum possible quantity ; second, that magnetite is pres- ent eleven times out of twenty in the minimum possible quantity; third, that leucite is present only once in the max- imum possible quantity ; fourth, the minerals always present are, 1st, felspathic—leucite, nepheline, or sodalite, anorthite ; 2d, hornblendic—augite, magnetite; fifth, the antagonistic minerals by examination afford some clue as to the process of formation of the lavas. Mr. Hull, in his microscopical ex- amination, particularly speaks of the beauty of the struct- ure revealed when we examine thin sections of these lavas. With polarized light the general field of view is converted into a dark groundwork, in which crystals of augite, horn- blende, mica, and olivine—now transmitting the richest tints of crimson, green, and bronze, which rival the ruby, the em- erald, and the topaz—are conspicuously set. SEISMOLOGY. Professor C. W. C. Fuchs has published his Statistical Ac- count of Eruptions and Earthquakes for 1877. He notes 5 volcanic eruptions and 109 earthquakes. The latter were distributed as follows: in the winter months, 33; in the spring months, 31; in summer, 11; and in autumn, 34, The notices of American Earthquakes, by Professor Rock- wood, are continued by a list of 54 shocks, in the American Journal of Science and Arts, IL., xv., p. 21. ~ An important historical paper upon Japanese Earthquakes was read before the Asiatic Society of Japan, by I. Z. Hattori, A.B. (Rutgers College), now of the University of Tokio. The author has collected from the native records notices of E ee 98 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. numerous shocks, of which 149, which he has classed as de- structive, were tabulated as follows: 1 in 5th century. 11 in 10th century. 15 in 15th century, a) AS oat hP eo <* de ben)’ vit oO". 6th st (fan Ff Le aeth yf 15 °°. 17th % 7S See Y fee Pa % 13 °° 18th “f 28 °° 9th. cheagee 2) aiid 1 Pike bs 1 la Also, taking the 11th, 12th, and 1st months of the Japanese old calendar as cold months, the 5th, 6th, and 7th as hot, and all the others as mild, he finds during the fifteen centuries 28 great earthquakes in the cold months, 47 in the hot, and 72 in the mild; or 75 in the extreme seasons, and 72 in the mild seasons, the difference being only three. He describes an an- cient Chinese seismograph, invented by Choko in 132 A.D., whose indications were recorded by an officer of the govern- ment. The Observatory of the University at Tokio is now provided with a Palmieri’s instrument, with which the shocks now oc- curring are recorded. Considerable attention has been given this year to the earthquakes and volcanoes of Japan. The memoir by Hat- tori, just referred to, was read March 23, and is published in full in the Zansactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. vi., p. 249. It was followed by interesting remarks by Professors Veeder and Ayrton, Hon. Dr. Murray, ete. Profess- or Ayrton stated that he found in Mr. Hattori’s data evidence of periodicity in the destructiveness of the earthquakes. This paper was followed on May 11 by one by Mr. George Cawley on Constructions in Wood and Stone and their Relative Suit- ability for an Earthquake Country like Japan. His conclu- sions are in favor of properly proportioned brick and stone buildings, and against the customary wooden Japanese struct- ures: however he would not give the building a rigid foun- dation. Professors Ayrton and Perry suggest a yielding, elastic foundation, such as wooden beams or other buffers. On page 320 of the same volume of Transactions Pro- fessor Ayrton gives an additional note on the periodicity of earthquakes in Japan, as deduced by him by combining Hat- tori’s and Naumann’s chronological lists into one. These lists agree very closely together. The latter gentleman has spent a yast amount of labor upon the subject for many years, PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 99 and published a very valuable memoir in the Mittheilungen of the German Asiatic Society of Yokohama, which was read some weeks before the paper of Hattori’s. On the 27th of April, Mr. D. H. Marshall read a memoir on Some of the Volcanic Mountains in Japan, abounding in cu- rious and important facts. On the 23d of June, W.S. Chaplin read an Examination of the Earthquakes Recorded at the Meteorological Observa- tory, Tokiy6 (Tokio), in which he compares the records since July, 1875, with the positions of the sun and moon, and finds nothing to confirm Professor Perry’s results. There is no special increase of earthquakes at new or full moon, or at perigee or apogee, at time of meridian transit, ete. The fifteenth number of the MWittheilungen of the German Society at Yokohama, for the Natural History and Ethnology of Asia contains the elaborate paper by Dr. Naumann on the Karthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions of Japan, which was read before the Society on the 16th of February, and is quite inde- pendent of the paper by I. Z. Hattori on Destructive Earth- quakes, read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on the 23d of March. Dr. Naumann’s paper is the result of a well-nigh exhaustive examination of Japanese literature, of which he enumerates the titles of thirty-three Japanese works espe- cially devoted to this subject. He has, of course, carefully converted Japanese dates into the Gregorian calendar. In- asmuch as earthquakes of every grade of severity are no- ticed, he has, in order to a proper discussion of them, first enumerated in detail about two hundred of the more re- markable cases; then follow especial accounts of the earth- quakes of 1847, 1854, and 1855, accompanying which are elaborate maps. He recounts the phenomena which precede or accompany earthquakes, but which do not appear to us to always have any intimate connection therewith. Special chapters are then given on regions of special earthquake activity, begin- ning with the volcanoes of Asamayama, with its lava stream forty miles long, and Fujiyama, following which come the islands of the Idzu Sea and the eruption of the voleano Un- sengatake in 1791. Dr. Naumann then discusses the relations of the Japancse earthquakes and volcanoes to the geological formations of 100 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. Eastern Asia, and with reference to their chronological pe- riodicity. In the latter chapter he distinguishes nine de- grees of severity, from the slightest shock to the severest shock accompanied with tidal waves. He finds groups of earthquakes following each other at intervals of 6 and 11 years, with possibly others of 24 or 25 years. He also finds considerable analogy between groups that occurred in the 9th century and those of the 19th century. With some cer- tainty, he says, we may conclude that after a period of 490 years, there occurs a considerable increase in the frequency of earthquakes, with some indications of a 980-year cycle. He endeavors to compare his record with Falb’s theory of the connection between earthquakes and the attraction of the sun and moon, by taking advantage of the fact that the Japanese use a lunar year in their chronology, and concludes that the occurrence of an earthquake must depend upon the position of the moon. The connection between earthquakes and sun-spots he does not clearly make out; but in reference to the connection between showers of shooting-stars and the frequency of earthquakes, he gives very many coincidences, and claims an agreement of eighty per cent. In the course of this discussion he enumerates several showers of meteors from Japanese records, which are probably new to English readers, as also several miscellaneous phenomena, as comets, ete. Possibly, however, he does not sufficiently estimate the importance of the fact that meteors and earthquakes are of such frequent occurrence that their coincidences are easy to find and have but little significance. As a contribution of facts, however, Dr. Naumann’s memoir cannot be too highly estimated. Numerous smaller articles of interest have ap- peared during the year in the papers published in Japan. Dr. Wagener gives, in the same number of the Wittheilun- gen, and following Dr. Naumann’s memoir, a short article on the Measurements to be made on the Occasion of Earthquakes, and describes a proposed new apparatus which shall auto- matically register every shock—both its time, intensity, and direction. This apparatus differs, he claims, from others in the following points: first, the shocks are not made visible by the difference in motion of two bodies, both of which are exposed to its influence; but one part of the apparatus is al- most entirely free from the effect of the shock, while the oth- PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 101 er part executes movements similar to that of the earth; sec- ond, no shock can occur without being immediately and per- manently recorded; third, the apparatus measures directly the amplitude of the shocks, and shows them on an enlarged scale. In the Canadian Naturalist (viii.,6), Principal Dawson gives a short account of the earthquake of November 4, 1877. In Nature, vol. xviii., p. 265, is printed a list, communicated by Dr. Meyer, of 41 earthquakes which occurred in the Phi- lippine Islands in 1876, distributed as follows on the several islands: Luzon, 33; Mindoro, 1; Masbate,2; Leyte, 1; Min- danao, 4. The first volume of the Annals of the Mexican Depart- ment of the Interior contains articles on the National Observ- atories, Astronomical and Meteorological, at Chapultepec, and a lengthy report of the Commission appointed to investigate the Earthquakes of Jalisco and the Eruptions of Ceboruco. A catalogue of earthquakes, a list of altitudes, and other im- portant data accompany the report; and a further detailed topographical map is promised. Under the title of “ Das Erdbeben von Herzogenrath am 24 Juni, 1877” (Bonn, 1878), Dr. A. von Lasaulx has discussed the phenomena of the earthquake of that date, reaching the con- clusions that the centre of disturbance was at the depth of 16.85 English miles, and that the velocity of propagation was 17.7 miles per minute, the general direction being southwest and northeast. In the Jahrbuch Vienna K. K. Geolog. Anstalt., 1878, p. 467, Hans Hofer reviews the works of Lasaulx on the “ Earthquakes at Herzogenrath in 1873 and 1877.” He maintains, with abili- ty, that neither was a central shock, therefore Lasaulx’s results as to depth and velocity are not trustworthy ; also that both followed certain faults in the geological strata, and that the study of the faults and dikes are of first importance in un- ravelling the phenomena. M. Ph. Plantamour, in Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles (Geneva), and M. F. A. Forel elsewhere, prove that the phenomena known as Sezches, and consisting of occasional rhythmical movements in the level of a lake ( Nature, vol. XVill., p. 100), have no connection whatever with seismic dis- turbances of its bed. During several earthquakes felt recent- 102 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. ly at Lake Geneva, not the least movement of the surface was shown by the recording instruments, which are sufticiently delicate to show a change of one millimeter in the level of the lake, and which will show the waves originated by a steamer passing at a distance of ten or fifteen kilometers. The explanation suggested for this fact is, that the phenome- non called Seiches is a wave of stationary oscillation, having a certain vibration-period, and susceptible therefore of being started only by certain movements of the earth which syn- chronize with it (Vatwre, vol. xvil., pp. 234, 281,475). M.de Rossi notes a similar fact in regard to the pendulum seismo- eraph, which is sometimes strangely unaffected by quite sen- sible shocks; the action appearing to depend upon a relation between the length of the pendulum and the rapidity of the earth vibrations. General H. L. Abbott describes (American Journal of Sci- ence and Arts, III., xv., p. 178) some further experiments at Willet’s Point, N.Y. harbor,to determine the velocity of trans- mission of earth-waves generated by explosions of dynamite. The velocities indicated vary from 5000 feet to nearly 9000 feet per second, being thus largely in excess of those hereto- fore found by Mallet. General Abbott reaches also the fol- lowing general conclusions: first, a high magnifying power of telescope is essential in seismometric observations; second, the more violent the initial shock the higher is the rate of trans- mission; third, this velocity diminishes as the general wave advances; fourth, the movements of the earth’s crust are complex, consisting of many short waves, first increasing and then decreasing in amplitude; and, with a detonating explo- sive, the interval between the first wave and the maximum wave at any station is shorter than with a slow-burning ex- plosive. General Abbott then considers Mallet’s objections to his former paper. Mallet’s severe reply to ¢hzs paper is published in the Philosophical Magazine, May, 1878. J. Mansini describes in La Nature, 1878, p. 256, a curious apparatus designed by him for observing and recording the vertical component of earthquake shocks. NOTABLE EARTHQUAKES AND ERUPTIONS. On November 4, 1877, about 1h. 50m. A.M., Montreal time, a rather severe earthquake was felt throughout a large part PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 103 of Canada, New York, and New England. It appears to have been most severe in the Adirondack and Green Moun- tain regions, where the vibration was sufficient to do some slight damage. From this centre the tremors were felt through the valley of the Ottawa and the St. Lawrence, from Lake Ontario to Three Rivers, through Central New York as far west as Geneva, and southeastward through New Eng- land to the sea-coast. The direction of the shock was from west to east (Monthly Weather [eview, November, 1877; American Journal of Science and Arts, IL, xv., p. 21; Ca- nadian Naturalist, vol. viii., No. 6). On November 15, 1877, about 11 45 A.M., Omaha time, several shocks of earthquake were felt throughout the whole of Iowa and Nebraska, extending also into Kansas and Mis- sourl on the south, and into Dakota and Minnesota on the north, the reports coming mostly from points on the Union Pacific Railroad. About 2 45 A.M. of the next day, a shock from west to east was felt in Tennessee and North Carolina (Monthly Weather Review, November, 1877; American Jour- nal of Science and Arts, IIL, xv., p. 21). On January 23, 1878, at 755 P.M., a severe earthquake was felt at Iquique, Peru, the influence of which extended to Arica, and other places along the coast and in the inte- rior. It did some slight damage, but was not so destructive as the one of May 9, 1877, not being attended by any tidal wave. A few days later, however, on January 27, the harbor of Callao was visited by a destructive tidal wave, which did much damage to the sea-wall and inundated the railroad station. The disturbance appeared to come from the north, and did not entirely subside for several days. Nearly simultaneous with these disturbances in South America, a series of shocks were felt in Western Europe. On January 27, shocks were reported from Upper Styria, and about noon on January 28, several shocks were experienced in Southern England and Northern France, being most severe in the Channel Islands. On February 27, 1878, at 5 P.M., shocks of earthquake were felt at Reykjavik and other places in the southwestern part of Iceland; and at 8 P.M. an eruption of flames and lava began on the northern side of Mt. Hekla. On subsequent ee 104 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. examination, the new openings, fourteen in number, were found to be in the Raudaskal valley, about four miles north- east of Hekla. Here there had occurred a considerable out- flow of lava, which still continued to pour forth a month after the first outbreak. The locality is described by Mr. G. F. todwell, who visited it on August 12, at which time the new crater and the ejected lava were still giving off vapors. The deposit of new lava is from 10 to 100 feet in thickness, and, as mapped, it covers an irregular area of about 2} Danish miles in length by about half a mile wide. The principal one of the new craters was 90 feet in depth and about 100 feet in circumference. The fact is also noted that Mt. Hekla is not a conical peak with a single crater, like Etna or Vesu- vius, but rather an elevated volcanic rift with several open- ings, and that the new openings are ranged along a prolon- gation of the line thus marked (ature, vol. xviil., pp. 596, 641). On the evening of April 12, 1878, a severe earthquake de- stroyed the town of Cua, on the river Tuy, about 26 English miles southwest of Caracas, in Venezuela. The town was the centre of a flourishing agricultural district, and had about 3000 inhabitants. The shock occurred some minutes before a quarter to nine, being felt at Caracas at 8h. 41m. 34s., and in a few seconds all the centre of Cua, which was built on a small hill about 20 meters over the lower part, was in ruins. Only this upper part, about one square mile in extent, was destroyed, the lower part suffering but little. The centre of disturbance cannot have been very deep, as the destruction was so limited, although the transverse wave was felt 100 miles distant. The shocks continued for several days, but without further damage. About 300 persons were killed, and the loss of property was £300,000. The direction of the shock was from E.N.E, (ature, vol. xviii., p. 130). On August 26, 1878, earthquake shocks were felt about 9 and 11 A.M. in Belgium, Holland, and Rhenish Prussia; ob- served with especial care at Cologne. On October 2, 1878, at 6 P.M., a severe earthquake oc- curred at the village of Jucuapa, and at many other towns in the southern portion of the Republie¢ of Salvador, in Central America, attended by great loss of life and property. The neighboring volcanoes of Izalco and Santa Ana were ac- ¥ Anas A 7 a 3% ohm cacti enema ilies ie omnes = — PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 105 tive; and Cotopaxi, in Equador, was in eruption at the same time. On October 4, 1878, at 2 30 A.M.,a shock sufficient to move furniture was felt in the valley of the Hudson River. Observations by Professor Palmieri and others during Sep- tember and October, 1878, indicate an approaching eruption of Vesuvius; but it progresses slowly, and, though ejecting flames and lava, had, up to December 1, done little damage. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. John Allan Broun has compared the curves representing the mean ranges of the diurnal oscillations of the magnetic needle for the last three minimum epochs, viz., 1856, 1866, and 1876, showing that in the first of these the minimum is strongly marked, in the second not so clearly, while in the last the minimum period extends over more than two years; and inferring therefrom that we are now passing through a long minimum period similar to that which occurred at the close of the last century (ature, vol. xvii., pp. 188, 259, 280). Both Mr. Broun and Balfour Stewart have compared the cycles of declination ranges, and of sun-spots, and confirm the generally received opinion of a close accordance; the latter, however, finding, with the same length of period, a lagging of the magnetic epoch behind that of the sun-spots, amounting in one case to five months. They agree in attributing the two sets of phenomena to a common cause (Nature, vol. xvii, pp. 262, 326). The same subject is dis- cussed by Joas Capello (Wature, vol. xvii., p. 488), and by M. Faye in the Annuaire of the Bureau of Longitudes for 1878; the latter finding in the sun’s heat a cause for the phenomena. Mr. Broun discusses M. Faye’s paper, mentioned above, giving reasons for opposing his view that the diurnal oscil- lations of the needle are caused by solar heat; urging es- pecially that there is no evidence of any decennial change in the solar heat which bears to the whole amount any such proportion as the decennial magnetic variation bears to its whole amount (ature, vol. xviii., p. 126). Mr. Broun also shows that the moon produces a variation in the earth’s magnetism such that the needle makes two E 2 106 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. complete and nearly equal oscillations—from an easterly to a westerly position—in a lunar day of 24.7 hours; that this ac- tion of the moon is dependent on the earth’s position in its orbit, and on the position of the moon relative to sunrise and sunset; and that this lunar action is sometimes greater than the solar action at the magnetic equator. In a lecture at the Royal Geographical Society, Capt. F. J. Evans treated of the secular changes in the earth’s mag- netism, especially in the variation and dip, drawing from them the conclusion that the changes are not sufficiently uniform over the whole globe to be attributed to cosmical action, but are rather to be attributed to movements in the interior of the earth (Nature, vol. xviii., p. 80). A new magnetic observatory has been established at Pav- lovsk, in connection with the Central Physical Observatory at St. Petersburg. It comprises three buildings for scientif- ic purposes, and the necessary dwellings for the staff em- ployed. It is furnished with the most improved scientific instruments, and special care has been taken to avoid the presence of any iron in the buildings devoted to magnetic observations (Wature, vol. xviil., p. 316). It was inaugurated on July 21,1878. On May 14, 1878, a magnetic storm was recorded simul- taneously by the instruments at Stonyhurst and at Green- wich, England; at Melbourne, Australia; at Shanghai (Z1- ka-wei), China; and at Toronto, Canada, where the instru- ments were affected a few minutes earlier than in Europe. The character of the movements of the needle was the same at each station. The magnetic disturbance was strongly felt by telegraph lines in England, America, India, and Persia (Nature, vol. xviii., pp. 617, 641, 668; vol. xix., p. 220). William Leroy Broun describes a new lecture experiment, to show the action of terrestrial magnetism. © PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 107 to west on the northern side, and from west to east on the southern side, the north side would be attracted, and the south side repelled by the earth currents, both influences combining to deflect the beam of the balance. On revers- ing the current the deflection was in the opposite direction (Nature, vol. xvii., p. 281). The annual report of the United States Coast Survey for 1874-75 contains in its numerous appendices some highly important contributions to terrestrial physics. Among these we especially note the voluminous report of C. A. Schott on the Secular Change of Magnetic Declination in the United States and North America. This change, although well represented by the so-called circular functions, yet need not be of a periodic nature. The circular function merely represents the phenomena ebserved during the past few centuries, and nothing should be inferred as to the future course, or as to the true cause, of the observed changes. Forty-three stations are available to Mr. Schott in the study of the magnetic declinations. A cursory examination shows that the needle became stationary and then reversed its sec- ular motion in the New England States towards the end of the past century, in the Atlantic coast States to the west and south early in the present, and in Mexico about the close of the first third of the present century. In California, Oregon, and Washington Territory it has not yet reached its stationary point. Another important memoir by Schott gives the results of ‘the discussion of the photographic-magnetic record at Key West, 1860-1866. After considering “the normal monthly averages, Schott takes the hourly and monthly means of all the disturbances by which he understands all those individ- ual readings that are rejected by “ Peirce’s Criterion.” The easterly disturbances exceed the westerly in every year but two. The evidence of a connection of some kind between the amplitude of the daily variation and the sun-spots is quite strong. At the meeting, at Cassel, of the German Naturforscher Gesellschaft, the following papers were read: Dr. Fromme on Some New Magnetic Phenomena; Dr. Schering on a New Method of Employing the Induction of the Earth for the Determination of the Magnetic Inclination. 108 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. Professor Nipher has prosecuted the magnetic survey of Missouri during his summer vacation, A very complete catalogue of papers and books on elec- tricity and magnetism (being the catalogue of the late Sir Francis Ronalds) i is being published by the Society of Tele- graph Engineers, The magnetic observations made by Secchi at Rome, in 1877, are published in full in the Met. Italiana. They were made eight times by day throughout the year, and embrace observations of the declinometer, and both horizontal and vertical force. Sir Edward Sabine’s fifteenth and last contribution to ter- restrial magnetism, although presented to the Royal Society in 1876, has but lately come to hand, and completes his mag- netic survey of the globe. The present number (XYV.) em- braces four zones, each ten degrees in breadth, from the equator to forty degrees south latitude, and gives for each zone the magnetic declination, inclination, and force, both in tabular form and upon charts, the mean epoch being from 1840-45, A table is also appended as in the preceding Memoirs, giving a comparison between Sabine’s collection of observed data and the theory and tables of Gauss and Weber. The Comparative Study of Observations on the Magnetic Needle and on Solar Spots forms a memoir, by Spee, in the Bulletin of the Belgian Academy. The author infers a very intimate connection between these phenomena. Balfour Stewart has communicated to the Royal Society a memoir on the Variations of the Diurnal Range of the Magnetic Declination, as recorded at the Prague Observa- tory since July, 1839. He finds a persistent agreement be- tween the times of sun-spot maximum and the variations of the magnetic needle. On the Decennial Period in the Mean Amplitude of the Di- urnal Oscillation and Disturbance of the Magnetic Needle and of the Sun-spot Area, an abstract of a paper by J. A. Broun is published in the "Proceedings of the Royal Society Edinburgh. In this paper, the author determines the epochs of maximum and minimum range of the diurnal oscillations of the magnetic needle. The author concludes that the in- crease of the diurnal variation is not due to a different cause PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 109 from that which produces the variation itself, and that this cause acts, when there are no sun-spots, in the same way as, though with less intensity than, when the spots have their maximum frequency and area; therefore the magnetic vari- ations are not due to the sun-spots, although there is a gen- eral agreement in their respective changes. No theory which has yet been suggested connecting the two phenomena seems to him to be satisfactory. De Parville presents to the French Academy of Sciences a very novel application of the telephone, by means of which he proposes to determine the direction of the magnet- ic meridian. He states that when in the ordinary telephone we replace the short bar magnet by a rod of soft iron, at least one meter long, the apparatus still transmits the sounds, but with an intensity which varies according to the orienta- tion of the rod. The maximum intensity of the sound which is transmitted to the receiver corresponds to the orientation of the transmitter in the direction of the magnetic needle. The sound is heard more or less completely, when the tele- phone is placed in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic me- ridian, By a proper apparatus, he is thus able to determine the variations of magnetic intensity at different azimuths. Capt. F. J. Evans read before the Geographical Associa- tion of London, in March, a discourse on Terrestrial Mag- netism and its Secular Variations. After fully recounting the history of the progress of our knowledge, and the the- ories of Halley, Hansteen, Gauss, Sabine, etc., he explained some of the results of the magnetic observations of the Challenger Expedition; and showed the necessity of remod- elling our views, or rather of continuing our search for the ultimate explanation of terrestrial magnetism. The evi- dences of change in the total intensity of magnetic force are very slight, and point to a sensible constancy in the north- ern hemisphere; but in the southern hemisphere such pro- gressive change is just now going on very rapidly. The Challenger observations show that at Valparaiso the total intensity has in fifty years diminished one sixth; in Mon- tevideo, one seventh; in the Falkland Islands, one ninth; in Bahia and Ascension, one ninth. The area of diminish- ing force extends from Tahiti to St. Helena, and from the Equator to the Cape of Good Hope. 110 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. J. Asmus gives, in the Annalen fiir Hydrographie, pp. 285 and 333, a review of various methods of graphically pre- senting the deviations of ships’ compasses. In reference to the subject of earth currents, possibly some light may be thrown by the observations that have been made upon them by underground telegraph lines, on the oc- casion of the longitude determinations between Berlin and Altona, a preliminary account of which is published by Al- brecht in the Astronomische Nachrichten. The special object of the investigation was to determine the nature of the curve which indicated the intensity of the galvanic current on tele- graph lines of different lengths, both above and below the earth. It is found that the increase of intensity was decid- edly less for lines below than for those above the surface. Professors Ayrton and Perry, of the College of Engineer- ing, Tokio, Japan, communicate to the Philosophical Magazine a short note, proposing the hypothesis that the phenomena of earth currents, terrestrial magnetism, and atmospheric electricity are due to the fact that the earth is an electrified condenser, whose capacity or potential is continually changing on account of its rotation and its annual orbital motion, the successive cooling and warming of the air, the formation of clouds and rain, ete., ete. These changes produce electric currents tending always to restore the equilibrium, whence follow the phenomena in question. They suggest that ob- servations of atmospheric electricity may be used to predict atmospheric changes. An important memoir by Edlund upon Atmospheric Elec- tricity and the Aurora is published in the 7ransactions of the Stockholm Academy, and translated in the Philosophical Mag- azine. Edlund first shows that “unipolar induction” is fully explained by his theory that the galvanic current consists in the translatory motion of a fluid going in the positive di- rection, or of two fluids following opposite directions. The latest confirmation of this theory is the experiments of Lem- strom. Edlund then proceeds to apply these views to the earth, whose lower atmosphere is a poor conductor lying be- tween two good conductors, viz., the rotating solid and liquid elobe and the external thin inter-planetary gas. Regarding the solid nucleus as a magnet, whose axis makes a certain angle with the terrestrial axis of rotation, and whose atmos- | 7 5 ; K : 3 PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 111 phere and oceans are in motion, we have at once the phenom- ena of unipolar induction; and he then deduces the distribu- tion of atmospheric electricity, terrestrial magnetism, auroral display, etc., etc.,in minute agreement with actual observa- tions. An excellent abstract of this paper is given in the Zeitschrift fiir Meteorologie. 8. Tolver Preston communicates to the Popular Science Review for January a popular article on the same subject— z. é., the inductive effect produced by the rotation of a magnet on its axis—and incidentally suggests that the motion of the tides may cause an electric disturbance. A memoir by K.8. Lemstrom on the Causes of the Earth’s Magnetic Condition is published as an academic disquisition by the University of Helsingfors. The work is divided into five chapters: first, the observed magnetic condition from the earliest dates to the present time; second, the theories of Kuler, Gauss, and Hansteen; third, an attempt at explanation by means of a new theory of his own; fourth, experimental data tending to establish this theory; and, fifth, further con- clusions from the results which he has deduced. An imper- fect acquaintance with the Swedish language forbids our say- ing more than that Dr. Lemstrom appears to have attempted to apply Professor Edlund’s views to the electric induction of a rotating earth, and to have deduced a number of gen- eral results agreeing closely with observed phenomena. The determination of the force of gravity by observations of the pendulum having attained great exactness by the use of the Bessel-Repsold symmetrical reversion pendulum, it has become important to investigate small sources of error that had previously escaped attention, and the last volume of the Proceedings of the fifth General Conference of the Interna- tional European Geodetic Commission contains important pa- pers by C.5S. Pierce, Celloria, Oppolzer, and Plantamour on the corrections necessary on account of the vibrations of the sup- ports upon which the pendulum rests. The general tendency of these vibrations is to give the length of the seconds pen- dulum too short, by a quantity that may amount to a con- siderable fraction of a millimeter. 112 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. THE OCEAN.* DEPTH. Under the direction of Dr. Patterson, Superintendent of the U.S. Coast Survey, the work of deep-sea soundings, the ob- servations for serial temperatures from surface to bottom, current observations, and deep-sea dredgings in the Gulf of Mexico and the Yucatan and Florida channels have been continued this year by the steamer blake, Lieutenant-Com- mander C. D., Sigsbee, U.S.N., Assistant Coast Survey, com- manding, associated with Professor Alexander Agassiz, who directed the dredgings. The apparatus for deep-sea sound- ings with wire, and for securing bottom and water specimens, have been brought to a high state of perfection by Com- mander Sigsbee; and such improvements have been made in the dredges and trawls as to insure success, where all previ- ous efforts have failed, notably when dredging in soft muddy bottoms. The formation of the bottom of the Gulf of Mexico has been completely mapped out. Serial temperatures, with specimens of the bottom, and of water from various depths from surface to bottom, have been obtained in all parts of the Gulf and of its immediate approaches, thus adding enor- mously to the data for solving the problem of its circulation, with those of the entrance and exit of the Gulf Stream. The greatest depth found was 2080 fathoms. The name of Sigs- bee Deep has been given to a large basin to the northward and westward of the Yucatan Bank, lying within the 2000- fathom curve, and extending from lat. 22° 30’ to lat. 25° N., and from long. 90° to long. 95° W. The increase of depth is very abrupt on the slope of the Yucatan Bank, but much more gradual towards the coasts of the United States and of Mexico. During the months of December, 1877, and January and February, 1878, a line of deep-sea soundings was run by the U.S. steamer Assex, Commander W. Scott Schley commanding, between St. Paul de Loando, Africa, and Cape Frio, Brazil, via St. Helena, and passing just to the southward of Trinidad Island. The soundings were made with wire, using Captain *Prepared with the assistance of Commander KE. P. Lull, U.S.N. — os PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 115 Belknap’s modification of the Thompson machine, with Bel- knap’s detaching rods and specimen cups, and the Miller- Casella deep-sea thermometer for temperatures. This line furnishes an admirable cross-section of the South Atlantic, defining the limits of the two great longitudinal deep chan- nels, and of the bank or ridge between them, on which latter are located the islands of Tristan d’Acunha, St. Helena, and Ascension. The soundings were taken, as a rule, about 100 miles apart. After leaving the coast of Africa, the depths increased. very rapidly, 900 fathoms being reached within 60 miles of the initial point; 2200 fathoms were reached in lat. 9° 40’ 8. and long. 10° 36’ E.; 2581 fathoms in lat. 10° 12'S. and long. 8° 57’ E.; 3000 fathoms in lat. 11° 20’ S., long. 5° 34’ E., 700 miles from St. Paul. The greatest depth found in the Eastern Channel was 3063 fathoms. The 3000-fathom curve on the western side of the channel was passed in lat. 13° 30’ S., long. 10° W. Thence the depths gradually decreased until within 7 miles of the Sugar Loaf, St. Helena, where the depth was 2091 fathoms. Within the same distance to the westward of St. Helena the depths were scarcely less great, showing the remarkable fact that the island is the head of a pinnacle standing in 2000 fathoms of water. Continuing, a depth of 2333 fathoms was found in lat. 16° 52’S., long. 9° 53’ W.; thence a gradual diminution, until in lat. 17° 57’ S., long. 15° 17' W., a depth of but 1365 fathoms was found. ‘This point is probably not far from the crest of the divide above spoken of, between the two chan- nels, or, as they might better be described, the two great submarine valleys. It is to be regretted that the soundings in this vicinity had not been taken much nearer together, as a less depth might have been discovered. Sir George Nares, who ran, in the Challenger, a line along the crest of the ridge approximately, found at a point 90 miles to the northward and eastward of this a depth of 1415 fathoms. Proceeding, the depths increased rapidly from the last sound- ing: 2000 fathoms were reached in lat. 18° 15’S., long. 16° 59’ W., 100 miles from St. Helena; 2652 fathoms in lat. 18° 48'S., long. 19° 21’ W.; 3284 fathoms, the greatest depth found in the Western Channel, in lat. 19° 55’ S., long. 24° 50’ W. The 2500-fathom curve on the western slope of the channel was passed in lat. 21° 10’ 8., long. 32° W.; the 2000- 114 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. fathom curve in lat. 22°10'S., long. 87° 20’ W., after which the depth rapidly diminished to 50 fathoms at a distance of 70 miles from Cape Frio. The opening address at Dublin, by Sir Wyville Thomson, President of the Section of Geography, after recounting in detail the numerous voyages made for the purpose of inves- tigating ocean depths, currents, and temperatures, proceeds to give a review of his own most recent results with refer- ence to the general circulation of the ocean. K. Mobius, in the Deutsche Revue, gives a comprehensive summary of the principal results of the latest investigations into the ocean and its life. The first European who, by a drag-net, brought up animals from the depths of the sea was Otto F. Miller, of Denmark, 1788, and earlier. Since his day the oceanic investigations have extended so as to embrace the depth and topography, the bottom formations, the salts and gases contained in the water, the temperatures, the cur- rents, and the living organisms. Of the results of investiga- tions in these departments Mébius gives a short review. DENSITY. Negretti and Zambra have contrived a new deep-sea ther- mometer, described and figured in Wature. 'To a cylindrical bulb containing mercury a tube is fitted, which is contorted and constricted near the bulb, and is enlarged at the remote end, from which end it is graduated. When the bulb is held downward, the mercury expands as usual, but when it is re- versed, the column breaks at the narrowed portion of the tube, flows to the other end of this, and is there read. Hence, if the thermometer be lowered with the bulb downward, and reversed on attaining the desired depth, the reading on com- ing to the surface will represent the temperature at the time of reversal. To prevent the errors caused by pressure, it is enclosed in a glass sheath. A very remarkable series of papers, by C. Schmidt, of Dor- pat, on hydrology, is being published by the St. Petersburg Academy. In the latest numbers are given many notes on the waters of American lakes, and a general summary of all known observations on density, etc., of oceanic waters. Lake Baikal and other European seas afford interesting re- sults. , dl ; 2 . , a >. . - PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 115 CURRENTS. In the Canadian Naturalist, H. Y. Hind publishes a thought- ful article on the Mechanical Effect of Arctic Ice in pr oducing Ocean Currents. The Labrador and Gulf Stream Currents and their Effects on American Fisheries are treated of in two memoirs by H. Y. Hind, published by the Fishery Commission at Halifax. Dr. O. Krummel, in his Inaugural Dissertation at Gétten- gen, gives an analysis of our knowledge of the equatorial currents of the Atlantic Ocean, and an examination into the fundamental causes of the general oceanic circulation. Ina note he calls attention to Aimé’s Submarine Current Indica- tor, described in Ann. de Chemie, IIL, xiii., 1845, p. 461. His criticisms of most modern writers are very fair, although his conclusions seem to fall short of that which we are, perhaps, able to maintain with some certainty. Hesays: “The exist- ence of a vertical circulation is undeniable, but the ascend- ing current cannot alone account for the strong westerly equatorial current. Temperature differences do not suftice to explain the vertical circulation without taking account of the terrestrial centrifugal force. Two ascending currents, with the compensating Guinea current between them, suftice to explain the three equatorial currents of the Atlantic.” This work is evidently well worthy of study by those spe- cially devoted to this subject. Zoppritz contributes to the Annalen and to the Philosoph- ical Magazine a very important memoir on Hydrodynamic Problems in reference to the Theory of Ocean Currents. He has, namely, attempted to solve the analytical equation for the motion of a liquid ocean whose particles move over each other with appreciable friction—that is to say, if the wind blows steadily over the ocean, and the surface layer of water fol- lows the lowest layer of air, what will be the resulting move- ments in the lower strata of water? The influence of the steady trade-wind must, he finds, extend to the bottom of the sea. By introducing Meyer’s known value of the coefficient of friction for sea-water, he finds, for instance, that if the par- ticles of the surface of the ocean begin to move forward with a constant velocity, in 239 years the stratum at a depth of 100 meters will be found moving with one half the surface 116 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. velocity ; but at 10 meters depth the velocity will be the same in 2.39 years. Periodic changes in velocity are propagated very slowly. He shows that two layers moving in opposite directions can be sensibly in contact with each other without material disturbance. The mean motion of the sea as exist- ing 10,000 years ago would to this day be the controlling factor in the present movements of the ocean. In the Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 2226, Gyldén pub- lishes a first paper on the Rotation of a Solid Body whose Sur- face is covered with a Fluid. He remarks that to definitely solve this problem we must have given the form of the solid and the quantity of the fluid. In the case of the earth we know not these data, although we can make approximate as- sumptions. After enumerating some of the uncertainties that surround the problem, and indicating the extreme limits of our knowledge and ignorance, Gyldén proceeds to develop the mechanical formule in the most general case practicable, assuming the only external force to be the mutual friction of water and earth. An interesting paper on the Drifting Power of Tidal Cur- rents appears in the last number which we have received of the Royal Irish Academy (January, 1876). The author, G. H. Kinaham, has studied the subject very carefully on a por- tion of the Irish coast, and submits the following conclu- sions: first, the driftage due to the incoming tidal current is during its progress always going on in deep water, and, more or less, in shallow water; second, the driftage due to wind- waves only occurs during gales, and even then is only due to the waves that break on the shores; third, to prevent the ti- dal driftage groins or piers should be erected; and if the pier is to form a harbor, transverse groins should run out from it, to stop the back-wash generated by the pier; for otherwise this back-wash would carry the drift seaward, to be sucked around the pier into the harbor; fourth, as the wind-wave driftage occurs during gales, and then only on the shore-line, it might be prevented from filling up a harbor by placing a breakwater across the direction from which the prevailing storms come. If such a breakwater were fixed, it would prob- ably help to fill up the harbor; but if it be a floating one, it will break the wind-waves in deep water and destroy their drifting powers, while not interfering with their tidal driftage. PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 117 EQUALITY OF THE SURFACE LEVELS OF THE ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC OCEANS. Lines of levels run from sea to sea across the states of Nicaragua and Panama, during the recent inter-oceanic ca- nal surveys, made under the direction of Commander E. P. Lull, U.S.N., confirm the fact that the surface levels of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans at mean tide are exactly the same. The Atlantic terminus of the Nicaragua line was at San Juan del Norte, which is practically at the leeward- most part of the Caribbean. The theory that the waters of that sea are banked up by the northeast trade- winds, forming a head for the Gulf Stream, seems thus to be dis- proved. TIDAL CURRENTS IN THE GULF OF MAINE. A very interesting and valuable series of observations on the Offshore Tidal Currents in the Gulf of Maine, begun in 1877, have been completed during the present summer, un- der the direction of Dr. C. P. Patterson, Superintendent Uni- ted States Coast Survey, by Master Robert Platt, U.S.N., commanding the Coast Survey schooner Drift. These ob- servations show that the tidal currents of this locality are of sufficient strength to render their consideration in the reckoning, especially of sailing-vessels, highly important; and from them Professor Henry Mitchell, of the Coast Sur- vey, has deduced rules and tables (part of which have already been published, with a chart of the Gulf of Maine, showing the positions of tide-stations and the localities of a number of remarkable tide-rips.—(Coast Survey Notice to Mariners, No. 15,1877.) It is found that on the line between Nan- tucket Shoals and Cape Sable Bank (covered by the pub- lished tables) the ebb-current runs southwardly during the first four and a half hours, and the flood-current northward- ly from the sixth to the eleventh hour after the moon’s tran- sit (northing or southing). Table I. gives for each of the lo- calities named the times of turning from the flood-current to the ebb, and of the reverse, with the direction and rate of the flow—all referred to the times of the moon’s transit. Ta- ble IL. gives, for the same localities, the direction and rate of the current for each hour after the time of high-water at Bos- eee 118 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. ton, Mass., as given for each civil day in the Coast Survey Tide-table for the Atlantic Coast. A discussion now being made by Professor Mitchell of the whole tidal phenomena of the Gulf of Maine will be of great interest, some hitherto un- recognized laws of tidal movement haying been developed. TIDES AND WAVES. Of the tidal observations made by the English Arctic Ex- pedition of 1876, the preliminary report has been published in Captain Nares’s narrative. Professor Haughton announces as the first result of the tidal observations made by the late British Polar Expedition the complete confirmation of the result obtained by Dr. Bes- sels on Hall’s expedition—d. e., the meeting of two tidal waves from north and south in Smith Sound—and confirming the idea that Greenland is an island. An important paper on the Tides of the Southern Hemi- sphere and the Mediterranean, by Captain Evans and Sir William Thomson, was read before the Dublin meeting of the British Association, and an abstract of it is printed in Nature. A self-acting tide-computing machine has, according to Wat- wre, been designed by Mr. E. Roberts, of the Nautical Alma- nac office, and is being constructed for the India Office. The great ocean wave due to the Iquique earthquake of May 9 has been considered in a memoir, by Geinitz, in the December (1877) number of Petermann’s Aittheilungen. The accurate self-registering “limnimeter” on Lake Le- man has afforded Forel the demonstration of the existence of temporary rhythmic changes in the level surface of the whole lake, due to a bodily vibration of the whole mass of water. Je has now traced these vibrations up to their pri- mary origin, which is occasionally, perhaps, to be found in an earthquake shock, but more usually in sudden changes of at- mospheric pressure at some part of the lake. He finds that the formula for the vibration of water in a basin, given by Mérian, at Basle, in 1828, and its simplification given by William Thomson, apply well to the seiches of Lake Gene- va. Similar oscillations are reported by Jansen to be record- ed upon the self-recording tide-gauge (méregraph) at Brest. Forel also has proposed a new theory of the variations in PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 119 the transparency of the waters of lakes in winter and sum- mer, The theory is based upon the thermal stratification of the water during the summer, and its non-stratification dur- ing the winter. THE ATMOSPHERE. INSTITUTIONS, OBSERVERS, GENERAL TREATISES, ETC. The Smithsonian Institution reports the continuation of work on the new edition of the “ Rainfall Tables for North America.” It has also printed the observations of Professor Caswell, from 1860 to 1876, in continuation of his previous work from 1830 to 1860. This record shows a steady in- crease in the rainfall at Providence. Work has also been done on the maximum and minimum temperatures, and on the preparation of a work on thunder-storms. An exhaustive memoir on the Meteorology and Ocean Physics of Behring Sea and Alaska has been prepared by W. H. Dall for the Coast Survey, but is not yet published. The report of the Chief Signal Officer for June 30, 1878, enumerates, among other features in the history of the Army Weather Bureau, the fact that its permanent organization has been established as embracing 150 sergeants, 30 corpo- rals, and 270 privates. One hundred and forty-seven first- class stations and 24 second-class or sunset stations report telegraphically, and about 800 stations report by mail. ‘Tel- egraph reports are received, as usual, from Canada and the West Indies. The average time elapsing between the moment of simultaneous observation throughout the country and that at which the resulting prediction is issued from the Central Office is one hour and forty minutes. The average percent- age of verifications is 84.4. The percentage for the state of weather only, omitting the predictions for the barometer, thermometer, and wind direction, is 88.3, Cautionary storm- signals are displayed by day and night at 57 stations. A dis- tinction is made between the cautionary signal for high winds in general and that for winds blowing off shore. Of the to- tal number of signals displayed, 75.9 per cent. have been veri- fied. Special display-stations have been established at about 30 subordinate stations. Weather maps and bulletins have continued to be exhibited at all public places of business and 120 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. resort. Six thousand and thirty-nine post- offices are sup- plied daily, at about 11 A.M., with the farmers’ bulletin, The weather case or farmers’ weather indicator has been pre- pared to be used in connection with the farmers’ bulletin. River reports, giving the depth of water and notice of high or low water, have been regularly made: they will soon be extended to the rivers and valleys of California, for which rivers data are being collected to fix the danger lines. Spe- cial observations were made of the transit of Mercury on May 6, and the total eclipse of the sun July 29. The Weekly Weather Chronicle and the Monthly Weather Review have been regularly issued. Observations taken on vessels at sea have been reported in a few cases. The Jnter- national Weather Bulletin and the corresponding Jnterna- tional Weather Map, embracing the whole northern hemi- sphere, are published daily. The sea-coast service of the Signal Service, in connection with the Life-saving Service, has been continued and extend- ed during the year. By means of telegraph lines running directly from the War Department to these stations, it has been possible to promptly communicate messages, and save much property and many lives. Vessels sailing past such sea-coast stations can communicate, by signals, with the shore, and thus, in pleasant weather, ascertain from the Cen- tral Office the probabilities of a storm. The construction and operation of telegraph lines for con- necting military posts and the protection of frontier settle- ments has progressed steadily. The lines in Arizona, New Mexico, and the Texan frontier are nearly completed. The lines in the Northwest are being rapidly built. A total length of 3200 miles was, July 1, in the care of, and operated by, the Signal Service. From each station on these telegraph lines, three daily weather reports are received. They have thus opened out to meteorology regions of territory otherwise in- accessible, and of the first importance to a proper care for the commerce and agriculture of the United States. Professor Hinrichs has begun the publication of the Jowa Weather Bulletin with the number for March. This, as well as the quarterly reports, represents, of course, the results of the observations of the Lowa Weather Service. The 3rlle- tin for March gives a graphic presentation of the daily obser- PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 22 vations at Iowa City, and a reprint of Press Bulletin No. 54, which is a brief review of Tow a weather during the month. The temperature averaged 15° above the normal; in contin- uation of the unusual high temperature that had prevailed since December, an excess of rain and southerly winds also prevailed. The fourth map, showing the distribution of thunder-storms—z. e., thunder and lightning —is an impor- tant aid in the study of this subject. The development of State systems of meteorology seems to make steady progress, as we have received the first month- ly report of the Missouri Weather Service, organized by Pro- fessor F. E. Nipher, under the auspices of the Washington University at St. Louis. The present number of voluntary observers is sixty-five, and it is hoped that at least one in each county will be secured. At the central station Profess- or Nipher possesses the Dellmann electrometer used by Dr. Wisliczenus during the past fifteen years, and will soon take up a series of observations on atmospheric electricity, in con- tinuation of those so faithfully made by that observer. Itis to be hoped that Professor Nipher’s labors will meet with a generous recognition. In Nebraska a similar State service is, we understand, now organized, under the leadership of Pr Gfescors Bailey and Au- chey. We learn that similar State organizations are talked of for Kentucky, Illinois, and Colorado. Whether such State sys- tems especially attend to local climatology or to minute de- tails of storms and atmospheric movements, they will equal- ly serve the interests of science and of the State. The eco- nomic importance of an accurate knowledge of local climates is well illustrated by the action of the Central Pacific Rail- road in maintaining a large number of observing stations well distributed over its extensive territories. A similar work was some years ago contemplated by the Alaska Com- pany of San Francisco, but we do not know how thoroughly the idea has been carried out. Meteorological work is kept up to a limited extent at some of our professedly astronomical observatories. Professor E. C. Pickering, of Harvard College Observatory, writes as fol- lows: -“ ee ane meteorological observations have been car- ried on here since the establishment of the obsery atory. The F 122 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. daily number of observations has varied at different times from one to five. At present, according to a system adopt- ed at the beginning of 1877, the hours of observation are 8 A.M.,2 P.M.,and 8 P.M. The observations consist of read- ings of the barometer, and of the dry- and wet-bulb maximum and minimum thermometers, as well as of notices of wind, clouds, rainfall, aurora, and zodiacal light. Meteors are not ordinarily observed unless they attract attention by their brightness, or some other peculiarity ; and the same remark applies to other miscellaneous phenomena. For some months past frequent observations have been made in the evening, with the object of numerically determining the coefficient of atmospheric absorption. An observation of this kind con- sists in the selection of two stars differing considerably in altitude and apparently of equal brightness. Knowing the true excess in brightness of the lower star, and determining the altitudes of both from the time of the observation, we can deduce the numerical value of the quantity required, Professor Langley intends to adopt this method in his obser- vations at Mt. A‘tna, and I hope that it may also be tried elsewhere.” The following notes on the year’s work of the New York Central Park Meteorological Observatory have been kindly furnished by Dr. Draper: The report of the New York Meteorological Observatory in Central Park, for the past year, by Daniel Draper, contains the usual tables from the self-recording instruments, and also a discussion on the two following questions: Ist. “Has there been in late years a change in the rainfall of New York City or its vicinity, affecting seriously its wa- ter supply ?” It was found by the observations used that there had been an increase of rain until 1869, and after that year a steady decrease. 2d. ‘“‘Does the rainfall of New York still diminish, will it continue to do so,and does this variation occur in the early or latter portion of the year?” By the observations used it appears that the rainfall of the city will most probably continue to decrease by fluctuations for several years to come, and that the variations are nearly the same in the two portions of the year. PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 123 To substantiate these questions, observations of other cities —as Washington, Philadelphia, Providence, and Paris—have been selected; they all tend to show the same results. Those of Paris, extending back 190 years, give a slight increase in the rainfall—not steadily, but with three oscillations of many years each. This report is a continuation of a former one on, Does the Clearing of Land Increase or Diminish the Rainfall? From the tables produced, it appears that the widespread public impression that the clearing of land diminishes the volume of rain is not founded on fact. Mr, Jerome J, Collins has published in Wature, for May, 1878, an essay on his American Storm-warnings, which will attract the attention of all, and especially of European me- teorologists. He also contributes the following brief sum- mary of the meteorological work accomplished in 1878 by the New York Herald: From November 15, 1877, to the corresponding date in November, 1878, 51 warnings were cabled to London, and distributed by telegraph to the principal commercial centres of Europe. Of these 2 were sent after the 15th of Novem- ber, 1877; 3 in December; 4 in January, 1878; 5 in Febru- ary; 7 in March; 4 in April; 3 in May; 3 in June; 3 in July; 4 in August; 4 in September; 6 in October; and 3 to the 15th of November last. Of the total number—51—34 have been completely fulfilled, 13 partly fulfilled, and 4 ful- filled only as to some one of the conditions predicted. The percentage of complete fulfilments is 66, and of complete and partial fulfilments, 92. An analysis of the predictions as to date of arrival, barometer, etc., gives the following percentages: Date of arrival of storm-centre or depression, 84.5; barometer, 87.8; wind-force, 89.1; wind direction, 87.8; weather, 98.3; locality of arrival or regions immediately affected, 91.0. Of the 51 warnings cabled, several referred to more than one storm or depression then in movement ; but 23 of the warnings referred to “ storm-centres,” or “ cy- clones,” 27 to “ depressions,” and 1 to a “disturbance.” The maximum in fulfilments was reached during November, 1877, and January, August, September, October, and No- vember, 1878. The next best months were December, 1877, and February and March, 1878. The least success was expe- 124 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. ' rienced in May, June, and July, the lowest percentage being in June. Besides predictions for the European coasts, the Herald Weather Bureau has given repeated warnings of bad weather in the Middle and East Atlantic, for the benefit of vessels about to leave European ports. Numerous reports from ship-captains have reached the Weather and the Ship News Bureau of the Herald, announcing the complete fulfil- ment of these ocean warnings, and their great use to navi- gators. Mr. Rh. H. Scott, Director of the London Meteorological Office, has published in the Mautical Magazine, for March, an exhaustive review of the early work of the Wew York flerald. Ue reports 47 predictions—7 fully, 10 partly, 6 slightly verified, and 17 total failures. A detailed reply to Scott’s criticism has been printed in the Herald. The opinion that any storm ever crosses the Atlantic from America to Europe has been of late years very coldly re- ceived by the London office, but seems to have gained a strong hold upon the mind of the British public, owing es- pecially to the apparent fulfilment of a portion of the storm predictions published from time to time in the London papers on the authority of the New York Herald. During several years the London office was in receipt of daily de- spatches from Heart’s Content, and in 1869 Leverrier enter- tained the idea of obtaining a daily synopsis of American weather from the Cincinnati Weather Bulletin; but it re- mained for the Herald to awaken in England and France that interest in the subject that has been manifested during the past year, and which is, we believe, likely to lead to an important step in international meteorology. It is, indeed, now evident that weather predictions can be made by Euro- peans much more satisfactorily when the region from which they receive daily weather reports is made to include as much as possible of America and the Atlantic, although no one has thus far demonstrated exactly what becomes of the areas of high and low barometer after they disappear off our Atlantic coast. The monthly reviews of the German Meteorological Office contain numerous contributions on the subject of the pre- ceding paragraph. A large number of valuable ocean obser- vations are tabulated in the Review for July, just published ; PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 125 and among the very numerous storms whose history is given in detail by Dr. Neumayer are some whose connection with American weather is specially noted by him. Among the journals which disseminate meteorological items throughout the United States, we may mention the Valley Naturalist of St. Louis, and the Aansas City Review, which usually contain several meteorological summaries for points west of the Mississippi. The seventh annual report of the Meteorological Service of the Dominion of Canada for the calendar year ending the 31st of December, 1877, shows that the Canadian Service now extends quite thoroughly over all the provinces of the Do- minion, and that increased accuracy and usefulness continue to be attained in their official prognostications of storms and weather. There are 10 chief stations, where 8 or more observations are taken daily; 14 telegraphic reporting sta- tions; 4 reserved telegraphic stations; 100 additional ordi- nary stations; 39 cautionary storm-signal stations; and 95 probability stations, where agents officially receive by tele- graph the daily probabilities. Five hundred and ten storm warnings were issued during the year, 69 per cent. of which were considered to be well verified. It is proposed to estab- lish a cautionary storm-signal at Winnipeg, to give warning of the approach of the terrible blizzards which cause so much destruction to life and property in the winter. Of the probabilities, 79 per cent. were fully verified, and 13 per cent. additional partially verified. For the last month—viz., De- cember—the reports of the agents at the different stations show that 88 per cent. were fully verified. Forty-six sta- tions were inspected during the year. A new book of in- structions has been issued to the observers. A monthly Weather Review was published throughout the year. The Central Office of Toronto receives tri-daily reports from a considerable number of stations, and also warnings of ap- proaching storms from the Chief Signal-Office at Washing- ton. “These form an important share of the data on which the predictions of the weather are based.” The annual reports of the Canadian Department of Ma- rine and Fisheries contain innumerable miscellaneous notes as to ice, storms, fog, and miscellaneous meteorological phe- nomena from a portion of our continent whence otherwise we 126 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. should rarely have any information. In the report published in 1877, we note the record of ice in or near Newfoundland, and full details of a tornado and water-spout, August 18, 1876, at St. Paul’s Island. Mr. Maxwell Hall has drawn up a well-considered scheme for the establishment of a meteorological system of stations and storm warnings throughout the West Indies, having its central office at an observatory near Kingston, Jamaica. According to the Philosophical Magazine, he hopes for con- tributions and support from all the West Indies and the United States. (The United States Signal Service has for many years maintained a small number of telegraphic re- porting stations in the West Indies.) The meteorological bulletins of the Central Observatory at Mexico are published at irregular intervals, in the Anales del Ministerio de Komento, and begin with the month of March, 1877, which is published in the Anales for December, 1877. The first number of the uilletin gives a history of the establishment of the Observatory —its location, offi- cers, and apparatus—and the methods adopted therein. All observations are made hourly, and seem to correspond to the requirements of exact science. The staff consists of the director, Barcena, and two assistants, Reyes and Perez. The principal meteorological observations that have been made in Mexico previous to the establishment of this na- tional observatory are mentioned in the Bulletin as follows: by Humboldt Burckhardt (in 1839 and 1840), Bevard (1838 and 1839), Dr. Berlandier (1830 to 1851), Moral, Léon, Mier, Teran, Sartorius (1854 to 1870), Nieto (1858 to 1864), Ibar- rola (1857 and 1858), Poey (1867), and Cornejo (1863 and 1865). In 1874 the Meteorological Observatory of the Med- ical Department was established, and afterwards removed to the School of Agriculture. The Observatory of the De- partment of the Interior, under Barcena, is in longitude 65 36™ 278 W. from Greenwich, and latitude 19° 26’N.; its altitude is 2290™. The Central Office contributes to the Daily Bulletin of the Minister of the Interior an astronomical and meteorological chapter, in which latter are published the complete record of the hourly observations at Mexico, the telegraphic bulletin of simultaneous observations at about thirty stations in that PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 127 republic, and the botanical calendar for about fifty families of flowers in the valley of Mexico. Dr. B. A. Gould has published Vol. I. of the “Annals of the Meteorological Office of the Argentine Republic.” He gives a large amount of data for Buenos Ayres—a wholly new meteorological field—and has subjected it to an elabo- rate study, with many curious results. The Council of the London Meteorological Society have ar- ranged a course of six lectures on meteorology, to be given by eminent specialists. Lectures will be open to the public, and tickets of admission can be obtained of the Society. The first lecture, by Mr. Mann, on the Physical Properties of the Atmosphere, we are sorry to see, promulgates Tyn- dall’s opacity of aqueous vapor, and the radiation-of-heat theory of clouds and rain—errors to which, we presume, the Royal Society Meteorological Council will hardly lend their approbation. Probably no more effective method could be devised for disseminating a knowledge of meteorology in America, since such lectures are sure to be supplemented by their still wider distribution through the newspapers. Among the subjects of investigation to be assisted from the government fund of £4000 for the advancement of science, we note that £50 have been voted to the Scottish Meteoro- logical Society for aid in carrying on a simultaneous series of anemometrical observations at different heights, and in sheltered and unsheltered situations; also £200 to Dr. J. P. Joule for an exhaustive inquiry into the change which takes place in the freezing- and boiling-points of mercurial ther- mometers by long exposure to those temperatures. The London Meteorological Office has begun the publica- tion of a Weekly Bulletin. The Leipsic Observatory, under Bruhns, now publishes weather forecasts for the agriculturists. The Annalen der Hydrographie und Maritimen Meteoro- Logie, published monthly by the Admiralty, at Berlin, con- tains regularly a few pages, in double columns, comparing, month by month, the weather of America and Europe. Full abstracts are given of the ships’ logs that carry verified in- struments, and that report to the Deutsche Seewarte. There are also a tabular review of the weather at the German sea- coast stations, and very numerous excellent special meteoro- 128 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. logical and physical articles. The observations made at sea by the German vessels, under Dr. Neumayer’s supervision, rank as the best now made by any navy or marine in the world. The Seewarte, at Hamburg, publishes a Monthly Weather Review, of great value and accompanied by excellent charts. The Gaiiy forecasts that issue from this office are said to give eminent satisfaction. They are based on telegraphic reports from 92 stations, and are published in three styles —first, in full, with charts and tables; second, special abstracts, and 24 selected reports for the use of subscribers and newspapers ; third, shorter abstracts, and about 10 selected reports for the use of seaport towns. A detailed list of the abbreviations and technical terms used therein is given in Annalen Hydrog., p. 221. A Central Meteorological Bureau for Bavaria, with Von Bezold as its director, has been organized, with 34 stations. Lamont and Ebermayer continue their own independent me- teorological work. The future of French meteorology has been established by a decree of the Minister of Public Instruction, dated May 13. According to Wature, this decree can hardly be considered as an inuovation. It separates the Central Bureau from the Astronomical Observatory, and gives to the Central Bureau authority over the smaller meteorological observatories which have been established, or will be, throughout France. A translation of the full decree is given in WVatwre, vol. xviil., p- 134. In conformity with the decree, KE. Mascart has been appointed Director of the Meteorological Bureau. The Central Meteorological Bureau at Paris is located in the Rue de Grenelle St. Germain. It is probable that me- teorological and magnetic observations will continue to be kept up at the Astronomical Observatory, under Admiral Mouchez, in order to maintain the long series that has al- ready been made in that locality. The Bulletin Internationale, formerly the organ for the Paris Observatory, is now edited by the new Weather Bu- reau, under Mascart, and is entirely devoted to meteorology. The Association Scientifique de France continues to be the medium of communication with the agricultural community, and about 6500 stations are supplied by it with barometers and weather reports. : PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 129 It is contemplated to establish ten new meteorological ob- servatories in France, each possessing a complete set of self- registering instruments. According to Nature, the probable locations of these observatories will be—Lille; Mont Souris, under Marié Davy; for the Hydrographic Office, La Marche, under Herve Mangon; Bordeaux, Toulouse, Marseilles, Ly- ons, Besancon, Pic du Midi , Puy-de- ai) daties id Mont Ventoux. At the Paris meeting of the French Association for the Advancement of Science, the only memoirs read of interest to meteorologists were: Wojeikeff, on Climatology ; Nogues, on the Climatology of Geological Times; and Montigny, on the Scintillations of the Stars. The meteorological section of the French Association for the Advancement of Science, as also the Meteorological So- ciety of France, and numerous observatories, united in en- deavoring to secure a very complete meteorological exhibit at the Paris International Exposition. The French Weather Service published daily two maps for 7 A.M., showing the isobars and isotherms, and their respective changes, together with other meteorological data. An International Meteorological Congress was held at Paris, in the Trocadero Palace, August 24 to 28, at the call of the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, and of the Mete- orological Society of France, the French Association,.and the Scientific Association. This was, in no sense, an Official con- gress, yet it afforded a very pleasant opportunity for inter- change of views. It was well attended by representatives from all nations, and almost every Frenchman of note in me- teorology was present. A full report of the papers and dis- cussions is promised by the French government, but no copy has as yet been received. On the occasion of the International Meteorological Con- gress at Paris, August, 1878, Mr. H. Tarry, of Bordeaux, pre- sented an appeal for sympathy in reference to meteorology in -Algiers. It would seem that he has labored faithfully since 1873 to establish a meteorological service in Algiers, and to secure its connection with the International Meteoro- logical Service of Europe. His own attempts were ably sec- onded by Farre, and his successor as chief of the staff in Alge- ria, and by Governor-General Chanzy, and also by St. Claire de Ville, Inspector-General for Meteorology; but were strenu- F 2 130 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. ously opposed by Leverrier. We believe, however, that the Algerian system in and of itself is now quite complete, and that under the present administration its connection with the present French system is generally very satisfactory, notwith- standing a short interruption that occurred in August, 1878. Bischofscheim, the celebrated banker at Paris, has contrib- uted sufficient to construct a meteorological observatory on the top of Mont Ventoux. Mr. Markham has published the long-promised second edi- tion of his memoir on the “Indian Surveys.” This brings down the history of geodetic and meteorological and other work in India to the end of the year 1877. The geograph- ical and geological work has made extraordinary progress during the past seven years; and the meteorological work has been concentrated to a uniform system subordinate to a Central Bureau, under the direction of Mr. H. F. Blanford. The whole volume is full of exceedingly interesting histor- ical details, and from the chapter on Meteorology we take the following notes: A meteorological journal was kept by Colonel Pearce, at Calcutta, in 1785 to 1788; and by Mr. Henry Traill in 1784 and 1785. From that time to the present but few gaps occur in the series of records for that station. The principal collections of meteorological regis- ters are to be found in the successive volumes of “ Asiatic Researches;” the Madras Journal ; the Jowrnal of the Bom- bay Branch of the Asiatic Society; Glashier’s “ Report on the Meteorology of India,” London, 1863; Neil’s “ Annual teports for the Punjab;” Thomson’s “Reports for the Northwest Provinces ;” Blanford’s “ Reports. for the Gov- ernment of Bengal;” and Chambers’s “ Annual Reports for Bombay.” Of the more recent works by Blanford, we have already given notice in our preceding Annual Record. The voluntary Association of the Meteorological Offices of Bengal, the northwest and central provinces Berar, Ceylon, and Singapore, began in 1873. This resulted in the appoint- ment, in 1875, of Mr. Blanford as Meteorological Reporter for the Government to India; and the net-work of stations has now been extended over the Punjab, Bombay, Madras, Bur- mah, Assam, the Nicobar Islands, Ceylon, portions of Afghan- istan, and Thibet. The progress of meteorology in Italy is being actively fos- PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 151 tered by the Italian Alpine Club, to which organization is due the existence of the completely equipped Meteorological Observatory, inaugurated November 25, at Fiesole. Very many of the existing stations in Italy are due to the Alpine Club; and still another is about to be opened at Castel Piano, on Mt. Piano, near Siena. The publication of the Bulletin of the Arcetri Observatory will be continued by Tempel. An Italian meteorological society has been organized, with its headquarters at Modena, where also is published, by Ra- gona, the Annuario, or Monthly Meteorological Journal, which will be the organ of the society, and must tend to disseminate a healthy spirit among the Italian amateurs and specialists. It appears thus far to have worthily supplemented the work done by the Meteorological Office of the Department of Pub- lic Instruction at Rome, very much as has been done in Vi- enna by the Zeitschrift of the Austrian Association. Were it not for the annoying multiplication of scientific journals, we are not sure but that a meteorological association and monthly would do a good work in the United States. The Meteorological Offices of the Departments of the Marine and of Agriculture and Commerce have been merged into one, under the Department of Public Instruction, by which the Bulletino and the Memorie e Notizie are now published. Denza, of Moncalieri, announces that it has been decided to give the meteorological station on the summit of the Stel- vio Pass the name, “ The Secchi Station at Stelvio,” in per- manent commemoration of the great work accomplished in Italy by Father Secchi, who, among many other things, be- gan in Rome the publication of a Telegraphic Meteorological Bulletin a year before Leverrier began the Paris Bulletin. Professor P. G. 8. Ferrari succeeds Father Secchi in charge of the Observatory of the Roman College. Mr. G. F. Rodwell writes to Vature, urging the execution of the proposal made two years ago by Tacchini, that a me- teorological and astronomical observatory should be estab- lished near the summit of Mt. détna. At the Dublin meeting of the British Association the fol- lowing papers were read: Professor Everett, Report on Un- derground Temperature; Professor G. Forbes, Report on Atmospheric Electricity ; James Glaisher, Report on Lumi- 132 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. nous Meteors; G. J. Symons, Report on the Rainfall of Ire- land; 58. P. Thomson, Report on Rainbows ; W. Morris, Re- port on Temperature of the Earth ; C. Meldrum, Report on Sun-spots and Rainfall; R. Anderson, Report on Lightning- Conductors ; Professor H. Hennessy, Report on Climate of British Islands; Wheeler, Report on River Administration. According to Wature, the Swedish Diet has granted the necessary funds to establish a meteorological observatory at Upsala, separate from the Astronomical Institution. The Permanent Committee of the Vienna Congress of Meteorologists held a session in Utrecht, October 16 to 20, and, among other things, are understood to have expressed themselves very favorably relative to international simul- taneous observations. Their report embraces sections by Everett on Atmospheric Electricity, and Scott on Maritime Meteorology. The next general Congress will be held in Rome in April, 1879. The possibility of carrying on successful weather predic- tions for the Mediterranean and its shores is discussed by Hellmann, who shows that probably a greater efficiency can be attained than in Western Europe. The Russian Geographical Society warmly advocates the establishment of polar meteorological stations. The exten- sive magnetic survey of Russia by Smirnoff (declinations and inclinations at 287 localities, and declinations alone at 261 other localities) have been brought to its notice by Colonel Thilo of the general staff. ) A Russian meteorological association is announced as be- ing formed, with its headquarters at St. Petersburg. Wild has published a description of the new meteorolog- ical and magnetic station at Pavlovsk, near St. Petersburg, at which regular observations began January 1, 1878, while preliminary and comparative observations have been made recularly since June, 1877. This new observatory, furnished with everything that physical science can suggest, and lo- cated in the midst of an extensive imperial domain, promises to do for meteorology and magnetism work as important as the Astronomical Observatory in the neighboring village of Poulkova has done for astronomy. The annual report for 1876 of Mr. Meldrum, the Director of the Royal Alfred Observatory at Mauritius, was received PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 155 in November, 1877. Twenty-nine rainfall stations distrib- uted over that small island report monthly to him. The Central Observatory makes full return for the slight expense of its maintenance by keeping up a sharp lookout for the cyclones of the Indian Ocean. The study and prediction of these storms has for years been Mr. Meldrum’s specialty, and he has now attained to such expertness that “ there is no country in the world so well provided for in this respect as the little colony of Mauritius.” The incurving vortical motion of the air in every cyclone has for seventeen years been maintained, and is now further considered in opposi- tion to the purely circular theories. Charts showing the tracks of cyclones in the Indian Ocean for the thirty years 1847 to 1876 are now nearly complete. The annual rain- fall for 1876 shows a remarkable deficiency over the whole island; the cyclones were fewer, and of notably less extent and intensity, both agreeing with Mr. Meldrum’s former conclusions as to a sun-spot cycle in meteorology, for 1876 was a year of minimum sun-spot frequency. The most im- portant magnetic storms occurred on February 19 and 20 and March 25 and 26. The reorganization of the meteorological system of India, which was effected in 1873, and by which Blanford, of Cal- cutta, was made Government Reporter for the whole of this most extensive country, promises to result in work of the highest importance in the progress of both observational and philosophical meteorology. We have already had oc- casion to refer to the valuable studies into the origin of the cyclones of the Bay of Bengal. The first official publica- tions of the Calcutta office consist of the “ Report for the Year 1875,” and Vol. I. of the “ Indian Meteorological Memoirs.” The former, a quarto of 387 pages, contains the details of the observations at 88 full and 198 rain stations, and a gen- eral review of the atmospheric phenomena during the year, as shown by monthly maps. The second publication con- tains important memoirs by Blanford on the diurnal varia- tions of the winds and barometer, and on the climate of Kashgar. The Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory of Zikawei, near Shanghai, has substituted for its daily weather report a& more convenient Bulletin Mensuel, and annual reports. 134 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. That for 1877 embraces 200 pages, and gives in detail the hourly observations, with their means and the wind-roses. In the Bulletin Mensuel, besides the minute observations at the Observatory, there also appear numerous contribu- tions from other portions of Eastern Asia. In the Bulletin for July will be found a description and an interesting series of diagrams, showing the successive changes in a water- spout observed near Shanghai. The progress of meteorology is now seen to be so depend- ent on the prompt formation and study of daily weather maps, and this work is so materially assisted by the use of the electric telegraph, that we are not surprised to find com- bined in one person—Mr. Charles Todd, of Adelaide, South Australia—the various positions of government astronomer, meteorologist, and director of the post-office and telegraph lines. In this last capacity Mr. Todd has been able to great- ly further the extension of the telegraph, and its utilization in weather study and predictions. Since January, 1876, he has published regularly the weather observations from about 80 stations, most of which send in daily reports by telegraph. His pamphlet entitled “ Observatory and Climate of South Australia” contains a mass of details relative to the climate of the interior of Australia, which has hitherto been to me- teorologists an unknown region. Similar bulletins are pub- lished by Ellery at Melbourne, and Russel at Sydney. With the extension of telegraphic communication through- out Japan—where it is estimated that even now there are 125 stations in operation—-it is confidently hoped that a system of telegraphic weather reports will be organized, possibly under the initiation of the Department of Public Instruction, at the head of which is Professor Murray, of New Brunswick, N. J. The Imperial University at Tokio, under the Department of Public Instruction, and the Impe- rial College of Engineering, under the Department of Public Works—the former under American and the latter under English influence—are both advocating such a system. GENERAL TREATISES. In our last annual summary a very brief note called atten- tion to the publication by Blanford of the Indian meteorolo- cist’s ‘ Vade Mecum,” and the accompanying tables. PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 135 These important volumes are worthy of much more ex- tended notice, and ought to be in the hands of every stu- dent of meteorology, and every observer as well. The “ Vade Mecum” is divided into two parts: first, in- struction to observers; second, the meteorology of India. The instructions are certainly clear, without superfluous words, and every word to the point; and, while especially adapted to use in India, afford valuable suggestions for ob- servers everywhere. The second part of “ Vade Mecum” is what especially interests the student of meteorology, as dis- tinguished from the mere observer, and in the introduction he states that in this part of his volume, a knowledge of the laws that regulate the internal movements of the atmos- phere is the business immediately before us. He entertains the view, apparently very nearly correct, that in India we have an epitome of atmospheric physics, even as in Eng- land we have an epitome of strategraphic geology. The author gives the most recent results in his next chapter on the physical properties of air and vapor. He especially calls attention to the erroneous custom, now rap- idly becoming obsolete, of subtracting the tension of aque- ous vapor from the total barometric pressure. The diurnal variation of vapor tension he partially explains as due to the ratio between the rate of production and the rate of re- moval. The effects of condensation of vapor in retarding the fall of temperature are very fully developed. The conclusions of Tyndall in reference to the absorption of heat by aqueous vapor are not adopted by him; and he inclines, with most physicists, to adopt the conclusions of Magnus, confirmed, as they have been, by Hoorweg and Buff —namely, that air and vapor differ little in absorptive pow- er; and that in atmospheric phenomena it is most important to distinguish between true vapor and that which is in the first stage of condensation. The results of direct observa- tions on atmospheric absorption by Forbes, Hennessy, Hodg- kinson, Neumayer, Strachan, and Harrison are adopted by Blanford to the general exclusion of purely physical theories. The dynamic heating and cooling of the atmosphere, as de- duced from the dynamical theory of heat, are very fully ap- preciated and exposed. The physical geography of India has, as in every country, the greatest influence over its me- 136 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. teorology, and is very graphically presented in the second chapter. In the chapter on radiation and temperature, he states that the predominating feature of Indian meteorology is the semi-annual reversal of the system of winds, the primary cause of which is the variation in the quantity of solar heat, which is then followed out in all its details. From paragraph 62 we extract the following: “ The maintenance of an ascend- ing convection current over India in the rainy season, and of a descending convection current in the cold dry season, is in both cases consistent only with a vertical decrement of tempera- ture less rapid than in regions where no such movement is in progress.” In the chapter on atmospheric pressure and winds, Mr. Blanford first explains the laws that have been known as Dove’s law and Buys-Ballot’s law, as particular consequences of Ferrel’s law. In the section on Indian monsoons the tables and diagrams showing the monthly variations of tempera- ture, pressure, wind, and clouds are extremely satisfactory. He finds that the depth of the winter monsoon in January and February in the neighborhood of the hills is probably less than 7000 feet, while the summer monsoon is much more than 11,500 feet. ‘The summer monsoon has a greater average velocity, depth, and volume than that of the win- ter, but a lower velocity than the winds of the hottest sea- son. During the height of the southwest monsoon there is a region in the Arabian Sea in which the winds are light and the sea smooth; this is known to navigators as the soft place in the monsoon. ‘To the north of this the monsoon blows with great force. The diurnal barometric oscillations are given for a num- ber of stations, and the theory that Mr. Blanford proposes is ingenious, if not satisfactory. It is that originally worked out by Kreil and Lamont, modified by the fundamental as- sumption that the pressure exerted by the expansion of the lower layers of the atmosphere is only slowly communieated to the upper layers, and that the inertia of the latter, when once in motion, accounts for the barometric minimum in the afternoon. In the chapter on hygrometry, cloud, and rain- fall, Mr. Blanford gives some comparisons between Wolf’s sun-spot numbers and the register of rainfall at six stations in India since 1813. He finds the cyclical variation of the rainfall very distinctly indicated, especially from Madras. PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 137 In the chapter on storms, he considers that there is some reason to believe that the simoom has some special qualities besides heat and dryness, warranting its name of the poison wind, and that it should not be treated of merely as a case of hot wind. The northwest wind of Calcutta advances from some point between northeast and west, or even southwest. The wind that precedes the rain is very cool, and is heralded by a sud- den rise of the barometer. Wind pressures of fifty pounds to the square foot have been recorded on these occasions. In the chapter on cyclones Ferrel’s formula for gradients is applied to the case of storms in the tropics; and the angles of incurvature of the wind are given for several localities in the storm of October 15, 1874. The monthly distribution of 115 cyclones in the Bay of Bengal throughout the year was as follows: January ....... 2 Wie ct ee ene 21 September.... 6 February ...... 0 Sunesartivs 2463 10 Octabers.2 3 dL Marchi tins: * 2 A ees ae ee 3 November.... 18 7a) a ee 9 RWOMISG ones tri 4 December .... 29 The origin of the cyclones, he finds, in accordance with his own and Mr. Elliott’s investigations, is the production and ascent of a large quantity of vapor, which is condensed with the liberation of its latent heat over the place of its produc- tion, instead of being carried away to some distant region. He considers that there is a consequent local lowering of the atmospheric pressure, causing, or tending to cause, an in- draught of air towards the place of minimum pressure. Mr. Blanford would seem to imply that the barometric depression in the central portions of this region is mainly due to the ascent of vapor and its condensation; but it has already been shown by others that these alone can produce only a very insignificant diminution of pressure at the earth’s surface; and the true explanation of the origin of the latter involves the consideration of the inertia, centrifugal force, and internal friction of the atmosphere. The volume closes with a very excellent chapter of suggestions as to subjects requir- ing further investigation. Among the general treatises on meteorology there has been published one in Italian—the “ Manual Nautico di Me- teorologia,” by Captain F. Viscovish, of the Austro-Hunga- 138 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. rian Lloyd Service—in which special attention is, of course, given to the law of storms, and which shows a very general appreciation of the most recent works on this subject. A little volume has been published, at the price of one Eng- lish shilling, by Hoveste & Sons, London, entitled “ Weather Warnings for Watchers, by the Clerk of the Weather.” The book is mostly occupied with the details of instruments. A series of articles on meteorological topics, by Captain Ansart, have appeared in occasional numbers of the Revue Maritime et Coloniale during 1874, 1875, and 1876. In these many new ideas and formule are propounded which are not likely to be generally accepted ; and yet the work will repay attention. tev. Samuel Haughton communicates to the Royal Socie- ty of Dublin a geological proof, based on the examination of the fossils found in the earth, that the changes of climate in past times were not due to changes in the position of the earth’s axis, and gives as the lower limit to the duration of geological time a minimum of 200,000,000 of years. Dr. Woeikoff exhibited in the Russian section of the Paris Exposition a series of maps of isobars, isotherms, rainfall, etc., for the globe; and the “text explanatory,” which has been widely distributed, shows that these charts, drawn from the best sources, are, in general, an improvement upon those pro- duced by Buchan, Wild, Buys-Ballot, Coftin, Schott, ete. On the climate, especially the temperature, of the United States, Woeikoff has published in the Austrian Jeteorolo- gische Zeitschrift an extended review, basing his tables and figures partially on the publications of the Smithsonian, Army Engineers’, Army Signal-Office, New York and Canadian Me- teorological reports, ete. As a question of climatology, nothing can be more inter- esting than the fluctuations of Great Salt Lake, as these are now brought to light by the labors of Mr. Gilbert. It is to be hoped that he will also investigate some of the other lakes of the Rocky Mountain region, in order to eliminate the influences of purely local circumstances. Great Salt Lake was low from 1847 to 1850, was 5 feet higher in 1855, but again as low as before in 1861 and 1862; from 1868 to 1877 it has averaged about 10 feet higher than in 1850. A very ancient beach-mark that exists about 4 feet above PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 159 that of 1850 shows what was its level at some remote pe- riod. The Commissioner of Immigration for Iowa, M. M. Moui- ton, Esq., of Monticello, Iowa, has rendered a most accepta- ble service to his town, and set an example worthy to be followed by many others, in publishing a little pamphlet re- view of the meteorology of Monticello for 1876 and 1877, and a comparison with the records of the preceding 25 years, He gives for 25 years the number of days between the last frost of spring and the first of autumn as ranging from 77 to 166. The first frost of autumn occurs between August 28 and Oc- tober 13; the last frost of spring occurs between April 20 and June 21. The average dates are respectively September 20 and May 20. The Maquoketa River is closed by ice from 25 to 118 days during the year; the average dates of open- ing and closing are March 10 and December 10. Many in- teresting climatological items are given, and Mr. Moulton closes by saying, very correctly, as we believe, that “it would prove a paying investment for the different agricultural so- cieties to offer liberal premiums for the best meteorological record for the preceding year or years.” It is to be hoped that all who know of existing climatological records in pri- vate hands, including records of frost, rivers, budding, ripen- ing, harvesting, etc., etc., will exert themselves to see that such records are transferred to some official Weather Bureau, or are safely deposited where they may be accessible. In the same strain with Mr. Moulton’s closing paragraph, we quote from an essay read by W. T. Harris, at the Nation- al Educational Association, so long ago as August 7,1872: “Of all subjects of investigation that claim the attention of the active laborers in physical science at the present day, that of meteorology holds the foremost rank. The next great victories over nature are likely to be obtained in this province, and the benefits to be derived from an application of discoveries in this realm will far transcend anything hith- erto achieved.” The Canada Review, for August, devotes a short postscript to the tornado and terrible hail-storm which passed over Norwood and near Toronto on August 8; hailstones weigh- ing one pound and a half were caught and measured. The average weight of a large number was half a pound. The 140 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. larger ones averaged one to every yard, the smaller ones one to every inch. The Review for the State of Iowa, by G. Hinrichs, gives maps showing the rainfall during thirteen storms, and illustrating the definite regular gradation of rainfall from the centre of a storm outward. The Signal Service Review for August has an especially interesting ab- stract of a report, by Professor W. H. Brewer, on the tornado at Wallingford, Conn., on the 9th; it also gives a remarkably long list of tornadoes and local storms during the month. At the close of this Aeview there is given a list of Signal Service stations at which the duration of the total eclipse was observed. As showing the extensive correspondence of this office,it may be added that 295 stations are stated to have sent in reports concerning this eclipse. The February number of the Journal of the Scottish Me- teorological Society contains a discussion, by Mr. Buchan, of a series of observations made at Gordon Castle, by Mr. Hoy, Secretary to the Duke of Gordon, and extending over 46 years, 1781 to 1827. The tables of mean monthly pressure, temperature, rainfall, weather, and auroras form a remarka- bly uniform and valuable series of observations. Captain Hoffmeyer, of Copenhagen, in some notes on the recent winter in Iceland, states that in the autumn of 1877 very beautiful weather prevailed; the temperature of Septem- ber was the highest in thirty years. A sudden change in the weather occurred October 11, and a very stormy period in- tervened, culminating in a hurricane from the northwest, with a very cold snow-storm on January 6 and 7,1878. February and March were mild and damp. ~The climate of the well-known English resort Bath is treated of in an essay by Rev. L. Blomefield, published in the Proceedings of the Bath Natural History and Antiqua- rian Field Club. This paper is based upon ten years of ob- servations by the Bath Literary Institution. The importance of collating all data that can be obtained from old records bearing upon climate, or questions of cli- mate, cannot be too strongly urged upon those having ac- cess to ancient records. Mr. Symons states that almost every parish register or county history in England will repay one for the search. He has already had the Saxon Chronicle searched, and states that that of Holinshed is in hand. Veta ON, EO eA. ie eee PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 141 Dr. Fines has published the “ Bulletin Météorologique du Département des Pyrénées-Orientales” for 1876, the cost of which is defrayed by the city of Perpignan and the Départe- ment des Pyrénées-Orientales. In this volume are contained the observations in detail, made eight times daily at the Ob- servatory of Perpignan, together with the monthly means, etc. These are followed by monthly means of observations at numerous stations throughout the Département, and, in detail, he observations made at the high station Montlonis (altitude 5204 feet). ‘To these observations are appended a chapter on the Atmosphere, the Rain, and Dryness, by Ch. Naudin, and one on the Trombe de Rivesaltes, August 19, 1876, by Dr. Fines. This latter tornado, as we call it in America, lasted about 20 minutes, and extended over a path about 6 miles long and 1000 feet broad, or less. EE OR a ag er i oe 482 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. ternal characters. A recent examination of the anatomy of the genus has convinced M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards that the genus is a grallatorial form, and the type of a very dis- tinct family allied to that of the Rails and to that of the Herons. Those two families, it is also to be remarked, are placed in widely different groups by Professor Huxley; the former belonging to the Schizognathe, and the latter to the “Desmognathe, two of the four primary groups in which all birds (except the ostrich group) are divided. The osseous roof of the mouth resembles that of the Rails (that is, the bird is schizognathous), but in other respects it more nearly approximates the Herons. A False Under-tail in Storks. In birds generally the tail is well defined, and not to be confounded with or overpassed by contiguous feathers. In a number of species, however, the upper tail-coverts are in- creased in size,and assume diverse forms; but perhaps the most curious development is that exhibited by certain mem- bers of the family of Storks, or Ciconiids. It is but recently that the facts in the case have been made known, and renewed attention has been lately called to them by Mr. Ridgway and others. The birds in question are, in most respects, closely allied to the common stork of Europe, but the true tail is very short and deeply forked, while the lower tadl-coverts are much elongated, extend far beyond the tail itself, and are quite stiff, thus simulating the rectrices, and deceiving the observer into the belief that they form the true tail. “ In- deed,” says Mr. Ridgway, “all authors whom I have been able to consult in the matter describe the black, stiff feath- ers as the upper coverts, and the longer, softer, but still firm feathers beneath them, with a rounded posterior outline, as the tail; in fact, it was only after the most careful examina- tion that I determined the former to be true rectrices.” Mr. Ridgway’s observations were based on the South American Ciconia maguari, for which he has established the genus Huae- nura. It appears, however, that the same characteristics are exhibited by the Ciconia episcopus of Africa and India, which had previously been distinguished as the type of the genus Dissura. These are the only two forms known which are characterized by such a peculiarity of the tail and its coverts. VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY. 483 Mammals. The chief part of the work done on mammals during 1878 has been in the line of anatomical investigation, general or specific; but, at the same time, some important systematic treatises have been published. Only a few of the contribu- tions can be alluded to. In general osteology, E. von Eb- ner and G. M. Humphreys may be mentioned. In the anato- my or physiology of the nervous system, A. Adamkiewicz, M. Duval, 8. Stricker, and A. Vulpian have done considera- ble work. The lungs have been especially investigated by L. Stieda. The placentation has been studied for the ai (Bra- dypus tridactylus) by N. Joly; for the apes, by W. Tur- ner; and for the dugong, by P. Harting. The last contribu- tion is noteworthy, inasmuch as the placental characteristics of the Sirenians (of which the dugong is a representative) were previously unknown. J. A. Allen has published an elaborate memoir on the geographical distribution of the class. Special groups and species have been investigated, but chiefly from an anatomical standpoint. The Mono- tremes have been illustrated in a handsome monograph by P. Gervais. A much-needed systematic revision of all the known bats is due to G. Dobson. P. Van Beneden and P. Gervais’s great work on the Cetaceans has been continued. W. H. Flower has elucidated the family of Ziphiids, and es- pecially the genus Mesoplodon. Several numbers of a mono- graph of the Felidae, superbly illustrated by Wolf, were pub- lished by D. G. Elliott. The anatomy of the binturong (Are- tictis) was examined by A. H. Garrod; that of the anteater by G. Valentin; and that of the Armadillos by A. H. Garrod and M. Watson. The history of the urus (Bos primigenius), as well as the European bison, has been investigated by Aug. Wrzesniowski. A new specific name for a gorilla-like ape has been introduced by E. Alix and A. Bouvier. Fossil forms have been described by E. D. Cope, O. C. Marsh, A. Gaudry, P. Gervais, W. B. Dawkins, R. Hoerness, C, Capelli- ni, and W. H. Flower, and postgraduates of the College of New Jersey (H. F’. Osborn, W. B. Scott, and F. Speir, Jun.). 484 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY, The Primary Zoogeographical Regions of the Earth as determined by the Mammals. The interest for some years felt in the geographical dis- tribution of animal life has been again stimulated, at least in the United States, through the publication of an important and elaborate memoir, by Mr. J. A. Allen, on the “ Geograph- ical Distribution of the Mammalia, considered in Relation to the Principal Ontological Regions of the Earth, and the Laws that Govern the Distribution of Animal Life.” The data ‘yave been collected and co-ordinated with the conscientious thoroughness that is characteristic of Mr. Allen’s work. The author finds no reason to change his views, formerly ex- pressed and held in common with Humboldt, Wagner, Dana, Agassiz, De Candolle, and others, “that life is distribut- ed in circumpolar zones, which conform with the climatic zones, though not always with the parallels of the geogra- pher.... These are directly antagonistic to the scheme of division of the earth’s surface into the life-regions proposed by Dr. Sclater in 1857,” and recently adopted by Mr. Wal- lace in his famous work. Mr. Allen has, however, modified the scheme formerly (in 1871) promulgated by himself, and now submits the following division of the earth’s surface. The primary terrestrial regions of the globe are designat- ed as (1) “realms;” the secondary as (2) “regions;” and the regions themselves are subdivided into (3) “ provinces ;” thus— I. Arctic realm, undivided. II. North Temperate realm, with 2 regions—viz. : 1. American region, with 4 provinces—viz. : a. Boreal. b. Eastern. ce. Middle. d. Western. 2. Europeo-Asiatie region, also with 4 provinces —viz.: a. European. 6. Siberian. c. Mediterranean. d. Manchurian. III. American Tropical realm, with 3 regions—viz. : VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY. _ 485 1, Antillean. 2. Central American. 3. Brazilian. IV. Indo-African realm, with 2 regions—viz.: 1, African region, with 3 provinces—viz. : a, Eastern. b. Western. ¢. Southern. 2, Indian region, with 2 provinces—viz. : a, Continental. b. Insular. V. South American Temperate realm, with 2 provinces —viz.: a. Andean. b. Pampean. VI. Australian realm, with 3 regions—viz. : 1. Australian, with 2 provinces—viz.: a. Australian. b, Papuan. 2. Polynesian. 3. New Zealand. VII. Lemurian realm, undivided. VIII. Antarctic or South Circumpolar, undivided. It would be unadvisable to let this appear without some cautionary remarks. Unquestionably temperature exerts a very great influence over the distribution of life; and a naturalist who first ap-_ proached the subject of zoological geography from a consid- eration of marine animals might very well have an exagger- ated idea of its importance. There is, or has been, within recent geological times, such a free circulation of the sea that no great obstacles intervened to the diffusion of many forms, wherever the conditions were favorable. ‘Temperature, in- deed, was one of those conditions, and the distribution of marine animals is essentially coincident with thermometric zones. But a divergence of contmental areas has prevailed from a distant geological epoch, and, as a matter of fact, the animal associations of the several great isolated continental areas are, on the whole, very distinct, and their differentia- tion, it may be assumed, has advanced pari passu with that of 486 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. the areas they inhabited. This has apparently progressed to such an extent that various types have been able to accom- modate themselves to, or have been modified for, the various climates, and thus, to a large extent, isothermal distribution has been subordinated to land distribution. As to the (1) Arctic and (2) North Temperate realms, we may well hesitate to admit that there is any such distinction between them as to compel us to contradistinguish the latter, as a whole, against the former. Indeed, the former seems to be almost only definable by negative characters, and to be now neutral ground, from which, by the rigor of the climate, most forms of animal life have been excluded; while the “ re- gions” of the latter have each their own peculiarities, which entitle them to recognition as independent “realms” far more than do the characteristics of the Arctic a like rank. With respect to the (3) Indo-European realm, another set of considerations come up for notice. Mr. Allen distributes the 49 families of mammals represented in the “realm” un- der four categories: (1) “12 common to both regions, and also of wide extralimital range;” (2) “18 common to both regions;” (3) “10 peculiar to the African region;” and (4) “9 occurring in the Indian region, but not in the African.” Mr. Allen has evidently been especially influenced by the figures of the second category, but has apparently not consid- ered one circumstance of vital importance. While it is quite true that most of the 18 families enumerated are now in great - part confined to the two “regions” in question, in the Terti- ary epoch almost all ranged far to the northward in Europe, and several into America, and the present restriction is due partly to the change of climate and partly to the encroach- ments of the human race. Indeed, the first and second categories may well be combined in this consideration; and then the distinctive peculiarities of the Indian and African regions will be seen to be quite decided. These distinctive peculiarities are reinforced to such an extent by the pecu- liarities of other classes—especially the fishes—that instead of combining the two, we should rather be disposed to con- trast the African against the Indian in connection with the “ Kuropo-Asiatic region.” Passing over other open questions, it need only be added that there are almost as good, if not even better, reasons for VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY. 487 combining the Lemurian and African regions as for separat- ing them, and that it is premature to recognize an “ Antarc- tic realm” until there is evidence that there are some land animals in it. Mr. Allen’s entire memoir, however, deserves a careful study, and will well repay such an examination. The Species of Bats. On the whole, of all the orders of mammals, the Bats have been, until lately, least studied and understood. Recently, however, Mr. George Edward Dobson has capped his labors on that order by a complete monographic account of all the representatives of the group, under the title of “ A Catalogue of the Chiroptera in the Collection of the British Museum.” “The total number of species described in the following pages is 400.” Of these 71 belong to the suborder of Fru- givora, or fruit-eating bats (designated, by Dobson, on ac- count of the large size of most of the species, Wegachiroptera), and the rest constitute the suborder of Animalivora (named, by Dobson, in contrast with the former, Jicrochiroptera). The frugivorous bats all belong to one family (the Pteropo- dide); but the animalivorous forms are manifested under several modifications of family value. The number and re- lationships of such families, however, can by no means be said to be satisfactorily established by Mr. Dobson, although better approximated than by his predecessors. Mr. Dobson has considered, or at least analytically applied, (1) as of the first importance, the total inclusion in, or partial extension from, the interfemoral membrane of the tail; (2) then the number of the phalanges of the middle finger; (3) next the development or non-development of the cutaneous foliaceous appendages around the nostrils; (4) the presence or absence of tragi to the ears; and (5) lastly, the development of the intermaxillary bones. Distinguished by the varying combi- nations of modifications of those parts, five families are rec- ognized among the animalivorous forms. These are: (1) Rhinolophide, with subfamilies Rhinolophine and Phyllo- rhinine ; (2) Mycteride, with subfamilies Wegadermine and Mycterine ; (3) Vespertilionide, homogeneous; (4) Emballo- nuride, with subfamilies Hmballonurine and Molossine ; and (5) Phyllostomide, with subfamilies Phyllostomine and Lobostomine. These five families are segregated among two wee | | : i 488 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. “alliances,” distinguished by differences in the parts already mentioned, as well as by the structure of the hair. The alli- ances are designated Vespertilionine and Emballonurine ; the former comprising the first three families, and the latter the remaining two. The Vespertilionine forms have “ hair-scales imbricated, the tips of the scales in an oblique line, not ter- minating in acute projections;” while the Hmballonurine types have “ hair-scales in a transverse series, the tips of the scales in a straight [zonary] line, at right angles to the longi- tudinal axis of the hair, nearly always terminating in acute projections.” Several types that have by many naturalists been regarded as of family value are suppressed or placed lower inrank. Thus, the W/olosside are reduced to a subfam- ily of Emballonuride ; the Mormopide to similar rank (with the name Lobostomine) under Phyllostomide ; and the Des- modide are even degraded to the station of a simple “group” under the same family. The author thus differs markedly from Huxley, who had considered the last as representative of a primary subdivision of the bats, co-ordinate with the combination of all the others. No convincing reasons are given for dissent from this view; nor is it apparent why the very decided modifications of dentition and splanchnology of the type in question, co-ordinate as they are with other characteristics, are not of as much taxonomic value as the characters employed to differentiate the families of Mcrochi- roptera. Nevertheless, whatever may be the ultimate deci- sion on such points, the groups, as well as the species, are, on the whole, so well analyzed and diagnosed that the work must be considered as embodying a most decided advance, and marking an epoch in chiropterology. The species, as already indicated, are primarily segregat- ed among two suborders, distinguished, among other charac- ters, by their general adaptation for vegetable or animal food. The coincidence between diet and structure is, however, by no means exact. The Pteropodide, indeed, are almost exclu- sively frugivorous; but some of the Animalivora (Stenoder- mata) are said to be equally so, while the others differ in the character of the animal food most affected by them. Most of them are entitled, by right of regimen, to the name Jnsec- tivora, generally conferred on them; but some prey upon oth- er animals, such as smaller representatives of their own order, VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY. 489 as well as small mammals, birds, amphibians, and even fishes, as in the case of some Megadermide, while others are spe- cialized blood-suckers, or vampires. The fame of the blood- sucking vampire-bats of South America has been greater than has the knowledge of what they really are been exact. The older naturalists, in fact, were misled, and attributed the sanguinivorous habits to innocent insect- or fruit-eating spe- cies; and the significant name of Vampirus was conferred on forms that no more sucked blood than their kindred. The attribute, however, does really pertain to a couple of spe- cies of tropical America—the Desmodus rufus and Diphyl- la ecaudata. “It fell to the lot of Mr. Charles Darwin to de- termine one of the species, at least; and the following is his account of the circumstances under which the discovery of the sanguinivorous habits of this species was made: ‘The vampire-bat is often the cause of much trouble, by biting the horses on their withers. The injury is generally not so much owing to the loss of blood, as to the inflammation which the pressure of the saddle afterwards produces. The whole cir- cumstance has lately been doubted in England. I was there- fore fortunate in being present when one (Desmodus Worbi- gnyt Nat.) was actually caught on a horse’s back. We were bivouacking late one evening near Coquimbo, in Chili, when my servant, noticing that one of the horses was very restive, went to see what was the matter, and, fancying he could de- tect something, very suddenly put his hand on the beast’s withers, and .secured the vampire’” (“ Naturalist’s Voyage Round the World,” 1838, p. 22). The species are adapted for this blood-regimen by much enlarged convergent and acute- ly pointed upper incisor teeth for piercing the skin, and a stomach peculiar by the great cecal elongation of the cardi- ac extremity for digestion of the blood. Of course, the North American species are included with the others. The number is reduced from the 20 recognized by Harrison Allen to 16, and the common European Vespe- rugo serotinus is considered to be specifically identical with the Scotophilus fuscus and Scotophilus carolinensis of Amer- ican authors. For the benefit of those interested, and to whom Dobson’s work may not be available, the following names adopted by that author are compared with the spe- cies recognized by Harrison Allen: X 2 ie itt ee ie 490 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. SUBORDER—MICROCHIROPTERA. Family —Vespertilionide. Group 1.—Plecoti. Antrozous pallidus (p. 171) = Antrozous pallidus, Allen. Plecotus (Corinorhinus) macrotis (p. 180) =Synotus macrotis and Synotus townsendil, Allen. Vesperugo (Vesperus) serotinus, var. B. (p. 192) =Scotophilus carolinensis and Scotophilus fuscus, Allen. Vesperugo (Vesperugo) hesperus (p. 228) = Scotophilus hes- perus, Allen (doubtful species). Vesperugo (Vesperugo) georgianus (p. 235)=Scotophilus georgianus, Allen. Vesperugo (Lasionycteris) noctivagans (p. 238) = Scotophi- lus noctivagans, Allen. Nycticejus crepuscularis (p. 266) = Nycticejus crepuscularis, Allen. Atalapha (Atalapha) noveboracensis (p. 269) = Lasiurus no- veboracensis, Allen. Atalapha (Atalapha) cinerea (p. 272)— Lasiurus cinereus, Allen. Atalapha (Dasypterus) intermedia (p. 274) = Lasiurus inter- medius, Allen. Vespertilio (Vespertilio) nitidus (p. 318)= Vespertilio niti- dus, Allen. Vespertilio (Vespertilio) evotis (p. 324)= Vespertilio evotis, Allen. Vespertilio (Vespertilio) subulatus (p. 324) = Vespertilio sub- ulatus, Allen. Vespertilio (Vespertilio) lucifugus (p. 328) =Vespertilio affi- nis, V. lucifugus, and V. yumanensis, Allen. Fanily—Emballonuride. Nyctinomus brasiliensis (p. 437)—=Nyctinomus nasutus, Al- len. Family— Phyllostomide. Phyllostoma waterhousii (p. 464)—? Macrotus californicus, Allen. VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY. 491 Whales of the Ziphiid Family. Believers in the existence of a “sea-serpent” have felt themselves much supported in their belief by the discovery, ‘from time to time, of some gigantic species of cetacean previ- ously unknown. The group of the order of Cetaceans which las received the greatest number of additions is the family of Ziphiids. Previous to the present century not a single representative of the form had been recorded in scientific literature. The typical genus was based, by Cuvier, on an imperfect skull found in 1804 near Fos, Bouches-du-Rhone, on the Mediterranean coast. By Cuvier the remains were supposed to belong to an extinct type, for which he revived a medizval name of uncertain application—Ziphius. A short time before, however (in 1804), Sowerby had described a liv- ing example of the same family under the name of Physeter bidens. Within the last ten years, the family has received most notable additions, not only from the present seas, but from tertiary strata. Professor Flower, who has done most to elucidate the family, has lately published “A Further Contribution to the Knowledge of the Existing Ziphioid Whales,” and has increased the number of ‘species of the ge- nus Mesoplodon to eight, two new species being added, based on skeletons obtained from New Zealand. The Pacific, in the neighborhood of New Zealand, seems, indeed, to be the favorite abode of the recent Ziphiids. There they have been found, not infrequently, in considerable “schools,” while the individuals found in other parts of the world have been sol- itary, and specimens have been obtained generally at long in- tervals. Too much importance must not, however, be put on this apparent difference, as it may be the result of accident. It is quite possible, nevertheless, that the family is dying out in the Atlantic, and that the conditions for its existence, whatever they may be, are most developed in the Australa- sian waters. In tertiary times, representatives of the family were numerous in species as well as individuals in Europe, and co-existed with forms which are now almost or wholly extinct in the European seas, but which still flourish in the Australian. Apropos to the question of the reality of sea-serpents, too much weight should not be attached to the discovery of new . | 492 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. species of gigantic cetaceans, or other known types, as indic- ative of the probability of the existence of such animals. After all, the type, in the case of the cetaceans, had long been known, and the species would naturally be confounded under it, and, in fact, could only be properly discriminated after careful comparison and study. In the case of a sea-serpent, however, we should have to account for the non-discovery of any remains of a type not correlatable with those of one al- ready known, either in the present or past epochs. ¢ | ~ 48 36. ‘ 15 P2633 3 22 ] 14 $4.45 72 5A 2 $8 9 ae 0) 9 $8.51 The nitrogenous fertilizers gave paying returns in nine trials out of fifty-three. The loss was larger or smaller in proportion as more or less nitrogen was used. As regards the action of the different compounds of nitro- gen, the Peruvian guano brought the largest increase; the mixture of nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, and dried blood next; then followed in order nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, and dried blood, which was worst of all. The Peruvian guano appears at a somewhat unfair advantage, however, because it had rather more phosphoric acid than the mixtures in which other forms of nitrogen were used. On the whole, the results of these field trials by farmers imply that superphosphate and potash salts, or these with Peruvian guano, are as profitable fertilizers as farmers can buy for corn. VI. THE NUTRITION OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Investigations on the feeding of domestic animals during the year has been continued with unabated activity, but has | | i 1 564 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. brought comparatively little that is new in principle or of special popular interest. The German experiment stations, where the bulk of the most accurate work is done, are occu- pied mainly in pushing the inquiries referred to in previous reports. In this country the analysis of foods and experi- mental tests and application of the later theories of feeding are among the most interesting topics we have to note. FEEDING EXPERIMENTS. Digestion of Foods by the Horse. In continuation of the experiments by Wolff and _ asso- ciates at Hohenheim, on the digestion of foods by the horse, reported last year, an ingenious apparatus has been con- structed by which the animal can be kept regularly at work, and the amount regulated at will and accurately measured. Thus far the digestion of the foods has not been materially affected by the amount of work done. As was found in pre- vious experiments, the horse digested less from hay than sheep did. It was further noticed that the decrease in diges- tion which comes with decrease in the amount of nitrogen in the hay was greater in the horse than in the sheep. The experiments indicate that the horse digests somewhat less from coarse foods—hay, straw, and the like—than sheep; but about as much from concentrated foods—grain, etc.—as oth- er domestic animals. Source of Muscular Foree. In the experiments of Wolff above referred to, it was found that as the muscular exertion of the horse increased, the se- cretion of nitrogen in the urea increased also, thus implying a greater consumption of muscle—an observation contrary to those of Voit, Pettenkofer, Fick and Wislicenus, and others. Steps have been taken to verify the experiment. It is no- ticeable, by the way, that though the source of muscular force, whether from consumption .of the nitrogenous or the carbonaceous tissues and food ingredients, is far from being settled, yet, of late, numerous chemists and physiologists are inclined to ascribe it to the nitrogenous materials. AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY. 565 Experiments at the New Hampshire Agricultural College. One of the first experimenters in this country to test the theories of feeding based upon the late German experiments was Mr. J. W. Sanborn, Farm Superintendent of the New Hampshire Agricultural College. During a period of four years he has been feeding rations of poor hay, straw, corn- stalks, ete., which lack albuminoids and fats, with oil-cake and other materials which supply them. His experiments substantiate the view that such mixtures of poor and rich foods serve just as good a purpose as the best hay, and at considerably less cost. FEEDING STUFFS.—DIGESTIBILITY, VALUE, AND USE. Digestibility of Green and Dry Fodder. Weiske and associates have tested the digestion of green and dried esparcet by sheep. They conclude that the food does not become less digestible in the simple process of dry- ing; but that in ordinary practice the hay is less digestible and less valuable than the green fodder, because more or less of the richest portions—leaves, etc.—are lost in curing and housing. This is quite in accordance with the results ob- tained by Wolff, Kiihn, and other experimenters. They also conclude that the water in green foods does not increase the transformation of albuminoids in the animal body; whereas, as is well known, water, consumed by itself, does increase the consumption of albuminoids, and is, in so far, productive of waste in the animal economy. Maize vs. Oats for Horses. The Omnibus Company of Paris, which employs ten thou- sand horses, has been making some experiments, extending over two years, with the view of partially substituting maize for oats in its system of feeding, which allowed 19 pounds of oats per horse each day. The experiments were first made with a limited number of horses, and were so successful that the new system was finally extended to the whole, thus pro- ducing a saving of nearly half a million franes a year. It was ascertained that 11 pounds of oats and 7 pounds of maize were safe proportions for the new feed of grain. The horses showed 566 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. no falling-off in the way of work, but displayed less energy and fire. Any tendency to indigestion from the use of the maize is cured by adding sea-salt to the feed. The results thus obtained are confirmed by the experiments of the Cab Company. This company has also substituted maize for oats, with a total saving per year of over one million francs, the animals showing no decrease of vigor or power of endurance. At present the rations of the horses are prepared according to chemical analysis, the feed of oats being diminished from 16 to 2 pounds by augmenting, in proportion, the beans and maize, the latter double the ratio of the former. Ensilage. The preservation of green fodder by “ ensilage” is receiv- ing increased attention not only in France and other coun- tries where it has for some time been practised, but of late in this country also. Ensilage consists in covering green fodder with a layer of straw and earth either in pits below or in mounds above the surface of the ground. In this cov- ered mass fermentation goes on, and certain chemical changes take place, which M. Grandeau states to be as follows: 1. The sugar already formed in the plant ferments and produces alcohol and a certain amount of acids. 2. The starch and lignin are partially transformed into sugar under the influence of the acids formed, the amount of such changes depending upon the length of time the fod- der remains covered. 3. The nitrogenous and fatty materials become condensed on account of the destruction of non-nitrogenous matters. In this way the relative amount of nutritive nitrogenous sub- stances is increased. ‘This process of curing can be applied to corn fodder, turnip-tops, cabbage-leaves, and to frozen or diseased roots. M. Goffart has experimented largely with ensilage, and the result is that he cures all his hay and green fodder by fermen- tation. He finds the advantages of so doing to be these: 1. The fodder, no matter when gathered or in what condi- tion, can be successfully preserved. Frozen maize can be kept in good condition by such treatment. 2. The fermented maize was found to be more tender than that treated in the usual way. AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY. 567 3. It increases the relative amount of assimilated nitroge- nous materials. Direct experiments in feeding corroborated the truth of this statement. 4, M. Goffart finds himself able to keep more stock, and to fatten them more quickly than when using the old methods of curing fodder. Corn Fodder and Ensilage. M. Lecouteux has written much upon the subject, especially with reference to the application of the process to corn fod- der, His reasons for the growing of corn fodder to be treated in this way are as follows: | 1. Corn fodder gives a larger yield per acre than any other crop. 2. This yield permits the keeping of more cattle, by ena- bling a large territory to be devoted to grazing. 3. Corn is less exacting upon the mineral elements of the soil than other plants that produce less. 4. Corn gives a quick return for capital expended, being a powerful grower, and producing vegetable matter rapidly. The reasons for “ensilage” are: 1. Green-corn fodder has heretofore been in use only two or three months in the year. By this process it can be had at any time. 2. The corn undergoes a change that renders it a more ra- tional fodder. MISCELLANEOUS. Among the many other topics of interest we note the fol- lowing: DAIRYING. Here again, as in the feeding of stock, we have to report a eood deal of investigation and enlarging of former results, but little that is novel in the science, or the practice, of dairy- ing. Among the promoters of the science in this country Professor Caldwell, of Cornell University, may be especiaily mentioned. The discussions of dairy matters in the agricultural jour- nals and meetings have been very active, and the improve- ments in practice among dairymen rapid and gratifying. The International Dairy Fair in New York in December, 1878, 568 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. though hardly “ international,” was still a success, and doubt- less did much to promote the interests of dairying in gen- eral, and, with the rest, the improvement in butter- and cheese-making which is needed to promote their profitable export to Europe. THE SUGAR-BEET INDUSTRY. The Sugar-Beet Enterprise in Maine. The American Cultivator, noticing the success of the first attempt at the production of beet-sugar in Maine, where, as will be remembered, it has received pecuniary support from the State, says: “It has remained for a few enterprising pi- oneers in the beet-sugar industry in Maine, headed by that indefatigable beet-sugar maker Ernest Thomas Gennert, to achieve a most decided success during the past season in the Pine-tree State. Sugar-beets have been raised in Maine, some individual cultivators having produced fifteen, and even twenty, tons to the acre; they have been found to average in saccharine matter higher than beets grown in Germany or France. Practical and efficient machinery has been erected at moderate cost, and first-quality granulated sugar has been produced from these beets, demonstrating beyond a question that sugar-beet raising may be made a remunerative occupa- tion for many New England farmers, and that beet-sugar refineries may be made paying investments in this section of the country if under skilful management. No difficulty presented itself that has not been surmounted, no drawback occurred that may not be easily overcome. Within the brief period of about six months Mr. Gennert has shown the world that he could buy sugar-beet seed in Germany in the spring, ship it to the State of Maine, stimulate the raising of beets, establish a refinery, and astonish the people of New England with the finest sugar of home production refined in Novem- ber of the same year.” According to the Maine State Press, the works of the Maine Beet-sugar Company had on October 30 turned out 94,000 pounds of granulated sugar. The large value of the pulp for cattle-feeding adds to the prospect of success in the Kastern States. AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY. 569 The Sugar-Beet in Virginia and North Carolina. Professor Page, of the University of Virginia, reports ex- periments on the growth of the sugar-beet. ‘The poorest lands, treated with about four hundred pounds of superphos- phate of lime per acre have produced beets richest in sugar, and imported seeds have given beets richer in sugar than the native.” The sugar in the crops of 1878 varied from 9.3 to 13.6 per cent. Dr. Ledoux, director of the experiment station at Chapel Hill, N. C., in a report of 50 pages, summarizes the history of the sugar-beet industry in this country, gives results of experience in Europe, and reports results of a large num- ber of experiments on the growing of the beets.in North Carolina in 1878. Of the samples grown in different parts of the state, five gave from 10.2 to 11.5 per cent. “Of the re- maining sixteen lots, more than three fourths go over 5 per cent.—by no means a very bad showing.” THE DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE OF CITIES. Experience in England. Dr. Voelcker sums up the results of experience in the dis- posal of sewage in England as follows: “1, In my judgment, the most economical plan to dispose of town-sewage is to carry it, if possible, bodily far enough into the open sea to destroy any chance of its being brought back again by the tide. “9, When sewage cannot be taken out into the sea, and land fit for downward intermittent filtration can be acquired, the sewage, partially clarified by subsidence, may be dealt with partly in the way of ordinary irrigation, with a view of realizing a profit in growing Italian rye-grass and other crops, and partly by way of concentrated or downward in- termittent filtration, with a view of getting rid of the excess of sewage for which the sewage farmers cannot find a profit- able use. “3. When such land cannot be procured, recourse should be had to the purification of sewage by chemical precipitat- ing agents. “4, Town-sewage, in my opinion, far from being a valu- 570 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. able agricultural commodity, is a nuisance which can only in exceptional cases be turned to profitable account. It can- not, therefore, be reasonably expected that the agriculturist should have to pay the costs which the disposal of sewage entails, and which ought to be defrayed by the rate-payers, who enjoy the luxury and comfort of a system of water- closets and thorough town-drainage.” The Sewage of Paris. The sewage of Paris (which includes only part of the ref. use of water-closets, that from many houses being taken to cesspools and carted off), amounting to some 73,000,000 gal- Jons daily, is taken from the city sewers to Asniers, in the suburbs, where about one third is now used for irrigation, and the rest let into the Seine. The irrigation by this means of some thousand acres on the peninsula of Gennevilliers is the beginning of an attempt, thus far very successful, to pre- vent the pollution of the river and utilize the material for agriculture. The water is pumped up some twenty to thirty feet, and carried, by gravity, over the land, the distribution being accomplished by ditches. The water is completely purified. Garden crops are raised of great size and the best quality in the market. The rent of the lands supplied with sewage has increased fourfold. The expense of the enter- ptise was borne by the city. Sanitarians and agriculturists are alike gratified with the outcome. ENGINEERING. By WILLIAM H.WAHL, Ph.D., PHILADELPHIA, Pa. THE JETTY WORKS AT THE SOUTH PASS OF THE MISSISSIPPI, from all that can be reliably ascertained, do not appear to have effected much, if any, improvement in the condition of the channel, by reason of the work done in 1878, over that of 1877. This will appear from the following tabulation of the surveys of the government engineer appointed to inspect the work, and whose reports we present from the 28th of July, 1877—when the jetty work was sufficiently advanced to man- ifest a decided improvement in the navigability of the chan- nel—to the 13th of July, 1878, since which time no reports have appeared, the epidemic of yellow fever presumably hay- ing forced the temporary suspension of the work. REPORTS OF GOVERNMENT ENGINEER CAPT. M. R. BROWN FROM THE JETTIES. Date. | Depend oe Depth at Low Tide.| Width at Bottom. July 28, 1877, 20.00 feet. Not reported. 146 feet. Sept. 28, “« 20.00 * 20.50 feet. 230.“ Oe. Sl. ou 20.00 ** | 19.50. © 210 Dec. 51, ‘° 2) Os PAP 212 Feb. 3, 1878, 22.00 ‘* ZITO *3 190 March 4, ‘‘ 22M, Not reported. 110 May 23, ‘* 22.30 ° Be oy a Not reported. dunes. °° 27-20% * | 21.40 feet 100 feet. June 19, ‘ 92.00 “ | 91.40 « 160 “ July 2, . 91.90 * 21.30 * 150‘ July 15, °° pe 4 Mile | 21.20 ** 1 June 4, 1878, July 13, ‘* Head of Passes. 22.90 feet. F170). #5 23.40 feet. PA ty es Not reported. Not reported. The jetties have now been completed, and their permanent effects in scouring a channel will not long be a matter of 572 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. doubt» Before another year we shall doubtless be able to record the success or failure of the experiment which Cap- tain Eads has pushed forward with such admirable perse- verance and energy. The act of Congress relating to this work, it will be remembered, provided that the same should be undertaken at the risk of the contractor; and that pay- ments should be made of specified sums in instalments as rapidly as a channel of specified depth and width should be obtained—the completion of the work being based on the obtaining of a channel thirty feet in depth and two hundred feet in width, for maintaining which permanently a specified yearly payment is also provided for. THE SUTRO TUNNEL, the approaching completion of which we noted in last year’s Record, together with a brief outline of the character and magnitude of the work, reached the Comstock Mines during the past year, connection with the 1650-foot level of the Savage Mine having been effected on the night of July 8, 1878. Much remains to be done before the objects of its projectors will be in condition to be realized; but its beneficial effects in improving the drainage and ventilation of the deep workings, and in reducing their temperature, which have been very serious and expensive drawbacks to the profitable exploitation of the Comstock Mines, are said to be already very plainly manifest. It will no doubt soon be settled in what way it can be made most useful, and whether the advantages gained by draining, ventilat- ing, and cooling the deep workings will or will not be se- riously impaired by choking it w ‘ith trains of ears, as it 1s thought will be the case, if the ores are to be taken through the cane to be Senecrtrated and reduced at Carson, w here the mouth of the tunnel is located, and to which place the Tunnel Company contemplate the removal of most of the mining and milling operations now carried on at Virginia City. Under any circumstances, however, the value of the tunnel is conceded on all hands; and the editor of the Angi- neering and Mining Journal even affirms that “there can be no doubt, that in one way or another, it will be the sal- vation of the deep workings on the Comstock lode.” ENGINEERING. 573 THE INTEROCEANIC CANAL. The interest which the subject of the canalling of the American Isthmus has lately excited in France, and to which we referred in brief in our fecord of 1877, appears to have culminated during the past year in the formal ratification of a contract between the government of the United States of Columbia and the International Committee for the Construc- tion of a Canal across the Isthmus of Darien. This appears to be in keeping with all precedent upon this subject—first a survey, then the location of a “favorable” route, then some enthusiasm, followed by the ratification of a treaty with un- limited concessions, then some more enthusiasm, and nothing more. The contract above referred to specifies that the canal shall be completely neutral and open to the commerce of the world, and that it shall be completed before the year 1895. The concessions embrace the free use of all building materials on the Isthmus, the grant of a strip of land two hundred yards wide on both sides of the projected line, and the right to select, at pleasure, one million acres of land in addition to the foregoing grant. The details of the project that have as yet appeared are, in the main, the same as pub- lished in last year’s /tecord—the line favored by the present projectors being that located by Lieutenant Wyse of the French Navy, starting on the Atlantic side from the Point of Gande, along the Tupisa and Tiati valleys, to the river Tuyra, close to where it discharges into the Gulf of San Mi- cuel, on the Pacific side. The total length of this line would be about seventy miles. Another and shorter route was lo- cated by the Wyse party, as would appear from the pro- ceedings of the late meeting of the International Congress of Commercial Geography, held at the Trocadero Palace in Paris, of which no details have been published, save that its entire length would not exceed 50 kilometers (31.05 miles). Both of these routes, it is further stated, will require tunnels of 14 and 7 kilometers (4.34 and 8.68 miles) respectively. It would appear to be probable that this last route is not far from being identical with that from the Gulf of San Blas (on the Atlantic) to the mouth of the Bayano (on the Pacific), which has been steadily urged by the veteran engineer Traut- — ee aera OEE <_< eo, —_ —" 574 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. wine as being one of the shortest (about thirty-five miles) and most practicable. From what we can glean of the presentation of the subject at the Congress, M. de Lesseps estimated that the cost of either of these lines would not exceed $100,000,000—about the cost of the Suez Canal. (Lesseps is reported as saying that the expense of the American canal would be something like 300,000,000 frances; but that a capital of 500,000,000 francs would amply cover all expenses.) This estimate, it would seem, is, to some extent, based upon the experience gained at Suez; but the engineering and climatic difficulties to be encountered in cutting across the American Isthmus are so much greater than those encountered at Suez, and the elements of uncertainty as to possible cost so numerous, that the estimate of $300,000,000 named in our last Lecord, by a most careful and experienced engineer, will doubtless be much nearer the truth. In view of the difficulties and uncertainties that surround this important problem, and of the fact that even with the most sanguine estimates of its utility fully realized, it would scarcely be possible that it should give its undertakers any return for the enormous expenditures which its construction and maintenance would involve, it does not appear to be within the range of probability that it will ever be under- taken by private enterprise; and among those who have given the subject the most attention, the opinion grows stronger with every year that the American canal must be built—if at all—by the great commercial nations of the world, as a work of international character. A RAILWAY ACROSS NEWFOUNDLAND, a long-mooted project, has again been revived by an act of the local authorities, proposing to grant an annual subsidy of £24,000 to any company that shall construct and main- tain such a line, in addition to which liberal concessions of crown lands are to be granted. The chief arguments used by the advocates of this scheme are, that the construction of such a road as the one proposed would open up immense deposits of useful minerals, great pine and spruce forests, and vast tracts of land capable of yielding abundant har- vests of cereals; and that it would bring America and En- ENGINEERING. 575 rope about one thousand miles nearer, and shorten the ocean voyage by this distance, by rendering possible the establish- ment of a steamship line trom St. Johns, having direct rail- way connection with New York and other centres of traftic in the United States. THE CAPE COD SHIP-CANAL project, so long mooted, was ably advocated during the past year by Mr. Clemens Herschel, of Boston. He pointed out that, while for purposes of commerce the building of the Hoosac Tunnel had materially aided the city in question by enabling it to compete with New York and Philadelphia for the Western trade, so far as ocean outlet is concerned, it still remained landlocked, save due eastwards, where passage to Liverpool is unblocked. To overcome these natural obstacles the proposal is made to make a short-cut ship-canal from deep-water at Barnstable Bay to deep-water at Buzzard’s Bay. The line of canal proposed is seven and a half miles through a low valley, the soil of which is described as “a diluvium of sand and gravel, with some boulders.” At the narrowest point the valley is two hundred and twenty yards wide, and an average depth of eighteen feet at mean low- water would require but thirty-five feet of easy cutting. Mr. Herschel’s plan contemplates a canal twenty feet below sea-level at the southern, and twenty-two and a half feet at the northern end, giving at high-water twenty-two feet at the southern and twenty-seven at the northern. The width on bottom would be sixty feet, with side slope of one and a quarter, giving a surface width of one hundred and eleven to one hundred and thirty-four feet. Buzzard’s Bay has a natural harbor, but a small auxiliary harbor will be required at Barnstable. Part of the Old Colony Railroad must be re-located; there must be a drawbridge for the rail- road and highway, and one ferry each at North and West Sandwich. The total estimates for this work figure up to $1,984,900. Mr. Herschel advocates a free channel with nat- ural current, and he forcibly points out the inconveniences and dangers of the present roundabout route. DELAWARE AND MARYLAND SHIP-CANAL. In pursuance of an act of the last Congress, appropriating 576 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. $15,000 for the survey of a route for a ship-canal to connect Baltimore with the ocean, Major Hutton, Chief of Maryland Division of United States Engineers, has been actively en- gaged in examining the several routes that appear to be avail- able for that purpose. Three routes are spoken of. One would use the Choptank River (some fifty miles from Baltimore) as far as what is known as Indian Creek, thence directly across to the northwest fork of the Nauticoke, and thence in a straight line to Broadkiln Creek, some three miles above the breakwater. This line will be about forty miles in length. A second route proposes to strike the St. Michael River (about forty miles from Baltimore) at Royal Oak, from there to the Choptank to a point above Lord’s Landing, thence to Cabin Creek, from which the line will be carried directly to the Broadkiln on the Delaware. Another route is from the Sassefras River (thirty-five miles from Baltimore) across to Deep Water Point, making use of Blackbird Creek. From what can be learned, however, the most desirable seems to be the Chester River route, which runs from Balti- more to Queenstown (twenty-eight miles), and then directly to the Broadkiln on the Delaware, a distance of fifty-five miles. For this improvement the following advantages are claimed, viz.: by connecting the Chesapeake and Delaware bays it will shorten the distance from Baltimore to the ocean by about two hundred miles; and, furthermore, the commerce of that city would be materially benefited. The city of Baltimore was authorized by the Legislature of Maryland at its last session to appropriate $500,000 towards the comple- tion of the canal, which, with the assistance of Congress, is expected to be shortly realized. A canal across the peninsula of Matanzas Inlet on the At- lantic to Fort Wood or Clay Landing on the Suwanee River in Florida is projected. It would require about seventy-five miles of canal, but would have an excellent harbor on both sides, with no obstructions. It would, it is said, reclaim at least 1,000,000 acres of fertile land, and would shorten the route between New York and New Orleans by about one thousand or twelve hundred miles, saving about two thou- sand miles on the round trip. ENGINEERING. 577 THE IMPROVEMENT OF CHARLESTON HARBOR, it is reported, is shortly to be undertaken by the govern- ment. The plan approved is said to be the same in principle with that now being employed at the mouth of the Missis- sippi. The bar, at the entrance of the harbor, and jetties are to be constructed which shall confine the volume of wa- ter now spread over a wide area to a channel of half a mile in width. The outflow between the projected jetty-heads, which would have a largely increased velocity, is looked to to scour out a channel of from twenty-one to twenty-four feet- depth at mean low-water; the present depth is only about ten or twelve feet. The carrying-out of this improve- ment will, “it is confidently believed, make Charleston har- bor one of the best on the coast.” IMPROVEMENTS ON THE KANAWHA. Large benefits are expected to result from the completion of the improvements of the navigation of the Kanawha River, which have been for some time in progress under govern- ment auspices. From the Ohio River to Connelton (a dis- tance of eighty-five miles) slack- water navigation will be provided for by ten locks and dams, which are being sub- stantially constructed of hewn stone, at a cost of about $250,000, for each dam with lock. HIGH-LEVEL STREET-RAILWAYS OF NEW YORK. The last year witnessed the practical completion of the several lines of elevated street- -railways, which have been so long contemplated and discussed as a means of solving the problem of rapid transit. .There are now in regular opera- tion two lines of elevated railway, forming four continuous iron bridges running lengthwise of Manhattan Island—two on the east side and two on the west—and which, on the com- pletion of the numerous branches in contemplation, will have an aggregate length of about forty miles. Tasteful station- houses are located at convenient distances apart along the routes; and trains are run in both directions at intervals of a few minutes. The utility of the lines in performing the work for which they were intended is universally admitted; but serious complaints are made of the noise, the obstruction of BB 578 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. the streets, the cutting-off of the light to the lower stories of the buildings along certain parts of the lines, the annoy- ance of flying sparks and cinders, and other minor evils. The chief objection, however, appears to be the noise of the passing trains, which, it is anticipated, may be materially diminished by the interposition of mechanical devices for the purpose. A line of elevated railway for the facilitation of the freight business of the Pennsylvania Railroad has been proposed by the company on Market Street, Philadelphia, to connect their depot in West Philadelphia with the freight depot at Six- teenth Street; but, in view of the objections that have been so persistently urged against the elevated-railway experi- ment in New York, it appears to be doubtful whether the consent of the municipal authorities will be given. THE MADEIRA AND MAMORE RAILROAD, the undertaking of which by enterprising American con- tractors was duly noted in last year’s Mecord, appears to have been vigorously pushed forward during the past year. The work appears to be one of almost unexampled difficulty, and thus far no reliable account of progress made has been published, though a number of vessels have been sent out to the locality with large supplies of men and material. At the time of this writing there are rumors that the contractors will be obliged to abandon the enterprise because of difficul- ties of a financial nature, interposed by foreign bondholders, who have instituted legal proceedings, thus locking up dur- ing their continuance the funds that were anticipated to be available for the prosecution of the enterprise. It is to be hoped that these rumors are exaggerated. PROJECTED DRAINING OF THE ZUYDER-ZEE. During the past year, the publication of the more impor- tant details of this immense work, that has been for some time in contemplation, has attracted the extended comment of the engineering journals. The project which in its general features has been practically decided upon—should the work be undertaken in the future—is that of the hydraulic engi- neer Beijerinck. This officer, who was intrusted some years ago by the Netherland Landed Credit Company to make a ENGINEERING. 579 preliminary examination of the subject, reported the conclu- sion that the drainage of the entire Zuyder-Zee was both technically and financially impracticable, but that that por- tion lying south of the Issel Delta offered no insurmountable technical obstacles, and was financially feasible. He pro- posed, accordingly, the draining and reclamation of a district lying south of a dike to be built from a point on the eastern extremity of the North Holland coast-line at Enckhuysen, across the island of Urk to the Haatlander Canal on the Overyssel coast, and the promotion of landing facilities north of the dike. The district thus bounded by the projected dike and the dam of Schneelingwolde, near Amsterdam, would comprise (without the island of Marken) an area of 195,000 hectares (one hectare=2.471 acres), or, allowing for dikes, ditches, canals, and roadways about 19,000 hectares, an area of 176,000 hectares—that is, a district ten times greater than that of the Haarlem Sea would be reclaimed, and the area of the kingdom of Holland would be increased by about one eighteenth. It is understood that the government of the kingdom has granted to the company above named a con- cession to execute the work in question, which company has decided upon the general plan of Beijerinck, modified, how- ever, in certain details to meet certain objections raised by the adjacent provinces of Friesland, Overyssel, Gelderland, Utrecht, and North Holland. The cost of this great under- taking is computed by an official commission at 123,500,000 Dutch guilders ($49,400,000), and the time requisite for its completion sixteen years. The completion ef the dike, which is the most important feature of the work, will require, ac- cording to estimate, eight years; and the pumping-out, one and three-quarter years. The advantages that are expected to be gained by the exe- ention of this work are the direct enrichment of the country by the addition of an extensive and fruitful territory, in which the speedy growth of cities, towns, and villages would increase the industry and commerce of the adjacent prov- inces; the material improvement of the commercial high- ways to Amsterdam; a desirable perfecting of the net-work of railways, and an incidental improvement in the discharge of existing water-ways. 580 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. ST. GOTHARD TUNNEL. Work has been uninterruptedly pushed forward during the past year. The contract of M. Favre, its constructor, re- quires the tunnel to be completed by October, 1880, under heavy pecuniary penalties for every day its completion is de- layed beyond the appointed period. The tunnel has proved to be more difficult than was at first supposed; and, owing to the mistakes of engineers, the work will cost not less than $55,000,000, or twenty millions more than the original estimates, A DEEP SEA HARBOR FOR THE PORT OF BOULOGNE is said to have been decided upon by the French govern- ment, and an appropriation of $3,500,000 has been made for it. The plans said to have been approved are those of M. Stoecklin, and involve a solid stone jetty on the south- west 2235 yards long, a wooden jetty on the northeast 1570 yards long, and a solid stone breakwater on the outer or western boundary 545 yards long. Between the breakwater and the jetty will be two entrances, respectively 272 and 163 yards wide; and in the middle of the harbor a stone jetty will be provided 436 yards long and 218 yards wide, where steamers may embark and land passengers at all stages of the tide. The new port will have a mean depth of twenty-one feet. THE CHANNEL-TUNNEL PROJECT, so far as the English are concerned, remained én statu quo during the past year. On the French side, however, the ex- perimental borings were continued, and are said to have been confirmatory of the geological theories upon which the feasi- bility of the undertaking is based. Incidentally it may be noted that during the year a project has been broached for tunnelling the Channel from the English coast to the Isle of Wight, the increase of traffic between the last-named and the mainland having rendered such a means of safe and rapid communication very desirable. The project of flooding the Sahara still continues to have in Mr. Donald Mackenzie an indefatigable and enthusiastic advocate, but no practical progress towards its realization is to be recorded. ENGINEERING. 581 BRIDGING THE FIRTH OF FORTH. A project which will present, if possible, even greater diffi- culties than the construction of the Tay Bridge, elsewhere referred to, is the bridging of the Firth of Forth, which, it is said, has been decided upon, and so far advanced that plans have been selected, and the immense capital that will be re- quired for the work actually secured. The bridge, from what has transpired, is to be a two-span suspension struct- ure, the depth of the estuary making it impossible to find foundation for piers save on the Island of Inchgarvie. On each side of the Firth will be located a composite pier, com- posed of four sets of iron columns, resting on substantial base- ments,and immense chains, securely attached some distance inshore, will be carried over the tops of these piers and of two smaller ones on the island above named. These chains will support the two lattice girders, each 1600 feet in length. The height of the spans will be 135 feet above high water. The approaches on each side from the high ground to the wa- ter’s edge will be a series of spans carried on brick columns. A RAILWAY BRIDGE ACROSS THE TAY, AT DUNDEE, said to be one of the longest bridges in the world, and to have been a work of extreme difficulty, was completed dur- ing the past year. Its exact length is 10,612 feet. The num- ber of spans is 85, of varying width. The chief difficulty which the engineers encountered arose from the varying character of the bed of the river. Near the shore the rocky bed was easily reached, and the piers thereon were built throughout of brick. Further out, however, the rock-bed suddenly shelved downwards to a great depth, and was over- laid with clay and gravel. Here it was necessary to con- struct, at great labor, large cylinders of masonry filled in with concrete, as a foundation, on which, above high-water mark, iron columns supporting the superstructure were erect- ed. The structure at the centre of the stream is 130 feet above high-water mark. THE RAILWAY BRIDGE over the Duoro River, which was completed during the past year by the Northern Portugal Railway, is described as a 582 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. fine piece of engineering. The valley is narrow, the river-bed is composed of mud and sand to the depth of 50 to 180 feet, and the river is subject to great and rapid freshets, which sometimes raise the surface forty feet in twenty-four hours. On these and other accounts it was decided to be impossible to attempt to locate a pier in the river, and it was therefore spanned by a single iron arch of 525 feet spring, or a little larger than the central span of the great St. Louis Bridge. The arch abuts against piers of masonry on each bank. The mounting of the arch presented great difficulties, but was ac- complished by the help of steel cables. The two halves met at the key with great precision. AN UNDERGROUND RAILWAY FOR PARIS is proposed, and if report may be credited, the following plans have met with approval. The central station will be located at the Gardens of the Palais Royal, from which three lines will radiate: one to the Exchange, the Opera, the railway station of St. Lazare, thence to the Batégnolles, communi- cating with the Great Western Railway and the Chemin de Fer de Ceinture; a second to Les Halles, the Boulevard Se- bastopol, Boulevard de Strasbourg, the Great Eastern and Great Northern Railways (from the Boulevard de Strasbourg a branch line would lead to the Vincennes and Lyons Rail- way stations, passing beneath the Seine to the left side of the river); and a third to the Rue de Rennes, the Mont Par- nasse Railway stations, and the station for Sceaux and Gen- tilly. The cost of this underground net-work is estimated at $30,000,000, and, according to statement, will be borne joint- ly by the state, the Department of the Seine, and the munici- pality. STEAM-HEATING FOR CITIES AND TOWNS. The experiment of heating the city of Lockport, N. Y., with steam, by what is now generally called the Holly system, is believed to have given general satisfaction. Some five miles of mains and laterals, protected by a non-conducting envel- ope, were in use during the last winter. The system has lately been introduced into Springfield, Mass., and its trial in several other localities is spoken of. ENGINEERING. 583 UTILIZATION OF SOLAR HEAT. Reports from the Paris Exhibition bring us some interest- ing statements concerning M. Mouchot’s persistent and laud- able efforts to perfect an apparatus for utilizing the solar heat for the preparation of food, distillation of alcohol, etc., and as a motive power. From published accounts, he has been able, to a notable extent, to perfect his apparatus for these purposes. He has succeeded, we are told, with the aid of a mirror less than one fifth of a square meter, in roasting a pound of beef in twenty-two minutes, in completing a stew in an hour and a half that required four hours with a wood fire, and in raising to the boiling-point in half an hour three quarters of a litre of cold water. For producing power, M. Mouchot employed a conical solar receiver, the mirror of which had an aperture of twenty square meters, in the focus of which is located an iron boiler, weighing, with accessories, 200 kilograms (1 kg=2.2 lbs.), and having a capacity of 100 litres (1 litre=1.05 quarts). On September 2 this appara- tus was put in operation, and in half an hour the water was raised to boiling, and ultimately a pressure of six atmos- pheres was obtained. On September 29 a pressure of seven atmospheres was obtained in two hours, notwithstanding several passing clouds. The solar engine has for a number of years been made the subject of special study by engineers of eminence (Ericsson among the number), and if ever ulti- mately perfected, it may attain to a position of great impor- tance in countries where the uniform intensity of the solar heat throughout the greater part of the year is now regard- ed as a misfortune. The probable development of this form of motor may, however, be regarded as highly problematical. STEAM ROAD-WAGONS. Some attention was drawn during the summer of 1878 by the trial-tests of steam road-wagons, in competition for the prize of $10,000 offered by the Legislature of the State of Wis- consin. ‘Two machines appeared as contestants, but only one was able to go through the prescribed conditions of perform- ance. .This wagon made the trip from Green Bay, by way of Beloit, to Madison, over the common high-road, a distance of 201 miles, at an average speed of six miles an hour, draw- 584 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. ing a heavy load in a wagon weighing 3500 pounds over all grades met. The running time for the 201 miles was thirty- three hours, and at one point it made twenty-one miles in two hours and ten minutes, recording one mile in four min- utes thirty-six seconds. In their report to the Governor the commissioners say: “ The wagon has hauled loads, ploughed, and otherwise accomplished in a successtul manner every test mentioned in the law or suggested by the commission. They are not, however, satisfied that this machine is, in the lan- guage and spirit of the law,a cheap and practical substitute for the use of horses and other animals on the highways and farms.” The chief objection of the commissioners is under- stood to relate to the cost of operating the machine. The experimental trial, nevertheless, is universally conceded to have demonstrated a very decided advance in this field of invention. TEL iN OF EO GY’. By WILLIAM H. WAHL, Ph.D., PHILADELPHIA, Pa. COMPARATIVE MERITS OF DYNAMO-ELECTRIC: MACHINES. A most valuable and practical contribution on the subject of Dynamo-electric Machines was made during the last year by a committee of the Franklin Institute. The report of the sub-committee on Electrical Measurements, by Professors Houston and Thomson, is of such special value that its con- clusions may be properly condensed in this place. The ma- chines that were submitted to the comparative tests were a Gramme, a large Brush, a small Brush, and a Wallace-Far- mer machine; and regret is expressed by the committee that it was not in their power to include a machine of the Sie- mens type (which lately received a very favorable endorse- ment from Professor Tyndall) in the list of those investi- gated. The conclusions reached by the gentlemen above named are, briefly condensed, as follows: The Gramme machine, considered as a means for converting motive-power into electrical current, is pronounced to be the most econom- ical, giving a useful result in the are equal to 38 per cent. (of power utilized), or of 41 per cent. after deducting friction and the resistance of the air. In this machine the loss by friction and local action is the least, the speed being com- paratively low. The large Brush machine gave in the are a useful effect equal to 31 per cent. of the power used, or, after deducting friction, 374 per cent. Itis but little inferior, in this respect, to the Gramme, but has the disadvantage of higher speed, and consequently greater percentage of loss of power by friction. This loss, the committee note, is nearly compen- sated by the advantage possessed by this machine over the others of working with a high external compared with the internal resistance, thus assuring comparative absence of heating in the machine. The small Brush is ranked by the BB2 586 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. committee as the third in efficiency, showing in the are a useful result equivalent to 27 per cent. of the power em- ployed, or of 31 per cent. after deducting friction. The com- mittee state further concerning this apparatus, that although somewhat inferior to the Gramme, it is nevertheless admi- rably adapted for the production of intense currents, and has the advantage of being capable of furnishing currents of widely varying electro-motive force. It possesses the advan- tage of division of the conductor into two circuits, simplicity and ease of repair of the commutator, and comparative free- dom from heating. The Wallace-Farmer machine, according to the commit- tee’s report, does not return to the effective circuit as large a proportion of power as the other machines (14 per cent., or 154 per cent., deducting friction), although it uses in electri- eal work a large amount of power in small space. The cause of this low economy the committee attribute to the expendi- ture of a large proportion of the power in producing local ac- tion. They express the opinion, however, that by remedying this defect an admirable machine would be produced. TELEGRAPHY. In this department the progress made during the past year is specially noteworthy. The most prominent advances to be noticed are the invention of the microphone, by which minute sounds are rendered audible; the improvement of the phonograph, or talking-machine, the announcement of which invention was made in our last volume, but which was not practically brought out until the early part of 1878; and the considerable progress of the problem of electric lighting, which we have esteemed of sufficient importance to be given a separate consideration. |The Telegraphic Journal, referring to the telephone, the phonograph, and the microphone, tersely defines their functions and utility as follows: “ We have now a command over sound similar in kind to that which we pos- sess over light. For the telephone is for the ear what the telescope is for the eye; the phonograph is for sound what the photograph is for light; and the microphone finds its an- alogue in the microscope.” The last-named instrument has already received some highly useful applications, and as it is improved, and its capabilities are better understood, its utility TECHNOLOGY. 587 will doubtless be vastly extended. Sir Henry Thompson, and others following him, have successfully applied it in sur- gical operations and in medical examinations; Rosetti has employed it in the detection and observation of obscure seis- mic phenomena; and Houston and Thomson have applied it as a relay for the telephone. The utility of the telephone likewise has manifested itself in its extensive introduction into practical use; and we may note, as one of the most use- ful developments during the past year, the establishment of a system of telephone exchanges, by which a number of per- sons, who subscribe for the purpose, are brought into commu- ication with each other through the medium of a central station. The past year also witnessed the practical solution of the problem of duplexing submarine cables, by which their ca- pacity for transmission has been materially increased ; Muir- head’s duplex system having been applied to the Madras- Penang section of the Eastern Telegraph Company’s lines, and to that of the French Atlantic Cable, and Stearns hay- ing duplexed one of the Anglo-American lines. The quad- ruplex system, which was first introduced upon the postal telegraph system of England, in 1877 i, is reported to have proved so successful that it had been introduced upon addi- tional circuits. The gradual completion of the extensive net-work of un- derground cables, for some time in course of construction in Germany, to connect the principal cities of that empire, argues well for the success of the system in general. The latest information we have on this point gives the under- ground cable lines in Germany an extent of 2044 kilometers (1267. 28 miles), in the following divisions: 1. Berlin, Halle, Frankfort-on-the-Main, with the branch lines, Hallesbewrie and Frankfort-on-the-Main-Strasburg; 2. Berlin, Potsdam, Magdeburg, Cologne; with Cologne, Elberfeld, Bremen; and 3. Berlin, Hamburg, Kiel. The underground lines already laid are reported to give the utmost satisfaction; and the en- tire length of the lines that have been decided upon, and which are either at present in course of construction or will be shortly completed, is 16,121 kilometers (9995.02 miles). In this country the underground system—even in the cities, where their use is almost universal abroad—does not appear 588 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. to have received any attention, if we except the experimental trial of a short line of the Brooks system (covered wire con- ductors, laid in tubes, with paraftine oil as an insulator), in Philadelphia. THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. The scientific questions which of all others have attracted the most general and widespread popular interest during the past year are those pertaining to the improvement of the electric lighting systems and their possible adaptation for do- mestic purposes. One of the chief causes, doubtless, of the prominence attained by this subject, aside from its own mer- its, is to be credited to the fact of tlre introduction in Paris; during the period of the Exhibition just closed, of the electric light for the illumination of public squares, streets, gardens, halls, and places of amusement upon a scale not hitherto at- tempted; and the possibility that the rapid improvement of the electric light, which will reasonably be expected to fol- low upon the efforts of the numerous inventors who are en- gaged in the effort to solve the problem of adapting it for general illuminating uses as a substitute for gas, might soon be crowned with success, has caused much uneasiness among the gas fraternity, whose important vested interests, it is fear- ed, would in consequence suffer serious depreciation in value. From all that can be Jearned, however, the difficulties that surround the problem of adapting electric lighting to domes- tic uses, as a practical substitute for coal-gas, are of such a se- rious nature that their removal, although it may be success- fully accomplished sooner or later, is scarcely to be expected as an event of the immediate future. Upon the question of the relative cost of the electric light as compared with gas, the comparison being based upon the quantity of light pro- duced, the electric light has decidedly the advantage of the other. In point of purity likewise it is incontestably superior to gas, over which it possesses other and important hygienic advantages. There are other qualities, however, equally im- portant, which the electric light must be demonstrated to possess before it can figure as a rival to present methods of domestic illumination. It must be susceptible of perfect sub- division. The dazzling glare and intensity of the electric light in its present form, while it may be manageable in large open spaces, halls, factories, and public buildings, where it ry TECHNOLOGY. 589 may be diffused by suitably arranged reflectors and globes, would be utterly unsuited for the wants of the private dwell- ing. For this purpose there is demanded not a single light of a thousand candles, but rather fifty lights of twenty can- dles; and not only this, but the luminosity of the fifty lights must be as controllable as our gaslight 1s, so that one or all of them may be used as may be required; and each of the fifty must be so manageable as to be competent to yield such a proportion of its light up to its maximum of twenty candles as may happen to be needed—just as a gaslight may be turned on or off. And all this must be accomplished without loss of current, and without additional expense. The distribution of the current, and its indefinite ramification, from central stations must be controlled with little comparative loss, as gas 1s now conveyed in the mains and distributing pipes; and the preventives against interruptions of communication must be practically perfect in operation; and the mechanism of the lamps, or burners, must be simple, and not liable to become disordered by reason of ordinary usage. These are the salient requirements of a practical household light, which any substitute for gaslight must possess; and though they are by no means impossible to realize in the electric light, it will be obvious that inventors have still much to do before the problem is successfully solved. In recording the prog- ress made during the past year in this field of research, the name of Jablochkoff, with his electric candle, is perhaps most prominent. In America, several notable contributions to the subject have been made. The most novel, and perhaps the most suggestive, is the plan proposed by Messrs. Houston and Thomson, of Philadelphia, to employ the “extra spark,” a phenomenon which appears whenever an electrical current, which flows through a conductor of considerable length, is suddenly broken. As this “extra spark” will appear, al- though the current is not sufficient to sustain an are of any appreciable length at the point of separation, the system which these investigators propose, permits the use of feebler currents for producing an electric light than that ordinarily required. In this plan one or both the electrodes (of carbon or other suitable material) are caused to vibrate to and fro from each other, at such a distance apart that in their mo- tion towards each other they touch, and then recede to a 590 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. regulated distance. These vibrations are controlled by auto- matic mechanism, and are made to follow each other so rap- idly that the effect of the rapid succession of sparks is to the eye a continuous light. At the time of this writing much interest is manifested at the assertion that Mr. Edison has succeeded in effecting the practical subdivision of the current, and that he has devised a novel system of lighting, which, though no statement from the inventor has yet appeared, is reputed to depend upon the resistance interposed by platinum surfaces. Upon this point, it may be of interest to note that Messrs. Houston and Thomson, who have carefully studied the ques- tion of the economical production of light from electrical cur- rents, have inferred that the employment of platinum, or sim- ilar resistant substances, whose temperature of fusion and vaporization is low as compared with that of carbon for the production of light, must be far less economical than the use of the are itself. Until Mr. Edison’s plans are made pub- lic, however, it would be premature to pass judgment upon them. The Sawyer-Mann electric lamp may finally be mentioned as the latest American contribution to this important subject, which is claimed to have overcome most, if not all, of the ob- jections before advanced. The lamp employed by these in- ventors is enclosed in a hermetically sealed tube of glass filled with nitrogen-gas, a slender pencil of carbon complet- ing the circuit between what would otherwise be the two carbon poles. This rod, or pencil, becomes luminous through- out its entire length, and by its incandescence furnishes the light in place of the ordinary voltaic are. The sealing of the apparatus in an atmosphere of nitrogen is for the purpose of preventing its burning away, which would speedily occur in the air. An essential feature of the invention is said to be “an ingenious device for dividing the current, and for main- taining a constant resistance in the circuit, whether the lamps are on or off.” This invention is of so recent a date that no record of its actual performance is at hand from which to judge of its merits, though from the description it would ap- _pear to be very promising. The device of using a continu- ous rod of carbon placed in an atmosphere which is a non- supporter of combustion is not a new one, having been em- TECHNOLOGY. 591 ployed as early as 1874 in the electric lighting system of Messrs. Ladiguin and Kosloff, of which an account will be found in the Record of that year. Whether or not we are on the eve of a quiet revolution of the present system of domestic illumination, as many are dis- posed to believe, the idea appears to be a most erroneous one that the gas companies will find their occupation and their revenues gone. For, supposing the extreme case that the perfection of the electric light should have caused it to be very generally used for domestic illumination, there is still no reason for the belief that the demand for gas will be les- sened by the cessation of its use for illumination; on the con- trary, there is excellent reason to believe that the gradual withdrawal of gas as a lighting agent would go hand-in-hand with its increasing employment as a heating agent, a con- summation that far-sighted engineers have long since pre- dicted. THE FUEL OF THE FUTURE. No less important than the foregoing subject is that of gaseous fuel for domestic and industrial uses, the ultimate success of which (which has long been prophesied by pro- gressive engineers) will carry with it consequences far more revolutionary than those which may result from the general introduction of electric lighting. The Lowe water-gas proc- ess, the suecessful operations of which in the direction of supplying cheap illuminating gas for cities and towns have been from time to time recorded in our annual volumes, and which since our last Zecord has been placed in operation on the largest scale for lighting the cities of Indianapolis and Baltimore, may be said to have given to engineers certain positive data as to cost of production, which seem to fully warrant the prediction that the present wasteful and inef- ficient use of fuel will sooner or later have to give way to improved systems, in which fuel, in gaseous form, will - supersede the use of solid fuel in cities and towns both for domestic and industrial purposes. The advantages of gaseous fuel (the question of its economical production be- ing assumed) in respect to the economy and completeness of its combustion, perfect manageability, absence of dust, dirt, and ashes, and its high calorific value and general con- venience, are so universally acknowledged as to require no 592 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. explanation. It is, therefore, a matter of peculiar interest to record the fact that during the past year certain substan- tial improvements in the mode of producing gaseous fuel were made by Mr. M. H. Strong, of Brooklyn, the opera- tion of which appears to have demonstrated its entire prac- ticability. Mtetaining the general principle of the “ water- gas” process of Lowe, this inventor conceived the idea of employing coal in pulverulent form — aiming to utilize coal- dust (culm), because of its abundance and cheapness—with the idea that in this form it would be peculiarly fitted for rapid and economical decomposition by contact with highly heated steam. Acting upon this principle, Mr. Strong has contrived a modification of the generating and superheating apparatus of Lowe, in which highly heated steam, instead of being led through a mass of incandescent coal, as is the prac- tice with the Lowe system, is ailowed to act directly upon the finely divided carbon. As our purpose here is to record results, we must refer our readers for the details of the ap- paratus to the elaborate descriptions that have appeared in the technical papers during the past year. Experiments made at Mount Vernon, N. Y., continued during several months, to test the capabilities of the Strong system, demon- strated that 50,000 cubic feet of water-gas could be obtained from 2240 lbs. of anthracite coal, or, stated differently, at a cost of from 6 to 8 cents per 1000 feet. They further demon- strated that this weight of fuel, including the quantity used under the boiler, afforded the basis of a safe estimate for a reasonably large scale of operations, since, in practice, better results have been obtained. The labor necessary to pro- duce half a million cubic feet of this gas in twenty-four hours is affirmed to be three men on the shift. Dr. Gideon E. Moore gives the following as the composition by volume of the gas obtained by the mode above described : fxyeen.* yi. eee 0.77 per cent. | Carbonic oxide... 35.88 per cent. Carbonic acid..... 2.05 ‘i Hydrogen ....... BAAMC hoe PIGTOPED. » 9 ghia die 4.43 a Marsh-gas....... 4.11 & SN cline I i a eM oe ii Sa 100.00 per cent. The same chemist has published an admirable investiga- tion of the calorific elements of the Strong gas, and of its heating power in comparison with other fuels. He reaches the apparently paradoxical result that the practical heating TECHNOLOGY. 593 effect of the gas will be to that of the coal from which it was directly derived as 2.78 to 1; the great advantage in favor of the gaseous fuel being due to the fact that this form of fuel permits of a more perfect utilization of its theoretical heating power in practice, while with coal the effective heat- value is greatly lessened by elements of waste, which under the conditions of practical use it is found impossible to ob- viate. regarding the practical value of the Strong gas for metal- lurgical purposes, Dr. Moore’s opinion is no less favorable. It has a higher calorific value than the Siemens gas (which, as incidentally remarked, contains by volume 69 per cent. of nitrogen), and, aside from the question of economy, this investigator affirms it to possess for use in metallurgy the special advantages of affording a high and easily regulated temperature, and a relatively small volume of products of combustion compared with the heating effect it yields. “Ti is, in fact,” he affirms, “the most concentrated form of gase- ous fuel hitherto attainable for this application.” It may be well to observe, regarding this highly important considera- tion, that the conclusions of Dr. Moore respecting the com- parative heating value of this form of gaseous fuel, favorable as they are, would in general practice for miscellaneous uses be much more so, inasmuch as his conclusions are based upon the best standard of comparison available—namely, the evap- oration of water in average boiler practice. With regard to this fact it must, however, be observed that in no department of practice is coal used so economically as in steam-making ; so that it is fair to presume that in domestic use and the in- dustrial arts in general, aside from considerations of increased convenience, uniformity of heating, and manageability, the comparative economy of the gaseous fuel would be greater than Dr. Moore has shown. When the possible future of gaseous fuel is considered in connection with the slow progress that is being made tow- ards the perfection of electric lighting for domestic purposes, it seems more reasonable to anticipate the speedy extension of existing gas-works to supply heating gas than to suppose them to be in imminent danger of finding their occupation gone, as many over-sanguine advocates of the electric light do not hesitate to predict. 594 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. GAS - ENGINES. The past year also witnessed the first practical introduction into this country of a most ingenious improvement in gas- engines, known as the Otto “Silent” gas-engine, a German invention, and an improvement of the Langen-Otto gas-en- gine, that attracted such attention in the machinery depart- ment of the Centennial Exhibition from the novelty of its mechanism. We have no space to enter into details of this new machine further than to state that, as its name indicates, it is noiseless in action; that the consumption of gas is auto- matically regulated by a governor of peculiar construction in accordance with the amount of work thrown on the engine ; that the speed of the engine remains at all times uniform ; that it is very economical, requiring but 214 cubic feet of gas per indicated high-pressure per hour; and that it is available for higher powers than has been the case with for- mer g@as-engines. Where moderate and intermittent power is required, as, for instance, for running hoists in stores and warehouses, printing- presses, ventilating large buildings, and the like, where power is wanted perhaps but a few hours during the day, and at ir- recular intervals, the advantages of this class of engines over the steam-engine is apparent, since the engine Is always ready to be started and to give out at once its full power. There is no boiler requiring firing, no coal, ashes, dirt, or pumps. THE INCRUSTATIONS ON BRICK WALLS, which in damp localities, or after a heavy rain has soaked them, causes such a disfigurement of brick house-fronts in many cities and towns, has been made the subject of two very good papers during the past year, which satisfactorily bring out all the causes that contribute to this nuisance. Mr. William Trautwine shows that one cause of the trouble is to be found in the very general substitution of coal for wood in burning bricks (and the lime used in the mortar). As this coal always contains more or less sulphur, the author ad- vances the opinion that the sulphurous vapors generated in the kiln by its combustion (together with air and moisture) around and through the clay of intensely heated bricks for several days would suffice to convert a certain variable per- TECHNOLOGY. 595 centage of the magnesium and lime silicates of the brick-clay into sulphates. When the bricks become wet, these com- pounds dissolve, and in dry weather succeeding storms, the solution evaporating from the surface of the bricks leaves them coated with these compounds, which have the prop- erty of efflorescing in dry air. Analysis of this incrustation showed it to consist mainly of sulphate of magnesia and lime, thus confirming, so far as it goes, Mr. Trautwine’s explana- tion. Another source of the trouble (which in Philadelphia and vicinity exists in aggravated form) is ascribed to the formation of the efflorescing sulphate of magnesia by the decomposition of mortar. Much, if not all, of the lime used in the locality above named is burned from a magnesian lime- stone (having almost the chemical composition of a dolomite), and the result is a mixture of lime and magnesia, which, be- ing very susceptible to the action of sulphurous vapors dif- fused everywhere in cities by the burning of vast quantities of coal, is gradually decomposed, yielding sulphate of lime and of magnesia. The last-named salt being highly soluble in water, it becomes, by diffusion and absorption in the neigh- boring bricks, the chief cause of the defacement of the same, the sulphate of lime being but slightly soluble. Mr. Pember- ton, following after the above-named author, insists more positively that the main cause of the trouble is in the mortar, as just described, and that the formation of sulphates in the bricks during their manufacture in a coal-burned kiln, while it doubtless contributes something towards producing the disfiguring incrustation, is responsible for only a trifling share of it. IRIDESCENT GLASS, said to be produced by the action of the vapors of chloride of tin upon the finished wares at a high temperature, has be- come a popular novelty in glass during the past year. The iridescence, though decided enough to yield beautiful effects, is not intense. More intense effects are produced with a dark and more or less opaque body; the mode of production of the latter is not generally known. Attention has been pointedly called to the disposition manifested by articles of glass hardened by the La Bastie process to fly into fragments spontaneously and violently. Siemens affirms that glass com- pressed by his process is free from this disadvantage. The 596 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. attempt has been made to use the toughened glass as a sub- stitute for metal in making printer’s type, though with what success does not appear. ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CORUNDUM GEMS. Considerable interest was attracted during the past year by the success of Messrs. Fremy and Feil (the first a chem- ist of celebrity, and the last a leading glass-maker) in pro- ducing, by artificial means, considerable masses of the precious stones known as the ruby and sapphire, which rank next in value to the diamond, in such quantity and quality that the value of these hitherto costly products of nature threatens to be seriously impaired, and sufficient to mect the future wants of the jeweller and watchmaker. ‘The experimenters above named are not the first who have succeeded in producing these colored varieties of corundum by artificial means, but all previous efforts in this direction have been failures, because of the microscopic minuteness of the crystals pro- duced. In their experimental operations Messrs. Fremy and Feil op- erated upon from fifty to seventy-five pounds of material, and subjected it for a lengthened period (about three weeks) to the highest temperature attainable in a glass-furnace. The re- action they designed to accomplish was the decomposition of an aluminous silicate (pure porcelain earth) by means of a metallic oxide (oxide of lead). As carried out at the glass- works of Mr. Feil, a mixture of equal parts of porcelain clay and red-lead was subjected in a fire-clay crucible to the heat of the glass-furnace for several weeks. ‘To prevent the loss of the charge, from the effect of the lead oxide on the silica of the crucible, this was placed, for precaution, within anoth- er. At the close of the operation, and on the cooling of the charge, the contents of the crucible was found to consist of two layers, the upper one vitreous, and consisting chiefly of silicate of lead; the lower one crystalline, and containing clusters of geodes made up of beautiful crystals of alumina, By the addition to the charge of bichromate of potassa, these crystals were obtained of the rose or deep-red color of the ruby, while the blue of the sapphire was perfectly obtained by the addition of a slight percentage of cobalt oxide. TECHNOLOGY. 597 These crystals were found, on examination, to have the same chemical composition, the same hardness, the same spe- cific gravity, and the same crystalline form as the natural ruby and sapphire, and were, in fact, not to be distinguished therefrom. At the same meeting of the French Academy at which Messrs. Fremy and Feil described their process, M. Monnier stated that he had succeeded in obtaining artificial opals by cautiously pouring oxalic acid upon a sirupy solution of sil- icate of soda. THE AMMONIA PROCESS OF SODA MANUFACTURE. In the Lecord for 1873 we noted that much interest had been attracted at the Vienna Exhibition by the dem- onstration of the fact by M. Solvay, a Belgian manufact- urer, that soda could be successfully produced upon the commercial scale in competition with the time-honored proc- ess of Leblanc. The distinguished chemists Hofmann and R. Wagner, in their reports on the chemical industries of that exhibition, were so favorably impressed with the em- inent merits of the ammonia process that they coincided in the opinion that it was destined in time to entirely supersede the process of Leblanc, which for more than half a century had held its own against all rivals. At the time of the Vi- enna Exhibition the yearly production of soda by M. Solvay amounted to about 8,000,000 pounds. In the five years that have elapsed since that time the annual production of soda by the ammonia process has risen to 88,000,000 pounds, one establishment (that of Verangéville-Dombasle) producing one half of this total. The soda produced by the ammonia proc- ess is said to be almost chemically pure, being almost per- fectly free of sulphate of soda and iron. This fact, taken in connection with its cheapness, renders it not only well adapt- ed for all the industrial uses to which Leblane soda is put, but for special uses—glass-making, for instance—makes it of peculiar value. From the foregoing résumé, showing the steady growth of the ammonia-soda process, and its present important position, it would appear as if the prediction ventured by Messrs. Hofmann and Wagner in 1873, regard- ing its future importance, was in course of rapid realiza- tion. 598 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. LAMP-BLACK FROM NATURAL GAS. The manufacture of lamp-black from natural gas, to which public attention was first drawn by the presence of some in- teresting samples of the manufacture in the Ohio section of the Philadelphia Exhibition, appears to be a growing indus- try. Near Gambier, O., there is an establishment employing special burners and other apparatus for the purpose, and pro- ducing no less than sixteen tons of so-called “ diamond-black ” per annum. The number of burners employed is 1800, con- suming 275,000 cubic feet of natural gas per day. The prod- uct is said to be very fine and smooth, free from grit, and of an intense black color. It is quite free from oil, and on this account readily mixes with water, and does not discolor ether, as common lamp-black does. Only a barely visible trace of ferruginous matter is left behind when a platinum dish of the “ diamond-black ” is burned, and this is doubtless derived from scrapings from the metallic surfaces on which it was originally deposited. It is sold in considerable quantity to the makers of printer’s and lithographic inks, and some has even been shipped to Europe. Professor Mallet, who has ex- amined it, declares it to be an exceptionably pure form of carbon. As a new industry that has attained important pro- portions, it is worthy of record. NEW CALEDONIA NICKEL. The display of this metal and its ores from the French penal colony of New Caledonia is affirmed by Professor Sil- liman to have been one of the most remarkable exhibits in the metallurgical department of the late Exhibition at Paris. Hitherto the mine possessing the greatest commercial im- portance as a producer of nickel has been the well-known Gap Mine, in Lancaster County, Pa., worked with such suc- cess by Mr. Joseph Wharton. The Gap ore is what is known to mineralogists as nickeliferous pyrrhotine—a white sul- phide of iron, carrying about 3 per cent. of nickel, and ex- ceedingly difficult to work. The extensive deposits of New Caledonia yield an ore which, if not an entirely new mineral, is nevertheless new in its metallurgical relations, being a hydrous silicate of nickel and magnesia (called garnierite or naumeite) of an apple or pear-green color, and carrying TECHNOLOGY. 599 about 10 per cent. of nickel. It is completely free from all _ traces of sulphur, arsenic, iron, and copper; and if cobalt is found with it, it is in very minute quantities. Over 20,000 tons of this ore, it is said, have been shipped to France and England from New Caledonia; and the production of nickel therefrom, on account of its freedom from the above-named troublesome elements, and from the lead, bismuth, and anti- mony which are found in the German nickel ores, is effected with comparatively little difficulty and cheaply. The price of nickel, in consequence, has fallen to three or four shillings, from the twelve to sixteen shillings which was the old mar- ket figure for nickel. These new ores appear, therefore, to have done for nickel what the Australian tin deposits have done for the last-named metal, at least for the time, in reduc- ing its price to considerably less than one half its long-estab- lished value. Considering the wide range of uses to which nickel is applied, and for which it is known to be adapted, the discovery of new sources which appear to promise a sup- ply large enough to permanently reduce its price, and to pro- portionately extend its applications in the useful arts, is a subject for congratulation. Professor Silliman, however, is careful to add that “we are by no means sure, as yet, that the Caledonian deposits are as permanent as the hopeful own- ers have represented.” ‘The same gentleman notices from the Exhibition that very decided advances have been made in England in working the platinum metals. He notices like- wise the production by an English house of an excellent alloy for subsidiary coin, consisting of aluminum ninety-eight and nickel two parts. It is.silver-white, hard as silver, unoxidiz- able, and extremely light. PLATING METALS BY GALVANIC MEANS. A process for platinum-plating has been devised by Boettger, which is claimed to yield a coating of fine color, great tenacity, and durability, qualities in which all previous processes were deficient. The improvement referred to de- pends upon the fact.which Boettger has observed, that the neutral citrate of soda will dissolve very readily large quan- tities of the platin-ammonium chloride, which is the plating solution commonly used, and with which the difficulty has been met that, owing to its difficult solubility in water, only a 600 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. small quantity could be obtained in solution, so that the pre- pared bath could not be operated with for any length of time. He therefore recommends the preparation of a bath, by treating at the boiling temperature any desired quantity of freshly precipitated platin-ammoninum chloride with a saturated solution of citrate of soda. The result is the im- mediate formation of a deep orange-colored solution, very rich in platinum, which will afford, with two Bunsen cells, a handsome, homogeneous, and tenacious platinum coating. Gaiffe has likewise recommended the use of a cobalt plating, obtained by galvanic means with a neutral solution of double sulphate of cobalt and ammonia, for its hardness and beauty, as a protective coating for plates used in copper-plate engrav- GH ft The disaggregation of metallic tin is a curious phenomenon to which the attention of metallurgists was prominently drawn last year by the publicity given abroad to several remarkable cases where it had been noticed. The fact appears to be es- tablished that for some reason, at present quite unintelligi- ble, metallic tin will at times become so granular and friable that it may readily be crumbled between the fingers. This disintegration cannot be ascribed to any impurity that the metal contains, since it has been noticed to occur with metal containing only traces (0.3 per cent.) of foreign metals, no sulphur or phosphorus, and no oxide. It has been observed to occur in organ-pipes, but cannot be ascribed to the effect of vibration, as in other cases (and the recent cases referred to) it has occurred in tin that had been stored in warehouses, at a tolerably uniform temperature, and untouched for some time. The influence of carburation upon nickel has been studied by Boussingault with the view of ascertaining whether such carburation would affect it like iron, and also to ascertain whether its combination with steel would render the latter less oxidizable. His results showed that while he was able to carburize nickel as readily as iron, the metal showed no increase in elasticity, hardness, and tensile strength. It did not possess the property of tempering, and the alloy with iron rusted easily unless the same contained a large percentage of nickel. TECHNOLOGY. 601 THE PROTECTION OF IRON SURFACES against atmospheric influences by providing them with a skin of oxide, obtained either by the action of superheated steam or hot air allowed to act upon the iron kept at a high tempera- ture, appears to have demonstrated its utility for the purpose. From the discussion which the presentation of the plans of Barff, Bowers, and others called forth in the technical soci- eties, the general principle was held to be correct, that “ met- als are best protected against atmospheric influeuces by a film of their own oxide.” BALATA, which is described as the milky sap of the Bully-tree, has late- ly become an article of commerce as a substitute for gutta- percha, which it resembles very closely, though affirmed to be superior to it in some respects. The following are some of its properties: It is tasteless, has an agreeable odor when warmed, may be cut like gutta-percha, is tough and leathery, and far more elastic than gutta-percha. Like the latter it be- comes soft, and may be joined piece to piece at about 120° Fahr., but will not melt until 270° has been reached. It is completely soluble in the cold in benzole and carbon disul- phide. Turpentine dissolves it on heating, while anhydrous alcohol and ether only partially dissolve it. It becomes strongly electrified by friction, and is a better insulator of electricity than gutta-percha, which latter property may make it valuable for electrical and telegraphic purposes. Caustic alkalies and muriatic acid do not affect it, but, like eutta-percha, it is destroyed by concentrated sulphuric and nitric acids. Balata appears, therefore, to stand between caoutchouc and gutta-percha in its properties, on which account it may for many uses be found to be more valuable than either of them. Dr. Riegler, who described the new gum in a recent paper before the Wiedereesterr. Gewerbeverein, after speaking of the abundance of balata, the increasing demand for elastic gums, and the reckless destruction of the trees which supply rub- ber and gutta-percha, declared it to be “a matter for con- gratulation that the world had been supplied with another and abundant source of elastic-gum, to swell the supply which Cc 602 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. the rapid destruction of these trees threatened to seriously diminish.” ' NEW EXPLOSIVES. . Some interest attaches to several new explosives brought out during the past year, because of their novelty and possi- ble utility ; of these, two are worthy of special notice. One of these is the so-called “ blasting-gelatine,” invented by M. Nobel, the well-known inventor of dynamite. It is said to be formed by dissolving collodion- cotton in nitro-glycerine in the proportions of 10 per cent. of the former to 90 per cent. of the latter. The product is described to be a gelatinous, elastic, transparent, pale-yellow substance, having a specific gravity of 1.6, and the consistence of a stiff jelly. It is said to be less liable to be affected by blows than dynamite, and this indifference may be increased by the addition of from 4 to 10 per cent. of camphor. _ Experiment is affirmed to have shown that “ blasting-gelatine” possesses, weight for weight, 25 per cent., and, bulk for bulk, 40 per cent., greater explosive energy than dynamite. It is further affirmed to be very sta- ble, to be unaffected by water, and to be considerably cheap- er than dynamite. An Austrian military commission is said to have pronounced favorably upon it for PP aces and gen- eral engineering uses. The second compound above referred to was lately brought to the attention of the Royal Dublin Society, by Professor Emerson Reynolds, of Trinity College. It consists, accord- ing to description, of 75 per cent. of chlorate of potassa, with 25 per cent. of a substance called “sulphurea.” It is a white powder, which is said to ignite at a somewhat lower temper- ature than gunpowder, which it exceeds in explosive energy, and leaves about 15 per cent. less of solid residue. It has been used in small cannon, but its inventor claims it to be es- pecially adapted for blasting, for shells, torpedoes, and similar purposes. One of its advantages is pointed out to be that it can be made at a moment’s notice by a comparatively rough mixture of its ingredients, which can be stored or car- ried with perfect safety so long as they are kept separate. Of the nature of “sulphurea,” nothing definite has appeared be- yond the statement that it can easily be procured in any de- sired quantity from a product of the gas-works that is at present wasted, : INDUSTRIAL STATISTICS. By WILLIAM H. WAHL, Ph.D., PHILADELPHIA, PA. GENERAL REVIEW OF THE IRON TRADE OF THE UNITED STATES FOR 1877. The annual report of the secretary of the American Iron and Steel Association, to which, as heretofore, the country is indebted for the most reliable statistics of this important branch of industry, represents, as intimated in our last year’s Tecord, the year 1877 to have been more prolific of financial disaster to the American iron trade than any previous year since the panic. There appears to have been an increased demand for certain of our iron and steel products, but the advantages accruing from this increase were wholly enjoyed by consumers, since, so far as the producers were concerned, prices were too low to be profitable, having reached lower figures. for nearly every species of product than have ever before been quoted in this country; and a still further de- crease appears to have been continued during the year 1878. Mr. Swank’s summary of this topic exhibits the depressed condition of the American iron trade at the close of 1877 too plainly to require further comment. ‘The year 1877 was one of extreme discouragement to American ironmasters and their workmen, and during the first half of the year 1878 there has been no material change for the better—no rift in the dark clouds.” PRODUCTION OF PIG-IRON IN 1877. The report of the Association for the year 1877, which has lately appeared, places the production of pig-iron in the Unit- ed. States during that year at 2,314,585 tons of 2000 pounds, a gain of 221,349 tons (or about 104 per cent.) over that of the previous year (1876). These figures, while they indicate that a healthful reaction has set in, fall far below the produc- ing capacity of the country, as will subsequently be shown. 604 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. The figures for several previous years are given herewith for comparison : Product. : Product. Net Tons. Net Tons. 2,854,558 2,266,581 2,868,278 2,093,236 2,689,413 2,314,585 Of the total production of pig-iron in 1877, 1,061,945 net tons were made with bituminous coal (or coke), 934,737 tons with anthracite, and 317,843 tons with charcoal. The States of Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Mary- land, Georgia, Alabama, Texas, Kentucky, Tennessee, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri increased their make of pig-iron in 1877, The increase of product over that of the previous year (1876) was mainly of anthracite iron in the three Middle States and Maryland. New Jersey, however, shows the largest propor- tionate increase, having doubled its product. Pennsylvania alone produced 1,153,356 tons, or almost 50 per cent. of the total production. ‘The secretary estimates the total number of completed furnaces in the country at the close of 1877, which were either in blast or ready to be blown in, at 716, as against 712 at the close of 1876. At the close of 1876 there were of the whole number (712) 236 in blast and 476 out of blast; and at the close of 1877 there were of the whole number (716) 270 in blast and 446 out of blast; thus show- ing for 1877 a gain of 34 active furnaces. The number of new furnaces erected in 1877 was 17, and the number aban- doned during that year was 13, a net gain of only 4 furnaces. The greatest activity in the construction of new furnaces was shown in the Hocking valley district of Ohio, where 9 fur- naces were built. Commenting on the great number of idle furnaces in the country at the close of 1877, the secretary notices that less than 300 furnaces produce all the iron that the country con- sumes. Most of the furnaces built since 1871 (145 in num- ber), it is stated, embrace all the modern improvements in construction and equipment, and have been located with an eye to securing the greatest advantages with reference to the supply of raw materials and accessibility to the market; while some of the old furnaces, having been badly constructed and er eee oe INDUSTRIAL STATISTICS. 605 unfortunately located, and being on these accounts unable to compete with their modern rivals in the production of cheap iron, may be Jooked upon as being permanently retired from the list of active furnaces. The proportion of these, however, the secretary is careful to add, will hardly exceed one tenth of the whole number of those that are now idle, the larger number of antiquated and badly situated stacks having either been torn down or permanently abandoned since 1873; and as all such actually abandoned furnaces have been from time to time carefully eliminated from the list of existing furnaces, the present number (716) includes a smaller proportion of stacks in danger of permanent abandonment than would at first be imagined. An increase in the demand for pig-iron, especially if accompanied by an advance of a few dollars per ton in price, would, in the opinion of the secretary, enable many old-style and out-of-the-way furnaces to go into blast with profitable results. The total productive capacity of the existing furnaces is placed at about twice the present actual output—that is, about 4,000,000 gross tons—and the opinion is expressed that “ less than ten years hence all of this capacity will be required to meet the wants of our people, and it will undoubtedly be utilized.” A COMPARATIVE TABULATION OF PIG-IRON BY STATES, for comparison with similar tables published in preceding volumes of the Record, is given on the following page, from the official statements of the Association. PRODUCTION OF ROLLED IRON IN 1877. The total production of rolled iron in the United States during the year 1877 is represented by the Association’s sta- tistics to have been 1,476,759 net tons, as compared with 1,509,269 tons in 1876, 1,599,516 tons in 1875, and 1,694,616 tons in 1874. The falling-off in the production of this class of our iron products, observable for the year 1877, is confined, as elsewhere observed, chiefly to the item of iron rails. In the last published statistics of the Association, the item of Bessemer steel rails, which had been included among rolled- iron products in previous reports, is separately classified, a fact which will account for the apparent discrepancy which 606 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. may be observed between the figures for rolled iron in this and previous volumes of the Record. PRODUCTION OF PIG-IRON BY STATES, Condition of | T $3 A ember ay Make of Pig-iron in net tons. STATES. 25 fe at (Tons of 2000 pounds.) Ss oO i. . fag In. |Out.| In. Out.|| 1374, 1875. 1876. ; Mames() = 2 1] ih po ge (hs 1,661/ 2,046! — 3,002) 1,960 Vermont........ 2}.2)...) 2l...|] 32450] © 23400 550 210 Massachusetts...| 6) 1) 5 | 6] 27,991; 21,255) 5,040} 2,904 Connecticut. .... 10| 4! 6 5) 5] 14518! 10,880} 10,160] 14,448 bene 19} 4 14| 7. 12| -oots0| eee) 25°39] 52°000 CW elETSCY pias «wie (, Le ; x 0,0" Pennsylvania. », ,|278/118/166'131 147/|1,213'133) 960/884/1,009,613/1,153,356 Maryland........ 24|. 5) 19}. 6) 18], 54,556} 38,741] 19.876) 26,959 Wirvinia....... c 33| 6) 27] 5) 28] 29,451) 29,985] 18,046] © 12,4384 North Carolina..| .7|...|. 7|...| 7)» 1,340 800 400 325 SO DROTB aks viniia's 11|. 2| 9}. 2) 9 « 9,786) 16,508} 10,518] 18,223 Alabama.:......|° 18] 5) : "| : 32,863] 25,108 aoe ee MORASS tt. %. 6.45 iD ae ge 1012 Laie 42 52: | West Virginia...| 12] 1] 11} 2) 10] 30,134) .25,277| 41,165] 34,905 | Kentucky... .... 22) 41 19|- 7 15|| 61,227) | 48,339} 34,686] 47,607 Tennessee....... 22| 5) 19] 6) 16) 48,770) 28,311) 24,585] 25,940 OURO. aati cke 107| 38) 62) 49 58) 425,001) 415,893) 403,277} 400,398 | Indiana.......... 8| 38! 6) 1 ¥ 13,732] 22,081} 14,547 Hae! Tiling gicivs ash ADL She OQ 37,946) 49,762) 54,168] 61,358 Michigan........ 32| 7 27] 9) 23|| 136,662| 114,805| 95,177] 82,216 | Wisconsin....... 15]. 5). -9| 4) 11] 50,792) -62,139) 51,261] 22,205 Missonriies...... 18| 6} 13} 2} 16]| 75,817] 59,717| 68,228! "73,565 OLESON. os sane 1 | Ea 2.500) - | December 31. i p cient Ser PIG-IRON. =" |a76 = oO oa oe In. | Out.| In. i 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. Anthracite. ...... 231 | 85/143/103/128|1,202,144| 908,046) 794,578) 934,797 Peprccal Sesto . 272| 73/206 576,557| 410,990] 308,649] 317,848 ituminous coa and coke...... 213] 78 910,712| 947,545) 990,009/1,061, 945 ‘otal zr. Ssh: 716 236/476 270 446)/2,689,413 |2,266,581 |2,093,236|2,314,585 CONDITION OF THE BLAST-FURNACES OF THE UNITED STATES, OCTOBER 1, 1878. For convenience of comparison with similar statements in previous volumes of the fecord, there is herewith given a statement of the actual condition of the blast-furnaces of the country down to the most recent period to which accurate INDUSTRIAL STATISTICS. 607 reports are available. These are compiled from the latest published quarterly report of the Jron Age, and represent the condition of things on October 1, 1878: ‘Charcoal Anthracite. peli Tetal numberof stacks.2-. .Joces=. 22124 . 269 | 223 213 Number reported im blast................0 83 88 80 Number reported out‘of blast.............. .186 135 133 Capacity per week of those in blast (tons)..| 7,079 | 17,660 19,360 Capacity per week of those out of blast (tons).| 18,790 | 24,360 29,360 Total furnaces in blast, October 1, 1878............0.ceeeceecee wees 251 Total furnaces out of blast, October 1,.1878.......... 20.6 ce eee sees 454 Weekly capacity of furnaces in blast (tons)....:.......5...5.-00000- 44,099, Weekly capacity of furnaces out of blast (tons).........-.-..-.--005 67,510 Compared with the condition of things at or about the same period of 1877, the above figures for the several classes of furnaces in and out of blast have maintained about the same relations, save that the percentage of charcoal- furnaces in blast in 1878 has slightly diminished. PRODUCTION OF IRON RAILS (Bessemer Exciupep). The production of iron rails in the year 1877, from the As- sociation’s figures, was 332,540 net tons, a smaller production than that of any year since 1864. This decline the secretary ascribes chiefly to the popularity of Bessemer rails, and, in part, to the continued depression of the general business of the country, which still restricts the building of railroads. The production of this class of rails has steadily dimin- ished since 1872, the figures of the single year 1877, as com- pared with those of 1876, showing a falling-off of not less than 134,628 tons (or about 30 per cent.). This steady fall- ing-off will appear from the accompanying tabulation: Net Tons. rears. Net Tons. 905,930 2 501,649 761,062 | 7 467,168 584,469 37 332,540 RAIL PRODUCTION IN 1877 (Bessemer INCLUDED). The total rail production in 1877 was 764,709 net tons, as compared with 879,629 tons in 1876, 792,512 tons in 1875, and 729,413 tons in 1874. Of the total rail product of 1877, 332,540 tons were iron, and 432,169 tons Bessemer steel ; 608 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. showing that, while the production of iron rails was decreased by 134,628 tons, that of Bessemer rails increased 19,708 tons. The total rail production of 1877 was less than that of 1876 by 114,920 tons, a decline of 13 per cent. The production of Bessemer rails, which has been gradually gaining upon that of iron, not only overtook, but considerably surpassed that of iron rails in 1877 by about 100,000 tons. THE BESSEMER-STEEL INDUSTRY. The number of Bessemer-steel establishments in the coun- try at the close of 1877 was 11, showing therefore no increase during that year. The same remark will apply to the year 1878, for which year, however, no reliable statistics of pro- duction can at this time be given. The total productive ea- pacity of the existing works may be estimated approximately at about 700,000 gross tons yearly, a quantity which, from the present business outlook, will be sufficient to meet the demands of the country for some time to come. The Association’s figures show that the quantity of pig- iron and spiegel converted by the Bessemer process in the country during 1877 was 562,227 net tons, as compared with 539,474 tons in 1876, and 395,956 tons in 1875. The amount of spiegeleisen used in 1877 was 48,229 tons, against 45,980 tons in 1876, and 33,245 tons in 1875. Net tons of Bessemer ingots produced in 1877, 560,587, against 525,996 in 1876, and 375,517 in 18753 net tons of rails in 1877, 432,169, against 412,461 in 1876, and 290,863 in 1875. The Bessemer indus- try has had an active existence in this country of eleven years, during which period there have been produced 1,595,- 197 net tons of rails. All of the eleven establishments in the country, with 22 converters, were active during the whole, or part, of the year 1877. As noted in last year’s Record, the use of Bessemer metal as a substitute for wrought iron and other kinds of steel for miscellaneous uses continues to increase steadily. The details of production in net tons will appear from the subjoined table: 1877. Net Tons. 1874. Net Tons. Net Tons. Pig-iron and spiegel converted... .| 204,352 | 395,956 Ingots produced sss .je sv [35,4 v» 191,933 | 375,517 Rails DRQMOGEtaG eB -6o5 55> ven see 144,944 | 290,863 Items. 1S76. Net Tons. 539,474 | 562,227 525,996 | 560,587 412,461 | 432,169 INDUSTRIAL STATISTICS, 609 STEEL OTHER THAN BESSEMER. From the Association’s statistics we may record the pro- duction during the year 1877 of 77,385 net tons of crucible, open-hearth, blister, and puddled steel, against 71,178 tons in 1876, 61,058 tons in 1875, and 49,681 tons in 1874. The above-named quantity was the product of 41 establishments, and of the total, 40,430 tons were crucible steel, 25,031 tons open-hearth, and 11,924 tons puddled and blister steel. Mr. Swank’s figures for open-hearth steel for 1877, it may be ob- served, fall considerably below the production as given in our last year’s Record, on the authority of Messrs. Richmond & Potts; the discrepancy, however, is only apparent, since the figures given by the last named are those of productive capacity, while Mr. Swank’s figures represent actual produc- tion as derived directly from the makers. The secretary of the Association notes that the production of open-hearth steel is steadily growing; and the same state- ment may with equal trath be applied to all our steel prod- ucts, as witness the following official statistics : STEEL OTHER THAN BESSEMER SINCE 1866. Years. Net Tons. | Years. | Net Tons. Years. Net Tons. 18,973 1870 35,000 1874 49,681 19,000 1871 37,000 1875 61,058 21,500 1872 40,000 1876 71,178 23,000 1873 52,000 1877 77,385 | Kinds of Steel. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1S75. 1876. | Crucible cast steel......| 29,260] 34,786] 36,328) 39,401] 39,382] 40,430 Open-hearth steel...... 3,000) 3,500} 7,000) 9,050) 21,400) 25,031 All other steel, except) ae i is Bee Vine 1G 7,740} 13,714} 6,353) 12,607} 10,306] 11,294 Bessemer steel ingots... (120,108 170,652/191,933 375,517|525,996 560,587 EOLA.) aS cats noes 160,108) 222,652/241,614/436,575 597,174 637,342 PRODUCT OF FORGES AND BLOOMERIES, The product of the forges and bloomeries for the year 1877 is placed by Mr. Swank at 47,300 net tons, a slight increase over the figures of the previous year. C a2 610 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. GENERAL ANALYSIS OF TOTAL IRON AND STEEL PRO- DUCTION. The following analytical statement of production in net tons of-the various branches of the iron and steel industries, similar to that presented in previous volumes of the Record, brings down the statistical figures showing the condition of these industries to January 1, 1878—as near to the present as we may come with accuracy. For these figures, as for many. others, we are indebted to the painstaking work of Mr. Swank, the. secretary of the American Iron and Steel Asso- ciation. The figures, it will be observed, indicate a moderate increase in the production of pig-iron as compared with that of the previous year (1876), a continued, though not large, diminution in the production of rolled iron, a considerable falling-off in the production of iron rails, and an increase in steel products of all kinds, although the increase in the pro- duction of Bessemer metal is. not so pronounced as during several previous years. In the figures for all rolled iron Bessemer rails have been excluded. Products. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. Net Tons. Net Tons. Net Tons. Net Tons. Pie wow. is aude. %: 2,689,418 | 2,266,581 | 2,093,236 | 2,314,585 All-rolled iron, includ-) ing nails and iron» | 1,594,616 | 1,599,516 | 1,509,269 | 1,476,759 All-rolled iron, includ-) ing nails and exclud-* | 1,110,147 | 1,097,867 | 1,042,101 | 1,144,219 ING PANG. Gee ee es h Bessemer steel rails...... 144,944 290,863 412,461 432,169 | Iron and all other rails...| 584,469 501,649 467,168 332,540 gor i aT 6,739 | 16,340] 13,086 7,015 Rails of all kinds.........| -729,413 | 792,512| | 879,629 764,709 Kegs of cut nails and spikes, included in all- - | 4,912,180 | 4,726,881 | 4,157,814 | 4,828,918 rolled iron... 2.4 4% Crucible cast steel........ 34,128 39,401 39,382 40,430 | Open-hearth steel........ 7,000 9,050 21,490 25,031 All other steel, exclud-) pe 7 9 ing Bessemer. eo, | gee =e piseae ea Total Bessemer steel..... 191,933 | 375,517 | 525,996 | 560,587 Blooms from.ore and) | 61 979} . 49,248] — 44,628 | 47,300 SEEOR. 7. (5 2 sss 0's > j To the foregoing we are enabled to add, on the authority of Messrs. Richmond & Potts, the American agents for Sie- INDUSTRIAL STATISTICS. 611 mens’s regenerative gas-furnace, the following facts relative to the number of Siemens’s furnaces in the United States on November 30, 1878, and a reliable estimate of their produc- tive capacity, viz. : The total number of Siemens’s furnaces in the United States to above coe is 168, divided as follows: For heating and puddling............. PAGLOLA SAE 247 lO For open-hearth steel-melting . .. «0. 0.esbs Aasedenetee 27 For erncible stecEnielbine! 2 S53. det sss fee eee ee 40 168 The number of furnaces built and in course of building during the year 1878 is as follows: For heating and PHN. See paar viet ene Mls. Sua eee ones ere 15 For open-hearth steel-melting. .....:..5......ccescceececs 6 For crucible steel-melting................... HAS. I788 L - 6 | ey: Petakfarmaces; to.datess 25:05 «0-2 q3s¢-m peg ree ei has 195 The annual productive capacity of the open-hearth furnaces above named is 140,000 gross tons. The 40 crucible-furnaces have a capacity of 984 erncibles per heat, representing an annual production of 40,000 gross tons. THE AMERICAN IRON TRADE IN 1878. The despatch with which the returns of production now reach the office of the Iron and Steel Association, thanks to the effective system of obtaining facts and figures from iron- masters lately introduced and put into operation by its able secretary, Mr. Swank, enables us even thus early to give his estimates for 1878, based upon such full and reliable returns that he is able to affirm them to be very nearly correct. PIG-IRON. The production of 1878 is estimated to have been about 70,000 net tons greater than that of 1877, and is given as 2,382,000 tons, classified as follows: Kinds of fuel. 1878. Anthiaditel.. 5) 9 2.24223 2e eee 1,039,000 net tons. itemainaus, -)4: 422.4 32a bagaes fed d. hae Pleees 1,093,000 ‘S Charedsler sae. oo es wed Ey ee ain 250,000 = * OB gi iat ico 5s apical beg Vike eae ae OOO eS At the close of the year, the secretary estimates the number of furnaces in the country to have been 700, of which 260 612 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. were in blast, and 440 out of blast. Pennsylvania made over 50 per cent. of the total product. The indications are also that the consumption of iron in the United States was greater during the past year thanin 1877, since the reduction of stacks was about 126,000 tons. This fact, taken in connection with the increased production of 70,000 tons credited to the same period, warrants the inference that the increased consumption of 1878 was about 195,000 tons. MANUFACTURED IRON AND STEEL. The rolling-mills appear to have been generally more ac- tively employed last year than during the previous year. Iron ship-building was more active; the elevated railroads of New York demanded a large quantity of finished iron ; bridge-building showed an improvement; government work and other public improvements created an increased demand; the number of locomotives and railroad-cars was largely in excess of the previous year; and the number of miles of rail- road completed was likewise greater. Ten of our eleven Bessemer works were busy during the whole of 1878. A feature of special interest in connection with the inter- ests of the iron-trade during the past year is the fact that the mileage of new railroad constructed in the United States was much greater in 1878 than in 1877. Taking the figures of The Railroad Gazette, which we have heretofore relied upon as the most trustworthy that could be obtained, we learn, upon the authority of that journal, that in 1878 there were laid 2688 miles of new railroad, against 2177 miles in 1877, 2657 in 1876, 1758 in 1875, 2305 in 1874, and 4069 in 1873. From these figures it will appear that the mileage of new road in 1878 has exceeded that of any year since the memorable year 1873, which ushered in the unprecedented financial storm from which the country has just emerged. The recovery of the railroad interests, which these figures demonstrate, is to be regarded as one of the most hopeful signs of returning prosperity. The following figures give the production of manufactured iron and of steel during 1878: PRCT TOE NOES 5a «6 no's ln qinin’> Guna ee goed aes 730,000 net tons. DCSBOMIOE BECO PANGS. 0 Gs ee eaae ERS oe Ce Ge 5 600,000“ Iron rails (same as last year, and probably a few ShHOUGANA TONS. STORIED)... 62s sienna vieccesae cae 332,540 “S INDUSTRIAL STATISTICS. 613 Total rail product in round numbers............ 930,000 net tons, Rolled iron, excluding rails and including nails (Gata asilast Yeats... iin cnse mie nseininn «faye 144,000 ** Open-hearth steel (approximately).............. 50,000 $$ Crucible, blister, and other steel (approximately) 50,000 ‘é The secretary, in summing up his review of the iron trade in 1878, is of opinion that the year, taken all in all, was a more active and prosperous one for the iron trade than either 1876 or 1877. There was an improvement in the demand for all iron and steel products, and prices, save in the case of pig- iron, were well maintained. He concludes that “the new year opens with the promise of a still more active and more prosperous business for our iron and steel manufacturers than the old year gave to them.” COAL PRODUCTION OF 1878. The only branch of our coal industries of which accurate statistical information is available is the Anthracite Coal Trade of Pennsylvania, which is credited with a production of 18,275,000 tons (of 2240 pounds). This amount was di- vided among the several regions in the following proportions: Wyoming rerionita «9.08 s) sts fe eosin Gates 2 7,925,000 tons, Lehigh A EP Ee ASE Ee, SR Ae eT ee 3,440,000 ‘* SCAT) al Rema eane y e ec eeney fee Se eS, 6,910,000 °° SE RE en EAE OLNR BS os Ne AT Le 18,275,000 ‘* This amount shows a falling-off of nearly three millions of tons as compared with the output of the previous year (21,323,000 tons); but the causes regulating the production of anthracite are so intimately connected with the business combinations of the great carrying companies that no infer- ences as to the bearing of the above figures upon the general business of the country would possess any value. It may be of interest here to note that the total produc- tion of the anthracite region up to the close of the last year amounted to 400,162,832 tons, divided as follows: Wyoming repions i So29. AD. 2a S5. ae eee 159,614,369 tons, Sehuvikilly) (S 2d3-atsiwciia Fp seh gue 164,686,236 ‘‘ Lehigh £5, wera > chaelers> apr = Skea eee rae ses “ines 75,862,227 ‘°° Hotalind linn animus. Shahn Uae ise 400,162,832 * Concerning the production of bituminous coals (and coals other than anthracite), we have at the present time no relia- 614 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. ble sources from which to give an estimate. It is confidently asserted, however, that the combination of last year between the great mining and carrying companies to restrict and ap- portion the output of anthracite coal had a favorable effect upon the bituminous trade, which would otherwise have suf- fered a considerable falling-off of production by reason of the continued depression of manufacturing industries and high rates of transportation. From all the facts at our disposal, we infer that the production of bituminous coal during the past year will be found not to have varied notably from that of 1877—28,000,000 tons, but rather under than over this figure. OUR SUPPLY OF ANTHRACITE AND ITS DURATION. By the courtesy of Mr. R. P. Rothwell, Mining Engineer, and the editor of the Engineeri ing and ‘Mining Journal, we are enabled to present in the fecord, from a forthcoming historical treatise on the Anthracite Coal-fields of Pennsyl- vania, the subjoined tabulation, which we believe is entitled to ie considered as a closer iaproximation to the actual tacts regarding the anthracite coal supply‘and its duration than any previous statements that: have appeared. The following figures, which may be looked upon as being as strictly reliable as the nature of the subject will permit, the estimates of average thickness of coal in the several regions and the quantities of the mineral being carefully deduced from extensive practical observation and study, are interest- ing and instructive in several ways. They show, in the first place, most glaringly the remarkable crudity and wasteful- ness of the existing methods of getting coal, the percent- age of waste even in the most favored region reaching at the present time as high as 50 per cent. of the amount actually marketed; and they indicate that the amount of anthracite actually available for the future is much less than has gen- erally been supposed even by those well informed on “the subject. At the present. rate of consumption—say about 25,000,000 tons annually—and allowing the same proportion of waste that occurs in present mining practice, the whole available supply of the anthracite region will-be exhausted in 180 years; but as the rate of consumption must surely in- crease in the future, to keep pace with the growth of manu- INDUSTRIAL STATISTICS. rh eis -- = ; | She _| Om s o 2 | . “en. mos uantity of Coal. eno | Amount mar- eS = Asc ee es S5|_ keted to Field. Sys aa = | Dec. 31, 1877. |< O|Per Acre.| | Total Quantity. sue Sq. Miles.f © Acres. - =SsS= ho Feet. Tons. Pains Tons. Wyoming. .|185.00|118,500|19.00|34,580| 4,097,730,000| 361151,475,872 Lehigh..... 43.75| 28,000 /20.25|36,855| 1,030,120,000| 9) 72 Wisse Schuylkill...|215.00 137, 500 25. 00 45, 45,500 6, 256,250,000 '55|157,776,236 Total..... 381,674,335 Amount exhaust- ed, including Field. waste. Amount yet obtain- able, allowing for waste. Amount yet re- maining. Percentage of the whole.|| ~ Tons, Tons. Tons. With 60% waste, ste, 378,689,680 ¢| 3 719,040,320 | 36 1 1,859,520, 160 With 60% waste, +. - With ‘65e waste; eae |Lehigh-..../ {39g 910,302 | 823,209,608 | 8 |} 329, 283, 879.2 We: With 602 aie ) e With 60% waste, —— C450: 708, 105 fs Seo eats | Pe \2 2,322, 193.318.8 Total..... “1,036,366,685 | 10,347,733,315 4,510,997,358 . : . a, : Wyoming.. With 50% waste factures, it is not at all improbable that the demand will be considerably increased within the next decade or two; so that the period at which the anthracite fields will have be- come practically exhausted will be materially shortened. A production of 100,000,000 tons, which is about the annual output of the coal-fields of Great Britain, would suffice to exhaust our anthracite in the brief space of 45 years; though the rapid development of the enormous deposits of bitumi- nous coal in various parts of the country, and the exhaustless supplies of this form of mineral fuel that are available in nearly all parts of the country, render it scarcely probable that the consumption of our anthracite will ever reach these figures. It is well, nevertheless, that the popular notion that our anthracite Supply; 1S practically exhaustless should be dis- tinctly understood to be a. most mistaken one; and having recognized this unpleasant: fact, it will behoove our mine- owners and operators to devise and introduce such improve- ments in the manner of mining coal as shall reduce the pres- ent large percentage of loss by waste to a more reasonable amount. PRECIOUS METALS. The Engineering and Mining Journal, from the most re- liable data in its possession, estimates the production of pre- 616 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. cious metals in the United States during 1878 to have been at least $85,000,000, made up of Giegtt ae tn kt Menu abn dada ines esd > sped Sunt $41,000,000 SHIVER - saat abn case aee Ge essace eles tos ccs pester’ 40,000,000 Beat IS. RT a RELA 008. CELE. 4,000,000 Miter. Ce ete aeetek tees ad cee Seek care etme had $85,000,000 NUMBER AND CAPACITY OF THE IRON AND STEEL WORKS OF THE UNITED STATES. From the valuable “ Directory to the Iron and Steel Works of the United States,” prepared and published by the Amer- ican Iron and Steel Association, we are enabled to present the number and capacity of the blast-furnaces, rolling-mills, steel- works, catalan forges, and bloomeries in every state and ter- ritory, as corrected to September 1, 1878, to wit: Number of completed blast-furnaces. ............0.ccceececcceecs 698 Annual capacity of all the furnaces in pig-iron (net tons)......... 5,868,000 Annual capacity of bituminous-furnaces in pig-iron (net tons).... 2,587,000 Annual capacity of anthracite-furnaces in pig-iron (net tons)..... 2,281,000 Annual capacity of charcoal-furnaces in pig-iron (net tons)....... 1,000,000 IN QMber Gr OUMTS MINS, 22.052 spe sar Soe a oe se ges cewke o paS EERE S 340 Number of single puddling-furnaces in rolling-mills (a double fur- nace counting as two single Ones)..............ceeeeeeeeeees 4,463 Number of puddling-furnaces in steel-works and bloomeries...... oil Total number of single puddling-furnaces ...............0000000% 4,514 Number of trains of rolls in rolling-mills...................02005- 1,252 Number of trains of rolls in steel-works of all kinds.............. Jo Siete MamMver OL TAINS OF TOME. . wa... ge asi o6os soon edly on Oe ule 1,347 Annual capacity of all rolling-mills in finished iron (net tons).... 4,461,000 Annual capacity of all rail-mills in heavy rails (net tons)......... 1,972,000 Number of Bessemer. steel-wOrks.:. 0... .csesy saieb bo bjs cebeaewees 1L Number of S.esnheMer COD yerters.. 66 m5 we nims0y- Se «mecisier res teemeee 22 Annual Capacity ii dngors (Het LOWS)... . p.ch- o- => Sane ope eee es = 750,000 Number of open-hearth steel-works............0.e0sscecce cece 14 Number ‘of opert-Hearth® furnaces, 4.240552... DAR 22 Annual capacity in ingots (net tons). .i...0. 205. s kee ete eee noes 100,000 Number of crucible cast-steel works............00eeseeceee scenes 38 Mennner of sical mellne ats 2.6 6 << hele nck -sinmteneie seve: Ben 3,400 PVA CAPACItY iN Ingots (NEL TONS)... v4. a.sgs aie cs cannes mige ee 90,000 Number of miscellaneous steel-works...............ceeecceeeeers 8 Annual capacity of same in merchantable steel (net tons)......... 22,000 Number of steel-manipulating works..............0.-eeseeeeeees 23 Number of catalan forges (blooms from ore)..............2.ee00- 64 Annual capacity in blooms and billets (met tons)..............2. «. 65,000 Number of bloomeries (blgoms from pig-iron)............... eat vss 58 Annual capacity in blooms (net tons)............2..ceeee cece wees 65,000 INDUSTRIAL STATISTICS. 617 In the above tabulation the producing capacity of the iron and steel works of the country has been stated by aggregat- ing the individual returns of each establishment. Since, however, in practice, blast-furnaces and rolling-mills can nev- er be operated uniformly to their full capacity, these aggre- gates with respect to them will never be actually realized. With regard to the forges, bloomeries, and steel-works, how- ever, the summary is believed to represent, without much overstatement, their actual working capacity. THE WORLD’S PRODUCTION OF IRON AND COAL. It may be of value to introduce here a statement of the world’s production of iron and coal, and of steel, which is given herewith, the estimates being based upon the most re- cent accurate information at disposal: Cast or Pig Iron. Mineral Coal. Couutries, Gross Tons. Years. Gross Tons. Great Britain 6,300,000 || 1877 | 134,179,968 United States 2,066,594 50,000,000 Germany 1,566,600 || 1877 | 48,337,950 1,322,869 || 1876 | 16,778,779 418,366 || 1876 14,099,281 472,285 375 | 12,852,048 1877 3,000,000 1875 1,152,850 1875 1,250,000 1877 1,000,000 1877 | 500,000 1875 500,000 pie 150,000 1874 182,500 374 |- 390,000 ..... | 1,000,000 285,368,376 To the foregoing figures of pig-iron there should properly be added the known and estimated make of iron direct from the ore, by primitive methods, as practised in certain parts of this country, in China, India, and other countries. This Mr. Swank estimates at about 50,000 tons yearly ; and if so add- ed, would swell the figure of total production to 13,408,628 gross tons, or, in round numbers, 13,400,000 tons. 618 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. The world’s steel product in 1877, based upon the latest re- liable statistics, is as follows, in tons of 2240 pounds: Great Britain, 1,000,000; United States, 570,000; Germany, 370,000; France, 250,000; Belgium, 75,000; Austro-Hungary, 75,000 ; Sweden, 25,000; Russia, 15,000; Canada, Spain, Italy, India, Japan, and other countries, 20,000—making a total of 2,400,- 000 gross tons. SILK. MANUFACTURE. The statement of the imports of raw silk at the ports of New York and San Francisco for the year 1878, which we have received through the politeness of the secretary of the Silk Association of America, indicates a steady growth of the silk industry in this country, showing as it does an increase in the consumption of the raw material. The figures for sev- eral years, presented for comparison, are as follows: : Year. Bales. Value. GWA. b ccaet sda’ coe (Pe 5 ga RAN ag og. $3,627,367 TOUR ECE Seer hes cee Tidnecn ett ee 5,327,742 MB IG. F SEBEL OS Ont 1159872584 ES yd 5,600, 877 NB IGE ke eek.» (MN Deleon DP Sl Ote ee ths halos uate 5,591 , 084 SIO. 2 dee hic te Utah ode ES GOS ON on cewens sisvme «tp Og bh Agere An inspection of these figures will show that the number of bales imported in 1878'is so largely in excess of that for the previous year that the value also shows a considerable increase, although the price of raw silk is materially lower than at any time since the Rebellion. ‘The general statistics of the trade, compared for a number of years, demonstrate its steady growth by illustrating that the falling-off of our imports of manufactured silk coods has been in close relation with the steady increase of their production here. During the past year, it may be noticed, the question of introducing the culture of silk in the United States has attracted wide- spread interest and enlisted the advocacy of many influential men. Prominent among these may be named Professor C. V. Riley, of the Department of Agriculture, whose able paper before the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, on the feasibility of successfully establishing silk-culture as an American industry, is worthy of special notice. MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. The statisties of this branch of manufacturing industry are. INDUSTRIAL STATISTICS. 619 very encouraging. The more important facts and figures bearing thereon are given below: | Census, 1860. | Census, 1870. ‘Estimated, 1878. Number of cotton-spindles.... 5,235,727 132,415 10,500,000 Cotton consumed in pounds) z gross (tare not deducted). 5 415,000,000 lhe 698,000,000 Product cloth, yarn, etc.) (pounds)... Rei ies f 364,000,000} 340,000,000) 586,000,000 Corresponding to yards...,... 1, 200,000,000) 1,445,000,000 2,637,000,000 Yards per, pound)-227; 2222. 35 ‘44 44 The exports of domestic cotton goods a the years below, ending June 30, are as follows: Total values: /US FERIA pipe peop hala pth ee: $5,481,000 “AFT lane ng at Hahei alten 9,062,000 TOT ee a ee eS ee eee 10,236,000 NSBR eek nace to) atest a ee eee 11,435,000 The largest export of this class of goods, which was reached in the year ending June 30, 1878, amounted to 6+ per cent. of the total production. The export trade has increased in the last three years at an average rate of about 60 per cent. yearly in quantity, and 36 per cent. in value. Capital invested in cotton manufactures, 1878, $208,000,000. Our imports of wool, and manufactures thereof, for the nine months ending September 30, 1878, as per the statements of the Bureau of Statistics, were of the value of $23,878,631, a decrease of nearly nine millions as compared with the fig- ures for the corresponding period of 1877. Our exports of these manufactures are as yet insignificant. Statistics of home production to date are not at present available. For the twelve months ending December 31, 1878, the value of the exports of merchandise of the United States ex- ceeded that of the imports by $305,343,028, NECROLOGY. Anderson, Andrews Anders. A well-known ornithologist, especially familiar with the birds of India. Died in July, 1878. Asten, Professor Emil von. Author of several important papers on astronomical subjects, especially respecting the orbits of Uranus and the mo- tion of Encke’s comets. Died August 15th, at Kiel, in the thirty-sixth year of his age. Back, Admiral Sir George. Well known in connection with arctic exploration. Accompanied Sir John Franklin, in 1818, in his overland expedition from Hudson Bay to the Coppermine River, after a still earlier experience in a voyage to Spitzbergen. With Franklin again in 1825, co- operating with Captains Beechy and Parry in their search for a Northwest passage. Appointed to conduct an expedition in 1833 for the relief of Sir John Ross; and closing his connection with arctic exploration by a voyage to Greenland in the Zerror, in 1836, when he nearly reached Repulse Bay. Died in June, in the eighty-first year of his age. Bardwell, Professor F.W. Employed for a time, after graduating at Harvard, on the Nautical Almanac ; then Professor at Antioch College, and subsequently Professor of Astronomy and Engineering in the University of Kansas. Died at the age of forty-six. Becquerel, Professor A.C. Member of the Institute of France, and the author of many valuable papers on electricity; for his discoveries, a re- cipient of the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1837. A Pro- fessor of Physics in the Museum of Natural History of Paris. Died January 19th, at the age of nearly ninety. Behn, Professor W. F. G. Professor of Zoology in the University of Kiel, and also at Dresden; subsequently President of the Leopold-Caroline Academy of Naturalists. Died at Dresden, May 14th, in the seventieth year of his age. Belgrand. A distinguished French engineer, and the projector of the system of sewerage in Paris. Died April 8th, in the sixty-eighth year of his age. Belt, Thomas. An accomplished naturalist and geologist. Died in Colorado. Berendt, Dr.G. Well known for his explorations in Mexico and Cen- tral America; an ardent student of the ethnology, geography, and natural history of these countries, and especially interested in the philology of the NECROLOGY. 621 aborigines. It is understood that his writings were bequeathed to the Ber- lin Museum. Died at Guatemala City, April 12th. Bibra, Baron von. A remarkable combination of savant and naturalist, haying written many important papers on chemical subjects, on the diseases of workmen in match-factories, on materia medica, and on archeology; also the author of many interesting novels and sketches. Died at Nuremberg on the 5th of June. Blackmore, William. An eminent lawyer in London; the founder of the Blackmore Museum of Ethnology at Salisbury, England, which he en- dowed with a sufficient sum for its support. Died in April last. Bleeker, Dr. Peter von. An eminent ichthyologist, who, at nineteen, went to Batavia on the medical staff of the East Indian army, where he studied zealously the natural history of the country, especially that of the fishes, Of these he made large collections, which served as material for extended publi- cations, and which are now deposited in the British, Hamburg, and Nether- lands museums. Died at the Hague, January 24th, at the age of fifty-nine. Bloxam, Rev. Andrew. Well known as a botanist, especially in con- nection with the study of certain forms of Rosacee. Died February 2d, at the age of seventy-six. Bonomi, J oseph. A distinguished Egyptian explorer, commencing his labors in 1824, and resuming them in 1842, after a visit to England. He ar- ranged the Egyptian collections of the British Museum, and was for sixteen years Curator of the Soane Museum, JDied March 3d, near London, at the age of eighty-two. Booth, Rev. James. Known as an author of several mathematical pa- pers. Received the presentation to the Vicarage of Stone from the Royal Astronomical Society, which holds the right of appointment. Died April 15th, at the age of seventy-one. Borszczow, Elias. A Russian botanist. Director of the Botanic Gar- den of Kiew. Died at Kiew, May 12th. Bruggemann, Dr. F. A valued collaborator of the British Museum, having been engaged about a year before his death in arranging and cata- loguing its corals, of which he had determined 1500 species. For many years an assistant of Professor Heckel. Buxton, C.E. A student of the ornithology of Sumatra, of which he collected many rare species. Died while engaged in an exploration on the Niger. Church, Professor Albert E. In charge of the chair of mathematics at West Point, having been connected with the institution for forty years. Author of ‘‘ Elements of Differential and Integral Calculus,” and ‘‘ Ele- ments of Analytical Geometry.” Died March 30th. Clarke, Rev. W. B. A well-known Australian geologist. Died at Sydney. 622 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. Cooper, T. T. Distinguished as an explorer and traveller in India, China, Australia, and elsewhere, his labors resulting in the accumulation of a large amount of geographical and statistical information, to be found in British official publications. Assassinated by one of his Sepoy guards on the Irrawaddy River. Corbett, Dr. Joseph Henry. Formerly Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in the University of Dublin. Died in March. Crespel, Captain. One of the Belgian Committee of the International African Association for prosecuting certain special explorations. Died at Zanzibar. Curioni, Giulio. A distinguished chemist and geologist. Died at Milan, in his eighty-second year. Daintree, Richard. A well-known Australian geologist. Died at Queensland, in his forty-sixth year. Delafosse. Professor of Mineralogy in the Paris Museum of Natural History. Born in 1796, and elected Perpetual Secretary of the Academy of Sciences of Paris in 1857. Died October 13th, in the eighty-third year of his age. Du Mortier, Barthélemy Charles. A Belgian botanist and zoologist, and well known for his investigations upon the fresh-water Bryozoans and Gasteropods. Died at Tournay, on the 9th of July, in the eighty-second year of his age. Durien. See de Maissonneuve. Durnford, Henry. Known as a zoological explorer in South America. Author of an account of the birds of Patagonia in the London Jézs. Died at Salto, in Bolivia, early in July. Elton, Captain. A well-known African explorer, whose journals, draw- ings, and maps are of great value. Died while engaged in important ex- plorations. Ettingshausen, Baron von. Born at Heidelberg in 1796. Professor of Physics in Innspruck in 1821, afterwards Professor of Mathematics in Vienna, and-finally Professor of Physics in that city, and Director of the Physical Institute of Vienna. A well-known author of works on mathe- matics, geology, and palxontology. Died at the age of eighty-two. Fischer, Professor. Connected with the Laboratory of the Gymnasium of Prague, and eminent as a chemist. In a blind confidence that cyanide of potassium would be rendered harmless by combining it with sal ammoniac, he took this combination in the presence of fellow investigators, and died at the age of twenty-five. Fordos, J. Vice-President of the Paris Chemical Society. Died in August. Fries, Professor Elias M. A distinguished botanist of the University tae NECROLOGY.> 623 of Upsala. Born August 15th, 1794. Died February 8th, at the age of eighty-four. Gabb, William M. Born J anuary 20th, 1839. Educated at the Philadelphia High-School, and early interested in mineralogy and pale- ontology. Elected a member of the Academy of Natural Sciences, he be- came a zealous student of the fossil invertebrates of the United States. In 1860 engaged by Professor J. D. Whitney in the geological survey of California, and in 1868 commenced the work of a geological survey of the lands of the San Domingo Land and Mining Company. In 1873 he un- dertook a similar service for the government of Costa Rica, at the same time making researches into the natural history and ethnology of the country, and sending valuable collections to the National Museum at Washington. Re- visited San Domingo in 1876, but again returned to Philadelphia in March, 1878, where he died on the 30th of May, in the fortieth year of his age. Girard, Professor H. Known in connection with the Stassfurt depos- its. Recently Director of the Halle Museum. Died April 12th. Griffith, Sir Richard. The oldest geologist of England. Died in October, at the age of ninety-four. Grubb, Thomas. A mechanical engineer, and distinguished as a prac- tical optician, having constructed some of the finest telescopes in Great Brit- ain. Died September 19th. Hailes, Daniel. Distinguished as one of the crew of Captain Nares, and one of the ten who planted the Union-Jack in latitude 83° 20’ 26’. Died, a victim of the ill-fated Kurydice, off the Isle of Wight, on the 25th of March. Harkness, Professor Robert. Professor of Natural History in Queen's College, Cork. Died October 4th, at the age of fifty. Hay, Arthur. Marquis of Tweeddale. President of the Zoological So- ciety of London. A specialist in ornithology. Died December 29th. Henry, Professor Joseph. The most eminent scientist of America; commenced his public career early in the present century, first at Albany, then at Princeton, and finally as the honored Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, which position he occupied since 1846. Distinguished for many important discoveries and observations on physics, especially in connection with the electro-magnetic telegraph. Born in 1799. Died in Washington, May 13th, in the seventy-ninth year of his age. r Hermanauz, Professor C., of Vienna. Died in Japan, while on a tour round the world, in connection with agricultural research. Hewitson, William. Well known for his publications on British Zo- ology and on butterflies, and for his liberal benefactions in the interest of the latter branch of natural history. Hoffner, Ferdinand. Editor of the Biographie Générale. Died at Seine-et-Pise, May 8th, at the age of sixty-eight. 624 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. Jeger, August. Botanist. Died at Freiburg. Kohl, Dr. Johann George. City Librarian of Bremen. Visited the United States some years ago, for the purpose of studying certain points con- nected with the early geography of America, Died on the 28th of October, at the age of seventy. Kurz, Sulpiz. Curator of the Herbarium of the Calcutta Botanic Gar- den. Author of a work on the flora of British Burmah, Born at Munich. Died at Pulo Penang, aged forty-four. La Marmora, General, An eminent Italian engineer and patron of scientific research. Landvort, Schouw. Connected with the Geographical Society of Holland, and leader of an expedition for the exploration of the Interior of Sumatra. Langethal, Professor C. BE. A well-known botanist of Germany. Born at Erfiirt in 1806. Died at Jena, July 25th, in the seventy-second year of his age. Leymarie. Professor of Geology at Toulouse. Author of the first ge- ological map of France. Died October 5th. MacNab. Curator of the Edinburgh Botanic Gardens. Died Novem- ber 20th, aged sixty-nine. Main, Rev. Robert. Director of the Radcliffe Observatory at Oxford. Died on the 7th of May, at an advanced age. Maissonneuve, Michel Charles Durien de. Honorary Director of the Gardens of Bordeaux. Died February 20th, at the age of eighty-two. Malaguti, Professor. A well-known French chemist. An Italian by birth. An assistant for a time of Gay Lussac; occupied the chair of chemistry at Rennes at the time of his death, which took place April 24th, in the seventy-seventh year of his age. Mello, Joaquim Covrea de. A botanist of Brazil. Died Decem- ber 20th. Montgomerie, Colonel. Connected with the Indian Trigonometrical Survey Department since 1852. Morch, Dr. An eminent Danish conchologist. Died at Nice in Feb- ruary. Murray, Andrew. An author of works in several distinct branches of pure and applied zoology; his researches being more especially directed to scientific entomology in its applications to agriculture, forestry, ete. Author of a very important work on the geographical distribution of the Mammals, Born in 1812. Died January 10th, at the age of sixty-five. Oldham, Professor Thomas, Well known as the Director of the Geo- NECROLOGY. an LAS 625 logical Survey of India. At one time filled the chair of geology in the Uni- versity at Dublin, and occupied many other important posts as a geologist and mineralogist. Died at Rugby, July 17th. Olney, Stephen F. An American botanist; devoted especially to the botany of Rhode Island. Died at Providence, R. 1., July 27th, aged sixty- SIX. Pfeiffer, Louis. A botanist and conchologist; especially known for his monographs of the land shells. Died at the age of seventy-two. Pickering, Dr. Charles. Born in 1804. Becoming a resident of Philadelphia in 1827, he was for many years an active member of the Acad- emy of Natural Sciences of that city. Was connected with the Wilkes Ex- ploring Expedition. ‘Travelled through portions of Europe, Asia, and Africa, in search of ethnological data. Author of several important works connected with his favorite studies, especially on the races and the geographical distri- bution of man, plants, animals, etc. Died in Boston, March 17th, in the seventy-fourth year of his age. Quetelet, Ernest. Distinguished as an astronomer; connected with the Royal Observatory of Brussels for several years. Born August 7th, 1835. Died September 6th. Raspail, V.R. An eminent French naturalist; a writer on systematic botany, vegetable physiology, and chemical jurisprudence. The inventor of a valuable microscope, still in use as a dissecting instrument. Died January 17th, in the eighty-fourth year of his age. Regnault, H. B. Born in July, 1810. In 1840 appointed Professor of Physics in the College of France, and of Chemistry in the Polytechnic School. In 1854, a director in the porcelain manufactory at Sevres. The author of many valuable works on the use of steam as a motive power. Died January 29th. Rokitansky, Professor Karl von. President of the Vienna Academy of Sciences. Best known as a pathological anatomist. Died July 23d, at the age of seventy-four. Secchi, Father. Director of the Observatory in the Collegio Romano. The founder of the society of Italian spectroscopists. “At one time connected with Georgetown College, D.C. Died February 26th, at the age of fifty- nine. Seubert, Moritz. A botanist. Died April 6th, at Carlsruhe, aged sixty. Soleil. An eminent manufacturer of optical instruments in Paris. Died recently, in the eightieth year of his age. Stal, Professor C. Author of important papers on the Hemiptera and Orthoptera. Connected with the State Museum of Sweden. Died June 14th, in the forty-fifth year of his age. Stokes, Professor William, of Dublin. Died January 7th. Dp 626 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. Thatcher, Charles. A well-known conchological ‘collector. Died of fever at Shanghai. Thomson, Dr. Thomas. A botanist, and well known as an assistant of Sir Joseph Hooker in Himalayan exploration, and in the Indian flora. At one time Director of the Calcutta Botanic Garden. . Born at Glasgow, 1811. Died April 18th. Visiani, Professor R.de. In charge of the department of botany in the University of Padua. Author of a ‘‘Flora Dalmatica,” ete. Died May 4th, aged seventy-seven. Wallis, Dr. Gustav. A distinguished German botanist. A collector of plants in Central and South America, and also in the Philippine Islands. It is said that 1000 new species were introduced by him into European horti- culture. Weber, Professor E. H., of Leipsic. Occupied the chair of physiology in the University of Leipsic. Author of several treatises on anatomy and physiology. Died January 16th, in the seventy-eighth year of his age. Williams, Professor Gustav. ah theo 645 ENN GEMOLICS so sio,5.o aie, = 5 are, she ois eee 648 JN COUSHICSS.c.5, oc/acle le « « -) -2inaomtraene 648 Electricity and Magnetism......... 649 OHIO on op oapcoeansnT ACate CO ISDE 649 Periodicals. seu so sees teases 649 ENIStORYAsectoie oracle ne etter .. 649 629 Crelap ted 1 20s oe oie eactar ..--Page 649 SYSLEMALIC.. < =...< «2.5/5 « s,0minjebgaraeer ae 649 Inorganic Chemistry... .....<0:c.228 650 Organic Chemistry,. o> << >,si seem ees 650 ASIA Y BIS. = otoctorciaer sero 653 Periondicalsitts.ccs2 =~ Hibbs Acaeer 653 SyStemiNticnes Aes. sola tae ae 653 MiscellameOns-occcca tose crane 654 Morphology and Physiology....... 654 Chemistry of ‘Plants? .a.--c-ss- as 654 iH La eh eases ore: ese wis inser 655 ALICANTE Ee eee dee cae sete Sic las: SAUNT! BESO Be GOCE OE A HORE NEOUS orator 655 AMStralasiat ss! [2224S ie. ol tee ses 655 Europe (General; Belgium; Great Britains sore teas ceperecnicee e 655 North America (General; Canada; United States; Connecticut).... 656 South*Ameri¢ayss32234--:> 2 s-seeee 657 MitterenteGroupses vaceacia. sere craters . 657 Tne ne ope aooc socdocoauoceneer 65T PYM OTe Serie aot ao ee tee cad aretha ete 657 MUSCIs, « 5 s/sgers, 0/5, 0150:0,-,0)0 fo oe . 65T WUICES:. 2 teroye, oS aie yere oxyexe, oats SS 657 Phanerogams (General; Apocyna- ceze; Liliacez)..... swans see 658 Economical Botanye.<). 2:25 sen cens 658 Commercial Plants,.,.<-.,. dane . 658 Gardening’... ..., «s«4 «eles seater 659 Arboriculture.) 8255-2 sescane eet 659 Fossil, Plants. 55,325.05 050-00eeereee 659 Arctic RePions. inl ee 661 ERISTOR Yaaro etre oc. iste, «os aioe ee 661 IPELIOGICAIS) aoa. ces 6 cc = oho eee ++ 662 630 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. Miscellancous..........- ....Page 662 Physiology... ...< fete heb ec vecue 6s 662 Geographical Disiribution......... 662 PaaS ead Stew aks eae eer, 2002 AMSEPDA A ews Sec edticm ee eee en 662 aE TC) 3m hn SS atin rari: ti 663 Taxidermy ...... Sieteaely se eieeiate s oh 663 Special Groups........... erick a: 663 Invertebrates in General...... a.» G63 PATASILES Sa.0 oe ce es Bees lates 663 Protozoan stk sieaee << bet tne 663 PAELETUIIS Bech craledsrexetavavaretetexelate's tonsretete 663 Hydroids..... sielokirdacmletione fee ve boOd: POlyPEs <2 stsschey cowcoucnato sees eR 664 Echinoderms ...... cores Sarda oes . 664 Helminths <3. ..0¢. Settee aoe 674 Miscellaneousic oon. css stacette 674 WolcanOesss doohe aie ss Se eee 675 Special Countries 25 Jy 2 - ceo tanh 675 Australasia. acco. cose ark rap COCO New Mealands2. ose eae ence 675 VI GLOLIM ATA Ae ace eee 675 OUPOBC sae ure ee en cere. os oleae 675 WATISUTIAS his Stee atercte's By steun se Bis ts 675 IS CLOURIN Te oo retecslegs epee eeareri a enni 675 Great@Dritaie. 2. cs coments T6 North America....... Jeldsasee te 676 Cangas ese EET ereeiels hai 676 Nova SCOtlin.. Sec ccece ernst: . 676 United States (General; Indi- VIGUAl SLAPES) oxi se core ereatests 677 HGONOMIGAL GEONOGYaxcseicies saaiisien = 681 COATS nc Died denelee seis das tee eee 681 Golda .kicerac cha ua Bea em ayareinte «te seSe 1681 IALC coe fe wiejotemiesince Fa acsose - « Kiaateyajoe'en 651 GOGH AD IEV iyo tees ech teins ois istereievereia 6S1L Generale. ose see pees GOL rave tiny sass. ss DO SaA oO uGaE . 681 SVSt@MmAatic.wis. ccek tote ote retate 6S1 The Ocean venir sesodordeaen eee dee 6S2 Arctic REGiONS -.1.).1cr.staraterere oie'e écee5? GS2 PATE CR Rios ay mantyo ia Edt desdewaadces eevee 682 NOP HRSA LIGA se csore*.rerevarctartnie ete ote . 682 SOuUtHHA friGaanwss oe tose neste sees 682 ASCenSIOD-ISlANG: tent cwcts ees cee 682 INST or cvaicharstaterete! Meret cert Fulaicteletelee eiele's 683 Arabia and Palestine............ 683 (Ol hit; meee Seer oe or Ns 683 WN, $5.5 ésisiceuisiasieansoancrn se aes 683 GLO DEC fp ncseinbebicicisp oie eee ees 683 INorthernsHarope <. faces eels ee 6S3 CYPRUSs- swans esc eee eee eee 683 Great Britain sss. haces eece ee 683 DPW Waleelevanisercie’s wis inis,sseijaielstcdee eee. 684 INOPth TAIMETICD Piteaccsnitneictnanee 684 United States (General; Ala- bama:; New. York). .<<). creed tele - 68%) so Surveyined. 0.1. secs beep aee 689 IBALCRUS ata aa ceils viereinicicee teers 6ST|> Velegraphy* a2. £5. sevaghde\ ease 689 IPHOLO RTD? © 2 <1. ac orelncpe e acloareitene 68ST |= “ERemperance «10; 2. cies at seater 689 IBOMGCR Rais sifonic otic eae cleo etalon wre GSC ees Vien IIAtION,: .. costs. <1 sulesiep)evereaene 689 GENERAL SCIENCE. GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS. ) Buckley (Arabella B.). The Fairy-land of Science. By Arabella B. Buckley. London: Stanford. 1878. [ Nature, XIX., 285. ] Burlingame (Edward L.). Current Discussions: a Collection from the chief English Essays on Questions of the Time. Edited by Edward L. Burlingame. Vol. II., Questions ‘of Belief. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. (3860 pp. Price, $1 20.) [Popular (The) Science Monthly, XIIT., 631.] Cassino (Samuel E.). © The Naturalists’ Directory for 1878; containing the names of the Naturalists of America north of Mexico, arranged Alpha- betically and by Departments; also a list of Scientific Societies, and a cata- logue of obtainable Scientific Books arranged by subjects. Edited by Sam- uel E. Cassino. Salem: Naturalists’ Agency. 1878. (12mo, 104 pp.) [Am. Nat., XII., 545, 546.] [Am. Journ. S. and A. (3), XVL., 163. ] Draper (John William). Scientific Memoirs: being Experimental Contributions to a Knowledge of Radiant Energy. By John William Dra- per, M.D., LL.D. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1878. (8vo.) [ Nature, XFX., 26-28. ] Fonvielle (Wilfrid de). Comment le Font ies Miracles en déhors de l'Eglise. Paris: Dreyfous. 1878. (Nature, XIX., 287, 288. ] Gaudard (Jules). Foundations. By Jules Gaudard. Translated from the French by Vernon Harcourt. New York: D. Van Nostrand. (104 pp. Price, 50 cents. ) [Popular (The) Science Monthly, XIII., 118. ] Haeckel (Ernst), Freie Wissenschaft und freie Lehre. Eine Entgegnung auf Rudolf Virchow’s Miinchener Rede iiber die Freiheit der Wissenschaft im modernen Staat. Von Ernst Heckel. [ Nature, XIX., 113-115.] MacVickar (John G.). A Science Primer on the Nature of Things. By John G. MacVickar, D.D. Edinburgh: Blackwood & Sons. (112 pp.) (Popular (The) Science Monthly, XIII., 756. ] 632 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. Proctor (Richard A.). Pleasant Ways in Science. By R. A. Proctor. London: Chatto & Windus. 1879 (1878). [ Nature, XIX., 71. Unfavorable notice. ] Radcliff (Charles Bland). Proteus; or, Unity in Nature. By Charles Bland Radcliff, M.D. London and New: aside Macmillan & Co. 1878. (214 pp. Price, $2 50.) [Popular (The) Science Monthly, XIIT., 114, 115.] Spiller (Philipp). Das Leben. Naturwissenschaftliche Entwickelung des organischen Seelen- und Geisteslebens. Von Philipp Spiller. Berlin: Stuhr’sche Buchhandlung. 1878. [ Nature, XIX., 384. | Stewart (Balfour) and P. G. Tait. Paradoxical Philosophy. A Sequel to the ‘‘ Unseen Universe.” (Anon.) London: Macmillan & Co, 1878. [Nature, XIX., 140-143. ] Virchow (Rudolph). The Freedom of Science in the Modern State. By Rudolph Virchow, M.D. London: John Murray. 1878. (8yo.) [ Popular (The) Science Review (2), V., 199, 200. ] Wallace (Alfred Russell). Tropical Nature and other Essays. By Alfred R. Wallace. London: Macmillan & Co. 1878. (S8vo, 356 pp.) [Am., Nat., XII., 743-745. ] [ Nature, XVIII., 140, 141. ]} Wilson (Andrew). Leisure Time Studies; chiefly Biological. A Series of Essays and Lectures. By Andrew Wilson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., ete. With numerous Illustrations. London: Chatto & Windus. 1879. [ Nature, XIX., 286, 287. ] Wright (Chauncey). Letters of Chauncey Wright. With some Ac- count of his Life. By James Bradley Thayer. (Privately printed.) Cam- bridge: Little, Brown & Co. 1878. (8vo, 383 pp. Price, $2 50.) [Popular (The) Science Monthly, XII., 750, 751. ] COLLECTIONS. London Science Class-books. Edited by G. Carey Foster, F.R.S., and Philip Magnus, B.Se., B.A. London: Longmans, Green & Co. 1878. Guthrie (Frederick). Practical Physics, Molecular Physics, and Sound. Macalister (A.). Zoology of the Invertebrate Animals. —-— Zoology of the Vertebrate Animals. McNab (W. Ramsay). Botany: Outlines of Morphology and Phys- iology. Botany: Outlines of Classification of Plants, [Nature, XIX., 143, 144. ] BIBLIOGRAPHY. 633 Science Lectures at South Kensington. Vol. J. London and New York: Macmillan & Co. (290 pp. Price, $1 75.) [Popular (The) Science Monthly, XIII., 757. ] METHODS. Bacon (Francis, Lord}. Bacon’s Novum Organum. Edited, with In- troductory Notes, ete., by ‘Thomas Fowler, M.A., Professor of Logic in the University of Oxford. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1878. [ Nature, XIX., 262-264. ] Gore (G.). The Art of Scientific Discovery; or, the General Conditions and Methods of Research in Physics and Chemistry. By G. Gore, LL.D., F.R.S. London: Longmans, Green & Co. 1878. [ Nature, XIX., 284-286. ] HISTORY. Gibbon (Charles). The Life of George Combe. By Charles Gibbon. In Two Volumes. London: Macmillan & Co. | 1878. [Popular (The) Science Monthly, XIV., 240, 241. } Smee (Miss). Memoir of the late Alfred Smee, F.R.S. By his Daugh- ter. With a Selection from his Miscellaneous Writings. London: George Bell & Sons. 1878. . [Nature, XVIII., 380. ] Smiles (Samuel). Robert Dick, Baker, of Thurso, Geologist and Bot- anist. By Samuel Smiles, LL.D. London: John Murray. 1878. (Nature, XIX., 189-192. ] CYCLOP.ZDIAS. General. American (The) Cyclopedia: a Popular Dictionary of General Knowl- edge. - Edited by George Ripley and Charles A. Dana. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1873-78. . [Nature, XIX., 264, 265. ] Encyclopedia (The) Britannica. Ninth Edition. Vol. VIII. Edin- burgh: Adam & Charles Black. 1878. [Nature, XVIIT., 691-693. ] Technical. Ure’s Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures. By Robert Hunt, F.R.S., etc. Vol. 1V.—Supplement. London: Longmans, Green & Co. 1878. (8vo. ) 4 [Popular (The) Science Review, N.S., II., 416, 417. ] PERIODICALS. Societies. ( General.) American Association for the Advancement of Science. Proceedings AD ho Be 634 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Twenty-sixth Meeting, Nashville, Tenn., August, 1877. Salem, Mass. 1878. (8vo.) [Am, Nat., XII] British Association for the Advancement of Science. Report of the Forty-seventh Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, held at Plymouth, August, 1877. London: John Murray. 1878. German Association of Naturalists and Physicians, Amtlicher Bericht der 50. Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte in Miinchen, vom 17.-22. Sept., 1877. Zusammengestellt vom Redactions-Comité. Miinchen: Th. Ackermann in Comm. 1878. (4to.) (American. ) Boston: American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. New Series. Cambridge and Boston. Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. New Series. Vol. V. Boston: Press of John Wilson and Son. 1878. Boston Society of Natural History. Memoirs read before the Boston Society of Natural History; being a New Series of the Boston Journal of Natural History. Vol. 1I. Boston: Published by the Society. 1871-78. (4to. ) Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. Vol. XIX. 1876-78. Boston: Printed for the Society. 1878. Cambridge: Harvard University: Bussey Institution. Bulletin of the Bussey Institution. Vol. III., Part. IIT. 1878. [Am. Journ. S. and A. (3), XVI, 163.] Museum of Comparative Zoology. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass. Vol. IV. The Terrestrial Air-breathing Mollusks of the United States and the ad- jacent Territories of North America. Described and Illustrated by W. G. Binney. Vol. V. Cambridge: Printed by Welch, Bigelow, and Co., Uni- versity Press. July, 1878. (8vo, v., 441 pp.; 88+16 pl.) Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnol- ogy. Eleventh Annual Report of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology. Vol. If., No. 2. Cambridge. - 1878. From the Trustees of the Museum. (S8vo, 457 pp.) Nuttall Ornithological Club. Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club: a Quarterly Journal of Ornithology. Vol. III. Cambridge, Mass. : Published by the Club. [Popular (The) Science Monthly, XII., 753. ] Cincinnati Society of Natural History. The Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History. Publishing Committee: J. F. Judge, G. W. fae —— BIBLIOGRAPHY. 635 Harper, A. G. Wetherby, J. W. Hall, Jr., and D.S. Young. April, 1878. Cincinnati: Printed by James Barclay, 269 Vine Street. [Am. Journ. 8. and A. (8), XVI., 163. ] _ T1linois Museum of Natural History. Bulletin of the Ilinois Museum of Natural History. No. 2. Minneapolis: Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences. Bulletin of the Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences (1877). Minneapolis: Young & Winn, Printers. (126 pp. Price, 20 cents.) [Am., Journ. 8. and A. (3), XV., 407. ] [Popular (The) Science Monthly, XIII., 632. ] New Haven: Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. Transac- tions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. III., Part II. [Am. Journ. S. and A. (3), XVI., 159-161. ] New York Academy of Sciences. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. Nos. 1-4. New York. 1878. [Am. Journ. S. and A. (8), XVII., 83. ] New York: American Society of Civil Engineers. Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers. Vol. V. Idited by the Secretary, un- der the direction of the Committee on Library. New York. 1878. (8vo.) Torrey Botanical Club. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. Philadelphia (Academy of Natural Sciences of). Journal of the Acad- emy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. New Series. Vol. VIII., Part Tif. Philadelphia: Academy of Natural Sciences. 1877. [Popular (The) Science Monthly, XIII., 376. ] Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phil- adelphia. 1878. Philadelphia: Academy of Natural Sciences. _ [Am. Nat., XII., 459-461. ] American Philosophical Society. Proceedings of the American. Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge. Vol. XVII. June, 1877, to June, 1878. Philadelphia: Printed for the So- ciety. 1878. (8vo.) Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge. New Series. Vol. X. Franklin Institute. The Journal of the Franklin Insti- tute, devoted to Science and the Mechanic Arts. Edited by William H. Wahl, Ph.D., assisted by the Committee on Publication. Philadelphia: Published by the Franklin Institute at their Hall. 1878. St. Louis (Academy of Science of). The Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis. Vol. III., No. 4. St. Louis, Mo.: The R. P. Studley Company, Printers and Binders. 1878. Salem: Essex Institute. Bulletin of the Essex Institute. Vol. X. Salem. 1878. Proceedings of the Essex Institute. 636 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. San Francisco: California Academy of Sciences. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences. Vol. VII. Part If. San Francisco. Urbana: Central Ohio Scientific Association. Proceedings of the Cen- tral Ohio Scientific Association. Urbana, O. Vol. I., Part I. Urbana. Published by the Association. 1878, - (8vo, 96 pp.; 16 plates.) [Am, Nat., XIL, 745. ] Washington: Smithsonian Institution. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, showing the Operations, Expendi- tures, and Condition of the Institution for the year 1877. Washington: Goy- ernment Printing-office. 1878. (S8vo.) [Am. Journ.-S. and A. (3), XVL., 490.] [Am. Nat., XIIL., 32. | [Popular (The) Science Monthly, XIV., 683. ] Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vol. XXI. City of Washington: Published by the Smithsonian Institution. 1876. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.. Vols. XIII. and XIV. Washington: Published by the Smithsonian Institution. 1878. (8vo.) Bulletin of the United States National Museum. Nos. 11 and 12. Published under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution. Washington: Government Printing-office. 1878. (Superscribed, Department of the Interior. U.S. National Museum. 11, 12.) Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 1878. Vol. I. Washington, D.C. (8vo.) [Am. Journ. 8. and A. (13), XVI., 406, 407. ] Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Vol. 1V. 1876-77. Published by authority of Law. Madison, Wis.: David Atwood. 1878. ( British.) Dublin: Royal Irish Academy. Transactions of the Royal Irish Acad- emy. Vol. XXVI. Dublin: Published by the Academy. 1878. (4to.) Edinburgh (Royal Society of). Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. j Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Vol. XXVIII. Edinburgh: Published by Robert Grant & Son. 1878. (4to.) London: Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Vol. VII. London: Published for the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, by Triibner & Co., and 29 Ludgate Hill. 1878. (S8vo.) Chemical Society. Journal of the Chemical Society, containing the Papers read before the Society, and Abstracts of Chemical Papers pub- lished in other Journals. 1878. Vols. I.-II. London: J. Van Voorst. 1878. (8vo.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. 637 Geological Society. The Quarterly Journal of the Geological So- ciety. Edited by the Assistant-Secretary of the Geological Society. Vol- ume the Thirty-fourth. 1878. London: Longmans, Green, Reader & Dyer. 1878. (8vo.) Royal Agricultural Society of England. The Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. Second Series. Volume the Fourteenth. London: John Murray. 1878. (S8vo.) [Nature, XIX., 312. ] Royal Society. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. For the Year MDCCCLXXVIII. Vol. 168. London: Printed by Taylor & Francis. 1878. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 1877-78. Vol. XX VII. London: Printed by Taylor & Francis. 1878. Society of Arts. The Journal of the Society of Arts. Vol. XXVI. 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