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FLORIDA STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

E. H. SELLARDS, Ph. D., State Geologist

SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT

LIBRARY
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THE STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
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THE E. 0, PAINTER PRINTING CO., DE LAND, “Haale c
=a ee as ee coe eS nity ie

LEETLER OF TRANSMITTAL.

To His Excellency, Hon. Park Trammell, Governor of Florida.

Sir :—In accordance with the Survey law I submit herewith
my Sixth Annual Report as State Geologist of Florida. This
report contains the statement of expenditures by the Survey for the
year ending June 30, 1913, together with those investigations by
the Survey that have progressed far enough to be available for
publication,

Permit me to express in this connection my appreciation of the
interest you have shown in the work of the State Geological Survey.

Very respectfully,
BoE SEELARDS,

STATE GEOLOGIST.

CONTENTS.

PAGE
WA CIATURTTS ET ALI EC CPO UU coe ae en 9
Mineral Industries and Resources of Florida.
By ©. He Sellards- -(Fistires1 to 26), one map -—--*-------2--_-_-_- 21
Some Florida Lakes and Lake Basins.
Ey eb e eselards-0 (hietikese27110. 00) 2 sae ee 115
The Relation Between the Dunnellon Formation and the Alachua Clays
of Florida.
Byte kk, Sellards =.2--->---=— + EE Re Fe SE ee 2 161

Geography and Vegetation of Northern Florida.
By RioM: Hatper.. (figures, 40°to, 00), === =! -— == == 163

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE
Key Map to Mineral Resources of Florida, facing page ------------------ 23
Fig. 1. Pit of the Edgar Plastic Kaolin Company --------------------- 24
‘Fig. 2. Brick kiln of the Florida Brick Company ~-------------------- 25
Fig. 3. Northwest shore of Lake Milton ------------------------------- 27
Fig. 4. Pit in fullers earth mine, Quincy ----------------------------- 30
Fig. 5. Fullers earth plant at Quincy --------------------------------- 35
Fig. 6. Fullers earth plant at Ellenton ---------------------~--------- 35
Tig. 7. Florida sands ------------------------------------------------- 47
Fig. 8. . Vicksburg limestone at Ocala -----------------------=---~---- 49
Fig. 9. Pit of the Keystone Brick Company, Whitney -----------=--~--- 51
Fig. 10. Pit of the Clay County Steam Brick Company ------------------ 51
Fig. 11. Plant of the McMillan Brick Company, Molino -------------—- 51
Biss is. Vaicksbiure > litmestomee iar lettin ee 53
pieesr3) Miami) oolitic. limestone:! elvan se ee eee 53
Fig. 14. Limestone at Ft. Thompson --=---------------_-___-_.-_-___- 53
Bisy.1s:,. Limestone in’ Lake «Okeechobeew= === =e ee 55
Bre: 16>, Limestone<in ‘the-diverpladeses ==. = =e = ee se ee os
Hie 17., “Limestone at’ River Junction 2225222 ==" 2-222 e ees ee ee BS
Fig. 18,.., Limestone at/ ta Dhompsone == ee ee 56
Fis.\19.) “Lhe ‘Caloosahatchee: marl: 2222222 es ee ee ee eee 58
Bio.<20% Peat: prairtesiiear /hiainesmioity sa. eee ee ee 59
ies 21) Phosphatized) dimestone ge eee eee 85
Fig. 22. Removing overburden from phosphate rock --------------------- 93
Piz.23)), Sand=clay. road: dallahasseote so ee ee ee eee 101
Big324;.)Ponce’.déLeonSnrimesn = — ee er oe ee eee 103
Pig. 25... Plowittg’ artesian welltatBalatka -222 22-5 Se 105
Pig 26.5) Well drilling. nachinenyes ts 5 ee ee re ee ye 109
Fig. 27. Sketch Map Showing location of Lakes Iamonia, Jackson, Lafay-
ette. yand’ Miccosukeei= sass tS ey Se eee 126
Pigs. 26. >) Lake ‘Jackson: 22-5255 ot ee 2 ee ee ee 128
is-29.) Lake Tcatayettet 2c eS eee ee eee ee 130
Rie? 30), "ake Miccosiikée, 2525s eS ee ee 132.
Pig. 3% Miccosukee Basin; Low Water Staze: of igo, 222-—---—- = 137
fig.32.- Lake ‘Jackson: 2-52 aee ee, 8 eee ee cee ee 139
ie: -3a:> wAllivatotr Lake? W422 Ssa tS ee eee 139
Rig 34," bhe-Sink: pt. Lake, Latayette — = 2- een ee ee eee ee ee I4I
Pig. 35..) haynes Prairie; looking out trom) the: smi === == ee 14!
fig, 30. View, of ‘Payne's. Prairie from) nearsthemsiuiee = I4I
Fig. 372) View. of Spoutine Well’ near Orlando = 143
Fig. 38., Sketch Map of Hogtown Prairie and surroundings -------------- 146
iis. 307 Sketch ‘Showing: Ground Water Levelys eee 156
Fig. 40. Map of Northern Florida, showing geographical divisions ------ 190
Figs. 41, 42. Scenes in Marianna red lands. (Jackson County) ------ 347-349
Figs. 43 - 48. Scenes in West Florida lime-sink region ee ee A 319-353
Figs. 49-51. Scenes in Apalachicola River bluff region --------------- 353-356
Figs) 52.. Scene in Knox Hill country. (Walton @ounty), 22 2-=-5-_- == S57
Fig. 53. Scene in Holmes “Valley (Washington County) --------------- 357,
Fig. 54. Scene in West Florida lake region (Washington County) ------ 359
Figs. 55-57. Scenes in West Florida pine hil] s{s222s22225- 2 ee 359-361
Figs. 58-61. Scenes in West Florida coast Stripyceeiss See ee ee 361-363

Figs. 62, 63. Scenes in Apalachicola flatwoods (Franklin County) ------ 365
Figs. 64-68. Scenes in Middle Florida hammock belt --------------- 367-371
Figs. 69-73. Scenes in Tallahassee red hills (Leon County) -------- 373-375
Figs. 74, 75. Scenes in Bellair sand region (Leon County) ---------- 377
Figs. 76-78. Scenes in Wakulla hammock country (Wakulla County) -- 379-381
Fig. 79. Scene in Panacea country (Wakulla County) ----------------- 381
Figs. 80, 81. Scenes in Gulf hammock region -------------------------- 383
Figs. 82, 83. Scenes in Peninsular lime-sink region (Alachua County)-- 385
Fig. 84. Scene in Peninsular lake region (Clay County) --------------- 385
Figs. 85, 86. Scenes in East Florida flatwoods ------------------------ 387

Pagan Ore Sbede mans mact seach Stnip)) =e ee ne 389-301

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FEB 24 1915

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT.

E. H. SELLARDS, STATE GEOLOGIST.

PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

The following is a list of the publications issued by the State
Geological Survey since its organization:

First Annual Report, 1908, 114 pp., 6 pls.

This report contains: (1) a sketch of the geology of Florida; (2) a
chapter on mineral industries, including phosphate, kaolin or ball clay,
brick-making clays, fullers earth, peat, lime and cement and road-making
materials; (3) a bibliography of publications on Florida geology, with a
review of the more important papers published previous to the organ-
ization of the present Geological Survey.

Second Annual Report, 1909, 299 pp., 19 pls., 5 text figures,
and one map.

This report contains: (1) a preliminary report on the geology of Florida,
with special reference to stratigraphy, including a topographic and geologic
map of Florida, prepared in co-operation with the United States Geological
Survey; (2) mineral industries; (3) the fullers earth deposits of Gadsden
County, with notes on similar deposits found elsewhere in the State.

Third Annual Report, 1910, 397 pp.. 28 pls., 30 text figures.

This report contains: (1) a preliminary paper on the Florida phos-
phate deposits; (2) some Florida lakes and lake basins; (3) the artesian
water supply of eastern Florida; (4) a preliminary report on the Florida
peat deposits.

Fourth Annual Report, 1912, 175 pp., 16 pls., 15 text figures,
one map. ,

This report contains: (1) the soils and other surface residual materials
of Florida, their origin, character and the formations from which derived;
(2) the water supply of west-central and west Florida; (3) the production
of phosphate rock in Florida during ro1o and tort.

Fifth Annual Report, 1913, 306 pp., 14 pls., 17 text figures,
two maps.

This report contains: (1) Origin of the hard rock phosphates of Flor-
ida; (2) list of elevations in Florida; (3) artesian water supply of eastern
and southern Florida; (4) production of phosphate in Florida during 1912:
(5) statistics on public roads in Florida.

9

IO FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Sixth Annual Report, 1914.

Bulletin No. 1. The Underground Water Supply of Central
Florida, 1908, 103 pp., 6 pls., 6 text figures.

This report contains: (1) Underground water; general discussion;
(2) the underground water of central Florida, deep and shallow wells, spring
and artesian prospects; (3) effects of underground solution, cavities, sink-
holes, disappearing streams and solution basins; (4) drainage of lakes, ponds
and swamp lands and disposal of sewage by bored wells; (5) water analyses
and tables giving general water resources, public water supplies, spring and
well records.

Bulletin No. 2. Roads and Road Materials of Florida, 1911,
31 pps., 4 pls.

This bulletin contains: (1) An account of the road building materials
of Florida; (2) a statistical table showing the amount of improved roads
built by the counties of the State to the close of IgIo.

In addition to the regular reports of the Survey as listed above
press Bulletins have been issued as follows:
No. 1. The Extinct Land Animals of Florida, February 6,
1913.
No. 2. Production of Phosphate Rock in Florida during
era Viarch 12,9191 3.
No. 3. Summary of Papers Presented by the State Geologist
at the Atlanta Meeting of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, December 31, 1913.

No. 4. The Utility of Well Records, January 15, 1914.

No. 5. Production of Phosphate Rock in Florida during 1913,
May 20, 1914.

4H

ime}

Of the Press Bulletins Nos. 1 and 3 are available for distri-
bution in the original form as issued. No. 2, the supply of which
is exhausted, was included without change of text in the Fifth
Annual Report, pp. 291 to 294. Nos. 4 and 5 are included in
the present volume in connection with the report on mineral in-
dustries.

DISTRIBUTION OF REPORTS.

The reports issued by the State Geological Survey are dis-
tributed upon request, and may be obtained without cost by ad-
dressing the State Geologist, Tallahassee, Florida.

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT. Il

THE PURPOSE AND DUTIES OF THE STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Among the specific objects. for which the Survey exists, as
stated in the enactment, is that of making known information
regarding the minerals, water supply and other natural resources
of the State, including the occurrence and location of minerals
and other deposits of value, surface and subterranean water supply
and power.and mineral waters and the best and most economic
methods of development, together with analysis of soils, minerals
and mineral waters, with maps, charts, and drawings of the same.

A distinctly educational function of the Survey is indicated
by Section 4 of the law, which makes it the duty of the State
Geologist to make collections of specimens, illustrating the geo-
logical and mineral features of the State, duplicate sets of which
shall be deposited with each of the State colleges. The publica-
tion of annual reports is provided for as a means of disseminating
the information obtained in the progress of the Survey. The Sur-
vey is thus intended to serve on the one hand an economic, and
on the other an educational purpose. In its economic relations
a State Survey touches on very varied interests of the State’s devel-
opment. In its results it may be expected to contribute to an
intelligent development of the State’s natural resources. Its edu-
cational value is of no less immediate concern to the State, both
to the citizens within the State and to prospective citizens without.

A knowledge of the soil and of the available water supply is
very necessary to successful agriculture, and the Survey’s investi-
gations along these lines are of value to all land owners. A knowl-
edge of the mineral deposits which may lie beneath the surface,
is likewise necessary to a correct valuation of land.

RELATION OF THE STATE SURVEY TO THE OWNERSHIP OF MINERAL
LANDS.

The relation of the State Geological Survey to the ownership
of mineral lands is specifically defined: The Survey law provides
that it shall be the duty of the State Geologist and his assistants,
when they discover any mineral deposits or substances of value,
to notify the owners of the land upon which such deposits occur
before disclosing their location to any other person or persons
Failure to do so is punishable by fine and imprisonment. . It is
not intended by the law, however, that the State Geologist’s time

2

[2 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL. REPORT.

shall be devoted to examinations and reports upon the value of
private mineral lands. Reports of this character are properly the
province of commercial geologists, who may be employed by the
owners of land for that purpose. To accomplish the best results,
the work of the Survey must be in accordance with definite plans
by which the State’s resources are investigated in an orderly man-
ner. Only such examinations of private lands can be made as are
incidental to the regularly planned investigations of the Survey.

SAMPLES SENT TO THE SURVEY FOR EXAMINATION.

Samples of rocks, minerals and fossils will be at all times
gladly received, and reported upon. Attention to inquiries and
general correspondence are a part of the duties of the office, and
afford a means through which the Survey may in many ways be
useful to the citizens of the State.

THE COLLECTION OF STATISTICAL INFORMATION.

For many purposes the collection and publication of statistical
information is helpful, both to the industries concerned and to the
general public. Such statistical information is desired from all
the mineral industries of the State. Such information will be
recognized as strictly confidential, in so far as it relates to the
private business of any iidividual or company, and will be used
only in making up State and county totals. The co-operation of
the various industries of the State is invited in order that the best
possible showing of the State’s products may be made annually.

EXHIBITION OF GEOLOGICAL MATERIAL.

The space available for the exhibition of geological material
is unfortunately as yet very limited. A part of one room is being
used for this purpose. Three cases have been built, designed to
serve the double purpose of storage and exhibition. The lower
parts of the case contain drawers and are used for storage. In
making the collections a definite plan has been followed to secure a
representation of the rocks, minerals and fossils of each formation
in the State. The collection will be added to as rapidly as space
is provided for taking care of the material.

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT. 13

THE SURVEY LIBRARY,

A well equipped reference library is essential to the investiga-
tions of the Survey, and an effort has been and is being made to
bring together those publications which are necessary to the imme-
diate and future work of the department. The Survey library now
contains more than 1,500 volumes. These include the reports of
the several State Geological Surveys; the reports of the National
Geological Survey; the reports of the Canadian and a few other
foreign Geological Surveys; and many miscellaneous volumes and
papers on geology and related subjects.

RECOMMENDATIONS.
MORE OFFICE SPACE NECESSARY.

The State Survey is at present housed in two small rooms.
Of these one is used as store room, photo room and library, while
the other serves as office and work room. These small
rooms, including about 1,000 square feet of floor space are totally
inadequate to the requirements of effective work. Fully 10,000
Square feet of floor space is necessary to meet the immediate require-
ments of the Survey. The library shelves are full, and it is now and
for some time has been quite impossible to care for the publications
that are being received. Many of these new publications represent
the results of investigations by the neighboring State Surveys or
by the National Survey, and are very necessary. for comparative
purposes to the Florida Survey. Other publications being received
from various sources are for reference purposes and are necessary
to the determination of fossils or mineral specimens, or, of geolog-
ical formations, or other matters in connection with the Survey
work. The cases used in exhibiting and storing mineral specimens
and fossils have been placed temporarily in one of the rooms form-
erly occupied by the Supreme Court library.

The Survey at present is practically without a work room.
There is no table or desk room available to store or to handle the
maps, charts, and drawings that are constantly being used in the
Survey work. It is impossible from lack of space to properly
open up and study the collection of mineral and fossil specimens
that have been obtained by the Survey. The store room space is
too small to accommodate even the current issues of the Survey’s

14 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

own publications which must be cared for temporarily awaiting
their distribution.

In connection with the work of the Survey there is a constant
accumulation of notes, records, photographs, manuscripts, plates
and cuts, as well as the general correspondence of the office which
must be cared for. The present limited office space affords no
room for storing, filing or properly caring for these records.

I urgently recommend, if it meets with your approval, that ©
the Legislature be asked to provide adequate rooms for the future
work of the State Geological Survey.

A STATE MUSEUM.

The desirability of an adequate museum in which to properly
exhibit the resources of the State is apparent. The State Survey
law makes it the duty of the State Geologist to collect. determine
and label specimens illustrating the geological and mineral fea-
tures of the State and large collections have been made since the
Survey was organized. The small room used for exhibition pur-
poses has long since been filled and a large amount of material
suitable for exhibition remains unopened in boxes as collected. It
is important that the State provide for the proper preservation
and exhibition of the Survey collections in a State Museum.

THE PREPARATION OF A DETAILED TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF FLORIDA.

While a general topographic map of Florida with contour lines
at 50 foot intervals of elevation has been issued, as already stated,
there is a constant demand for detailed topographic maps on a
scale of about one inch to the mile and with contour lines at 10
foot intervals of elevation. Topographic maps are usually made
in atlas sheets covering unit areas bounded by parallels and merid-
ians. The unit adopted by the United States Geological Survey
in topographic mapping, designated as the quadrangle, includes
when made on the scale of about one inch to the mile an area of
15 minutes of latitude by 15 minutes of longitude. A separate
atlas sheet is issued for each unit area and when completed the
maps so issued make up a complete map for the state as a whole.
The maps thus made show the land area in relief by means of
contour lines. In this way all hills, valleys, stream channels, sinks,
depressions and all changes in elevation are indicated. The actual

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT, 15

elevation above sea, based on exact levels, are also shown by
means of figures printed on the contour lines. ach contour
passes through points which have the same altitude. One who
follows the contour on the ground will go neither up hill nor down
hill but on a level. By the use of contours the maps of the plains,
hills and valleys as well as their elevations are shown. The line
of the sea coast itself is a contour line, the datum or zero of
elevation being mean sea level. The contour line at, say, 20 feet
above sea level is a line that would be the sea coast if the sea
were to rise or the land to sink 20 feet. Such a line runs back
up the valleys and forward around the points of hills and spurs. -
On a gentle slope this contour line is far from the present coast
line, while on a steep slope it is near it. Thus a succession of
these contour lines far apart on the map indicates a gentle slope;
if close together a steep slope; and if the contours run together
in one line, as if each were vertically under the one above it, they
indicate a cliff. The heights of many definite points such as road
corners, railroad crossings, railroad stations, summits, water sur-
face, triangulation stations and bench marks are also given on
the map. The figures in each case express the elevation to the
nearest foot.

In addition to indicating relief and actual elevation above sea.
these maps show all the natural features, such as lakes, ponds,
rivers, streams, canals, swamps, and all cultural features including
public roads, railroads, towns, cities, county and state boundaries.

The topographic maps thus prepared find many uses. They
are above all essential to the proper planning of drainage opera-
tions throughout all the interior of the state. It is a well known
fact that we have in Florida, particularly in the flatwoods sections,
large areas of land that, although not actually flooded, yet would
be much improved by the more rapid removal of the heavy summer
‘rains. The state contains also valuable muck lands in addition
to those already being drained. The topographic maps such as
are here contemplated are essential to a proper planning of drain-
age operations.

The topographic maps are of very great assistance in the
preparation of detailed soil maps. They afford first of all an
exact base map of the area to be surveyed, thereby reducing the
cost of the average soil map in Florida about one-half. They

16 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY——-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

also facilitate the study of the soils which bear well known rela-
tions to drainage and moisture conditions. In detailed geologic
mapping and in the study of the mineral resources, topographic
maps are practically necessary for the final reports.

Topographic maps find many additional uses. They are oi
very great assistance in laying out and developing a system
of public roads, showing as they do the relief of the land including
hills, depressions and valleys. In planning the location of rail-
roads, canals, waterways, or other public improvements they are
of great assistance. Finally they afford to the land owners, as
‘well as to the citizens in general, the manifold conveniences of a
well-made and accurate map.

CO-OPERATION WITH THE UNITED STATES’ GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN
THE PREPARATION OF TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS,

Many of the States co-operate with the National Geological
Survey through their respective State Survey organizations in the
preparation of topographic maps. The usual basis of such co-
Operation is an equal contribution of funds on the part of the
State and National Survey. The plan of mapping followed is
that already developed and established by the National Survey.
The men employed in the mapping are the expert topographic
mappers already in the employ of the National Survey. The
following States are either now co-operating or have in the past
co-operated with the National Geological Survey in this work:
Alabama, California, Connecticut, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Louis-
iana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, Mis-
sourl, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma,
Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia
and West Virginia.

It is probable that such co-operation can be secured in the
preparation of the topographic maps of Florida, thus practically
doubling for the State any appropriation made by the Legislature
for this purpose. The Director of the United States Geological
Survey has repeatedly expressed his willingness to co-operate with
the State Geological Survey in the preparation of topographic
maps, meeting any appropriation made by the State with an equal
amount so far as funds permit. An appropriation made for the
preparation of topographic maps may be so framed as to admit

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT. Ty

of co-operation with the United States Geological Survey; or may
be made if desired contingent upon such co-operation to be carried
on in accordance with plans approved by the Governor.

SOIL MAPS.

Another very important line of investigation is the prepara-
tion of detailed soil maps. While a general report on the soils of
the State has been issued by the Survey, there is a very great
demand for specific information regarding local soils such as can
be supplied only by detailed soil maps of the several counties. A
limited amount of soil mapping has already been done by the
United States Bureau of Soils. As in the case of topographic
maps many of the States are co-operating with the National
Bureaus in the preparation of soil maps, and it is probable that
an appropriation made for this purpose would be doubled by the
United States Bureau of Soils. 1 would urgently recommend an
appropriation of $5,000 per annum for the preparation of topo-
graphic and soil maps. Such an appropriation may be made con-
tingent upon co-operation with the national bureaus and would
thus result in the expenditure of $10,000 per annum in the State
for this purpose.

EXPENDIQURES OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY FOR THE YEAR ENDING
JUNE 30, 1913.

The total appropriation for the State Geological Survey is
$7,500 per annum. No part of this fund is handled direct by the
State Geologist, as all Survey accounts are paid upon warrants
issued by the Comptroller of the State as per itemized statements
approved by the Governor. The original of all bills and the item-
ized statements of all expense accounts are on file in the office
of the Comptroller. Duplicate copies of the same are on file ir
the office of the State Geologist.

LIST OF WARRANTS ISSUED DURING THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, IQI3.

July, 1912.
io ianpptevard.. state: Printer. “i: hors wee aemaqde ss. aeeetiag hea ee $ 100.00
SDitierinabremesss Company |... 0.\. 1464 leheren ap ietale evel. koi Coe Wee a 13.76
Drake (Goxe burniture Company, Suppliess 7% 24.05... «sso. ce aceite 4.13
August, I912.
Ales sMeDougalls postage® ...2..\.215 ia ble Genacaia, Peis. Wiles eats eee 25.00

SGuUCenieE x pRESsuCOMPallvir «= c..-suscciay ae Shame s where rl 2's iA. dal danas arena 3.03

18 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

September, 1912.
E. H. Sellards, State Geologist, salary for quarter ending Septem-
Dere. S{0), TCE 6 ol on Gao cis CERES ol STIS UES COMINGS Bod Gals
Herman Gunter, Assistant, salary for quarter ending September
BO MOTOR ect dee oie odds acoa's ¢ Se See een oe eee
Sotthernme xpuessm Conpanys eance =a. Des cheer eer eee eerete
October, 1912.
EB, a Sellacds, State Geologist, expenses, October 1912722254040
Herman Gunter, Assistant, expenses, October, I1912................
Artimicetioe homas. Company; Supplieseanceeree toe ee ee eee
November, Ig12.

Herman Gunter, Assistant, expenses, November, 1912.............

Rigen iaiiinaneTrepalnine uty Pewinlte lense ene eee eee en eae

Mex Nich oucall, postage Macatee ene eee eee cece

Southern! “xpress (Company. cenace eee cere ne Cee eee Eee Eee
December, 1912.

E. H. Sellards, State Geologist, salary for quarter ending Decem-

Des aac ie LO] A ee Mie tr oi SA tics G oleh RICO 0. AUIS boas
E. H. Sellards, State Geologist, expenses, December, 1912.........
Herman Gunter, Assistant, salary for quarter ending December

BT eNO 3 a2 ce fei edo oe eae ee elaee enon cls Nee ok Cee eee
lel cs WG Be Dine? (Conners Suh MIKES os soos bona mcdocosdd sage sec
Wace. Ee Gurley. supplies he. ca oe eee eee ee oe
Mentkelesa Essen. Companys sup piiess-preaere ere heer nee Cer
Engineering and Mining Journal, subscription......./............
Southern; Express; Companya oc..0-> = eee ee eee ee ore eee

January, 1913.

EE Sellards; State’ Geolopist; vexpenses, sanuaty.2 1003: psec eee
Alexs McDougall) postageists- coc cis ae ene oer rie eee eee
lex: Walton? janitor ssenvaicesens.. < eat men ee eee ee eee ay
Amenican! Jounal (or Science. Supschiplone sat ae ere er rcee
Southern Express \Companyns.t. « onecaceat eee eee pee
February, 1913.
E. H. Sellards, State Geologist, expenses, February, IQI3..........
Herman Gunter, Assistant, expenses, February, 1913.............-.
ANG, WNEMhCora Tetarhioye ONGC. 6b ow gacdan ons ss0skobsobabessnwane
ee vppleyard: State Printers. 1e eee aetna ee eee eae
EeconomicGeology Publishing’ Cos, subseniption: <2 5)... esse ence
Sotlthern Express;Conipany. e)jee ase ee ae ee eee
Bisse W..B: Drew Co. .suipplies..2: eno Sone eee ae eee ee
American Museum Natural History, publications................-
WaresBros.. ‘Company, subscription... he eene eee ae eee rere nee
Wrigley Engraving & Electrotype Co., engraving................-
miex ww Me ougall: postage... tka) ee ee Ae ee

March, I913.
E. H. Sellards, State Geologist, salary for quarter ending March
SL UES heee ticles: e550 5-0 Je,n.9 4d nce ous, sO DS oe cee Se
Herman Gunter, Assistant, salary for quarter ending March 31, 1913
‘Eratls Gunter. Getvices. . 4.025 hw. Boece Pe eee
Pex VV altou,, jauitors Services... 4... Sos. as. sca Rea

ERR Kattan sip pliessses Sect. eee pee ee ee ae

625.00

300.00
1.60

62.80
42.71
19.55

66.47
29.10
5.00
25.00
3.13

625.00
72.85

300.00
1.79
3.70

39.90
5.00
8.02

42.60
22.16
10.00
6.00
7.02

47-35
47.62
10,00
132.30
3.00
4.16
6.94
27.97
2.00
4.60
57-15

625.00
300.00
20.00
10.00

4.25

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT. 19

PenSTIC aie eats SOCIER Ye ISIRCEEDETON 5.0.5. <inje ole ev agiee ness doce ovis erde é 3.09
PAR) read eatcertm En taN IM we MR IANA Ys a8eld) coco « clvele odie nie Pula wlaue's were eels 5.75
April, 1913.
Mex. MicDoucalltepOStaseme ries acc csisiynaie cjaicls oaUne/o0% eas see aee's 20.00
lex \WaltonmaianltOieSenviCesmacrac ccteickecsic ccc cralsssrdions cicl sible s oe eee 10.00
PO Gee VY. om lOnew (Comipativs SUDDILES. sere ce 60 w.csie cco be ec ee 0 0 be.c0 ale 6.37
isuisebentitess GearranitcalGirectOG yee. ce -.< ctiee cece dei ce cra cles Gare 2.11
SOtithenm semper sm Oman alee aicie «vig. tins «te. gas ase ee vices ne se ne 4.25
May, 1913.
Pilea Me ripe MANOS tA Gi eee in, ScePeleteye) os Sena e boss e)oie sda ele ween 70.00
PLCMMeNV ALOnem ALLO SETVICES.. ia. cisieied ve bise Sre datas vd engiee bis 10.00
Wareley Enerayine Company, €mgravinigs. 22.2.2 csc eee kee das oe 5.10
Alina enibi ee SEONOO TAP NIC VSELVIGES.. «cic cpeieee hee es 2s a avdie winged ieee 12.00
Maurice Joyce Engraving Company, engravings................... 32.80

June, 1913.
E. H. Sellards, State Geologist, salary for quarter ending June,

ZO MeeL OMG at a pene esis ae erat ined alae MS cleo ate Rake aadehivee,eelace 4 625.00

E. H. Sellards, State Geologist, expenses, June, 1913............-. 33.60
Herman Gunter, Assistant, salary for quarter ending June 30, 1913 300.00
Elexeee Ve Wott lea pOSt@ ems n.n<'S sence ea eihe Us wig sale oe aiaie cleeleens 6, = 4.40
ERA CA nm ATie SUM DINGSHes fean es) seis ee rafoligs avicaie cc cicotte s claewieys eh eres 5.00

IN exemVValt Otley amittOtes CieviceSmre in sktacvereieler oma tinea) oerepie slcieie se ors 10.00
Emil Gunter, services ......:... LL Naa Ale RE RP ab a EL Si 15.00
Mane len iceioite and Ordyar ens veils a iedes oe oo onlels hse nce leis 13.00
Underwood) iypeywriter “Company, supplies). 1... 2. .e20s2 lac cc ess 53.03
Wniversity of Chicago. Press,subseription . 2). ...s ode. cic e aes « 3.60
Davide S< NV OOULOW SMNSCHIPL Oat a. vayc'-/ cise entice eon ins tale ¢ 6.00

Teed) Foo Lee ed est Wy 0 1 CR mes oa i Rc 53.65
Southern. H xpress = Com pally Speen sss, eis conto e Meals ss ca a Sie oats 3.86

De ohes Coss MunattUres Gompanly serge syd mem caie fee pena ac Db oes we 50.90

Srp Aee ee Rye ab Clea Etre Shyer ptae eR AS scx ain av tbe whites (ol slave Rene Bice 21.06
Scans | lero RV ROR CLAIE ee ttt a aren esther 9) roti ck aoc ctafivetaahy ore ae 38.01
Record’ COmpatiy. wDrimcmie ee eee Meee eee se ata ead oe Datei Me 1,004.25
INCH aise ta ietevavaier encace chers, Sco MA SR TENS PR ee Ar ae end oats eat eae ca Nae $6,194.40
Appropriation for fiscal year ending June 30, 1913... ..........020..05% $7,500.00
Exuaidhic. trond athe: preceding: yam. nite ate lee, Rake wet a eae 1,112.87
$8,612.87

Total expenditures for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913............ 6,194.40

Bena Comeavilla DLE sess, Aer ove) stats, aim soe ent Renee te ieee eo ee $2,418.47

MINERAL INDUSTRIES AND RESOURCES OF FLORIDA.

BYE) He SEELARDS:

STATISTICS ON PRODUCTION COLLECTED IN CO-OPERATION WITH THE
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

CONTENTS.
‘

PAGE

(Han arid eC lty aE OMMIGES 2 oye 6 oo oe ia: a,. eres Geter ae es ee one ee ee 23
Ball’ Glaysoneblasticn Kaolin. 2.2.) 282022 ee Pos gee Se ee 23
Brick tandem mi wee® hos Ls ol, SU eek eee en ee eae 24
Diatomaceous Earth ...... PPP en,» at eh EY 5 St wk 26
allerse shart hieeeepwe etry risisakelo) oo] cc avate east ake MS TAPE nen REI eae eon 28
| By hey (eee nae boom ORO eI ont ee er eae) Se Lete AG nani 0 736
LSIMCSEO TIE seme Meer eee ca <x see nw ooo Riera RIO Cea ae eae eee 39
The Everglades of Florida, limestones of ....... Pe th eT tt AI
ceolosy NOt Or eee eee AI

Niatenialss tore \Vlontamands Concrete oooh ane eeenioe nee 46
I Beir eds Santee Race tn. C.cb O eaC eE ERR EC iA paIa eE IENS oe Etre a ne & 50
JBslapjueyrer Ioee-*, ous ooo. ODEN tisos DUA OF DO SOC Estab ecmat sbeco ¢ 65
Road NMiatentall smesereie ie cers 6 Gio 5 oo ase Rete Be eee Ene IOI
SrratGberebaXG ly GrcehWelt G4 65 hee non DOE aOR ED OO oniG codon sanecanoons Seesis ox 102
SRiIlGelbingtemmloymlel Sows ace SCE eee bo OIC Rocco nt Poeun Sansa sc 103
Water Stippliesc recite ccnc iiaye c ois's «sw Sacgcetne pee ah eae ei enae teas ey tener Reena TO4

ERRATA.

Page 36, third line from the bottom of the page, for “18,917,” read 16,845:
and for “$100,335,” read $89,973. :

Page 114, second and third lines from top, same correction as for page 36;
also twelfth line from the top of the page, for “73,415,” read 13,371; and in

last line on page, for ““$10,646,628.00,” read $10,636,266.00.

ST
vances

Key Map to
MINERAL RESOURCES
By E.H.Sellards
1914

SSS we

~
LEY

H Hard Rock
Phosphate

ey Land Pebble
3 Phosphate

WMD pee Flow

+. Lime Plants

%e Brick Plants Cj
Oo. Ball Clay Mines MAY
t. Fuller's Earth Mines Ny

\
A

og Bey Wess

MINERAL INDUSTRIES AND RESOURCES OF FLORIDA.
BE Ee SELLARDS.

STATISTICS ON PRODUCTION COLLECTED IN CO-OPERATION WITH THE
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

GEAY AND.GLAY PRODUCTS.

BALL CLAY OR PLASTIC KAOLIN.

The ball clays or plastic kaolins are among the most important
clay products of the State.. The Florida ball clays are white burn-
ing, highly refractionary and very plastic. These are used largely
to mix with the less plastic clays to bring up the grade of plas-
ticity. This clay as it occurs in Florida is intimately mixed with
coarse sand. The presence of the sand in the clays necessitates
washing, after which the clay is allowed to collect in the settling
basins. It is then compressed into cakes by which excess of water
is removed. The cakes are then broken up and either air-dried
or artificially dried for shipment. The deposits at present known
lie in the central peninsular section from Putnam to Polk Counties.
The Putnam County deposits occur in and about Edgar and Mc-
Meekin. Deposits have been worked in Lake County along Palat-
lakaha Creek. Ball clays have also been reported from near Bar-
tow Junction in Polk County, and probably extend into DeSoto
County.

At Edgar, 4 to Io feet of loose sand lies above the kaolin-
bearing sand. This top sand is coarse, containing siliceous peb-
bles up to one-third of an inch across. The large pebbles are
flattened and all are rounded. The kaolin-bearing sands beneath
are gray in color, although the weathered surface is sometimes
slightly iron-stained. They are said to have a total thickness of
30 feet or more. These sands are distinctly cross-bedded, espe-
cially the upper five feet as seen in the pit at Edgar. They are
underlain by a sticky blue clay. It is reported that beneath the
blue clay a fullers earth occurs, and that this in turn passes at
the depth of about 70 feet into a scarcely indurated shell stratum.

23

\

ZA FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY-——-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

A well put down by the Edgar Plastic Kaolin Company is reported
to have passed through coarse superficial sand, 10 feet; kaolin-
bearing sands, 30 or more feet; sticky blue clay with fullers earth
beneath, about 40 feet; scarcely indurated shell stratum, 20 feet.
The well terminated on a hard limestone rock at the depth of 9a
Leet:

Fig. 1.—Pit of the Edgar Plastic Kaolin Co., Edgar, Putnam County.
Mining ball clay.

The kaolin in Lake County occurs under conditions similar to
those found in Putnam County. The superficial sands here as at
the Edgar mines are coarse and contain white siliceous pebbles.
The kaolin-bearing sands are gray in color except where stained
red with iron. At places a small amount of mica is found in the
kaolin sands which is screened out in the process of washing.
Sands of similar character but with a larger proportion of iron
occur in the vicinity of Leesburg and Hawthorne and are used for
road materials.

Two plants, under the management of the Edgar Plastic Kaolin
Company, were engaged in mining ball clay during 1913. The
value of the clay produced, although not separately given, is
included in the total mineral products of the State.

BRICK AND TILE:

The surface formations of north and central Florida contain
many clay beds, some of which are suitable for ‘brick-making.
The clay deposits, however, are often of local extent and variable

MINERAL INDUSTRIES—CLAY AND CLAY PRODUCTS. 4

t
on

in character. Such clay beds as occur in Florida suitable for
brick making are confined to no particular geologic formation, and
to no restricted section of the State, although the amount of brick
clay is greater perhaps in the northern than in the southern part
of the State. In extreme southern Florida in particular clay beds
are but little developed.

The total number of common brick manufactured in Florida
during 1913 was 42,450,000, valued at $240,126. The quantity
of tile produced in the state is not separately given, but is included
in making up the total mineral products of the state.

Fig. 2.—Brick kiln of the Florida Brick Company, Brooksville,
Hernando County.

The following firms in Florida have reported production of brick or tile
during I913:
Barrineau Brothers, Quintette.
Campville Brick Company, Campville.
Clay County Steam Brick Company, Green Cove Springs.
Florida Brick Company, Brooksville.
Gamble and Stockton Company, 108 West Bay St., Jacksonville.
Jacksonville Brick Company, 315 West Forsyth St., Jacksonville.
Keystone Brick Company, Whitney.
McMillan Brick Company, Molino.
O. O. Mickler Brick Company, Callahan.
Ocala Lumber and Supply Company, Ocala.
Ocklocknee Brick Company, Ocklocknee.
Platt Brothers, South Jacksonville.
Tallahassee Pressed Brick Company, Havana.

26 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

DIATOMACEOUS EARTEL

The only abrasive material produced in Florida is that known
as diatomaceous earth, the best known deposits of which ‘are
located near Eustis in Lake County. In addition to the Lake
County deposits, however, a number of samples of a similar mate-
rial have been received by the Survey from Polk County, and it is
evident that it is widespread in its occurrence. The earth is found
chiefly in fresh-water lakes, where it is intimately mixed with
peat or muck, the material as taken from the bog having the
appearance of peat of a grayish color. The method of treatment
is to burn out the carbonaceous matter, the siliceous material re-
maining as a very fine powder. The diatomaceous earth mined
near Eustis appears to consist largely of the spicules of fresh-
water sponges, shells of diatoms and particles of amorphous silica.

Diatomaceous earth is used largely as a polishing powder for
which its hardness and fineness render it particularly suitable.
It is also used in some scouring soaps, and to some extent in the
manufacture of dynamite as an absorbent for nitroglycerine. It
is a good non-conductor of heat and hence is. valuable for pack-—
ing steam pipes, and to some extent for fireproof materials in
general.

Diatomaceous earth was produced in Florida during t913 to
a limited extent by the Standard Diatomite Company of Eustis.
There being only the one producer the output is not separately
listed, but is included with the total mineral production of the
State.

The following account of diatomaceous earth in the United
States is taken from the report on the Production of Abrasive
Materials in 1913, by Frank J. Katz*:

Diatomaceous earth, called also infusorial earth and kieselguhr, is a light,
earthy material, which from some sources is loose and powdery and from
others is more or less firmly coherent. It.often resembles chalk or clay in
its physical properties, but can be distinguished at once from chalk by the
fact that it does not effervesce when treated with acids. It is generally white
or gray in color, but may be brown or even black when mixed with much
organic matter. Diatomaceous earth is made up of tests of minute aquatic
plants composed of a variety of opal, which, chemically, is hydrous silica.
Owing to its porosity it has great absorptive powers and high insulating

*Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year 1913, Pt. 11, D 268.

MINERAL INDUSTRIES—DIATOMACEOUS EARTH, 27
efficiency. The hardness, the minute size, and the shape of its grains make it
an excellent metal-polishing agent.

Heretofore diatomaceous or infusorial earth has been largely used as an
abrasive in the form of polishing powders and scouring soaps, but of late
its uses have been considerably extended. Because of its porous nature it
has been used in the manufacture of dynamite as a holder of nitroglycerine,
but so far as known not in the United States. Its porosity also renders it
a non-conductor of heat, and this quality in connection with its lightness
has extended its use as an insulating packing material for safes, steam pipes,
and boilers, and as a fireproof building material. In this country a new
use of the material is reported in the manufacture of records for talking
machines. For this purpose it is boiled with shellac, and the resulting product
has the necessary hardness to give good results.

In Europe, especially in Germany, infusorial earth has lately found ex-
tended application. It has been used in preparing artificial fertilizers, espe-
cially in the absorption of liquid manures; in the manufacture of water
glass, or various cements, of glazing for tiles, of artificial stone, of ultra
marine and various pigments, of aniline and alizarine colors, of paper, sealing
wax, fireworks, gutta-percha objects, Swedish matches, solidified bromine, scour-
ing powders, papier-mache, and many other articles. There is a large and
steadily growing demand for it.

Fig. 3—Northwest shore of Lake Milton, about 5 miles south of Tavares.

Preliminary preparation of the crude material involves drying and roast-
ing to destroy organic matter, if that is present.

Production of diatomaceous earth in the United States in 1913, by States,
in short tons.

State. Quantity. Value.
Galiano ama NV ada: ./.\. a. 2 '~ <\sote Stee, cola) daweraiald te selena ava cot 5,785 $51,556
Connecticut, New . York; and..Washingtom. 20.5.5. ..5.4:.2:2.0s00 378 9,565
Marvliandwsvarcinias and. Floridan. + osc aycaieee ks fae s vealsts 423 8,119

<O PLYUNIVA GEVLYMGICAL SURVEY SiAT TE ANNUAL NEFUNI,.

FULLERS EARTH.*

CONTENTS.

Introduction.

Definition of Fullers Earth.

Tests for Fullers Earth.
Mining.
Drying.
Grinding and Bolting.
Properties.
Distribution in the United States.
Production in the United States.

Fullers earth is a clay which has the property of absorbing
basic colors and removing these from solution in animal, vege-
table and mineral oils, as well as from water and certain other
liquids. In commerce the earth finds its chief use in clarifying
oils, although it has in addition a number of minor -uses, among
which are the removal of the excess of coloring from water in
dyeing cloth; as an ingredient in talcum powders; as a detergent
in fulling cloth; and to some extent for medicinal purposes, having
been used in poultices for swellings, ulcers and sores. Fullers
earth has also been used recently in the preparation of a new
reagent, known as Lloyd’s reagent for alkaloids. This reagent,
used for the removal of alkaloids from the aqueous solution of
their salts, is reported to be more efficient for that purpose than
charcoal or freshly precipitated aluminum, heretofore chiefly used
for that purpose. The action of the reagent is supposed to be
due to the presence of hydrous aluminum silicate.+

Fullers earth, like other clays, is complex and consists not of
a single mineral, but of a variety of minerals, the mineral parti-
cles being mixed in different earths in widely differing propor-
tions, resulting in a varying chemical and mineralogical compost-
tion. The ultimate analysis does not differ materially from that
of other clays, although fullers earth has as a rule a rather high
percentage of combined water. The properties of the earth arise

*The following paper on fullers earth is abridged from two papers pre-
pared during the past year by the writer. The first of these, entitled Fullers
Earth in the United States, was presented at the Atlanta Meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science; the second, entitled
Fullers Earth Production, was prepared for Mineral Industry, 1913, Vol. xxii.

*Journal of the Amer. Pharmaceutical Association, May, 1914, pp. 625-630.

MINERAL INDUSTRIES—FULLERS EARTH. 29

apparently from the physical condition of the clay and can be
detected only by a filtering test by which its practical utility in
clarifying oils is determined.

In testing an earth for clarifying a mineral oil the earth is
dried, powdered and placed in a tube. The mineral oil is then
passed through the tube and will be more or less perfectly clarified,
depending upon the quality of the earth. A different test is neces-
sary for a vegetable oil. In testing vegetable oils according to
Wesson* a weighed amount of the oil and the fullers earth are
stirred together for a regular period at a temperature of 100 de-
grees C. The oil is then filtered and compared with other known
fullers earth treated under exactly the same conditions.

Various other properties are assigned to fullers earth, but all,
aside from the actual bleaching tests, are so variable, or are com-
mon to such a variety of clays as to be of only secondary value
as a means of identification. Non-plasticity is often given as a
property of fullers earth, but it appears from the investigations of
Portery and others that some of the fullers earths are distinctly
plastic when mixed with a large proportion of water. Some of the
fullers earths will disintegrate in water, although others are little
affected thereby. Most fullers earths on.account of their porosity
when dry will adhere firmly to the tongue, but some other clays will
do the same. In color fullers earth is as variable as other clays, and
while buff and blue clays predominate, others are brown, gray or
almost white. As a rule fullers earths are light in weight owing
to their porosity, although there are exceptions, and the specific
gravity is much the same as that of other clays. These secondary
properties, although of value in tracing any particular bed after
this has been located, are not to be relied upon as a complete test.

MINING FULLERS EARTH.

All the sedimentary deposits of fullers earth are mined by the
open pit method, the overburden being removed by steam shovel
in the larger mines, and by team and scraper or by pick and
shovel in the smaller mines. The depth of overburden that can
profitably be removed is variable, depending as it does upon the

*Bleaching of Oils with Fullers Earth, by David Wesson, Trans. Amer.

Tnst. of Chemical Engineers, Vol. iii, 1910, pp. 327-332.
tProperties and Tests of Fullers Earth, by John T. Porter, U. S. Geol.
Sur. Bull, 315, pp. 268-290, 1907.

3

30 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

thickness and quality of the fullers earth stratum beneath and
upon the character of the overburden itself. In the Florida mines
the maximum overburden removed is from 12 to 14 feet in thick-
ness. ‘This consists of sand,.clay and in some cases marl. The
fullers earth in these mines includes two strata each from six
to ten feet thick, and separated by a thin stratum of sandy or cal-
careous material. As a rule the first stratum only is worked.
The fullers earth itself is dug with pick and shovel, and is then
loaded onto cars to be drawn to the plant.

Fig. 4—Pit in fullers earth mine, Quincy, Florida.

In Arkansas where the earth is found following basaltic dikes,
underground mining is resorted to. Vertical shafts are sunk
from which laterals run to the vein of earth. The fullers earth
is drawn to the surface in buckets and is hauled by wagon to
the plant near by.

DRYING FULLERS EARTH.

At the plant the earth is broken up by passing through a
crusher, thus facilitating both handling and drying. Although
the earth is usually taken directly to the crusher, yet in some
instances it is placed in storage bins and air dried before being
crushed. Drying fullers earth is for the purpose of removing the
excess of moisture.

MINERAL INDUSTRIES—FULLERS EARTH. 31

The driers employed are for the most part rotary cylinders.
Those in use in the Florida mines are from 40 to 60 feet in length
and about 6 feet in diameter. When in operation they rotate
slowly, the earth being moved along by means of flanges attached
to the inside of the cylinder. These cylinders are heated to a
moderate heat by petroleum burners, the heat being applied either
at the end where the wet earth enters, or at the opposite end from
which the dry earth escapes. Overheating is not feared in these
plants, as the earth is used for filtering mineral oils. When the
earth is to be used for edible oils precautions are taken to avoid
overheating, as driving off the combined water is supposed to be
injurious. To guard against overheating especially constructed
rotary cylinders are used, or the earth is run into brick form and
is dried in tunnel driers through which hot air is forced. Although
the English fullers earth is injured by driving off the combined
water, it has been found that some at least of the American
earths bleach fully as well after the combined water is removed,
and it is probable that these precautions against overheating the
earth for edible oils are in some cases at least unnecessary.

GRINDING AND BOLTING.

In grinding the fullers earth a variety of mills are in use.
After grinding, the earth is bolted. That intended for refining
petroleum is bolted to a definite size and is placed on the market
graded as 15 to 30 mesh, 30 to 60 mesh, 60 to 80 mesh. The
coarser sizes are in most demand, there being as a rule no market
for material passing go mesh, which is not infrequently a total
loss, being thrown into the dump. For the edible oils it is said
that the earth should be ground to pass 100 mesh, but that there
should not be an excess of exceedingly fine material which if pres-
ent will clog the pores of the coarser material and prevent success-
ful filtering. It is apparent that the different fullers earths differ
in the degree of fineness to which they can be successfully ground.
While the English earths are ground to a 120 mesh without having
an excess of very fine particles, many of the American earths can-
not be ground finer than 100 mesh for edible oils. It is true also
that the mill employed must be adapted to the particular earth
for which it is used.

32 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

PROPERTIES OF FULLERS EARTH.

The action of fullers earth in clarifying oils, and the vary-
ing behavior of different fullers earths form an interesting study
on which much yet remains to be done. Porter in 1907 reviewed
the different explanations of the carifying action that had been
given and advanced a new theory to explain this property. Porter
believes that the clarifying action is due chiefly to colloidal silica
present in the clay, and records a series of very interesting tests
and analyses which are believed to support this view.* Porter’s
theory briefly stated is as follows: (1) Fullers earth has for its
base a series of hydrous aluminum silicates. (2) These silicates
differ in chemical composition. (3) They are, however, similar
itt that they all possess an amorphous colloidal structure. (4) The
colloidal structure is of a rather persistent form and is not lost
on drying at a temperature of 130 degrees Centigrade, or possibly
higher. (5) These colloidal silicates possess the power of absorb-
ing and retaining organic coloring matter, thus bleaching oils
and fats.

Among other striking properties of fullers earth is the fact
that some earths that serve particularly well in refining mineral
oils have not been used successfully for vegetable oils and con-
versely those best suited for vegetable oils are not suitable for
mineral oils. A recent study bearing on these problems has been
issued by the U. S. Bureau of Mines. At the present time the
English fullers earths are being used largely in vegetable oils, while
the American fullers earths are used almost entirely for mineral
oils. It is stated in this report, however, that the Bureau of Mines
believe that the United States has fullers earth far better suited
for refining edible oils than any imported, and that to assure the
almost universal use of this earth by American refiners there is
required only a careful and intelligent control of the preparation
of the output and its application to the bleaching of oils.

Most fullers earth gives more or less of a taste to the edible
oils, and formerly the American earth was rejected by refiners of
edible oils cn this account, but at the present time methods are
known for removing taste and odor from the oil. This is accom-

*Properties and Tests of Fuller’s Earth, by John T. Porter. Bull. 315,
U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 268-290, 1907.
tFullers Earth, by Charles L. Parsons, eee of Mines, Bull. 71, 1913.

MINERAL INDUSTRIES—FULLERS EARTH.

33

plished by blowing dry steam through the refined oil which is
heated to a temperature above the boiling point of water. A
serious difficulty in the use of this clay is the rapid oxidizing action
which some fullers earths have on edible oils. In milling practice
air is blown through the filter press to force out the oil remaining
in the earth after treatment. With some of the earths the oxidiz-
ing action is so rapid that the oil remaining in the earth takes
fire, or is liable to take fire at this time. It is to be hoped that
this difficulty will be overcome.

DISTRIBUTION OF FULLERS EARTH IN THE UNITED STATES.

| ‘

Clays haying the properties of fullers earth more or less well
developed are widely distributed in the United States and are con-
fined to no particular geological horizon, although the largest
known deposits are of Cenozoic age. By far the greater part of
fullers earth is in the form of a sedimentary deposit which is dis-
tinctly stratified, and from which an overburden must be removed
in mining. In Arkansas, however, fullers earth is known that is
exceptional in that it is residual, having been formed im situ from
the disintegration of basaltic dykes.* In the United States fullers
earth is known from the following states: Alabama, Arizona,
California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Massachusetts, Minnesota,
Mississippi, New York, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas and
Utah. Of these states, however, only six were actively producing
fullers earth during 1913, as follows: Florida, Georgia, Arkan-
sas, California, Colorado and Massachusetts.

The fullers earth of southern Georgia, which is worked at
Attapulgus near the Florida line, represents a northward extension
of the Florida deposits. In central Georgia near Macon, however,
is found a different type of earth, which according to the Georgia
Geological Survey is found in the Claiborne formation of Eocene
age. This earth differs in some important respects from that of
Florida, being used chiefly for vegetable oils, while that from
Florida finds its chief use at present in clarifying mineral oils.
The fullers earth of Arkansas is used chiefly in clarifying vegetable
oils. The fullers earth of Colorado is said to be used in bleach-

*Residual fullers earth is said to occur also in Saxony where it is found
in Situ derived from gabbro.

34 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

ing cottonseed oil, while that of Massachusetts is reported as being
used in fulling woolen goods. The fullers earth of California is
used according to the State Mineralogist principally as a clarifying
agent in the refining of crude oils.

BRODUCTION OF FULLERS EARTH IN THE UNITED STATES.

Florida is the chief producer of fullers earth in the United
States. The deposits being worked are those of Gadsden County
in northern Florida, and of Manatee County in southern Florida,
the earth being found at both localities in the Alum Bluff forma-
tion of Upper Oligocene age. The following companies reported
production of fullers earth in Florida during 1913: The Atlantic
Refining Company, Ellenton; the Floridin Company, Quincy; the
Fullers Earth Company, Midway. In addition to these the Mana-
tee Fullers Earth Company, Ellenton, is reported as expecting to
operate during 1914.

The total production of fullers earth in the United States
during 1913 was 38,594 short tons, valued at $369,750, being an
increase both in quantity and value over that of the preceding
year*. In addition to that produced, there was imported into
the United States during the year ending June 30,1913,16,866.16
tons, of which 1,597 tons valued at $10,359 were unmanufactured
or unground, while 15,269.16 tons valued at $135,229 were manu-
factured or ground. These importations were under the old rate
of duty, which was $1.50 per ton for the unmanufactured earth,
and $3.00 per ton for the manufactured product. During the
last half of 1913, July 1 to December 31, under the new tariff
rates, which are for unmanufactured earth 75 cents per ton, and
for manufactured $1.50 per ton, there was imported 974 tons un-
manufactured valued at $7,660 and 7,613 tons manufactured earth
valued at $68,558. These valuations are based on the wholesale
price of the product at the port of origin. The actual cost to the
consumer includes freight and commission in addition. The ex-
ports of fullers earth from the United States cannot be determined
owing to the fact that this product is not listed separate from
other clays.

*The Production of Fullers Earth in 1913, by Jefferson Middleton. Mineral
Resources of the United States, Calendar Year, 1913. Pt. II, p. 111, 1914.

MINERAL INDUSTRIES—FULLERS EARTH. 35

The fullers earth used in clarifying mineral oils, which includes
by far the greater part of that produced in America, is sold at
the mine, ground, bolted and sacked for shipment at about $9.50
per ton. That used for refining vegetable oils brings a somewhat
higher price, although more expense is incurred in handling, since
the earth must be ground finer for vegetable than for mineral oil.

Fig. 5.—Fullers earth plant at Quincy, Gadsden County.

Fig. 6.—Fullers earth plant at Ellenton, Manatee County.

30 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

LIME.

Lime or “quick lime” is chemically an oxide of calcium or
calcium and magnesium.’ It is formed ordinarily by burning lime-
stone, although shells and other calcium carbonates may be used
for the same purpose. Limestone when burned gives up carbon
dioxide. The residue after burning forming a lime, consists of a
calcium oxide, when a pure calcium carbonate limestone is used;
or of calcium and magnesium oxide when a dolomitic limestone is
used. The reaction in the case of a pure limestone is as follows:
CaCO3 when heated breaks up into CaQ+COz2. In the case
of dolomitic limestone a magnesium oxide as well as calcium

~

oxide is formed.
The character of the lime varies according to the amount

of magnesium present in the limestone from which it is made.
Peppel* offers the following classification of the ordinary or
“white limes’, including in that term limes containing not more
than 5 per cent of sandy and clayey impurities:

(1) High-calcium, or “hot” or “quick” limes. Made from limestones
containing not less than 85 per cent. of carbonate of calcium.

(2) Magnesium limes. Made from limestone containing between sixty-
five and eighty-five per cent. carbonate of calcium and between ten and thirty

per cent. of carbonate of magnesium.
gs
(3) Dolomitic, or “cool” or “slow” limes. Made from limestones con-

taining more than thirty per cent. of carbonate of magnesium.

These limes differ slightly among themselves. The high cal-
cium or “hot” or ‘quick’? limes set more quickly, while the mag-
nesium and dolomitic limes set more slowly. Limes thus serve
different purposes, the high calcium limes being used when a quick-
setting lime is desired, while the other limes are used when slow-
setting limes are desired. After calcination, the lime may be
placed on the market as quick lime, or it may be slaked and placed
on the market as hydrated lime. Hydrated lime is said to be desir-
able for certain purposes since the lime if properly slaked breaks
up into exceedingly fine powder.

The total quantity of quick and hydrated lime made in Florida
during 1913 amounted to 18,917 tons, valued at $100,335. The
companies reporting production of lime in Florida during 1913
were as follows:

*Bulletin No. 4, 4th Series, Ohio Geol. Survey, p 254, 1906.

MINERAL INDUSTRIES—LIME AND LIMESTONE,

Ww
N

Florida Lime Company, Ocala, Florida,

Live Oak Limestone Company, Live Oak, Florida.
Marion Lime Company, Ocala, Florida.

Standard Lime Company, Kendrick, Florida.

In addition to these, the Virginia-Florida Lime Company, and
the Blowers Lime and Phosphate Company, organized during 1913,
were expected to begin operations during 1914.

The following account of the uses of lime, together with com-
ments on hydrated lime, is taken from an article on Lime by Ernest
F, Burchard in Mineral Industry for the Calendar year 1911, pt. 11,

pp. 649-652, I9g12.
USES OF LIME.

Few mineral products have so wide a variety of uses as lime. Nearly
half the lime manufactured in the United States is used as a structural
material, and the remainder, amounting to about 1,750,000 tons, valued at
about $5,500,000, is consumed in chemical uses. The principal uses which
lime has in building operations are in lime mortars and plasters, in gaging
Portland cement mortars, concrete, and gypsum plasters, and as a white-
wash. Both quick and hydrated lime are used in building operations.

The chemical uses of lime are much more varied than the uses of lime
in building. A number of the industries that are large users of lime are
listed below, together with the special purposes served by lime in each industry
and the kind of lime most suitable to such purposes.

CHEMICAL USES OF LIME.*

Agricultural industries :
As a soil amendment, c. m. t
As an insecticide, c, m.
As a fungicide, c, m.
Bleaching industry:
Manufacture of bleaching powder, “Chloride of lime,” c.
Bleaching and renovating of rags, Jute, ramine, and various paper stocks,
c, m.
Caustic alkali industry:
Manufacture of soda, potash, and ammonia, c.
Chemical industries :
Manufacture of ammonia, c.
Manufacture of calcium carbide, calcium cyanimid, and calcium nitrate,c.
Manufacture of potassium dichromate and sodium dichromate, c.
Manufacture of fertilizers, c, m.
Manufacture of magnesia, m.
Manufacture of acetate of lime, c.
Manufacture of wood alcohol, c.
Manufacture of bone ash, c, m.

*Notes on the part played by lime in these industries are given in Cir-
cular No. 30 of the Bureau of Standards, I9II, pp. 13-21.
“ ”

t. High calcium lime is indicated by “c,” magnesium and dolomitic lime
by seme

38 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Manufacture of calcium carbides, c.
Manufacture of calcium-light pencils, c.
In refining mercury, c.
In dehydrating alcohol, c.
In distillation of wood, c.
Gas manufacture:
Purification of coal gas and water gas, c, m.
Glass manufacture :
Most varieties of glass and glazes, c,
Milling industry :
Clarifying grain, c, m.
Miscellaneous manufactures:
Rubber, c, m.
Glue, c, m.
Pottery and porcelain, c,m.
Dyeing fabrics, c, m.
Polishing material, c, m.
Oil, fat, and soap manufacture:
Manufacture of soap, c.
Manufacture of glycerine, c.
Manufacture of candles, c.
Renovating fats, greases, tallow, butter, c, m.
Removing the acidity of oils and petroleum, c, m.
Lubricating greases, c, m. Y
Paint and varnish manufacture:
Cold-water paint, c, m.
Refining linseed oil, c, m.
Manufacture of linoleum, c, m.
Manufacture of varnish, c, m.
Paper industry:
Soda method, c.
Sulphite method, m.
For strawboard, c, m.
As a filler, c, m.
Preserving industry:
Preserving eggs, c.
Sanitation :
As a disinfectant and deodorizer, c.
Purification of water for cities, c
Purification of sewage, c.
Smelting industry:
Reduction of iron ores, c, m.
Sugar manufacture :
Beet root, c.
Molasses, c.
Tanning industry:
Tanning cowhides, c.
Tanning goat and kid hides, c, m.
Water softening and purifying, c.

HYDRATED LIME.

Definition—When quicklime is slaked, by whatever process, whether in
the simple mortar box by adding water by the bucketful and stirring with
a hoe, or whether the lime and water are automatically weighed out in definite
parts and the mass is stirred by machinery, the chemical principle involved is
the same, viz., quicklime plus water becomes slaked lime, or hydrated lime—

CaO+H20—Ca (OH) 2:

MINERAL INDUSTRIES—LIME AND LIMESTONF, 29

or, if the limestone used for making quicklime contains magnesia, the follow-
ing equation is appropriate: Magnesian quicklime plus water becomes slaked
or hydrated magnesian lime—

CaO.MgO-++-H20=Ca(OH)2.MgO.

Commercially the term “hydrated lime” is restricted to the dry powder
prepared by treating quicklime with just enough water to combine with all
the calcium oxide present. In the preparation of hydrated lime two materials
only are used—fresh caustic lime and water. The general method of prep-
aration is first to reduce the lumps of lime by crushing to about %-inch size.
In some plants this reduction is carried further by grinding the lime to
about the fineness of granulated sugar. The crushed or granulated lime is
then treated with sufficient water to combine chemically with the calcium
oxide in the lime, care being taken that the quantity is neither too little to
satisfy the chemical requirements nor so great as to leave the hydrated mass
wet or even damp. In practice, an excess of water is used, but this excess
is driven off by the heat generated in the slaking or hydrating of the lime.
The object of crushing the product is to produce a larger surface for the
action of the water, and, moreover, large lumps would be rather unwieldy
in the hydrater. The lime comes from the hydrater as a fine, dry powder,
which must be screened to remove any coarse or overburned lime that would
not slake. From the screens it goes to the storage bin, where, if the
capacity is available, it is at some plants allowed to age for 30 days. Finally,
the product is fed into bags for shipment. The equipment of the hydrating
plant generally includes two elevators, one to take the lime from the crusher
to the bin over the hydrater and one to take the hydrated lime from the
hydrater to the storage bin. Most mills include, also, a machine for grinding
the oversize from the screens. This material consists of unburned stone,
overburned lime, lime which is not fully hydrated, and even pieces of brick
from the kilns, and coal ashes. When ground, the tailings may be sold for
fertilizer. The methods of manufacture most extensively employed in this
country are the batch process, the continuous process, and modifications of
these two processes.

LIMESTONE.

In addition to that used in making lime, limestone is produced
in Florida for other purposes as follows: Broken limestone used
for railroad ballast, concrete and road material, and ground lime-
stone for application to soils. A limited amount of limestone
was probably also used in building, although not reported. The
quantity of limestone produced for the various purposes men-
tioned are as follows: Railroad ballast, 93,750 tons, valued at
$37,500; concrete, 123,506 tons, valued at $72,432; road material,
rock valued at $156,589; ground for application to soils, 16,908
tons, the total production amounting to $156,589.00. |

The following is a list of firms reporting the production of
limestone in Florida during 1913:

40 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Blowers Lime and Phosphate Company, Ocala, Florida.
Crystal River Rock Company, Crystal River, Florida.
Florida Lime Company, Ocala, Florida.

Marion Lime Company, Ocala, Florida.

E. P. Maule, Fort Lauderdale, Florida.

Palm Beach County, West Palm Beach, Florida.
Standard Lime Company, Kendrick, Florida.

BUILDING STONE.

The building stone of the State consists chiefly of limestones,
of which several varieties occur.

Coquina:—The coquina rock of Anastasia Island near St.
Augustine has been known as a building stone for more than three
hundred years. This coquina was in fact the first stone used for
building purposes in America, its use having begun with the settle-
ment of St. Augustine about 1565. Coquina consists of a mass of
shells of varying size or fragments of shells cemented together
ordinarily by calcium carbonate. A small admixture of sand is
in some instances included with the shells. When first exposed the
mass of shells is imperfectly cemented and the rock is readily cut
into blocks of the desired size. Upon exposure, however, the
moisture contained in the interstices of the rock evaporates and in
doing so deposits the calcium carbonate which it held in solution,
thus firmly cementing the shell mass into a firm rock. Thus indu-
rated the resisting qualities of the rock are good. The shells from
this formation have been extensively used with concrete in the con-
struction of modern buildings at St. Augustine. Aside from its
occurrence on Anastasia Island coquina is found at many other
points along both the east and the west side of the peninsula.

Vicksburg Limestone :—The Vicksburg limestone has been used
to some extent for building purposes. This is true especially of
that phase of the Vicksburg known as the “chimney rock’ de-
scribed in the preceding reports as the Marianna and the Peninsular
limestones. The chimney rock when first taken from the ground is
very soft and can be easily sawed into blocks. Upon exposure to
the air it hardens, due, as in the case of the coquina, to the evap-
oration of moisture from the interstices of the rock. The chimney
rock was early used both in Alabama and Florida for the construc-
tion of chimneys and to some extent for building purposes.

Locally the Vicksburg and some of the other limestones in Flor-

MINERAL INDUSTRIES—LIME AND LIMESTONI. Al

ida become very close grained and compact. In this condition the
limestone is hard, approaching marble in appearance. Although
little used this phase of the limestone formation is capable of pro-
ducing a good building stone.

Mianu Oolite:—The Miami oolitic limestone has been used suc-
cessfully as a building stone at Miami. This formation extends
for some distance along the eastern border of the Everglades north
and south from Miami. As in the case of the other limestones
when first taken from the quarry it is relatively soft and easily
worked, but hardens upon exposure. The court-house, Halcyon
Hall hotel and some other buildings at Miami are constructed of
this rock.

The limestones of the Everglades of Florida constitute a re-
source that will become valuable as that section of the state is
developed. In this connection may be included a brief paper on
the geology of this interesting region, prepared originally for the
State Drainage Commission, in which is included descriptions
and analyses of the several limestones that are found underlying
the Everglades. In making the examination of the exposures
along the canals and in Lake Okeechobee, May 19 to 23, 1914, a
small launch was used, placed at the writer’s disposal through the
courtesy of the Chief Engineer of the State Drainage Commission.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE EVERGLADES OF FLORIDA.

The developments that are now in progress, and particularly
the extensive excavations that are being made in connection with
drainage operations, are rapidly opening up new territory in
southern Florida, affording the opportunity of making important
additions to our knowledge of the geology of that part of the
State. The canals from the Caloosahatchee River on the west,
through Lake Okeechobee, and thence through the Everglades to
New River and Miami on the east give almost complete exposures
of the underlying formations across the Everglades, the geology
of which was until recently practically unknown. In fact the geo-
logic observations previously made were confined to the borders
of the Everglades or to the banks of the streams leading out to
the east, south and west,

Among these early observations were those of Buckingham

42 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Smith, who in 1847 examined the oolitic limestone in the vicinity
of Miami and along the Miami River. Thé locality was subse-
quently visited by Agassiz, Tuomey and others of the early geolo-
gists, and the age of the rocks correctly determined as Pleistocene.
The limestones bordering the Everglades west of Palm Beach and
at the extreme southern end of the peninsula were examined in
1908 by Samuel Sanford, supplementing similar investigations made
in 1887 by Joseph Wilcox, and together with the rocks found west
of Palm Beach, were described in the Second Annual Report of
the Florida Geological Survey. The limestone west of Palm Beach
was there designated as the Palm Beach Limestone, while that
found bordering the Gulf coast at the southern end of the Ever-
glades was named the Lostman’s River Limestone.

On the west side of the Everglades along the Caloosahatchee
River there is found a shell marl formation of Pliocene age first
described in 1887 by Angelo Heilprin and known as the Caloosa-
hatchee marl. This marl, remarkable for the number, size and
excellent preservation of the fossil shells which it contains, dis-
appears from view beneath later formations at Fort Thompson
near the head of the Caloosahatchee River.

The formations lying above the Caloosahatchee mar] at Fort
Thompson consists of hard and soft limestones, shell and clay
marls. The principal limestone seen at this locality is a hard
almost flinty rock containing an abundance of the fresh-water
snail, Planorbis. Both above and below this limestone stratum,
are shell marls, some of which are of fresh-water and some of
marine origin. The most persistent of these marls is a shell
stratum resting directly upon the limestone and having a thickness
of about two feet. The predominating fossil in this stratum, the
small Chione cancellata, is a species which prefers shallow water,
frequently living between low and high tide. Above this marine
shell marl is a fresh-water clayey marl which contains an abundance
of the remains of the pond snails. These deposits in which marine
marls alternate with fresh-water marls and limestones indicate
that at the time of their formation this part of Florida was being
gradually elevated above sea. The elevation of the land area as
is usual in such cases, progressed slowly with minor fluctuations,
permitting the formation of fresh and brackish water lagoons, in
which the fresh-water marls accumulated, then by a minor subsi-

MINERAL INDUSTRIES—LIME AND LIMESTONE. 43

dence the ocean waters were allowed once more to come in, the
marine shell marls being deposited during this time. The general
upward movement, however, continued, the whole area being
finally lifted to its present height of from 10 to 20 feet above sea
level.

This exposure at Fort Thompson affords the key to the study
of the formations extending to the east and underlying the Ever-
glades, in which the limestones and marls of this type are widely
distributed. In following up the canal from Fort Thompson these
limestones and marls are seen in the canal banks for a mile or so
where all except the upper freshwater marl drop below water
level. That they are still present, however, is shown by the quan-
tities of shells that have been thrown out by the dredge. At Coffee
Mill Hammock, about 8 miles above Fort Thompson, a slight fold
or anticline brings the reck to the surface, and for a few miles
the limestone and marl are again seen in place in the banks of the
canal. It is worthy of note also that at this locality the dredge
cuts entirely through the overlying deposits and brings up the Ca-
loosahatchee marl from beneath, showing the eastward extent of
that formation beyond the locality at which it disappears from
view in the river bank. Beyond the Coffee Mill Hammock cut.
limestone and marls are occasionally reached by the dredge. A
considerable mass of shells has been taken from the canal just
above Citrus Center Landing, while within three miles of Lake
Hicpochee a rather heavy limestone comes to the surface.

Within Lake Okeechobee there is a reef of rock extending in a
general northwest-southeast direction between Observation and
Rita islands. At a point about 5 miles southeast of Observation
Island the rock of this reef now stands above water at intervals
for a mile or so, the maximum exposure at the present low water
stage being about two feet. At the surface this limestone is quite
hard, or is streaked in a characteristic manner with alternate hard
and soft layers. Beneath the surface, however, the rock is a rather
soft oolitic marl or limestone of granular texture and light yellow
color. The hard phase of this limestone is much like the lime-
stone found in the canal three miles west of Lake Hicpochee, while
a thin stratum of a similar limestone is found near the surface at
Coffee Mill Hammock. A few pieces of the marl phase of this

44 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

limestone seem also to have been brought up from the lake at the
entrance of the north New River canal.

The following analysis of a composite sample of the hard and
soft phases of this limestone, as well as the other analyses given
in this paper, was made by the State Chemist from samples taken
for the purpose by the writer. The rock in Lake Okeechobee, as
is seen from this analysis, is slightly phosphatic, this being the
only phosphatic limestone as yet reported from the Everglades.

Analysis of Limestone from Lake Okeechobee.

Per cent
Calcium Oxide, 42.76%, equivalent to Calcium Carbonate.................. 70.37
Magnesium Oxide, 0.35%, equivalent to Magnesium Carbonate............ 0.70
Phosphoric Acid, 0.85%, equivalent to Tricalcium Phosphate.............. LOS
incolublesmatter isilicawmetcserincsa: crvreric te frets sie cit lepotels ohne etoile eee tore a 21.14

From the canals leading out of Lake Okeechobee to the south
and southeast for a distance of about 25 miles very little rock has
as yet been removed. Such fragments as are seen along the canals,
however, represent very hard compact fresh-water limestones. On
the North New River canal dredging of the heavy limestone begins
about 26 miles from Lake Okeechobee. The rock cut through on
this part of the canal consists of a very hard, compact, close-
grained limestone which breaks with a sharp fracture and will
evidently make valuable concrete material. The same limestone
is cut into on the South Canal at 24 miles from the lake. The very
hard phase of this rock is a fresh-water limestone. As found on
the banks of the canal, however, marine and fresh-water limestones
and marls are intermixed, indicating that here as elsewhere the
formation includes alternating fresh-water and marine deposits.
While the shallow-water shell, Chione cancellata, occurs here as at
Coffee Mill Hammock, the predominating fossil in the Everglades
is the estuarine and shallow-water form, Rangia cuneata, together
with corals and other forms that inhabit shallow marine water.
Pieces of this hard limestone are found on the North New River
canal as far as 42 miles from the Lake, although for the last three or
four miles of this distance the heavy limestone stratum gives
place largely to marls.

The following is an analysis of a sample of this rock from the
South New River canal, 25 miles south of Lake Okeechobee.

te

MINERAL INDUSTRIES—LIME AND LIMESTONE, 45

Analysis of limestone from 25 miles south of Lake Okeechobee.

Per cent.
Caicium oxide, 44.68%, equivalent to calcium carbonate................... 79.80
Magnesium oxide, 0.38%, equivalent to magnesium carbonate............. 0.76
[ELGISNIN BT HB Por 0 ee eS a a trace
SUNS.) hs] CMC T GMP RUM UR IS Sra side dik ass Sic on ab vlscscacdvesevesewen 17.90

Another limestone, seen on the North New River canal, is
cut into by the dredge at a distance of about 42 to 52 miles from
Lake Okeechobee. This limestone is granular and more or less
distinctly oolitic in structure and is not so hard as that seen nearer
the Lake. The surface of this rock becomes very rough on ex-
posure, presenting a characteristic matted appearance. This rock
is seen in the canal to within 9 miles of Fort Lauderdale (52 miles
from Lake Okeechobee).

The following is an analysis of a sample of this rock from the
North New River canal, 13 miles from Fort Lauderdale.

Analysis of limestone from the North New River Canal.

Per cent.
Calcium oxide, 39.88%, equivalent to calcium carbonate...................- 71.23
Magnesium oxide, 0.20%, equivalent to magnesium CanvOMate yn... a. 3st OO
OS CMA MIACTORM TI eNtae Liat ya) if! TUR OREP me strete eT Re ee ake trace
iasoliilen (silicac Gt. asa watch) sseilidy eaeiantno se odes ss Fri ble Sigh icha gee ene

Lying upon this limestone is a stratum of sand which was cut
across in this canal for about 3 miles, or from 52 to 55 miles from
Lake Okeechobee (9 to 6 miles from Fort Lauderdale), where it
passes beneath the Miami oolitic limestone. This latter formation,
the Miami oolite, coming in on this canal just above the dock
extends east to the Atlantic Ocean. The following analysis was
made from a sample of this rock from the North New River canai,
4 miles from Fort Lauderdale.

Analysis of Miami Oolitic Limestone.

Per cent.
Calcium oxide, 42.40%, equivalent to magnesium carbonate................ Aso is:
Magnesium oxide, 0.09%, equivalent to magnesium carbonate.............. 0.18
BROSMDOTICNAGIG 34.12. «5 eT Ee Ema hoy cron sods 5 PE eC er trace
FAISGUM LE MGIIT CARN CLC 5 spo c ow cs eae EE OE Ee eee oe ream 23.00

A word as to the substructure of the Everglades is of impor-
tance in this connection since from the underlying formations
must be obtained the water supply so necessary. to the development
of the country. As already indicated the Pliocene deposits seen

4

46 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

on the Caloosahatchee River probably extend beneath the Ever-
glades to the east. The next older deposits, the Miocene, since they
are found exposed along the eastern flank of northern Florida and
are believed to have been recognized in deep well drillings on the
Atlantic coast, are likewise to be expected underlying southern
Florida. The Oligocene deposits, which are yet older than the
Miocene, and are extensively exposed to the north and west, may
confidently be expected underlying the Everglades, although at a
considerable depth. The older of the Oligocene formations, the
Vicksburg limestone, has in fact been recognized in well drillings
west, east and south of the Everglades. At Fort Meade, about
100 miles northwest of Lake Okeechobee, the Vicksburg limestone
lies at a depth of 410 feet; at Palm Beach on the east, it is found
at about 900 feet from the surface, while at Key West, about 100
miles southwest of the Everglades, this formation is buried to a
depth of 700 feet. The Vicksburg limestone in particular is men-
tioned as it is the great water reservoir of the State, from which
miost of the large wells of peninsular Florida draw their supply.
While its depth within the Everglades has not yet been deter-
mined, it is sure to be found there, and when drilled into it may
confidently be expected to supply the abundant flow of water that
is obtained from it elsewhere in the State.

From the account that has been given it will be seen that the
formations of the Everglades consist of limestones, marls and sand
strata, which in general dip to the east. It will also be seen that
the surface limestones present considerable variation among them-
selves and are well suited to the general uses of a rapidly devel-
oping country, while from the deeper formations will be obtained
an abundant water supply for domestic and industrial purposes.

MATERIALS FOR MORTAR AND CONCRETE.
MORTAR.

Sands, either siliceous or calcareous, suitable for mortar, occur
in practically all parts of Florida. The size of the sand grains has
a bearing on its qualities as a mortar sand. Coarse sand has a
smaller surface area in proportion to volume than has fine sand.
In order to obtain the best results each grain of sand in a mortar
should be thoroughly coated with cement, and it appears prob-
able that the coarse sand owing to its smaller proportion of sur-

MINERAL INDUSTRIES—LIME AND LIMESTONE. A7

Fig. 7—Fioripa Sanps. No. 1, Alapaha River, Hamilton County; 2, Lake
Weir, Marion County; 3, Glendale, Lake County; 4, Suwannee River, Suwannee
County; 5, Cedar Keys, Levy County; 6, Crystal River, Citrus County. All
figures 4 I-3 times natural size.

48 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

face area becomes better coated than a fine sand. While a coarse
sand is preferable to a fine sand, for certain purposes it may be
desirable to have a mixture of coarse and fine grains. The cement
used in the mortar must be sufficient to completely fill all voids
existing in the sand. The relative proportion of voids may be
reduced by the use of a mixture of coarse and fine sands. Such a
mixture of sands permits. the use of a relatively smaller amount of
cement, and is apparently without detriment to the resulting mor-
tar. Sand is used along with lime in the manufacture of sand-lime
brick ; and with cement in the preparation of artificial stone or build-
ing blocks.

The sands most frequently used for mortar are siliceous. It
appears, however, from various tests that calcareous sands are in
no way inferior.* In addition to the natural sands ground rock
may also be used. A small amount of clay, not exceeding eight
per cent, is said not to weaken the cement. The presence of humus
or peaty matter, or an excess of clay as well as mineral particles
of any kind subject to decay, must be guarded against.

The accompanying illustrations show the prevailing shape of
the sand grains from a number of localities in Florida. The rela-
tive size of the sand grains is also indicated, all of the illustrations
having been drawn to the same scale. |

CONCRETE.

The materials in Florida suitable for concrete consist chiefly
of shell deposits and some compact limestones and of flint rock
which may be crushed for the purpose.

Shell deposits, both recent and fossil, are numerous in the State.
The use of shell from the coquina rock for building purposes has
already been mentioned. Among notable buildings from these shells
may be mentioned the Ponce de Leon hotel at St. Augustine. The
calcareous shell mass as found at this locality may contain a small
admixture of siliceous sand blown in by the winds. Recent shell
deposits occur at many places along both the Atlantic and the Gulf
coasts. Shell mounds piled up by the Indians are likewise numerous
on and near the coast. Some occur inland also, those of the St.
Johns River from Jacksonville to Sanford being notable examples.

*Sabin, Cement and Concrete, p. 170, 1907.

Fig. 9.—View in the pit of the Keystone Brick Company, Whitney, Lake
County.

Fig. 10.—View in the pit of the Clay County Steam Brick Company,
Green Cove Springs.

Fig. 11.—Plant of the McMillan Brick Company, Molino, Escambia Couuty.

50

Fig. 12.—Vicksburg limestone, Marianna phase, Jackson County.
Fig. 13.—Miami oolitic limestone, Miami, Dade County.

Fig. 14.—Limestone exposure showing a mild fold in the strata, at Ft.
Thompson, Lee County.

52

Fig. 15.—Limestone in Lake Okeechobee between Observation and Rita
Islands. Exposed et low water. Concretionary phase.

Fig. 16—Limestone in the Everglades. On North New River Canal 301%
niles from Lake Okeechobee.

Fig. 17—Exposure of the Chattahoochee formation in cut of the Atlantic
Coast Line Railroad near River Junction.

54

‘uosdwoyy yf Je auO}SoUTT] JoJeM-YSoIF JO dinsodxy

‘gt “31d

MINERAL INDUSTRIES—LIME AND LIMESTONE, 57

Deposits of fossil shells are likewise numerous, although as a rule
less free from impurities than are the accumulations of recent
shells.

Compact and hard limestones are found at many localities in
the state, which when crushed afford desirable material for con-
crete. As stated under “Building Stone” local areas of compact
and partly crystallized rock are found within the Vicksburg lime-
stone formation which lies near the surface over much of central
Florida. The Chattahoochee formation likewise has compact lime-
stone strata, and the rock of this formation is being mined at Live
Oak. The limestones of the Everglades which include strata that
will serve excellently for concrete have already been described.

Flint is chemically an oxide of silicon (S102), with more or
less accompanying impurities. It 1s a variety of the mineral quartz,
occurring massive and non-crystallized or more accurately very 1m-
perfectly crystallized (cryptocrystalline). The term chert is often
used interchangeably with flint. Properly chert is an impure flint
or flinty rock. Flint and chert are lacking in cleavage. Thev
break, as do the other varieties of quartz, with conchoidal fracture.
A flint rock when crushed breaks into sharp-cornered pieces of
varying size, ;

Properties :—Vhe mineral quartz, of which flint is a variety,
has a hardness of seven on a scale in which the hardest mineral,
diamond, is ten. The varieties of quartz vary in hardness slightly
according to the impurities that they contain. Silica is one of
the relatively insoluble minerals and is very resistant to decay.

Occurrence of Flint and Chert in Florida:—Flint and chert
oecur mostly as masses or “horsebacks” in the limestone forma-
tions. A good illustration of the manner of occurrence may be
seen in phosphate pits or in some of the pits of the Florida Lime
Co., at Ocala. In some of the sinks on Thompson’s farm two
miles east of Sumterville can be seen flint masses exposed by the
natural decay of the limestone. The flint masses appear to con-
form to no rule as to size and extent. They may form ridges
running through the limestone; or again they may occur as rounded
or elongate masses. Occasionally the flint forms as a thin stratum
iving horizontally. This flint-bearing limestone lies at no great
distance from the surface throughout all of the central peninsular
section of the State from Columbia County on the north to Sum-

58 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

ter County on the south and from the Suwanee River and the Guli
coast to eastern Alachua and Marion Counties. Much of the hard
rock phosphate rests upon and in this flint-bearing limestone, and
from the phosphate pits great quantities of the flint may be ob-
tained. Occasional flint hills such as that near Evinston and Mic
anopy stand out as evidence of the resistance of flint to the weather-
ing agencies, the surrounding limestone having disappeared
through erosion. This flint lies chiefly within the Vicksburg lime-
stones. It is not to be inferred, however, that no other Florida
formations contain silica. On the contrary, many of the forma-
tions are highly siliceous. The Vicksburg limestones are, how-
ever, the chief flint-bearing formations of Florida.

Fig. 19—Exposure of Caloosahatchee marl.

The production of both sand and concrete is necessarily inade-
quately reported owing to the large number of small and occasional
operators.

The following is a list of the companies-in Florida that have
reported the production of sand for building purposes or crushed
rock for concrete during 1913:

Blowers Lime and Phosphate Company, Ocala.
Crystal River Rock Company, Crystal River.
Florida Crushed Rock Company, Montbrook.
Lake Wier Sand Company, Lake Wier.

E. P. Maule, Fart Lauderdale.

Woodman & Company, Ocala.

MINERAL INDUSTRIES—PEAT., 59
Real.

The investigations of the peat deposits of the State made dur-
ing 1908, 1909 and 1910, by the State Geological Survey in co-oper-
ation with the United States Geological Survey, not only demon-
strated that extensive peat deposits are widely distributed through-
out the State, but also showed that the fuel value of the Florida peat
is well up to the average of that of other countries. The original
report on the peat deposits of the State was published in the Third
Annual Report of the State Geological Survey,* from which 1s
taken the following table of analyses of Florida peats together
with the explanation of the samples and comments on the analyses.

The only plant mining peat in Florida at present is that of the
Ranson Humus Company, Pablo Beach.

b

Fig. 20.—Peat prairie covering several hundred acres (locality No. 41),
about a mile northwest of Haines City, Polk County.

ANALYSES OF FLORIDA PEAT SAMPLES.

The subjoined table shows the percentage of water, mineral matter, vol-
atile combustible matter, fixed carbon, sulphur, and (in a few cases) nitro-
gen, and the fuel value, of the samples of Florida peat collected by the writer
in 1908-1910 and analyzed in the peat laboratory of the U. S. Geological
Survey at Pittsburgh, Pa., mostly under the direction of Dr. F. M. Stanton.

In the number assigned to each sample the figures before the decimal]
point indicate the consecutive number of the locality, the first figure after
the decimal point the number of the hole from which the sample was taken,
and the last figure the number of the sample from that hole. In most cases

*A Preliminary Report on the Peat Deposits of Florida, by Roland M.
Harper.

60

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

a SG
ve)
| | | a| 5
tas] [eo]
No.| COUNTY LOCALITY | a lg
fo =
| | le |
| | |B) &
| | te fe
Ae Leon Gum swamp 5 miles W.N.W. of Tallahassee____ 1 6
22AN % Gum swamp 5 miles W.N.W. of Tallahassee____| 1 6
4.11 Lake mies ieee BZ amiles) easteot, bayanes= = ees 1s). |) (G35)
4.12 Bs | (Ginkusornal’ canthes OS) eee i lige eae
6.11 Duval sien of Davis and Julington Creeks______ 12) 1(80)
§.21 | Do. Dry lump from bank of canal____-_- fy RS
Ali Santa Ros: |Blackwater River swamp near Milton___-____-- 8 | (20)
TW? Blackwater River swamp near Milton___-____-- LWA Wire 2s
8.11: Putnam |River swamp 1 m. S. of Palatka, near water____| 8 20
8.21 . Same, about half-way back to dry land_--_----_ 4 | 10?
11.11. Osceola Drained prairie bordering lake near Ashton___-_ 1 10
12.11 Polk Small lake mean. blorence Vallaa = eee 1 2
13.11 Bog or peat prairie bordering Lake Marianna__ 8 20+
13.12 Bog or peat prairie bordering Lake Marianna_-_ 1 __-_-
14.11 * Slash-pine bog 2 miles west of Auburndale_____~ 6 1 10
15 10 - \Prairie bordering Lake Bony, E. of Laxeland__ 6 20+
16.11. Hernando |Withlacoochee River swamp near Istachatta_-_ 1%, 6
17.11| Citrus (|Margin of L. Tsala Apopka, near Inverness___-|.1 5
18.11 Lake Saw-grass marsh on L. Harris, near Eldorado__ 6 10
18.12! ; \Saw-grass marsh on L. Harris, near Eldorado__| 1 |__---
19.11 si \Saw-grass marsh on L. Griffin, near Leesburg__10 | 12
19.12 : ‘Saw-grass marsh on L. Griffin, near Leesburg-__ 1 -_---
19.21 # Do. Dry lump from bank of canai_-_------ ea a
20.11 Hernando Shallow basin in Choocochattee Prairie____--_- 1 3?
21.11, DeSoto j|Non-alluvial swamp near Nocatee —--_--------- 1 3
PPA Lake Small grassy lake near West Apopka-___-_---_~- 1 2={-
Deyalalt e Marshes at. west end of Lake Dora____.-___= we 4
23.21 3 ‘Marshes at west end of Lake Dora_---_-____-_ 2 3
24.11 Dade Gator-hole in Everglades, near Paradise Key__ 1 3°
25.11 cs Marly Everglades soil, near same place_--_--_- 1 Nea Fe se es
26.11 a Everglades, near head of Miami River__-------. Y 5
Ziel € ‘Marshes of Miami R. about 2 m. from its mouth 2 4
28.11 - i[Everglades 9 or 10 m. N.W. of Ft. Lauderdale__| 1 (15)
29.11 Lake Small peat prainie mear Clermonts===_-=" 2222" 6 10
29.12 is Simall peat prairie near Clenmont== === =—— =e i ca
30.11 Manatee |Peaty prairie 2 miles S. of Manatee Sta.____--_- 2, 4
301i Sumter |Vake! Gamnagshes) near, Panasomkec= 2s ee 10) )).20
elle na Baxesmeanshes, neat slanacsolikces === sem 4 |e
32.11 Bayou in cypress swamp near same place__---- 6 12?
34.11 Lake Marshes of Lake Apopka, near Montverde____- 8 «| 10ge
34.12 fs Do. (cultivated -inme Onn) ee eee i
35.11 3 |Along Helena. Run, west of Lake Harris_-___-__ 1 3
36.11) Franklin |Tyty bay about 2 miles N.E. of Lanark________ il 4
37 ss \Deep tyty bay about 1 m. N. of Carrabelle______ 4... bali
38.11 sh | Large tyty bay about 4% m. N. of Carrabelle___.. 4 | azo:
39.11 Walton /|Dense tyty swamp just N.W. of DeFuniak Sprs.-1 10
41.1] Polk Large peat prairie 1 m. N.W. of Haines City____| 4 8
42.11; Madison |Large marshy prairie 5 m. EB. of Greenville____| 14%) 5

MINERAL INDUSTRIES—PEAT. : 61

ABSOLUTELY DRY PEAT
-
o
~
Gq ~
as 3 s =
Nol5 8) | | & | 3? CHARACTER OF PEAT.
ee | Sy | 2 Le 0) nro
> Dd! Jor = wl >
Be wo Fe ae seal Vane Ke) .
aU «| 2) 2) a) 5) gm
RS Peo RC hae g om fare Eo ite
A2aa|& || an Z |

2.12 6.7 43304 65.3 482.30, 9743 | § Full of roots and logs, reddish brown
2.21 5.7\ 7.529.4/63.1| .24/2.61) 9439/§ l and rather coarse.

4.11 5.€/18.7:27.2/54.1| .75/1.95| 9025
4.12 6. 21.9 24.5/53.6) .68 2.53) 4889
6.11 8.€ 13.8 31.8 54.4 2.771.89 9095 Decided sulphurous odor.

6.21 9.6 11.432.456.23.13.2.59| 9056;Exposed to air 4 or 5 months.
Talal A9e7, 6.8 13.5 84, ___| 2597/Has sandy streaks.

TAL 2h idee §7.711.9|20.42.12 _ _| 2898|Has sandy streaks.

8.11 6.2)16.5 32.9}50.6 2.08) ___| 8644

8.21 4.2) 8.9'38.3.52.8) 94) ___| 9423)

11.11 4.€19.933.946.2 .38)|___ 8456)Rather “sandy.

12.1% 7.1/36.924838.3 .28 -__| 6361\Shallow and sandy.

13.11 7.C) 4.2:34.8'61.0)° .30) _-_/10424

13.12) 7.€|10.7|32.0/57.3) .40) -_-| 93864

14.11) 8.C| 7.9 36.2 55.9 Al} ___| 9580}

V5.1). 7.6 3.1334 63.6 89) ___|10529|

16.11) 8.4|15.5/28. 1p.) .65| ___|10561|/Very coarse and incoherent.
17.11| 8.2|12.4)27.5)60.2/1.00| -__| 9331

18.11) 4.1/39.3/17. 3439) 2} 59| ___| 6352|Coarse, odorless. 7

18.12) 5.3) 5.128. 666.3 .29| ___| 9502|Very coarse, little decomposed.
19.11 5434.8 16.548.71.21 .62| 6768|/Very coarse, little decomposed.
19.12) 4.9 8.2 25.8 66.0 .37| ___| 9290|/Very coarse, light colored.
19.21) 7.2) 8.232.8/59.0| 60) ___ | 9391 ‘Long exposed to air.

90.11 3.563.513.023.5 14 -__| 3366/Black and sticky, but impure.
21.11) 7.5) 9.7/30.5'59.8| 30 ___| 9414'Coarse and full of roots, etc.
22.11| 5.4 5.7/28.066.3 40 --_|10181 Brown, moderately coarse.
23.11. 6.920.431.2484 2.7) ___. 8500

23.21| 6.8| 16.231. 8|52.0) .41) ---| 8935)

24.11 6.2.51.4/13.4 35.2 .24.___ 4325 Blackish, but very impure.

25.11) 1.7/50.1/38.511.4 09 _--| 1202|More like marl than peat.
26.11} 8.2 9.2 84.5 56.3 63 _--| 9691/Light brown above, blackish below.
27.11 5.6 39.5 26.0 34.5 2.66 1 SUE | SS Contains streaks of silt or marl.

28.11) 9. 3 15.931.252.9 42 ___| 8269 Rather coarse.

29.11) 7.5| 1.5\30.7/67.8| 39) ___ 10865, Very coarse and pale for peat prairie.
29.12) 7.8) 2.3/32.0\65.7| .28] ___|10548) Very coarse and pale for peat prairie.
30.11 4.259.4 16.9 23.71.51; ___| 4237

31.11 11.8 13.5 27.159.4.2.50 ---| 9000 2 § Brown, moderately coarse, with
31.12)11.1/10.7\30.2/59,1|2.55| _-__| 9216] § 2 slight sulphurous odor.
32.11 6.5 39.3 30.530.2 2.08 ___| 4111/Full of logs and shells.
34.11/11.3,14.232.0/53.8| .57| ___| 8635)

34.12 13.3 7.137.2.55.7| .29 _-_| 8388

35.11/12.0 12.4/29.0'58.6; .40) __-| 8109|Full of logs.

36.11 9.4 8.835.655.7117) ___|10429|Black, plastic, retentive of water.
37.1110.4 3.435.461.2 .78 _--/10737 Brown, moderately coarse.

38.11103 6.6.32.261.21. 10| - _10512;Brown, moderately coarse.

39.11 5. legs 631.2 44.2 15] _- _--| 8884 Dark reddish brown, plastic.

41.11 10.1) 3.9,39.057.1 .53) ___10402,Brown, fibrous, watery.

42.11| 9 (| 3.9 ee 5 63. 6 PSV AES 0088} Coarse, fibrous, little decomposed.

62 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

only one sample from each swamp or bog was taken, on account of the
limited time available. For the same reason nearly half the samples were
dug out by hand from a depth of about a foot. The deeper ones were taken
with a sampling instrument devised by Dr. Chas. A. Davis, consisting of a
number of sections of half-inch iron pipe which could be screwed together,
one of them with a short transverse handle at one end, and a brass cylinder
nearly an inch in diameter and about nine inches long, which could be screwed
to the pipes and pushed down to any desired depth, and then filled with
peat from that depth by an ingenious mechanism. This cylinder had to
be filled a good many times to obtain a sufficient quantity of peat for analysis,
and in practice each sample was made up from several taken from the same
depth within a few feet of each other.

The next column after the name of the locality gives the depth from
which the sample was taken, and the last column on the first page the max-
imum depth of peat found in each deposit. In a few cases where this depth
was given me by other persons the figures are put in parentheses.

The moisture percentage is taken from air-dry samples, and the other
determinations were made after the water was eliminated by heating slightly
above the boiling point (not enough to decompose or volatilize the peat.).
The ash was not analyzed, but it is probably chiefly silica in most cases,
though in the samples from Panasoffkee, Helena Run, and the south end
of the Everglades it must be mostly lime. The reason for determining the
sulphur (which is done more generally for coal than for peat) is that an
excess of it would have a corrosive effect on the iron parts of fire-boxes,
and might also be objectionable if the peat was made into illuminating gas.
The percentage of nitrogen gives some indication of the value of the peat
for agricultural purposes.

The ash, fixed carbon and volatile matter (other than water) together
add up to 100% in each case. The sulphur and nitrogen are part of the
volatile matter determined separately. The percentages of ash and fixed car-
bon added together give the amount of coke which may be obtained from
each sample, for in the process of coking enough heat is used to drive off
all the other ingredients.

The fuel value is given in “British thermal units” per pound. A British
thermal unit is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a
pound of water one degree Fahrenheit, or, to be more precise, from 50° to
51° F. If the fuel value is given as 10,000 B. T. U., for instance, this means
that a pound of the material if burned under the most favorable conditions
could be made to raise the temperature of 5 tons of water 1°, or I ton 5°,
etc.

MINERAL INDUSTRIES

PEAT. 63
MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES.

A few analyses of Florida peat have been obtained from other sources,
as follows:

1. Small peat prairie about two miles northwest of Orlando, Orange
County. The peat here seems to be at least 15 feet deep, and a few years
ago a good deal of it was excavated to a depth of about 8 feet, put through
a briquetting machine on the spot, and when dry taken to town and used
for fuel in the light, water and ice plant. Analyses taken from U. S. Geol.
Surv. Mineral Resources for 1905, p. 1321, and Bulletin 290, p. 77. In these
publications the fixed carbon and volatile matter were given only for air-dry
peat, but I have re-computed these two factors on a water-free basis, so
that they can be compared with the table above.

2 to 5. Marsh at confluence of Davis and Julington Creeks, Duval
County, already described. Samples collected by Robert Ranson in May,
1908, from various depths (of which the records are not now available),
analyzed by the U. S. Geological Survey, and results communicated to the writer
by Dr. Chas. A. Davis.

6. Average of 26 samples from various points in the vicinity of the
St. John’s River, analyzed for Robert Ranson, and communicated by him.
His figures were for air-dry peat, but I have re-computed them on a water-
free basis, except the fuel value.

7. Mangrove peat from along east side of Snake Creek, which is the
channel between Windly’s Island and Plantation Key (or Long Island),
Monroe County, near 437 mile-post on Florida East Coast Ry. Taken from
about 3 feet below the surface, in mangrove swamp, whose vegetation is
mostly Rhizophora Mangle (red mangrove). Peat reddish brown, very coarse
and fibrous. Collected in September, 1910, under direction of W. J. Krome,
Constructing Engineer of the F. E. C. Ry. Extension, at our request. Analy-
sis by E.. Peck Greene, assistant state chemist.

ABSOLUTELY DRY PEAT

Moisture ce d x =
No ir-d Fixed Volatile | . | Fuel value
“icy | ash | Gard, | Weiter | Sutphur | Nitrowen | (3105
1 17.2 8.3 30.1 61.6 59 2.89 10082
Pek hl RYE) Mec ee oe - 14.7 30.7 54.6 + 4.08 1.93 S816
5) 5. hl ee Ree, Se lee 18.0 29.9 52.0 3.94 1.97 8586
CON | een aa eee 25.7 25.9 48 4 3.64 1.66 7783
Det ae oer 16.6 30.8 52.6 4.13 1.94 8705
6 10.0 11.0 26.1 62.8 3°) 2.74 (9877)
i 16.0 TU PE oe See UL a ee a a ees [aka sets cer 2 23607 See

NOTES ON THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SOME OF THE ANALYSES.

It would seem from the figures given that most of our peat contains only
about half as much water when air-dry as does the better known material
from the glaciated region of Europe and the northern parts of this continent.
Too much stress should not be laid on this, however, for the water-content
shown probably depends nearly as much on the condition of the air at Pitts-
burgh at the time the analyses were being made as it does on the nature of

64 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

the peat itself. (AIl the samples which show more than 10% of water were
collected in April, May or June, and analyzed a month or two later, when
the air of the room in which the tests were made was presumably more
humid than in winter, on account of artificial heat not being used.) Never-
theless, it is probably safe to say that the Florida peat dries out as well as
that from any other part of the world, if not better.

The purest peat is No. 29.11, which has only 1.5% of ash. Other samples
with less than 5% are Nos. 13.11, 15.11, 290.12, 37.11, 41.11, 42.11, all. of which
are from peat prairies or similar situations. (Locality No. 37 I have called
a tyty bay, but it is treeless in the middle, and, therefore, has the character
of a peat prairie.)

The proportion of volatile matter to fixed carbon is nearly 3 to 1 in No.
I9.1I, a coarse saw-grass peat. In nearly every case where it is over 2 to 1
the peat is coarse and imperfectly decomposed. It runs below 1% to 1 both
in good black plastic peat and in some very impure samples, which might be
better designated as muck.

The sulphur runs highest in estuarine peat,’ especially in that from
Julington Creek (No. 6.21 and miscellaneous Nos. 2-5), and is pretty high
in calcareous peat and that from Madison County. There is probably not
enough of it to be ebjectionable in any of our samples, however. It is lowest
in the samples from small filled lakes, bays. etc. No. 36.11 contains the
least sulphur in proportion to other volatile matter, and No. 39.11 is a close
second in that respect. (Both of these happen to be from tyty bays.)

The nitrogen determinations unfortunately are too few to warrant much
generalization, but in other parts of the world the nitrogen: content of peat
is rarely less than 1% or more than 3%, and the same seems to hold true
in Florida, as far as our information goes.

In fuel value our peat compares very well with that in other parts of
the world. According to Davis, 5,760 B. T. U. per pound is a good average
for wood, 8,500 for pressed peat, and 14,000 for anthracite coal. The average
of the 53 determinations given in the above tables is 8,341; but if Mr. Ranson’s
26 samples combined (miscellaneous No. 6) had been counted separately the
average would have been 8,833. Most of our samples (counting miscellaneous
No.6 as only one again) exceed 9,050 B. T. U., two-thirds of them exceed
8,500 (Davis’s average), and three-fourths of them exceed 8,341 (our average).

The highest fuel value is as a rule in the purest peat. No. 20.11 (the
purest) is best in that respect, though No. 16.11, with 15.5% of ash, and
no plasticity (and therefore not adapted to be made into briquettes), stands
very high in the list. It should be borne in mind that the fuel value given
in these tables is on a water-free basis, which is never realized in practice,
for peat as used always contains some water, which reduces its fuel value.
But the analyses are usually expressed in this way to eliminate differences
due to variations in atmospheric humidity.

IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 65

PEHROSPHATE

CONTENTS.

Mix C HOT Meee RE True rea eee esi lepsce eve’ s cyers,s'0 sv cvis eau Mes 66
The impurities that affect the market value of phosphate rock, their
vrigin, character, and the methods of their elimination in mining.... 67

NWiieralspon op muspndte wrOCK erst Oh RMP dal Sco cess bee seb 67
PNGEOCIATE Cam Tilitie D2 lGmeNN re ry seve ees in svete See siete cis ars oie ajeteie were ete bie 68
Qoneeaveratei eles “sanpayenainles, VSN BSG sha Maye oe oO ie a a oe ee eg 69
The origin of phosphate rock ...... Bud boo ao HE Oo OLS CEO ee Eanoe 71
Pig) ripatiale SOULEG seri y HHOSPNORUS years cicls «he eeeeicl i kee s ied sales 71
POO Mbitiy cee puoOSphate umMMerdles dete dickies Sint. dee os + ove eae 72
Reaccumulation of phosphate in workable deposits ............. TB
Rounds oncinculationy ofecaleiinn phosphates nna. scr... o-+ o «0 73
Compareth with caren Cat WOWALC wr. alk ule dice tcislcloinie! «ase «teal ite’e oo 74
Compancdawithweeslicawr tere chalet ae eee mets viene let es 75
Illustrations of method of accumulation of phosphate deposits .. 76
(heap hospharesy OLm Eloi das dletes ere a are clcisieranayefeereleieieie. <1 «6 hei 76
RiesnhiocpharecmormWeniesSeen wasn seyerteite cial */-jste » 6! 79

The phosphates of the western United. States .-.............-- 80 >
BROsSpiarerdenosits iho otlall Oe ceete ae cieritceieet rine + nl. -cs= 80
Minitign pmOnpnatbe . FOC stl tis iis) totaat tebe sila esa a eles sce else bei ele 81
Pin denceyeean ce of raiiaiteen wes ee is ed civ wa tel afe ciebe BiaieraA AGN bi eees S> oy sealed 81
Gi peace tte Tpa Ne ah cy eT eed ards Reg ae arrange ig aa'e ecb le 317 de. 81
Elimination of impurities and preparation for the market ........... 82
VS titers ote es tok tke Ta ak cn ene RM eT cle a ysis 6% wh ergatiesa oie 54° 82
BY EATS ee ys SiRy ts RN eA ees AMEE eferettic ers Scare See wreliels SG 84
MIMPLOVEMIeNts In mINine MEtMOdS + ia- aers serve ite ois biale blcecu ok nn sosless vale tatoln'e 84
The phosphate deposits of the Southern States ...........0ccce eee ee eeee 86
Peosuenon. iron the Souther estates ntact) cass sce cos ser gancane « 86
Neseriptioi of deposits by Stabeswpeptate sci. 6 isin nite caja se ee ses tap walt aie 86
Sere CC AROMA a, =: ssa. 2 ee RNS Paid ie wanloidao''e «clade cua olecaietege ene 86
MNCS EIS perege cao hsre rele orca oreo ee cae hee wae Shae 87
BMGIRICSS GCIs 2.012.h sais sce eR TELA ot a eke eidbisa aaioda oh 88
LLG SSG Bir he Sil ae Oe a Eo ar ae 890
LESAGE i Ari eee ER MERRIER REAL EVELA cN Is che, Cs ALS hc RCA REE ne pe oe eee oI
Baraca 2c vip cicin rn. o) 2 skp ho Me eee Ns aw Siacle Sialeg 92
Die iamen OPEL | oh. evans Sica Reece ni OY voc 5 cbiee sigue oes 92
MMCUEREMICIOE whe cat deat she 'c' 2 <0 Sti ete A ARIS a's cols dy Gels eee Tae

REI MEONC Rr iF Ie carts ces Ora iy RT NO ae, ca oe aime kee 93

66 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUL REPORT.

\Worldaproductionvor jphosphatemrockma- merrier eee ena cere 94
Northern: Ad ricas ys coca lea eep teee ner cte oka erect neta PE ea ees eae aca ee 94
IRAN TITS, oclbae, ciepereds Gust e NI RD le aoe Re ae oR ac Oise ieee 94
JAX y EMEP ERA Teo Ms Ate sod Hee eee oi oreiciad cites tha a Gib yds on EA 05

1 edhoa 0) seen err eee tht ely ai ey CA in eM eh aN Ge na i SSE Len nets rs phen Oe 905
ContinentaleBiropertrer Ose eee or eon een oe eee eee 96
Era @e Ba, Tee nice eis ip ave eae hee W a Sean ae aie AY eatin te Seca oe che ean 96

[Biel teal boa beaa ye SERCO AE ectet aerate opie hae SO ter ae cesar o Aor 96

Riag starts: Rats cetien ati baemies Bite etna ees Sie cumin te RSE Le Ore commer ater at eae 96
Islandssote ther Paciics@ceamtcecreyas we sete etree oe Sess eterna: 07
Islandsvotuthemlindivanw@ceanmermeree tice eee in ii iirio eerie 98
islandseo tthe (Ganlbbeanus carmemeriect oes ar ee cicrrreee ety race eames 98
Production of phosphate rock in Plorida dure 1913 53>. .-->455> 4558 99

INTRODUCTION.

The present paper on Phosphate is largely based on the fol-
lowing papers prepared during the year: (1) The Impurities That
Affect the Market Value of Phosphate Rock, Their Origin, Char-
acter, and the Methods of Their Elimination in Mining; (2) Con-
servation as Applied to Methods of Mining Phosphate; (3) The
Phosphate Deposits of the Southern States. Of these, the first-
mentioned, prepared for the American Institute of Mining Engi-
neers, was given in abstract at the Pittsburgh meeting, October,
tg14, and published under the title, ‘““The Origin, Mining, and
Preparation of Phosphate Rock’ in the September issue of the
Bulletin of the Institute, pp. 2379-2395, 1914. The second paper
was presented at a meeting of Geologists held at Knoxville, Ten-
nessee, September 19, 1913, in connection with the National Con-
servation Exposition. The third paper was prepared for the At-
lanta meeting of the American Association for the Advancement
of Science.* Although based chiefly on these papers, the present
report does not include the exact reproduction of any one of them
except the one on the Impurities of Phosphate Rock, which is in-
cluded here with only minor changes from the original manuscript.

*Abstract in Science n. s., Vol. 39, p. 401, March 13, 1914.

THE IMPURITIES THAT AFFECT THE MARKET VALUE
OF PHOSPHATE: ROCK,. THEIR ORIGIN, CHAR-
ACTER AND THE METHODS OF THEIR
ELIMINATION IN MINING.

Phosphate rock, like most other mineral substances, is found
in nature in varying degrees of purity. Of the impurities that are
present some are constituents of the rock itself; others are inclu-
sions of a foreign substance within the rock; while still others rep-
resent merely associated materials or minerals, either clinging to
the rock or found in cavities and natural depressions, and hence
largely removed in mining. Some of these impurities are distinctly
deleterious to the processes of manufacture for which the phos-
phate is mined, while others, although neutral in action or nearly
so, yet by their presence reduce the average grade of the rock and
thus add useless bulk to the shipment.

It is the object of refined processes of mining to bring the
product, as delivered from the mine, to the highest possible grade
consistent with the market requirements and demands. This, how-
ever, 1s not accomplished without actual loss in the form of dis-
carded phosphate. It is evident, therefore, that the devising of
methods for reducing this loss in mining, and yet maintaining the
grade of the rock which the market requires is an improvement in
mining methods greatly to be desired by the producers and toward
which all are working.

THE MINERALS OF PHOSPHATE ROCK.

The minerals included under the term “phosphate rock’’ are
the calcium phosphates. Of these, apatite is perhaps the most
definite and constant in composition, although of this mineral
two varieties are recognized, namely, fluorapatite, Ca5(PO4)3F,
and chlorapatite, Ca5(PO4)3Cl. Moreover, the calcium of this
mineral may be partly replaced by manganese, forming yet another
‘mineral, manganapatite; or the mineral may become hydrated,
forming hydroapatite, which is found as mammillary deposits often
not unlike chalcedony in appearance. The term “phosphorite”

67

68 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

has been applied to the massive amorphous deposits of phosphate
which may be compact, earthy or concretionary. Among other
varieties of apatite may be mentioned, staffelite, which contains a
small percentage of both iron and aluminum. It is of interest
to note also that this variety is believed to result from the action
of carbonated waters on phosphorite, and hence is likely to occur
incrusting ordinary phosphate rock acted upon by carbonated wa-
ters. Another variety, pseudoapatite, contains both sulphur and
carbon dioxide.* Of the many other calcium phosphate minerals
some closely approximate apatite while others grade into com-
pounds so variable and indefinite in composition as scarcely to be
classed as minerals. The deposits of phosphate found in nature
evidently contain a number of calcium phosphate minerals, the
constituent impurities of which affect the market value of the
rock. The aluminum phosphate, wavellite, should also be men-
tioned since it is mined to some extent as a Source of phosphorus.

ASSOCIATED MINERALS.

Various other minerals are found associated in nature with
the calcium phosphates. This association is sometimes due to actual
relationship between the minerals. On the other hand the associa-
tion of minerals may be purely accidental, or incidental to the man-
ner of formation of the deposits. With regard to the related
minerals, it is apparent that where the calcium phosphates are abun-
dant, other phosphates are likely also to occur. In fact it is
scarcely to be expected that extensive calcium phosphate depos-
its will be found without the presence of at least a limited amount
of other phosphate minerals. This is particularly true of iron and
aluminum phosphates. These two bases are widely disseminated
in nature and, moreover, they combine readily with phosphoric acid
to form phosphates. Of the iron phosphates the mineral vivianite,
although occurring in relatively small quantities, is widely distrib-
uted in nature, and may occur in limited quantities in phosphate

*Dr. Austin F. Rogers, who is investigating phosphate minerals, states
that phosphorite, or phosphate rock, seems to be a mixture of two min-
erals, amorphous collophanite, largely a solid solution of calcium carbonate
in calcium phosphate, and crystalline dahllite, a calcium carbonophosphate with
the tormula 3Ca3(P0O4)2. CaCO3 analagous to fluorite. The amorphous col-
lophanite gradually changes to the crystalline dahllite. (Personal letter of
May 23, 1914.)

IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 69

deposits, usually as an incrustation, or as an alteration product
of other minerals. The iron minerals frequently form in bogs, and
it is an observed fact that the phosphate deposits in such localities
not infrequently contain more iron than do the same deposits when
found on the uplands. In such cases the iron is doubtless a com-
paratively recent infiltration, and may include phosphates of iron
as well as oxides and other iron minerals. Of the aluminum phos-
phates a large number are known, one of which, wavellite, as al-
ready stated, is mined as a source of phosphate. This mineral and
others of the aluminum phosphates are likely to occur in associa-
tion with calcium phosphate.

Some of the large phosphate deposits have been formed by the
replacement of an original rock by calcium phosphate. In this
process parts of the original rock not infrequently remain un-
changed or incompletely phosphatized. Since the phosphatizing
processes proceed from the surface, the imperfectly phosphatized
remnant is likely to lie within the rock, thus giving rise to included
impurities that are difficult to eliminate. Moreover, small amounts
of clay and silica are usually found in the limestone and as these
substances do not readily phosphatize, if not worked out, they re-
main as impurities in the rock.

Aside from these related minerals, the materials associated
with the phosphate rock are varied in character. . They include
clay, fragments of limestone, flints, gravel, silica in the form of
sand, and other resistant materials, the character of which is deter-
mined by the manner of formation of the deposits. The asso-
ciated materials of this nature make up the matrix in which the
phosphate rock is imbedded. It is scarcely possible in mining to
remove entirely all associated minerals, and the purity of the rock
as delivered to the market, is affected, without doubt, by the pres-
ence of more or less of these minerals, as well as by the constituent
impurities of the rock.

OBJECTIONABLE IMPURITIES.

Of the impurities contained in or associated with phosphate
rock. the most objectionable in the processes of manufacture of
acid phosphate for fertilizers, for which purpose the phosphate rock
is almost wholly used, are iron and aluminum. For this reason
practically all phosphate mined is sold under a guarantee that the

5

7O FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

combined iron and aluminum expressed as oxides, do not exceed
a given small percentage of the whole, from 2 to 4 per cent being
allowable. Iron when present in excess of about 2 per cent brings
about reactions which result in the formation of a gelatinous sub-
stance injurious to the mechanical condition of the mixture, occa-
sioning also a loss of soluble phosphoric acid. A first step in the
reaction with the iron is probably as follows: 2FePO4+3H2S04=
2H3PO04+-Fe2(SO4)3. Of the sulphate of iron thus formed, a
part according to Fritsch*, reacts on acid phosphate of lime, thus
forming the objectionable gelatinous precipitate. Owing to the
demand of calcium sulphate for water, hydrated iron phosphate,
which is a product of these reactions, may subsequently become de-
hydrated and insoluble, thus causing the loss of available phos-
phoric acid.

Aluminum, existing as a silicate in phosphate rock, is likely to
be injurious, since, according to Fritsch, if not decomposed. by
the acid, it may cause a part of the phosphoric acid to retrograde.
However, when existing in the rock in small amounts as a phos-
phate, the aluminum is not supposed to occasion a loss of phos-
phoric acid, both the hydrated and non-hydrated phosphate being
soluble in the precipitated condition in phosphoric acid.

Carbonates of calcium, when existing in small quantities in
phosphate rock, are beneficial rather than injurious. When the
ground rock is treated with acid the carbonate is the first of the
ingredients to be attacked, and the heat thus engendered promotes
subsequent reaction among the other constituents. Moreover, the
carbon dioxide gas, given off from the carbonate, lightens the
mixture and facilitates drying. Phosphate rock low in, or lacking,
carbonate develops little heat in mixing, and reacts slowly. In
such cases this constituent must be added. It is true that the pres-
ence of the carbonate necessitates the use of an increased amount
of acid, which in turn results in the formation of an increased
amount, of calcium sulphate or gypsum.

The amount of carbonate that is desirable is sometimes given
as 5 per cent, but the limits are not strict, and manufacturers do
not as a rule find it necessary to specify directly the amount of
the carbonate that the rock must or must not contain. Indirectly,
however, an excess of the carbonate is guarded against by other

*J. Fritsch, The Manufacture of Chemical Manures, p. 79, I9II.

IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK, Au

requirements as to the grade of rock. If it is true, as elsewhere
stated in this paper, that the principal mineral of the massive phos-
phate deposits is a calcium carbono-phosphate, this fact will afford
an explanation of the presence of the desired amount of carbonate
in all phosphate deposits of this class.

The fluorine found in phosphate rock, upon being attacked by
the acid, forms hydrofluoric acid gas which passes into the atmos-
phere, it being estimated that as much as from 50 to 66 2-3 per
cent of the fluorine present is eliminated in this way. Although
a small amount of acid is used up in this reaction and a propor-
tionate amount of calcium sulphate formed, yet it is seldom, if
ever, necessary to specify against the fluorine content of the rock,
the amount present being negligible.

Among the numerous other impurities that may be present in
phosphate rock, silica and clay are perhaps the most common.
Here also should be mentioned moisture, which when present not
only adds bulk to the shipment but also interferes with the proc-
esses of manufacture. The excess of moisture must, therefore, be
removed by drying, not more than 3 or 4 per cent being allowable
in the rock as shipped.

THE ORIGIN OF PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS.

The origin of phosphate deposits is such that the presence of
associated minerals as well as constituent impurities is almost in-
variable. The original source of phosphorus, the constituent for
which phosphate rock is mined, is in the igneous and crystalline
rocks, where it exists in combination with other elements forming
phosphate minerals. These minerals, as indeed is true of all min-
erals, are soluble in water, the degree of solubility, however, vary-
ing with the different minerals, and with the diverse conditions
to which they are subjected. Indeed, some very interesting and
suggestive observations have been made on the relative solubility
of phosphates under varying conditions. Thus it has been shown
that the solubility of the phosphate minerals is increased by the
presence of decaying organic matter in water. They have also
been found to be appreciably soluble in carbonated waters. In
this connection Reese* has made the very important observation

*Chas. L. Reese, Amer. Jour. Sci., 3rd Ser., Vol. 43, p. 402, 1802.

72 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXATH ANNUAL REPORT.

that while the phosphate dissolves freely in waters containing decay-
ing organic matter and in carbonated waters, yet when allowed
to stand over calcium carbonate, the phosphate is redeposited. In
summing up his observations Reese says: “This experiment shows
that phosphates may be transported in hard waters, but on stand-
ing on calcareous beds would tend to be given up.” In speaking
of hard waters the author evidently has in mind waters contain-
ing, among other things, carbon dioxide in solution, and his con-
clusion is that such waters will or may drop the calcium phosphate
from solution when they stand over limestone. These observa-
tions, if true, have two important corollaries, one of which has been
noted by Clarke, (U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 330, p. 443, 1908) namely,
that in the presence of the carbonate, the phosphate would prob-
~ ably not be dissolved, while the carbonate could pass into solution,
thus leaving the enriched residue of phosphate. The second corol-
lary is that calcium phosphate taken into solution by the soil waters
at and near the surface may be thrown out of solution in case the
water stands for a time at a lower level in the earth on or over
limestones. That this process may have been and probably was a
factor in the formation of large phosphate deposits resting upon
limestone will be shown in the subsequent pages of this paper.

The rain water, in passing through the soil and surface mate-
rials, receives organic acids from the decay of vegetable and ani-
mal matter. It also receives carbonic acid which is held in solu-
tion, the water thus becoming carbonated, and hence more efficient
as a solvent. The original rocks and the soils derived from them
contain particles of the phosphate minerals, which when acted
upon by the ground waters pass slowly into solution. It is through
the solution of the mineral, its removal and subsequent redeposi-
tion that workable phosphate deposits are formed. When it is
remembered that the phosphorus in the igneous rocks amounts to
merely a fractional part of one per cent of the whole,* and was
without doubt originally widely disseminated, the importance of
the processes of concentration of the mineral by ground water and
the extent to which they have operated becomes evident.

The removal of the mineral from the original rocks and its con-
centration in later rocks is by no means a simple process. There

*According to Clarke, Bulletin 330, U. S. Geological Survey, Pp. 32, 1908,
the phosphorus in the lithosphere amounts to only .I1I per cent.

IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 73

are as a rule many intermediate stages, the load being taken up,
dropped again for a time, only to be once more started on its
journey. Among the primary results of concentration and enrich-
ment may be mentioned the phosphate deposits of the crystalline
rocks, where the mineral is found in veins, being more or less per-
fectly crystallized as the mineral apatite. Of deposits of this class
some, including those of Canada, are of economic importance, and
would be more extensively worked were it not that other and more
cheaply mined phosphate deposits are available.

Of the phosphate taken into solution by the ground water a
part is taken up from the soils through the roots of plants, and thus
becomes a constituent of the plant life of the earth. From the
plants the phosphorus passes to herbivorous animals, and through
them to carnivorous animals. Phosphorus thus becomes a con-
stituent of the organic life of the earth. The bones of the verte-
brate animals in particular contain an appreciable amount of cal-
cium phosphate. It seems well established also that certain of the
important phosphate deposits; as well as the guano deposits are
derived from excrement and remairts of gregarious animals, par-
ticularly birds. It is also true that a part of the phosphate taken
into solution by the ground waters is again thrown out owing to
changed chemical conditions, and in this way important phosphate
deposits are formed. In any case, however, the phosphate may
be regarded as only temporarily delayed in its round of circula-
tion. - Ultimately phosphate is carried in solution in the ground
waters through springs and rivers to the ocean. While the amount
in solution at any one time is relatively small, yet, through the con-
tinued operation of this agency over long periods of time, a large
amount has been carried into the ocean.

The phosphate carried into the ocean is again removed from
solution through the agency of organic life, or owing to changed
chemical conditions, is precipitated. Of the animals that utilize
phosphorus taken from the sea water in the construction of a
shell covering or skeleton, the best known perhaps is the brachi-
opod, Lingula, the shell of a recent species of- which has been
found to contain 85.79 per cent of calcium phosphate. The tests.
of the crustacea, although less distinctly phosphatic than the shel!
of Lingula, contain an appreciable amount of phosphate. Thus
the shell of a recent lobster was found to contain 3.26 per cent of

74 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

calcium phosphate, while the lobster as a whole contained .76 per
cent.* The aquatic plants also utilize some of the phosphorus in
solution in the water and through them the phosphorus passes to
the skeleton of vegetable feeding aquatic animals, and through
them in turn to the carniverous animals.

The phosphorus taken from solution by chemical action is evi-
dently considerable, since nodules of chemical origin, high in phos-
phates are found somewhat abundantly in the bed of the ocean.
Some of these nodules, reported by Clarke,j contain 19.96 to
23.54 per cent of phosphoric acid.

The amount of phosphate that finds its way into the sediment-
ary formations through organic and chemical agencies is thus un-
doubtedly considerable resulting in the enrichment of certain depos-
its which, if not themselves workable, at least serve as an impor-
tant source of phosphate from which by further concentration work-
able phosphate deposits are formed.

In this respect the deposition of calcium phosphate 1s analogous
to that of the related mineral calcium carbonate, although of the
carbonate much more extensive deposits accumulate than of the
phosphate. The carbonate, as is well known, is not only a much
more abundant constituent of the superficial formations of the
earth than is the phosphate, but, under the conditions that nor-
mally exist on and near the surface of the earth, is also a much
more soluble mineral. Moreover it would seem from some of
the experiments that have been recorded that when the two- min-
erals occur together the carbonate is taken up by preference, leav-
ing the phosphate, thus giving in effect a degree of selective solu-
bility favoring the carbonate. The carbonate, therefore, is carried
in solution by the surface and ground waters in much larger quan-
tities than is the phosphate, and is also apparently readily avail-
able as a skeleton-building material. Accordingly the aquatic life
of the earth has utilized the carbonate largely in building pro-
tective skeletons. This is true not only of the corals and of the mol-
lusks of marine and fresh waters, but also of many other organisms,
important among which by reason of their abundance are the uni-
cellular foraminifera. Indeed in such abundance have the organ-
isms with calcareous skeletons flourished, under the favorable con-

*Bull. 330, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 448, 1908.
tBull. 330, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 105, 1908.

IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK, 75

ditions that are found in marine waters, that their remains have
often accumulated to form extensive and nearly pure limestones.
Fresh-water limestones of organic origin are also not uncommon,
although of lesser extent and thickness than are the marine forma-
tions. Moreover, not only is the carbonate taken from the water
through the action of organic life, but owing to changed conditions
in both fresh and marine waters it may be thrown out of solution,
forming limestone by chemical action. Thus by organic and chem-
ical processes extensive marine and fresh water limestones are
formed.

Silica (SiO2) in its round of circulation in the earth presents
some interesting analogies and yet strong contrasts to both cal-
cium phosphate and calcium carbonate. In point of abundance
silica exceeds both the carbonate and the phosphate, being by far
the most abundant constituent of the earth’s crust, making up,
according to the estimate of Clarke, 59.79 per cent of the litho-
sphere.*- In point of solubility, on the other hand, silica is much
less soluble than calcium phosphate, and under the conditions that
ordinarily prevail on and near the surface of the earth, many times
less soluble than calcium carbonate. However, by reason of its
abundance and the fact that in the form of sand it is ever present
in the soil and surface residual materials, it is found in solution
in all ground waters, and is present in the waters of the ocean
in small although recognizable amounts. Silica is also used to
some extent by plants and animals as skeleton-building material,
the largest users of silica for this purpose being, among plants,
the diatoms, and among animals, the unicellular radiolarians and
certain of the sponges. From the skeletons of these organisms a
limited amount of silica of organic origin has been included in sedi-
mentary rocks. Silica, however, as a skeleton-building material
has not been so extensively used as to result in the formation of
large deposits, and aside from diatomaceous earth, usually of local
extent, large deposits of silica of organic origin are unusual.
The massive accumulations of flint, not infrequently found in sedi-
mentary rocks, are formed by the replacement of the original rock
by silica in solution in the ground waters, presenting in this re-
spect an analogy to a similar process which has operated in the
formation of certain calcium phosphate deposits.

*U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 330, p. 31, 1908.

76 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

While the round of circulation of phosphate minerals is thus
capable of demonstration as a normal process comparable to that
of other common minerals, yet the actual processes of the accumu-
lation of large workable deposits of phosphate rock are in many
ways complicated.

THE FLORIDA PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS.

The complexity of origin of the phosphate rock, and the man-
ner in which impurities are included in the formation, is well illus-
trated by the Florida phosphate deposits. Of these there are two
distinct types known respectively as the hard rock and the land
pebble phosphates. These differ materially in their location, origin
and manner of occurrence. The hard rock phosphates lie in a belt
along the Gulf side of the peninsula, extending in a general north
and south direction roughly paralleling the Gulf coast for a dis-
tance of about roo miles. The land pebble phosphate deposits are
found farther south, lying chiefly in Polk and Hillsboro counties.

The hard rock phosphate deposits rest upon a thick and very
pure, light-colored, porous and cavernous limestone known as the
Vicksburg formation, which is of Lower Oligocene age. At the
present time, in that section of the State in which the hard rock
phosphate occurs, no formation other than the phosphate itself lies
on top of this limestone. It has, however, been demonstrated by
the combined observations of several geologists that certain forma-
tions, of which only a residue remains, formerly extended across
the area that now holds the hard rock phosphate deposits. The
formations referred to are the Chattahoochee Limestone and Alum
Bluff sands, both of which are of Upper Oligocene age. These
formations are now found bordering the hard rock phosphate area.
The proof of their former extent has been given elsewhere and
need not be repeated at this time.* The hard rock phosphate depos-
its are made up largely of the residue of these formations which
have disintegrated im situ and accordingly consist of a mixture
of materials of the most diverse character including sands, clays,
limestone fragments, pebbles and water worn flints, vertebrate, in-
vertebrate and plant fossils; in fact a heterogeneous mixture of

*Origin of the Hard Rock Phosphate Deposits of Florida, by E. H. Sel-
lards, Fifth Annual Report, Florida State Geological Survey, pp. 23-80, 1913.

IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK, FT.

the relatively insoluble and resistant elements of the earlier forma-
tions.

The phosphate itself is derived from the Alum Bluff sands, the
later and thicker of the two formations that have disintegrated.
This formation, the Alum Bluff, in some places reaches a thickness
of several hundred feet, and has a large areal extent reaching from
west Florida, through northern and central Florida, into southern
Florida. Throughout its entire thickness, and throughout its whole
areal extent this formation is distinctly phosphatic, although in
no instance is the phosphate in this formation sufficiently concen-
trated to form workable deposits.

While these formations, the Chattahoochee and the Alum Bluff,
were disintegrating in the area that is now the hard rock phosphate
region, the calcium phosphate from the Alum Bluff formation
was gradually being taken into solution by ground water and was
being redeposited at a lower level in the earth, thus forming the
workable hard rock phosphate deposits. In this process the replace-
ment of the original limestone by calcium phosphate was an im-
portant factor, and these deposits afford excellent illustration of
the formation of phosphate rock by the replacement process, the
shells of the original limestone in many instances retaining their
form, although changed chemically to calcium phosphate. In addi-
tion to replacement, other processes are observed, proininent among
whith is the formation of the phosphate by precipitation from solu-
tion in a manner similar to the formation of calcium carbonate
deposits in caves. This process is evidently secondary, and, being
1:0W operative, is to be observed in the phosphate boulders them- °
selves, in which all existing cavities are being gradually tilled by
the accimulation of calcium phosphate. By this process pinnacles
are formed hanging from the roof of the cavities, whiie successive
layers of phosphate are spread out over the floor of the cavities.
This method of formation of phosphate deposits has yiven rise
to very high grade phosphate rock, the Florida hard rock grading,
under present methods of mining, 77 to 80 per cent tricalcium
phosphate, while individual specimens contain 84 to 85 per cent.

While the origin of the hard rock phosphate in its present form
is thus clearly evident, there yet remains a large field of investiga-
tion to determine the chemical processes by which the phosphate
is first taken into solution, and is subsequently redeposited. Some

78 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

of these processes, however, are well understood. That normal
phosphate is to some extent soluble in soil waters is well established
and fully recognized.’ In the hard rock phosphate section of Flor-
ida there is practically no surface drainage, the rain water passing
directly into the earth. At a lower level the circulation of the
water is interfered with and the water may become stationary or
nearly so. The check in circulation is due in some instances to
masses and beds of clay which are residual from the disintegrating
formations. In any case the movement of the water is checked
upon reaching the water line. The relation of the phosphate de-
posits to the ground water level, and also the evident and prob-
able changes of the water level during geologic time have been
discussed in the writer’s paper on these deposits previously referre«
to. It is thus apparent that there are important changes in the
chemical conditions in the earth. Among these may be mentioned
the check -to the free movement of the water, and the evident
mingling of different waters. In this connection the observations
of Reese, previously referred to, in which it is shown that cale‘um
phosphate in solution in carbonated waters is precipitated when
the water stands over limestone, are particularly suggestive. As
shown in my earlier papers the hard rock phospbates of Florida
are invariably formed directly upon limestone, and need not be
sought for elsewhere. Moreover they are thrown out of solution
from carbonated waters which pass over and through these lime-
stones, the manner of their formation apparently being entirely in
accord with Reese’s experiments.

The land pebble phosphate deposits of Florida are probably
derived, like the hard rock deposits, from the Alum Bluff forma-
tion. The processes by which they have accumulated in their pres-
ent form are, however, strikingly different. While the hard rock
phosphates, as has been stated, represent chemical precipitates or
replacement deposits, the phosphate having been transported to its
present location in solution, the land pebble deposits appear to rep-
resent materials which are residual from erosion of the parent
formation. The hard rock phosphates occur in sections where the
parent formation has entirely disintegrated over limestones; the
land pebble deposits, on the contrary, are found as a blanket deposit
resting upon, and representing a concentration from the parent
formation. It thus follows that the matrix of the land pebble de-

IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 79

posits is not necessarily strikingly different from that of the hard
rock deposits, except as chemical action has modified the residue,
particularly by the formation in many instances of siliceous boul-
ders in the hard rock deposits.

The grade of rock produced from the land pebble deposits
under the present methods of mining varies from 66 to 74 per cent
tricalcium phosphate, while individual samples contain from 77
to 78 per cent.

THE TENNESSEE PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS.

As further evidence of the complexity of the origin of work-
able beds of phosphate, and of the diversity of ways in which the
deposits may accumulate, may be menticned the phosphates of Ten-
nessee.

The brown phosphates of Tennessee are very evidently formed
in situ from phosphatic limestone. Hayes and Ulrich* find that
at least four limestone horizons have given rise to brown phos-
phates in Tennessee. The calcium carbonate from the limestone
is more or less completely leached out, and is replaced in part at
least by calcium phosphate.j The rock is thus enriched and be-
comes a workable phosphate. The leaching of the rock usually
begins along jointing planes and for this reason unchanged masses
of the original limestone in this type of deposit frequently remain

s “horses.” Two types of deposits are recognized, which are
known as “blanket”? and “collar” deposits. The blanket deposits
are those which extend over a considerable area ; the collar depos-
its are formed where the phosphatic limestone comes to the surface
around the slope of a hill. The collar deposits are necessarily
limited in extent, while the blanket deposits may cover consider-
able areas. The brown phosphates, from their manner of origin,
have necessarily accumulated in comparatively recent times.

The blue phosphates, on the other hand, are much older than
the brown, having accumulated in their present form during Dev-
onian time. It is believed by Hayes and Ulrich that the blue
phosphates were originally formed as residual material from, and

*Columbia Folio, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 5, 1903.

+Some of the brown phosphate of Tennessee is formed, according to Dr.
A. F. Rogers, by replacement of crinoidal limestone by calcium phosphate
(Personal letter, April I, 1914.)

80 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

resting upon the Ordovician phosphatic limestones, much as the
brown phosphates of the present time are formed. After this
residual material accumulated the area was depressed, allowing the
sea to cover the limestone. By the action of the waves in shallow
water the residual mass was thoroughly washed, the soil and clay
material being sifted out and carried away, while the phosphatic
material was left to form the phosphate rock as found at present.
The sea subsequently deepened, so that shales and other forma-
tions were-deposited upon the phosphate.

The richest of the blue rock deposits is believed to have been
furmed from the Ordovician limestone, known as the Leipers for-
mation. This formation is full of the same minute spiral and other
shells that occur abundantly in the immediately overlying phosphate
rock. Phosphates were formed from Ordovician limestone other
than the Leipers formation, but they are of a lower grade and at
present not workable.

It would thus seem that the blue rock of Tennessee was formed
during the interval between the Ordovician and the Devonian,
washed during the Devonian, and in this condition was preserved
for modern mining operations.

PHOSPHATES OF THE WESTERN UNITED STATES:

The extensive phosphate deposits of the western United States
are interbedded with sedimentary formations, and to this extent
resemble the blue rock phosphates of Tennessee. The rock in these
deposits is described as prevailingly oolitic, although an exceptional
occurrence is recorded by Richards and Mansfield* in which high
grade rock was found to consist of shell fragments regarded by
Girty as broken shells of pelecypods. The source of the phosphoric
acid and the history of its accumulation in the form in which it
is now found in these deposits, if at. present obscure, will perhaps
upon further investigation become apparent.

PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS FROM GUANO.

The phosphate deposits of Navassa, a small island in the West
Indies, may be mentioned as an illustration of those which are be-
lieved to have been formed from guano. In the case of phosphate

*Bull, 470, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 376, I91I.

IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 81

deposits formed from guano, the phosphate is taken in solution
by rain water, and after being carried to a lower level is redepos-
ited, replacing the carbonate of the limestone. The rapidity with
which this process may be carried on is illustrated by an instance
cited by Dr. Albert R. Ledoux* in which limestone on one of the
South Pacific islands was observed to have been changed to phos-
phate to a depth of several feet within a period of twenty years,
the phosphoric acid in this instance being leached by rain water
from recently deposited guano.

MINING.

Phosphate rock is mined either by open pit or by underground
mining. Those deposits having a removable overburden are mined
by the open pit method, underground mining being resorted to only
for deposits interstratified with other formations, so that the over-
burden cannot be removed.

UNDERGROUND MINING.

The deposits worked in America by underground mining in-
clude the blue rock of Tennessee, the Arkansas deposits, and for
the most part the extensive deposits of the western United States,
which are as yet but little developed. In underground mining,
ordinarily, operations begin at the surface outcrop of the phos-
phate stratum, the first rock being uncovered by stripping off the
overburden. When the overburden can no longer be removed eco-
nomically, drifts are run into the bank and the phosphate rock
removed, support being given to the roof, when necessary, after
the phosphate is taken out. This method of mining is similar to
that used in mining coal seams. In the Arkansas and Tennessee
mines the phosphate rock is first drilled and blasted. It is then
broken up by pick and loaded into tram-cars to be drawn from the
mine.

OPEN PIT MINING.

By far the greater part of the phosphate rock produced in
America is obtained at present by open pit mining, in which the
overburden is first removed from the rock. The purity of the rock,

*Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. 9, p. 85, 1890.

82 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

however, is not materially affected by the methods employed in
removing the overburden, and hence it is not necessary to describe
these methods in detail. It may be noted, however, that diverse
methods prevail, depending upon the thickness and character of
the overburden, the magnitude of the operations and the facilities
available. Examples may still be found of removal of overburden
by pick and shovel, team and scraper, or team and dump cart.
It is, however, only a shallow overburden that can be so re-
moved profitably. In the larger mining operations the over-
burden is removed by steam shovel, by means of which the
material is loaded into cars, which are then drawn to
the overburden dump; or the overburden is removed by the hy-
draulic method, the material being pumped through pipe lines
to the overburden dump. Whatever method is employed a
limited amount of overburden remains with the phosphate rock
and must be separated in subsequent treatment.

Removal of Phosphate from the Pit.—It is not necessary in
this connection to describe in detail the methods of removing phos-
phate rock from the pit, since the purity of the rock is but inci-
dentally affected thereby. It may be said, however, that the phos-
phate rock is either loaded by pick and shovel on wagons or tram
cars to be drawn from the pit, or it is taken up by dredge or by
hydraulicking. If taken by the hydraulic method the rock is forced
through pipe lines to the washer plant. The character of the de-
posit determines the methods of removal that may be employed.
Where the phosphate is loaded by pick and shovel, such objec-
tionable impurities as siliceous boulders, limestone rock and clay
balls are rejected at the pit, and in some mines only the coarsé
-rock is taken, leaving the finer phosphate, clay and sand. As a
rule, however, there is no attempt to separate the phosphate from
the matrix before removal from the pit.

PREPARATION OF THE PHOSPHATE FOR THE MARKET.

The phosphate rock mined by the open pit method must be
washed and dried. The methods of treatment described in this
paper are those followed in America and particularly in the Florida
nines.

WASHING.

The hard rock phosphate of Florida when brought from the
pit is dumped onto a grating of iron bars with 2 or 2% inch open-

IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 83

ings. The fine materials of the matrix pass through while the
coarse materials, including phosphate, flint, limestone boulders, and
clay balls, are lodged on the grating. The phosphate boulders are
then thrown by hand into a rock crusher near by, while the flint
and limestone boulders and clay balls are discarded. That part
of the matrix which passes the grating together with the rock
from the crusher is dropped into a log washer beneath. The prac-
tice in the land pebble mines is somewhat different from that fol-
lowed in the hard rock section, the matrix, as pumped from the
pit, being thrown as a rule onto a large revolving tube, known
as a separator, punched “hit and miss” with holes one or two inches
in diameter. As the separator revolves, the phosphate pebbles, as
well as the finer materials of the matrix, fall through the openings
and lodge on a screen beneath, while the coarser materials, in-
cluding sand, rock and clay balls, remain in the separator from
which they are carried to the waste dump. From the screen be-
neath the separator the phosphate rock passes into the log washer.
While this is the usual arrangement in the land pebble phosphate
mines, yet in some of the newer plants it has been found practi-
cable to omit the separator altogether, the rock from the dump
being allowed to enter the log washer after passing over a screen
of about 1-16 inch mesh. When the separator is omitted, prac-
tically all the matrix from the pit passes through the log washers,
and it has usually been found necessary in these plants to install
a crusher, which is then placed between the two logs. The larger
pieces of bone and phosphate rock, as well as the clay balls, if not
disintegrated by the washer, are broken up in the crusher, and
the phosphate which they contain is saved.

The log washer, through which the phosphate rock is passed,
consists of two cylinders or logs placed side by side in a box or
trough. A series of blades arranged in a spiral is fastened to each -
cylinder. The trough is inclined, the phosphate being run in at
the lower end, and as the logs are made to revolve in opposite
directions, the phosphate rock is pushed forward by the blades,
meeting as it goes a constant stream of water. By this means the
rock is fairly well washed, the water, carrying all the finer mate-
rials of the matrix, escaping at the lower end or in the newer
washers through an opening at the side of the trough. Frequently
the phosphate rock is passed through a second log of the same
type as the first, and in all cases receives a final rinsing while pass-
ing Over screens.

84 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

In the hard rock phosphate mines of Florida the coarse phos-
phate after leaving the rinser is made to pass over a picker belt,
which is usually made in the form of a large revolving table. The
phosphate rock remains on the picker belt during one complete
revolution of the table, being carefully inspected by men and boys
stationed around the table. The inferior rock, clay balls, flint and
limestone fragments, so far as recognized, are picked out and dis-
carded at this time, thus bringing up the grade of the shipment.
In the land pebble mines the phosphate rock from the last washer
falls on jig screens, the finer of which are 3-64 or 1-32 inch mesh.
From these screens the rock is elevated by endiess cup chains to
the loading bin.

DRYING.

After being taken from the pit the phosphate rock must be
dried before being marketed. Two methods of drying are in use.
The first of these, which is adapted to drying coarse rock, consists
in piling the phosphate rock on ricks of wood. The wood is then
burned, thus drying the rock. This method assists somewhat in
cleaning, since clay and sand, adhering to the rock, tend after dry-
ing to loosen and fall away in subsequent handling.

The second method of drying, which is now largely employed,
is by the use of heated rotary cylinders through which the rock
_ is passed. The rock is introduced usually at the cool end of the
cylinder, and by means of various devices is made to pass through,
escaping at the furnace or heated end. Although well adapted to
drying small pebble rock, the coarser rock when dried by this meth-
od must first be crushed.

IMPROVEMENTS IN MINING METHODS.

An important factor in the cost of producing phosphate rock
is the necessity of discarding the low grade rock, as well as that
which cannot be properly cleaned or separated from the minerals
with which it is associated. It is encouraging, however, to find
that through improved methods of mining the amount of phosphate
thus discarded is being gradually reduced, while the grade of rock
produced is maintained or advanced. In the modern phosphate
mining plants of Florida, practically no phosphate rock reaches the
dump except that which will pass a 1-16, 3-64 or I-32 inch mesh
screen, or is carried out with the overflow from the side opening

IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK, 85

in the log washer. In Tennessee, where a very considerable part
of the brown rock phosphate is in the form of minute pebbles,
settling tanks for saving the small pebble have been introduced in
late years. From the log washer the fine material passes through
these tanks, and much phosphate that was originally thrown into
the dump is thus cleaned and saved, and in fact some of the aban-
doned dumps in Tennessee are now being rewashed by this method.

However, notwithstanding these improvements 1n mining meth-
ods a very considerable amount of phosphoric acid in the form of
very fine pebble and soft phosphate still finds its way into the waste
dump. It is true that a large part of the phosphate that is thus
lost is too high in iron and aluminum to be used in the manufacture
of fertilizers under existing processes. It is, however, none the
less desirable that the phosphoric acid be saved. To this end it is
to be hoped that devices for recovering the very fine pebble phos-
phate may be further perfected, and that new process of manufac-
ture may be developed in which the grade of rock that can be used
is not so strictly limited.

Fig. 21—Sample of phosphate illustrating the formation of phosphate by
the replacement process. The rock was clearly originally limestone of the
Vicksburg formation, the form of the shells being well preserved. The car-
bonate has been replaced by phosphate, and the rock as shown by analysis is
now a high grade phosphate. Natural size. Specimen contributed by H. R.
Keyster, of the Dunnellon Phosphate Company, Rockwell, Florida.

6

86 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

THE PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS OF THE SOUTHERN
SPATS:

The Southern States at the present time are pre-eminently the
source of phosphate rock in the United States, the total rock mined
elsewhere in America being not more than 10,000 or 11,000 tons
per annum. In fact this section contributes fully one-half of the
phosphate rock of the world. The production from the United
States in I913 was 3,111,221 long tons, all of which, with the
exception of 5,053 tons, was from the southern states.*

DESCRIPTION OF-DEPOSITS BY STATES.

The phosphate deposits of the Southern States are widely dis-
tributed. Those states that are actively producing rock are:
Arkansas, Tennessee, South Carolina and Florida. At least five
other states, namely, Kentucky, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia
and Alabama are known to have phosphates or phosphatic marls
of value to agriculture. The Kentucky deposits are being worked
tc a limited extent, and in former years a limited amount of rock
was mined in North Carolina and in Alabama. The phosphates
of Georgia have been partially prospected, while those of Virginia
are of recent discovery. In preparing an account of these different
deposits, the writer has necessarily drawn upon the many excellent
papers relating to the phosphate deposits of the Southern States
by various writers, to whom he acknowledges his indebtedness.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

The phosphates of South Carolina occur as a nodular and pebbly
stratum lying upon a phosphatic marl. The phosphate stratum has
a thickness of from 6 to 14 inches. The phosphate rock, as seen
after being washed, includes light colored irregular pieces, dark
bluish black irregular pieces, small flattened black phosphatic peb-
bles, and phosphatic casts of shells. The overburden at the mine
examined by the writer showed a depth of from 6 to 18 feet con-
sisting of residual materials, largely sand and clay.

The South Carolina deposits are of much interest as having
been the first phosphates mined in America. In fact, the begin-

*The Production of Phosphate Rock in 1913, By W. C. Phalen. Mineral
Resources of the United States, Pt. II, p. 273, ror.

IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 87

ning of mining in these deposits dates almost to the beginning of
the use of mineral fertilizers. The first mineral phosphate to be
used by the modern methods of treating with sulphuric acid were
made in England in 1841, while plans for using the South Caro-
lima phosphates were made as early as 1860, and actual mining
began in 1867.

The grade of rock produced in the South Carolina fields, for
rock properly washed and dried, permits a guarantee of about 60
per cent tricalcium phosphate. The age of the South Carolina-
phosphates, as is often the case with this class of deposits, is hard
tc determine, owing to the mixed character of the beds, for, while
the phosphates rest upon the Eocene marl, they are themselves of

later date.
ARKANSAS.

The Arkansas phosphates that are being worked are found as
bedded deposits within shales lying between limestones. The over-
lying formation, the St. Clair limestone, according to Purdue,* is
of Silurian age, while the underlying formation, the Polk Bayou
Limestone, is of Ordovician age. The shales, within which the
phosphate occurs, are believed to be the top member of the Ordo-
vician. The phosphate beds are variable in character, ranging
from those that are brown and sandy and of low grade to those
that on the fresh surface are blue gray, apparently without sand,
and of uniform texture and color. Two beds are usually present.
The upper bed, the only one being worked, is described by Purdue
as a compact, homogeneous, light gray rock. The color is said
to be due to small white particles resembling fragments of bone
that are thoroughly mixed with a grayish dark material. The
gray material is made up of particles of varying size, some so
small that they can be seen only with the lens, while others are as
large as one-fourth inch in diameter. These particles are more or
less angular, some of them distinctly so, making the stone con-
glomeratic in character. Near the surface exposure of the rock,
the lime has been leached out by surface waters and the rock ap-
pears black in color. This rock is richer in phosphate than un-
weathered material.

The lower bed of phosphate, which is not being worked, is sim-
ilar in character to the upper, though darker in color, more com-

*U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 215, pp. 463-483, 1907.

88 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

pact, and, so’far as observed, not conglomeratic. The dark color
is believed to be due to the smaller amount of white material and
possibly to a larger amount of iron and manganese. The two beds
are separated by a thin layer of manganese iron ore. In addition
to the developed locality more or less phosphatic material occurs
as nodules and pebbles in the Devonian shales and sandstones.~*

The phosphate rock that has been produced in Arkansas is said
to average about 65 per cent tricalcium phosphate. No phosphate
rock was produced in Arkansas during the year 1913.7

TENNESSEE.

In Tennessee several more or less distinct types of phosphate
occur, only two of which, however, blue rock and brown rock, are
being mined at present. The blue phosphate occurs as a bedded
deposit within, but forming the lowest member of the Chattanooga
formation of Devonian age, and resting directly upon Ordovician
limestone. The blue phosphates are said to vary in grade from
about 30 to 85 per cent tricalcium phosphate. Iron and aluminum
in the better grade of rock aggregate less than three per cent. The
beds vary in thickness from zero to 50 inches, although the bed
furnishing high grade rock rarely exceeds 20 inches in thickness.

The brown rock of Tennessee is at the present time of greater
commercial importance than the blue rock. This rock occurs in
irregular deposits lying near the surface and resting on limestone.
The overburden consists usually of residual material including clay,
some phosphate and a limited amount of sand. Its thickness is
extremely variable, although averaging 8 or 10 feet. The phosphate
consists of a shelly rock, breaking up into pieces of varying size,
and of small variegated pebbles which in mass have a dark brown
color. Locally the small pebble rock predominates, forming a
scarcely coherent mass having a brownish color. A phase of the
material, known locally as “muck” deposit, consists of a mass of
small pebbles, often not exceeding a pin head in size. The under-
lying limestone has an irregular top surface, and not infrequently
projects into the phosphate stratum. The limestone is dense and

*The Phosphate Deposits of Arkansas, by John C. Branner, Amer. Tost:
Min. Eng. Trans. xxvi, pp. 580-598, 1806.

tMineral Resources of the United States, Calendar year 1913,
p. 285, 1914.

part 2,

Oe

PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. SO

has a bluish cast, and is more or less phosphatic. The age of this
underlying limestone is Ordovician.

FLORIDA.

The phosphate produced in Florida includes, as previously
stated, two kinds, namely, hard rock and land pebble phosphates.

The matrix in which the hard rock phosphate is imbedded is
extremely variable. The formation includes a mixture of materials
from various sources and of the most diverse character, further
complicated by pronounced chemical activity within the formation
itself. The prevailing phase of the formation is feebly coherent,
more or less phosphatic, light gray sand. Aside from these sands
the principal materials of the formation are clays, phosphate rock,
flint boulders, limestone inclusions, pebble conglomerate, erratic
and occasional waterworn flint pebbles, vertebrate and invertebrate
fossils, and occasional pieces of silicified tree trunks.

The gray sands may be observed in every pit that has been
excavated in this section. Moreover, from drill and prospect holes
‘t is known that these sands occur very generally over the inter-
vening or barren area. The sands are of medium coarse texture,
the grains being roughly angular. The amount of phosphate asso-
ciated with these sands is variable. When affected by slow decay
and by water, carrying more or less iron in solution, they become
reddish or ochre yellow in color. Lithologically these sands re-_
semble closely the gray phosphatic sands of the Alum Bluff forma-
tion as seen at the type locality at Alum Bluff, on the Apalachi-
cola River.

The clays in this formation occur locally as clay lenses im-
bedded in the sand, or separating the sand from the phosphate rock,
or overlying the phosphate rock. The clays are often of a light
buff or blue color. When lying near the surface, however, they
often oxidize to varying shades of red. The relative amount of
clay inthe phosphate-bearing formation increases ina general way
in passing to the south. The exposures in the southern part of
the area show as a rule more clay than do similar exposures in the
northern part of the area. The phosphate boulders seem to have
a tendency to group around and to be associated with local clay
lenses. Frequently the productive pit gives place laterally to
barren gray sands.

gO FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Flint boulders occur locally in this formation in some abun-
dance, and occasionally phosphate pits that are otherwise workable
are abandoned or account of the number of flint boulders encoun-
tered. The flint boulders are usually oval or somewhat flattened
in shape and are of varying size, some weighing several tons. Some
of the boulders are hollow and occasionally the cavity is filled
with water; other boulders are solid, compact and of a bluish color
throughout. Limestone inclusions are frequent in this formation.

Phosphate rock, although the constituent of special economic
interest, nevertheless makes up a relatively small part of the forma-
tion. The phosphate in these deposits occurs as fragmentary rock,
boulder rock, plate rock or pebble. The boulders are often of large
size, in some instances weighing several tons, and must be broken

‘up by blasting before being removed from the pit. It is also nec-
essary to operate a rock crusher in connection with all hard rock
phosphate mines to reduce the larger pieces of rock to a size suit-_
able for shipping. The relative amount of material that it is
necessary to handle to obtain a definite amount of phosphate is al-
ways variable with each pit and with the different parts of any
one pit. The workable deposits of phosphate lying within this
formation occur very irregularly. While at one locality the phos-
phate may lie at the surface, elsewhere it may be so deeply buried
as not to be economically worked; while a deposit once located may
cover more or less continuously a tract of land some acres in ex-
tent, elsewhere a deposit, appearing equally promising on the sur-
face, may in reality be found to be of very limited extent. As to
location, depth from surface, extent into the ground, lateral extent,
quantity and quality, the hard rock phosphate deposits conform to
no rule. The desired information is to be obtained only by exten-
sive and expensive prospecting and sampling.

The materials above the phosphate deposits include pale yellow
incoherent sand and in some localities clayey sand. The incoher-
ent sands are variable, an average thickness being from 5 to 15
feet, although as much as 30 feet have been observed.

In practically all published literature the hard rock phosphates
of Florida are referred to as of Vicksburg, Lower Oligocene age,
Although resting upon the Vicksburg limestone, the formation is
apparently of Pliocene age, for, although fossils older than
the Pliocene are present, yet these are derived from the formations
that have disintegrated.

PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. gl

The land pebble phosphate deposits of southern Florida are
much more uniform in their manner of occurrence than are the
hard rock deposits. The phosphate is in the form of pebble rock
imbedded in a matrix of clay, sand and soft phosphate. Although
variable from place to place the phosphate bed has an average
thickness of from 8 to 10 feet, its maximum thickness being from
18 to 20 feet. The overburden, which consists largely of sand
and sandy clays, with local indurated or calcareous ledges, has an
average thickness of from Io to 14 feet.

The best grade of land pebble rock when properly washed, dried
and selected permits a guarantee of 75 or 76 per cent tricalcium
phosphate. Other grades on the market range from 62 to 75 per
cent. The hard rock phosphates average from 79 to 83 per cent,
although selected samples run as high as 84 or 85 per cent trical-
cium phosphate.

Practically all of the hard rock phosphate mined in Florida is
exported, that used in America amounting to not more than 15 or
18 thousand tons per annum. Of the land pebble phosphate pro-
duced a little more than one-third is now being exported.

KENTUCKY.

The phosphate deposits in Kentucky resemble in a general way
the brown rock of Tennessee. According to Gardner* the phos-
phate is in the form of loose rock, consisting of thin plates and
finely comminuted material mixed with some clay, the whole being
of a dark brown color. The hard rock plates vary from light gray
to dark brown and are usually rather dense. These plates vary in
size from the granular form up to pieces that weigh several pounds.
The deposits as a whole occur in blanket form on limestone and
are covered by clay and soil. As in the case of the brown rock
phosphate of Tennessee the deposits are extremely irregular both
as to thickness and extent. Gardner states that the deposits orig-
inate from secondary concentration from the process of weathering
of phosphatic limestone. The surface of the underlying rock is
irregular and naturally the bottom of the phosphate conforms with
it; at some places it suddenly deepens and at others rock horses
rise in the phosphate beds. The cover of clay and soil varies from
about 2 to more than 10 feet, being thicker on the tops than on
the sides of hills and ridges.

—— ~

*Rock Phosphate in Kentucky: Mines and Minerais, Nov., 1912, pp. 207-209.

Q2 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

VIRGINIA.

The recently discovered phosphate deposits of southwestern Vir-
ginia, if not of sufficient grade and quantity to be of economic value,
are nevertheless of much scientific interest. The beds, which con-
tain the phosphate nodules and grains, lie near the base of the De-
vonian, and are a little less than a foot thick. The highest grade
rock at this locality was found to contain 54.97 per cent tricalcium
phosphate, although the average of the rock is of somewhat lower
grade. While the phosphate was found.at only two localities, the
strata with which it is associated were traced for a distance of
twenty miles, and it is probable that additional phosphate localities
will be discovered.*

NORTH CAROLINA.

The phosphate deposits of North Carolina lie in a belt extend-
ing from the South Carolina line northwestward to the Neuse
River. The area is from 15 to 20 miles wide and lies from 20
to 25 miles from the coast. The layer of phosphate rock is said
to be from 6 to 20 inches thick. The rock occurs in lumps, shading
from a light gray to dark green, and varying in size from rocks
weighing half.a pound to halfaton or more. Analysis of a con-
siderable number of samples indicated that deposits could be se-
lected that would run from 28 to 57 per cent tricalcium phosphate.

Another type of deposits found in North Carolina is that known
as conglomerate rock, which was worked to a limited extent from
about 1885 to 1899, the rock being ground and applied as raw
phosphate to the soil.; This deposit, consisting of coprolites and
fish bones has a thickness of from 3 to 5 feet, and in places under-
lies a limestone or marl. A sample of the conglomerate as a whole
was found to contain only 11.16 per cent tricalcium phosphate, the
balance being chiefly calcium carbonate, silica, iron and aluminum.
A number of the coprolites from the conglomerate ground up and
mixed, analyzed about 30 per cent tricalcium phosphate.

ALABAMA.

A small amount of phosphate was mined in Alabama in 1887,
although operations’ were afterwards discontinued. The phos-

*Phosphate Deposits in Southwestern Virginia, by George W. Stose, U. S.
Geol. Sur. Bull. 540-L, 1913. 1
TU. S. Geol. Survey, Mineral Resources, 1883 and 1884, pp. 788-793.

PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. 93

phates of this state are found in both the Cretaceous and the Ter-
tiary formations. The Cretaceous strata, extending into Missis-

sippi, contain more or less phosphatic material.*
>

GEORGIA.

The phosphates of Georgia are found in the Coastal Plain de-
posits and, although of low grade, are widely distributed.+

Mf

Fig. 22.—Removing overburden from phosphate rock in Florida by hydraul-
icking. The overburden as seen in this view, presents the usual condition,
consisting of three or four feet of loose light colored sand beneath which is
found several feet of clayey and sandy material. The bank is knocked to
pieces by the stream of water and after being washed into the sump hole, is
pumped to the waste dump. The phosphate stratum which lies beneath is
subsequently removed in the same way, being pumped through pipe lines to the
washer plant. The phosphate washer and also the waste dump are seen in
the background. From this view may be seen also type of country in which the
land pebble phosphates of Florida are found. The land is level, or but slightly
rolling. The native timber growth, chiefly long-leaf pine, is now largely re-
moved.

*The Phosphates and Marls of Alabama, by Eugene A. Smith, Geological
Survey of Alabama. “Report on the Coastal Plain of Alabama, pp. 449-525, 1805;
and Amer. Inst. Min. Engrs. Trans. xxv, pp. 811-822, 1896.

tA Preliminary Report on a Part of the Phosphates and Marls of Georgia,
by S. W. McCallie, Geol. Surv. of Georgia, Bulletin No. 5-A, 1896.

Q4. FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

WORLD PRODUCTION OF PHOSPHATE ROCK;

In the production of phosphate, the United States is easily the
leading country of the world, contributing from the well known
fields of Florida, Tennessee, South Carolina, Arkansas and the
new fields in the western United States approximately 3,000,000
tons of a total world production of between 6,000,000 and 7,000,000
tons. Florida alone, at the present time, contributes over 2,500,000
tons per annum. The statistics for 1911, the latest date of which
approximately complete returns are available, show the world pro-
duction of phosphate to be approximately 6,145,413 metric tons,
of which the United States produced 3,102,131 metric tons, or
slightly more than one-half.*

Aside from the United States, the principal phosphate coun-
tries of the world are Northern Africa, including Tunis, Algeria
and Egypt; Continental Europe, including France, Belgium and
Russia, the latter at present producing but little rock; the South
Sea Islands, including Ocean, Naura, Anguar, Makatea and other
islands of lesser importance in the Pacific Ocean, and Christmas
Island in the Indian Ocean; the Dutch West Indies, including
Aruba, Curacao and Lesser Curacao Islands in the Caribbean Sea.
In addition a small amount of phosphate rock is produced in Can-
ada, Australia and South Africa, while from’ a number of other
localities, both on the continents and on the Islands of the Sea,
discoveries of phosphate rock are reported, some of which, without
doubt, will be found to be of commercial importance.

NORTHERN AFRICA.

TUNIS.

Tunis, a small province in northern Africa bordering the Med-
iterranean Sea, owned by France, leads among foreign countries in
the production of phosphate rock. The companies operating in
these fields during 1912 were as follows: Compagnie des Phos-
phates et du Chemin de Fer d Gafsa; Societe des Phosphates Tu-
nisiens; Compagnie des Phosphates du Dyr; Societe anonyme des
Manufactures des Glaces et Produits chimiques de St. Gobain;
Societe Franc. d’Etudes et d’Exploitation des Phosphates en Tu-

*The Production of Phosphate Rock in 1913, by W. C. Phalen, Mineral
Resources of the United States, Calendar year 1913—Part II, p. 279, 1914.

WORLD PRODUCTION OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 95

nisie; Societe de Phosphates de Maknassy; Societe Franc.
des Phosphates de Gouraya; La Floridienne, J. Buttgenbach
& Co. Of these companies, the first named, Compagnie des Phos-
phates de Gafsa, is by far the largest, having produced during 1912,
1,312,378 tons. This company at the present time is without doubt,
in point of production, the largest phosphate company in the world.
The other seven companies named produced 578,359 tons, making
a total of 1,890,737 tons exported from Tunis during 1912, almost
all of which is shipped to the European countries.

ALGERIA,

Algeria is also a French province in northern Africa bordering
the Mediterranean Sea immediately west of Tunis. The phos-
phates of Algeria are found in the vicinity of Setif and Tebessa. .
The deposits of Kouif at Tebessa near the Tunis border include
five beds from 60 centimeters to 3 meters thick (approximately 2 to
10 feet), separated by lime strata. Of these beds three are worked,
the mining being done in part by open pit and in part by drift min-
ing. The phosphate rock from these beds grades 63 to 70 per
cent tricalcium phosphate, iron and aluminum 1 per cent. Among
the companies operating in Algeria during 1913 are the following:
Compagnie des Phosphates de Constantine; Compagnie des Phos-
phates du M’Zaita; Compagnie Centrale des Phosphates; Com-
pagnie Algerienne des Phosphate de Tocqueville. The total ship-
ments of phosphate from Algeria during 1913 amounted to 461,-
030 tons, all of which, aside from a small amount sent to Japan,
were consigned to European countries.

EGYPT.

Phosphate is known in a number of localities in Egypt, although
actual mining is being carried on at present in only two districts,
namely, the Safaga and the Sibaia Deserts. The phosphates are
found in sedimentary strata belonging to the uppermost part of the
Cretaceous system. The total shipments from Egypt during 1913
amounted to 96,958 tons, all of which was exported, going chiefly
to China and Japan.* The exports for 1913 were 64,160 tons.

*A brief note on The Phosphate Deposits of Egypt, by John Ball, D. Sc.
F. G. S. Survey Department Paper No. 30, Government Press, Cairo, Egypt,
1913. .

96 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

The grade of rock produced in the Safaga mines by the Egyptian
Phosphate Company admits a guarantee of from 65 to 72 per cent
of tricalcium phosphate; calcium carbonate 8 to 12 per cent; iron
and aluminum 2 per cent.

CONTINENTAL EUROPE.

FRANCE,

France has long been a phosphate producing country and, al-
though the production has never been large as compared with some
other countries, yet deposits are known and worked at many and
widely separated localities. One of the principal centers of pro-
duction is that of Pas de Calais, where the phosphate occurs as
mamillary masses and nodules in the Cretaceous strata, varying in
grade, but averaging about 50 per cent tribasic phosphate of lime.
The phosphates at Beauval in the Somme are exceptional in their
manner of occurrence, being found as sand pockets in the surface
of the rock. Originally this sand, analyzing upon drying 75 to
SO per cent tricalcium phosphate, was used in mortar, its phosphatic
nature not then being known. The production of phosphate and
phosphatic chalk in France during 1911, the latest date for which
statistics are available, amounted to about 380,000 tons.

BELGIUM.

Belgium has extensive deposits of phosphate rocks, which, how-
ever, are of rather low grade. The rock found around Liege and
Mons, near the French border, contains about 50 per cent trical-
cium phosphate. In the vicinity of Vaudour somewhat richer phos-
phates are found grading about 60 per cent tricalcium phosphate.
The production from Belgium in 1911 was 196,780 tons.

RUSSIA.

Phosphates are known to exist over a wide extent of territory
in Russia, deposits of commercial value being found in southern
central and northern European Russia. The deposits of south-
ern Russia are found near the Austrian frontier in Bessarabia and
Podolia. These phosphates lie in schists and are mined chiefly by
underground mining. The Podolia phosphate grades about 75.3
per cent tricalcium phosphate. Extensive phosphate deposits, as
yet but little developed, are found in central Russia. Mining has

WORLD PRODUCTION OF PHOSPHATE ROCK, 97

been carried on only to a very limited extent in the northern and
central regions, and that by the open pit method. The total pro-
duction of phosphate in Russia during 1911 was 10,200 tons, of
which Podolia produced 9,899 tons, Bessarabia 154 tons, and
Kurtz in the central region 147 tons.

ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN.

Phosphate rock is obtained from a number of islands of the
Pacific Ocean, the largest producers at present being Ocean, Naura,
Anguar and Makatea islands. The shipments from these islands
go chiefly to Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and China, although,
owing to the high grade of the rock, a considerable demand is
found in European countries.

Ocean Island—Ocean Island, an English possession in the Gil-
bert group in the Pacific Ocean (Lat. o degrees, 52 minutes south;
Long. 169 degrees, 35 minutes east), although less than 1,500 acres
in extent, contains important phosphate deposits. The phosphate
on this island, a surface deposit, is mined by open pit mining, and
is dried in cylinder dryers. The water around the island being
shallow, the rock is necessarily transported by small boats to the
steamers.

Naura—Naura, a German possession belonging to the Marshall
Islands, lies 160 miles northwest of Ocean Island. The phosphate
of this island is found resting upon and filling up irregularities in
the top surface of a dolomitic limestone, and grades 86 to 87 per
cent tricalcium phosphate. In mining, the rock is shoveled into
buckets, which, when filled, are lifted and carried by cable to the
railroad track. The deposits of these two islands are worked by
the Pacific Phosphate Company, Ltd. The output, amounting
to about 250,000 tons a year, is shipped to Japan, Australia, and
New Zealand, as well as to the European countries.

Anguar—Anguar, one of the Pelew Islands of the Carolina
Group in the Pacific Ocean east of Japan, produced in 1911, 41,000
tons of phosphate which grades about 80 per cent. The deposits
of this island are worked by a German company, The Deutsche
Sudsee Phosphat-Gesellschaft. This company is said to have ex-
ported 90,000 tons of phosphate, chiefly from this island, during
1913. )

Makatea—From Makatea, one of the Paumotu Islands of the

98 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Society Group and a French possession, there were shipped during
IQI2, 17,207 tons. This rock is mined by a French Company,
Compagnie Francaise des Phosphates de L’Oceanie, and grades as
high as 81 per cent tricalcium phosphate, iron and aluminum one-
half per cent,

ISLANDS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN.

Christmas Island—Christmas Island, which lies south of Java,
in the Indian Ocean, has in recent years become an important phos-
phate producer. The rock is of high grade with low content of iron.
The deposits are worked by an English company, the Christmas
Island Phosphate Company. The amount shipped during 1913 was

150,005 tons. | 14

ISLANDS OF THE CARIBBEAN SEA.

The islands of Curacao and Aruba and Little Curacao, belong-
ing to the Netherlands, lying in the Caribbean Sea, off the coast
of Venezuela, contain phosphate deposits. The amount of rock
shipped by the Aruba Phosphate Company during I9g12 was 20,262
tons. This rock grades 70 to 75 per cent tricalcium phosphate;
iron and aluminum 3% to 414 per cent. The phosphate on this
island is obtained mostly fromsubterranean caves. The piosphates
of Santa Barbara in the southern part of Curacao, the mining of
which has been recently renewed, grade 80 to 86 per cent trical-
cium phosphate. The grant to exploit the deposits on Little Cura-
cao is held by an American Company. During 1911 about 2,000
tons, grading 50 per cent tricalcium phosphate, was shipped from
this island.

Exact figures as to the production of phosphate rock for many
of the foreign countries are not yet available. However, from the
data that have been given, it is evident that the world production
of phosphate during 1913 approximates six and one-half million
tons.

ti

a

WORLD PRODUCTION OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 99

PRODUCTION OF PHOSPHATE ROCK IN FLORIDA
DURING 1913.*

STATISTICS ON PRODUCTION COLLECTED IN CO-OPERATION WITH THE
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

The production of land pebble phosphate in Florida, which has
steadily increased during the past several years, showed a further
gain during 1913, the output having for the first time exceeded two
million tons. The production of hard rock phosphate, on the con-
trary, showed a slight decrease, having fallen slightly below one-
half million tons. However, notwithstanding the decline in hard
rock mining, the total production for the State during 1913 was
greater than that for any preceding year, having exceeded two and
one-half million tons, with a valuation in excess of nine and one-
half million dollars.

The total shipments of phosphate rock during 1913 as reported
by the producers was 2,545,276 long tons, of which 2,055,482 tons
were land pebble, including a small consignment of river pebble,
and 489,794 tons were hard rock phosphate. The river pebble in-
cluded with these shipments represents rock on hand from previous
years, as no river pebble is being produced at present. The exports
of phosphate rock from Florida to foreign countries during 1913
as shown by returns from the various shipping points, amounted to
1,364,296 tons, from which it appears that slightly less than one-
half of the phosphate mined in Florida during 1913 was consigned
for use within the United States. The rock consigned for domestic
use is almost wholly land pebble phosphate, practically all of the hard
rock being exported. The record of the export shipment is from
the American Fertilizer of January 24, 1914.

Pebble phosphate from Florida sold at the mines during 1913
at $2.75 to $4.00 per ton according to grade, while the hard rock
phosphate sold at $4.00 to $5.00 per ton. The actual value of the
phosphate shipped from Florida during 1913 approximates $9,563,-
084.

*Press Bulletin No. 5, Florida State Geol. Survey. Production of Phos-
phate Rock in Florida During 1913, by E. H. Sellards, Issued May 20, 1914.

100 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Thirty companies in all were engaged in mining phosphate in
Florida during 1913. Of these sixteen companies were mining
pebble phosphate, while fourteen were mining hard rock phosphate.
The accompanying list is complete for all phosphate companies that
operated in Florida during 1913:

PHOSPHATE COMPANIES OPERATING IN FLORIDA DURING IQI3.

Amalgamated Phosphate Co........... 25 S. Calvert St., Baltimore, Md., and
Chicora, Fla.
Armour Fertilizer Works.............. Bartow, Fla.
P. Bassett (Successor to Central Phos-
Plate Gowye wow weed te LE lat oie eh Newberry, Fla.
Peter) B. and! Robert) S. Bradley... --... 92 State St., Boston,-Mass., and Floral
City, Fla.
eb uttser bach Commer err: Holder, Fla.
Camp Phosphate: Con. 4. «nsec Ocala and Dunnellon, Fla.
Charleston, S. C., Mining and Manufac- ° -
eit os COM Mise ose ahaa, oop ic ree Charleston, S. C., and Ft. Meade, Fla.
Compagnie Generale des Phosphates de
laMbiloridec terpenes hore hen naar Paris, France, and Pembroke, Fla.
Coronet. Phosphate Wotan... sean or Lakeland, Fla., and 99 John St., New
York.
(Cuimnmner Werner (Chon sea dcesocscabene Jacksonville and Newberry, Fla.
The Dominion’ Phosphate Co...../...- Bartow, Fla.
The Dunnellon Phosphate Co.......... Rockwell, Fla.
Dutton ehosphatesComsee acca eecniae Gainesville, Fla.
Biorida, Mining siGoe auc meee sare 165 Broadway, New York, and. Mul-

berry, Fla.
Florida Phosphate Mining CorporationNorfolk, Va., and Bartow, Fla.

Frankliny Phosphate: Gon. cect: bo ets Newberry, Fla.

Holder Phosphate (Cota. ose eae e. Ocala and Inverness, Fla.

internationals sehosphatem Contest ee 27, State » St, Boston,” Vass and. Be
Meade, Fla.

Interstate Chemical Corporation....... Charleston, S. C., and Bowling Green,
Fla.

Tstachatta Phosphate Co..... ice ete ators Istachatta, Fla.

Mirtnaliviinine (Gomes ae scree neice eee Savannah, Ga., and Newberry, ‘Fla.

ealmetton Phosphates Conese eceeaeeeie Baltimore, Md., and Tiger Bay, Fla.

dhe se hosphate,) Minine™Go, fro. saa 55 Johns St., New York, and Nichols,
Fla.

Pierce ehosphatemCoseee see entero 2 Rector St., New York, and Pierce,
Fla.

Prairie Pebble Phosphate: Go. 2-2... 165 Broadway, New York, and Mul-
berry, Fla.

Schilmiannuce seme anes hy. ieicsisise ree ete (Ocala, Fla.

Societe Franco-Americaine des Phos-
phates de Medulla (Successor to .
Standard) Phosphates Gor), . Se. sno Christina, Fla.

PRODUCTION OF PHOSPHATE ROCK IN FLORIDA. [OI

The Southern Phosphate Development

COMA etic erie rent grea am fe Ocala and Inverness, Fla.
State, pesosphate Godvesspostieetanese a: Bartow, Fla.
SPAR SC MGMIDSOIS soa’ c's Sune ere Mend « Neals, Fla.

In addition, The Export Phosphate Co., Mulberry, Fla., The
Lakeland Phosphate Co., Lakeland, Fla., and The Acme Phosphate
Co., Morriston, Fla., have organized and are expecting to mine
during 1914.

ap Sere

Fig. 23.—Sand-clay road, Tallahassee, Bellair road leading into
Tallahassee from the south.

ROAD MATERIALS.

‘The road materials of the State include chiefly the limestone,
marl, and shell deposits, the flint, chert and gravel, and the sandy
or road-making clays. The production of road materials can scarce-
ly be estimated, The sandy clays in particular are used locally, no
record being kept of the amount handled. The calcareous and
siliceous materials find more general usage, the production and
value being frequently reported. The value of this class of road-
making material is recorded, so far as obtained under the headings
“Limestone” and “Gravel.”

At the close of 1912 the total mileage of improved roads in
Florida was approximately 2,848 miles. Of this number 857.8
miles are surfaced with marl or crushed stone; 1,408.75 are sur-
faced with sand-clay; 218 miles are surfaced with shell; 5.2 miles

7

102 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

with cement; 26.5 miles with gravel; .4 mile with asphalt, and 8.5
miles with brick, These statistics are for the year 1912, the reports
for the succeeding years not being sufficiently complete to justify
publication. It is known, however, that the total mileage of im-
proved roads in Florida was materially increased during 1912 and
1913. This applies particularly to the brick roads, several counties,
among which are Duval, Hillsboro, Orange, St. Johns and Seminole
counties, being now actively engaged in building paved brick roads
along the important highways of travel.

In addition to the funds available from regular and special taxes,
the following counties have issued bonds for road improvement:
Alachua, $40,000; Columbia, $40,000; Dade, $250,000; DeSoto,
Punta Gorda, special district, $200,000; Duval, $1,000,000; Her-
nando, $300,000; Hillsboro, $400,000; Jackson, $300,000; Mana-
tee, $250,000; Nassau, $60,000 and $180,000; Palm Beach, $200,-
000; Palm Beach special district No. 1, $85,000, special district No.
2, $60,000; Pasco, special district No. 1, $150,000, special district
No. 2, $65,000, special district No. 3, $30,000; Pinellas, $370,000;
Putnam, $155,000; St. Johns, $30,000 and $650,000; Seminole,
special district No. 1, $200,000; St. Lucie, $200,000; Suwannee,
coupon warrants, $20,000; Walton, $70,000. In addition to the
regular and special annual road taxes, Florida has thus issued dur-
ing the past few years road bonds to the value of over five million
dollars,

SAND AND GRAVEL.

The sand produced in Florida is used chiefly for building pur-
poses, although a limited amount is used as moulding sand. The
gravel produced finds its chief use for road-making and road ballast.
The total production of sand and gravel for 1913 was 87,061 tons,
valued at $21,194.00, Of this amount 66,835 short tons, valued
at $11,104.00, was gravel, the balance being sand of the grades
mentioned.

The companies reporting the production of sand and gravel in
Florida during 1913 are the following:

ee ee

~~ te Op i een ter see ~The eo

SAND-LIME BRICK. 103

Atlantic Coast Line Railroad Company.

Interlachen Gravel Company, Interlachen, Fla.

Lake Wier Sand Company, Lake Wier, Fla.

Logan Coal and Supply Company, 866 East Bay St., Jacksonville, Fla.
W. E. Long, Orlando, Fla.

Walter L Wescott, Orlando, Fla.

Woodman and Company, Ocala, Fla.

SAND-LIME BRICK.

The materials used in the manufacture of sand-lime brick are
sand and lime. The bonding power of the brick is due to the
chemical reaction between these ingredients. The chemical changes

Fig. 24.—Ponce de Leon Springs, Holmes County.

occur in the presence of heat, pressure and moisture, and result in
the formation of hydro-silicates of calcium and magnesium.

The sand used in the manufacture of sand-lime brick should be
comparatively pure and perferably with some variation in the size

‘of the grains. The mixture of lime, sand, and water, is cut in the

form of bricks and conveyed to a hardening cylinder. Necessary
heat and pressure are obtained in the hardening cylinder adapted for
the purpose. The sand-lime bricks are placed in this cylinder and
subjected to a pressure and temperature which vary according to
the method of treatment.

Four companies were actively engaged in the manufacture of

104 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

sand-lime brick in Florida, during 1913, as follows: The Bond
Sandstone Brick Company, Lake Helen, Fla.; The Composite Brick
Company, 3027 Hubbard St., Jacksonville, Fla.; Roux Composite
Brick Company, Plant City, Fla.; and the Seminole Press Brick
Company, Turners Road, Jacksonville, Fla,

The total production of sand-lime brick in Florida during 1913
was valued at $79,679.00.

WATER.

The springs of Florida are famous for their large volume of
flow as well as for the clearness and beauty of their waters. Many
of these springs are used as health resorts, while from others the
water is sold for medicinal or table use. The total sales of spring
“waters in Florida during 1913 as shown by the returns from the
owners of springs and wells amount to 343,123 gallons, valued at
. $37,474. The average price thus approximates eleven cents per
gallon. The total sales are divided as follows: Medicinal waters,
$20,290; table waters, $17,184.

The following is a list of those who report having sold spring
or well water during 1913, together with the name of the spring or
well from which taken.

Chumuckla Mineral Springs Company, Chumuckla Spring, McDavid, Florida.

Kissengen Wells Company, Stomawa Well, Tampa, Florida.

Lackawanna Water Company, Cedar and Lackawanna Springs, Jacksonville,
Florida.

L. H. McKee, Quisisana Spring, Green Cove Springs, Florida.

Magnolia Springs Hotel Company, Magnolia Spring, Magnolia Springs, Fla.

Panacea Springs Company, Panacea Springs, Panacea, Florida.

Nathaniel Brewer, Jr., Newport Spring, Newport, Florida.

Orange City Water Works Company, Orange City Mineral Springs, Orange
City, Florida.

E. J. Osborne, Wekiwa Springs, Apopka, Florida.

Ponce de Leon Springs Corp., Ponce de Leon Spring, Glenwood, Florida.

Purity Springs, Tampa, Florida.

James F. Tucker, Espiritu Santo Spring, Espiritu Santo Springs, Florida.

Welaka Mineral Water Company, Welaka Mineral Spring, Jacksonville,
Florida.

The production of mineral waters as shown by these statistics is,
however, insignificant, when compared to the vastly more extensive
use of the spring and well waters for municipal, agricultural, indus-
trial, domestic and other purposes for which statistics can scarcely ©

WATER SUPPLIES AND WELL RECORDS. 105
be collected. As bearing on the general value of underground water

may be included here the following press bulletin by the writer,
issued by the Survey during the year.

THE UTILITY OF WELL RECORDS.”*

The water supply stored in the earth is a resource the value of —

which can not be expressed in figures, since upon the water supply

Flowing artesian well at Palatka.

Fig. ‘25.

is dependent both plant and animal life as well as human exist-
ence and comfort. Without water, soil fertility would fail, all
vegetation would quickly die, all activities of man would cease
and the earth would become a barren waste, Water is the one

“

LR RAE Te WN rae ie a a pie at tae
*Press Bulletin No. 4, issued by the Florida State Geological Survey,
January 15, 1914.

106 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

resource common to all and in which all are directly interested re-
gardless of occupation or position in life.

Water is a mineral and in fact differs from other minerals
chiefly in that at the average moderate temperature it is in liquid
form, while most other minerals, mercury excepted, at the same
temperature are in solid form. At o degrees Centigrade, however,
(32 degrees F.), water solidifies, and in doing so assumes as in
the case of most other minerals a definite crystal form. Like other
minerals also water must be sought for in the earth, and it is in
fact more extensively prospected for, produced and utilized the
world over, and affects the life and welfare of more people than
any other mineral. The money expended annually in securing,
distributing and utilizing water is almost incredible. It is probable
that in this State alone as much as one hundred thousand dollars
is spent annually in well drilling. This expenditure is to be classed
under the head of prospecting, although the drill hole once made be-
comes the opening through which the water, if the well is success-
ful, is brought to the surface. -To the cost of prospecting it would
be necessary to add in order to estimate the approximate expendi-
ture on water supplies, the additional annual cost of pumping, pip-
ing, and distributing the water, as well as the general upkeep of
the plant which involves a large annual expenditure, The water
supply is, therefore, both an important and an extensive industry.

Like other minerals water obeys definite laws in its manner of
occurrence in the earth and yet for no other mineral has the pros-
pecting been carried on in so haphazard a manner. This is doubt-
less due to the fact that the water supply does not admit of con-
centration in development, nor beyond a limited extent of private
ownership. The phosphate deposits of this state which are almost
wholly under private ownership have been studied by expert geolo-

gists, and have been developed in accordance with carefully laid -

plans drawn by skilled engineers. Both in prospecting and in min-
ing the phosphate, the most exact records have been kept and the
data thus secured utilized in subsequent developments. The same
is true of the fullers earth industry, and in fact of successful mining
operations the world over. As regards the water supply, however,
while the general geological studies have been or are being made,

the acutal prospecting is being carrted on by very unscientific

methods. Notwithstanding the large amount of deep well drilling

ee ee se ee eee ee

,

- h

WATER SUPPLIES AND WELL RECORDS. IO7

that is being done in Florida annually, the work is not in any way
co-ordinated, and records are seldom preserved with sufficient care
to meet scientific requirements.

The failure to keep an adequate record of a well when drilled
is clearly due to the lack on the part of the owner of the well, of an
appreciation of the value and utility of such a record, both to
those who are having the well drilled and to others who subse-
quently may wish to drill wells in or near the same locality, It is
to indicate some of the ways in which well records are of value
and to urge more complete preservation of records, and more defin-
ite correlation of results of prospecting that this bulletin is issued.

Accurate data from wells can be obtained only by the personal
attention on the part of the well driller or of some one who di-
rectly interests himself in the well, and involves more or less loss of
time and delay in the drilling operations. As a rule no provision is
made by the well-owner for preserving the record of the well, and
it is left to the driller to preserve the record if preserved at all.
While it is not reasonable to expect the driller to assume this extra
expense, as a matter of fact nearly all the records that are now
available have been secured in this way and it speaks well for the
drillers that they are willing to thus make public the data that they
have obtained at their own expense. To secure full and complete
records the owner of the well should assume the expense of collect-
ing the data since it is to himself and the community in which he
lives that the record has the largest value. The owner of the well,
frequently expecting to drill no well other than the one already un-
dertaken, assumes that there is no further need so far as he 1s per-
sonally concerned for exact data. This, however, isa mistake. The
instances are numerous in which valuable mineral deposits have
been drilled through without being detected merely because the sam-
ples of drillings from the well were not preserved and examined by
some one competent to judge of their character. In any case to
drill a deep well involves considerable expense, and it is a waste of
money not to make the most of the prospect hole while it is being
made, Aside from the individual interest, there is the welfare of
the community which is inseparably linked with that of each indi-
vidual, and the success or failure of one well, or the difficulties en-
countered in drilling it, or the materials penetrated, may point the
way to success or reduction of expense on the part of another.

108 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

The drilling of practically all deep wells is let by contract to
the lowest responsible bidder, and it is obvious that if the party
letting the contract has no idea of the underground conditions he
is not in a position either to draw proper specifications or to judge
of the reasonableness of the bid when made. In many cases the
contract for wells fails to specify requirements that should be made
for that particular locality, and on the other hand includes condi-
tions that involve additional expense and yet for that particular
well are useless. It is very much to the advantage of the owner of
the prospective well to have full information as to the conditions
of the underlying strata through which the well is to be drilled, the
probable depth that it will be necessary to go and the depth to
which the casing should be carried, as well as some idea of the
ease with which the well can be drilled or the difficulties that must
‘be expected, and to place this data as fully as possible before the
prospective bidder, without, however, assuming responsibility as to
the nature of the strata which are always variable within limits. If
the driller must make his bid totally in the dark as to what to ex-
pect in the drill hole, naturally he must allow liberally for unex-
pected difficulties and for unknown conditions. On the other hand
if the data available to him is approximately complete he can afford
to submit a close bid. The more completely the element of uncer-
tainty is eliminated the smaller the margin of unexpected expenses
necessary to allow for in making a bid. .

Not only do well records have an immediate practical utility
for the community in which the well is located, but they have in
addition a broader application. Owing to the prevailingly level
surface of Florida there is not as good an opportunity to examine
the substructure from surface exposures as in some other states,
and a correspondingly greater reliance must be made on records
from drill holes, A knowledge of the substructure of the country
has in turn both educational and economic value. It is well
known that oil and gas within the earth are more or less definitely
associated with the structure of the rock, being found on or near
the tops of the anticlines or folds or in dome structures. Reliable
advice as to where best to drill prospect holes for oil and gas must
necessarily be based on a knowledge of the structure of the under-
lying formations and to this knowledge the well records if prop-
erly kept will largely contribute. Moreover, a knowledge of the

a

mits

—P ee

ee A ee a ae

WATER SUPPLIES AND WELL RECORDS. 109

substructure is an important element in formulating the geologic
history of the land area and hence has the same broad and general
application as other geologic studies, having both an economic
and educational value.

As an instance of a well from which an approximately com-
plete record has been obtained may be mentioned the City well
at Jacksonville in Duval County drilled in 1910, the record in
this case being supplied through the courtesy of the drillers, the
Hughes Specialty Well Drilling Company. This well reached a
total depth of 980 feet, and samples of the drillings were kept at
occasional intervals, a total of 46 samples having been preserved

Fig. 26—Well drilling machinery used in Florida.

and submitted to the State Survey. The detailed log of the well
based on an examination of the samples supplemented by the
notes made by the driller has been published in the Fifth Annual
Report of the Survey, and need not be repeated here. The prin-
cipal water supply in this well is obtained from the Vicksburg
limestone, a formation well known to the drillers as it is the chief
water bearing formation of the peninsular section of the State.

The first flow of water amounting to only about 5 gallons per
minute was obtained in this well at a depth of 270 feet. At the
depth of 493 feet the flow was increased to 112 gallons per minute,

IIO FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

the water having as it flowed from the pipe a temperature of 71
degrees F. Upon entering the Vicksburg limestone which was
reached in this well at 510 feet the flow was increased to 200 gallons
per minute. The inner casing was rested upon this limestone, the
drill hole being continued into this formation 470 feet or to a total
depth of 980 feet. As the deeper strata of the Vicksburg limestone
were penetrated the amount of flow, the pressure and the tem-
perature increased. At 625 feet the flow amounted to 500 gallons
per minute, having a temperature of 74 degrees F. At 680 feet
the artesian pressure at the surface was 12 pounds per square inch,
indicating a head above the surface of 27.7 feet. At 780 feet the
flow from the well was about goo gallons per minute, and the pres-
sure 15 pounds per square inch indicating a head above the sur-
face of 34.6 feet. The flow in the completed well at a depth of
g80 feet was between 1500 and 2000 gallons per minute.
Through the records kept by the Superintendent of the City
Water Works, something is known also of the flow of several wells
at Jacksonville through a period of twenty years. These records
were also included in the Fifth Annual Report of the Survey.
Wells, the flow of which was measured, show a reduction in flow in
a period of ten years to about one-fourth of their original efficiency.

Another well of which a very satisfactory record has been ob-
tained is one drilled recently by F. S. Gilbert at Tiger Bay in
Polk County, the samples and records being supplied through the
courtesy of the owners of the well, the Palmetto Phosphate Com-
pany. This well has a depth of 838 feet, and samples were taken
with some exceptions at ten foot intervals, a total of 67 samples
having been preserved, These were forwarded to the State Geo-
logical Survey, and the detailed log made from the samples, supple-
mented by the notes of the driller, will be published in the subse-
quent reports of the Survey. After passing through the surface
materials at this locality the drill penetrated sandy phosphatic
marls to the depth of 360 feet. The material throughout this whole
thickness, while by no means uniform apparently represents a single
geologic formation which is locally variable. The phosphatic
pebbles which occur throughout the whole thickness are black, brown
or white in color and are rounded smooth and shiny, the larger
pebbles being often pitted. The pebbles are imbedded in marl, the
prevailing color of which is light buff or grayish. The marl is

WATER SUPPLIES AND WELL RECORDS. LIl

throughout more or less sandy, so much so that in some of the
samples it becomes almost a calcareous sandstone. Within the form-
ation are found two strata of calcareous and phosphatic clays, the
first of which is found at a depth of 195 feet, and has a thickness of
g ft. 6 inches while the second is found at a depth of 260 feet and
has a thickness of ro feet. Locally the materials of the formation —
have become compact and close grained, probably in the form of
rounded boulders which are broken up in drilling. Such boulders
frequently form within the earth owing to the action of under-
ground water and may be either calcareous or flinty. This record
is of special interest as showing the great thickness of phosphatic
materials underlying the land pebble phosphate beds, these marls
being with little doubt the parent formation from which the laid
pebble phosphate deposits have been formed.

Local hard ledges sufficient to rest the outer casing are found
within this formation, the first, or 18 inch casing having been
rested at the depth of 65 feet, while the second or 14 inch casing
was rested at the depth of 139 feet and 11 inches.

The formation next underlying this marl is a light colored lime-
stone made up of a mass of broken fragments and having a thick-
ness of 50 feet, extending from 360 to 410 feet. This limestone
is slightly if at all phosphatic, the few phosphate pebbles seen in
the samples having probably fallen in from the strata above.

Next beneath this limestone is the light colored limestone of
the Vicksburg formation which is first encountered in this well at
a depth of 410 feet and continues with some variation to the bot-
tom of the well 838 feet. This formation here as elsewhere while
fairly uniform shows more or less variation in character. The
prevailing phase is a light colored or nearly white limestone consist-
ing of a mass of shells and broken shells or of soft granular
limestone with few fossils. Occasional strata are found, especially
deep within the formation, which are hard and compact, these
being usually of a brownish color and finely powdered by the drill.
Locally also flint masses occur. These flints represent. silicified
limestone and may or may not be encountered in any particular well.
Locally the limestone is found to be partially crystallized, this phase
being due to the solution and redeposition of calcium carbonate by
underground water. This well terminated in a seven-foot cavity
from which an ample water supply was obtained. These cavities,

II2 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

which are not infrequent in this limestone, act as feeders to a well
and afford as a rule an inexhaustible supply of water.

The inner, 12-inch, casing in this well was rested at 414 feet
or just within the Vicksburg limestone. A limited amount of
water was found in the well at the depth of 150 feet having a
head of 33 feet, 3 inches below the surface. This head was reduced
upon striking a second small supply of water at 155 feet, to 38
feet below the surface. This shallow water was shut off by the
casing, and no large supply such as would serve the purpose for
which the well was being drilled was obtained until the large
cavity was reached at the bottom of the well. The water in the
well after striking the cavity stood 37 feet from the surface and
was not appreciably lowered upon pumping 500 gallons per minute,
and machinery will be installed to pump the supply desired amount-
ing to about 2500 gallons per minute. While the samples obtained
from this well were sufficient to show the lithologic character of the
formations, the fossils were not sufficiently abundant to determine
satisfactorily the age of those formations lying above the Vicks-
burg limestone, and in order to obtain better representation of the
fossils, the company is now undertaking to preserve larger samples
from a second well that is to be drilled at this locality. In obtaining
these larger samples screens will be used through which the drillings
from the well will be passed and from which the samples will be
collected.

Two wells drilled by the Florida East Coast Railway on Key
Vaca, one reaching a depth of 435 feet, the other 700 feet, care-
fully recorded by Mr. Samuel Sanford, who was in charge of the
drilling operations, have contributed largely to our knowledge of
the sub-structure of the Florida Keys. The data obtained from
these two wells has been supplemented by wells drilled at Key
West, the first of which reached a depth of 2000 feet, the second, a
depth of toro feet. At Palm Beach and at St. Augustine are deep
wells, records from which have been of much value in the study
of the geology and water supply of the State, the records of which
are included in the published reports of the Survey which are
available to those interested.

The well records which have been given will serve to indicate
on the one hand the utility and value of exact data from deep
wells, and on the other hand will serve to emphasize the fact that

WATER SUPPLIES AND WELL RECORDS. Lis

equally or more complete records are to be desired from the many
other localities in the State from which at present only partial
records are available. Moreover, a single record from a locality
does not supply all the information desired, since the degree of
variability within the formation is of much practical value in
well-drilling, and on this point information approaches complete-
ness only as successive well holes are drilled through the same form-
ation.

The investigation of the water supply as a mineral resource as
well as the general study of the geology of the state is made by law
a part of the duties of the State Geological Survey, and in accord-
ance. with this requirement the services of the State Survey are at
the disposal of individuals and communities in the study of water
supply problems except, however, those concerning sanitary condi-
tions, which are more properly the work of the State Board of
Health. In accordance with this requirement the State Geologist
will assist in preserving well records, will examine and report upon
samples from drillings, and after correlating the data from numer-
ous wells will make the information available through the published
reports of the Survey to all those who may be interested. It would
seem that municipalities in particular should be interested in thus
preserving data of this character, and it is recommended that each
municipality, as well as individual owners, include in their specifica-
tion for wells a provision for the preservation of careful records and
samples of the drillings to be forwarded to the State Geological
Survey. By so doing the preservation of the record will be pro-
vided for. In many instances, particularly as data in each locality
accumulates, the State Geologist will be able to supply information,
based upon an examination of samples from wells previously drilled,
that will be of service in drawing up specifications for wells, as well
as to advise as to the depth that it is advisable to drill and the char-
acter of water that may be expected, this data being given as in
the case of all other services rendered by the Survey as a part of
its usual duties which involves neither obligation nor expense to
those to whom the service is rendered.

II4 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

SUMMARY STATEMENT OF MINERAL PRODUCTION IN

FLORIDA DURING 1013.

COLLECTED IN CO-OPERATION WITH THE UNITED STATES

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Common or building brick, 42,450 M., valued atts S

Lime, including quick and hydrated lime, 18,917
STO TEMEOMS: BV AU TEU tcc eee ee eee = meen ee eR
Limestone, including ground limestone for agricul-
tural use and crushed rock for railroad ballast,
concretevand oad materiale] So Te
Mineral waters, 343,123 gallons, valued at ______-_
Phosphate rock, 2,545,276 long tons, valued at___-
Sand and gravel, including building and moulding
sand and gravel, 87,061 short tons, valued at __
Sand-lime brick, including common and front brick,
73oAT e thousand, valuiediat. +2525 = 2 Lee a
Mineral products not separately listed, including ball
clay, drain tile, diatomaceous earth, fullers earth
and other miscellaneous materials, valued at __

Total mineral products in Florida during 1913,

240,126.00
100,335.00
156,589.00
37:474-00
9,563,084.00

21,194.00

79,079.00

448,147.00

se oL ce Pltsh gt ehe san ARs alia ae Ge Seat aL Arye UAL eee eS 2 A $10,646,628.00

SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS
BY E. H. SELLARDS

SECOND EDITION.

CONTENTS.

een COTICELO TI ene ee tei ears ee RE rahe eT SE ata he es ebete.
Ly bisite vor Wabiigd seni l GN a Pie ane sh eat gate a” UR ome ae eee at oy ee
BREACLOLISEICS tee en re oe Or acetate ean ere ara PN ee ne ss bea se's s
Olieimmancd: istory Ore Development... ce ae sc hele fee ee sical cisis. cece cn e8 6
Relation of the Basins to the Level of Permanent Underground Water....
Wescriptions, of) Lypical Lakes Vi... 0.0e else: CAS BSE nr Sinks Hes menor

(eakemlamoniawmucontGountyan. pc sts ete joe ee Pee aes
eaten aGkSOme elecOmy COLE Vs stare Acces ce siete ete cee eradslet-Mors wi oie sle«
fakes atayette; ioconr Cousiiys |. on sicgos tee canes estes tan picteme s © omnels
hake® Miccosukee. “jetierson. County, «iin.2 Sas cee sweetie de anes ee ne.
Alligator eake, Columbia Goutity tse osace cee eee cle tots sole Se See nese
Alachttanlake: Mach tay COuntyen. cons seks Seen coe eile ace o's ai oie 5 « Slete’e ae
Ocheescereake ackson# Contys cn sae c eet ise ces Conese siealecle aca

Methods of Drainage—

rer SUL TAC ep E Chat A Nie ctnt tte ie cyan ate ate Nara Bua eaiciehatehd aja ela apa iale
LES) WUE) IE epee elie Prtcs Bic WN ORch cake CREO: Gar ROKR ye

Relation of the Ground Water Level to the Formation of Sinks ....
Warteriton ri qe (Creomneal \avakiere ILE WEI Scooc5 ssc oonedobopooebenooduc ec
(S/S AB hs Seip ay ne ee a A GUE ON pa a ea Se

ILLUSTRATIONS.

; PAGE

Fig. 27—Sketch Map Showing Location of Lakes Iamonia, Jackson, Lafay-
effestandueMiccosdkee pont ecce eae cote eae ee COL ene 126
Fig. peers A Ve) 410) « Masa yi g eae ea ARM OO PaO ERE IE UN Oe Me PTE St 128
Higs20-— bake pweatayertes ss kisc. oo nek soos Le Sea eaten ie Mate: Chepicoegaens 130
Ej29:30:—lakemMiccosikeen eke ee oe eee oe 132
Fig. 31—Miccosukee Basin, Low Water Stage of 1909 ................05. 137
Biri 32 ak Cr ACS Od ahs a ars rstay cae costa ic castle ve taal stele nda aie heel ls Es hee 139
Big. 33> Alligatorclake® cic oes tie Ol cee eee aacion tae See ones oe eee 139
ioe sA——hersink-ot Lakewleatayette, .e sea ene ieee ince erence 141
Fig. 35.—Payne’s Prairie, Looking Out From the Sink ...................- 141
Fig. 36.—View of Payne’s Prairie From Near the Sink ...............-..- IAI
Fig, 37—View of Spouting Well-Near Orlando ......2.2...2. 2na.-s eee 143
Fig. 38.—Sketch Map of Hogtown Prairie and Surroundings ............. ~ 146
Fig. 39—Sketch Showing Ground Water Level ....-.-.-.-..-+++--+5- 156

118

SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS.

BY E. H. SELLARDS

INTRODUCTION.

Florida is justly celebrated for the number and beauty of its
lakes. These lakes vary in size from the small ponds which scarce-
ly exceed a few rods in circumference to the great Okeechobee, the
surface area of which exceeds 700 square miles. Okeechobee is
in fact noteworthy as being, with the exception of Lake Michigan,
the largest fresh water lake lying wholly within the United States.
In depth the Florida lakes are likewise variable, and in fact the
depth is frequently in inverse ratio to the size. Many of the large
lakes are comparatively shallow, while some of the small lakes are
deep. This is particularly true of the small sink-hole lakes, some
of which, while not exceeding a few rods in circumference have a
depth of one to two hundred or more feet. In origin and his-
tory of development the Florida lakes are as variable as in other
characteristics.

The lakes described in this paper include only a few of the many
Florida lakes and represent a type peculiar in character and in
manner of development. They are fresh water lakes, often of con-
siderable size, although usually relatively shallow as compared to
their areal extent. Moreover they are variable in character. Un-
der normal conditions they are clear water lakes abounding in fish
and the favorite haunt of the wild duck. They have as a rule no
svrface outlet, yet from many of them the water has at times
disappeared in a manner seemingly inexplicable. In most instances
the lakes thus disappearing have refilled slowly. Some of them,
however, have remained dry a number of years. A correct under-
standing of these lakes together with the origin and development
cf the basins which they occupy is necessarily based on a study of
the geologic formations which underlie them.

The fall of 19c9 offered an exceptionally favorable time for in-
vestigating lakes of this character. The prolonged dry weather
of the past few years had reduced these lakes to a low stage offer-
ing an opportunity of examining the soil and vegetation as well as
the geologic structure of their basins. At the Tallahassee sta-
tion in Leon County, near which several of these lakes are located,
the rainfall at the close of 1909 had been below normal as shown
by the weather bureau records for two years in succession. At the
Gainesville station in Alachua County, the rainfall had been be-

*Second Edition. The: first edition of this paper, the supply. of which is
now exhausted, was published in the Third Annual Report. pp. 43-76, 1910.

119

I20 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

low normal during the preceding four years and at the Lake
City station the rainfall had been below normal for at least three
years in succession and apparently, from some imperfect records,
had not reached normal during the preceding seven years.

Under these circumstances it was deemed advisable to make use
of the favorable opportunity during the fall of 1909 for investigat-
ing the geology of these lake basins.

Attempts have been made to drain some of these lakes as the
land is more or less valuable for agricultural purposes. In some
instances drainage operations have been delayed owing to
legal difficulties arising from the variable character of the
lakes. The lake basins claimed by the State under the title of
swamp and overflowed lands were likewise claimed by abutting
property owners under the privilege of riparian rights. A decision
of the State Supreme Court, rendered in 1909, vests the title of the
lands in question with the State, not, however, as swamp and over-
flowed land, but, as navigable water.

LOCATION OF LAKES.

The lakes described in this paper occur in the upland section
of the interior of Florida. In general they may be said to occur in
a belt extending with interruptions from the Ocklocknee River
east and south paralleling the Gulf of Mexico to Hernando and
Pasco Counties. The largest and best known examples are found
in Leon, Jefferson, Columbia and Alachua Counties. Smaller but
no less typical lakes of this type occur in Madison, Suwannee,
Marion, Levy, Orange, Hernando and probably some other counties
adjacent to those mentioned. West of the Apalachicola River
small lakes of similar character occur in Jackson County and pos-
sibly also in Holmes County. The lakes selected for description
as illustrating this type include Lakes Iamonia, Jackson, and La-
fayette, in Leon County; Lake Miccosukee in Jefferson County;
Alligator Lake in Columbia County; Alachua Lake in Alachua
County; and Ocheesee Lake in Jackson County. The belt of
country through which these lakes occur, although now broken up
through natural processes of erosion into several more or less well
defined sub-divisions, was probably at one time continuous.

CHARACTERISTICS,

_ The leading characteristics of these lakes have been mentioned.
They do not occur along the coast nor in the level low lying parts

SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. [21

of the state. On the contrary they are on the uplands, and occur
in sections having a hilly or rolling topography. Sinks or open-
ings occur through which the water escapes into the underlying
formations. These sinks are located ordinarily at the foot of a
steep bluff bordering the lake. Around the main sink one finds
ordinarily other sinks of more recent formation indicating the man-
ner and direction of enlargement of the basin. The sinks through
which the water escapes are variable in depth but reach in all cases
t) underlying limestones. A channel as a rule leads back from this
sink across the lake bottom representing the main channel of flow of
water to the sink. Aside from this channel the bottom of the lake 1s
relatively flat and level, although slight local depressions occur
involving in some instances differences of level, of ten to fifteen
feet. The soil in the lake basins varies considerably. In some
cf the lakes—those which seldom go dry—there is an accumulation
of muck or peat formed largely from pond lilies and other aquatic
vegetation. Local depressions in the lake often have an accumu-
lation of this material amounting to several feet. Some of the other
lakes which frequently go dry have little or no muck except in de-
pressions which hold water even in dry seasons. Beneath the
muck is usually found light colored sand washed and blown from
the neighboring highlands. This sand may be several feet deep in
piaces, elsewhere it is largely absent. Ordinarily a sandy clay oc-
curs beneath the sand.

When these lakes dry up the water is commonly reported as
running out very suddenly. This, however, is usually not the case.
As long as the lake has sufficient water to cover the entire basin
the lowering of the water surface proceeds very slowly. Subse-
quently when the total surface area of the lake becomes much re-
stricted the lowering of the water surface proceeds much more
rapidly. This leads to the statement that the water of the lake dis-
appeared suddenly while as a matter of fact in many cases the
water escapes through the sink no faster and indeed hardly so
fast during the dry season as it had been escaping when the lake
was full during the season of normal rainfall. It is true, however,
that new sinks occasionaly form in the bottom of the lake. In
the case of the formation of new sinks the rate of escape of the
water is increased.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT.

The origin of these lake basins is a part of the history of de-
velopment of the general topography of the region. In this de-
velopment both mechanical erosion and erosion by solution have

i122 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.
had a part. The land surface when first elevated above sea was
evidently much more nearly level than at present. Upon being
lifted above sea level irregularities in topography rapidiy develop.

A first step in the process of erosion is the development of
siream channels and valleys, largely through mechanical erosion. In
addition to mechanical erosion, erosion by solution due to under-
ground water is likewise in process especially in sections underlaid
Ly limestones.

As illustrating the efficiency of underground water as an erod-
ing agent, the writer in a previous report computed the rate of
erosion by solution in the sections of the state underlaid by lime-
stones.* The estimate of the rate of solution given below is taken
from that report.

Solution is the most apparent, and geologically the most im-
portant result of underground water circulation. Rain water, while
passing through the air, takes into solution a small amount of
CO2 gas. To this is added organic and mineral acids taken up
while passing through the soil. Increased pressure, as the water
descends into the earth, enables the water to hold in-solution greater
quantities of gases, acids and salts, all of which greatly increase the
dissolving power of the water.

That underground water is efficient as a solvent is evident from
the analyses of well and*spring waters. Rain water entering the
earth with almost no solids in solution, returns to the surface
through springs and wells with a load of mineral solids in solution
cetermined by the length of time it has been in the ground, the
distance traveled, and the character of the rocks and minerals with
which it comes in contact.

The mineral matter thus taken into solution is carried along
with water, and, while some of it is re-deposited, a large amount is
removed annually.

An estimate of the total mineral solids thus removed is difficult.
A conception of the largeness of the amount removed is obtained
from a consideration of some of the individual springs.

The water of Silver Springs contains, as shown by analysis, 274
parts solids per million parts water. Otherwise expressed, each

nullion pounds of water is carrying with it 274 pounds of solids in
solution. Silver Spring is estimated to flow a little more than
three million pounds of water per minute (368,913 gallons). The
interior of Florida is thus being carried into the ocean through Sil-
ver Springs at the rate of more than 890 pounds per minute, or
about six hundred tons per day.

*Fla. Geol. Survey Bulletin No. 1, pp. 46, 47, 48, 1908.

SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 123

The total solids removed in solution through six other springs
of central Florida, expressed in tabular form, gives the following
results :

Name of Spring. Total solids Est. flow Solids re-

County. (parts per (gals. per moved lbs.

million*) min. ) per day.

lider eter eee os Marion : 112.1 349,166 469,698
| Li otey geo Ph ts rae een Levy 196.8 25,000 59,040
Ichetucknee ........... Columbia 211.6 180,000 457,050
PVE | «ia liee tr cots Suwannee 233-5 75,000 210,150
Weekiwachee ..........dernando 227.8 100,000 273,360
White Sulphur ........ Hamilton 166.6 32,400 64,774
SUWalMeG a qcte ic sie elses oie Suwannee g32 9" 19,747 78,816

As the basis of an estimate of the total solids removed annually
from the interior, let it be assumed, (1) that the average total solids
in spring water amount to as much as 219 parts per million, this
average being obtained from eight of the typical large springs of
central Florida; (2) that the annual escape of the underground
water approximates the annual in-take, amounting, as previously
estimated to 460,536,689 gallons per square mile. Upon these
estimates the mineral solids removed amount to a little more than
four hundred tons annually per square mile.

Of the minerals thus removed, calcium carbonate or limestone
greatly predominates, exceeding the combined weight of all: other
minerals. From the analyses it appears that magnesium carbonate,
magnesium and calcium sulphates are present in variable, although
usually limited, quantities. Chlorides are normally present in small
amount, although occasionally, as in the case of Perrian Spring,
they are exceptionally high. Silica is present in amounts varying
from 5 to 25.5 parts per million. Traces of phosphoric acid and of
iron and alumina are usually present.

The several undetermined factors which enter into the above ©
estimates of mineral solids removed make it difficult to formulate
& concrete statement of the rate of lowering of the general surface
level. Nevertheless, such statements are desired and have a com-
parative value. Assuming for the rock removed, most of which is

*Organic matter is deducted from the total solids as given for Suwannee
Sulphur and White Sulphur Springs. The organic matter occurring in the
other springs is of small amounts and was not separately determined. Analyses
of the water of these springs were given in Bulletin No. 1, pp. 72-75, 1908.

I24. FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY——SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

limestone, an average specific gravity of 2.5, a layer one foot thick
over one square mile should weigh about two and one-sixth million
tons. The calculated rate of removal of this rock is about four
hundred tons per square mile per year. From these estimates it
would appear that the surface level of the central peninsular sec-
tion of Florida is being lowered by solution at the rate of a foot in
five or six thousand years,

With due allowance for a wide margin of error in the above
estimates it is still evident that a very great amount of mineral
solids is being removed annually in solution. The first effect of
sclution in limestone is to develop cavities through the rock along
the line of ready flow of underground water. These cavities grad-
ually enlarge until the overlying material, no longer able to support
its own weight, caves in, forming a sink.

The formation of a sink is a first step in the development of the
many basins large and small occupied by these temporary lakes.
A sink usually retains connection with the underlying limestone
for some time after its formation and water entering the sink
- escapes into the limestone. Under these circumstances more or
less of the material lying immediately around the sink is carried
by surface wash through the sink. Moreover the large amount of
water entering through the sink results in rapid solution in the
limestone of that immediate vicinity. The result is frequently the
formation of other sinks in close proximity to the first. As old
sinks become clogged or partly filled, new sinks form by this pro-
cess continually enlarging the basin,

Not infrequently a sink forms in or near the bed of a stream.
When this occurs the lower course of the stream, or a part of it,
may be reversed. Where many sinks form in succession or through
a long period of time the valley of the stream is thereby enlarged
and is frequently carried to a level lower than the original outlet.
Lakes Iamonia and Lafayette in Leon County and Alachua Lake in
Alachua County are illustrations of basins of this type.

RELATION OF THE LAKE BASINS TO THE LEVEL OF PERMANENT
UNDERGROUND WATER.

It is important to note the relation of these lake basins to the
permanent underground water level of the formation into which
they drain. It is a well established fact that solution by under-
ground water goes on more rapidly above the level of permanent

SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 125

underground water than below this level. The term “belt of
weathering” is commonly applied to that part of the earth’s crust
lying above the underground water level; while the term “belt of
cementation” is applied to that part lying immediately below this
level. According to Van Hise “the most characteristic reaction of
the belt of weathering is solution. In contrast with this the most
characteristic reaction in the belt of cementation is deposited in the
openings of the rocks.”* The rapid solution in the belt of weather-
ing is due to a number of causes. First of all the water in this
part of the earth’s crust moves freely, while in the belt of cemen-
tation the water often moves very slowly. Moreover water is cap-
able under given conditions of carrying a definite amount of min-
eral solids in solution and as the water from the surface enters
the earth with little or no load, until it becomes saturated it takes
niaterials into solution readily.

In accordance with this principle it is found that the largest
of these basins are, as a rule, reduced practically to the level of un-
derground water. Many of the smaller basins, it is true, have not
reached the permanent water level, and stand at varying heights
above that level. The relation of the basins to the underground
water has a practical bearing and will be referred to again in con-
nection with methods of drainage of the lakes.

DESCRIPTIONS OF TYPICAL LAKES,

LAKE IAMONIA.

Lake lamonia lies near the north line of Leon County. The
lake basin is irregular in outline, but has an average width of
from one to one and one-half miles. The total length of the lake
is from twelve to thirteen miles. At its west end the lake basin
connects with the swamp of the Ocklocknee River. During flood
seasons the river overflows into the lake. Similarly a high stage in
the lake results in an overflow into the river. Small tributary
streams enter the lake from both the north and the south side as
well as from the east end. The tributaries are small flat-bottomed
streams which are dry, except during the rainy season. The lake
fluctuates much according to the rainfall. The lake basin when full
covers an area of about 6,500 acres. Except at the west end, where
it joins the Ocklocknee River, the lake is largely surrounded by the

*Treatise on Metamorphism Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, XLVII, p. 165, 10904.

126 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

red clay hills characteristic of this part of the State. These hills
rise to an elevation of from 50 to 75 feet above the level of the
lake.

Fig. 27.—Sketch map showing the location of lakes lamonia, Jackson,

Lafayette and Miccosukee in Leon and Jefferson Counties.

The sink through which the water escapes from this lake is
found on the north border. When visited May 7, 1910, the sink was
practically dry, having only a small amount of water in the bottom.
Limestone rock, probably of Upper Oligocene age, is exposed near
the bottom of the sink, the water escaping through or under these
rocks. Above the limestone partly decayed sandy clays occur.
These contain few fossils, although oyster shells were found in
alhundance at one locality. The total depth of the sink below the
general level of the lake is not less than 50 feet. The sink occurs,
as is usual in this type of lake, facing an abrupt bluff 30 feet or
more in height. A considerable number of sinks occur around the
border of the lake especially in the vicinity of the one large sink
which receives the drainage of the lake. The formation of these
sinks is doubtless due, as previously stated, to the fact that the water
er:tering the drainage sink spreads laterally in the underlying lime-
stone and dissolves the rock rapidly. The result is the formation by
subsidence of numerous sinks adjacent to the drainage sink. The
presence of these sinks also indicates the manner of enlargement of
tlie lake basin, and indicates in each case the direction of most
rapid enlargement at the present time. At other times the enlarge-
ment by solution and subsidence may have been most active in some
other locality or direction or part of the lake basin.

SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 127

This lake only occasionally goes entirely dry and as a result a
cevering of muck or peat occurs over the greater part of the bottom
of the lake. This deposit of muck reaches a considerable thickness
in such natural depressions as occur over the lake bottom. Be-
neath the muck is usually found a deposit of light colored sand and
beneath this is the red sandy clay.

The fact that the Ocklocknee River at flood stage flows into
this lake makes any attempt at drainage doubtful of success. An
effort which proved unsuccessful was made at one time to prevent
the river water from entering the lake by means of a dam. It
seemed to be the views of the party constructing the dam that if
the water of the Ocklocknee River could be kept out the sink
would carry off the water from the lake. This, however, is not
probable, since in the several other lakes to be described the sinks
have not proved sufficient to carry off the water except in times of
greatly reduced rainfall. Lake lamonia basin represents apparently
a stream valley lowered by solution and enlarged laterally by sub-
sidence through the formation of sinks. Originally a small stream
tributary to the Ocklocknee River flowed through this section. In
this part of the country soluble limestones occur at no great distance
from the surface, and in the course of the natural processes of ero-
sion the stream approached sufficiently near this limestone to permit
of the formation of sinks and the escape of the water of the
stream through the sinks. The enlargement of the valley to its pre-
sent size has proceeded through the formation and partial filling of
successive sinks. As each sink forms, it carries down to or below
the lake level, a certain small area of land. Moreover the water
passing through the bottom of the sink carries with it more or less
detrital material so that the surrounding area is somewhat lower-
ed by wash through the sink. In the course of time other sinks
form, while the older sinks become clogged and usually partly fil
up. The direction of active enlargement of each lake can be de-
termined from the location of the recent sinks. As previously re-
marked this rapid enlargement is usually around the sink which is
at present actively receiving the drainage.

128 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

LAKE JACKSON.

Lake Jackson lies
near the western border
of Leon County within
one and a half or two
miles of the Ocklocknee
River. This lake is ir-
regular in shape, and has
a total area of about 4,-
500 acres. The bound-
aries of the basin are
sharply marked by the
surrounding highlands
which rise 75 to 100 feet
above the level. of the
lake. Several sinks oc-
cur in the southern half
of the lake. The largest
of these, known locally as
the “lime sink,” is located
well out in the basin and
in the angle between the
north and east arms.
(See map). An opening
in the bottom of this sink
in May, 1907, permitted
the water to run out, leaving the sink dry, and also draining
the lake or such part of it as was connected with the sinks. An
indefinitely defined broad depression or slough extends to the
scutheast from the lime sink. Several water holes representing
cld sinks occur along the line of this depression. A new sink oc-
curred along the bottom of the depression about one mile south-
east of the lime sink in June, 1907. A compact limestone showed.
in the bottom of this sink at-a depth of about 25 feet from the sur-
face. At the time this sink formed the lake was low, a part of
the water having been carried off through the opening which had
formed in the lime sink a month earlier. All the water that could
reach the new sink was carried off in the course of two or three
days, leaving the lake dry except for occasional water holes. When
examined in September, 1909, a small open sink was found in the
slough which carried away all of the water that reached it from
the surrounding parts of the lake.

Jackson
Sink

Fig. 28.—Lake Jackson.

SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 129

The surface soil in the basin is quite generally a gray sand
darkened by admixture of organic matter. In the lower parts of the
lake, quite generally covered by water, more or less muck or peat
occurs formed from the accumulation of aquatic vegetation. Sand
lighter in color and lacking the organic matter occurs at a depth of
I I-2 or 2 feet to 3 or 4 feet. Beneath this sand is the usual red
sandy clay.

This lake as already mentioned became dry, or nearly so, in
the early spring of 1907. It was partly filled by the summer rains
of the same year, but became dry or nearly so again during the
summer of 1909. The accompanying photograph of this lake was
taken July 5, 1909 and shows an unusually low water stage of the
lake for that season of the year. (Fig. 32).

LAKE LAFAYETTE.

Lafayette Basin or Lake Lafayette lies in the eastern part of
Leon County between Tallahassee and Chaires. The basin begins
three and one-half miles east of Tallahassee, and extends to within
ene mile of Chaires, having a total length of about five and one-half
miles, and a width of one-half to one mile. An arm of the lake
extends north from near the east end of the lake. The bottom of
the basin is nearly level with the exception of occasional slight de-
pressions. The tributaries to the lake are flat-bottomed streams
with relatively broad valleys and no well defined channel. ‘The soil
in these stream valleys is a sandy loam, and the streams are or-
dinarily dry, carrying water only during the rainy season.

A drainage sink in this basin occurs near the west end of the
lake along the northern border (See Fig. 29). The sink when
measured in September, 1909, was found to have a total depth of
75 feet. The sink is found, as is usual in this type of lake basin,
near a prominent bluff. A second sink is formed beyond the lake
berder, thus indicating the enlargement of the lake basin in that
direction by subsidence, due to underground solution. This new
sink is one hundred yards or more in circumference, and when
formed carried down to the lake level, land which stood fifty feet or
niore above the lake and was being used previous to the subsiclenee
as a cemetery.

That part of the lake basin which surrounds the sink lies at a
slightly lower level than the more remote parts of the basin and is
the first to be submerged at the approach of the rainy season.
This area is entirely devoid of trees, and during the dry season
becomes a prairie. The greater part of the basin lying to the south
of the railroad is thickly set with small cypress trees.

I30 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

The soil in the basin is prevailingly a gray sand usually darken-
ed by the presence of organic matter. At a depth of from one to two
feet the amount of organic matter is reduced, the sand being lighter
in color. Sandy clays are reached as a rule at a depth of from
two and a half to three feet.

During a season of normal rainfall this basin is occupied by
a lake having a total area of approximately two thousand acres.
Following a period of prolonged drought the basin becomes entire-
ly dry, water remaining only at the sink. In times of excessive
rainfall the lake overflows at the east end, the water discharged
reaching streams tributary to the St. Marks River.

Fig. 29.—Lake Lafayette.

This basin has much the character of an elongated valley. The
general course of the streams of this part of the county, the shape
of the basin and particularly the topography of the surrounding
country indicate that the drainage of this section was originally
through these streams into the St. Marks River. The formation of
sinks diverted the drainage to a subterranean course, the west end
of the basin having been reduced to a level somewhat lower than the
east end. The further enlargement of the basin is being carried
on through the formation of sinks along the border. The largest
of the newly formed sinks is found near the present drainage sink.

LAKE MICCOSUKEE.

Miccosukee Basin or Lake Miccosukee lies between Leon and
Jefferson Counties, the west border of the lake forming the county
line. A small arm of the lake, however, near the north end reaches
into Leon County. |

———= i

SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. | 131

Miccosukee Basin has a total area of about 5,000 acres. In its
northern part the basin is bordered by sharply defined bluffs, which
rise from 50 to 75 or 100 feet above the lake bottom. Farther
south these bluffs fall back and give place to a gradual rise of
elevation from the lake border. At the south end bluffs are lack-
ing. A drain known as Miccosukee drain enters from the east
side. This drain consists of a low, swampy area from one-fourth
to three-fourths mile in width. This swamp land supports a thick
growth of hardwood trees.

When full, Miccosukee Basin is covered with water to a depth
of from 2 to 5 feet. Toward the south end around the border of the
‘lake grass and button bushes project above the water even when
the lake is full.

The sink of Lake Miccosukee is located near the northwest
corner of the basin, and is bordered by a bluff having an eleva-
tion of from 75 to 100 feet. Landslides along the border of
the sink show recent enlargements of the basin. Numerous
sinks occur along the border of the lake at this locality, showing
enlargement of the lake basin through subsidence. The greatest
depth of water found in the sink when examined September 7,
1909, was 38 feet. A channel leads back from this sink across the
prairie in a southeasterly direction. This channel has cut to a
cepth of from twenty to twenty-five feet. Followed back from
the sink the channel is of gradually reduced depth finally at
a distance of about two miles merging into the general level of
the lake bottom. When examined September 8, 1909, this stream
was carrying water into the sink at a rate estimated to be 200 gal-
Ions per minute. Notwithstanding the inflow from the stream
the water in the sink was being gradually lowered. Heavy rains oc-
curred in this vicinity on September 21, 1909, and this stream when
seen two days later was carrying approximately 7,000 gallons of
water per minute. At this time the sink was being rapidly filled, hav-
irg filled several feet during the two preceding days. From these
observations it appears that the opening at the bottom of this sink
permits the escape of water at a rate in excess of 200 gallons per
minute, but much less than 7,000 gallons per minute. From the
behavior of the sink it is probable that not more than 1,000 gal-
lons of water are escaping per minute, and the rate of escape may be
much less.

The principal escape of water from Lake Miccosukee when the
lake is full is through a drain which leads out from the south end of
the lake and enters a sink about two and one-fourth miles from
the south end of the lake. This sink is formed in a light colored
limestone of Upper Oligocene age, probably representing the Chat-

132 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY-——SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

whe i

Fig. 30—Lake Miccosukee.

SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 133

tahoochee formation, The drain from the lake as it approaches the
sink passes through a narrow gorge cut in this limestone.

About one-half mile farther south (Sec. 14) another sink is
found. This third sink receives the flow from Mill Creek, a small
stream draining considerable territory lying south of the Seaboard
Air Line Railway and east of Lloyds.

During a season of excessive rains these sinks are unable to
carry away the water. Under these conditions the overflow from
Lake Miccosukee as well as from Mill Creek ultimately finds its
escape by flowing to the southwest past Lloyds to the St. Marks
River.

The surface in Miccosukee Basin is covered with muck to a
varying depth. Borings put down near the north end of the basin,
out from the margin of the drain, indicated the presence of muck
for a depth of from six inches to one foot. Beneath the muck in
this part of the basin was found a gray sand. This sand is un-
derlaid, at a variable depth, by the usual red sandy clay. At the
south end of the lake the sand is largely absent, the muck which is
from one to three or more feet deep resting, so far as observed, di-
rectly upon the red clay.

Lake Miccosukee probably represents a basin developed by solu-
tion near the headwaters of streams originally tributary to the St.
Marks River. Previous to the formation of Miccosukee Basin the
Grainage of this part of the country doubtless passed through
small streams, to the south past the present village of Lloyds, thence
to the Gulf through the St. Marks River. The lake basin since its
formation has enlarged to the northwest, the lowest part of the
basin now being found near the sink in the northwest corner.

Mill Creek which now enters from the south and disappears
through a sink a few miles north of Lloyds illustrates the reversal
of flow of a stream due to the formation of a sink. This stream,
previous to the formation of the sink, flowed southwest to the St.
Marks River. At the present time it flows north and enters the -
sink. At times of excessive rainfall the sink is unable to carry
oft the water and the stream under these conditions flows in its
earlier course to the St. Marks River.

ALLIGATOR LAKE,

Alligator Lake lies in the central part of Columbia County,
from one and a half to two miles southeast of Lake City. The lake
basin has a total area of about 1,000 acres. Numerous smaller
lakes occur to the west and north of this large lake. The sur-

9

34 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

rounding country is in general level or rolling and lies at an eleva-
tion aproximating 200 feet above sea. The basin along its
western side is bordered by a bluff which rises to an elevation of
from 50 to 75 feet above the level of the lake. Along the eastern
and southeastern side the basin passes gradually into low lying
swampy hammock land, or cypress swamp. The sink of Alligator
Lake occurs along the southwestern border. The escape of water
at the present time is through this sink. In the country bor-
dering the lake around this sink numerous other sinks occur. The
leke is said to overflow at high water stage to the south through a
small stream known as Clay Hole Branch.

A soil boring put down fifty yards from the edge of the basin
along its southwest border gave the following section:

Blackimuck swith, admixture’ Of clayacess.. eee ce ieee ee Lememnt ts
Mellow:: sand-Mloamye save oe create ae eet oe circle ae eee) ore en ne ae Vo ft.
ine Mtoht ieray gsands er. isk sein eeae cals een ae atcteiee eee eee 1% ft

A pit made by Mr. Greer in his garden near the border of the
lake gave the following section:

Brownish colored imperfectly decayed vegetable matter (peat)....1 ft.
Black mtick with admixture) of sand and’ ciay)..:22-s00--+s5ss)--eee 2 iit
Red very -Gatidy: clay .eciiek aie ecioian eee oo oe eoeek iene obi eee Ti it:

It is reported that at the time of the early settlements in Co-
lumbia County, 1835 or thereabouts, Alligator Basin was a prairie
or savanna and was used at that time by the Indians as pasture
land. The lake was dry in the fall of 1891, and again in the fall
of 1899 or 1900. It was dry again during the winter and
spring of 1909, but was partly filled by rains during the following
summer.

Approximately complete records of rainfall are available at
the Lake City station for the year 1897 and succeeding years.
The rainfall for the year 1899, at which time the lake became dry,
was much below normal, amounting for the year to only 30.49
inches. The next period of unusually low rainfall was the year
1908. During this year the rainfall amounted to only 29.83. The
rainfall during the year 1909 was likewise slightly below normal,
amounting at Lake City to 49.68 inches.

ALACHUA LAKE.

Alachua Lake or Payne’s Prairie is the central and largest of
the several lake basins of southeastern Alachua County. This basin
is about eight miles long and varies in width from one and a half

SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 135

to four miles, and contains about twelve thousand acres. Low
divides scarcely exceeding ten feet in elevation separate this basin
from Kanapaha and other prairies on the west and from Levy, Led-
with, and numerous smaller lakes on the south, and from Newnans
Lake on the northeast. The total area embraced within these vari-
ous basins is not less than fifty square miles. For a map of this
section the reader may consult the Arredondo topographic sheet
of the U. S. Geological Survey.

When dry or nearly so, this basin supports a dense growth of
grasses and weeds. On the more elevated and dryer parts dog-
fennel prevails, growing to a height of eight or ten feet, while on
the lower and wetter parts of the basin maiden cane abounds.

The principal stream entering this basin is a creek flowing from
Newnan’s Lake. This creek enters at the east side of the basin and
flows west and northwest to the sinks, of which there are two
located on the northeast border, the water from the lake enters the
Vicksburg Limestone. The sinks are partly surrounded by bluffs
rising to an elevation of thirty or forty feet above the general
level of the basin. Numerous sinks also occur along the border of
the lake showing enlargement of the lake basin in this direction.
The stream entering the more westerly of the two sinks was car-
rying water when examined in October, 1907, at an estimated
rate of 20,000 gallons per minute. At this time the water level in
the sink was only 2.01 feet above the general level of water in the
Vicksburg Limestone as shown by the Gainesville city well,* from
which it is evident that the opening at the bottom of the sink per-
mits the escape of water approximately at the rate of 20,000 gallons
per minute. It is probable, however, that the capacity of the sink
is little, if any, greater than this, as indicated by the fact that the
water in the sink stood two feet above the water level in the lime-
stene. ;

In November, 1909, the water in the sink stood approximately
one and one-half feet above the level of the water in the surround-
ing limestone. ‘

During seasons of heavy rainfall the stream draining from
Newnan’s Lake and other smaller streams carry water so rapid-
ly that the water is unable to escape through the sink as rapidly
as it flows in. Under these conditions the basin fills, becoming tem-
perarily a lake. It is probable also that the drainage sink be-
comes more or less completely clogged at times, retarding the escape
of water, and in this case the prairie may continue as a lake through
a succession of years.

*Bull. No. 1, Fla. Geol. Survey, p. 60, 1908.

136 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL. REPORT.

Variation in this lake has been more or less perfectly recorded
since the time of the earliest settlements in this section. When
visited by Bartram in 1776 this basin was known as “Alachua
sevannah” and served as grazing ground for stock belonging to the
Tndians.* The basin was visited by James Pierce in 1824 and was
dry at that time. The water in the basin is said by W. W. Cameron
who lives near its margin, to have been very low in 1861. When
visited by Dr. E. A. Smith in 1880, the basin was comparatively full,
forming a lake. The basin in fact is reported to have continued
as a lake from 1871 or 1873 to 1891. In the fall of 1891 the basin
became dry, and, with the exception of temporary overflows, has
been dry much of time since that date. It is possible that the higher
water stage in the basin during the years from 1871 to 1891 was
due to partial clogging of the sink. The records of rainfall during
these years for this section is unfortunately lacking.

The following account of the disappearance of Alachua Lake
appeared in the Providence Journal for September 14, 1891. The
account is given with some omissions as quoted by Dr. W. H. Dall
in Bul. 84, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 94, 1892.

“A curious spectacle was to be seen on the outskirts of Gainesville, Florida,
recently. Alachua Lake * * * is no more. On its banks were lying thou-
sands of dead fish * * * and the atmosphere was heavy with noxious
gases. Men and boys were there in throngs with hoes and rakes, dragging ‘to
shore hundreds of fish which had sought the pools for refuge. The waters
were fairly alive with their struggles for existence. Except for a small stream
known as Payne’s Creek flowing from Newnan’s Lake into the Sink, the two
main basins of the Sink, and a few stagnant pools, no water is now to be
seen where a few years ago steamers were ploughing their way. This is the
second time since 1823, that a similar occurrence has taken place. At that
time the bed of the lake was a large prairie—Payne’s Prairie—having in it a
body of water called the Sink and a small creek. In 1868 heavy rains filled up
the prairie, but the water disappeared after a short time and the prairie was
again dry land. In 1873, after a series of heavy rains, the Sink overflowed
and the creek swelled to the dimensions of a lake. During several years the
waters increased till a larger lake was formed, and for fully fifteen years
sufficient depth of water stood over the prairie to allow of small steamers.
During the last two years, however, the waters have been gradually low-
ering, and about four weeks ago they commenced going down with surprising
rapidity, the lake falling about eight feet in ten days, until now nothing is left
of Alachua Lake but the memory of it. The Sink is considered the cause of
this change. There is evidently an underground passage connected, and for
some reason not understood, this underground passage has been acting as a
drain until all the water in the lake has been drawn off.”

In this account the fact is noted as is usually the case that after
the lake becomes somewhat restricted the water seemed to escape

*Bartram’s Travels, First Edition, page 203, 1791. Philadelphia.

Os

‘QYL] IY} JO IpIS UA}SOMYJIOU dy} AVAU YUIS dy} Je UoYye} SI MOIA SIU], ‘6061 ‘a8v}s J9}VM MOT ‘UIseq ddyYNsSOdDIPY—IEl “BIT

Fig. 32—Lake Jackson. View taken from the north end of the lake. Pho-
tograph by R. M. Harper.

Fig. 33—Alligator Lake. View taken from the bluff overlooking the lake.
Photograph by A. M. Henry.

Vig. g4—The sink of Lake Lafayette,

Vig, 35.-Payne's Prairie at low water stage, View from the sink. Photo-
graph by E. Peck Greene,

Mig. g0.—Payne'’s Prairie at low water stage, Photograph by R. M, Harper,

Fig. 37—Spouting well near Orlando. Photograph by T. P. Robinson.

FP
vob

et

4
ns

SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 145

with great rapidity. The rapid lowering of the surface is usually
due, however, as previously stated, not to greater rapidity in the
escape of the water, but to the fact that as the total surface area
of the lake became greatly restricted the escape of a given amount of
water lowers the surface much more rapidly.

The following remarks regarding the lake appeared in the
Washington Evening Star of September 19, 1891. This quotation
is also from Dr. Dall’s report:

“The Star recently printed an account of the disappearance of Alachua Lake.
in Florida, a lake that was so well established that a steamboat-line was main-
tained on it. A U. S. Geological Survey party has been engaged at work in
that region. A member of this party, Mr. Hersey Munroe, who is now in the
city, gave an interesting’ account of the lake, or rather the ex-lake, to a Star
reporter. “Alachua Lake,’ said Mr. Munroe, “is situated in north latitude 29
degrees 35 minutes and west longitude 82 degrees 20 minutes, in Alachua Coun-
ty, Fla., and 2 miles south of Gainesville, the county seat. The lake was for-
merly a prairie, known as Alachua prairie before the Seminole War during
1835-37. It has since been named Payne’s Prairie, after King Payne, an old
Seminole chief of an early day. The prairie was a great grazing spot for the
Indians’ cattle and later was used for a like purpose and for tillage by the
whites, some fine crops of corn and cotton being grown. The prairie lands are
immense meadows, covered by the finest grass, interspersed with clumps of beau-
tiful oak trees and palmettoes. These lands are subject to inundation during the
summer season. Hatchet Creek rises 3 miles north of Gainesville and flows in
every direction of the compass for a distance of 10 miles, emptying into New-
nan’s Lake, a beautiful sheet of water covering Io square miles.

“I0W THE LAKE WAS FORMED.

“The overflow from Newnans Lake forms a large creek named Prairie
Creek, which wended its way through Payne’s Prairie to Alachua Sink, one of
the curiosities of the State. There the waters found their way into a subterra-
nean passage. Visitors, to have their curiosity gratified by seeing what the effect
would be to have logs thrown into the sink, were the probable cause of the over-
flow of Payne’s Prairie. The logs would float out to the center of the sink, whirl
around in a circle and suddenly disappear. This choking of the outlet to the
waters of Prairie Creek caused the overflow and made a sheet of water sufficient
to float small steamers and other crafts.

“One steamer in particular had a splendid freight traffic, during the vegetable
season carrying shipments of vegetables from its wharf on Chacala pond across
Alachua Lake to the mouth of Sweetwater branch, the nearest point to Gaines-
ville, the principal place for shipment north. After the overflow and the forming
of a lake it was christened Alachua Lake. This name has been decided upon by
the United States Board on Geographic Names. Alachua Lake is 8 miles long,
east and west, and in one place 4 miles in width, north and south, covers 16,000
acres, and the average depth is from 2 to 14 feet.

“TOWERING FOR SEVERAL YEARS.

“For several years the lake has been gradually lowering. The elevation of
the water above sea level as given by the Savannah, Florida and Western Rail-

146 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

road some years ago is 64 feet. By accurate levels run by one of the topograph-
ical parties of the Geological Survey working in this section during the winter of
1890-91 the elevation of the water was found to be 58 feet, thus showing that the
lake had been changing elevation; and about two weeks ago I was informed that
Alachua Lake had disappeared entirely, that only small pools remained and the
usual amount immediately around the sink.”

The early geological history of that section of Alachua County
now occupied by these larger basins and lakes was apparently as
follows: Originally the surface runoff from southeastern Alachua
County made its way through Orange Creek and the Ocklawaha
River into the St. Johns River. These streams were then heading

<=,

; ) | Ye
eo |

(
( y

Fig. 38.—Sketch map of Hogtown Prairie and surroundings, illustrat-
ing a stage in the development of a solution basin, From the
Arredondo topographic sheet, U. S. Geol. Survey. The 60-foot
contour line borders the prairie.

back in the plateau region of Alachua County, and were fed both
by the surface runoff and by the numerous small springs issuing
from the clays and sands of the Apalachicola group underlying the

SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 147

plateau. In the course of time the streams cut down to or nearly
to the underlying Vicksburg Limestone. ‘The result of the close
approach to tis limestone was the tormation of sinks due to solu-
tion in the limestone. After the formation of the sinks it became
possible for the water to pass through the sinks and find its escape
by subterranean drainage. This process of solution and subsidence
continued through long intervals of time has resulted in the forma-
tion of these numerous basins. Some of these basins have been
carried to a level equal to or below their original outlet through
Orange Creek.

Basins may be seen at the present time in varying stages of de-
velopment. In the plateau itself no basins are found. Even here,
however, are found occasional sinks, the first evident effect of the
teduction by solution. An illustration of a. partially developed
basin may be found in Sanchez Prairie near Hague. The country
surrounding this small basin stands at a level of about 180 feet.
The basin itself occupying an area of a few hundred acres is re-
duced to an elevation of about 100 feet above sea. Hogtown Prai-
rie near Gainesville (Text figure 38) represents a more advanced
basin. Hogtown Creek probably originally flowed through Ala-
chua Basin, thence to the St. Johns River through Orange Creek.
The formation of the sink, however, permitted a subterranean
escape and around this sink is formed Hogtown Prairie, now sepa-
rated from Payne’s Prairie by elevations amounting to twenty or
thirty feet.

OCHEESEE LAKE.

Of the few lakes occurring in Jackson County, Ocheesee Lake
is perhaps the largest. This lake lies in the southeastern part of
the county extending from near Grand Ridge in a southeasterly di-
rection to within three or four miles of the Apalachicola River.
The total length of the lake is six or seven miles. In breadth it
varies from a few rods to possibly three-fourths of a mile. At the
northwest end the surrounding country rises very gradually. The
southwest part of the lake, however, is surrounded by red sandy
hills which rise from 75 to 100 feet above the bottom of the lake.
The lake is perhaps best described in this instance as a swamp, the
greater part of the lake bottom being occupied by a growth of cy-
press, although near the east end open water occurs over an area
ef about 100 acres. The water from the lake sinks into the Chat-
tahoochee Limestone at the southeast end of the basin.

The history of the development of this lake is very clear.
Originally the drainage from this part of the county passed by

148 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

a surface stream to the Apalachicola River. At a distance of three
or four miles from the river, this stream, after cutting its channel
some depth, reached the Chattahoochee Limestone. When this
formation was reached the water passed into the earth, the drain-
age becoming subterranean. Subsequent erosion carried the basin
to its present level,

METHODS OF DRAINAGE.

Two methods of draining basins of this type may be considered.
(1) drainage by surface ditching to some stream or other outlet
lying at a lower level; or (2) drainage into the underlying water
bearing formation.

DRAINAGE BY SURFACE DITCHING.

Surface ditching usually suggests itself as the more natural
method of drainage, and it is often inferred in the absence of de-
finite information that the lakes lie at a higher level than near-by
streams. This frequently is not the case, and such an assumption
may lead to a very costly error. A lake or prairie of this type a few
miles southeast of Citra was connected many years ago by canal
at considerable expense with a tributary of the Ocklawaha River.
Upon completion of the canal it was found that the lake basin was
at a lower level than the stream bed, the water from the stream ac-
. tually flowing into the lake. The peculiar method of formation of
these lake basins by solution, as previously explained, carries them
frequently to a lower level than the stream which served in earlier
stages as an outlet., Lake Iamonia as previously stated lies prac-
tically on a level with the Ocklocknee River, and receives the over-
flow of that river during high water stages. Alachua Lake basin
lies, as shown by the topographic map, at practically the same level
as Orange Lake and the headwaters of Orange Creek which serve:l
formerly as the outlet.

DRAINAGE INTO THE UNDERLYING FORMATIONS BY WELLS.

Drainage into the underlying formations takes place naturally
through the sinks already existing. Artificial drainage either by
enlarging the sinks, or wells dug or drilled through to the water
bearing formation is frequently resorted to. In either case the
principle is the same. The underlying limestone is porous and
cavernous, and is filled with water to a definite although slightly
variable line or level known as the permanent underground water
level.

ee ee ee

—

SOME FLORIDA, LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. T49
\

Solution in the limestone occurs both above and below the water
line, but chiefly above. As solution continues the overlying ma-
terial is no longer able to support its own weight and caves in, form-
ing a sink or natural opening from the surface to the limestone. As
long as this sink remains open, water passes through and escapes
readily into the limestone. Drilled or dug wells serve as artificial
epenings to the same formation. Wells drilled into this limestone
will serve either as supply wells from which water may be pumped
or as drainage wells into which water may be conducted. It is
generally the case that a well entering this formation that can not
be appreciably affected by pumping, will also conduct water readily.
If the openings into the well are sufficiently free to permit ready
flow to the well when being pumped, they are, conversely, surfficient-
ly open to allow the water to spread rapidly from the well when
used as a drainage well. The amount of water held in the pores
and cavities of the limestone is so great that the water level is not
appreciably affected either by the water removed when a well is
being pumped, or by the water added when a well or sink is used
for drainage purposes.

Attempts to enlarge existing sinks or to re-open sinks that have
become clogged have usually proved futile. It is doubtless true that
the opening through sinks is a more or less winding channel and to
rc-open this when clogged with debris is difficult.

Better success has been obtained by dug or drilled wells. Where
the underlying porous formation into which the, well is to be drained
lies near the surface, dug wells can be used to advantage and may
be preferable. Dr. H. Bjystra has used this method in draining a
small lake or “prairie” on his farm near Brooksville, Florida. At
this locality the cavernous limestone lies near the surface and is
reached by relatively shallow wells. The one difficulty experienced
as reported by Dr. Bjystra is the fact that during the summer rainy
season in one or two instances the rainfall has been so heavy within
a short space of time that the wells were unable to carry away the
water as fast as it fell, the result being temporary overflow of the
farm and serious injury to growing crops. When used as pasture
land the temporary or partial overflows are, of course, less serious.

Drilled or bored wells have been in some instances notably suc-
cessful. An advantage in the drilled well is that it can be put
down to any required depth, and when properly cased and screened
is permanent. The effectiveness of the well is dependent upon the
structure of the formation penetrated. If the water-conducting
power of the formation reached by the well is slight a limit is there-
by placed on the effectiveness of the well. Unless the flow of

I50 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY——SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

water at the bottom of the well is free the in-take of water is
necessarily limited.

Assuming free movement of the water at the bottom of the well,
the rapidity of in-take and hence the efficiency of the well is in-
fluenced by (a) size of well; (b) construction of well; (c) depth
of water above the mouth of the pipe; (d) distance from the top
cf the pipe to the underground water level.*

(a) The capacity of a drain pipe increases rapidly with in-
creased diameter. The area of the section of the pipe is propor-
tionate to the square of the diameter. Thus the area of the cross
section of a 12-inch well is nine times that of a 4-inch well. More-
over, for a given velocity the friction of movement is less in a large
than in a small pipe,

(b) The construction of a well also affects its rapidity of in-
take. When the pipe is cut off squarely at the top according to the
usual custom, the full capacity of the well is not realized. The
rapidity of in-take may be appreciably increased by the use of a
flared or bell-shaped mouth at the top of the pipe.

(c) If the underground water level lies some distance from
the surface and if there is free discharge at the bottom of the well,
siphonage or draft-tube action increases the rate of flow. When the
distance from the top of the pipe to the underground water level is
33 feet or over, the maximum possible draft-tube head of 32.8 feet
may be available.

(d) The influence of the depth of water above the mouth
ci the pipe is as follows: Assuming that the water flows into the
pipe as through an orifice, the in-take at the mouth of the pipe will
be proportionate to the square root of the depth of the water above
the mouth of the pipe.

The velocity of flow in the drainage well may be measured by
means of Pitot’s tube. This is a bent tube one arm of which is
graduated, used to determine the velocity of running water. To
make the measurement insert the tube vertically in the top of the
pipe, the short end projecting upward and having its mouth a few
inches below the top of the drain pipe. The velocity of flow in the
pipe is expressed within close limits by the following formula in
which h is the height in inches to which the water rises in the long

arm above the surface of the lake.* :

= 64.324 _ 9 v7
WE eee V

*U. S. Geol. Surv. Water Supply Paper, 145, p. 36, 1905. R. E. Horton.

a ee ae ee ne

SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. ISI

The flow in cubic feet per second into the well will be

d*q/h
Q = 0.0055 @?'V = vi

80 nearly

In this formula Q represents the flow in cubic feet per second;
d is the inside diameter of the pipe in inches, and / the height in
inches to which the water rises in the long arm above the surface
oi the lake. V is the velocity of flow.

A notably successful instance of drainage by wells where the
interests of a municipality were involved occurred at Orlando,
Fiorida, and was given in Bulletin No. 1, as follows:

“A very considerable land area south and east of Orlando, em-
’ bracing possibly fourteen square miles, lies in an irregualr basin
with many lakes, marshes, and ponds. The overflow from this
aiea originally drained to and disappeared through a natural sink
about one mile east of the city. This sink became clogged in April,
1904. Unsuccessful efforts were made to re-open this sink, first
by removing hyacinths accumulated around the opening, and later
by the use of dynamite. In the meantime, heavy and continued
rains formed a lake around the sink, overflowing the surrounding
lands. In August, 1904, efforts were made to dispose of the water
through drainage wells. The first well put down was a two-inch
test well. The well reached a porous stratum and was thought to
justify the expense of a larger and deeper well. Difficulty and de-
lay were experienced in the drilling, but by August, 1905, two wells,
one eight-inch and one twelve-inch, put down at the side and near
the original sink, had been completed. Two other wells were
started and abandoned owing to the difficulties in drilling. The
two successful wells were running at full capacity. It was thought
probable that the two wells already put down would prove suffi-
cient. Heavy rains followed, and by January, 1906, a considerable
area, including some cultivated ground, was flooded, practically
ali county roads leading into Orlando from the east were partly un-
der water and impassible. The colored settlement known as Jones-
town in the suburb of Orlando was partly under water and unin-
kabitable; the water was approaching the city of Orlando itself and
the situation was becoming alarming. Levels taken by the county
authorities indicated that drainage through surface canals was im-
possible or impracticable. Two additional twelve-inch wells were
bored in November and December of 1906. The effect of these
was evident at once, the lake beginning to fall. By February a
third twelve-inch well had been completed making in all one eight-

I52 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY——SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

inch well and four twelve-inch wells running at this time. By the
end of March the water had returned practically to its normal
level and has since been kept under control.

“Four of these drainage wells are located near ‘the original sink
and have a uniform depth of 140 feet, a cavity several feet in
diameter having been reached at that depth. The fifth well is lo-
cated one-half mile west of the sink, and terminates in a porous
stratum at a depth of 340 feet.”

Since the completion of these wells by the city a number of
other drainage wells have been put down by individuals, used largely
tu reclaim trucking and farming lands.

One of these drainage wells near Orlando developed recently
the unusual phenomenon of spouting. The well is located three
miles north of Orlando on land belonging to Charles T. Myers.
It was drilled in 1907 jointly by Mr, Myers and Messrs. McNeal
ard Davis, the latter gentlemen having the property leased for
farming purposes. The well is twelve inches in diameter and has
a total depth of 260 feet, is cased 60 feet, and it is located at the
edge of a small lake. The level of permanent underground water
at this locality is 33 feet from the surface. Trucking 1s carried on
around the border of the lake and the well is intended, by carrying
off the surplus water, to prevent the lake from rising above a given
level, since to do so would flood the farming land. The well is
similar in character to the other drainage wells of this locality and
as in the case of most of the other wells, terminates in a cavity in
the limestone.

The well was first seen by the writer October 4, 1910. At this
time the water of the lake stood a few inches above the level of the
pipe and the well was receiving water at much less than its full car-
trying capacity. At intervals of a few minutes the well would re-
verse itself and spout, throwing a column of water into the air.
The spouting comes on gradually. First the well ceases to receive
water and begins bubbling; the column of water follows, rising*with
considerable force to a height of twenty feet or more above the
surface, the spout occurred with tolerable regularity at intervals
or four minutes. Mr. R. D. Unis, who has charge of the farm,
states, however, that the intervals between spouts vary from two
to fifteen minutes, being probably influenced by varying conditions
under which the water enters the well. (Fig. 37).

Although drilled about three years ago and receiving water
more or less constantly since that time the phenomenon of spout-
ing developed for the first time on September 26, 1910, the first
spouting having occurred about eight o’clock on the morning of that

SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 153

day. The well continued spouting without interruption for a little
more than a week and until shut off by the owner.

Various fanciful theories have been advanced to account for the
spouting, including supposed occurrence of gas and oil, and the
supposed influence of recently formed sinks in the interior of the
State. The true explanation is evidently much more simple. At
the present stage of the lake the well is receiving water at less than
its full carrying capacity and as the water enters the vertical pipe
it forms a suction carrying a large amount of air into the well,
which doubtless collects in a chamber or cavity along the side or
at the bottom of the well. As the well continues receiving water
the air accumulates under pressure in the earth until ultimately the
pressure under which the air is confined is sufficient to overcome
the weight of the overlying water and hence rushes out with con-
siderable force carrying the column of water with it.

The fact that the well when first drilled did not spout, and
afterwards began spouting, doubtless indicates that the essential
conditions were subsequently developed either by caving or by
other changes in the underground conditions.

The spouting of the well is therefore on the principle of the air-
lift pump in which air under pressure is conveyed into the well
through a special tube for that purpose and being liberated in the
well lifts a column of water to the surface. In this spouting
well, however, the air pressure is developed within the well. This
well may, therefore, be classed as a self pumping well.

When partly shut off so that only a limited amount of water
enters, the air taken into the well is able to return to the surface
freely. Under these conditions spouting ceases. It is probable
that if an elbow is placed on the well, allowing the water to enter
laterally instead of vertically, the amount of air taken into the weil
will be so far reduced that the spouting will cease. Likewise
when the lake rises so that the water stands several feet above the
top of the pipe entering the well it is to be expected that the spout-
ing will cease, since the pipe will then be carrying water at its full
capacity, and little or no air under these conditions entering the
well.*

The drainage wells are themselves remarkable and found in
such perfection only under geological conditions similar to those
existing in Florida. Of the many peculiarities of these wells, ,

*Since the above was written very heavy rains attending the storm of
October 17, 1910, caused the lake to rise 18 to 20 inches, and Mr. Unis writes
that when the water rose in the lake the well ceased spouting.

154 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

however, that of spouting is certainly the most striking and re-
riarkable. It is of interest to note that a similar spouting well has
been reported by Professor McCallie at Albany, Georgia.*

In considering the use of wells for drainage purposes the re-
lation of the lake basin to the underground water level should
first be definitely determined. The effectiveness of the well is re-
duced as the water level is approached, and it is of course obvious
that the water in the lake can in no case be carried below the under-
ground water level. Many of the larger lake basins are known to
li: very close to the water level. If the lake basin lies as low as the
permanent water level it is obvious that the water in the lake can
not be drained by wells, moreover since the effectiveness of the weil
is affected by the near approach to the water level, it is hardly prac-
ticable to reduce the water in the lake quite to the permanent under-
ground water level. It must also be borne in mind that while the un-
derground water is a permanent supply the water level or water line
is not stationary, but varies with the seasons. The amount of varia-
tion for the locality concerned should be determined.

The fact that a lake basin stands somewhat above the water line
at the close of a long dry season ‘s not proof that it will be found to
stand above the water line after a season of heavy rainfall. In
some sections of the state the range of variation of the water line
has been found to be as much as ten feet, and may in some instances
exceed that amount.

The relation between the level of the lake basin and the under-
ground water has been determined for a few of the lakes. Meas-
urements of Alachua Lake were made in 1907 and again in 1909.
When measured in October, 1907, the water level in Alachua Lake
was found to be 2.01 feet above the level of the underground
water of the Vicksburg Limestone formation as determined from
the Gainesville City well.* When measured in November, 1909,
the water in the sink stood approximately 1.4 feet above the water
level in the limestone as indicated by the city well. At the time
these measurements were made the lake was at a low water stage.
The underground water level was likewise at a low stage. From
these measurements it appears that Alachua Lake during the dry
seasons at least is lowered by natural drainage through the sink
to or practically to the underground water level. During the rainy
season the water in the lake doubtless rises above this level, although
it must be borne in mind that the water line also rises during the
rainy season, a fact that should be borne in mind when planning
drainage.

*Science, Vol. 24, p. 604, 1906.
*For a record of this well, see Bul. No. 1, pp. 30 and 88-89, 1908.

—

SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 155

Approximate measurements of the water level in Alligator
Lake near Lake City have also been made. This is one of the
smaller basins and the measurements indicate that the level of the
water in the lake stands appreciably above the underground water
level. In this instance the measurements of the water level and the
lake level were made at different seasons of the year and the results
can be only approximately compared. The data on this lake are as
follows: Levels made by Professor N. H. Cox, on June 19, 1903,
showed that the water in Alligator Lake stood 94.22 feet below the
Union Depot at Lake City.

The lake at the time the levels were made was at medium full
stage. The water of the Lake City public well, located near, and
cn about the same level as the depot was found at the time the
well was completed in 1907 to stand 134 feet from the surface.
Ailowing for any correction that it might be necessary to make
owing to the fact that the measurements of lake level and ground
water level were not made at the same time it would still seem that
the lake basin in this instance stands somewhat above the water
level,

RELATION OF THE GROUND WATER LEVEL TO THE FORMA-
TION OF SINKS.

It is of interest in this connection to note the influence of the
ground water level on the formation of sinks. . Sinks do not form in
Florida in that part of the State in which the water first encountered
as permanent water in the limestone is under sufficient pressure to
flow at the surface. The reason for this seems obvious. In areas
of artesian flow, such cavities as exist in the limestone are filled with
water under pressure, which, together with the resistance of the
strata to breakage, is sufficient to prevent the overlying materials
from subsiding and thus forming sinks. Along the border line be-
tween. the flowing and non-flowing area the artesian water fre-
quently breaks out forming springs. On the other hand the areas
of most rapid formation of sinks are those in which (1), the lime-
_ stone is rather near the surface; (2), the underground water level
is below, although comparatively near the surface, and (3), the ma-
terials lying above the water bearing limestones are so far disin-
tegrated that they permit the surface water, rainfall, to pass readily
through them into the limestones beneath. Under these conditions
the fluctuation of the water level has a pronounced effect. When
the water level is high, as following the rainy season, the materials
are water soaked almost to the surface. When the water level is

156 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

low, following a prolonged drought, the support is withdrawn, and
the already partially disintegrated strata break and subside into such
cavities as have been formed by solution in the limestone.

Where the strata lying above the limestones reach a consider-
able thickness their resistance to breakage is of itself sufficient to
prevent the formation of sinks. No specified thickness of strata can
be given through which sinks will not break, since this depends both
upon the character of the strata and the size of the cavities in the
underlying limestone. In the plateau section of Florida sinks have
broken through as much as 100 feet of materials, a large part of
which, however, are themselves more or less calcareous and phos-
phatic, and hence may have been removed in part by solution before
breaking.

Fig. 39—Sketch indicating the relation between ground water level,
surface level, sinks and lake basins in central Florida from near Gainesville,
passing through Payne’s Prairie and Orange lake and following the Ockla-
waha river to the St. Johns river. The surface level is represented by the

line “a”; the artesian water level by “b”’; the top surface of the principal
water bearing limestones, chiefly, if not entirely the Vicksburg formation,

9

by “c.” The vertical scale of the drawing is I in. equals approximately
100 ft-; horizontal scale, 1 in. equals 5 miles. The materials lying above the
water-bearing limestones include, in the vicinity of Gainesville chiefly
the Alum Bluff formation, while east of Orange Lake, later formation
overlie the Alum Bluff, All of these formations dip toward the east,
although in this sketch the dip appears exaggerated, owing to the differences
between the vertical and horizontal scales,

The surface level on the plateau, on the edge of ‘which the city of
Gainesville stands, is about 180 feet above sea. Upon going down this es-
carpment to Payne’s Prairie, the surface level falls to from 60 to 80 feet above
sea, this elevation being maintained with little variation while crossing the
group of basins which include Payne’s Prairie, Orange and other lakes. Be-
yond Orange lake the slope is gradual to the St. Johns river, which is
within a few feet of the sea level.

—. ee ee

SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 157

The artesian water level, “b”, in the vicinity of Gainesville on the plateau,
is 125 to 130 feet bellow the surface (50 to 55 ft. above sea level). In passing
to the coast, this line shows a gradient and at the St. Johns river is probably
about 50 feet above sea level. In the section represented by this sketch.
the artesian water line crosses the surface somewhat east of Orange Lake,
this being the border line between the flowing and the non-flowing artesian
areas.

In the area of artesian flow, that is east of the point in this sketch, at
which the line representing the water level crosses the surface, sinks do not
occur and are not to be expected, Along the border line of the escarpment
sink formation is most active. In the plateau where the limestones are
covered with a thickness of 100 feet or more of stratified materials, sinks
form less frequently. The escarpment shown in the sketch has been formed
and is being carried inland by surface erosion and underground solution,
the formation of sinks being one of the results of solution.

VARIATION IN THE GROUND WATER LEVEL.

The ground water level is first of all subject to change owing
to the annual wet and dry seasons. Almost one-half of the annual
rainfall in Florida occurs during the summer months, and following
this season the ground water level rises for a time, reaching its max-
jinum some weeks after the rainy season ends. It then gradually
falls until the next following rainy season begins. This may be re-
garded as the normal variation on the ground water level, which
amounts in places where it has been measured to from.eight to ten
feet or more. This variation in water level affects as a rule not ma-
terially the amount of water that a well will supply upon pumping,
but merely the level at which the water stands in the well, In the
case of flowing artesian wells, however, it is indicated by a change
in the pressure, and those wells located near the border line between
the flowing and the non-flowing area may cease to flow during the
dry season.

A second and more marked variation in the ground water level
arises from those periods including often a succession of years, of
reduced rainfall, or a similar period of excessive rainfall. The varia-
tion of the ground water level during such time, although not ac-
curately determined, is evidently much greater than the normal an-
nual variation.

Not only does the underground water level fluctuate according
to seasonal and periodic rainfall, but it is also being gradually low-
ered by the lowering of its outlet. The underground water finds its
natural outlet through springs which enter the streams or emerge
into the ocean. Since the streams are constantly deepening their
channels it follows that the outlet for the underground water is be-
ing lowered and hence the water line itself is necessarily being grad-

158 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

ually lowered. This gradual change in the water line in geologic
time affects the life history of the lake basins, but does not of course
affect the observed behavior of the lakes.

SUMMARY,

The basins of the temporary lakes have their origin in erosion
by solution and by mechanical wash. Some of them appear to
represent the enlarged valleys of what was originally a small
stream. Sinks form along these streams diverting the course of
the water into the underlying limestones. Other basins originate
from sinks in no way connected with stream valleys. The origin
of the sink was due primarily to solution in the limestone. After
the sink is formed the general level of the surrounding area is low-
ered somewhat by mechanical wash, the material being carried into
the sink. Subsequently other sinks form in the immediate vicinity,
due also to solution. The large amount of water which entered
the limestone from the sinks already formed facilitates solution
and results in the formation of additional sinks. The continuance
of this process through a long period of time results in the develop-
ment of the large basins occupied by these lakes. From their manner
oj development it follows that the steepest bluffs as a rule are those
immediately facing the active sinks. Likewise for reasons already
given new sinks occur most frequently in the area immediately sur-
rounding the active sink. The lakes occupy basins that have worked
their way through the surface deposits, chiefly the Alum Bluff for-
mation, down to or nearly to the underlying limestones of either the
Chattahoochee or the Vicksburg formations, In any case, however,
the lake basins can scarcely be lowered below ground water level,
since for a stream entering a sink, the permanent ground water level
is base level.

The behavior of the lakes is largely explained by the seasonal
and periodic variation in the rainfall which affects the ground water
level. The lakes appear to go dry suddenly. This, however, is often
more apparent than real. So long as the entire basin is submerged,
the water line recedes so slowly as scarcely to be noticed. After-
wards, however, when only a part of the basin is covered, or when
there is water only in the small basin immediately around the sink,
the water lowers very rapidly and the lake seems to be suddenly run-
ning dry. It is true, however, that the escape of the wafer is not
infrequently facilitated by the formation at low water stages of new
sinks.

It is doubtless true that some of the lakes, especially the

SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 159

smaller ones, could be drained by surface ditching. Any attempt
at drainage should be preceded, however, by the preparation of a
carefully made topographic map of the region, or at least suff-
cient exact leveling should be made to determine definitely the rela-
tion of the lake basin to the proposed outlet, and to the intervening
country.

While some of these lakes can be drained by bored wells it is
not to be assumed that all can beso drained. As has been shown
some of these lake basins, especially the larger ones, have been low-
ered by solution practically to the permanent underground water
level. Before attempting drainage by wells definite data should
Le obtained as to the relation between the level of the lake basin and
the underground water level of that locality. This information
can often be obtained by running a line of levels from the lake to a
near by deep well and comparing the level of water in the lake with
the level at which the water stands in the well. If necessary, test
wells may be drilled before undertaking large wells. Such lakes
as have been lowered by natural drainage actually to the under-
ground water level can of course be lowered no further by wells.

ts he

THE RELATION BETWEEN THE DUNNELLON FORMA-
TION AND THE ALACHUA CLAYS OF FLORIDA.

E. H. SELLARDS.

as i ae

The term ‘Alachua Clays’? was proposed by Dr. W. H. Dall
in 1885 for the clay beds in the vicinity of Archer from which at
that time extensive collections of vertebrate fossils were being made.
The first published account in which this term was used, however,
is found in Bulletin 84 of the United States Geological Survey,
page 127, 1892. The formation is there described as occurring in
sinks, gullies and other depressions in the Upper and Lower Oligo-
cene (then regarded as Miocene and Eocene respectively). The
clays were considered by Dall as representing a remnant of a previ-
cusly more extensive formation. Although in his original descrip-
tion, Dall mentions a number of localities, including those on Peace
Creek, Caloosa River and rock crevices at Ocala, nuw known to be
of later date, yet the deposits are sufficiently characterized by the
description of the exposures in the vicinity of Archer which are re-
garded as the typical localities.

The term “Dunnellon formation” was first used by the writer
in 1910 to designate the extensive deposits which hold the hard
rock phosphates of Florida. While the prevailing phase of the Dun-
nellon formation is light gray phosphatic sands, the deposits include
also local beds, lenses, or masses of clay, as well as phosphate rock,
flint boulders, pebble conglomerate and limestone fragments.

A recent examination of typical localities has ‘convinced the
writer that the Alachua Clays and the Dunnellon formation are not
separable, the former representing, in fact, a local phase of the
latter. The Dunnellon formation, as I have elsewhere shown, has
accumulated from the residue of the formations that have disin-
tegrated in situ, the material having been reworked to a consider-
able extent, through the agency of the sinks, sink hole ponds, small
lakes and local streams that existed in this area during the earlier
stages of its physiographic development.*

*Fla. Geol. Surv. Third Ann. Report, p. 32, 1910; and Fifth Ann. Re-
port, pp- 53-56, 1913.

161

162 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

The Alachua Clays, with little doubt, represent the location of
such sinks, ponds or lakes. This view is supported by the local ex-
tent of the clay beds, the manner in which the fossils are imbedded,
as well as by the species that are found in the clay. Sinks very pos-
sibly began to form in central Florida as early as the late Miocene.
Sink formation must certainly have been active during the Pliocene,
and has continued in fact through the Pleistocene to the present. It
would seem, however, that the Pliocene was the time in which sink
hole ponds, small’ lakes, and local surface streams reached their
abundant and typical development in this part of the State. An
analagous stage of development may be observed in adjacent sec-
uons of the State at the present time.

The vertebrate fauna of the Dunnellon formation and _ the
Alachua Clays is practically the same, including the mastodon, rhi-
noceros, camel and early horse.* With these late Miocene or early
Pliocene forms is found Odocoileus, Tapirus, Megatherium and
other late Pliocene or Pleistocene types. The mixing of fossils re-
sults unavoidably from the manner of accumulation of the deposits,
for while the formation is believed to have accumulated chiefly dur-
ing the Pliocene, yet sink formation having continued later forms
were carried into the deposits and mixed with the earlier.

The term “Alachua Clays,” although descriptive of the local-
ities to which it was applied, yet is not applicable to the formation as
a whole. Since, however, this term has precedence in time, and is
also well established in literature, it seems advisable to drop the term
“Dunnellon formation,” and to designate the deposits as a whole as
the Alachua formation. .

*The mastodon found in these deposits is M. floridanus. The horse is
Neohipparion, of which at least two species are present. The camel found in the
Alachua clay deposits, of which three species have been described, was identified
by Leidy and Lucas as Procamelus. Two species of rhinoceros are also recog-
nized, namely Teleoceras fossiger and Aphelops malachorinus.

a a ee

——s

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION
eS soul ain
NORTHERN FLORIDA

ROLAND M. HARPER

163

INTRODUCTION

In connection with the preparation of the report on the peat
deposits of Florida, issued by the State Geological Survey in 1910
in co-operation with the United States Geological Survey, Dr. R.
M. Harper, the author, collected during the years 1908, 1909 and
1910, a large number of notes relating to the natural geographic
divisions and the native vegetation of the State. The data thus
obtained formed the basis of the division of the State into geo-
graphic provinces as given in the peat report. Since the publication
of that report, however, Dr. Harper has materially added to these
notes, and to the bibliographic references bearing on this subject.
He has taken also a large number of photographs, most of those
used in this report having been contributed by him.

The division of the State into its geographic provinces as given
in the earlier report having proved useful and suggestive, and the
edition of that report being now practically exhausted, it has seemed
advisable, utilizing the large amount of data already available, to is-
sue a detailed report relating specifically to the geography and vege-
tation of the State. For this purpose the data on hand are being sup-
plemented, and have been brought up to date for northern Florida
by additional field work by Dr. Harper during the year 1914. For
southern Florida additional data are necessary. The present report
is therefore limited to northern and western Florida, including
about two-fifths of the area and three-fifths of the present popula-
tion of the State,

The problem of determining the agricultural capabilities of
virgin soils by means of the native vegetation is one that has en-
gaged many investigators, and there is perhaps no place in the
eastern United States where this question can be studied to greater
advantage or profit than in Florida where the original vegetation
still remains over approximately nine-tenths of the whole area.
Moreover, since the agricultural lands of Florida are being rapidly
settled and cleared it is important to preserve at this time a record
of the original distribution of the native vegetation together with
its relation to the geographic divisions of the State, and to make
this record available in subsequent more detailed soil studies.

165

166 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

This report preserves these valuable records and is moreover a
contribution toward a better understanding of the complex relation-
ship which exists between native vegetation, topographic and drain-

age conditions and soils.
E. H. SELLARDS,

~State Geologist.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Scope of the report ~------------------+----------------------=------ 171-172
Geographical significance of vegetation ------------------------------ 173-177
Methodswof Lanamtwativeriahaiusis: 2200225 == 2=a soe tees sees 177-180
ilaticieererionalidescn once soe eee een eee 180-189
Bipiographie rererences texplaited —-2 2 soo see 180-181
(So Isp eagle) cy ee ee ee 181-182
Slicers (with table eee ee eee ae eee ne me 182-184
MeGeEaMOn ty peSn ase eet netle, ee oe eae oe 184-185

TD FECUSy Oliganig® See ee ee ee a ee ee eee 184

fects. Ob civilianttOm en see see eee eek oes ee eee ee 185
Planiistsmexcp lainiedas te ety oe in ee ea ee ee 185-188
Symbols for relative abundance ~_------ Seren ental DERKN eee 21 186
Sireatnienh ion weeda toes ats ee) ee) ee 187
MCOnOmiIceleatunes esse a pen ee Rs Ee ee ee Ss 188-189
Map of northern Florida showing geographical divisions _------------- 190
Seer HeCO i Sem erdiie: ses cei eS ae Ne Se ie ee IQI-343
Sumopsisuot eeaotapmicaly divisions: 22255 sho let ats ee IQI
MeViariannamrecu lands (jacksone County) 2-222 se == 193-200, 346-349

2. West Florida lime-sink or cypress pond region —----- 201-209, 348-353

3. Apalachicola River bluffs and bottoms -~---------~--- 210-216, 352-355

4 Knox Gull country (Walton-Cotmnty 222222222222 217-222, 350-357

5; Holmes Valley (Washington County) --2-.-.-2--_-—_ 223-224, 356-357

GU Wiest Mlondaniakerrestonas a. ntl Se eee 225-228, 358-359
ZONV ESE EL Oteeal piatew hill sie et) eyes TS Tk Lye se 229-241, 358-361

SV ESts Mari aucoastssthipmers teem cee ees 242-247, 360-363

Gm palachicola. flatwoods = ate ee eee A SS 8 t 247-253, 364-365

IG Middle: Hiorida hammock beltitese eure Lee ee 254-265, 366-371

11. Tallahassee red hills (Leon County) —--2+--..---_--- 266-270, 372-375

oe ell atignsan Cet Conn se eet aes eee or 2 hE 280-288, 376-377

ia Viakdle Damunrdck-conminy atu eee 289-206, 378-381

i. Panacea country. (Wakulla s County) -f222 02-1) e 297-301, 380-381
Derik Mami OGks ULEGIOnm = ee eee ee A 302-309, 382-383
iOswaddlesb lorida flatwoods. Ss2—s020 ules et ts) 310-313

Ea eninstlar. limie-sinie meelom a feee ste 314-319, 384-385
Teese sake ReMiOne -Eae ee nee A es 320-325, 384-385
fobs blender latwoors.fo22 22-06 2 326-337, 386-387

Groh USI AT So PRE cn ge ee en Pe eR ep) 338-343, 388-301
Misstrattous, (Seeulist. on nex’. page) G_..--_.__--- 22) 2 eee 345-301
RURMRIST NO iStniti ra tay ee ee ae Sy aS i eee 393-396
AGGitional itermation about: soils. . 2 2/21U 38 ee ee ee 307-390
VST EG BLS a) pees Danae a EP eRe ee nde oa 124 DEL Way eae 400-406
List of Ericaceae and Leguminosae --------- ois oD ORE Ra et 407-409
Brom TaD hy) hte eet a 410-410
pion meplalb Wainer eat sok oo Sete ne Ee 417-437
Number or species: entimerateds = 2 20 2h sce an BM 417
PECTS LE ah ane Se Den AR eat SDS Ek 1a Lo 439-451

Fic.

41. Hardwood forest about 7 miles N. W. of Marianna ----------~--~---
42. Rocky hillside near Long Moss Spring -----------------------------
43. Wet pine land and lime-sink south of Sneads, Jackson Co. --------
44. Small dry lime-sink in eastern part of Walton Co. -----------------
45. Open pine woods on hill, western Washington Co. -------------------
46. Interior of a bay, western Washington Co. --------------------------
47. Open pond with scattered cypress trees, Washington Co. ------------
48. Interior of small May haw pond, Washington Co, ------------------
49. View from near top of Aspalaga Bluff, Gadsden Co. ----------------
50. Shady ravine with stinking cedar, Aspalaga Bluff ~-----------------
51. Muddy swamp of Apalachicola River, Liberty Co. ------------------
2. Dense second growth of short-leaf pine, Knox Hill country, --------
53. Looking north across Holmes Valley south of Vernon ~--------------
54. Small circular jake in lake region, Washington Co. ~-----------------
55. Estuarine swamp of Blackwater River near Milton ~--------------__-
56. Scene about 2 miles S. E. of DeFuniak Springs, Walton Co. ---------
57. Branch-swamp and boggy slope between DeFuniak and Portland_-----
56. shore of St, George's Sound near: Canank-=-—-==- = ae eee
59. Treeless stationary dunes on Dog Island, Franklin Co. ---------------
60. Forest ofvspruce pine’ on peninsula, Santa Rosa’ Co... =2---23= eee
6n ooking south trom old “dunes near Lanark) 2342.) 22s Se eee
62; Platwoods-on St: James Island, Franklin Co. 2=-38+-— 22 -s2<s-22 See
63. Muddy bayou in estuarine swamps of Apalachicola River ~--------__-
64. Gum swamp or bay 5 miles W.N.W. of Tallahassee -----------____
65) Hlatwoods near) Capitola,“ leon.Go, 222222 eee
66, Marshy prairie about 5 mules east. of (Greenvilie222 22225" =2 ea eee
67, Santa, Fe River near. Worthington” Springs 222822222) 22. ess eee
68. Horizontal rows of peanuts around lime-sink, Alachua Co. ~----------
69;,andscape near Wallahassee,, eonsCo.) 2 == Se ae eee
70. Ponds and dead live oaks *in fields; Leon Co7.22-2 oS eee
at. (Gypress--ete,, in eastern: pattiof Lake Latayettes=—= = eee
72. Short-leaf pine woods about 5 miles N.E. of Tallahassee ----------~
73. Red oak, dogwood, etc., about 3 miles north of Chaires -------------
74. Long-leaf pine and black-jack oak near Bellair, Leon Co. ~_,---------
754 Manson's: Lake or< bond, Ieon.Cos/o2 3a 3S ee ee eee
76. Looking up Wakulla River, Wakulla Co. Ce Li ee anon ene» Cae
Fe DeCiduols stOresteneat, | Gtralw, LO icy Leyes ee eee ee eee nee
7. Scene on road) from) Crawtordville to St. Mark spesees]- eee ee
79:) Sinall bay about 2 miles: NOW. ‘of “Panacea, Springs 222. —_ 2 eee eeee
80; Marly (?)- ‘flatwoods, Taylonm@ "Cor 322 262 oe. area ee ee
81. Interior of.a low-hammiock, Lafayette (Co! 222222 = o2S = ee
82. High pine land with rosemary bushes, Alachua Co. -------------------
83. Deforested high pine land in phosphate country, Alachua Co, ---------
84 Sernb<on east ‘side “of.Lake ‘Kingsley, (Clay Go, == eee
85; Cypress pond, near Bellamy, Alachitta*G@o, 2222). 9s eee
86; Lake. Butler sBradford: Gor 22-5232 es ee ee ee eee
87. Exposure of*coquina-on. Anastasia island y= ts eee eee
88. Salt marshes onear* Mayport: 22-52) = 2 eee ee eee
89. Salt’ marsh and: hammock; Anastasia “Island $2222 se=) eee
90. Looking north on dunes, Anastasia Island

ILLUSTRATIONS.

168

——————

es

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.
PAGE.

209. Second paragraph. About two-thirds of the inhabitants of region 2 are white.

225. Last line of table. For 33.5 read 3.9.

236. Line 2. After Fraxinus Caroliniana insert *.

240. Line 8 begins a new sentence.

247. The soils of region 9 seem to be more silty than those of other flatwoods
regions.

254. Add to references, U. S. Bureau of Soils Circular 72, on Payne’s Prairie.

265. Line 8. Insert pears between peaches and English peas.

270. Middle paragraph. Gophers are said to occur near Bradfordville.

272. Near middle. Strike out one of the + marks before Quercus stellata.

276. Near middle. Move Goldenrod up one line.

277. Line 13. For Euphorbia heterophylla read E. dentata.

277. Line 17. After Cenchrus tribuloides insert (X)

279. Second paragraph. There are gates across the roads at the edges of this
region in several places, to keep out cattle from neighboring free-range
regions.

323. Line 2. Insert + before Serenoa serrulata.

338. Add to references, Harshberger (64, 60, 71).

342. Line 13 of first paragraph, for “and” read “or.”

The names of the following evergreens, printed in ordinary type, should have
been in bold-face:

PAGE

197. Line 21. Persea Borbonia.
198. Line 22. Sebastiana ligustrina.
199. Line 2. Polystichum acrostichoides.
220. Line 41. Epidendrum conopseum.
220. Line 45. Asarum arifolium.
234. Line 16. Quercus laurifolia.
260. Line 8. Osmanthus Americana.
263. Line 4. Eriogonum tomentosum.
405. Line 40. Batodendron arboreum (semi-evergreen).
(There are doubtless other errors of this kind due to insufficient observation
of some of the smaller shrubs and herbs in winter.)
Typographical errors which are self-evident are not mentioned here.

169

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN
FLORIDA.

SCOPE OF THE REPORT.

The territory covered by this report is that part of Florida

north of the southern boundaries of Lafayette, Alachua, Putnam
and St, Johns Counties, an area of about 22,600 square miles. With-
in this area there is so much diversity of geographical conditions
that any attempt to treat it as a unit, as is commonly done with
_whole states or countries in encyclopedias and school geographies,
would be very unsatisfactory as well as unscientific. The wants of
some readers would be best served by describing each county sepa-
rately, but that would be equally unscientific, and would involve too
much repetition. But the area can be divided into natural geo-
graphical divisions, which are almost as numerous as counties, and
therefore average but little larger; and as each division is essentially
homogeneous throughout, speaking in a general way, a description
of the country by regions has decided advantages over any other
plan.

A classification of geographical divisions for the whole state
was given in the Third Annual Report of the State Geological Sur-
vey four years ago. The northern part is now subdivided somewhat
more minutely and probably more accurately than was done at that
time, and the salient characters of each region are described sepa-
rately, with special emphasis on the vegetation, for reasons explained
elsewhere. Although the writer has been in every county and
traversed nearly every mile of railroad in northern Florida more
than once, and has re-visited every division herein described during
the present year, it has of course been out of the question to ex-
plore every township in the few years available; and previous pub-
lications contain very little information about the sections not yet
visited, which are mostly remote from railroads. For this and
other obvious reasons the regional descriptions are necessarily very
generalized; and it has not been possible to make allowance for
many exceptions, such as hills in some of the flattest regions, fertile
spots in some of the poorest regions, etc. Likewise features which

11 171

172 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

have been fully described in other easily accessible publications are
not dwelt on at length.”

This report discusses not only the more striking natural fea-
tures of each region, but also certain economic features, in order
to illustrate the manner in which and the extent to which the natural
resources (other than minerals and underground waters, which have
been treated in considerable detail in previous publications of the
Survey) have been utilized. This sort of information really belongs
more to the domain of a census or statistical bureau, but it is given
here because it seems appropriate, and because such data have here-
tefore been given only for counties and other political divisions,
instead of natural divisions. In this way some very interesting dif-
ferences between neighboring regions in density of population,
status of the lumber industry, leading crops, etc., are brought out,
and many geographical corrections can be made between these fea-
tures and soil, topography and vegetation.

As in all scientific reports, the use of some technical terms is
unavoidable, but these are explained as far as possible, and most of
the matter which, although necessary to the proper exposition of the
subject, will interest scientists more than any other class of readers
is printed in smaller type, which the average reader can avoid if
he desires. The writer will always be grateful for having his at-
tention called to errors and serious omissions, or statements which
could be 1mproved upon without unduly increasing the length of
the report; and all such criticisms will be taken advantage of in
future publications.

*In many ways the best description of the natural and agricultural features
of Florida ever published is the report on cotton production by Dr. Eugene
A. Smith in the sixth volume of the Tenth Census, covering about 80 quarto
pages, with three maps. Its accuracy is remarkable, considering the fact that
the author spent only about six weeks in Florida, and that in the rainy season
(summer) and at a time (1880) when there were no railroads in the State
south of latitude 28° and only a few north of there. In preparing this report
he had the advantage of long experience in an adjoining state, and ke
was unusually successful in extracting reliable information from the writings
of some of his predecessors in Florida. He also brought out many new facts,
especially in relation to the geology. The descriptive matter in Dr. Smith’s re-
port, as in most of the other state descriptions in the same series, is arranged
both by natural divisions and by counties.

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA, I

N
ios)

GEOGRAPHICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF VEGETATION.

Native vegetation is probably the most sensitive indicator ot
geographical conditions that can be found; for every variation in
soil or climate is reflected in some way in the vegetation, so that if we
understood the matter perfectly we could tell by inspection of the
vegetation of an uninhabited region, without examining the soil at
all, just what its agricultural possibilities would be. There is no
better place in the eastern United States to apply this sort of knowl-
edge than Florida, for in most parts of the state not more than 10
per cent of the land is under cultivation as yet, and the relations be-
tween soil and vegetation are often very marked.*

The fundamental facts about the vegetation set forth in the fol-
lowing pages ought to become more and more valuable in the future
when the farms have encroached upon the forests to such an extent
as to make the opportunities for this sort of investigation much
more limited than they are at present. In most of the other eastern
states some types of vegetation have disappeared entirely, and others
have been mutilated so that it is no longer possible to form an
adequate idea of their original condition.

In an area as small as that under consideration the diversity of
vegetation seems to be due almost entirely to soil and topography,
and the climatic belts or “‘life-zones” into which the whole continent
is sometimes divided cannot be used. Many attempts have been
made in other parts of the world to correlate vegetation with soil,
but few general principles of world-wide application have been
deduced as yet, apparently because the vegetation has nearly always
been studied qualitatively and taxonomically instead of quantitative-
ly and morphologically. In other words, investigators have usually
tried to connect environmental conditions with the presence or

mT, = aa = ——>

*In fact most of the attempted classifications of Florida soils that were
published un to very recently have been classifications of vegetation primarily,
for they make use of such terms as “high pine land,’ “hammock,” “swamp,”
“scrub” and “prairie,” which are vegetation types rather than soil types. And
maps of Florida and parts thereof on a large scale show many vegetation
features, such as San Pedro Bay, Payne’s Prairie, the Gulf Hammock (Levy
Co.), “Swamp with dense growth of cypress and red cedar” (Hernando Co.),
Annuttalagga Hammock (Hernando Co.), Grass Slough (DeSoto Co.), the
Big Sawgrass (DeSoto and Lee Cos.), the Big Cypress (Lee Co.), and the
Everglades. (See also 3d Annual Report, plates 11-13; 5th, plates 10-12).

174 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

absence of certain species, regardless of their relative abundance
and structural adaptations.

In a certain neighborhood a certain plant may be common and
apparently confined to a particular geological formation or type of
soil, so as to lead to the belief that it is a good indicator of that
type of soil*; but if a few specimens of the same plant are after-
wards found on a very different soil in another part of the country
that hypothesis is usually abandoned. But again the plant on the
other soil, at first supposed to be the same species, may upon closer
investigation be found to be a little different, and thus the original
correlation may be re-established. In such cases everything de-
pends on correct identification, an art in which very few botanists
are proficient in this day and time.

A much better way of correlating vegetation with soil is to de-
termine first the relative abundance of the different species in a
given area, and then group together all those that have some char-
acter in common, such as trees, vines, evergreens, grasses, or plants
belonging to some particular family, and see what proportion they
make of the total. Some significant correlations can then often be
made between these statistics and certain soil characters, such as
texture or moisture or the percentage of some particular element
or combination of elements. This kind of work could be carried on
after a fashion by a botanist in a strange land where he did not know
the name of a single plant; though of course it would be desirable
to know the family to which each one belonged.

The usual way of studying the plant population of a state,
county, or other area, is merely to make a list of the species of
plants, noting their local distribution, habitats, etc.; which is a
siudy of the flora rather than of the vegetation. The flora of Flor-
ida is now pretty well known, but this knowledge has been of com-
paratively little use to geographers. The inadequacy of qualitative
studies may be illustrated by some analogies from other lines of
investigation. A census report does not simply state that the popu-
lation of a certain city, county or state is composed of natives and
of immigrants from England, France, Germany, etc., but tells exact-

*For references to several studies of this kind see Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.
17 :8-9 (footnote), 1906. See also Hilgard, Tenth Census U. S. 5 :68—60, 76, 220.
1884; Soils. 487-526. 1906.

AARC. *

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. E75

ly how many of each class. In describing the agricultural output
of Florida we do not merely say that corn, cotton, oranges, vege-
tables, et¢., are raised in the state, but we give the quantity of each
in bushels, bales, or crates, as the case may be. A chemist in anal-
yzing a mineral or soil or water or other substance does not content
himself with making a list of the elements which it contains, but
weighs each component carefully and expresses the results in per-
centages or in some other appropriate manner.*

In this report the vegetation is discussed quantitatively through-
out. In each regional description the names of all the plants ob-
served (except the rarer ones, which are omitted) are brought to-
gether in a single list, without separating the different habitats. A
detailed study of habitats or vegetation types would require much
more repetition of plant names and take up more space in other
ways, and would be far too great an undertaking for a preliminary
report like this. At some time in the near future it may be desir-
able to take up one region at a time and classify its plants by habitat ;
but the present study is essentially geographical, and the geographer

*Some illustrations of the advantages of quantitative studies in correlating
vegetation with soil may appropriately be inserted here.

Two neighboring townships might hoth contain exactly the same species
of pine and oak, say two or three of the former and a dozen of the latter,
so that qualitative lists would show no difference between them. But if
a forester should find that the virgin forests of one township averaged ten
pines and a hundred oaks to the acre, while in the other the proportions
were reversed, he would be justified in concluding that there was a con-
siderable difference in soil, for it is well known that most oaks grow in richer
soil than do most pines. Some valuable observations of this character were
made by Coville and Branner in Arkansas a quarter of a century ago, long
before most botanists had ever thought of studying vegetation quantitatively.
(See Rep. Geol. Surv. Ark. for 1888, vol. 4, pp. 246-247.)

It is a matter of common observation in the southeastern United States,
if not in other parts of the world, that deciduous trees are most abundant, not
only in species but in individuals, on clayey and silty soils, and evergreens
on sandy and peaty soils. But the differences between these soils are not
merely physical. From all the available analyses of soils in which deciduous
trees predominate it appears that they are all high in potassium (having
usually at least 0.2 per cent soluble in hydrochloric acid), however much they
may differ in calcium, phosphorus, nitrogen, and other essential constituents.
And all soils with less than .05 per cent of acid-soluble potassium (or .06
per cent of potash, as it is usually expressed in analyses) which have come
to the writer’s knowledge are characterized by vegetation that is mostly ever-
green. (The converse of these statements is not always true, however, for
some soils well supplied with potassium support many evergreens. But in such

17 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY —sIxXTE ANNUAL REPORT:

is not specially concerned with plant associations, which are more
the province of the plant sociologist and ecologist.

This method of lumping together all the plants of each region
is analogous to that of the chemist who in analyzing a rock contain-
ing a mixture of several minerals grinds it all up and determines
the composition of the whole, regardless of the separate minerals.
The work of the plant sociologist is analogous to that of the miner-
alogist who might take the same rock and identify the minerals in
it, and then analyze each mineral separately. The present paper
seems to be the first attempt that has been made to analyze quanti-
tatively the vegetation (including shrubs and herbs as well as trees )
of so large an area, and no doubt there is considerable room for
improvement in the methods used.

The methods here employed in making quantitative analyses of
vegetation are described below, for the benefit of persons who may
wish to test them in the same area, or to do similar work in other
parts of the country.

cases it appears that the availability of the potassium compounds is restricted
by some unfavorable condition, such as cold in the far north, aridity in
some of the western states, and perpetual- saturation of the soil in estuarine
swamps. )

The soils of the “Yazoo Delta” of Mississippi contain from 0.25 to 0.91 per
cent of potassium, according to Hilgard, and in that whole area of over 7,000 square
miles there are practically no evergreens. Somewhat similar conditions exist
in Indiana, Illinois, the western parts of Kentucky and Tennessee, and a good
deal of contiguous territory. On the other hand, all the available analyses
indicate that potassium is less abundant in the Atlantic coastal plain than in
the regions of older formations, and evergreens are more abundant there
than in any other part of the eastern United States.

Potassium is said to be notably deficient in peat, the world over, and
tather scarce in tropical soils; and the abundance of evergreens in peat bogs
and in the tropics is well known. Epiphytes (air-plants) have access to no
potassium, or other mineral substances, except in the form of dust, and they
are all evergreen. It seems, therefore, that the proportion of ever-
green and deciduous trees in a _ given region or forest is a pretty
good indication of the amount of available potassium compounds (commonly
spoken of as potash) in the soil; and of course it is the number and size of
the individuals rather than the number of species that counts.

There is a widespread belief that calcium (commonly expressed in terms
of lime) is the most important factor in soil fertility; but however that may
ke, it does not seem to bear’ any definite relation to evergreens. This belief
originated long before the days of chemical analyses, because calcareous soils
are usually recognizable at sight, while the presence of potassium can be demon-
strated only by a rather laborious aualysis. The average Florida soil seems to

‘
———

OO

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. V7.

’ f
METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF VEGETATION.

Up to ten or twelve years ago nearly all descriptions of vegetation were
qualitative, and usually very incomplete besides. Toward the close of the
last century, when the importance of quantitative studies was becoming appar-
ent, botanists in the neighborhood of the Great Plains, where the vegetation is
mostly prairie, devised the scheme (commonly known as the quadrat method)
of counting all the plants on a measured area of ground (usually a meter
square in grass-land, or ten meters in forests), repeating the process at several
different places in the area studied, and then consolidating the retuins. But
where plants grow in tufts or colonies, like most grasses, it is practically
impossible to count them; and after all it is not the number of individuals
that is significant so much as their size. (For the productivity of a forest,
orchard or field is not expressed in number of trees, stalks of corn or cotton,
or hills of potatoes, but in cords of wood, feet of lumber, gallons of turpentine,
boxes of oranges, bushels of corn, bales of cotton, etc.) This objection to
the quadrat method could of course be met by pulling the plants up and weigh-
-ng them, but even in its present form it would take an enormous amount of
time to apply it to a whole state or even a county.

For many vears foresters have been estimating timber by counting and
measuring all the trees on selected typical areas, of an acre or so, and repeat-
ing the process at intervals over the whole tract that is being investigated.
This method is ideal in its way, and has already been applied to small areas
in Florida, but it is entirely too slow for present purposes.

be better supplied with calcium than that of some of the interior states where
deciduous trees are most prevalent, and limestone is particularly abundant in
extreme southern Florida; but in that part of the state the potassium content
of the soil is below the state average, and the vegetation is nearly all ever-
green.

For further information on the subject of the relation of potassium to veg-
etation the interested reader should consult an article by Dr. H. W. Wiley
on “Potash and its function in agriculture’ in the Year-book of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture for 1896, pp. 107-136, and a short note by the same
author in Science (II. 17:794-795) for May 15, 1903. The writer has published
some observations on this point in Geol. Surv. Ala. Monog. 8:28-29. 1913;
Yorreya 13:140-141. 1913; Bull. Torrey. Bot. Club 40:398. 1913; 41:218, 1914;
Rep. Mich. Acad. Sci. 15:197. 1914.

Plants of the heath family (Ericaceae) seem to bear much the same rela-
tion to potassium that evergreen trees do, but may be influenced also by calcium;
while the majority of leguminous plants (Leguminosae), as well as those be-
longing to the large families Euphorbiaceae and Compositae, seem to prefer dry
soils poor in nitrogen, but well supplied with mineral plant food. Grasses evi-
dently prefer richer soils than sedges, but just what elements are significant in
these cases has not yet been determined. Jn all investigations of this character it
is essential to have quantitative data, for in the families named there are many
species that are exceptional in their soil preferences, so that the mere presence
or absence of several species belonging to one of these families might not
have much significance; but by consolidating the figures for each family in a
given area a number is derived which ought to be fairly constant for all
places where conditions are essentially the same.

178 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

The writer has gradually evolved a method of quantitative analysis of
vegetation. which, though necessarily less accurate than those just mentioned,
is much better adapted to rapid reconnoissance work. A description of it
follows:

In traveling through Florida-or any other part of the country where natural
vegetation is abundant, I try to jot down the name of every wild plant
observed, with some indication of whether it is abundant, common or rare,
repeating the notes at convenient intervals, usually at every milepost when
on a train, or at every stream or other topographic feature when walking. In
this way the largest and most abundant plants are likely to be noted oitenest,
which is just what is wanted in a quantitative study. Then at some subsequent
time I go through the field notes for each region (or even for each habitat
separately if desired) and count the number of times each species is men-
tioned, making allowance for relative abundance as follows. Where a species
has been noted as abundant I count it three times, where common I count it
twice, and where rare I do not count it at all.

Even this does not do justice to the great abundance of the longleaf pine
and some other conifers, so I then usually multiply the figures for Pinus palus-
tris by 4 and those for P. Elliottu, P. Taeda, P. serotina, P. echinata, P. clausa,
Taxodium imbricarium, and Chamaecyparis by 2, and sometimes adjust the
iigures a little arbitrarily besides, if the results are obviously inconsistent with
known facts. (It would probably be well to treat grasses in a similar manner,
but that has not been undertaken). The resulting figures can then be added
together and the percentages calculated.

Allowance has been made for the difference in size between trees, shrubs,
herbs, etc., by the following device. Before calculating the percentages I take
the size of the average forest tree as unity, divide the figures for small trees
by 10, those for shrubs and woody vines by 100, and for herbs by 1co0. If the
smaller flowerless plants were included, the mosses, lichens, and larger fungi
might be divided by 10,000, and so on “ad infinitum.’ This decimal system
is of course very arbitrary, but it has been adopted for convenience in dividing,
and it is probably about as accurate as any other system of equal simplicity
that could be selected.

Sources of error. Of course it cannot be claimed that the percentages
obtained by this method are very accurate, but with all its imperfections it is
far superior to anything used for such a large area before, and future investi-
gations perhaps will not materially alter my main conclusions. The principal
possible sources of error in the present enumeration, and the checks on them,
are as follows:

I. A great deal of the long-leaf pine, and some of the other trees, es-
pecially cypress, has been removed by lumbermen, so that these trees are rela-
tively less abundant now that they were originally. If it were desired to
re-construct the original condition of the forests, perhaps the use of 6 or 8
instead of 4 as a multiplier for long-leaf pine would give a pretty close ap-
proximation to the truth.

2. The farmer in clearing land usually attacks the uplands first, making
most of the swamp plants relatively more abundant. But there are not many
parts of Florida where the propertion of cleared land makes much difference
vet, and this report seeks to represent present conditions, anyway.

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA, L7Y

3. lhe boundaries of the regions may not have been accurately located
in every case, and thus species may be included in some of the lists which do
not properly belong there; just as in analyzing a mineral or ore, fragments of
other minerals associated with it may be included. Errors of this kind are
least in the largest regions, and those in which many notes have been taken
near their centers, well away from neighboring regions.

4. For some of the regions, especially the smaller ones, my observations
have been too few to make the plant lists reasonably complete and the |per-
centages sufficiently accurate. In such cases the percentage figures are omitted
entirely, but the approximate relative abundance is indicated by the sequence,
as in all other cases.

5. My practice of taking notes from the car-window and on_ hurried
journeys on foot tends to show relative frequency rather than relative abun-
dance; for if I saw ten specimens of a certain tree in every mile for ten miles
and a thousand specimens of another in one mile and no more for ten miles
the former would figure more largely in the returns. But such extreme cases
are unusual and likely to counterbalance each other to a considerable extent
in the long run; and besides the discrepancies are not so objectionable when
bulk is taken into consideration, as is attempted here.

6. Some of the herbs are quite conspicuous when in bloom and very
inconspicuous or practically invisible at*other times, so that notes made in the
same region at different seasons may differ considerably. But at the begin-
ning of every list the months in which the observations were made are given,
so that the reader, especially if he is familiar with the flora, may form some
idea of its completeness. Of course the herbs that are recognizable tiny
day in the year, such as’Spanish moss and wire-grass, will figure more largely
in the returns than those that disappear in summer or winter, and there
seems to be no obvious remedy for this. Shrubs and vines are affected less by

this seasonal error than herbs, and trees, especially evergreens, very little.
7. Some of the herbs are so small that they cannot be seen at all from

a moving train. But every region has been explored on foot more or less,
so that few species of flowering plants have been overlooked entirely mere-
iy on account of their size;.and where bulk is the primary consideration, as it
is here, it is right and proper that the smallest plants should have the lowest
percentages.

8. Some species are difficult to identify at sight, especially when one is
traveling thirty miles an hour, and some of my identifications may be wholly
erroneous, for this and other reasons. Some errors of this sort, however, can
be checked up afterwards by what is known of the distribution, habitat, time
of flowering, etc., of the species in question; and even where they are not
corrected they do not affect the statistics of the proportions of evergreens,
grasses, Leguminosae, etc., for it is not likely that I have mistaken the family
of plants in any case. Of course to be sure of the identity of every plant,
specimens should be collected for study and comparison, but that sort of work
consumes much more time than it is usually worth. Those parts of the coun-
try where botanists are most particular about the correct identification of
plants are generally those where the least, progress has been made along
phytogeographical lines.*

*In this connection see Bull. Am. Geog. Soc. 45:41 (middle paragraph).
1913.

180 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

g. At any time what has been regarded as: a single species may be
divided into two or more by some taxonomist. When that is done the com-
ponents will often be found to be confined to different regions, but even
if both (or all, as the case may be) grow in the same region, thus giving them
smaller percentages and lower places in the list than the composite species had,
it does not make any appreciable difference in summing up the percentages for
each family or other category of plants.

PiGAN OF REGIONAL DESCRIPTIONS:

The description of each region follows as nearly as possible the

following plan:

References to previous literature and illustrations.
Location and area. Extent of similar country elsewhere (if any).
Geology and Soils—Soil analyses (if any). Soil fauna or subterranean
animals.
Topography and Hydrography—Maximum and minimum altitudes. Springs
and streams, lakes and ponds. Character and fluctuation of water.
(Climate. See page 182.)
Vegetation Types——Frequency of fire in each.
Field work of the writer, by months.
List of plants—
Trees.
Small trees or large shrubs.
Woody vines.
Shrubs.
Herbs. a
Noteworthy features of the list.
Characteristic species, etc.
Percentage of evergreens, [fricaceae, Leguminosae, etc.
Economic features.
Utilization of native plants.
Proportion of improved land.
Density of population. Rate of increase. Proportion of white and
colored. Principal crops.

Ge ee eee

Illustrations.

The amount of space devoted to each topic varies with the char-.
acter of the region, and the order is not always exactly as given
above. Some of the items in the foregoing outline seem to call for
a little more explanation, which follows.

Bibliographic references. A list of books and papers relating to
the geography of northern Florida will be found near the end of
this volume. (See table of contents.) At the beginning of each
regional description there are references to the more important or
easily accessible works in the list from which additional informa-

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. ISI

tion about that particular region can be obtained. I*or the sake of
brevity these references do not give the complete citations, but only
the author’s name, the number of his.paper (as given in the bibliog-
raphy), and the page numbers if any particular pages can be desig-
nated as bearing on the region under consideration.* In most cases
there are also references to illustrations which have been published
in previous annual reports of this Survey.

Geology and soils. The geology of the whole state and various
parts thereof has been discussed in several easily accessible state and
government publications, some of which are referred to herein.
Consequently little more needs to be said about the geology here,
except in a few cases where previous accounts seem to be inade-
quate. (It might be remarked in passing that geological investiga-
tion in Florida, as in many other parts of the coastal plain, is at-
tended with peculiar difficulties, owing largely to the prevailing
blanket of sand, and our knowledge of some of the problems is still
far from satisfactory. ) _ Mineral resources and underground waters
are here referred to only incidentally, for they have been discussed
at considerable length in previous publications of the State Geologi-
cal Survey.

Soils are described only in a superficial way. Detailed descrip-
tions of the soils of some of the counties, without chemical analyses,
are included in the reports of the U. S. Bureau of Soils for about
ten years past. (See bibliography for list of areas surveyed by that
Bureau in northern Florida). Some mechanical (1. e. physical)
analyses of soils have been copied from these government reports.

Very few chemical analyses for northern Florida are available,
unfortunately, but four or ‘five essentially complete ones have been
taken from the sixth volume of the Tenth Census (Smith 2 in
bibliography ), and several showing the amounts of certain essential
elements have recently been made for us in the laboratory of the
State Chemist.

Under the head of soils are included some desultory notes .on
the soil fauna, or.subterranean animals, which have a very import-
ant influence on soils and therefore on vegetation. As in most
other parts of the country, ants are found nearly everywhere ex-
cept in the wettest places. Earthworms, which are perhaps the most

*Some of the older books cited in the bibliography have been seen only
in New York libraries, and cannot be referred to by page at this time.

182 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

important soil renovators in clayey soils, especially in climates a
little cooler than ours, are rather scarce in Florida. Our two larg-
est burrowing animals, which are confined to the coastal plain, or
nearly so, and seem to be more abundant in Florida than in any
other state, are the “salamander” (a rodent, Geomys Tusa)* and the
“gopher” (a turtle, Zestudo or Gopherus Polyphemus). These,
especially the former, are common in dry sandy pine lands, and to-
gether they must move almost every particle of soil in considerable
areas every few years, and thus counteract to a considerable
extent the leaching effect of the rain. In places not accessible to
these animals, such as islands, the soils are often perceptibly poorer
than the average. Other common soil animals are moles, crawfish
(in wet places), crabs (in and near salt marshes), and many insects
and crustacea which have not been identtfed.

Climate. As the climate does not vary much from one point to
another within the area studied (which extends over less than two
degrees of latitude), it is not discussed for each region separately.
The following table gives certain climatic data which appear to be
significant, for all stations in northern Florida for which the records
have been kept long enough to make the averages reasonably accu-
rate. Most of them are taken from Section 83 of Bulletin W of
the U. S. Weather Bureau, which brings the records down to the
end of 1908.

The data selected are the average temperature for January, July.
and the whole year, in degrees Fahrenheit, the average length of the
growing season (period between last killing frost in spring and first
killing frost in fall), in days, the average annual rainfall, in inches,
and the percentage of it that comes in the four warmest months
(June to September) and in the six warmest months (May to
October, inclusive).

*For notes on the distribution and habitats of this animal in Florida and
elsewhere see Science IJ. 35:115-119. Jan. 19, 1912.

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 183

Temperature | a 5 Rainfall

STATIONS | 5 w | Per cent | Per cent

Jan. July Annual 5 Y Annual | June- May-

eee au Ss | aS SE eee | Sept. 01) Oct
Plomiatons: .2 22.2 eee ssa ee 66.2 260 57.80 37.9 49.9
Rensacdla 11/2 wees Hee SOS Si A 67.9 || 285 56.07 44.5 56.1
Debunal: Sprines me) 516.-| 80.5 "122 --—-- Io 65.49 44.3 558
Si Amanew Ss pcs seeae roe clen feSl.St |: ass. See oa i) 58.69 | 47.8- | Gil
Wignelarem~er 2242 | 50.6 | S810 | 668 PAG Ia ||| ae ld PERN pe ca os
Garrabelie) 2. 28 Vporsee |< eil7 69.3 302 52.69 50.1 60.5
Tallahassee “£24 -Ue 0 52.1 | 80.4 67.2 277 57.12 46.9 59.0
Stephensvillet ____.__ Latta.) 80.7.1 6719 81 5540 | 591 | 66.6
iehiem sit ss OO ee ay CHO GOOr . [meet 54.90 52.7 64.5
Gainesvillen sos 2-45 | 54.9 | 81.4 69.3 294 51.34 54.1 66.5
Walken Gity reer | 55.6 S11 69.2 273 54.19 48.2 59.1
Miaicclenny ee | 54.6 | 81.9 68.9 268 51.63 | 498 63.9
Jacksonville: _2_______ | 53.9 80.9 | 682 293 52.53 51.0 67.2
St. Aueustine ..- 2%. 56.2 SL. 69.4 318 48.05 48.1 66.1
Ebimtine ton? 2.2255. 5 564 | 818 70.2 317 49.99 | 55.1 | 69.6

~

*Mostly in Escambia Co., Ala., but partly in Escambia Co., Fla.
tNear the southern corner of Taylor Co,
+In the southeastern part of Putnam Co.

It will be noticed that the differences in temperature between
different stations are not very marked, particularly in the case of
the July temperatures. There is more difference in the growing
season, and this probably has some significance, though in an area
as diversified as northern Florida it is difficult to separate its effects
from the more obvious ones of soil and topography. The total
rainfall ranges from 48.05 inches at St. Augustine to 65.49 inches
at DeFuniak Springs, apparently without any definite relation to
latitude or altitude, except that the high elevation of DeFuniak
(256 feet) may have something to do with the heavy precipitation
there, and the difference between Tallahassee and Carrabelle might
be explained in a similar manner.

The wetness of the summers varies somewhat too, being least
in the extreme northwest and generally greatest southeastward.
Although'the above figures do not bring it out very well, the rainy
season usually begins and ends a little earlier in the western parts
of the state than in the eastern. The percentages for both four and
six months are given to facilitate comparison with figures that have
been published by the writer elsewhere for other parts of the coastal
plain. The wettest four-month period seems to be at Stephensville
(which reports over ten inches of rain for both July and August),
but the wettest six-month period is at Huntington. At Flomaton
the rainfall is almost‘ equally balanced between the two halves of

184 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

the year, but the four warmest months get a little more than their
share.

Taking the area as a whole, the salient features of its climate,
as compared with that of Georgia and Alabama, are the mild dry
winters and wet summers. The copious summer rains, while they
make droughts rare, seem to be largely responsible for the pre-
valence of sandy soils and evergreen trees in Florida, for the rain

* and leave the sand,

tends to leach out the clay, lime, potash, etc.,
and evergreens seem to be especially characteristic of soils poor in
clay and potash, as already noted.y

Vegetation types. No systematic study of vegetation types is
attempted here, as explained on page 175, but under each region a
few of the leading types are mentioned. Special reference is made
to the frequency of fire, which varies greatly in different regions and
in different types of vegetation, Outside of the long-leaf pine
regions of the South (and somewhat similar forests in a few other
parts of the world), forest fires are comparatively infrequent, and
have been commonly regarded as regrettable accidents. But in
Florida it is evident that fire is a part of Nature’s program. The
pine forests which cover the greater part of the state everywhere
bear the marks of fire, which visits any one spot perhaps once in
two years, on the average. In pre-historic times the fires must have
been started mostly by lightning, but now they are mostly of human
origin. Although fires are more numerous at the present time than
they were originally, the area over which each one can spread 1s
limited by roads, clearings, and other artificial barriers, so
that the frequency of fire at any one point may not have changed
much. Long-leaf pine is injured less by fire than almost any other
tree, so that the effect of repeated fires is to give this tree the
advantage over all its associates.

It is reasonably certain that if fire were kept out of a long-leaf

*Cherrapongee, in Assam, is the wettest known place in the world, having
an annual rainfall of over 600 inches;! and travelers who have been there
report the surrounding country as practically barren. No doubt if the soil
is not all washed away it must be pretty thoroughly leached of plant food.

tSome of the probable relations of seasonal distribution of rainfall to the
character of the soil have been discussed briefly by the writer in Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 37:415-416. 1910; 40:395-306. 1913; Torreya 13:141. 1913; Geol.
Surv. Ala., Monog. 8-19, 24, 36. 1913. For notes on the relation of evergreens
to soils see footnote on pages 175-177 of this report.

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 1S5

pine forest long enough hardwood trees of various kinds would
come in and choke out the pine (which does not thrive in shade),
and thus convert the pine forest into a hammock.* Most of our
hammocks are in situations protected from fire by the topography,
as on slopes down which fire would not travel readily, or in places
partly surrounded by water.

Besides the native vegetation every region has areas greatly
modified by civilization, such as cultivated fields, old fields, road-
sides, railroad rights-of-way, etc. Some of the plants in such
places are native species which have survived the changed condi-
tions, but most of them have been brought in unintentionally by
man or domestic animals from other parts of the country or from
foreign countries, Most of the foreign weeds in Florida seem
to be of tropical origin, but we also have quite a number from
Europe and Asia. The great majority of them are herbs.

Plants which exist only in cultivation are not here regarded as
vegetation.

Plant lists. Each list aims to include all the wild plants, both
native and introduced, seen by the writer in the region under con-
sideration, except the rarer ones. Trees and shrubs seen only once
or twice in a given region are usually omitted, except in the case of
some of the smallest regions. A much larger proportion of the
herbs is omitted, partly to save space, and partly because the names
of the rarer herbs would-be meaningless to the average reader. For
some of the larger regions no herb is mentioned which has been
seen less than five or six times, which involves the omission of over
a hundred species from such a list. (For there are everywhere
more rare species than common ones.) Such omissions however
have little effect on the conclusions drawn from the quantitative
analyses, for the percentages of the omitted species are very small
fractions.

*This was pointed out a quarter of a century ago by the Jate Mrs. Ellen
Call Long, of Tallahassee, but her views never gained much credence in the
North, where forest conditions are very ditferent. The matter has been further
discussed by the writer in Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 38:515-525. IQII; 41 :217. 1914;
Geol. Surv. Ala. Monog. 8:25-26, 83, 116. 1913. Pop. Sci. Monthly, 85 :353-354.
1914. (See also C. D. Howe in Forestry Quarterly, 11:545-546. Dec. 1913).

+For notes on Florida weeds see the paper by Neal cited in the bibliography,
and for speculations on the origin of some of our weeds see Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 35 :347-360. 1908.

186 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

The lists are divided into five parts, as follows:—(1) trees,
large enough to make lumber ; (2) small trees or large shrubs (some
of which may become good-sized trees elsewhere); (3) woody
vines; (4) ordinary shrubs; (5) herbs. These categories grade into
each other more or less, for Nature draws few sharp lines; but in
the great majority of cases there is no doubt about which class a
plant belongs in.* The cellular cryptograms (i. e., mosses, lichens,
fungi, etc.) are left out entirely, partly because the writer is not one
of those few persons who can identify them at sight, and partly be-
cause they are so small as to be insignificant in quantitative anal-
yses.

In each of the five classes the species are arranged in order of
percentages. The percentage figures precede the names, except in
the case of-a few of the smallest or least explored regions, as ex-
plained above, and toward the foot of the lists, where they are omit-
ted because they would require too many decimal places.

A feature of these lists which seems to be entirely new is the
indication, by arbitrary symbols, of species that are decidedly more
or less abundant in a given region than in the whole area considered.
Where a species is more abundant than in the average area a +
sign is used, and where it is more abundant than in any other region
the sign is doubled. Where it is less abundant than the average the
fact is indicated by a — sign. Of course theoretically in any region
every species mentioned is either more or less abundant than it is in
northern Florida as a whole, but these symbols are used only where
the apparent difference is great enough so that it is not likely to be
reversed by future investigations.

This scheme has both a scientific and a practical value. First,
it shows at a glance what species are most characteristic of each
region, and which may be assumed to prefer the particular soil
conditions that prevail in that region. Some interesting conclusions
are brought out in this way in some of the regional descriptions.
Second, any one who is looking for a supply of any particular kind
of timber, or any herb, can tell by the double -+- marks just where

*In a few of the lists the same species (e. g., Nyssa Ogeche) appears both
as a large tree and as a small tree or shrub, but not without reason. The
persimmon (Diospyros Virginiana) is often a full-sized tree, but shrubby speci-
mens are more numerous than arborescent ones, and consequently it appears in
most of the lists under the head of small trees or shrubs. The same is true
of the sassafras, except that it rarely becomes a regular tree in Florida.

GEOGRAPHy AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 187
in northern Florida that species is most abundant. To obviate the
necessity of looking through nineteen or twenty lists, the pages on
which the double -+- marks appear are all indicated in the index.

The technical name of every species is given, the names being
mostly the same as in the second edition of Small’s Flora of the
Southeastern United States, 1913. (Where that book is not fol-
lowed it is usually because the subdivision of genera and species is
carried farther in it than the facts seem to warrant. )

The names of evergreens are printed in bold-face type, so that
they will be more conspicuous, as the plants themselves are in win-
ter. In the case of a few species that are semi-evergreen only half
the name is printed in bold-face.

The names of weeds are followed by (X), or in doubtful cases
(X?). In deciding which are weeds no dependence has been placed
on statements in botanical manuals, for in such books many species
which are unquestionably weeds are not distinguished in any way
from native plants. The only reliable test of weediness is habitat,
a matter which is greatly neglected by most systematists. When a
species is found in a given region only in habitats created or modi-
fied by civilization it is assumed that it did not exist in that region
originally ; whether the history of its introduction is known or not,
and even whether the same species is known in any foreign country
or not. The application of this criterion results in classing as weeds
many species which have probably never been thus stigmatized be-
fore. (It is interesting and probably significant that very few of
the weeds are evergreen).

The technical names are followed by common names, if such
are known. Nearly all the trees have common names, but some of
the smaller plants are so inconspicuous or unimportant that they
have never been named except by botanists. For many such plants
alleged common names can indeed be found in botanical books, but
these are often mere translations of the technical names, and would
mean no more to the average reader than the technical names do.
The common names adopted here are bona-fide ones, known to be
used in Florida by persons who did not get them from books, but
in a few cases names used in other states, which may be familiar to
some readers, are given in parentheses.

In the last column the usual habitat of each species is indicated
in a few words, but no special study of bn US is attempted ner,
as previously explained.

12

IS8 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

After each plant list are a few remarks on characteristic species,
species conspicuous by their absence or scarcity, and other noteworthy
features of the vegetation, including particularly a summation of
the percentages of evergreens, Ericaceae and Leguminosae, which
are correlated as far as possible with soil characters.‘ In this way
some conclusions are drawn which have never been possible before,
and which it is hoped will be of some value.

Economic features. The most important use made of the native
vegetation is converting the pines into lumber and naval stores; but
no satisfactory statistics of the production of these commodities for
areas smaller than states seem to be available, so that the status of
the industries can be indicated only in a general way. In all the
regions a great deal of wood is consumed for fuel (for coal is little
used in Florida except on the railroads and 1n the cities) ; and the
native grasses and other herbage furnish pasturage for cattle,
which have free range in every region here described except one.
Another way in which the vegetation is converted to the use of
mankind through the agency of animals is in the production of
honey, which’ is.an important item in some of the counties, and
might be made so in nearly all.

The statistics of population, improved land, etc., are derived
mostly from the 13th U. S. census (of 1910) by the tedious process
of dividing up the figures for each county proportionately to the
area of the several regions represented therein, and adding all the
figures for each region. This involves the assumption that the
population is uniformly distributed in each county, which of course
is not quite correct; but the errors arising from this cause counter-
balance each other to some extent. For total population (but not
for race and sex) the figures are given in the census reports for pre-
cincts as well as for counties, but in the absence of maps showing
the location of the precincts no geographical advantage can be
taken of that fact.

The crop statistics in the government census reports are unsat-
isfactory because they do not give values for areas smaller than
states, and do not separate the two kinds of cotton, and the numer-
ous kinds of vegetables that are raised in Florida. The informa-
tion about crops given herein is derived mostly from the biennial
report of the state Commissioner of Agriculture for 1911 and 1912.
The production of any one crop varies so from year to year that it

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA, 1&9

is hardly worth while to publish the figures for the several regions,
but the crops of each region are arranged as nearly as possible in
order of value. The rank of the different crops varies from one
region to another much like that of the native trees, though not to so
great an extent, for differences in soil are now overcome in large
measure by the use of fertilizers.

The amount of improved land and the density and other features
of the population are usually correlated pretty closely with soil, topo-
graphy and vegetation. For example, where rich soils and decidu-
ous forests predominate there is nearly always a larger area under
cultivation, a denser population and more negroes than in the pine
regions with poorer soil ;* but the population is increasing faster at
present in some of the poor soil regions than in the richer ones, be-
cause the latter have more nearly reached the limit of density of
purely agricultural population (which in the eastern United States
seems to be about 40 inhabitants per square mile. )

Illustrations. The illustrations have been selected with a view
of giving typical examples of the vegetation and other scenery of
each region, but several times as many would be necessary to do
the subject justice. Except where otherwise specified they are from
the writer’s own photographs. Figures 51, 54, 55, 63, 64, 66, 76,
and 84-88 are reprinted from previous annual reports, and 72 from
the Popular Science Monthly. The rest are published here for the
first time. In order to simplify the binding, and also make them
easy to find, they are assembled together at the end of the last
regional description.

*In this connection see E. A, Smith, Tenth Census U. S. 6:71-74. 1884.

EPORT.

NUAL R

XTH AN

SI

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY:

190

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GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA, Igt

THE REGIONS IN DETAIL.

The location and area of the several regions are shown by the
outline map (page 190). The following synopsis, which is patterned
after a taxonomic key, brings out the contrasts between neighboring
regions about as well as it can be done in so few words.

SYNOPSIS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS.

Soil largely red clay. Topography rather hilly.
Streams common. _
Limestone outcrops frequent. Caves and natural bridges present....
1. Marianna Red Lands.
Limestone impure, cropping out only on bluffs. No caves..........
3. Apalachicola River Bluffs.

INCOR TOC OULEHOD Spr ra ce rrccte fees MeL eee ere sobre 4. Knox Hill Country.
Streams scarce.

TNO), TET Oe 5 Re ea Ue ee ae Th CEE ne Joe Yo 5. Holmes Valley.

Pakestand: (pons *eOmMMmOil- :. 2.622 eos ee 11. Tallahassee Red Hills.

Soil and topography various. Hammocks common ....... spo idgWticm 39 See
10. Middle Florida Hammock Belt.
Soil prevailingly sandy.
Topography normally dissected. Streams common..................

7. West Florida Pine Hills.
Topography mostly wind-formed.

Saltamanshiesuscarcemacrr acura eee rine Dae 8. West Florida Coast Strip.
Saltanarswesewelledevelopedenncs.ch- see » cscs sake 20. East Coast Strip.
Topography pitted.
Sand thin, on clay subsoil........ 2. West Florida Cypress Pond Region.
Sand deep and loose.
Sernal WOauesS. bile sallclee Gols seo oko a Os ae nic 13. Wakulla Hammock Country.

Sand fine and somewhat loamy.
Small limestone outcrops frequent.
Dp lOSpPHate> . swe a emmaneb ee aetna) wets 12. Bellair Sand Region.
Phosphate beneath the sand in many places..................
17. Peninsular Lime-sink Region.
No rock on uplands.
Lakes common.

Wplands@ilattish kewcneemeee ete 6. West Florida Lake Region.
Wnlandswundilating see eee cee este 18. Peninsular Lake Region.
Pavsecomimoceno: lakesmece soe cae. eters 14. Panacea Country.
Topography essentially flat.
Limestone outcrops abundant ................ 15. Gulf Hammock Region.

No limestone on uplands.
Clay scarce.

; Region bordering Gulf coast .......5.... 9. Apalachicola Flatwoods.
Region about 20 miles inland ........ 16. Middle Florida Flatwoods
Glay usually “within’ a, few feet of surface Gia. 2.) ee ee

19. East Florida Flatwoods.

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I. MARIANNA RED LANDS.
(FIGURES I2, 41, 42)

References. Matson & Clapp (57), Matson & Sanford (77, 327-329),
E, A. Smith 2 (196-197, 218), J. D. Smith, and U. S. soil survey of: the
“Marianna area’ (by Jones, Rowe, Britton, Hardison and Zappone, 1910).

This region embraces something like 450 square miles in Florida,
situated on both sides of the Chipola River in Jackson County, and
it extends a few miles into Alabama. Its nearest counterpart else-
where is in the red lands of Dougherty County, Georgia, and the
lime hills of southwestern Alabama, which are characterized by the
same or similar geological formations.

Geology and Soils—The underlying rock is a Lower Oligocene
limestone which has been called Vicksburg in Mississippi, St.
Stephens or White Limestone in Alabama, and Marianna in Florida.
It is the oldest formation known to come to the surface in this state.
It crops out in many places, especially near the Chipola River,* and
is quite pure, an average sample analyzing 94 per cent of calcium
carbonate. Where exposed naturally on the uplands it is moderate-
ly hard, but a few feet below the surface it is soft enough to be cut
with a saw. This rock is used very largely in the red lands and
neighboring regions for chimneys and underpinning, and occasion-
ally for the walls of buildings. (It is probably safe to say that at
the present time the majority of the chimneys in Jackson County are
of this material; and its use is equally common in the correspond-
ing parts of southwestern Alabama.)

On many of the hills the Vicksburg or Marianna formation 1s
overlaid by a more clayey limestone belonging to the Chattahoochee
formation (Upper Oligocene). The prevailing soil on the uplands
is a red loam, containing from about 15 per cent to 70 per cent of
silt and clay. Some of it is evidently derived from the weathering
of the Vicksburg and Chattahoochee limestones, while some may
represent newer superficial formations, such as the Lafayette. The
sandiest soils are usually on the highest elevations, remote from

*In the soil survey of the “Marianna area” it was estimated that
there are 384 acres of rock outcrop in the area surveyed, which is mostly
west of the river; and there is probably enough rock east of the river to
bring the total up to a square mile, or approximately 1-5 of I per cent of
‘the whole area of the region.

193

IQ4 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

streams. In virgin forests, especially on slopes and in valleys, there
is considerable humus.

The following mechanical analyses of five typical upland_.soils
of this region are taken from the soil survey of the ‘Marianna
area,’ published in the fall of 1910. (The dimensions of the seven
classes of soil particles are not given in that publication, but have
been taken from other publications of the U. S. Bureau of Soils.)
The first is the ‘‘Greenville clay,’ a reddish or brownish clay loam
believed to be mostly residual from the underlying limestone. The
second is the “Greenville sandy loam,”’ which differs from the first
in being more sandy, and is believed to be derived mostly from the
Lafayette formation. The third is the “Orangeburg fine sandy
lcam,” a gray, brown, or reddish-brown fine sandy loam with red
sandy clay subsoil, both soil and subsoil usually containing many
small ferruginous concretions. The fourth is the “Orangeburg
coarse sandy loam,’ somewhat coarser than the preceding, as its
name implies. The fifth is the “Norfolk fine sandy loam,” a gray
or light brown medium fine sandy loam with yellow sandy clay sub-
soil, presumably derived from the Lafayette formation, like the two
preceding. Percentage figures for both soil and subsoil are given
1:1 the publication cited, but only those for the top soil are reproduced
here.

MECHANICAL ANALYSES: OF SoILs OF MARIANNA ReEpD LAnps.

I 2 3 4 5

Fine gravel) (2-1. nam) aoe 0.9 2.8 1.2 2.3 1.0
Coarse sand: (1-5) yi ee 3.2 15.1 10.4 27.8 12.3
Medium. sand, (.5-:25..mm.), ~-:--_ 2.0 11.6 8.3 16,1 12.4
Pine sand iG25=-1 amm)e 22 ===" 13.6 31.4 35.7 24.3 37.8
Very fine sand €.1-.05 mm.) _-____ I1.0 12.8 25.7 9.1 18.3
Silt 1Gos2005. amin.) ees oe 10.3 Tie LOO 8.9 10.3
Glay/(Go0os5so.minr.) (ee re Sr O10, 14.9 8.8 17 7.9
Sco eee ik ran es ER OT LO0:024) 00:3)! 00.1 | 100:2.5 00:0

Very little has been done in the way of correlating such figures
as these with vegetation, but presumably when other things are
equal the soil that has the largest proportion of fine particles has the
most available potassium and other minerals.

Dr, Eugene A. Smith in the 6th volume of the Tenth Census,
page 197, gives the following analysis of red loam soil from the low-
lands of Spring Creek near Campbellton, where the principal trees
were hickory, sweet gum, post, red and Spanish oaks, and short-
leaf pine. The sample represents a depth of ten inches, and the

I. MARIANNA RED LANDS, 195

land when fresh was said to yield about 1,500 pounds of seed cot-
ton per acre. (The percentages given do not represent the total of
each constituent, but the amounts soluble in hydrochiovic acid.)

Wiatervandworsanicematter = sa Ss 4.053 per cent
Potasie (ice @ pens ees Frees a Ea ee (07a ees
Soya tes(INIE EXON) eee es TUE ee a eee O19

Limes ((Ga@) pp ee eee PLet e200
Wiaearesicign Vie @))) | seein whee ope ye ee ee 105
Phosphoric racidradiclen(P20s5))) ==_ =.= 222
Sulpaimicsactdsradicle ((S Og) pee = .033
Brown oxide of,manganese (Mn304) -_------ .077
Feromiderot iron \C(hie2O gr) eee 2 oe STS
ZANtiinitiave CAl2@3)) seas ae See ae 6.885
Soluiblessilicay 2.2.22" = Bhs 5 see, een 8 as pL 22 F250
Irnsouhwloike: tameiniee Loos = So oN eee ee OA2AO

This is one of the richest soils in Florida. As compared with
the three other northern Florida soils analyzed in the same report,
ii has the most organic matter,.lime, magnesia, alumina and soluble
siiica, and the least insoluble matter, and is next to the highest in
potash and iron. It is somewhat deficient in potash as compared with
soils of regions that have colder winters and drier summers, how-
ever.

Topography and Hydrography—tThe topography is undulating
to moderately hilly, and diversified in the rocky places by a few sinks,
caves, low cliffs, etc. Streams are fairly common, but some of
the drainage is subterranean. The Chipola River and one or two of
its tributaries run underground for short distances, forming natural

ridges; Some of the creeks have sufficient fall to be utilized for
water-power. There are quite a number of small springs, issuing
from beneath limestone cliffs, and a few large ones, the best known
of which is the Chipola or Long Moss Spring, at the head of Spring
Creek, about six nules E. N. E. of Marianna. In dry weather the
water in most of the streams is clear and bluish, on account of the
limestone dissolved in it. The ground-water in many places lies so
deep that force-pumps are required to raise it to the surface for do-
mestic use,

Vegetation Types—The most characteristic vegetation types of
this region are those of the rock outcrops and of the residual red
ciay, where deciduous trees predominate, and form rather dense
forests. The streams are bordered by swamps whuse width is ap-
proximately proportional to the volume of water. On the sandy up-
lands there is considerable long-leaf pine, black-jack oak, and other

196 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

trees more characteristic of the region to be described next. There
are a few shallow ponds which dry up in spring, and these too are
more characteristic of region no. 2.

Forest fires are comparatively rare here, as in other regions
where hardwood trees predominate, and except in the long-leaf pine
forests they are a negligible factor. |

Plants—The following list is based on observations made on
four days in March, one in April, three in May, two in June, three
in September, and one in December; total fourteen. (See page 186
for explanation of symbols, figures, etc. ).

TREES

+13.7 Pinus Taeda
—10.4 Pinus palustris

Short-leaf pine*
Long-leaf pine

Various situations
Sandy soils

+ 7.3 Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine Dry soils
+ 5.7 Liquidambar Styraciflua Sweet gum Various situations
+ 5.0 Quercus falcata Red oakt Dry woods
+ 4.1 Cornus florida Dogwood Dry woods
+ 3.8 Pinus glabra Spruce pine Rich woods
++ 3.7 Juniperus Virginiana Cedar Rock outcrops mostly
++ 3.6 Quercus Marylandica Black-jack oak Dry woods
3.1 Magnolia grandiflora Magnoliat Rich woods
+ 3.0 Fagus grandifolia Beech Rich woods
2.0 Taxodium distichum Cypress Swamps
++ 1.9 Cercis Canadensis Redbud Rich woods
+ 1.7 Quercus stellata Post Oak Dry woods
++ 1.6 Acer Floridanum Sugar Maple Rich woods
+ 1.4 Quercus laurifolia (Evergreen wil-
low oak) Rich woods
+ 1.4 Ilex opaca Holly Rich woods
1.3 Quercus nigra Water oak Low grounds
1.3 Nyssa biflora Black gum Swamps
+ 1.2 Quercus alba White oak Rich woods
+ 1.1 Ostrya Virginiana Rich woods
+ 1.1 Carpinus Caroliniana Ironwood Bottoms, etc,
+ 1.0 Nyssa uniflora Tupelo gum Swamps and sloughs
— 1.0 Pinus Elliottii Slash pine Low grounds
+ 1.0 Hicoria alba Hickory Dry woods
— 0.9 Magnolia glauca Bay Swamps
+ .9 Quercus Schneckii (Red oak) Rich woods

*Also called loblolly pine.
+Goes by this name in all the southern states, but called “Spanish oak’’

in northern books.

+This technical name is now very widely disseminated, but in some of ©
the remotest rural districts one occasionally hears this tree called “loblolly”
or some other vernacular name.

I. MARIANNA RED LANDS.

.9 Celtis occidentalis

8 Quercus cinerea

.7 Quercus Virginiana

.7 Ulmus Floridana

.7 Melia Azedarach (X)
-7 Fraxinus Caroliniana?
-7 Halesia Carolina

6 Acer rubrum

.6 Taxodium imbricarium
55 Quercus Michauxii

.5 Prunus serotina (X)
5 Quercus Catesbaei
.5 Liriodendron Tulipifera
.5 Fraxinus Americana?
.4 Quercus Muh!lenbergii
.4 Ulmus Americana?
.4 Quercus lyrata
.4 Nyssa sylvatica
-3 Populus deltoides
-3 Persea Borbonia
.3 Morus rubra
2 Quercus Phellos
.2 Salix nigra
“++ .1 Juglans nigra
SMALL TREES

+ 14 Batodendron arboreum
.o8 Cyrilla racemiflora

.o8 Prunus angustifolia (X)
.o7 Diospyros Virginiana (X)
.06 Myrica cerifera

.05 Viburnum rufidulum
.04 Osmanthus Americanus
.0o4 Prunus umbellata

.o4 Symplocos tinctoria
.o4 Prunus Americana

.03 Sassafras variifolium
‘03 Crataegus aestivalis

.o2 Chionanthus Virginica

Hackberry
(Turkey oak)
Live oak
Elm
Chinaberry
Ash

Maple

Pond cypress

(Swamp chestnut
oak)

Wild cherry
Black-jack oak
Poplar

Ash

Oak

Elm

Swamp post oak
Black gum
Cottonwood
Red bay
Mulberry
Willow oak
Willow
Walnut

Bottoms
Sandy soils

Bottoms

Along fences, etc.
Swamps

Rich woods
Swamps

Ponds

Bottoms

Along fences, etc.
Sandy soils

Wet woods

Rich woods
Rich woods

‘Bottoms
Bottoms

Dry or rich woods
Ditches, etc.
Bottoms

Bottoms

Low grounds
Low grounds
Rich woods

OR LARGE SHRUBS

Sparkleberry
Tyty

Wild plum
Persimmon
Myrtle

Black haw

Wild plum

Wild plum
Sassafras
May haw
Graybeard

WOODY VINES

.or Rhus radicans

Poison ivy

Dry woods
Swamps

Old fields, etc.
Old fields, etc.
Rich woods, etc.
Dry woods, etc.
Rich woods
Dry woods
Rich woods
Rich woods
Old fields, ete.
Small ponds
Rich woods

Swamps, etc.

.ot Parthenocissus quinquefolia Virginia creeper Rich woods, etc.
Yellow jessamine Various situations

Gelsemium sempervirens
Decumaria barbara
Tecoma radicans
Smilax lanceolata
Ampelopsis arborea

(Cow-itch)
(Wild smilax)

Wet woods
Various situations
Various situations
Low grounds

198 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Rattan vine
Cross vine

Berchemia ‘scandens

Bignonia crucigera

Vitis rotundifolia
bullace

SHRUBS

.02 Sabal glabra Palmetto

.or Cornus stricta?*

.Ol Hypericum galioides pallidum

or Aesculus Pavia Buckeye

ot Rhamnus Caroliniana

ol Hydrangea quercifolia

-or Aralia spinosa

ot Cephalanthus occidentalis
Rubus cuneifolius (X)

+++4+4++

Seven-bark
Prickly ash
Elbow-bush
Blackberry

: Ilex glabra Gallberry
Viburnum obovatum
Itea Virginica
Asimina parviflora Pawpaw
Rhus copallina Sumac

Callicarpa Americana

A Viburnum semitomentosum
-Sebastiana ligustrina
Amorpha fruticosa

— Serenoa serrulata

Euonymus Americanus (Strawberry

bush)
Hypericum fasciculatum
Ceanothus Americanus

++ Adelia ligustrina

ae Rhapidophyllum MHystrix

(Red-shank)

HERBS

+ .004 Tillandsia usneoides

+ .oo1 Baptisia alba
Milkweed

+ .oo1 Asclepias variegata
++ .oo1 Sanicula gregaria
== Asplenium resiliens (A. fern)
+ Hartmannia speciosa (X)
=e Dryopteris patens? (A fern)
= hale Thaspium barbinode Chapmani

Mitchella repens
Juncus repens

y Nymphaea chartacea Bonnets
SPS Solidago amplexicaulis Goldenrod
+ Salvia lyrata ;
Shae Mesadenia diversifolia

Muscadine or

French mulberry

Saw pa!metto

(Needle palm)

Spanish moss

Swamps and bottoms
Woods

Various situations

Bottoms

Bottoms

Bottoms

Dry or rich woods
Rock outcrops mostly
Rich woods and bluffs
Rich woods

Ponds and swamps
Sandy roadsides, etc.
Low pine land
Bottoms, etc.

Swamps

Rich or dry woods
Dry woods, etc.

Dry woods, etc.

Rich woods

Bottoms

Bottoms

Sandy soils

Rich woods
Around ponds
Dry woods
Rock outcrops
Rich woods

On trees

Dry woods

Dry or rich woods
Rich woods

‘Gitts: setc-m

Roadsides, etc.
Rocky places’
Rocky places

(Partridge berry) Rich woods

Shallow ponds
Chipola River
Rich woods
Dry woods
Bottoms

*Some of this may be C. asperifolia, which was not always distinguished

in my field notes.

oe

ae

+

++

+

++

+

I. MARIANNA RED LANDS.

Scrophularia Marylandica
Polystichum .acrostich-
oides
Aqui-:egia australis
Atamosco Atamasco
Andropogon scoparius
(X?) Broom-sedge
Sorghum Halepense (X) Johnson grass
Smilax pumila

(A fern)
(Columbine)

Viola affinis? Violet
Nothoscordum striatum (X?)
Triadenum petiolatum

Conopholis Americana

Sanguinaria Canadensis (Bloodroot)

Tsopvrum biternatum ,
Myriophy!lum laxum?

Arisaema Dracontium

Rudbeckia sp,

Dicerandra linearifotia

Dryopteris The'ypteris (A fern)
Pachysandra procumbens
Urticastrum divaricatum

Senecio obovatus?

Carex Harperi (A sedge)
Polymnia Uvedalia Bear-foot

Gratiola Floridana?
Gratiola sphaerocarpa?
Hymenocallis sp.
Trillium Hugeri
Sarracenia flava

Spider-lily

Pitcher plant

199
Rich woods

Rich woods
Cliffs
Rich woods

Old fields, etc.
Old fields, etc.
Rich woods
Rich woods

Swamps
Rich woods
Rich woods
Cliffs
Springs
Rich woods

Sandy soils
Low grounds
Rich woods
Rich woods
Dry woods
Wet woods
Rich woods
Wet woods
Wet woods
Bottoms
Rich woods
Low pine land

Sarothra gentianoides (X) (Poverty weed) Old fie!ds, ete.

Epiphegus Virginiana>
Sagitteria natans lorata?
Dasystoma Virginica
Anthemis Cotula (X)
Daucus pusilius (X)
Sanicula Marylandica
Meibomia laevigata
Morongia uncinata
Cnidoscolus stimulosus
Meibomia nudiflora
Erianthus sp.
Eupatorium compositifo-
lium (X)
Collinsonia anisata
(and about 125 others)

(Dog-fennel)
(Wild carrot)

(Beggar-lice)
(Nettle)
(A grass)

i

Dog-fennel

Rich woods, on ‘beech
Springs

Dry or rich woods
Roadsides, ete.
Roadsides, etc.
Rich woods

Rich woods
Sandy soils

Dry woods

Rich woods

Dry woods

Old fields, ete. ‘
Dry or rich woods

The following trees which are more or less common either in different re-

gions not far away, or in other red clay regions in the South, are rare or ab-
sent here: Pinus serotina, Hicoria glabra, Betula nigra, Quercus geminata, Quer-
cus Catesbaei, Magnolia macrophylla, Platanus, Gleditschia, Tilia, Sassafras, and

200 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Oxydendrum. The soil is evidently too rich for some of these, while others pre-
fer alluvial soils or other special conditions not well developed in this region.

The species which seem to be more abundant in this region than in other
parts of Florida are indicated by double + marks, as explained on page 186.
A few of these are confined to rock outcrops and are presumably lime-loving.
The two commonest oaks, Quercus falcata and Q. Marylandica, appear to require
ferruginous soils, while some other species probably prefer this region on ac-
count of the abundance of humus and infrequency of fire. The Aquilegia and
Pachysandra are not known elsewhere in Florida, or even in the neighboring
parts of Georgia and Alabama.

The percentages for evergreens add up only 49, which is the lowest figure
for any region of equal extent in Florida. Only 1.6 per cent of the shrubs are
Ericaceae; a very small proportion for Florida, doubtless correlated with the
comparative richness of the soil. The percentage of Leguminosae among the
herbs is 10.4, which is about the average.

Economic Features. The long-leat pine, the most important tim-
ber tree of the South, is not abundant enough here to invite exten-
sive lumbering and turpentining operations, but it and many of
the other trees have been used for fuel, building material, and
numerous other purposes on the farms. The cedar is used for fence-
posts and pencil-wood.

According to the census of 1910 Jackson County had about 30
per cent of its area in improved land. (Allowing 10 per cent for
oid fields and other unclassified areas, this leaves about 60 per cent
forest). There were 31 inhabitants to the square mile, an increase
of 27 per cent since 1900, and 52 per cent of them were white. For
the fertile red lands under consideration, which cover a little less
than half of the county, the proportion of woodland must be consid-
erably less, the density of the population somewhat greater, and
the decennial increase and the percentage of whites conde
less, in the rural districts at least.

The principal crops in 1912, in order of value, were as fol-
lows: Upland or short-staple cotton, corn, peanuts, sweet potatoes,
sugar cane, (grass) hay, oats, watermelons, velvet beans, field peas
including hay thereof), peaches and pecans.

2s WEST FLORIDA LIME-SINK REGION, 201

2. WEST FLORIDA LIME-SINK OR CYPRESS POND
REGION.
(FIGURES 43-48 )

References. Harper 1 (219), Matson & Clapp (57-58, 145), Matson &
Sanford (78, 325-329), Sellards 1 (67-68), Sellards & ‘Gunter 3 (111-113)
Smith 2 (224, 225), and U. S. soil survey of the “Marianna area.” Il'us-
trated in 2nd Ann. Rep., pl, 2.2; 4th Ann. Rep., pl. 13.2, 15.2, 15-3, 16.1, 16.2.

This region embraces about 1,600 square miles in West Florida,
and extends northeastward through Alabama into Southwest Geor-
gia, if not all the way across the latter state. The boundary between
it and the red lands just described is pretty sharp in some places, but
not everywhere. ;

Geology and Soils—This region, like the first, is everywhere un-
derlaid by the Vicksburg limestone, which is exposed in only a few
places, mostly along streams and in sinks, though there is no telling
how much of the clay that conceals the rocks is residual from the
same formation. Over the Vicksburg limited areas of the Chatta-
hoochee formation have been recognized. Rock Hill, about 4 1-2
miles southeast of Chipley,* is capped by a mottled argillaceous
sandstone which appears to be identical-with the Altamaha Grit of
Georgia, and on its southern slope are large boulder-like masses of
blackish ferruginous sandstone, which have been referred to the La-
fayette formation. The mottled sandstone is not known to occur
elsewhere in Florida, and the blackish rock is much more common
a little farther north.

The soil is mostly a few inches or feet of grayish sand or sandy
loam, passing downward into reddish or mottled sandy clay or
clayey loam many feet thick, which may be a comparatively recent
formation (Lafayette), though in some places it is evidently derived
from the weathering of the underlying Tertiary strata. Where the
clay is near the surface the ground is often thickly strewn with fer-
ruginous concretions or nodules an inch or less in diameter, making
what is commonly called “pimply” land, and now considered very
desirable for agricultural purposes. There is nearly everywhere
enough sand to make plowing easy in any kind of weather, and to
keep the roads from getting muddy.

No chemical analyses of soils from this region are available ; but
in that part included in the ‘‘Marianna area’ the most extensive

a

*For descriptions of this locality see Matson & Clapp (145, pl. 7.1),
Harper 2, Matson & Sanford (150, pl. 12.A.)

202 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH. ANNUAL REPORT.

type of soil is the “Norfolk fine sandy loam,” of which a mechanical
analysis was given under the head of the Marianna red lands, a few
pages back.

A strip a few miles wide along the Chattahoochee-Apalachicola
River has certain peculiarities which a'most entitle it to be described
separately. Much of its soil is a chocolate-colored sandy loam, evi-
dently above the average of this part of the world in fertility.

Topography and Hydrography—The prevailing topography is
irregularly undulating. There seem to be no extensive flat areas,
except in the vicinity of some of the rivers, and these are always
lower than the adjoining country, and may represent ancient ter-
races, though in soil and vegetation they differ little from the more
elevated areas. Steep slopes are uncommon except on the immediate
banks of streams, but there are quite a number of irregularly
shaped and more or less isolated hiils standing 50 feet or more above
the surrounding country, particularly in Washington County,

The occurrence of a few lime-sinks and natural bridges shows
the effects of solution on the topography, but in the present state of
knowledge it is impossible to say whether solution or erosion has
been the principal factor in giving the surface its present form.
Much of the drainage is subterranean, and in many places one can
go several miles at right angles to the general direction of the
streams without crossing any running water. The region is pretty
well supplied with creeks and rivers, though, and there are several
large blue limestone springs. Some of the creeks furnish water-
power.

Ponds of all sizes, from a fraction of an acre to a few square
miles, abound. Their average size is perhaps two or three acres; and
few of them are deep enough to hold water all the year round. Some
are nearly circular, and some are so long and narrow that they can
herdly be distinguished from branches; and there may indeed be all
gradations between ponds and branches in this region. The amount
of seasonal fluctuation of water varies in different ponds from
about one to five feet, depending on the area and depth of the basins
tiiey occupy, the sandiness of the soil, etc. Those in which the water
fluctuates least are known as bays, on account of their vegetation,
which will be referred to on the next page.

Where the superficial sand and clay are thick enough water for

domestic purposes is obtained from shallow dug wells and suction
pumps, but where the limestone approaches the surface the ground-

2. WEST FLORIDA LIME-SINK REGION, 203

water level is usually lower, and force-pumps and artesian wells are
used.

In the river strip above mentioned the ground-water level ex-
hibits some curious irregularities. A few miles south of Sneads, if
not elsewhere, can be found places where the water is perpetually
‘seeping out on gentle slopes, characterized by sandy bog vegetation,
and then at the bottom of the same slope, perhaps fifty yards away,
may often be found a lime-sink with no water in it; showing that
the ground-water surface is more irregular than the surface of the
ground in such places. (See Fig. 43.)

Vegetation Types—The prevailing type of vegetation is open
forests of long-leaf pine, so open that wagons can be driven through
them almost anywhere (and consequently the minor roads are ill-
defined and changeable). The scarcity of underbrush seems to be
due primarily to the fires, set originally by lightning, and now
mostly by man, either purposely or accidentally. The fires burn ove1
every part of the pine woods nearly every year, usually in the
latter part of the dry season (early spring), with little injury to the
pines, as explained on page 184. The pine forests can be divided ac-
cording to topography and moisture into three types, namely, high
cr dry, low or wet, and intermediate. These all intergrade, and
have much the same general appearance, but in the low pine land
tle trees are mostly slash pine instead of long-leaf.

Most of the ponds are so full of trees that it would be impossible
to use row-boats on them. In those where the water fluctuates
three or four feet during the year the pond cypress is almost the
only tree; where the annual fluctuation averages about two feet
there is usually some slash pine mixed with the cypress; and where
it is a foot or less there is a dense undergrowth of evergreen shrubs |
ar:d vines, making a type of vegetation known as bays.* Some of
the smaller ponds in the more clayey soils contain black gum or May
haw instead of cypress and pine.

The streams are bordered by swamps and bottoms, varying in
character with the size and fluctuation of the stream and the
amount of lime or mud in the water. Strips of hammock vegeta-

*Where the fluctuation is greatest the proportion of evergreens is
least, and vice versa; which seems to indicate that a constant water-level
limits the availability of the potassium compounds and other mineral p!ant
food, perhaps simply by preventing aeration. (See Wiley, U. S. Dept.
Agric. Yearbook 1896:127; Harper, Torreya 11:225-234, I9II-)

13

204

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

tion are found along most of the creeks and rivers, and especially
in the forks of streams, where fire cannot easily penetrate.

Plants—TVhe following list is based on observations made in all

four seasons, as follows:

+46.0 Pinus palustris
+15.4 Taxodium imbricarium
+ 87 Pinus Elliottii
+ 3.4 Nyssa biflora
— 3.1 Magnolia glauca
3.0 Pinus Taeda
2.0 Quercus falcata

++

yell

Quercus Catesbaei
Liquidambar Styraciflua
Magnolia grandiflora
Quercus cinerea
Taxodium distichum
Liriodendron Tulipifera
Cornus florida

Quercus nigra

Quercus Marylandica
Pinus glabra

Salix nigra

Nyssa uniflora

Pinus echinata

Ilex opaca

Acer rubrum

Quercus laurifolia
Planera aquatica
Populus deltoides
Carpinus Caroliniana
Fraxinus Caroliniana
Betula nigra

2 Quercus lyrata

2 Nyssa Ogeche

.2 Fagus grandifolia
2
2

, seb 3 A eed Ce ree ee ae hasten ah
Wi W698 6) F BR Ul tn tn Ut oN NT ST NYO 4 EW ©

Quercus Virginiana
.2 Platanus occidentalis
.16 Quercus stellata
.I5 Quercus Margaretta
.I5 Hicoria alba
15 Quercus Michauxii

.15 Hicoria aquatica

.13 Acer rubrum tridens?
.12 Crataegus viridis

-I2 Cercis Canadensis

TREES

Long-leaf pine
Cypress

(Slesh pine)
Black gum
Bay

Short-leaf pine
Red oak
Black-jack oak
Sweet gum
Magnolia
(Turkey oak)
Cypress
Poplar
Dogwood
Water oak
Black-jack oak
Spruce pine
Willow
Tupelo gum
Short-leaf pine
Holly

Maple

Oak

Cottonwood
Ironwood

Ash

Birch

Swamp post oak
Tupelo gum

Beech

Total,

March, 5 days; April, 3; May, 6; June,
5: July, 3; September, 4; December, 2.

28 days.

Uplands

Ponds, etc.

Ponds and branches
Ponds and swamps
Non-alluvial swamps
Richer soils
Clayey uplands
Sandiest places
Low grounds
Hammocks, etc,
High pine land
Richer swamps
Branch swamps
Loamy uplands
Low grounds
Clayey uplands
Hammocks, ete.
Low grounds
Swamps and sloughs
Clayey uplands
Hammocks, etc.
Swamps
Hammocks

River swamps
River swamps
Bottoms

Swamps

Along rivers
River bottoms
Swamps
Hammocks, etc.

Live oak Hammocks, etc.
Sycamore Along Apalachicola R.
Post oak Clayey uplands
Post oak High pine land
Hickory coamy uplands
(Swamp chest-

nut Oak) Bottoms
(Swamp) hickoryBottoms
Maple Bottoms
(Red) haw Bottoms
Redbud Richest soils

oe

a

a

2. WEST FLORIDA LIME-SINK REGION,

-t Ulmus alata
I. Morus rubra
I. Acer saccharinum

Ulmus Floridana
Celtis occidentalis:
Quercus alba

Tilia Floridana

Ostrya Virginiana
Acer Floridanum
Hicoria sp,

Catalpa bignonioides

SR TREES

+.27 Cyrilla racemiflora
+.25 Ilex myrtifolia

+.10 Cliftonia monophylla
sag
.04 Myrica cerifera
.03 Nyssa Ogeche
.03 Diospyros Virginiana (X)
.o2 Batodendron ‘arboreum
-o2 Osmanthus America’

05 Crataegus aestivalis

‘02 Prunus angustifolia

.oI Crataegus apiifolia
oI Ilex decidua

.or Chionanthus Virgini
Symplocos tinctoria
Prunus umbellata
Castanea pumila
Viburnum rufidulum
Malus angustifolia
Crataegus Crus-Galli

Cephalanthus occidentalis

Bumetia lanuginosa
Quercus geminata
Amelanchier sp.

.006 Smilax laurifolia

.003 Rhus radicans
+.003 Pieris phillyreifolia

.002 Decumaria barbara
+.002 Smilax Walteri

.002 Gelsemium sempervirens
.OOI
-OOT
-OOI

Berchemia scandens
Bignonia crucigera
Ampelopsis arborea

Elm
Mulberry
Maple

Elm
Hackberry
White oak
Lin

Sugar maple
Hickory
Catalpa

Tyty
Yaupon
Tyty
May haw
Myrtle
Tupelo gum
Persimmon
Sparkleberry
na

Wild plum

Haw
ca Graybeard
Wild plum
Chinquapin
Black haw
Crab-apple
? Haw
I:tbow bush

Live oak
(Service-berry)

WOODY VINES

Bamboo vine
Poison ivy

Rattan vine
Cross-vine

Rich soils

Richest soils

Banks of Apalachiccla
River

Rich swamps

Along Apalachicola R.

Rich woods

Rich woods near Apa-
lachicola River

Hammocks, etc.

Rich woods

Rich soils

River banks

OR LARGE SHRUBS

Swamps

Ponds
Non-alluvial swamps
Smal] ponds
Richer soils
Swamps

Old fields, etc.
Hammocks, etc.
Hammocks

Old fields, ete.
Bottoms
River-bottoms
Hammocks, etc.
Hammocks, etc.
Hammocks, etc.
Woods

Rich woods

Dry woods
Apalachicola R, strip
Swamps
Hammocks
Sandy banks, etc.
Hammocks, etc.

Non-alluvial swamps
Rich swamps, etc.
Cypress ponds, bays
Wet woods

Swamps

Yellow jessamine Hammocks, etc.

Rich swamps
Woods
Richer soils

Parthenocissus quinquefolia Virginia creeper Hammocks, etc.
Trachelospermum difforme

Miay-haw ponds, etc.

206

+.021
+.016
.OIT
.005
005
004
.004
004
004
.004
.004
-003
-003
.002
002
.002
002
002
002
-00
.00
-00
.OOI
.OOT
-OOI

on |

-OOI
-OOT
-00
-OOT
—— 00%

=

+.007
+.002
-++.001

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Hypericum fasciculatum

Quercus pumila
Ilex glabra
Myrica pumila

Phoradendron flavescens

Sabal glabra

Cephalanthus occidentalis

Rubus cuneifolius (X)
Gaylussacia dumosa

SHRUBS

Oak runner
Gallberry
Myrtle
Mistletoe
Palmetto
Elbow bush
Blackberry

Chrysobalanus oblongifolius

Vaccinium nitidum
Stillingia aquatica
Alnus rugosa

Pieris nitida
Hypericum galioides?
Asimina angustifolia
Aronia arbutifolia
Vaccinium virgatum?
Clethra alnifolia

Huckleberry

Alder
(Hurrah bush)

Pawpaw

Huckleberry

Viburnum scmitomentosum

Viburnum obovatiun
Amorpha fruticosa
Ceanothus Americanus
Rhus Toxicodendron
Gaylussacia frondosa*

Leucothoe racemosa
Sebastiana ligustrina

Ceanothus microphyllus

Rhus copallina
Serenoa serrulata
Ilex coriacea

Itea Virginica
Myrica inodora
Quercus minima
Myrica Carolinensis
Ilex vomitoria
Kalmia latifolia
Styrax Americana
Cyrilla parvifolia?
Hypericum myrtifolium
Ascyrum stans
Aesculus Pavia

Aristida stricta
Sarracenia flava
Rhexia Alifanus

Poison oak
Huckleberry

Sumac
Saw-palmetto

Myrtle
Oak runner
Myrtle

(Ivy)

Tyty

Buckeye
HERBS

Wire-grass
Pitcher-plant

Around ponds, etc.
High pine land
Low pine land
Intermediate pine land
On black gum, etc.
Rich swamps
Swamps and ponds
Roadsides, etc.
High pine land
High pine land
High pine land, etc.
Ponds

Swamps

Bays, etc,

High pine land
Sandy bogs
Hammocks, etc.
Edges of swamps
Hammocks, etc.
Bottoms, ete.
Bottoms, etc.
High pine land
High pine land
Intermediate pine land
ete:
Bays, etc.
‘Bottoms
High pine land
High pine land, etc.
Pine lands
Non-alluvial swamps
Swamps and bays
Non-alluvial swamps
Pine lands
Non-alluvial swamps
Hammocks
Hammocks, etc.
Swamps
Bays
Shallow ponds
Low pine land
Richer soils

High pine land
Low pine land
Intermediate pine land

*Including the var. nana.

—-

oor Tillandsia usneoides
.oor Pteridium aquilinum
+.oo1 Dichromena latifolia

+.001 Eriocaulon

ool Eriogonum tomentosum
oot Helianthus Radula
+.oof Baptisia lanceolata
.ool Eriocaulon decangulare
.ool Pontederia cordata
.oo1 Castalia odorata
+.001 Andropogon Virginicus
+.001 Chondrophora nudata
+.001 Polygala cymosa
+.oo1 Berlandiera tomentosa
.ool Campulosus aromaticus

oot Helenium tenuifolium (X)
.ool Eupatorium compositifoli-

um (X?)

oor Aletris aurea
ool Osmunda cinnamomea

a
a

+

+

iy
rs
i
x

Pluchea bifrons

Trilisa odoratissima

Tofieldia racemosa
Stillingia sylvatica
Drosera capillaris
Facelis apiculata (X)

Drosera filiformis Tracyi

Vernonia angustifolia
Polygala ramosa
Chrysopsis graminifolia
Croton argyranthemus
Coreopsis nudata
Kuhnistera pinnata
Sarracenia psittacina
Aster adnatus

Panicum hemitomon

Chrosperma muscaetoxicum

Eryngium virgatum
Pitcheria galactioides
Rhynchospora Grayii

Galactia erecta

Juncus repens
Gaura Michauxii

Rhynchospora corniculata

Erigeron vernus
Chaptalia tomentosa
Pentstemon hirsutus

Gnaphalium purpureum (X)
Verbena carnea
Panicum angustifolium? |
' Aletris lutea
+ Helianthus heterophyllus

compressum

2 WEST FLORIDA LIME-SINK REGION.

Spanish moss
(A fern)

Water-lily
Broom-sedge

(A grass)
Bitterweed

Dog-fennel
(A fern)

Deer-tongue

207

On trees

High pine land
Low pine land
Ponds, etc.

Dry sandy ridges
Pine lands

High pine land
Low pine land, ete.
Ponds

Ponds

High pine land
Low pine land
Ponds

High pine land
Low pine land
Roadsides, etc.

Roadsides, etc.
Intermediate pine land
Low pine land
Shallow ponds
Pine lands

Low pine land
High pine land
Low pine land
Waste places
Low pine land
High ‘pine land
Low pine land
High pine land —
High pine land
Around ponds

Summer farewell Sandy soils

Pitcher-plant

Maiden-cane

(A sedge)

(A sedge)

(A grass)

Low pine land
Intermediate pine land
Ponds |
Loamy uplands

Low pine land

High pine land

High pine land

High pine land
Shallow ponds

High pine land
Ponds, etc,

Around ponds

Low pine land

High pine land

Fields and roadsides
High pine land

High pine land
Intermediate pine land
Intermediate pine land

208 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT

Xyris fimbriata Ponds

+ Ludwigia suffruticosa Around ponds

+ Lophiola aurea Low pine land
Oxypolis filiformis Ponds, etc.

— Miitchella repens (Partridge-berry) Hammocks

+ Sorghastrum secundum (Wild oats) High pine land
Dolicholus simplicifolius (Dollar-weed) High pine land
Centella repanda Low pine land
Polygala nana Intermediate pine land
Saururus cernuus Swamps, etc.
Stylosanthes biflora High pine land

+ Chrysopsis oligantha Intermediate pine land
Solidago odora Golden-rod High pine land
Eupatorium rotundifolium Low pine land

+ Eryngium synchaetum Intermediate pine land
Pscralea canescens High pine land
Cracca chrysophylla High pine land
Polygala lutea Low pine land
Iris versicolor Low pine land, etc.
Sericocarpus bifoliatus High pine land
Rhexia stricta? Around ponds, etc.

+ Muhlenbergia trichopodes* Pine Jands
Hymenocallis sp. Spider-lily Swamps
Morongia uncinata High pine land
Pogonia ophioglossoides (An orchid) Low pine land

+ Aster eryngiifolius Low pine land

+ Nymphaea fluviatilis Bonnets Creeks, etc.

+ Ludwigia pilosa Ponds, ete.

(and about 275 others).

The following trees are much less abundant here than in some of the neigh
boring regions, and some of them may be entirely absent: Pinus serotina (black
pine), Juniperus (cedar), Chamaecyparis (juniper), Hicoria glabra (hickory),
Quercus Phellos (willow oak), Quercus Catesbaei (black-jack oak), Gordonia,
and Persea. Some of these prefer rich soils like those of the Marianna red
lands, and some sour swamps and sandy ridges, which are much more common
in the adjacent pine hill region (no. 7).

Most of the species which are more abundant here than in other regions
grow in pine lands and cypress ponds. It is interesting to note that Nyssa
Ogeche, Quercus pumila, Viburnum obovatum, Facelis, and other species not
listed above are known in Georgia but not in Alabama, and Myrica inodora,
Pitcheria, Chrysopsis oligantha and a few others in Alabama but not in Georgia,
while Cyrilla parvifolia and one or two of the rarer herbs seem to be confined
to Florida.

About 65% of the trees are evergreen, 12% of the shrubs are Ericaceae, and
6% of the herbs are Leguminosae. All these figures are not far from the aver-
age for northern Florida; but the percentage of evergreens would have been
somewhat higher before the lumbermen cut out so much of the long-leaf pine.

*Includes two forms, one in high and one in low pine land, which
may some day be treated as distinct species. See Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.
17:293-294. 1906.

2. WEST FLORIDA LIME-SINK REGION. 209

Economic features—Converting the long-leaf and slash pines
into lumber and naval stores have been, and still are, among the
most important industries of this region. Long-leaf pine, which 1s
now estimated to constitute 46 per cent of the forests here, probably
stood as high as 60 per cent originally. The two cypresses are used
for poles, piles, cross-ties, shingles, etc., but probably not 5 per cent
of the total stand of cypress has been cut out yet. The tupelo gum,
tyty, gallberry, and several less familiar species are important honey
plants. The wire-grass and other native herbs furnish free pastur-
age for thousands of cattle here, as in other long-leaf pine regions.

In 1910 this region had less than 15 per cent of improved land,
and about 22 inhabitants to the square mile, an increase of 41 per
cent in ten years. Although the soil is not naturally very rich,
and half a century ago was supposed to be fit for little else than
raising pine timber and “native” cattle, it is very easily tilled, and
responds generously to proper fertilization. Consequently in the
last few decades, since practically all the richest land in the eastern
United States has been appropriated, this in common with other
sandy pine regions has attracted settlers in ever-increasing numbers.

The principal crops in 1912, in order of value, were: Upland
cotton, corn, peanuts, sweet potdtoes, sugar cane, velvet beans,
(grass) hay, oats, watermelons, field peas (including pea-vine hay),
peaches, sea-island cotton, pecans, Irish potatoes, figs, cabbage,
grapes and pears.

2IO FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

3. APALACHICOLA RIVER BLUFFS AND BOTTOMS.
(FIGURES 49-51)

References. Chapman, Croom, Dall & Stanley-Brown, Gray, Harper 1
(216, 234-235), Harper 5 (225-226), Matson & Clapp (78-84, 96-97, 145),
Matson & Sanford (95-101, 112-113), Nash (96-97, 103) Sellards & Gunter
I (261-277, 285-286), and U. S. soil survey of Gadsden Co. (by Fippin and

Root, 1904). Illustrated in 2nd Ann. Rep., pl. 1, 17; 3d, pl. 19.1; 4th, pl.
Lisle ig. kde

From its beginning at the southwestern corner of Georgia to
about the latitude of Bristol the Apalachicola River has on its east
side some of the highest land in Florida (a part of the pine hill
region described farther on), which comes out to the river in several
places, making steep bluffs. Between these bluffs are deep rich
valleys, some of which extend several miles back from the river.
The bluff region is too narrow for its area to be estimated accurate-
ly, but it probably covers less than 50 square miles in this state. It
continues northeastward into Georgia, soon diverging from the
Fint River and becoming less prominent, but as the boundary be-
tween the lime-sink region and the pine hills (Altamaha Grit region)
it can be traced nearly across that state, where it forms a typical in-
land-facing escarpment, or cucsta.*

Geology and Soils—The underlying rocks of this region, well
exposed on the river bluffs and along some of the creeks, mostly be-
leng to the Chattahoochee and Alum Bluff formations (Upper
Oligocene). Lithologically the strata vary from argillaceous lime-
stone and marl to fuller’s earth, clay and sand. There seems to be no
limestone pure enough to form caves, though there are some lime-
sinks near the state line. Much of the soil is derived from the weath-
ering of these Tertiary rocks, and is quite fertile. In the more level
piaces there is also considerable sand and sandy loam, which may
represent the Lafayette and other comparatively recent formations.
Humus is quite abundant, for reasons which will be evident. Be-
tween the hills and the river there are alluvial bottoms of varying
width, with very fertile soil, as is usual in such places,

Topography and Hydrography—This region occupies. a slope
from the high pine land on its eastern border, 200 to 300 feet above
sea level, to the river, which in this latitude is something like 50
feet above sea level at low water. Aspalaga Bluff, in Gadsden Coun-

*For notes on this escarpment in Georgia, see Bull. Torrey Bot. Club
32:144-145, 1905; Ann, N. Y. Acad. Sci. 17:17-18. 1906.

3. APALACHICOLA RIVER BLUFFS AND BOTTOMS. 2II

ty, rises about 175 feet in a distance of a.quarter of a mile from
the water’s edge, and Alum Bluff, in Liberty County, has a very
precipitous face about 160 feet high, which is perhaps the most con-
spicuous topographic feature in all Florida. The topography is
everywhere hilly, and dissected by numerous ravines and small val-
leys, many of which head in amphitheaters or ‘“‘steep-heads” at the
edge of the upland. All the valleys contain streams, and most of the
steep-heads have one or more small springs in them. Two or three
cf the creeks extend back from the river ten or twelve miles. The
Apalachicola River, which heads among the mountains of Georgia,
and traverses the red hills of the Piedmont region for a long dis-
tance, is the only stream in Florida which derives any of its water
from outside of the coastal plain. It is always muddy, and where
it is formed by the union of the Flint and Chattahoochee it fluctuates
at least 30 feet. Its high-water period is usually in spring, because
a large part of its drainage basin, unlike Florida, has wet winters and
dry summers,

Vegetation Types—Next to the river are alluvial swamps (de-
scribed in the 3d Annual Report), with a heavy growth of deciducus
trees, presumably indicating a soil rich in potassium. The rich
slopes of bluffs and ravines are covered with short-leaf pines and
hardwoods, among which the magnolia and other evergreens are
conspicuous. A small pine woods element is found at the upper
or eastern edge and in the sandier soils lower down.

On account of the broken topography and the presence of the
river On one side, fires are not common in this region, which is one
reason, perhaps the principal reason, why there is so much humus in
the forests. Obviously no fire can approach from the west, on ac-
count of the river, and the fires which sweep through the pine
woods on the east are not likely to travel down the bluffs very far;
so that there is probably no area of equal extent on the mainland
of northern Florida that is better protected from fire.

Plants—The following list is based on observations made on 16
different days, in the following months: March, 8; May, 1; June,
4: September, 1; December, 2. Most of the herbs were, noted in
the first half of March, 1909, when the writer with other members
of the Geological Survey camped for several days at Aspalaga.
That was just about the season of the year when the number of
flowers in rich shady woods in this latitude is at a maximum, for a
little later the trees leaf out and cast too dense a shade for manv
flowers,

212

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

TREES

Various situations
Bluffs and ravines
Sandiest soils
Bluffs and ravines
Various situations
Ravines, etc.
Bluffs and ravines
Wet ravines
Bluffs and ravines
Wet ravines
Swamps and bottoms

Uplands

Bottoms

Bottoms, etc.

River banks and _ bot-
toms

Bottoms R

Uplands

River banks, etc.
Ravines and bluffs
Uplands

Rocky bluffs, etc,
River-bottoms
Uplands

Ravines and bluffs
River banks
Along branches, etc.
Uplands

Ravines and bluffs
Ravines and bluffs
Sandiest soils
Rich woods

River banks, etc.
Rich woods

Swamp post oak Bottoms

+15.7 Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine
++ 9.5 Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia
— 6.4 Pinus palustris Long-‘eaf pine
++ 5.6 Pinus glabra Spruce pine
+ 4.3 Liquidambar Styraciflua Sweet gum
++ 4.1 Fagus grandifolia Beech
++ 4.0 Tumion taxifolium Stinking cedar
3.7 Magnolia glauca Bay ,
++ 3.5 Ilex opaca Holly
+ 2.8 Liriodendron Tulipifera Poplar
+ 2.4 Taxodium distichum Cypress
+ 2.4 Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine
++ 2.0 Quercus Michauxii (Swamp chest-
nut oak)
+ 1.9 Quercus nigra Water oak
++ 1.9 Platanus occidentalis Sycamore
+ 1.8 Carpinus Caroliniana Ironwood
1.7 Cornus florida Dogwood
+ 1.5 Salix nigra Willow
++ 1.5 Ostrya Virginiana
1.3 Quercus falcata Red oak
+ 1.3 Juniperus Virginiana Cedar
++ 1.3 Populus deltoides Cottonwood
+ 1.3 Quercus laurifolia
+ 1.3 Acer Floridanum Sugar maple
+ 1.2 Betula nigra Birch
1.1 Acer rubrum Maple
++ .9 Oxydendrum arboreum Sourwood
+ 8 Quercus alba White oak
+ 8 Halesia diptera
— 8 Quercus Catesbaei Black-jack oak
+ .8 Quercus Schneckii? (Red oak)
+ .7 Planera aquatica
+ .6 Cercis Canadensis Redbud
+ .5 Quercus lyrata
+ .4 Melia Azedarach (X) Chinaberry
-4 Ulmus Americana Elm
-4 Hicoria sp. Hickory
+ .4 Morus rubra Mulberry
— .4 Quercus cinerea (Turkey oak)
+ .4 Malus angustifolia Crab-apple
++ .4 Prunus Americana Wild plum
a7). <3 dita ssp: Lin
++ .3 Ulmus fulva Slippery elm
.3 Fraxinus sp. Ash
+ .3 Celtis occidentalis Hiackberry
+ .2 Prunus Caroliniana (Mock orange)
+ 1 Fraxinus Americana Ash
+ .1 Acer saccharinum Maple

Waste places
River banks, ete.
Rich woods
Bottoms, etc.
Sandy uplands
Uplands

Rich woods
Bluffs, etc.
Rich woods
Bottoms
Ravines, etc.
Rich woods
River-banks

ae APALACHICOLA

+ .t Quercus pagodaefolia

+ .1 Juglans nigra

+ .1 Acer - Negundo

+ .t Quercus Muhlenbergii
aioale Taxus Floridana

of:

I
.I Hicoria aquatica
1 Nyssa sylvatica

SMALL TREES

+.24 Myrica cerifera
10 Cyrilla racemiflora
+.08 Osmanthus Americana
.o8 Batodendron arboreum
+.06 Ilex decidua
+.04 Symplocos tinctoria
.04 Cliftonia monophylla
+.03 Bumelia lycioides
.03 Viburnum rufidulum
+.03 Adelia acuminata
.03 Prunus umbellata
+.02 Crataegus spathulata
+.o1 Styrax grandifolia
.or Rhus copallina

RIVER BLUFFS AND BOTTOMS.

Red oak
Walnut
Box elder

Oak

bo
—
ios)

Bottoms

Rich woods
River-banks
Bluffs, ete.
Alum Bluff

(Swamp) hickory Bottoms

Black gum

Myrtle
Tyty

Sparkleberry

Tyty
Black haw

Wild plum
Red haw

Sumac

WOODY VINES

+.007 Rhus radicans

+.006 Decumaria barbara
.oo5 Bignonia crucigera
.003 Vitis rotundifolia

.003 Berchemia scandens

.003 Parthenocissus quinquefolia Virginia creeper
Bamboo vine

.003 Smilax laurifolia
++.003 Schizandra coccinea

.002 Vitis aestivalis

ool Smilax lanceolata

oot Tecoma radicans

.0oor Gelsemium sempervirens

++.028 Sabal glabra
++.015 Alnus rugosa

+.o13 Aesculus Pavia

[Poison ivy

Cross-vine

Muscadine or
i bullace

Rattan vine

Wild grape

(Wild smilax)

(Cow-itch)

Uplands

OR LARGE SHRUBS

Ravines and bluffs
Branch-swamps, etc.
Ravines and bluffs
Uplands
River-bottoms
Ravines and bluffs
Branch-swamps
Calcareous bluffs
Uplands
River-banks
Uplands

Uplands

Ravines and bluffs
Bluffs, etc.

Bottoms, etc.
Wet ravines
Various situations

Various situations
Bottoms, etc.
Shady places
Branch-swamps
Shaded bluffs
Bluffs, etc.
Ravines and bluffs
Bottoms, etc.

Yellow jessamine Various situations

SHRUBS

Palmetto
Alder

Buckeye

012 Phoradendron flavescens Mistletoe
+-+.012 Arundinaria macrosperma Reed

+.012 Hydrangea quercifolia

+-+.012 Dirca palustris

+.o11 Callicarpa Americana

+.009 Sebastiana ligustrina

Seven-bark

Swamps

Along creeks and
branches

Woods

On trees

River-banks

Ravines and bluffs

Ravines and bluffs

French mulberry Uplands

Bottoms

214 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

+.008 Rhapidophyllum Hystrix (Needle palm) Ravines and bottoms

.007 Euonymus Americanus
+.005 Illicium Floridanum
+.004 Ptelea trifoliata
+.004 Pinckneya pubens

Strawberry bush Ravines and bottoms
(Stink-bush) Ravines
Blufts
Branch-swamps

.004 Ilex glabra Ga!lberry
++.004 Clinopodium dentatum Near Bristol
+-+.004 Kalmia latifolia Ivy Ravines, etc.
+.004 Hamamelis Virginiana Witch-hazel Ravines, etc.
.003 Ilex coriacea Wet ravines
.003 Aralia spinosa Prickly ash Ravines and bluffs
.003 Cephalanthus occidentalis Elbow-bush Swamps, etc.
.003 Azalea nudiflora Honeysuckie Bluffs, etc.
.oo2 Aronia arbutifolia Along branches
.002 Leucothoe axillaris Ravines, etc.
+-+.001 Hypericum aureum Bluffs
+-+.001 Xanthorrhiza apiifolia Wet ravines
+.oo01 Adelia ligustrina Bluffs
.0or Viburrum obovatum Bottoms
HERBS

.0025 Tillandsia usneoides
+-+.0015 Adiantum Capillus-
Veneris
++.001 Croomia pauciflora
+.o01 Smilax pumila
+.001 Conopholis Americana

Spanish moss On trees

Maidenhair fern Limestone cliffs
Ravines and b!uffs
Ravines and b!uffs
Ravines and b!uffs

+.001 Dryopteris patens? (A fern) Limestone outcrops
=F Mitchella repens (Partridge-berry) Ravines and bluffs
Oplismenus setarius (A grass) Ravines and bluffs
Ss Polystichum acrostich-
oides (A fern) Ravines and bluffs
=e Trillium Hugeri? Ravines and bluffs
aE Lithospermum tuberosum Bluffs
siP Senecio lobatus Bottoms
ata Epiphegus Virginiana On roots of beech
Sper Syndesmon_ thalictroides Bluffs
shor Hepatica triloba Ravines and bluffs
++ Viola multicaulis Violet ‘Bluffs
== Dioscorea villosa Ravines and bluffs
— Aristida stricta Wire-grass Edge of uplands
ts Asplenium resiliens (A fern) Limestone cliffs

Srar Selagine’la apus

Damp ravines, etc,

== Sanguinaria Canadensis (Blood-root) Rovines and bluffs
SPAS Campanula Americana Bluffs
EF Melica mutica (A grass) Bluffs
= Phlox divaricata Bluffs
Polypodium polypodioides(A fern) On trees
os Viola villosa Violet Bluffs
ete Euphorbia commutata Ravines

Arisaema Dracontium

Ravines and bluffs

3. APALACHICOLA RIVER BLUFFS AND BOTTOMS. 215
oie Atamosco Atamasco Ravines, etc.
i Phegopteris hexagonop-
tera (A fern) Ravines and bluffs
Panic Trillium lanceolatum Ravines and bluffs
= Aristolochia Serpentaria (Snake-root) Ravines and bluffs
— Eriogonum tomentosum Dry sandy places
Berlandiera tomentosa Dry uplands
TSS Alsine pubera Ravines and bluffs
Yucca filamentosa Bear-grass Bluffs, etc.
a5 Galium uniflorum Ravines and bluffs
aieaia Dentaria laciniata? Ravines and bluffs
a Polygonatum biflorum Ravines and bluffs
Te Tipularia discolor (An orchid) Ravines and bluffs
SESE Onoclea sensibilis (A fern) Bottoms
Saururus cernuus Bottoms

(and about 35 others).

To the botanist this is one of the most interesting regions in
Florida. The two representatives of the yew family, Tumion taxi-
folium (formerly Torreya taxifolia) and Taxus Floridana, do not
grow wild anywhere else in the world, as far as known, not even in
the same region in Georgia. A good deal has been written about
the former,* but very little, strange to say, about the latter, which
according to the percentage figures given above is forty times rarer.
One of the shrubs, Clinopodium dentatum, is likewise endemic.

Several other species in the list are not known elsewhere in
Florida, most of them being commoner much farther north. Among
these seem to be Dirca, Xanthorrhiza, Croomia, Syndesmon,
Hypericum aureum, Campanula, Euphorbia commuiata, Trillium
lanceolatum, Alsine pubera, Dentaria, and some rarer species not
listed ; most of which prefer cool, rich woods with plenty of humus.
Platanus, Populus, Acer saccharinum, Quercus pagodaefolia,
Bumelia lyciodes, Arundinaria macrosperma, Kalmia latifolia,
and Selaginella apus seem to extend into Florida only or chiefly
along the Chattahoochee-Apalachicola River.

There seem to be more species of trees here than in any equal
area in northern Florida. About 55% of the forest is ever-
green, 7.1% of the shrubs are Ericaceae, and about 2%
of the herbs are Leguminosae; all of which figures are below the

*Those who have imagined that the Tumion was in danger of extinction
will be interested to learn now that it stands seventh in the list of trees,
and seems to constitute about 4 per cent of the forest.

216 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

average for northern Florida, presumably indicating more potas-_
sium and more humus in the soil than in most of the other regions.

Economic Feasures—This region contains a large amount of
hardwood timber, which has not been utilized much yet, but will
doubtless be more appreciated in the future. The area is so narrow
and irregularly shaped that it is impracticable to work out any
statistics of its population and agricultural features. Although the
soil is rich enough, the broken topography interferes with culti-
vation to a considerable extent.

4. KNOx HILL COUNTRY.

bo
N

penNOXd PILE COUNTRY.
(FIGURE 52)

References. Matson & Clapp (106-117), Matson & Sanford (111, 121,
129), Sellards 3 (291 or 45), Sellards & Gunter 3 (107), Smith 2 (224), Wil-
liams.

This region is confined to the eastern part of Walton County,
where it covers about 50 square miles, lying between the lime-sink
region and the pine hills somewhat like the Apalachicola River
bluff region, of which it is in some respects a counterpart. ‘There is
4 sinall and ill-defined area of similar country a few miles farther
west, near Alaqua Creek, but otherwise there is nothing exactly like
it elsewhere. It bears a considerable resemblance, however, to parts
of the central short-leaf pine belt of Alabama,* which is quite differ-
ent geologically.

Geology and Soils—Outcrops of rock or fossiliferous strata are
rare, but it would appear from available geological maps that the
region is underlaid by Upper Oligocene and Miocene strata, belong-
ing to the Alum Bluff and Choctawhatchee formations. Exposures
of the former have been reported from ravines near Knox Hill and
Eucheeanna and of the latter from near Red Bay, by Matson and
his associates on the pages above cited.

The prevailing soil is a reddish to brownish clay or loam, iargely
if not chiefly derived from the weathering of the underlying Ter-
tiary strata. Some of the hills are rather sandy, but on the whole
this region probably contains the most clayey soil in the State. In
hardly any other part of Florida does it seem necessary to overcome
the stickiness of the clay in the roads by covering the worst spots
with small poles (“corduroy”) or sand. No analyses are available,
but in the parts of Alabama and Mississippi that have similar vegeta-
tion the percentage of magnesium in the soil is rather high, and of
phosphorus rather low. Humus is quite abundant, on account of the
density of the forests.

Topography and Hydrography—This region is rather hilly fot
Florida, there being in some places as much as 100 feet difference °
in elevation between hills and adjacent valleys. There are few or no
evidences of solution, the topography being of the kind produced by
normal erosion. The larger valleys contain creeks, bordered by
more or less swamp, but in many of the smaller ones the branches

*For description of that part of Alabama, including a quantitative
list of trees, see Geol. Surv. Ala. Monog. 8:72-76. 1913.

218 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

stop running in dry weather, as is the case in many other clayey
regions. Some of the ravines have small springs at their heads.

V cgetation I'ypes—On the sandier uplands there is a good deal
oi long-leaf pine and its common associates, while on the more ex-
tensive clayey uplands and valley slopes the usual vegetation is a
mixture of short-leaf pines and various hardwoods (mostly second
growth, for the reason given under Economic features). Some ot
the valleys are a little sandier than others, and in such places the pro-
portion of evergreens seems to be above the average for the region.
The swamps present no striking features.

Fire is infrequent here, as in most other places where the forests
are dense and the ground covered with humus, which is usually too
damp or too thoroughly decomposed to burn readily.

Plants—This region is so small and remote from railroads that
I have been through it only twice, and consequently my vegetation
statistics for it cannot be very accurate. But by combining the list
of plants with that for Holmes Valley, another small region (to be
described next) with very similar flora, the chances of error are de-
creased, and considerable repetition is avoided. The following list
is based on observations made in the Knox Hill country on March
7, 1910, and May 6 and 7, 1914, and in Holmes Valley on May 8, 9
and 10, 1914. Percentage figures are omitted, because they cannot |
be depended upon in this case. The names of plants seen only in
the Knox Hill country are preceded by K, and those seen only in
Holmes Valley by H.

TREES
++ Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine* Nearly everywhere
+ Pinus echinata Short-leaf pinet Loamy uplands
— Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine Sandy up!ands
+ Liquidambar Styraciflua Sweet gum Various situations
+ Cornus florida Dogwood Dry woods
+ Quercus falcata Red oak ‘Loamy uplands
+ Fagus grandifolia Beech Valleys
+ Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia Valleys
Magnolia glauca Bay Swamps
++ Quercus alba White oak Valleys
+ Ilex opaca Holly Valleys
-+ Pinus glabra Spruce pine Valleys
+ Oxydendrum arboreum Sourwood Loamy uplands, etc.
Nyssa biflora Black gum Swamps
+ Quercus ste!lata Post oak Loamy uplands

*Also called “black pine” in the Knox Hill country.
tSometimes distinguished here as “rosemary pine.”

4.

Quercus nigra

KNOx HILL COUNTRY.

Water oak

219

Low grounds

+K Quercus Marylandica Black-jack oak Sandy uplands
+-+- Nvssa sylvatica Black gum Loamy uplands
+ Hicoria aiba Hickory Loamy uplands
+ Ostrya Virginiana Valleys
— Quercus Catesbaei Black-jack oak Sandy uplands
+ Carpinus Caroliniana Ironwood Bottoms
+ Quercus laurifolia Valleys
Acer rubrum Maple Swamps
— Quercus cinerea (Turkey oak) Sandy up!ands
Nyssa uniflora Tupelo gum Swamps
Diospyros Virginiana (X) Persimmon Old fields, etc.
+K Castanea pumila Chinquapin Dry woods
+ Taxodium distichum Cypress Swamps
Liriodendron Tulipifera Poplar Branch-swamps
Quercus Michauxii (Swamp chest-
Z nut oak) Bottoms
+K Cercis Canadensis Redbud Rich woods
+ Acer Floridanum Sugar maple Valleys
K Juniperus Virginiana Cedar $
K Betula nigra Birch Creek-banks
K Quercus Margaretta Post oak Sandy uplands
+H Melia Azedarach (X) Chinaberry Roadsides, ete.
—K Pinus Elliottii (S.ash piney Sandy low grounds
—IKX Pinus serotina (Black pine) Sandy low grounds
SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS
+-++ Magnolia macrophylla Cucumber tree Valleys
+ Batodendron arboreum Sparkleberry Dry woods
Myrica cerifera Myrtle Valleys
+ Symplocos tinctoria Valleys
K Cyrilia racemiflora Tyty Swamps
Osmanthus Americana Peat | Valleys
++ Magnolia pyramidata Cucumber tree Valleys
+K Amelanchier sp. (Service-berry) Valleys
Salix nigra Willow Swamps
Prunus angustifolia (X) Wild plum Old fields
Prunus umbellata tlog plum Dry woods

WOODY VINES

=F Gelsemium sempervirens Yellow jessamine Various situations

K

Vitis rotundifolia

Tecoma radicans
Bignonia crucigera

Muscadine (bul-
lace)

(Cow-itch)

Cross-vine

Various situations
Various situations
Woods

Parthenocissus quinquefolia Virginia creeper Valleys

Decumaria barbara
Smilax lanceolata

14

(Wild smilax)

Swamps
Valleys, etc.

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIAXATH ANNUAL REPORT.

SHRUBS
++K Vaccinium virgatum? Huckleberry Dry woods
++ Illicium Floridanum (Stink-bush) Valleys
Callicarpa Americana French mulberry Dry woods
+K Viburnum semitomentosum Valleys
++ Stuartia Malachodendron Valleys
K Ilex glabra Gallberry Sandy low grounds
+ Hamamelis Virginiana Witch-hazel Valleys
+ Aesculus Pavia Buckeye Woods
+K Kalmia latifolia Ivy Valleys
Cephalanthus occidentalis Elbow-bush Swamps
Rubus cuneifolius (X) Blackberry Roadsides, etc.
Itea Virginica Swamps
+ Asimina parviflora Pawpaw Valleys
K Rhus copallina Sumac Uplands
H Sambucus Canadensis (X?) Elder Low grounds
K Gaylussacia dumosa ~ Huckleberry Sandy uplands
K Ilex vomitoria Valleys
H Aralia spinosa Prickly ash Valleys
K Sabal glabra Palmetto Swamps
+K Azalea nudiflora Honeysuckle Woods
+K Polycodium stamineum? Gooseberry Woods
K Alnus rugosa Alder Swamps
++H Viburnum densiflorum Rich woods
+H Styrax grandifolia Rich woods
HERBS
Tillandsia usneoides Spanish moss On trees
+ Mitchella repens (Partridge-berry) Rich woeds
+H Andropogon scoparius (X) Broom-sedge Old fields
+ Smilax pumila Valleys
+ Asclepias variegata Milkweed Dry woods
++K Danthonia sericea (A grass) Open woods
K Chrosperma muscaetoxicum Open woods
K Trilisa odoratissima Deer-tongue Sandy uplands
H Juncus effusus Rush Wet places
+H Rumex hastatulus (X) Sorrel Fields
+K Polystichum acrostichoides (A fern) Valleys
Eupatorium compositifolium
(X) . Dog-fennel Roadsides, etc.
Osmunda cinnamomea (A fern) Low grounds
+ Epidendrum conopseum (An_ orchid) On trees in valleys
—K Aristida stricta Wire-grass Sandy uplands
K Berlandiera tomentosa Sandy uplands
K Stillingia sylvatica (Queen’s delight) Sandy uplands
K Asarum arifolium Heart-leaf Rich woods
K Croton argyranthemus Sandy uplands
K Kneiffia linearis Sandy uptands
H Polygonum hydropiperoides (Smart-weed) Around ponds
Pteridium aquilinum (A fern) Sandy uplands
Lorinseria areolata (A fern) Swamps

Dl cc i

4. KNOx HILL COUNTRY, 220
Asplenium Filix-foemina (A fern) Wet woods
+ Epiphegus Virginiana On roots of beech
K Pentstemon hirsutus Rich woods
+K Trillium Hugeri Sandy uplands
H Carex debilis (A sedge) Wet woods
4-IX Tipularia discolor (An orchid) Rich woods
K Phlox amoena Dry woods
K Polygala nana Open woods

The common short-leaf pine (Pinus Taeda, the “loblolly pine” of the books
and of the Marianna red lands, here called “black pine’), the two little cucum-
ber trees (Magnolia macrophylla and pyramidata), the tall huckleberry (Vac-
cinium virgatum), the handsome shrub Stuwartia, with flowers looking like those
of the dogwood at a little distance, and the grass Danthonia, all seem to be more
abundant in one or both of these regions than anywhere else in Florida; hut
they are all commoner in Alabama. They evidently prefer rather rich soil, but
just what element or combination of elements it is that determines their abund-
ance cannot be stated, in the absence of analyses.

The pond cypress, cedar, all hickories, live oak, mulberry, elm, hackberry,
poplar, crab-apple, haws, plums and saw palmetto are scarce or absent in the
Knox Hill country, though more or less common in neighboring regions.

In the two regions together about 56% of the trees are evergreens, 25% of
the shrubs are Ericaceae, and about 1% of the herbs are Leguminosae. This
is a high proportion of Ericaceae and low of Leguminosae for such clayey soils;
but the shrubs form a comparatively small part of the vegetation, so that the
proportion of Ericaceae to total vegetation is not very high. And if notes could
be made in this region in summer and fall the proportion of Leguminosae would
doubtless be increased, though such plants are not usually very abundant where
there is plenty of humus.

Economic Feaiures—The Knox Hill country, on account of its
clayey soils and large proportion of deciduous trees, attracted set-
tlers early in the history of Florida, when sandy pine lands were
considered almost worthless. A colony of Scotchmen settled there
in 1823, and Scotch names still predominate in that region and for
a considerable distance around it. Up to 1883, when a railroad was
built through Walton County, this small area probably contained
most of the inhabitants of the county, and Eucheeanna was the
county-seat. It is said that most of the land was under cultivation
before the Civil War; but with the drift of population toward more

andy lands, that has been going on throughout the South for the

lost few decades, many farms have reverted to forest, and the pro-
portion of cleared land at present is probably not over 25 per cent.
As nearly as can be estimated from the census returns for the pre-
cincts lying in this region, there were about 26 inhabitants to the
square mile in 1910. The proportion of white people appears to be
larger than in most other parts of northern Florida with equally
rich soil, though no statistics on this point are available.

222 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

The principal use made of the native vegetation other than for
fuel and other common farm purposes is the extraction of naval
stores from the pines. A large part of the turpentine, curiously
enough, comes from the short-leaf pine, P. echinata, which is rarely
turpentined elsewhere. The woods furnish considerable pasturage

for cattle and hogs, as usual. The leading crops are cotton and
corn.

5. HOLMES VALLEY. 223

5s HOLMES VALERY.
(FIGURE 53)

References. Sellards 3 (291-292, or 45-46), Seliards & Gunter 3 (113-
115), Smith 2 (225), Williams,

This is a narrow strip, perhaps 25 square miles in extent, lying
between the lime-sink or cypress pond region and the lake region,
tu Washington County. It has no counterpart elsewhere, but is
similar in vegetation to the Knox Hill country, and in some other
respects to the Tallahassee red hills, described farther on.

Geology and Soils—No rocks or fossils seem to have yet been
discovered in this region, and therefore nothing definite is known
about its geology; but it lies wholly within a belt mapped by Matson
as Choctawhatchee marl (Miocene).*

The soil seems to be mostly residual from the Tertiary forma-
tions, and is clayey in some places and sandy in others; the sand be-
ing rather coarse. It is evidently above the average of Florida soils in
fertility, as indicated by the density of the native vegetation, and
the large proportion of the land that is under cultivation. Dr.
Smith, on the page above cited, mentions a case in this region where
in 1880, 13 acres of land that had been cultivated 35 years without
fertilization produced 12 bales of cotton. The vegetation seems to
indicate a little more phosphorus in the soil than in the case of the
Knox Hill country.

Topography and Hydrography—tIn the longitude of Vernon the
edge of the lake region south of Holmes Valley is at least 100 feet
bigher than the lime-sink region north of it, and the “‘valley”’ is not
much more than a mile wide, so that in that neighborhood it might
be regarded as nothing but an inland-facing escarpment, or cuesta
(a characteristic feature of some parts of the coastal plain, particu-
larly in Alabama). But in the longitude of Wausau the ‘‘valley”’ is
about four miles wide, and not much higher or lower than the coun-
try on either side of it, and is a belt of low hills rather than a valley.
Most of the depressions between the hills have miry ponds or stag-
nant sloughs in them instead of streams. But there are a few smal:
branches that start near the high southern edge of the region south
of Vernon, flow in a general northerly direction for a short distance,

*In some cuts on the B. C & St. A. R. R, a few miles south of
Wausau can be seen several feet of clayey and shaley strata with pro-
nounced folds, but apparently devoid of tossils.

224 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

and then soak into the ground. Some of the eastern part of the
“valley” may be drained by Pine Log Creek.

Vegetation Types—The original forest that remains, mostly on
steep slopes, consists of hardwoods and short-leaf pines, and is
rather dense. In the second-growth woods the pine is relatively
more abundant, and dogwood is very common. . The sloughs and
ponds have the vegetation usually found in such places where the
soil is pretty rich. Fire is a negligible factor, as in other fertile
regions with dense forests and a large proportion of cleared land.

Plants—These have already been listed in connection with those
oi the Knox Hill country, as above explained. Most of the remarks
about the plant list of that region will apply also to this. One shrub
in the list, Viburnum densiflorum, has not been seen by the writer
outside of Holmes Valley, but it differs very little from V. acerifol-
ium, a species characteristic of rich woods in the Piedmont region of
Georgia and Alabama. It is noteworthy that less than 2 per cent of
the shrubs observed in Holmes Valley are Ericaceae, which is quite
a different state of affairs from that in the Knox Hill country. No
Leguminosae whatever were noticed here, but a visit to the region in
late summer or fall would doubtless reveal a few members of that
family. Short-leaf pine (P. echinata), birch, black-jack oak (both
kinds) and ashes are perceptibly scarcer here than in the Knox Hill
country.

Economic Features—Although this region is mostly under culti-
vation, it seems to be an illustration of the general principle that in
the southeastern United States, if not elsewhere, the most fertile
regions are not the most salubrious.* For this reason, and probably
also on account of the scarcity of running water, most of the farmers
who till its fields (the majority of them negroes, apparently) live
just outside of the “valley,” either north or south of it. Cotton and
corn are the prevailing crops, as usual. No important use seems
to be made of the remaining native vegetation.

/
.

*This correlation seems never to have been satisfactorily explained.
The mosquito theory of malaria, perfected in tIyoo, explains it partly,
but not entirely.

6. WEST FLORIDA LAKE REGION, 2

bo
on

6. WEST FLORIDA LAKE REGION.
(FIGURE 54)

References. Sellards 2 (33, one sentence near bottom of page), Sellards
& Gunter 3 (113, 114, 115), and U. S. soil survey of the “Marianna area.”
Two photographs of lakes in this region have been published; one by
Clapp in the 2nd Annual Report of this Survey, plate 2, fig, 1 (reproduced
herewith), and again in U. S. G. S. Water Supply Paper 3109, plate 3 B.
entitled “Sink hole containing pond, to miles southeast of Vernon, Wash-
ington County,” and the other by Sellards and Gunter in the 4th Annual
Report of the Florida Survey, plate 15, fig. 1, entitled “Porter’s Pond
twenty miles south of Chipley, in Washington County.”

The boundaries of this region have not been determined except
at a few points, but it probably covers between 300 and 400 square
_ miles. There is nothing like it in any other state, but it bears consid-
erable resemblance to the peninsular lake region, described farther
en.

Geology and Soils—Nothing definite is known about the geology,
as no rock outcrops have been observed. ‘The prevailing soil is a
loamy sand, or very sandy loam, probably underlaid by clay, though
none of the railroad cuts seem to be deep enough to reach the bot-
tom of the sand.

In that part of the region lying within the “Marianna area” of
the government soil survey the greater part of the soil is classed as
“Norfolk sand” (named for Norfolk, Va.) The following mechan-
ical analysis, representing the average of two localities, is taken from
that publication. (The localities are not specified, and may or may
not be in the lake region.) The first column of percentages repre-
sents the soil and the second the subsoil (depths not specified).

MeEcHANICAL ANALysiIs oF “NorFoLK SAND,’ JACKSON COUNTY.

Soil Subsoil

Bine<sravel (2-1 smmi:)—----=_ = Ses 4.5 3.1
Godrse sand WCi-.5) Mitie)) feos te 26.4. 237
Medium sand (.5-.25 mm.) __-2--_-__-- 16.4 15.9
Fine sand (.25-.I mm.) ~_---- aera 31.2 34.5
Very fine sand’ (:1-.05 mim). 225224 Be AIO. 11.4
Salt yG@O52005) Mit ys nt oe ae 7.4 6.3
Clays (COos-Ontuitts)) 222-2 c ee ee 33.9 5.2

POPAlye ae ed eee Se ee Oe Saeae et 100.7 100.1

It will be observed that the differences between the soil and sub-
soil are slight; and the same is true also of the “Norfolk coarse

226 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

sand,’ a much less extensive soil of the same region. This may
Le due in part to the abundance of salamanders, which keep the soil
within a foot or two of the surface pretty well stirred up.

Topography and Hydrography—This region seems to be a little
higher than most of the surrounding country, but no measurements
of altitudes are available. It might be described as a comparatively
level upland, pitted with many approximately circular depressions
varying from several acres to a few hundred acres in extent and 30
tc 50 feet deep, and containing lakes. The number of lakes averages
perhaps one to a square mile, though in some places two or three
can be seen at once. Streams are comparatively scarce, but the soil
map of the “Marianna area’ shows several branches in the north-
eastern portion, and Pine Log Creek traverses the region near its
center. As in most other very sandy regions, the seasonal fluc-
tuation of the water is comparatively small.

Vegetation T\pes—The uplands are covered with open forests
of long-leaf pine, plentifully interspersed with black-jack and turkey
oaks, and carpeted with wire-grass and other herbs. Some of the
lakes are bordered by cypress, tyty, and other water-loving trees
and shrubs, and some of the smaller depressions are completely filled
with vegetation of the ‘“‘bay” type. Fires are frequent in the pine
forests, but where a steep slope going down to water gives sufficient
protection there is likely to be hammock vegetation,

Plants—The following list is based on two round trips across
the region by rail, one on the A. & St. A. B. Ry. on June 25 and 26,
1909, and one on the B. C. & St. A. R. R. on May to, 1914; and a
brief examination of its northern edge about three miles south of
Vernon on May 8, 1914. As it represents only about three hours of
field work, it is doubtless far from complete; and the percentage
figures are omitted.

TREES

+ Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine Always in sight

+ Quercus Catesbaei Black-jack oak Pine forests
Taxodium imbricarium Pond cypress Around lakes

+ Quercus cinerea Turkey oak Pine forests
Magnolia glauca Bay Bays, etc.
Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia Hammocks
Liriodendron Tulipifera ‘Poplar Branch-swamps, etc.
Pinus Elliottii (Slash pine) BRranch-swanips, etc.
Pinus serotina (Black pine) Bays, ete.
Quercus Margaretta? Post oak Pine forests

Quercus laurifolia Hammocks

6. WEST FLORIDA LAKE REGION. 227
Hicoria glabra Hickory Hammocks
Cornus florida Dogwood Hammocks

SMALL TREES OR LARGE: SHRUBS

+ Cliftonia monophylla Tyty Bays, etc,
Diospyros Virginiana Persimmon
Cyriila racemiflora? Tyty Swamps
SHRUBS
++ Chrysobalanus oblongifolius Pine forests

Serenoa serrulata Saw-palmetto
Hypericum fasciculatum

Gaylussacia dumosa

Pine forests
Lake shores
Pine forests

Asimina angustifolia Pawpaw Pine forests
Rhus Toxicodendron Poison oak Pine forests
Vaccinium nitidum Huckleberry Pine forests
HERBS
+ Aristida stricta Wire-grass Pine forests ~
-+ Pitcheria galactioides Pine forests
+ Eriogonum tomentosum Pine forests
+ Eupatorium compositifolium
(X) Dog-fennel Roadsides, ete.
++ Batschia Carelinensis Pine forests
+ Andropogon Virginicus Broom-sedge Pine forests

On trees
Pine forests

Tillandsia usneoides
+ Berlandiera tomentosa

Spanish moss

Pteridium aquilinum (A fern) Pine forests
Chamaecrista fasciculata Partridge-pea Pine forests, etc.
Vernonia angustifolia (Ironweed) Pine forests
Croton argyranthemus Pine forests
Seleria glabra (A sedge) Pine forests

Baptisia lanceolata
(and 13 others seen only once).

Pine forests

Few if any important conclusions can be drawn from such a
snort list, but it appears that the long-leaf pine is relatively more
abundant here than in almost any other region (perhaps chiefly on
account of the scarcity of swamps), though the amount of it per
acre may be exceeded in some other regions, where the trees grow
closer together. The little shrub Chrysobalanus and the Borragina-
ceous herb Batschia Carolinensis* also seem to be more abundant
here than elsewhere. About 75 per cent of the trees are evergreen,
No vines were noticed, but no doubt a few could be found in the
hammocks and bays. (Vines are rare in places subject to fire.)
Many trees that indicate fertile soil are absent.

*Also known as Lithospermum Gmelini. See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club
33:241. 1906.

228 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Economic Features—This region is very thinly settled as yet, be-
cause its deep sandy soil does not invite extensive agricultural oper-
ations. The principal industry is converting the long-leaf pine into
lumber and naval stores, a good deal of which must have been
hauled to St. Andrew’s Bay and shipped from there before the
present railroads were built. (Neither of them is more than ten
years old).

:
4
;

Tie WEST FLORIDA PINE HILLS.

bo
bo
\O

fe Wiis te LORD ACPINE HILLS:
(FIGURES 55-57)

References. Harper 1 (218-219, 248-250, 252-254, 295-297), Matson &
Sanford (301-304, 401-403, 422-425), Sellards 3 (290 or 44), Sellards & Gun-
ter 3 (90-110, etc.), Smith 2 (199, 219, 223-224), and U. S. soil surveys of
Escambia and Gadsden Cos. Illustrated ‘in 3d Ann. Rep. pl. 22, figs. 18
& 30; 4th Ann, Rep., figs. 6 & 8.

This region is in two parts, with the lake region between them. °
The eastern part covers about 750 square miles in Florida, and
extends northeastward through Georgia (where it has been called
the Altamaha Grit region*) nearly to the Savannah River, and is
everywhere separated from the coast by flat pine lands of varying
width, as well as several other kinds of country. The western part
covers about 3,200 square miles in Florida and extends westward
across Alabama} and Mississippi. Only a narrow strip of islands,
dunes, etc. (described next) lies between it and the coast.

Geology and Soils—Toward its inland edge this region is un-
derlaid by various Upper Oligocene and Miocene formations, which
are exposed along some of the streams, but have little effect on soil
o1 topography. Over the greater part of the area, however, the
material within 100 feet of the surface is Pleistocene (or perhaps
in part Pliocene) sand and clay, interstratified, cross-bedded, mot-
tled, or mixed in various proportions, but all essentially non-cal-
careous and devoid of fossils. Wells penetrating these strata, and
springs flowing from them, yield water that is scarcely surpassed
anywhere for purity. Rock outcrops are limited to a few ledges
and boulders of sandstone formed by local induration, and are
found usually on hills.

The soil is much like that of the lime-sink or cypress pond re-
gion already described, being prevailingly sandy at the surface, and
passing into reddish sandy clay at a depth of a few inches or feet.
Near the coast the subsoil seems to be more sandy than it is in the
interior. The surface sand may be derived from the underlying
Icamy material (Lafayette?) by weathering, or it may be a later

*For description of the Altamaha Grit region and its vegetation, see
Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. vol. 17, part 1. 1906.

tSee Geol. Surv. Ala. Monog, 8:113-123. 1913.

{The city water of Pensacola, which comes from wells averaging 130
feet deep, is said to contain from 22 te 35 parts per million of dissolved
solids. (Sellards & Gunter 3, p. 99).. The water of springs and shaliow
wells in the same region is probably even purer.

230 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

formation, or both conditions may occur. Where the red loam ap-
proaches the surface small ferruginous concretions are common, as
aiready noted in the lime-sink region.

A brick-red loam, commonly referred to the Lafayette forma-
tion, and more characteristic of localities farther inland, where the
summers are a little drier, is;common at and near the surface in the
northern part of Escambia County, and perhaps elsewhere. Around
- the head-waters of Alaqua Creek in Walton County there is a few
square miles of reddish clayey soil muth like that in the Knox Hill
country, and with similar vegetation, but apparently completely iso-
lated, and too small to be treated separately. Running east and west
through the middle of Walton County is a broad sandy ridge (fol-
lowed by the L. & N. R. R.) whose origin has not been explained.
On this ridge, as in deep dry sand in cther parts of the region, sala-
manders are abundant and gophers common.

The following chemical analysis from Dr. Eugene A, Smith’s
report on Florida in the 6th volume of the Tenth Census (page 199)
represents nine inches of soil near Mt. Pleasant, Gadsden County,
where the vegetation was long-leaf pine, narrow-leaf black-jack
(Quercus cinerea), round-leaf black-jack (Quercus Marylandica),
red oak (Quercus falcata), post oak, hickory, oak runners (Quer-
cus pumila?), huckleberries, wire-grass, devil's shoestring, (Cracca
Virginiana), wild oats (Sorghastrum secundum?), vanilla ( Trilisa
odoratissima?), etc.

Watervand oreante matter 222 ene ee 2.4227
PO EAS TIS feos Seeker eS eA Eee 045%
So dl apg oe a Ban rs a ee ee ean ee 018%
Tsiniie wes eee Oe ee ee One ee ee 064%
IW Econ Vachh Wien ee eas OE SOU Sak oe Seles Se .005 Yo
Brown Oxide OL imManGanese ss. = se eee 220%
Phiosphotic sacids | fi. 58 e ee, Pieeeee oy 00090
Sulbhunesacid, = — 2. =o ee Se ee 091 %o
Peroxide. of phones eee en See ee ee ee 941%
PNT R ath abe peta toe. a AB ate CAE i ah a Shee Ni TLD 1.339%
Soltible: silica: ee Acre ate eps ee PR ee ree
Insoluble matter. ==: 224 s2 5 a eS eee 93.302 %

As compared with other northern Florida soils analyzed in the
same report, this has the lowest percentages of potash, magnesia
and phosphoric acid, next to the lowest of lime, and the highest of
manganese and sulphur. (Little is known about the relations of the
two last-named constituents to vegetation. ) |

Mechanical analyses of several typical upland soils of the same

G BONO ASU FLORIDA PINE HILLS. 231

region have been taken from the government soil surveys of Gads-
den and Escambia Counties, published in 1904 and 1907 respectively.
In the case of the Escambia soils each represents the average of
two localities, but the localities are not specified, and the depths
are not given. The soils are as follows:

1. “Norfolk sandy loam” from two miles southwest of Mt. Pleasant,
Gadsden Co.; depth 10 inches, This is the most extensive soil of the Gads-
den County plateau, and is described as a light grayish sandy soi) resting
on a yellow sandy loam. Ferruginous pebbles are common. The vegeta
tion is mostly open forests of long-leaf pine, with practical'y the same
undergrowth as that mentioned above in connection with the chemical
analysis; the location being nearly the same.

2. Subsoil of same, Io to 36 inches.

3. “Norfolk sand,” Escambia Co. This is described as an incoherent
light-gray or yellowish medium sand about 5 inches deep, underlaid by
yellowish or reddish sand of the same texture to a depth of 36 inches or
more. It is said to cover nearly half of Escambia County, and to be
characterized by salamander hills, long-leaf pine, and some “scrub oak”
(doubtless Quercus Catesbaei) and dogwood. Very little of it is in cultivation.

4. “Norfolk fine sandy loam,” Escambia Co. This is a fine sandy
loam or loamy fine sand from 8 to 18 inches deep,” ‘becoming gradually
yellowish and clayey with increasing depth, with numerous ferruginous con-
cretions. The vegetation is long-leaf pine and wire-grass.

5. “Norfolk loam,” Escambia Co. “A loam from 6 to Io inches deep
It is usually brown or grayish in color for the first 4 or 5 inches, but be-
low this it changes to a light yellow.” The subsoil is said to ‘be clayey
and impervious. The vegetation is a very heavy growth of long-leaf pine
and wire-grass.

6. “Orangeburg sandy loam” (named for Orangeburg, S. C.), This
differs from the “Norfolk” soils in being redder and more clayey, and is
most common in the northern ha!f of Escambia County. “The native
vegetation is quite generally a strong and vigorous growth of long-!eaf
pine.” The soil is said to be so productive in its natural state that very
little fertilizer has been used on it in the short time it has been under cul-
tivation. “A general appearance of prosperity is noticed where this type forms
the principal farming land.”*

*This soil is found in the part of Florida where the summers are
driest (see climatological data for Flomaton, on page 183), and a chemical
analysis would doubtless show it to be above the state average in potash
and some other minerals, The prevalence of long-leaf pine on it may
be due to the fact that it occurs in comparatively small bodies which have
no protection from fire, and long-leaf pine resists fire better than any
other upland tree in that part of the state.

232 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY——-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF SoILs oF WEsT FLORIDA PINE HILLs.

I 2 3 4 5 6

Rinevsravel(2-P mms. 78 O4 Ba 0.9 0.6 Bk
Coarselsand @i=sGumom) ee 10.04 9.24 20.9 5.1 BES 9 412M)
Medium sand My 25min). 2152 oO Ae OG 5.1 AAS TESS
inewsand (@25=simciniie) geese ALONE VASA S255 enn 2O 7 ites Oi yanemmor7 ©)
Very fine sand (.1-.05 mm.) ~~ 12.78 14.98 OG Sia 50 rede eat O
Silt@@ossoos mannii) pees eee 6.50 5.18 Ths ZAELO NN = WAR NG)
(Cie ((WoOS=© sniam;)) SL 4.68 2.70 SAM itsIaIe On tae2ea65 9.3
Motaleeee a Sa ees 100.00 99.92 999 99.7 989 90.3
Oroanicumatterme = =e a 54 sug ie ? ? ?

If the texture of a soil was a reliable indication of its fertility the
“Norfolk loam” should be much richer than the “Orangeburg sandy loam,”
as it contains nearly twice as much silt and clay; but a chemical analysis
might tell a different story.

Topography and Hydrography—This region includes the highest
land in Florida; about 275 feet above sea-level along the east and
west ridge in Walton County and 300 feet at the inland edge of the
uplands in Gadsden County. Escambia Bay is bordered on the west
by bluffs which rise steeply from near the water's edge to a height
of 50 or 75 feet, and altitudes of over 100 feet can be found within
half a mile of the bay. Alum Bluff, on the Apalachicola River, 160
feet high (mentioned on page 211, and illustrated in 2nd Annual
Report, pl. 17.1), is another example of the high land of this
region.

There are some shallow cypress ponds, mostly in the part east. of
the lake region; and on the sandy ridge, in the neighborhood of De-
Funiak Springs, there are a few lakes much like those in the lake
region previously described. With these exceptions the topography
is due almost entirely to normal erosion processes. Valleys contain-
ing small branches are numerous, there being few areas more than
a mile square without running water. The smallest valleys vary
from broadly V-shaped, with almost no swamp, to flattish and
savanna-like, with acres of boggy wet pine land. Some of them,
perticularly on both sides of the DeFuniak ridge, head in amphithea-
ters or steepheads,* 50 feet deep or more.

Many of the smaller branches are so swift that the sound of run-
ning water is audible several yards away—which is rather excep-
tional in Florida. A few of the branches and creeks have been dam-
med up to furnish power for- small mills. There are many smail

*The stations of Bear Head and Mossy Head, on the L. & N. R. R.,
evidently derive their names from such features,

\

7° WEST FLORIDA PINE HILLS, 233

springs, discharging a few gallons a minute, and there are said to be

a few rather large ones tributary to Alaqua Creek. Except for the

Apalachicola, Yellow and Escambia Rivers, the streams are practi-

cally free from mineral sediment. The smallest branches are al-

most perfectly clear, and the creeks usually coffee-colored from dis-
solved and suspended vegetable matter.*

Vegetation Types—The prevailing type of vegetation is open
forests of long-leaf pine. On the driest uplands or where the sand
is deepest there is a considerable admixture of small black-jack oaks
and a few other deciduous trees with small or thick leaves. The
wet slopes of the broader branch-valleys have a characteristic bog
er wet pine-barren flora, more richly developed in this region than
anywhere else in Florida. There are all gradations between dry
and wet pine land, as in the neighboring cypress pond region. At
the heads of some of the streams are dense tyty bays (one of which
was figured in the Third Annual Report, p. 253). Swamps are
common, and vary in character with the size of the stream travers-
ing them, and the distance from the coast; the largest streams,
which fluctuate the most, being bordered by vegetation indicating
richer soil than that of the non-alluvial and the estuarine swamps.
Shallow ponds with cypress, slash pine or black gum occur in the
flatter places, but much less frequently than in region no. 2.

Fire is frequent in the pine forests and rare in the swamps. Small
areas of upland protected from fire by being partly surrounded
by swamps are characterized by hammock vegetation, here as in
other long-leaf pine regions. |

Planis—Vhe following list of plants is based on observations
made on 34 different days, distributed as follows: March, 5; April,
1; May, 1; June,-10; July, 2; September, 6; October, 1; December,
8. It ought to be reasonably complete as far.as it goes; but a few
trees and shrubs seen only once or twice, and all herbs noted less
than seven times, are omitted for the reasons given on page 185. In
order to bring out certain local irregularities in distribution, which
are more or less significant, the percentages for the two parts of the
region are given separately. The first column is for the part west
of the lake region, and the second for the smaller eastern part.

I a
*For a discussion of the classification of these and other Florida streams
see 3d Annual Report, pp. 230-231.

234 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

TREES
+51—s8 Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine
+8.7—2.7 Quercus Catesbaei Black-jack oak
—7.5—4.2 Pinus Elliottii Slash pine
+0.2—4.7 Magnolia glauca Bay
—2.9—5.0 Taxodium imbricarium (Pond) cypress
+3-4—-I.4 Quercus cinerca Turkey oak
+2.3—30 Nyssa biflora Black gum
—1.9—2.8 Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine

+-+2.4—1.2 Chamaecyparis
thyoides Juniper
2.1—1.0 Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia
I.2—1I:5 Quercus falcata Red oak
0.3—-3.8 Pinus serotina (Black pine)

+o.8—1.1 Liriodendron Tulipiferz Poplar
+1.0—0.3 Quercus laurifolia

oe

.2 Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine
.I Pinus glabra Spruce pine
5 Quercus nigra Water oak

.3 Quercus Margaretta Post oak

.6 Liquidambar Styraci-

flua Sweet gum
5 Oxydendrum arboreum Sourwood
.4 Cornus florida Dogwood
.3 Ilex opaca Holly
2 Acer rubrum Maple
.6 Quercus Marylandica Black-jack oak
o Pinus Caribaea?
4 Fagus grandifolia Beech
o Pinus clausa Spruce pine
o Betula nigra Birch
o Taxodium distichum . Cypress

o Ostrya Virginiana
Hicoria alba? Hickory
Fraxinus Caroliniana Ash

Uplands

Sandy uplands

Branch-swamps etc,

Non-alluvial and estu-
arine swamps

Ponds, branches, etc.

Uplands

Ponds and swamps

Creek bottoms, etc.

Sour swamps
Hammocks

Loamy up!ands
Branch-swamps, etc.
Branch-swamps
Hammocks

Loamy uplands
Hammocks
Bottoms, etc.

Sandy uplands

Richer soils
Hammocks, etc.
Hammocks, etc.
Hammocks
Swamps

Loamy uplands
Near coast
Hammocks

Sterile sand near coast
River-banks
Alluvial swamps:
Hammocks
Hammocks
Swamps

SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS

+.51--.37. Cliftonia monophylla Tyty
.2I—.17 Cyrilla racemiflora Tyty
-14—.02 Myrica cerifera Myrtle
.o2—.16 lex myrtifolia Yaupon
.07—.01 Quercus geminata Live oak
.o6—.04. Osmanthus Americana

++.07— 0 Cratacgus lacrimata? Haw
.03—.03 Persea pubescens Red bay
.03— oO Ilex vomitoria
.03— o Ilex Cassine

.02—.02 Symp!ocos tinctoria

5

.0o2—.02 Batodendron arboreum Sparkleberry

Sour swamps and bays
Creek swamps, etc.
Hammocks & swamps
Shallow ponds

Sterile sands
Hammocks

Sandy ridges
Non-ealluvial swamps

‘Hammocks

Non-alluvial swamps
Hammocks
Sandy hammocks

7. WEST FLORIDA PINE HILLS,

o—.06 Crataegus aestivalis May haw
Castanea pumila Chinquapin
Chionanthus Virginica Graybear
Nyssa Ogeche Tupelo gum
Salix nigra Willow

WOODY VINES

Bamboo vine

+.023—.002 Smilax laurifolia
005— oO Smilax Walteri
+.002— 0 Pieris phillyreifolia
Gelsemium sempervi-
rens
Vitis rotundifolia Muscadine or
bullace
Rhus radicans Poison ivy

SHRUBS

+,.025—.006 Chrysobalanus oblong ifolius
+.015—.022 Ilex glabra Gallherry
—.017—.011 Serenoa serrulata Saw-valiaetto

.o10o—.024 Hypericum fasciculat um
+ o—.038 Quercus pumila Oak runner
+.o10o— o Chrysoma paucifloscu losa

-oo8—.003 Pieris nitida (Hurrah bush)

.005—.o11 Myrica pumila Myrtle
+.007—.005 Myrica Carolinensis Myrtle
+.00o8— o Viburnum nudum

.007—.003 Gaylussacia dumosa
+.003—.011 Illicium Floridanum
+.006—.001 Myrica inodora
+.o005—-oor Ilex coriacea
+.005— 0 Clinopodium coccineum

.003—.003 Phoradendron flaves-

cens

.003—.002 Ceanothus Americanus

.003—.001 Clethra alnifolia

.004— O Rhus Vernix

Aronia arbutifolia
Pinckneya pubens

(Stink-bush)
Myrtle

Mistletoe
(Red-shank)

Poison sumac

Arundinaria tecta Reed
Gaylussacia hirtella

Azalea viscosa Honeysuckle
Alnus rugosa Alder
Vaccinium nitidum Huckleberry
Kalmia latifolia Ivy
Gaylussacia frondosa* Huckleberry
Rhus copallina Sumac

Hypericum galioides?
Rubus cuneifolius (X) Blackberry

*Including the var. nana.

LS,

235
Shallow ponds
Hammocks
Hammocks
Swamps
River-banks, etc.
Non-alluvial swamps

Swamps
Swamps and ponds

Yellow jessamine Hammocks

Hammocks, etc.
Swamps

High pine land

Low pine land

Pine lands

Around ponds, etc.
High pine land

Sand near coast

Sour swamps and bays
Intermediate pine land
Wet pine land
Branch-swamps

High pine land

Edges of swamps
Branch-swamps, etc.
Non-alluvial swamps
Sand near coast

On trees
High pine land
Edges of swamps
Non-alluvial swamps
Branch-swamps, etc.
Branch-swamps
Along branches
Non-al!uvial swamps
Non-alluvial swamps
Along creeks, etc-
Pine lands
Hammocks
Low pine land, etc.
Loamy uplands
Creek-banks, etc.
Roadsides, ete,

230 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY¥=——-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Sabal glabra Palmetto

Fraxinus Caroliniana Ash

Ascyrum stans

Ceanothus microphyllus

Rhus Toxicodendron Poison oak

Ceratiola ericoides Rosemary
(and about 30 others).

HERBS
+.009-—.012 Aristida stricta Wire-grass
+.003--.002 Eriogonum tomentosum
+.003— o Pitcheria galactioides
+-.002—.001 Pteridium aquilinum (A fern)
+.001—.003 Sarracenia flava Pitcher-plant
+.oo1r— o Kuhnistera pinnata (Summer fare-

well)

+.001—.o01 Eriocaulon decangulare
+-+.001—.oo01 Sarraccenia Drum-
mondii Pitcher-plant
++.001— 0 Mesadenia sulcata
+.oo1—-oor Rhexia Alifanus
+.001—.o01 Baptisia lanceolata

++.001— 0 Drosera filiformis T racyi
.0OI— oO Juncus Roemerianus (Rush)
+.001— o Cladium effusum Saw-grass
+.00i— 0 Chondrophora nuda ta
—.ooi— o Tillandsia usneoides Spanish moss
+ Rhynchospora Grayii (A sedge)

+ Croton argyranthemus
+ Lophiola aurea
++ Baptisia hirsuta
Eupatorium compositifolium Dog-fennel

++) Pleea tenuifolia
Chamaecrista fasciculata Partridge-pea
Helianthus Radula
Dolicho'us simplicifolius Dollar-weed
Berlandiera tomentosa
Gaura Michauxii

+ Euphorbia Floridana

++ Sorghastrum secundum Wild oats

Eriocaulon compressum

Chrysopsis graminifolia
Oxypolis filiformis

+ Batschia Carolinensis
+ Baldwinja uniflora

Richer swamps
Estuarine swamps
Low pine land

High pine land

High pine land
Sterile sand near coast

High pine land
Sandy ridges

High pine land
High pine land
Wet pine land

High pine land
Low pine land

Wet pine land, etc.

Non-alluvial swamps

Intermediate pine land

High pine land

Wet pine land

Brackish marshes

Marshes near coast

Low pine land

On trees

High pine land

High pine land

Low pine land

Sandy ridges

Roadsides, etc., in high
pine land

Low pine land

High pine land

Intermediate pine land

High pine land

High pine land

High pine land

Sandy ridges

High pine land

Ponds and wet pine
land

High pine land

Ponds, wet pine land,
etc.

Sandy ridges.

Low pine land, etc.

*Occurs as a shrub in the estuaries of the Escambia and Yellow Rivers. See

Third Ann. Rep. pp. 249, 322.

eee ee ae

+

-b

+.

|

+

fb
+ +4+++4++4+4+4+4+4|

+

-

+

ao

++++

+
a
+

7. WEST. FLORIDA PINE HILLS,

Chrysopsis aspera
Lycopodium alopecuroides
Mayaca Aubleti

Actinospermum angustifolium

Osmunda cinnamomea
‘Aster eryngiifolius .
Polygala ramosa
Campu!osus ‘aromaticus
[Eryngium virgatum
Vernonia angustifolia
Andropogon Virginicus
Dichromena latifolia
Sporobolus gracilis
Tofieldia racemosa
Trilisa odoratissima
Pentstemon hirsutus
Juncus trigonocarpus
Chaptalia tomentosa
Sarracenia psittacina
Verbena carnea*
Castalia odorata
Pontederia cordata
Orontium aquaticum
Laciniaria tenuifolia
Psoralea canescens
Sarracenia purpurea
Chrysopsis argentea?
Rhynchospora alba
‘Salvia azurea
Lycopodium Carolinianum
Rhynchospora Chapmani
Leptopoda Helenium
Chrysopsis oligantha
Panicum angustifolium?
Cracca Virginiana

Rhynchospora Tracyi
Xyris sp.

Aletris aurea
Arenaria Caroliniana
Doellingeria reticulata
Polygala lutea
Stillingia sylvatica
Rhexia ciliosa

Aster adnatus
Sagittaria lancifolia
Bidens coronata?
Cracca chrysophylla
Rhynchospora axillaris
Scleria glabra?

(A fern)

(A grass)

Broom-sedge
(A sedge)
(A grass)

Deer-tongue

Water-lily

Pitcher-plant

(A sedge)
(Sage)

(A sedge)

(A grass)

Devil’s shoe-
string

(A sedge)

(A sedge)
(A sedge)

‘High

237

High pine land
Low pine land
Branch-swamps, etc.
Sandy ridges

Low pine land, etc.
Low pine land

Low pine land
Low pine land
Wet pine land
High pine land
High pine land
Low pine land
High pine land
Low pine land
Intermediate pine land
High pine land
Wet pine land
Low pine land
Low pine land
High pine land
Estuaries, etc.
Ponds and marshes
Swamps

High pine land
High pine land
Low pine land
pine land
pine land
pine land
pine land
Low pine land
Low pine land
Intermediate pine land
High pine land

Low
High
Low

High pine land
Marshes, ete.

Low pine land, etc,
Intermediate pine land
Sandy ridges

Low pine land

Low pine land

High pine land

Low pine land
Intermediate pine land
Estuarine marshes
Swamps

Sandy ridges

Low pine land

High pine land

*See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 33:242. 1906,

238 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

+ Drosera capillaris? Low pine land
Eupatorium rotundifolium Low pine land
Osmunda regatis (A fern) Swamps

++ Macranthera fuchsioides Branch-swamps, etc.

+ Sabbatia macrophylla Low pine land
Onosmodium sp. High pine land

+ Rhynchospora Ba!dwinii (A sedge) Low pine land

+ Carphephorus Pseudo-Liatris Low: pine land

+ Polygala cymosa Ponds and marshes

+ Rhynchospora rariflora (A. sedge) Low pine land

+ Polygala cruciata Low pine land

+ Linum Floridanum Intermediate pine land

+ Muhlenbergia trichopodes* (A grass) © Pine lands
Lachnccaulon anceps Intermediate pine land

(and about 250 others).

The following trees which are more or less common in near-by or similar
regions are notable for their scarcity or absence in this region: Cypress (7 a-+-
odium distichum), cabbage palmetto, hickories, willow, ironwood (Carpinus),
white oak, post oak (Quercus stellata), live oak, elms, hackberry, sycamore,
plums, redbud, lin (Tilia), Gordonia, tupelo gums (Nyssa uniflora and N.
Ogeche), sassafras, and ashes (Fraxinus). Most of these prefer soils richer
in potash or humus, or both, than those of the pine hills. On the other hand,
Chamaecyparis,t Crataegus lacrimata, and several of the herbs are in Florida
confined to this region or nearly so. Pinus clausa, Illicium, Myrica inodora,
Conradina, Baptisia hirsuta and Pitcheria are not known in Georgia, and Nyssa
Ogeche, Quercus pumila, Baptisia hirsuta and Doellingeria reticulata are not
known in Alabama.

About 75% of the vegetation in the western part and 77% in the eastern
is evergreen. (Although the difference between the two parts in this respect
is slight, it is reasonable to assume that it is correlated with the wetter sum-
mers eastward). About 15% of the shrubs are Ericaceae and 9.6% of the
herbs Leguminosae. The high percentage of evergreens and Ericaceae is
doubtless correlated with soils below the average in potassium content; but
the percentage of Leguminosae is about the average. The latter seem to prefer
soils rich in calcium and potassium and poor in nitrogen or humus; and here
the soils are somewhat deficient in all these constituents. Weeds are compara-
tively scarce.

Economic Features—As in the case of the neighboring cypress
pond region (No. 2), the advantages of this kind of country may
be said to have been appreciated only recently. Grazing, lumbering
and turpentining have hitherto overshadowed all other industries,
but agriculture is now rapidly forging to the front. As late as 1910

*See footnote on page 208.

+This tree, commonly called white cedar in the North and juniper in the
South, seems to be confined to swamps in which the water is exceptionally free
from mineral matter in solution or suspension. Both in Liberty and in Santa
Rosa County it grows along small creeks which are noted locally for their
clearness.

7. WEST FLORIDA PINE HILLS, 239

only 3.6% of the area was cleared; so there is still ample
room for “development.” Excluding the city of Pensacola, which
lias a splendid harbor and has been built up mostly by foreign trade,
and is therefore to a considerable extent independent of the natural
resources of the country near it, this region had in 1910 about 13.3
inhabitants to the square mile; which was an increase of 51%
in ten years, a rate far above the average. About 62% of the
inhabitants are white.

The lumber industry of this region reached large proportions
early in the state’s history. From an article by Hon. P. K. Yonge,
of Pensacola, in “Makers of America, Florida edition” (Atlan.a,
19cg), we learn that there were a few sawmills near Pensacola in
the 18th century, and that in 1835 Pensacola exported nearly four
million feet of lumber, and in 1855 about eighteen million feet. This
was of course nearly all long-leaf pine. (Some of it may have been
rafted down the rivers from Alabama, but even sv, it could have
come from the same kind of country.) By 1884 the to‘al exports
were over ten times as much as in 1855, to say nothing of coastwise
aud rail shipments. About this time some apprehension for the
permanence of the supply began to be felt. Dr. Charles Mohr, of
Mobile, in his day the greatest authority on the forests of the Gulf
states, wrote as follows in the 9th volume of the Tenth Census (pp.
522, 523), published in 1884:

The district between the Choctawhatchee and the Perdido is the seat
of the oldest and most active lumbering industry of the whole Gu'f. coast
* * * The better. class of the somewhat elevated and undulating
timberlands which surround Escambia, Blackwater, and Saint Mary de
Galves bay were long since stripped of their valuable timber. These forests,
having been culled time after time during the last quarter of a century, are
now completely exhausted. The low, wet pine barrens, with their soil
of almost pure sand, which trend eastward along the shores of Santa Rosa
sound and Choctawhatchee bay, have never borne a growth of pine suff-
ciet'y large to furnish more than a small supply of timber of very inferior
quality. The ridges between the Choctawhatchee river and the Yellow
river are also, for the most part, arid, sandy wastes, never yielding more
than a few hundred feet of lumber per acre.

The wel'-timbered portion of west Florida commences with the southern
border of Holmes county. This region is now, however, near'y exhausted
along water-courses large enough for rafting, while of late years canals
and ditches dug into the forest afford facilities for floating timber growing
remote from streams to the mills. According to those best informe:l re-
garding the amount of timber still standing in this section, there is scarcely
enough left between the Escambia and Choctawhatchee rivers, in western
Florida, to keep the mills on the coast supplied for another ha‘f-dozea
years, even if the whole of the pine standing could be made available.

240 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

The peninsula between the junction of the Escambia and the bay of
Saint Mary de Galves is low, and along the shore-line, bordered with
marshes. The timber needed to supply the mi!ls located upon the shores
of these waters has during the past forty years been drawn from this
region, and when new forests have replaced the original growth they have
been cut over and over again, and still furnish a small amount of timber,
as the turpentine distiller has not followed the log-getter in these regions,
the supply of timber here, however, at present is too small to be taken
into account in view of the enormously increased demands of the mills.
There are three large mills on Blackwater bay producing 40,000,000 feet of
lumber a year. Three-fourths of this lumber is produced in the establish-
ment of Messrs. Simpson & Co., near the mouth of the Blackwater river,
at Bagdad, about half a mile below Milton. Mills sawing square timber are
situated 20 or 30 miles above the Blackwater and use mostly water-power.
af + * The exhaustion of the timber-lands through the whole
breadth of western Florida, as far as the banks of the Choctawhatchee
river, will certainly be accomplished before the end of the next five years.

In spite of these gloomy predictions, the lumber industry of the
West Florida pine hills is still in a flourishing condition; though
of course it has its little ups and downs, like most other industries.
Aithough no statistics for single regions are available, the annual
production of lumber in this region at the present time is probably
nearly as great, if not as great, as it ever was. At the time Dr.
Mohr wrote the words quoted above, there were no railroads in
West Florida east of Pensacola, and millions of magnificent pine
trees remote from the coast and waterways were inaccessible and
practically unknown. Even yet lumbering operations have not ex-
tended more than a few miles from the railroads and rivers and the
coast, and there is an enormous amount of timber still standing, the
existence of which a traveler following the regular transportation
routes would hardly suspect. In September, 1910, the writer
walked for several hours through virgin pine forests that had not
even been turpentined, on the west side of Alaqua Creek between
Portland and DeFuniak Springs; and just a little farther west,
in the same region, the government established in 1909 the “Choc-
tawhatchee National Forest,’ an area of several hundred square
miles very sparsely settled and well timbered. Ten months later a
great deal of fine “round timber” (i. e., pines not turpentined) was
seen between DeFuniak Springs and the Alabama line, and in May,
1G14, the forests between Vernon and the Choctawhatchee River, in
Washington County, were found to be scarcely lumbered, though
nearly all turpentined.

fo WEL FLORIDA PINE HILLS. 241

The increasing use of substitutes for wood in the arts and trades,
especially in the construction of buildings, tends to diminish the
drain on our forests; but even if the per capita consumption of wood
did not diminish, the exhaustion of the forests of West Florida
would be postponed for a long time, for the simple reason that there
are not enough people in those parts yet to keep the long-leaf pine
cut down as fast as it grows. For the greatest inroads on the forest,
in the eastern United States, have been made not by the lumberman,
but by the farmer; for in cultivated areas the forest is completely
destroyed, and the amount of cultivated land is steadily increasing,
aud the total forest area correspondingly diminishing. But until
the population in these parts is two or three times as dense as it
is now, no fear need be felt for the exhaustion of the timber supply
in the West Florida pine hills.

The leading crops in this region in 1912, in order of value, were
as follows: Corn, upland cotton, velvet beans (including hay there-
of), sweet potatoes, sugar cane, peanuts, field peas (including hay),
(grass) hay, oats, peaches, pecans, oranges, watermelons, sea-island
ectton, Irish potatoes, pears, cabbage, figs, grapes, onions, tomatoes.

242 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

4

8. WEST FLORIDA COAST STRIP:
(FIGURES 58-61)

References. Harper 1 (218, 265), McAtee, Sellards 3 (290-291, or 44-45),
and U. S. soil survey of Eseambia Co., (by Griffen, Drake, Belden & Kolbe,
1907).

This region extends from the mouth of the Ocklocknee River
west to Mississippi, in streaks and patches which are difficult to map
and measure accurately. Its area in Florida is probably not over
400 square miles. It includes most of the islands* and narrow pen-
insulas along the coast, and on the edge of the mainland some salt
and brackish marshes, and elongated belts of dry sand which seems
to have been heaped up by the wind long ago. Some of these old
dunes are almost completely surrounded by flatwoods belonging to
the region to be described next, but they do not seem to occur more
than a mile or so from tide-water (which may indicate that the po-
sition of the coast line has not changed much for thousands of
years).

Geology and Soils—Except for a few marsh and estuarine de-
posits, shell mounds, and some ancient and modern peat, there is
nothing but Pleistocene and Recent sand near enough to the surface
to have any effect on soil or topography. No chemical analyses of
the soils seem to have been made; but in the immediate vicinity of
the coast, say within 100 yards of the beach, the sand of the beach
and active dunes must contain considerable calcareous matter in the
form of pulverized sea-shells. Mechanical analyses of two types of
soil from this region have been taken from the government soil sur-
vey of Escambia County. The first is “Galvesten sand,” corre-
sponding to the beaches and moving dunes, and the second is ‘““Sand-
hill’ + corresponding to the older dunes which are no longer mov-
ing. The former is not cultivated at all, and the latter very little.
The depth to which the samples were taken is not indicated, but

*St. James Island, in Franklin County, is an is'and only by accident,
as it were, for it is separated from the main!and only by a narrow fresh-
water channel (Crooked River), and the greater part of it is flatwoods,
indistinguishable from those of the adjacent mainland. That part of it
belonging to the coast strip apparently does not average more than half
a mile wide. The other islands are separated from the mainland by a mile
or more of salt water (the sounds), and are much more typical.

tTypical sand-hills of the coastal plain occur along the fall-line and
along rivers and creeks, and are scarcely represented in Florida.

8. WEST FLORIDA COAST STRIP. 243

there is said to be little difference between soil and subsoil in either
case.

MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF SOILS OF THE Coast Strip, EscAmBria County.

“Galveston sand” “Sandhill”

Fine gravel (2-I mm.) ----------------- 0.0 0.1
RaagsessanGn (l= Sutil) 15:5 14.2
Medium sand (.5—.25 mm.) ------------ 56.1 45.1
Bineksand.(.25—.0 1m.) = ——— ee — 28.3 a5i2
Very fine sand (.I-.05 mm.) ----------- 3 0.1 0.4
She (CORSO Trt )) Sse ease ee 0.0 2.9
(Clee (Cee Rae) tiie) ae ee ee — 0.0 1.9

GIN Se ee ee ee 100.0 99.9

Both soils have remarkably low percentages of very fine sand,
silt and clay, which is doubtless correlated with their lack of fertil-
ity. The localities are not given, but the “Sandhill” sample may
have been taken far enough back from the coast to be influenced by
ants and other subterranean animals.

The vegetation of beaches and drifting sands, though sparse,
consists mostly of grasses and other plants belonging to families sup-
posed to prefer soils well supplied with lime or potash, or both; while
on the ancient dunes a little farther back, which perhaps have not
moved noticeably in hundreds of years, the vegetation is quite dif-
ferent, consisting mostly of pines and evergreen shrubs, with prac-
tically no grasses, indicating an extremely sterile soil.. It seems very
probable that the lime and potash (derived from shells, seaweeds,
etc.) that were in the latter soil when it was first thrown up by
waves and wind have long ago been almost entirely leached out by
the copious summer rains.

_ Salamanders, which have no known way of crossing water,
seem to be entirely absent fromr the islands, and thus one important
agent that helps maintain the fertility of some Florida soils is lack-
ing. None have been observed on the old dunes of the mainland
either, though the reason for their absence there is less obvious.
Gophers and ants inhabit the soil of the oldest dunes near Lanark
(and probably elsewhere), and the vegetation there is very similar
to that on sandy ridges farther inland, indicating a better soil than
that of the stationary dunes on the outer islands.

Topography and. Hydrography—The topographic forms are
those common to many sandy coasts; namely, beaches, dunes,
» marshes, etc. The dunes are not as extensively developed as on the

244 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Atlantic coast, probably because the prevailing winds do not blow
toward the land. Few of the moving dunes are more than ten feet
high; but some of the ancient dunes on the mainland and St. James
Island are 40 or 50 feet above sea-level. Among these high old
dunes are some approximately circular depressions apparently identi-
cal in form with some in Middle and peninsular Florida which are
supposed to have been formed by the solution of underlying lime-
stone; but here there is no limestone anywhere near the surface, and
wind seems to be the only agent which could have formed the hol-
lows, though the details of the process are not fully understood.
Ponds, springs and streams are scarce, on account of the nar-
rowness of the coast strip and the porosity of the sand; but in some
of the dune hollows, as in similar hollows in the flatwoods close by,
there are tyty bays (described in the 3d Annual Report, p. 265).
Vegetation Types—Some of these have been briefly indicated
above in the discussions of geology and topography. Typical salt
marshes, such as are common on the Atlantic coast, are scarce and
small in West Florida, but there is a good deal of brackish marsh
around the mouths of rivers and creeks. The marshes are treeless,
and the moving dunes likewise. The stationary dunes nearest the »
coast have a sparse growth of slash pine and a few other trees, and
evergreen shrubs. A little farther back there is a good deal of spruce
pine (Pinus clausa), which thrives in the poorest sand, while on the
highest old dunes on the mainland, where the leaching is counter-
acted to some extent by the soil fauna, long-leaf pine and blackjack
oak prevail. Among or near the old dunes are areas of flat pine land
with tyty kays, which may belong to the flatwoods region, but they
are so intimately mixed with the dunes that it was difficult to sep-
arate ‘hem in making up the plant lists.
Fire is a negligible factor in the coast region, partly because the
islands and peninsulas are well protected by water, and partly be-
cause most of the vegetation is too sparse to carry fire. In some hol-
lows and on slopes near waterways, where there is sufficient protec-
tion from wind and sun for humus to accumulate, there is hammock
vegetation.
Plants—The following list is based on observations made on
12 different days, distributed through the year as follows: April,
1; May, 2; June, 4; July, 1; August, 1; September, 1; December 2:
It cannot he very complete, though, for my opportunities for visit-
ing the outer islands have been very limited. And it probably in-

8. WEST FLORIDA COAST STRIP. 24

on

cludes a small admixture of flatwoods plants, as explained above.
For these reasons the percentage figures are omitted.

—Pinus palustris
++Pinus clausa
Pinus Elliottii
+Quercus geminata
+Quercus Catesbaei
+Quercus cinerea
—Magnolia glauca
Magnolia grandiflora
+Hicoria glabra?
—Taxodium imbricarium
Nyssa biflora
Oxydendrum arboreum
Pinus Caribaea?

SMALL TREES

+Quercus myrtifolia

+Cliftonia monophylla

+Cyrilla parvifolia
Myrica cerifera
Batodendron arboreum

TREES

Long leaf pine
Spruce pine
(Slash pine)
(Smaller) live oak
Black-jack oak
(Turkey ‘oak)
Bay

Magnolia
Hickory
Cypress

Black gum
Sourwood

TM!

Hee Bi.

Oldest dunes
White dunes
Islands, low grounds
Old dunes, etc.
Oldest dunes
Oldest dunes
Bays, etc.
Hammocks
Hammocks
Bays, etc.
Swamps
Hammocks

OR LARGE SHRUBS

Oak

Tyty

Tyty

Myrtle
Sparkleberry

WOODY VINES

+Smilax laurifolia
+Smilax auriculata

+Serenoa serrulata

++Ceratiola ericoides
++Chrysoma pauciflosculosa
++Conradina canescens
++Clinopodium coccineum

Pieris nitida

Hypericum fasciculatum

Hypericum aspalathoides

—Chrysobalanus oblongifolius

Ilex vomitoria
Cholisma ferruginea
Iva frutescens
Crookea microsepala
Baccharis halimifolia
Polygonella sp.
Callicarpa Americana.
Hamamelis Virginiana

(and 18 others).

Bamboo vine

SHRUBS

Saw-palmetto
Rosemary

(Hurrah bush)

French mulberry
Witch-hazel

Old dunes

Bays

Bays
Hammocks, etc,
Hammocks

Bays, etc.
Old dunes

Dry sand
White dunes
O!d dunes
O!d dunes
O!d dunes
Bays

Edges of bays
Dune hollows
Oldest dunes
Hammocks
Hammocks
Edges of marshes
Around bays

Old dunes
Hammocks
Hammocks

246

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

HERBS
++Juncus Roemerianus Rush Brackish marshes
+Pitcheria galactioides Oldest dunes
+Syngonanthus flavidulus Around bays, etc.
+Euphorbia gracilis Oldest dunes
+Lophiola aurea Bays
++Rhynchospora dodecandra (A sedge) O'd dunes
Polygala lutea Around bays
Anchistea Virginica (A fern) Bays
+Ambrosia hispida? Ragweed Shores of sounds
Rhynchospora Chapmani? (A _ sedge) Around bays

Around bays,
Marshes, etc.
Around bays

Centella repanda etc.
Cladium effusum

Rhexia Alifanus

Saw-grass

Baptisia IeContei? O'd dunes
Siphonychia sp. Old dunes
Saururus cernuus Swamps

Fuirena scirpoidea (A sedge) Around bays

Sarracenia psittacina Pitcher-plant Around bays

Panicum erectifolium? (A grass) Around bays

Utricularia cornuta Peaty bays
+Rhynchospora leptorhyncha (A _ sedge) Bays

Spartina gracilis (A grass) Brackish marshes
+Uniola paniculata Sea-oats Moving dunes
+Stenophyllus Warei (A sedge) Old dunes

Fimbristylis spadicea (A sedge) Dune hollows, etc.

Oldest dunes
Oldest dunes

Kuhnistera pinnata (Summer farewell)
+Laciniaria Chapmani

(and about Ioo others).

Nearly all trees characteristic of rich soil, and even the short-leaf
pines, cypress (T7axrodium distichum), cabbage palmetto, willows, beech,
most of the oaks, elms, poplar, sweet gum, haws, p!ums, maples, black
gum, dogwood, persimmon and ashes, are rare or absent. Pinus clausa,
Quercus myrtifolia and Serenoa are in West Florida chiefly confined to
this region, though they are more widely distributed in the peninsula.
Chrysoma, Conradina, and Clinopodium coccineum do not grow much farther
south, and the Conradiia is almost confined to this region.

The proportion of evergreens (about 80%) is probab'y higher than
in any other region described in this volume, except the East coast strip;
which presumab!y indicates soils very deficient in potash. The percentage
of Leguminosae is low, for the same reason. There are almost no weeds.

Economic Features—On account of the narrowness of this strip
no statistics of population and crops can be obtained. But there is
practically no agriculture, and the principal occupations of the in-
habitants seem to be fishing, lumbering and commerce. There is
considerable summer resort business, particularly on St. James
Island, around St. Andrew’s Bay, and near Pensacola, and some

gQ. APALACHICOLA FLATWOODS, 247

winter resort business also. The large sawmills in and near the
coast strip get their timber almost entirely from farther inland. In
the first half of the 19th century the government reserved a strip
on the coast of West Florida for the sake of the live oak timber,
which was then highly valued for ship-building. Roads and wheeled
vehicles are scarce in this region, and communication is mostly by
boat and rail.

@ APALACHICOLA FEATWOODS.
(FIGURES 62, 63)

References. Bush, Harper 1 (221, 235-238, 294-295), Harper 5, Matson
& Sanford (305-306), Sellards 3 (203 or 47,—first use of name), Smith 2
(226), and U. S. soil survey of Leon Co., 1906. Illustrated in 3d Ann. Rep.,
pl. 19.2, fig. 17 (two views of estuarine swamps), and in Pop. Sci. Monthly 85:
353- 1914.

This kind of country is confined to Florida, between the Choc-
tawhatchee and Wakulla Rivers, and has an area of about 2,600
square miles.

Geology and Soils—No rocks or fossils are known in this re-
gion, except on the banks of the Sopchoppy River, and the area is
usually nearly all mapped as Pleistocene. The soil is mostly sand,
of several different degrees of fineness. - In some places there is
“hardpan’* within two or three feet of the surface, but
Overt the greater part of the area there are no cuts or
excavations deep enough to indicate what underlies the sand. In
a few places in Wakulla and Franklin Counties the vegetation seems
to indicate marl near the surface; and there is said to be a belt of
fairly rich soil on the west side of the Sopchoppy River. Along the
Apalachicola River there is of course considerable alluvium, which
near the mouth of the river seems to be at least 170 feet deep.}

One of the most characteristic soils of this region has been
called “Leon sand” in the soil survey above cited. It is described as
a gray or white medium sand 6 to 10 inches deep, usually moist and
often compact, underlaid by a pure white or light brown compact
medium sand, which is saturated with water or nearly so. The veg-
etation is said to be mostly long-leaf pine, saw-palmetto, and wire-
grass; and very little of the land is under cultivation. The follow-
ing mechanical analysis of such a soil from somewhere in the south-

*See Third Ann, Rep. 96-97, 222, 225, 204, 295; 4th Ann. Rep. 37-38;
5th Ann. Rep. 127-128.
tSee Third Ann. Rep., p. 235.

248 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

western part of Leon County (locality not specified) is taken from
the publication referred to. The first column of percentages is for
soil and the second for subsoil; but the respective depths are not in-
clicated. ;

MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF “LEON Sanp,” Leon County.
Soil Subsoil

Mineworavel (2-1. nim.) S2-— =a eee £2 8
Goarse sand 1 (t=.5e Min) 2s==-2 a eee 18.3 15.0
Medinim- sand 4(G5=-25) Imi) aaa 16.5 16.2
Hinessand @25—r anni) oa e ee en e 37-5 378
ety) tite wsatdle (1-05 emits) yee ne TOW ereeoies
DIE (COS = QO 5 pintinl)) iy oe ee ne ee ee 5.6
Sane (Coss) itil, eS ooo 1.5 3.1

foal 99.5 908

These figures indicate that there is little difference between soil
and subsoil, and that the proportion of silt and clay is rather low.

Much of the soil is too damp for ants, gophers and salamanders,
but crawfish are common in some places, if one may judge from
their “chimneys,” which are usually closed at the top, instead of open
like the more familiar ones in more clayey soils farther inland.

Topographs and Hydrography—tThe surface is essentially flat,
except for shallow stream-channels and innumerable shallow ponds
and bays, and a strip of rolling country along the Sopchoppy River
(which has not yet been visited by the writer). It rises gradually
from the coast to an elevation of 75 or possibly 100 feet at its in-
land edge. The ground-water stands nearly everywhere within a
few feet or inches of the surface.

The streams are mostly sluggish, and all coffee-colored except
the Apalachicola and Choctawhatchee Rivers, which are muddy.
These rivers fluctuate more than the smaller streams, but of course
not as much as they do farther inland, for near their mouths they
cannot rise much above sea-level. Dead Lake, or Lake Chipola, in
Calhoun County, seems to be a widening of the Chipola River, but
little is known about it, as few if any scientists have ever seen it.

Vegetation Types—The greater part of the area is flat pine
woods, long-leaf pine being the most abundant tree, in spite of the
rather damp soil. The numerous shallow depressions contain either
cypress pond vegetation or bay* vegetation, or some intermediate

*A phytogeographical term occasionally heard in this region is “bay-
gall”; but I have never ascertained just what difference, if any, there is
between a bay-gall and a bay.

Q. APALACHICOLA FLATWOODS, 249

stage, depending on the amount of seasonal fluctuation of the water,
as in the lime-sink region already described (No. 2). The streams
are all bordered by swamps of varying width and character.

Plants—The following list is based on observations made most-
ly in Franklin and Wakulla Counties, and on only 12 different
days, distributed as follows: April, 5; May, 1; June, 4; August, 1;
October, 1. The estuarine swamps at the mouth of the Choctaw-
hatchee River (described in the 3d Annual Report, p. 238) may be-
long to this region, but their plants have not been incorporated into
the following list. There are probably few or no species there
which are not in the Apalachicola River swamps, however.

TREES
4c.0 Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine Drier flatwoods
+12.6 Taxodium imbricarium (Pond) cypress Shatlow ponds, etc-
+12.0 Pinus Elliottii Slash pine Shallow ponds, etc.
+ 5.8 Magnolia glauca Bay Swamps and bays
+ 5.4 Pinus serotina (Black pine) Wet flatwoods
3.0 Nyssa biflora Black gum Swamps
— 2.0 Liquidambar Styraciflua Sweet gum Richer soils
+ 1.8 Acer rubrum Maple Swamps
— 1.7 Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine Richer soils
— 1.5 Quercus Catesbaei Black-jack oak Driest soils
+ 1.4 Salix nigra Willow River-banks
1.2 Taxodium distichum Cypress River-swamps
+ 1.0 Sabai Palmetto Cabbage palmetto River-swamps
+ 1.0 Nyssa Ogeche Tupelo gum River-swamps
— .8 Quercus cinerea Turkey oak Driest spots
8 Quercus nigra Water oak Richer soils
6 Liriodendron Tulipifera Poplar Branch-swamps
— .6 Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia Hammocks, etc.
+ .5 Nyssa uniflora Tupelo gum River-swamps
+ .4 Betula nigra Birch River-banks
+ .3 Populus deltoides Cottonwood River-banks
— .2 Pinus glabra Spruce pine Hammocks, bottoms
+ .2 Platanus occidentalis Sycamore Along Apalachicola R.
+ .2 Fraxinus profunda? Ash River-swamps
+ .2 Quercus lyrata Swamp post oak River-swamps
+-+.2 Populus heterophylla Cottonwood Along Apalachicola R.
-I Ulmus Floridana Elm River-swamps
+ .t Ulmus Americana? Elm River-swamps
— .1 Pinus clausa Spruce pine Sand near coast
— Quercus Michauxii Swamp chestnut
oak River-swamps

(and 21 others).

250 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS.

+.48 Cyritla parvifolia Tyty Bays
+.45 Cliftonia monophylla Tyty Bays
+.07 Ilex myrtifolia Yaupon Ponds and bays
.06 Myrica cerifera Myrtle Richer soils
.05 Salix longipes? Willow Estuarine swamps
.02 Quercus geminata (Small) live oak Dry sands
ot Cyrilla racemiflora Tyty Branch-swamps, etc.

WOODY VINES

+.014 Smilax laurifolia Bamboo vine Bays, etc.

—.002 Vitis aestivalis? Wi'd grape River-bottoms

+.002 Wistaria frutescens Wisteria River-banks
.002 Ampelopsis arborea | Bottoms

.002 Smilax Walteri Swamps and bays
002 Parthenocissus quinquefolia Virginia Creeper Richer soils

.00o2 Rhus radicans Poison ivy Swamps
+.oo1 Brunnichia cirrhosa Along Apalachicola R.
001 Tecoma radicans (Cow-itch) Bottoms
° SHRUBS
+.088 Serenoa serrulata Saw-palmetto Flatwoods
+.020 Hypericum fasciculatum Around ponds and bays
+.o11 Quercus minima Oak runner Flatwoods
+.009 Ilex glabra Gallberry Flatwoods
+.008 Myrica pumila Myrtle Flatwoods
++.008 Stillingia aquatica Shallow ponds
+.007 Cholisma fruticosa (Poor grub) Flatwoods
+.007 Vaccinium nitidum Huckleberry Flatwoods
+.006 Gaylussacia frondosa* Huckleberry Flatwoods
.006 Cephalanthus occidentalis E!bow-bush Ponds and swamps
+.005 Arundinaria macrosperma Reed River-banks
+.005 Crookea microsepala Flatwoods
.004 Sabal glabra Palmetto River-swamps
+.004 Pinckneya pubens Branch-swamps
.004 Quercus pumila Oak runner Flatwoods
+.003 Alnus rugosa Alder River-banks, etc.
003 Phoradendron flavescens Mistletoe - On trees
-003 Itea Virginica Swamps
.003 Kalmia hirsuta Flatwoods
.002 Iva frutescens Along coast
+.002 Conradina canescens Sand near coast
002 Clethra a!nifolia Bays; etc:
.002 Myrica Carolinensis Myrtle Bays, etc.
.002 Quercus myrtifolia Oak Sand near coast
.002 Hypericum myrtifolium Around ponds, ete.
.002 Ilex coriacea Bays

*Including the var nana.

,OOT
,OoT
-OOT
-00
,OOT
,OOI
.OOI
OO!

+-+.001

—

+-+.006
+-+.004
+.003
+.003
+.002
+.002
002
+.002
+.002
+.002
+.001
+.001
+.001
+.001
+.001
+.001
+.001
+.001

+ + ++

++

a

Qg. APALACHICOLA FLATWOODS.

Viburnum nudum
Cornus stricta?
Gaylussacia dumosa
Hypericum opacum
Chrysobalanus oblongifolius
Amorpha fruticosa ‘|

Wi'd rose

Rosa Carolina
Cholisma ligustrina
Leitneria Floridana
(and 12 others).
HERBS

Rhexia Alifanus
Lephiola aurea
Aristida stricta
Sarracenia flava

Wire-grass
Pitcher-plant
Eriocau!on compressum
Cladium effusum
Tillandsia usneoides
Eriocaulon decangulare
Aster eryngiifolius
Campulosus aromaticus
Aletris lutea

Eryngium synchaetum
Polygala cymosa

Trilisa odoratissima
Drosera filiformis Tracyi
Helianthella grandiflora?
Coreopsis nudata
Dichromena latifolia
Sagittaria lancifolia
Ba!dwinia uniflora
Syngonanthus flavidulus
Pterocaulon undulatum
Anchistea Virginica
Eupatorium rotundifolium
Xyris flexuosa*
Chondrophora nudata
Lachnocaulon anceps
Pontederia cordata
Tracyanthus angustifo!ius
Euphorbia inundata?
Sabbatia macrophy!la
Sarrecenia psittacina
Leptopoda Helenium .
Rhexia lutea

Gyrotheca tinctoria

Saw-grass

Spanish moss

(A grass)

Deer-tongue

(A sedge)

(Black-root)
(A fern)

Pitcher-plant

*X torta of many authors.

16

(Possum haw)

251

Branch-swamps

Rich damp places

Flatwoods

Edges of bays

Drier flatwoods

River-banks

Swamps

Bays

Swamps near
Apalachicoia

Flatwoods

Damp flatwoods
Flatwoods

Damp flatwoods
Ponds and bays
Estuarine marshes
Swamps, etc.
Bays, etc.
Fiatwoods
Flatwoods
Flatwoods
Fiatwoods

Ponds and bays
Flatwoods

Damp flatwoods
Drier flatwoods
Damp flatwoods
Damp flatwoods
Estuarine marshes
Flatwoods
Flatwoods and bays
Flatwoods

Bays and ponds
Flatwoods
Flatwoods
Flatwoods
Flatwoods

Ponds and marshes
Flatwoods
Flatwoods

Damp flatwoods
Around bays
Around ponds
Flatwoods

Bays, etc.

++

Pteridium aquilinum (A fern)

-Rhynchospora Chapmani (A_ sedge)

Trilisa paniculata
Saururus cernuus
Diodia teres (X)
Sericocarpus bifoliatus
Chrysopsis oligantha
Panicum sp. (A grass)
Drosera capillaris (Sundew)
Juncus scirpoides composi tus
Rhynchospora corniculata (A sedge)
Osmunda regalis (A fern)
Sarracenia Drummondii
Centella repanda
Polygala lutea
Eleocharis Baldwinii (X?) (A sedge)
Nymphaea fluviatilis Bonnets
Zizania aquatica?
Scirpus validus
Chrysopsis graminifolia
Erigeron vernus
Rhynchospora semiplu-
mosa (A sedge)
Baptisia LeContei?
Osmunda cinnamomea
Senecio lobatus
Ludwigia virgata
Carphephorus Pseudo-
Liatris
Afzelia cassioides
Dianthera crassifolia
Phragmites communis
Sabbatia campanulata

(Bulrush)

(A fern)

Fuirena scirpoidea (A sedge)

Chaptalia tomentosa

Typha latifolia Cat-tail

Kuhnistera pinnata. (Summer
farewell)

Juncus Roemerianus

Juncus biflorus

Iris versicolor

Xyris pallescens

Lycopodium Carolinianum

Aristida spiciformis (A grass)

(and about 180 others).

Pitcher-plant

(Wild rice)

(Reed-grass)

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Flatwoods

Damp flatwoods
Flatwoods

Swamps, etc.

Along rai-roads, etc.
Drier flatwoods
Flatwoods

Damp flatwoods
Around bays
Flatwoods

Ponds, etc

Swamps

Damp flatwoods
Flatwoods and bays
Flatwoods and bays
Damp grassy roads
Rivers

Estuarine swamps
Estuarine marshes
Drier flatwoods
Flatwoods

Flatwoods

Drier places
Around bays, ete.
Swamps
Flatwoods

Flatwoods
Flatwoods
Flatwoods

’ Estuarine marshes

Flatwoods
Flatwoods

Damp flatwoods
Estuarine marshes
Drier spots

Brackish marshes
Flatwoods

Ponds, etc.
Flatwoods

Around bays
Flatwoods and bays

Ca eee ee

Q. APALACHICOLA, FLATWOODS. 253

The fol'owing trees which are more or less common in neighboring
regions are rare or absent in this one:—Short-leaf pine (Pinus echinata),
juniper, cedar, hickories, beech, chinquapin, most of the oaks, haws, plums,
holly, dogwood and sourwood. One of the cottonwoods, Populus heter-
ophylla, seems to be found in Florida only in the swamps of the lower
Apatachicola,* and the same might be said of a few shrubs and herbs which
are almost too rare to be listed. Only one or two weeds seem to be abundant
enough to be ranked among the first 50 herbs.

About 68% of the vegetation is evergreen, 15.6% of the shrubs (or
about .04% of the total vegetation) are Ericaceae, and only 1.37% of tie
herbs are Leguminosae,

Economic Features—In 1910 less than 3% of this region was un-
der cultivation. There were less than 8 inhabitants to the square
mile, on the average, and nearly all of those lived in towns. But
the population increased about 28% between 1900 and rgro, and
perhaps inventive genius will devise means for making this a flour-
ishing agricultural region before many decades. (At the present
time the expenditures for fertil:zers per acre of improved land in
this region seem to be below the state average.) At least 58% of
the inhabitants are white.

Lumbering and turpentining and grazing are naturally the dom-
inant industries; but bee-keeping is relatively more important here
than in any other part of the State. Calhoun County, the “banner”
honey county of Florida, produced in 1911-12 233,247 pounds of
honey and 2,176 pounds of beeswax. The principal honey plants
are the two kinds of tupelo gum, which are common in the swamps
of the lower Apalachicola River; but the three kinds of tyty and the
gallberry and saw-palmetto are also important.

The leading crops, in order of value, seem to be corn, sugar-
cane, sweet potatoes, peanuts, Irish potatoes, cabbage, oranges, up-
land cotton, tomatoes, beans, grapes, peaches, field peas (including
hay), pears, onions, figs, plums, velvet beans, cantaloupes, oats, pe-
cans, and (grass) hay.

*Most books dealing with southern trees do not mention the occur-
rence of this species in Florida at all. Although nearly every botanist
who has been to Apalachicola by way of the river (the usual route previous
to 1907) must have seen it, those who took no notes had no record of
it, for the trees are rather inaccessible.

254 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

io. MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT.
(FIGURES 31, 33, 35, 36, 64-68)

References. Garber 2, Harper 1 (219-220, 254-255, 276-277), Matson & Clapp
(98, 99, 121, 279, 287-288), Matson & Sanford (27, 113-114, 128, 263, pl.
3A, 4B), Sellards 1 (58-67), Sellards 3 (293 or 47), Sellards & Gunter 1
(263, 279-284), Sellards & Gunter 3 (143-149), Smith 2 (221, 222), and U. S
soil surveys of Gadsden, Leon and Jefferson Cos. and the “Gainesville area.”
Illustrated in 3d Ann. Rep. p!. 7.2, 8.2, 8.3, 27.2, fig. 19; 4th Ann. Rep., pl.
WAL Pres: obs.

This is a complex and diversified region, extending in an are
approximately parallel to the Gulf coast from Liberty County up
through some of the southernmost counties in Georgia and then
southeastward near the axis of the Florida peninsula to Marion
County. It embraces about 1,900 square miles ip the area covered
by this report. Within the region there are many small areas of
red hills, flatwods, and other variations, which might be entitled to
rank as distinct regions if they were large enough; but it is out of
the question to show them at all on the map here used. The Talia-
hassee red hills, which were included in the hammock belt in the
Third Annual Report (though separated on the map by a dotted
line) are here ranked as a distinct region, however (No. IT).

Geology and Soils—Rock outcrops are chiefly confined to river-
banks and sink-holes, and those that have been identified are mostly
Upper Oligocene. The rocks are nearly everywhere covered by red-
dish sandy clay, and often also by a few feet of more or less loamy
sand. The clay is most conspicuous in the western part, and grad-
vally diminishes eastward and southward. The soils are mostly
rather sandy, but vary from red loam hills much like those of the
next region to damp sour sandy flatwoods like those of region 9,
gray high hammock lands, and silty second-bottom deposits; and
most of these types occur in nearly every county. :

No chemical analyses of soils from this region seem to be avail-
able, but the government soil surveys above cited contain many me-
chanical analyses and descriptions which are of considerable interest.
From this source eight types have been selected, as follows:

1. “Gadsden sand,” from % mil‘e northeast of Quincy, Gadsden Co.
Depth to inches. This is described as a dark gray fine sand, or medium
sandy loam, resting on a gray or yellow or brownish sandy loam slightly
lighter in texture. There are some ferruginous pebbles in the soil. This
soil is mostly on slopes near streams, and may be part!y colluvial. Its

vegetation is of the hammock type, and it is regarded as a very productive
soil, for a sand.

IO, MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT. 255

2. “Ocklocknee clay,” from 3% miles northeast of Midway, Gadsden
Co. Depth 8 inches, This is described as a heavy dark sandy loam of
variable texture, resting on a stiff dark yel!ow or mott!ed red clay. (The
subsoil is used for brick-making at two places in Gadsden County and at
at least one place on the same side of the same river in Thomas County,
Georgia.) The soil lies in the bottoms of the Ockiocknee River, and al-
though it is occasiona!'y overflowed, the vegetation is mostly long-leaf
pine, saw-palmetto, gallberry, etc., much like that of some flatwoods, and
very different from that in the flood-plains of muddy rivers. (It is doubt-
less low in available potash, notwithstanding its clayey character.) It
is hard!y ever cu'tivated.

3. “Norfolk sand,” Jefferson Co.; average of two samples, (localities
and depths not given). This is a gray, light brown, or yellow sand, medi-
um to fine in texture, with enough organic matter to make it loamy, under-
laid at a depth of 10 to 24 inches by yel!owish or light gray sand of more
Open structure. It is the commonest upland soil in Jefferson County,
and has a native vegetation of long-leaf and short-leaf pines, oaks, hick-
ories, and many other species, A good deal of it is under cultivation, and
it is evidently richer than the “Norfolk sand” of Escambia County, de-
scribed on page 231, although it contains less silt and clay.

4. “Orangeburg fine sandy loam,” Jefferson Co.; average of two
samples (localities and depths not given). ‘This is a “gray, brown, or red-
dish-brown medium to fine sandy loam, 8 to 15 inches deep,” with ferru-
ginous pebb'es, and a subsoil of “very red clay containing from 40 to 60
per cent of medium to fine grades of sand with very litt'e silt.’ It occurs
on rolling uplands, is a fairly productive soil (making about a third of
a bale of cotton to the acre without fertilizer), and is largely under cul-
tivation.

5. “Gainesville sand,” one-fourth mile west of Rutledge, Alachua Co.*
Depth 6 inches. This is “a gray joamy sand 8 inches deep, containing much
Organic matter, underlain by a brown loamy sand of looser structure.”
Weathered rock fragménts are common in both soil and subsoil. and usu-
ally there is calcareous clay or part!y weathered limestone within three feet
of the surface. It is on high uplands with subterranean drainage, and the
native vegetation is large long-!eaf pines and various hardwoods, It
is one of the most popular soils in the “Gainesvi'le area,” and nearly half
of it is under cultivation, the principal crops being corn and sea-island
cotton.

6. “Portsmouth sandy loam,”t one mi‘e northwest of Rocky Point,
Alachua Co. Depth 25 inches. This name is applied to soils varying

*See footnote on next page.

tMost other soi!s of the “Portsmouth” series (named for Portsmouth,
Va., and confined to the coastal plain from Delaware to Mississippi) are
flatwoods soils of low agricultural valve. (‘These soils are developed
in flat to slight!y depressed, poorly drained situations, and require ditch-
ing before they can be used for agriculture.”"—H, H. Bennett. U. S. Bu-
reau of Soi's, Bull. 96:248. 1913.) If the “Gainesville area” were re-
examined, this fertile residual high hammock soil, which resembles the
“Portsmouth” soils cnly in having a 'arge proportion of sand and organic
matter, and must be very different chemically, would probably be classi-
fied differently. -

250 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

somewhat in texture, but all rather sandy, with fragments of limestone,
and enough organic matter to give a very dark color. It ranges froma
few inches to five feet in depth, and has a stiff gray calcareous clay sub-
soil. The whole seems to be derived from the weathering of Tertiary
rocks in place. Jt occurs in rather hilly areas bordering lakes and
prairies, and is dotted with lime-sinks, It has a hammock vegetation,
and the trees are nearly all hardwoods. It is said to be “the strongest and
most productive soil of the area, and for the purposes for which it is
utilized it is probably the most valuable land in the State. The crops most
genera!ly grown, to which the soil seems best adapted, are lettuce, cab-
bage, peas, beans, and cantaloupes. This is the only soil [in the ‘Gaines-
vile area’] on which the production of citrus fruits has been attempted
since the great freeze” [of 1895].

7. Subsoil of the preceding. Depth 25 to 36 inches. A gray heavy
clay. Ce

8. “Portsmouth fine sand,” one-fourth mile southwest of Micanopy.
Alachua Co.* Depth 12 inches. This is a fine to medium sand, usually dark
gray or black from the presence of organic matter, and about 16 inches
deep, with a chocolate brown sandy subsoil, sometimes making a sort of
hardpan. This is a typical “poorly drained” flatwoods soil, presumably
of sedimentary origin, Within the hammock belt the flatwoods are often,
if not usually, at a lower elevation than the more loamy soils adjoining,
but similar soils in the same “Gainesville area” which belong to the East
Florida flatwoods (region 19) are distinctly up'and soils. The prevailing
vegetation is long-leaf pine, saw-pa!metto, gallberry, oak runners, and
other characteristic flatwoods plants.

MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF MippLE FLoripA Hammock BELT SoILs

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Fine gravel (2-1 mm.) ----- OQ1QOT Wa1-06) 50:0. VOLO CIS noes Ooi
Coarse sand (1-.5 mm.) ----- 6:40. 5.48) “To. 12:2\8/ 3.1 © Sar Ge 885 ae
Medtunr sand: «52.25 mm.)* =! 11:70") 7:70.) 14.5) 923:399:5" 20.9 ais. ope2o5
Fine sand’ (-25-.1 mim.) =2=- 56.80 30:84. 51:1 38:2 63:5 44-7" 34.75 30.5
Very fine sand? (.1-:05 mim:)-= 16:00) 17-10 14:2 S118 ie 5.6 160) We.o ow
Silt?/(Gos-oos) mam!) ss eeeeee Bio. AAAdin 5:7, ATO geo Gs -Oleeo ORs
Clay. (005-0: sims) | Sae-ee=a— ADA 23°35) 3.4> 19.4 aMtol, Sul 2017 anne
Mic tales eee 99.74 100.00 99.9 97-4 100.0 99.8 100.0 99.5
Organio-imatter) —2--=—-—=—=—— COZ ne O LP ? ? rg ? ?

Any one examining this table (excluding No. 7, which is a subsoil),
without knowing anything else about the soils, might suppose that No. 2
was the richest, on account of having the largest percentages of the
three finest grades of particles, and that No. 6 was about on a par with
No. 3, the comparatively poor “Norfolk sand.” The facts of the case
are decidedly otherwise, however, and chemical analyses would probably
correlate much better with the vegetation and crops. It is significant,
however, that No. 8, which contains the least silt and clay, is the poorest
Or alle

*In the soil survey of the “Gainesville area” the mechanical analyses
of the “Gainesville sand” and the “Portsmouth fine sand” seem to have
been inadvertently transposed.

ee

IO: MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT. 257

Salamanders are common in the sandiest soils (‘Norfolk sand,”’
etc.), ants are ubiquitous, and no doubt other subterranean animals
abound in certain places.

Topography and Hydrography—The topography of this belt
varies from decidedly hilly, for Florida, to practically flat. The
elevations range from over 250 feet in Gadsden County and about
200 in Columbia to about 50 feet at the coastward edge. In Gads-
Gen County, where the steepest hills are found, the topography has
been produced almost entirely by erosion, and there are many ra-
vines containing swift branches, much as in the Apalachicola bluff
region (No. 3) on the other side of the county; but farther east
there are many evidences of solution, and streams are scarcer.
There are a few caves, sinks, and big springs, mostly east of the
Withlacoochee River (of Georgia). Most of the streams are of
the coffee-colored type, but there are also a few short clear calcare-
ous runs issuing from large springs. There are no muddy rivers,
except that the Ocklocknee becomes somewhat turbid after pro-
longed rains (and that probably did not occur before the farmers
began to clear up the country around its tributaries). Several
streams which rise near the inland edge of this belt flow across it
and disappear into the ground near its coastward edge. Flat-bot-
tomed lakes which drain into sinks and are dry a good deal of the
time are characteristic of this region, but not wholly confined to it.
(See paper by Dr. Sellards on pages 115-159 of this volume. )

Vegetation Types—These are as varied as the soil and topog-
raphy; embracing upland oak woods, high and low pine lands,
hammocks of several kinds, swamps, bays, ponds, marshes, prairies,
etc. Fire is frequent in the pine lands and rare in the hammocks
and swamps, as usual.

_ Plants—In order to bring out certain local irregularities of dis-
tribution the region is divided for statistical purposes somewhat
arbitrarily into three parts by means of rivers; namely: (1) that
part west of the Ocklocknee River, which as far as Florida is con-
cerned is practically the same as the part west of the Tallahassee
red hills; (2) the part between the Ocklocknee and the Withlacoo-
chee River (of Georgia) ; (3) the part southeast of the Withla-
coochee. . There are three columns of percentages, to correspond
with these three divisions. The + and — marks, however, refer
only to the average for the whole region (which is not necessarily

258 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

the average of the three percentages, on account of the difference in
size of the three divisions. For the same reason the order of
abundance is not exactly the same as that of the sums of the per-
centages). Thus in the case of a species preceded by a + mark
some one, or occasionally even two, of the percentages may fall be-
low the average of that species for northern Florida; and wice ver-
sa. Where two + marks are used the highest figure of course in-
dicates the division in which the species is more abundant than it is
anywhere else; and in the other two divisions it may possibly be
below the northern Florida average.

My field work has been distributed as follows: Western di-
vision, March, 6 days; April, 1; May, 1; June, 4; August, Septem-
ber, October, November and December, 1 each; total 17. Middle
division, January, 3; February, 3; March, 7; April, 4; May, 3;
June 1; July, 2; August, 1; September, 2; November, 5; December,
6; total 37. Eastern division, January, 1; February, 5; March, 3;
April, 25 May,-3; July, 35 August, 1 ; December, 2;total; 20:

/ TREES
—27 —18— 34 Pinus falustris Long-'eaf pine Sandy soils
+15—11—1! Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine , Various situations
+6.1—13.5—6.2 Pmus Elliottii Slash pine Sha!low swamps, etc,
o —12.3—4.8 Taxodium
imbricarium (Pond) cypress Ponds and bays
++6.5—-7.0—1.1 Magnolia glauca Bay Non-alluvial swamps

+2.5—6.5—2.3 Pinus serotina (Black) pine Wet flatwoods
+6.5—3.8—4.2 Magnolia

grandiflora Magnolia Hammocks
+4.4—3.2—5.7 Liquidambar

Styraciflua Swect gum Richer soils
+1.9—4.4—0.2 Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine Richer uplands
+1.2—4.1—0.6 Nyssa biflora Black gum Swamps and ponds
+2.1—2.0—3.1 Quercus falcata Red oak Richer uplands
+3.3—1.1—0.8 Pinus g'abra Spruce pine Hammocks
+1.4—1.8—o.7 Cornus florida Dogwood Richer uplands
+1.4—1.5—1.1 Quercus nigra Water oak Various situations
—1.2—0.5—4.0 Quercus

Catesbaei B'ack-jack oak Sandy uplands

T.o—1.I—1r.0 Acer rubrum Maple Swamps

+2.2—0.9—o Liriodendron

Tulipifera Poplar Wet woods
+2.4—0.2—0.1 Fagus

grandifo'ia Beech Ravines and hammocks

0.4—0.7—0.8 Quercus laurifolia Hammocks, ete.

IO.

0.I—0.4-—2.I1 Quercus

Virginiana Live oak
—0.7—0.3—1.2 Taxodium

distichum Cypress
+1.I—o.1—1.1 Carpinus

Caroliniana Ironwood
+1.3—0.I—0-7 Quercus Swamp chestnut

Michauxii oak

1.0—0.2—0.6 Ilex opaca Holly

+0.6—o0.2—0.8 Ostrya Virginiana

—0.2—0.2—0.8 Quercus cinerea Turkey oak

+0.4—0.3—o Quercus alba White oak
+0.2—0.4—o0 Oxydendrum
arboreum Sourwood
+0.1I—-0 —1.1 Hicoria glabra? Hickory
0.4—0.2—0.1 Salix nigra Willow
—0.I--0.I—0.8 Hicoria alba? Hickory

+o —o —1.1 Tilia pubescens
0.4—o —0.4 Betula nigra Birch

+0.4—0.2—0 Malus ansustifolig Crab-apple

+0.I—0.I—0.6 Hiceria sp. Hickory
0.3—0.I—o Nyssa uniflora Tupelo gum
0.I—0.I—o.3 Melia Azedarach

(X) Chinaberry
+o —o —o.8 Celtis
occidentalis? Hackberry
—o —o —0.7 Sabal Palmetto Cabbage
palmetto

0.2—0 —0.3 Cercis Candensis Redbud
0.I—0.2—0.1 Fraxinus
Caroliniana Ash
—o —oO —0.5 Quercus geminata (Smaller) live
c oak
0.I—-0.I—0.1 Prunus serotina
(X) Wild cherry
—oO —0-I—0.I Quercus stellata Post oak
0 —-0 —o.4 Persea Borbonia Red bay
0.I—O0 —O0.3 Querens
Margaretta
—o Quercus
Mary!andica
—0o0.3 Diospyros
Virginiana (X) Persimmon
—0.3 Morus rubra Mu'berry
—0.3 Acer Negundo (Box elder)
(and about 20 others),

Post oak
—0.3—0

Black-jack oak
o —o

OO
OF——G

(Lin, basswood)

MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT.

Various situations
Richer swamps
Low grounds

Low grounds

259

Ravines and hammocks

Hammocks, ete.
Sandy up-ands

Ravines and hammocks

Ravines and hammocks

Hammocks
Along streams
Loamy uplands
Hammocks
River-banks
Dry woods
Hammocks, etc.
Swamps

Borders of fields,

Hammocks

Hammocks
Rich uplands

Swamps

Sandy soils
Roadsides, etc.
Loamy uplands
Hammocks

Dry sandy soils
Red clay uplands
Old fields, - etc.

Hammocks
Hammocks

GLC:

2600

SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS

+.23—.17—.25 Myrica cerifera Myrtle
+.09—.24—.02 Cyrilla

racemifiora Tyty

+.08—.oI—.04 Crataegus

aestivalis May haw

+. 08—.o2z—o Cliftonia

monophylla Tyty

+.05—-05—.03 Osmanthus

+

+.001—.020—.003 Smilax laurifolia Bamboo vine

Americana
.02—.03—.03 Batodendron

arboreum Sparkleberry
.oI—.02—.06 Prunus

angustifolia (X) Wild plum
.cc6o—o —o Nyssa Ogeche Tupelo gum
.03—.0I—.02 Ilex myrtifolia Yaupon
0 —.02—.02 Cholisma

ferruginea
o —.o2—.01 Prunus

umbe!lata? Hog plum
.oI—.o1—o Symplocos

tinctoria
o1—o1—-03 Chionanthus

Virginica Graybeard
o —.02—o Diospyros :

Virginiana (X) Persimmon
o —.o2—o Persea pubescens Red bay
o —o —.03 Xanthoxylum

Clava-Herculis (X?)
oI—o —.02 Planera aquatica
o —o —.03 Bumelia

lanuginosa

(and about 12 others).

WOODY VINES

+.005—.004—-005 Gelsemium

sempervirens Yellow jessamine

+.001—.003—.004 Smilax

O
18)

lanceolata (Wild Smilax)

—.oos—o Smilax Walteri
—905—0 Pieris
phillyreifolia

+.001—.001—.007 Vitis

rotundifolia Muscadine

+.903—-001—.003 Parthenocissus
quinquefolia Virginia creeper Hammocks,
.003—.002—0 Bignonia

crucigera Cross-vine

Hammocks

Swamps

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Shallow ponds

Sour swamps

Hammocks

Sandy hammocks

Old fields,

etc.

Swamps, etc.
Shallow ponds

Hammocks

Hammocks

Hammocks

tlammocks

Old fie'ds,

Swamps

Hammocks
Fever- banks

Hammocks

Sour swamps and bays

Hammocks,

Hammocks,
Swamps

Cypress ponds and bavs

Various situations

Hammocks,

etc.

eke,

etc.

etc.

etc.

10. MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT.

Decumaria
barbara

.003—.001— 0

.0oI—.o01—.001 Rhus radicans Poison ivy

,00I— 0 —.003 Vitis aestivalis Wild grape
0 —o —.003 Tecoma radicans (Cow-itch)
o —o —.o02 Berchemia

scandens Rattan vine

SHRUBS
+.023—.051—.062 Serenoa

_ serrulata Saw-palmetto

+.o19—.013—.012 Ilex ‘glabra Gallberry
+.003—.012—.010 Pieris nitida (Hurrah bush)
,006—.004—-016 Rhus copallina Sumac
.002—.0c8—-003 Pheradendron
flavescens Mistletoe

+.006—.004—.009 Aralia spinosa Prickly ash
+.016—o —.oo1 Rhapidophyllum
Hystrix
.0oI—-005—.008 Cephalanthus
occidentalis

(Need!e palm)

Elbow-bush

.0oI—-005— 0 Hypericum
fasciculatum
o —.003—.013 Myrica pumila Myrtle

+.00I—.006—.002 Azalea nudiflora Honeysuckle
+.003—.005—.001 Arundinaria

tecta Reed
Pinckneya pubens
Cyrilla parvifolia Tyty
Crookea

microsepala

Clethra a!nifolia

+.005—.004— 0
0 —.006—0

+.001—.005— 0
0 —.005—0

.002—.002—.003 Callicarpa
Americana
Leucothoe
racemosa
.00I—.001—.005 Sambucus
Canadensis (X) Elder

0 —.004—0

.004—.001—.002 Sabal glabra Palmetto
+.004—.00I— 0 Leucothoe
axillaris
0 —.003—-001 Itea Virginica
.002—.001I—.003 Viburnum
obovatum
.002—.002—0 Quercus pumila Oak runner
+.004—0 —.o01 Aesculus Pavia Buckeye
0 —.002—.002 Rubus cuneifoli-
us (X) Blackberry
0 —.002—.002 Vaccinium
nitidum ‘luckleberry

Wet woods
Swamps, etc,
Hammocks
Various situations

Low hammocks, etc.

etc
etc:

Flatwoods,
Fiatwoods,

.-Swamps and bays

Hammocks, etc.

On trees
Hammocks

Ravines and hammocks
Swamps and ponds

Around ponds and bays
Pine lands
Hammocks, etc.

Branch swamps, etc.
Branch-swamps
Bays

Flatwoods
Edges of swamps and
bays

French mulberry Hammocks

Bays, etc.

Swamps
Swamps

Ravines, etc.
Swamps

Low hammocks
Pine lands
Hammocks, ete.

Roadsides

Flatwoods

262

.0oI—o —.005 Asimina
angustifolia Pawpaw
o —o —.007 Castanea
alnifolia (hinquapin
+o —.00I—.002 Viburnum

nudum (Possum haw)
.0oI—.001I—.o0o01 Aronia

arbutifolia
.0oI—.oo01—.001 Cholisma
fruticosa (Poor grub)
oOo —.ooI—.co1 Hamamelis
Virginiana Witch-hazel
Q —.coI—.00I Vaccinium
virgatum? tluckleberry
,ooI—.coi— 0 + Rhus Vernix (Poison sumac)
Oo —.00I—.002 Sebastiana
ligustrina
.002—0 —.001 Hypericum
galioides?
o — ooI—o Cholisma
ligustrina
Oo —.ooI—.oo1 Decodon
verticillatus
0 —oO —.002 Cornus stricta?
© —.ooI—.002 Rosa Carolina Wi'd rose
0 —.00I—.001 Gay!ussacia
frondosa* Huckleberry
-o0OI— 0 —.002 Eucnymus
Americanus
0 —oO —.002 Baccharis
halimifolia
o—.ooI—o Ilex coriacea
(and about 25 others).
HERBS

+.002—.008—.014 Tillandsia
usneoides
.002—.001—.003 Aristida stricta Wire-gras;
+.001—.001—.003 Eupatorium
compositifolium ’og-fennel
+o +.001—o # Anchistea
Virginica (A fern)
+o —oor—o Osmunda
cinnamomea_ (\ fern)

Spanish moss

+o —ooi—o Panicum
hemitomon Maiden cane
+o —oo1i—o Eupatorium
rotundifolium
+o —oor—o - Castalia odorata Water-lity

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Pine lands
Pine lands

Branch-swamps

Edges of swamps

latwoods
Hammocks

Hammocks
Swamps

Swamps, etc,

Swamps

Edges of swamps

Swamps
Low hammocks
Swamps
Flatwoods, etc.

Hammocks

Low grounds
Sour swamps

On trees
Pine lands

Pine lands, etc.
Bays and ponds
Low ae land
Ponds, etc.

Flatwoods
Ponds

*Including the var. nana.
e

ge ee Te

-

10. MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT. 263

Pteridium aquilinum (A fern) Pine lands
+Pontederia cordata Ponds

Helenium tenuifolium (X) Bitter-weed Roadsides, etc.

Eriogonum tomentosum High pine land

Saururus cernuus Swamps

Mitchella repens (Partridge-berry) Hammocks

Andropogon scoparius (X?) Broom-sedge Old fields

Cassia Tora (X) Coffee-weed Fie!ds and waste places

Smilax pumila Hammocks

Kuhnistera pinnata (Summer

farewell) High pine land

Psoralea canescens High pine land

Trilisa odoratissima Deer-tongue Flatwoods

Nymphaea macrophylla Bonnets Ponds

Eleocharis interstincta (A sedge) Ponds

Eupatorium capillifolium Dog-fennel Prairies, ete.

Lorinseria areolata (A fern) Swamps

Doeilingeria reticulata Flatwoods, etc.

Isopappus divaricatus (X) ; Fields and roadsides

Stenophyllus Floridanus (X) (A sedge) Fie'ds, roadsides, etc.

Ludwigia pilosa Ponds and ditches

Rumex hastatulus (X) (Sorrel) Fields

Osmunda regalis (A fern) Swamps

Rhexia Alifanus Flatwoods

Baptisia leucantha Open woods

Pterocaulon undulatum Black-root Flatwoods

Heteropogon melanocarpits (X)(A grass) - Old fie'ds, ete.

G‘ottidium vesicarium (X) Low grounds

Chrysopsis graminifolia Pine lands

(and about 200 others).

There are so many different trees in this heterogeneous region that
the one that heads the list is less abundant here than it is in northern
Florida as a whole, and the same might be said of many others. The only
tree that reaches its maximum abundance here seems to be the bay,
Magnolia glauca, and that is true only in the western and middle divisions.

A phytogeographer could draw many interesting conclusions from a com-
parison of the three columns of percentages, but only a few will be pointed out
here. It seems that Pinus Taeda, Magnolia glauca, M. grandiflora, Pinus glabra,
Cornus florida, Pinus echinata, Liriodendron, Fagus, Quercus Michauxu, Ilex
opaca, Quercus alba, Oxydendrum, Salix, Malus, Nyssa uniflora, Quercus Mary-
landica, Cyrilla racemiflora, Cliftonia, Nyssa Ogeche, Symplocos, Bignonia,
Decumaria, Ilex glabra, Rhapidophyllum, Arundinaria tecta, Pinckneya, Crookea,
Sabal glabra, Leucothoe axillaris, Quercus pumila, and Aesculus are decidedly
more abundant in the western half than in the southeastern, while the reverse
is true of Pinus palustris, Liquidamber, Quercus falcata, O. Catesbaei, Q. Vir-
giniana, Taxodium distichum, Quercus laurifolia, Q. cinerea, Hicoria (all spe-
cies), Tilia, Sabal Palmetto, Celtis, Persea Borbonia, Acer Negundo, Morus,
Quercus Margaretta, Cholisma ferruginea, Xanthoxylum, Bumelia, Smilax
lanceolata, Vitis rotundifolia, Berchemia, Tecoma, Serenoa, Rhus copallina,
Cephalanthus, Myrica pumila, Sambucus, Asimina angustifolia, Castanea alnifo-

2604 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

lia, Tilllandsia, Eupatorium compositifilium, Pteridium, Kuhnistera, Psoralea,
Eupatorium capillifolium, and-several others. No one explanation will fit all
these cases, but some of those in the former category are simply species of more
northern distribution, which hardly extend down into the Florida peninsula at
all, and many of the latter prefer dry soils (swamps and flatwoods being com-
paratively scarce in the southeastern portion of this belt).

It is quite likely also that the chemical composition of the soils has
something to do with the problem. Although no definite statements can
be made in the absence of chemical ana!yses, what is known of the
geology and the relations of the same species of plants to soils elsewhere
leads to the belief that phosphorus is relatively more abundant south-
eastward; and some of the trees in the second category seem to like
phosphorus, as wi:l be pointed out in the discussion of other regions.

The percentage of evergreens is 74.5 in the western division, 69.3 in
the middle, and 66.1 in the southeastern. The percentages of Ericaceae
among the shrubs are 7-7, 20.5 and 8.7, and of Leguminosae among the
herbs 8.4, 1.8 and 8.2 respectively. Although these figures are not per-
fectly consistent, and may not be very accurate, the high percentage of
Ericaceae and tow percentage of Leguminosae in the middle division
must have some significance. It is probably correlated with the greater
development of sour flatwoods and bays in that division,

Econonuc Features—On account of the large amount of fertile
soil in this belt it attracted settlers at an early date. Several of the
old Spanish grants shown on large maps of Florida include parts of
it, and the comparatively old and important cities and towns of
Quincy, Monticello, Madison, Jasper, Live Oak, Lake City, Alachua,
Gainesville and none (all but two of them county seats) are
located in it or on its edges.* In rgto at least 28% of the land was
cleared, and there were about 28 inhabitants to the square mile, an
increase of 16% in ten years. Negroes are in the majority, as in
most other old agricultural regions in the South.

There is considerable lumbering and turpentining on the sandier
soils, and the hardwood forests on the richer soils are of consider-
able importance, At Gainesville there has been for many years a
hardwood sawmill which ships a great deal of lumber to foreign
countries.

The 1911-12 crop statistics in the last report of the Commis-
sioner of Agriculture are very incomplete for Gadsden and Jefferson
Counties, and not much better for Madison. Some of the deficien-
cies have been supplied from the State census figures for 1905, but
that method is not very satisfactory, for the production of each crop
varies from year to year, and some must have increased consider-

*In the southern tier of counties in Georgia, Cairo, ones Quitman °
and Valdosta are similarly situated.

10. MIDDLE FLORIDA: HAMMOCK BELT. 205

ably between 1905 and 1912. With this limitation, or source of er-
ror, the leading crops seem to be as follows: Corn, sea-island cot-
ton, tobacco (mostly in Gadsden Co.), upland cotton, peanuts, sweet
potatoes, sugar cane, lettuce (Alachua Co.), oats, (grass) hay, field
peas (including hay thereof), cabbage (mostly in Alachua Co.), vel-
vet beans, cucumbers (Alachua Co.), watermelons, beans (mostly
in Alachua Co.), oranges (mostly in Alachua Co.), pecans, peaches,
English peas (Alachua Co.), tomatoes (Alachua Co.), squashes
(Alachua Co.), cantaloupes (mostly in Alachua Co.), grapes, beets
(Alachua Co.), Irish potatoes, peppers (Alachua Co.), figs, onions
(Alachua Co.), and grapefruit (Alachua Co.). It is evident from
this list that the middle division is mostly devoted to general farm-
ing, while in the eastern division, particularly in Alachua County,
tirere is much specialization in vegetables and citrous fruits, which
are mostly marketed in the North.

266 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Im PALLAMASSER RED: HILUS.
(FIGURES 32, 34, 69-73)

References. Warper 1 (282-283), Matson & Clapp (99, 144), Matson &
Sanford (149, 350-353), Sel:ards 1 (47-49, 53-58), Sel!ards & Gunter 3 (133-
136, 138), Smith 2, Thompson, Torrey, and U. S. soil survey of Leon
County (by Wilder, Drake, Jones and Geib), 1906. Ilustrated in 3d Ann.
Rep., pl. 6, 7.1, 8.1 (all lake scenes), and in Pop. Sci. Monthly &5:349. 1914.

This region bears much the same relation to the adjoining ham-
mock belt that the Marianna red lands do to the West Florida cy-
press pond region already described, Each is similar geologically to
the country bordering it on the west, north and east, but is cnaracter-
ized by richer, redder soils, more hilly topography, a scarcity of
long-leaf pine, and other characters correlated with the soil and to-
pography. Furthermore, they do not differ much in area, and each
is almost confined to a single county, and barely crosses the north-
ern boundary of the State.

The Tallahassee red hills are aera to cover 340 square
miles, all in Leon County or possibly extending a little beyond its
borders on the north and east. There is nothing exactly like it in
any other part of Florida, or the world, except that there are limited
areas very similar to parts of it in the Middle Florida hammock
belt, in Jefferson and Madison Counties. Many persons have com-
pared this hill country to the red hills of South Georgia, but the two
regions are entirely disconnected, and the resemblance is only super-
ficial, for there are fundamental differences in geology, soil, topog-
raphy and vegetation.

Geology and Soils—Rock outcrops are scarce and poor in fos-
sils, but from what is known of the surrounding country, and the
records of a few wells, the underlying rocks have been mapped as
Upper Oligocene. Most of the material exposed in railroad cuts
and other excavations is a reddish brown sandy clay. Several feet
below the surface it is sometimes purer, and mottled somewhat as in
the pine regions of West and East Florida. Nodules or fragments
of a gritty yellowish rock containing over’15% of phosphorus
pentoxide (equivalent to over 30% of tri-calcium phosphate, or
nearly half as much as in some of the phosphate rock that is mined
in peninsular Florida) are common in many places, either close to
the surface or a few feet down; while in many other places fer-
ruginous concretions an inch or less in diameter are scattered over
the surface, as in the “pimply lands” of South Georgia and West

II. TALLAHASSEE RED HILLS, 267

Florida. Where the phosphatic rock approaches the surface the soil
is browner than usual.

The prevailing surface loam looks much like the Lafayette ( ?)
red loam of the older parts of the coastal plain, but it is not quite
such a brilliant red, and it is evidently different in chemical compo-
sition. On shaded banks along roads the earth is commonly en-
crusted with a minute gray-green lichen, rarely seen elsewhere,. and.
the sides of railroad cuts become clothed with grass and other veg-
etation much more quickly than in other parts of the South; all of
which seems to point to some special element of fertility in the soil.

The surface loam is usually over three-fourths sand, and very
pervious to water, and yet there is enough clay in the red soils to
make vertical banks retain their shape for years. The proportion of
sand is greatest in level areas, both uplands and lowlands. Gullies
are almost unknown, except alongside of roads on steep grades, and
furrows in the fields usually run pretty straight in almost any direc-
tion regardless of the topography, instead of being carefully leveled
and terraced as they are in the superficially similar red hills of South
Georgia. Most of this soil has just about the right proportions of
sand and clay to make good roads, and there is probably no part of
Florida where the natural or unimproved roads are better in both
wet and dry weather than they are here.

The following mechanical analyses of three characteristic up-
land soils of this region, with their subsoils, have been taken from
the government soil survey of Leon County, published in 1906.
Each represents the average of two or more samples from different

localities, but neither the localities nor the depths are given in the
report.

I. “Orangeburg* fine sandy loam.” This is a “brown, reddish, or
yellow medium to fine sandy loam, from 4 to 15 inches deep,” with a sub-
soil of “red sandy clay to a depth of 36 inches and usually much deeper;”
but both soil and subsoil vary considerably from the average. This soil

*The name “Orangeburg” for a series of soils seems to have been first
used by the U. S. Bureau of Soils in connection with Darlington County,
South Carolina, and Perry County, Alabama, surveyed in 1902, though it is
probably derived from Orangeburg (city and county), S. C., surveyed
two years later. Most of the soils thus designated are red loams of
the Lafayette formation, widely distributed in the more elevated parts
of the coastal plain from North Carolina to Texas. The red soil around
Tallahassee differs notably from the typical “Orangeburg” in not being
easily gullied, as above stated, and in the high percentage of phosphorus,
indicated below, if not in other ways.

17

268 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

covers about one-third of the whole region, and most of it is or has been
under cultivation.

2. Subsoil of same.

3. “Norfolk fine sandy loam.” ‘Typically this is said to be a grayish
or light-brown fine sandy loam about 8 inches deep, underlaid by a few
inches of yellow sandy loam and then yellow sandy clay or clay loam.
It is almost as extensive as the “Orangeburg fine sandy loam,” from which
it seems to differ chiefly in being paler and therefore presumably contain-
ing less iron. Much. if not most of it is under ‘cultivation.

4. Subsoil of same.

5. “Gadsden sandy loam.” This is a “brown sandy loam from 8 to 14
inches ‘deep, underlain by grayish-yellow or yellow sand or light sandy
loam to a depth of 3 feet or more.” “The surface soil is very similar to
some of the Norfolk fine sandy loam, but the subsoil is dissimilar in
that the underlying sandy clay of that type is entirely wanting or is found
only in spots at a depth of nearly 3 feet below the surface.” This is said
to cover 5,952 acres in Leon County, and is mostly under cultivation,

6. Subsoil of same.

4

MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF SOILS AND SUBSOILS OF TALLAHASSEE RED HIts.

I 2 3 4 5 6

itine oraviel: (2-1 stan.) —=—2 == 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.9 0.7
Coarse isaudi (il=.5 era). ae ee 8.9 4.3 5:0 21 ato Sie wee eOnTt
Medium sand (.5-.25 mm,) --------- 12.3 Gow) it ons BO.) DATs pees
Brine -GaiaGh (As= ice sian.) (ea oS 42.5 33.1) 0152.00" 260i» 4G Olmmeonn
Ve tyenitie Said (@h-"O5) Mm ins)) === 1733 132) (T43 TRB TA eee
Silt GOs=.005 iia, i ]-- 6 = ae 5.5 Gey, 7.4 4.6 5,6 4.8
Glave. Coos-ov nim, )) ee ess eae te 12.6) 35.40) O:B* -32:2) (IB See EAS
Total po ssee os eS E22 2590.5). 00,0" | G00) .90:8 Ona amname

In addition to these there is considerable “Norfolk sand” in this
region, but as it occurs also in other parts of Leon County, and the locali-
ties are not specified, it wouid not be safe to quote the analyses in the
soil survey report as pertaining to the Tallahassee red hills.

We are fortunate in having a few chemical analyses of soils
from this region. The first is from the 6th volume of the Tenth
Census, p. 198. It represents 9 inches of brown loam upland soil
from 6 miles northeast of Tallahassee, where the vegetation was
“‘post, red and Spanish oaks, short-leaf pine, hickory and sweet
gum,” collected in 1880 by Dr. Eugene A. Smith, and analyzed un-
der his direction at the University of Alabama by Chappell Cory.
Like other analyses published in the same volume, this was made by
Peter’s acid digestion method (described by Hilgard in Tenth Cen-
sus, 5:72; Soils 340-343; and elsewhere). The percentages of the
various constituents represent what is dissolved by hot hydrochloric
acid in five days, and in some cases may be much less than the total;

II. TALLAHASSEE RED HILLS, 269

but this method is believed to give results more compatible with the
observed productivity of soils than any other.
The analysis is as follows:

Water and organic matter -=------------------- 3.982 per cent
_ Potash (K2O) ------------------------------- (areas
Soda (NazO) -------------------------------- (ck
Lime, (CaQ@)).--=—-+-=--===----+-++-=--~---=---- 243°
WE Stee 00) eh 00 AS ES See eee 10
Phosphoric acid anhydride (P205}) ----------- BS Ae Ry
Sulphusiec-aciad auhydride) (S@3))=-----=---.—_- SOG cay
Brown oxide of manganese (Mn3O04) -------- ogee 2
Peteside at sron. Uhe2ws) + ane ae ane EAGT uae
Aiienaaata ( CAIZO)3 Soba 28 ee ee ee SOP as es
SIRI Silea ese e en eee ee 2G
insoluble imattengs=-= == 2-- ieee Se a S6A60 fF

As compared with other northern Florida soils analyzed in the
same report, this is the highest.in iron and phosphorus, and the low-
est in soda, manganese, and sulphur. It is considerably above the
world’s average in phosphorus, but, like most other Florida soils,
rather low in potassium.

Two samples of soils with corresponding subsoils were col-
lected by the writer near Tallahassee in the summer of 1914 and
partially analyzed by L. Heimburger, Assistant State Chemist. The
methods used* are somewhat different from those used in the Tenth
Census, but the results seem similar enough, as far as they go.

The samples are as follows:

I. Rich dense woods near top of hill on St. Augustine road about a
mile east of Tallahassee. Gray sandy loam with considerable humus,
o—6 inches.

2. Subsoil of same, a little more yellow in color, 6—12 inches.

3. Open short-leaf pine woods on north side of railroad about 2
miles east of Tallahassee. Similar to No. 1, but with less humus. A
few earthworms were encountered in digging this sample, strange to say.
o—6 inches.

4. Subsoil of same. 6—12 inches. _

Both localities seem to be in areas mapped as “Orangeburg fine sandy
loam” on the government soil map, but the second is most like the “Orange-
burg” soils of other states.

*See appendix.

270

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

ANALYSES
I 2 3 4
Moisture (CH20))===-——= === = 1.07 .67 .60 35
Volatile matter ---------------------------- 7.30, 14-50" 2474 30
INO 21 QIOM AA. Oj ek
Ota (2 ©) ea ees .045 .000 .050 .050
Ibi (CHO) sssnesaneceee Ses S eee = S5O5'n S35) 28e. 29
PhosphosievacidiaC 220 5)\ige =a == eee aes 12/72 27 OS OOS
Irony and salumina = (AlIZO3\)he2@3) 22 =e Se TON e722 le Ass OMmAL SO

Insoluble matter 87.36 88.45

O1.17 92.43

In both cases the moisture, volatile matter and nitrogen (which
come from the humus) are of course more abundant in the soil than
in the subsoil, and the same is true of the lime; while the potash,
iron and alumina, and insoluble matter are more abundant in the sub-
soil (except that in the short-leaf pine soil the potash seems to be
the same in both soil:and subsoil). The phosphoric acid does not
seem to vary much with the depth. In the rich woods it is above the
world’s average, though not as high as in the sample collected by Dr.
Smith; whether on account of an actual difference in the soil or
merely the different method of analysis it is impossible to say. In
the short-leaf pine woods the phosphorus content is only fair, how-
ever; and the significance of this fact will be pointed out farther on
in discussing the vegetation. The short-leaf pine soil is poorer in all
volatile and soluble constituents (except potash) than the other, as
might have been expected.

Salamander-hills are occasionally seen within three or four
miles of the southern edge of this region, the animals probably wan-
dering in from the very sandy region bordering it on the south
(which will be described next). Moles and earthworms occur here
also; perhaps more commonly than in other parts of Florida.

Topography and Hydrography—VThe topography is everywhere
hilly, probably more so on the average than in any equal area in
Florida. Differences of elevation of 100 feet in less than half a
mile are not uncommon, especially near the southern edge of the re-
gion, where the highest hills are a little over 200 feet above sea-
level. A mile or so east of Tallahassee is a railroad cut about 40
feet deep, which seems to be the deepest one in the State. But there
are almost no bluffs, ravines, or hills too steep for wagons to climb,
and some of the roads run nearly straight for several miles, regard-
less of the hills. The valleys are mostly broad and more or less
flat-bottomed, and probably were not formed altogether by surface
erosion, for running water is scarce. There are no caves or natural

II. TALLAHASSEE RED HILLS. 271

bridges, however, such as are characteristic of some regions of solu-
tion topography. ;

No rivers traverse the region, but there are a few sluggish
creeks and branches, running into lakes or ponds, where the water
sinks into the ground or evaporates, or both. The low grounds
around Tallahassee are said to be lower than the nearest point on
the Ocklocknee River, seven or eight miles away; and all the drain-
age from Tallahassee, that does not evaporate or soak into the
ground first, goes through Munson’s Pond or Lake, about five miles
south (Fig. 75), and then to a sink a few miles farther south.

The most characteristic hydrographic feature of this region,
distinguishing it from most other red hill regions, is its large lakes,
three or four in number. These are several square miles in area,
irregularly shaped, all shallow and flat-bottomed, with sink-holes at
their edges or elsewhere, and are often nearly dry for several years
at a time. (See Sellards 1 in bibliogaphy.) They were at their
lowest stage about 1910, and at their highest (perhaps eight or ten
feet above low water) about 1912. In addition to the large lakes
there are several smaller ones, from a few hundred acres down to
mere ponds an acre or so in extent. All are essentially treeless, ex-
cept that there is a good deal of cypress in the eastern half of Lake
Lafayette.

Except in the immediate vicinity of lakes and streams, the
ground-water lies at a considerable distance below the surface.
Consequently wells are less numerous than houses, and good ones
are scarce. Springs are almost wanting, too, so that one walking
any considerable distance through this region in warm dry weather
is likely to get rather thirsty. The city of Tallahassee gets an un-
failing supply of good water from artesian wells, in which the water
stands nearly 100 feet below the surface (or not very far from sea-
level).

Vegetation Types—The drier uplands seem to have been cov-
ered originally with comparatively open forests of short-leaf pine
(Pinus echinata), red oak, hickory, dogwood, etc. Considerable
areas of this forest still remain, though a good deal of it may be
second growth. On sandier soils near the center of the region there
are limited areas (perhaps several hundred acres) of long-leaf pine
forest, differing from the typical piney woods of other regions in the
scarcity or absence of saw-palmetto and wire-grass among the under-
growth. Both the short-leaf and the long-leaf pine forests are sub-
ject to occasional fires. On some of the hillsides and richer uplands

272

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

dense hardwood forests with considerable humus can be seen, and
the branches and creeks are bordered by wet woods or swamps. The

lakes and ponds of course

have their characteristic vegetation.

Finally, the old fields, roadsides, railroad rights-of-way, etc., which
cover a large part of the area, have a characteristic weed vegetation,
probably more conspicuous here than in any other part of Florida.

Plants—The following list is based on observations made in
every month in the year except January and February, and it ought
to be fairly accurate as far as it goes.

++24
+8.8
Sav
+6.8
+4.5
—4.2
—4.2
Ui
* Sraeaie
aimee
ae
sire
Hee)
Sel icts
a7
17
Sie
aie
+1.0
+0.9
0.9

1-0!
0.8
+o.8
+0.8
“FOZ
Siete Cig)
4-07
+0.6
+0.6
+0.6

0.6
+0.5
arate
OG

Pinus echinata
Pinus Taeda

Liquidambar Styraciflua

Cornus florida
Quercus falcata
Pinus palustris
Taxodium imbricarium
Quercus Virginiana
Quercus nigra
Magnolia grandiflora
Prunus serotina (X)
Hicoria alba

Melia Azedarach (X)
Quercus stellata
Magnolia glauca
Nyssa biflora

Pinus Elliottii
Quercus laurifolia
Salix nigra

Fagus grandifolia
Pinus glabra

Malus angustifolia
Acer rubrum

Nyssa uniflora

Diospyros Virginiana (X)

Quercus Marylandica
Quercus velutina
Ostrya Virginiana
Quercus alba

Hicoria glabra?
Quercus Michauxii

Ilex opaca

Tilia pubescens
Morus rubra
Cercis Canadensis

TREES

Short-leaf pine
Short-leaf pine
Sweet gum
Dogwood

Red oak
Long-leaf pine
(Pond) cypress
Live oak
Water oak
Magnolia
Wild cherry
Hickory
Chinaberry
Post oak

Bay

Black gum
Slash pine

Willow

Beech

Spruce pine
Crab-apple
Maple

Tupelo gum
Persimmon
Black-jack oak
(Black oak)

White oak
Hickory
(Swamp chest-

nut oak)
Holly

(Lin, basswood)

Mulberry
Redbud

Uplands

Low grounds mostly
Various situations
Dry woods
Uplands

Poorer soils
Lake Lafayette
Various situations
Various situations
Rich woods
Roadsides, etc.
Uplands
Roadsides, etc.
Uplands

Wet woods
Swamps

Near Centerville
Rich woods, etc.
Low grounds
Rich woods

Rich woods

Dry woods

Wet woods
Swamps and_ sloughs.
Old fields, ete.
Dry uplands

Dry uplands

Rich woods

Rich woods
Uplands

Low
Rich
Rich
Rich
Rich

grounds
woods
woods
woods
woods

FD. TALLAHASSEE RED HILLS, 273

—o.2 Liriodendron *Tulipifera Poplar Wet woods
+0.2 Nyssa sylvatica Black gum Dry woods

0.2 Acer rubrum tridens? Maple Swamps
+o.2 Oxydendrum arboreum Sourwood Uplands

0.2 Taxodium distichum Cypress Swamps

0.2 Carpinus Caroliniana Ironwood Low grounds
+o.2 Halesia diptera Rich woods

(and 8 or 10 others),

SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS

++.17 Sassafras variifolium (X) Sassafras Old fields, etc,
.14 Cyrilla racemiflora Tyty Swamps
+.12 Viburnum rufidulum . Black haw Rich woods
+.09 Batodendron arboreum Sparkleberry Dry woods
++.09 Prunus angustifolia (X) Wild plum Old fields
+.04 Crataegus sp. Red haw Dry woods
.04 Myrica cerifera Myrtle Rich woods :
1208 esunits sp.*) () (Pliwm) Roadsides, etc.
+.03 Symplocos tinctoria Rich woods
+.03 Osmanthus Americana Rich woods
.02 Bumelia lanuginosa Woods
.02 Celtis pumila Hackberry Dry woods, etc.
.o2 Crataegus aestivalis May haw Smiall ponds
.o2 Chionanthus Virginica Graybeard Rich woods.
(and 6 others). .
VINES
++.027 Parthenocissus
quinquefolia Virginia creeper Woods
+.020 Smilax lanceolata (Wild smilax) Various situations
+.015 Rhus radicans Poison ivy Low grounds, etc.
-+.o15 Rubus trivialis (X) Dewberry Old fields, etc.

+.o11 Lonicera Japonica (X) Japanese

honeysuckle Roadsides, etc.
+.o10 Tecoma radicans (Cow-itch) Various situations
+.o10 Vitis rotundifolia Bullace or

muscadine Places exempt from fire
+.o1ro0 Gelsemium sempervirens Yellow jessamine Places exempt from fire

+.009 Lonicera sempervirens Honeysuckle Roadsides, etc.
+-+.008 Rosa laevigata (X) © Cherokee rose Roadsides
+.007 Smilax glauca Dry woods and old
fields
+.006 Vitis aestivalis? Wild grape Woods, ete.
.004 Bignonia crucigera Cross-vine Woods, ete.
.002 Decumaria barbara Wet woods

*A small tree resembling P. umbellata, the hog plum, but with red
fruit, more or less edible, and ripening any time between May and October,

274

.002 Smilax rotundifolia?
.0o2 Ampelopsis arborea
(and a few others).

SHRUBS
+.028 Rubus cuneifolius (X) Blackberry
+.022 Ceanothus Americanus (Red-shank)
+.021 Rhus copallina Sumac

+.020 Cephalanthus occidentalis E]pow-bush

+.014 Callicarpa Americana
+.o11 Aralia spinosa
++.011 Lantana Sellowiana (X)
+.o1r Castanea alnifolia Chinquapin
+.010 Sambucus Canadensis (X) Elder
"-+-+.008 Lantana Camara (X)
+.008 Polycodium stamineum?
.007 Quercus pumila
+.007 Styrax Americana
.006 Rhus Toxicodendron
+.005 Baccharis halimifolia (X)

Prickly ash

Gooseberry
Oak runner

Poison oak

+.005 Salix humilis? Willow
.o0o4 Arundinaria tecta Reed
+.004 Crataegus uniflora Haw

+.004 Rhus radicans (?)* Poison oak
.003 Itea Virginica
+.003 Asimina parviflora Pawpaw
.003 Azalea nudiflora Honeysuckle
.003 Phorandendron flavescens Mistletoe
+.003 Euonymus Americanus
.003 Rhus Vernix
.0o2 Cornus sp.
.00o2 Aesculus Pavia
(and about 14 others),

Poison sumac

Buckeye

HERBS

Spanish moss
Broom-sedge

+-+-.012 Tillandsia usneoides
++.004 Andropogon sp.t (X?)
+-+.004 Ambrosia artemisiaefolia

(X) Ragweed
+-+.004 Trifolium Carolinianum

(X) ‘Clover
+-+.004 Plantago Virginica (X) (Plantain)
+-+.003 Panicum hemitomon Maiden cane
+-+.003 Sporobolus Indicus (X) (A grass)

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Woods
Low grounds mostly

Old fields, etc.

Dry woods

Dry woods, old fields

Around lakes and
ponds

French mulberryPlaces exempt from fire

Rich woods, ete.
Roadsides

Dry woods
Low grounds
Roadsides

Dry woods

Dry pine woods, etc.
Swamps

Dry woods
Roadsides, etc.
Low grounds
Damp woods
Dry woods
Rich woods
Swamps

Woods

Woods

On trees

Rich woods
Wet woods
Woods

Dry woods ete.

On trees
Old fields, etc.

Waste places

Fields and roadsides
Old fields, etc.
Lakes and ponds
Roadsides, ete.

*A low form growing only a few inches high.

+Probably mostly A. scoparius, but also includes A. argyraeus and per-
haps other species which are difficult to distinguish before they bloom.

+.003
+-+.003
+-+.002

++.002
+.002
-+.002
++.002
+.002
+.002

+.002
+-.002
++.002
+.002
+.001
==<1-.005
+-+.001
-+-.001

+ .001
+-+.001
-+.001

+.001
-+-.001
+-+.001

+.001
+-+.001

-+.001

.OOI
+.001
+.001

+.001
-++.001
+.001

-++.001
+.001

+++ 44

II. TALLAHASSEE RED HILLS, 275

Pontederia cordata
Lepidium Virginicum (X) Peppergrass
Heteropogon melanocar-

pus (X) (A grass)
Cassia Tora (X) Coftee-weed
Helenium tenuifolium (X) Bitter-weed
Erianthus sp. (A tall grass)
Chaerophyllum sp, (X)
Pteridium aquilinum (A fern)
Syntherisma sanguinale

(X) Crab grass

Capriola Dactylon (X) Bermuda grass
Sida rhombifolia (X) (Tea-weed)
Cyperus rotundus (X) Nut-grass
Castalia odorata Water-lily

Lakes and ponds
Waste places

Old fields
Waste places
Roadsides, etc.
Dry woods, etc.
Waste places
Dry woods, ete.

Fields and roadsides
Fields and roadsides
Waste places
Cultivated fields, etc.
Lakes and ponds

Mitchella repens (Partridge-berry) Rich woods, ete.

Apium Ammi (X)
Specularia perfoliata (X)
Eupatorium compositifoli-

um (X) Dog-fennel
Juncus effusus (X?) (Rush)
Oxalis stricta? (X)
Eupatorium capillifolium

GX?) Dog-fennel
Spermolepis divaricatus

(X)
Chamaecrista fasciculata

(X?) (Partridge pea)
Geranium Carolinianum

(X)
Rumex hastatulus (X) (Sorrel) -
Asplenium platyneuron

(X?) (A fern)
Diodia teres (X)
Chrysopsis graminifolia
Sitilias Caroliniana (X)
Gnaphalium purpureum

(X)
Richardia scabra (X)
Linaria Canadensis (X)
Oenothera biennis (X) (Evening

primrose)

Leptilon Canadense (X)
Cnidoscolus stimulosus (Nettle)
Erigeron ramosus (X)
Elephantopus tomerto-

sus?
Angelica hirsuta
Solanum Carolinense (X)
Lespedeza striata (X) Japan clover

Waste places
Roadsides, etc.

Old fields, ete.
Low grounds
Waste places

Low grounds
Waste places
Old fields, etc.

Waste places
Fields, etc.

Shaded roadsides, etc.
Railroads, etc.

Pine woods

Waste places

Waste places
Fields, etc.
Fields and roadsides

Old fields, etc.
Fie!ds

Dry woods, etc.
Old fields, ete.

Dry woods

Dry woods
Waste places
Waste places, etc.

NI
On

Salvia lyrata

Lorinseria areolata
Medicago Arabica (X)
Meibomia purpurea (X)
Anthemis Cotula (X)
Paspalum sp, (X)
Baptisia leucantha
Sericocarpus bifoliatus
Sonchus asper (X)
Mesosphaerum sp.* (X)

Boehmeria cylindrica
Cenchrus echinatus (X)
Chaetochloa sp. (X)
Erythrina herbacea
Sanicula Marylandica
Eupatorium perfoliatum
Smilax pumila
Solidago odora
Dasystoma Virginica
Bidens bipinnata (X)
Brasenia purpurea
Eleusine Indica (X)
Utricularia inflata
Helianthemum
Carolinianum
Polymnia Uvedalia
Lespedeza hirta
Polygonum hydropiper-
oides
Sagittaria latifolia
Sida acuta (X)
Heliotropium anchusae-
folium (X)
Panicum gibbum (X?)
Osmunda cinnamomcea
Saururus cernuus
Phaseolus polystachyus
Nelumbo lutea

fat
++t+4++++4++4+ 4444+ 4+

“f

f
+ +44 +44 4444+

—

+-

Daucus pusillus (X)
Kneiffia sp.

Panicum commutatum?
Dioscorea villosa?

+++

Morongia uncinata

Isopappus divaricatus (X)

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Dry woods, etc.
Wet woods
Waste places
Fields, ete.
Waste places
Roadsides, etc,
Dry woods, etc.
Pine woods
Waste places
Roadsides, etc.
Fields, etc.
Low grounds

A fern
Bur-clover
Beggar-weed
(Dog-fennel)
(A grass)

Sand-spur Fields and roadsides
(A grass) Waste places
Woods, etc.
Dry woods
Boneset Low grounds
Rich woods
Pine woods
Goldenrod Dry woods

Spanish needles Waste places

Lakes and ponds

(A grass) Waste places
Lakes
Dry woods
(Bear-foot) Rich woods, etc.
Dry woods

(Smart-weed) Miry places
Miry places

Roadsides, etc.

Roadsides, etc.
Miry places

Sandy low grounds
Swamps, etc.

Rich woods

(A grass)
(A. fern)

(Wild bean)

‘Winkapin,
yankapin) Lakes and ponds

Roadsides, etc.

Dry woods

Rich woods

Rich woods

Dry woods

(A grass)
(Wild yam)

*A tall much-branched weed apparently not described in any work on

plants of the southeastern states.

It is common in the streets of Talla-

hassee and some old towns in other parts of the state.

.

II. TALLAHASSEE RED

Polypodium polypodioides (A fern)

HILLS. 2

On trees

=e Hymenopappus
Carolinensis (X) Sandy roadsides, ete.
Am Argemone Mexicana (X) Waste places
st Chrysopsis Mariana Dry woods
a Amaranthus spinosus (X) Careless Waste places
qa Gerardia fasciculata (X) Old fields, ete.
RE Phytolacca rigida (X) Pokeberry Waste places
Bidens coronata Miry places
=> ‘Croton glandulosus (X) Waste places
= Aeschynomene Virginica
(X) Ditches, etc,
==4- Euphorbia heterophylla
(X) Waste places
+ Sorghastrum nutans* (A grass) Old fields, ete.

Ditches
Railroads, pastures, etc

Spe Panicum proliferum (X) (A grass)
Cenchrus tribuloides Sand-spur
(and about 300 others.)

In a region so unique in soil and topography it seems strange that
there are no species peculiar to it, and very few rare plants. In this re-
spect it contrasts strongly with the Apalachicola bluff region (No. 3).
Although that is much smaller than the Tallahassee red hills, and does
not differ much from many places in Georgia and Alabama, it has two
trees confined to. it, and several species which are rare elsewhere. There
are indeed many species more abundant in the Tallahassee region than
elsewhere in Florida, but nearly all of these are pretty widely distributed
in other states.t| They may be divided into several categories, according
to the reasons for their abundance here.

From what is known of their distribution elsewhere it seems probable
that the sweet gum, live oak and water oak are most abundant here be-
cause they like phosphorus. It is noteworthy that they all three grow
in the rich woods a mile east of Tallahassee, where the soil is above
the world’s average in phosphorus, but not in the short-leaf pine woods
two miles east, where the percentage of phosphorus is only about half
as much (nor in central Illinois, where the soil is rich in almost everything
except phosphorus). In like manner it is inferred that the short-leaf pine
(Pinus* echinata), dogwood, red oak, hickory (Hicoria alba), post oak,
black-jack oak (Quercus Marylandica) and black oak are partial to iron
or alumina, or both, and that Pinus Taeda, Magnolia grandiflora, Quercus
laurifolia, Fagus, Ostrya, Hicoria glabra, Parthenocissus, and many shrubs
and herbs are common here on account of the abundance of humus.

*Formerly called Chrysopogon avenaceus. Our plant is mostly the glaucous
form. S. Linneanum and S. secundum also occur in this region, but less abund-
antly.

tAt least 70% of the species above listed grow also in the southeastern
corner of Virginia and neighboring parts of North Carolina, a region differing
considerably from this in soil, topography and climate. (See Torreya 9 :223-224,
1909; Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 34:366. 10907; 37:420-422. IQIO.)

278 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

The abundance of wild cherry, chinaberry, persimmon, sassafras, wild
plum, Cherokee rose, lantanas, and the multitude of herbaceous weeds is
easily explained by the fact that this region has been longer and more
extensively cultivated than any other area of the same size in Florida.
This is the only region in the state in which weeds predominate (in bulk,
not necessarily in species) over native herbs. Some of the weeds doubt-
less have their soil preferences too, and might not thrive in the more
sandy parts of Florida. It is significant that almost none of the weeds
are evergreen.

In the case of some of the species whose names are followed by (X)
in the foregoing plant list, one finds no intimation in current botanical
manuals that they are not indigenous in Florida, and some of them are
probably here branded as weeds for the first time. But they grow only
in artificial or unnatural habitats, such as fields and roadsides, and could
hardly have existed here before the country was inhabited (though some
of them were probably here with the Indians several centuries ago).
Whether or not they are native anywhere else in the United States is a
question that does not need to be considered here.

_ The following trees, which are more or less common not far away,
or in other red hill regions, are rare or wanting here:—Pinus serotina, P.
clausa, Taxodium distichum, Juniperus, Sabal Palmetto, Juglans, Hicoria
aquatica, Populus, Salix longipes, Betula, Quercus geminata, Q. Phelles,
Q. cinerea, Q. Catesbaei, Ulmus (all species), Magnolia macrophylla, Lir-
iodendron, Platanus, Gleditschia, Persea, and Fraxinus. Some of fhese
prefer poor sandy soils and some alluvial soils, both of which are almost
wanting here; while the reasons for the absence of a few of them are less
evident.

The proportions of evergreens and Ericaceae are rather low, 53.1%
and 8% respectively, while that of Leguminosae is above the average;
all of which indicates fertile soils. (It is hardly worth while to figure out
the exact percentage of Leguminosae for this region, as most of them
are weeds.) Grasses are quite abundant here too, a fact of interest to
the stockman and dairyman.

The evergreens generally keep their leaves about two years, and the de-
ciduous trees seven or eight months.

Economic Features—For the whole of Leon County in 1910 the
proportion of improved land was estimated at 24%, the density of
population 27 per square mile (a little less than in 1900), and the
proportion of whites 24%. For the red hill portion of the county
the proportion of improved land is considerably higher, probably at
least 40% (and adding abandoned fields to this doubtless makes the
forests less than half the area), the density of population is greater,
perhaps as much as 40 inhabitants to the square mile, and the per-
centage of whites, outside of Tallahassee, even less.

This region was cultivated by the Indians long before the white
man came, and until within the last few decades it was the leading
agricultural section of the State in proportion to its size, with the

Cs

II. TALLAHASSEE RED HILLS, 279

possible exception of the Marianna red lands. Even yet, after three-
quarters of a century of cultivation by whites and negroes, most of
the farmers do not consider it necessary to use commercial fertiliz-
ers. According to the last census there were in Leon County 109,-
349 acres of improved land, and the expenditure for fertilizer in
1909 was $31,510, or about 29 cents per acre (as compared with $2
per acre for the whole State). And no doubt most of the ferti-
lizer was used in the more sandy parts of the county, leaving the
amount used in the red hills much smaller than the figures would
indicate.

This seems to be the only part of northern Florida, outside of
cities, where cattle and hogs are not allowed to run at large. (The
stock law, or no-fence law, is pretty closely correlated with the
amount of woodland, for wherever cultivated fields occupy only a
small part of the area, as is the case in most parts of Florida, the
fields are fenced and cattle are allowed to graze in the woods; while
where fields predominate it is more economical to put fences around
the pastures and leave the fields unfenced.)

Other interesting features of this region, not so easily ex-
plained, are that the ox is the favorite beast of burden among the
negro farmers; and that here, more than anywhere else in northern
Florida, large areas are owned and preserved for hunting and other
purposes by persons who usually spend only the winter months in the
South.

The leading crops in 1912, in order of value, were approxi-
mately as follows: Corn, upland cotton, sweet potatoes, sugar-cane,
field peas (and hay thereof), peanuts, (grass) hay, velvet beans,
oats, pecans, pears, watermelons, tobacco, peaches and figs.

Long-leaf pine being scarce, there is hardly any lumbering or
turpentining, and little use is made of the forests except for fuel
and other common farm purposes. Some wild smilax (Smilax
lanceolata) and other evergreens are gathered for Christmas decora-
tions, but there seems to be no large trade in them as there is in
southern Alabama. Some Spanish moss is used for mattress-mak-
ing, and probably shipped away to some extent. This industry
would seem to be capable of great development, for the supply of
moss is practically inexhaustible.

280 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

12, BELLAIR SAND REGION.
(FIGURES 74, 75)

References—Nash (101,107) and U. S. soil survey of Leon Co.

This embraces about 250 square miles in Leon and Wakulla
Counties. In the Third Annual Report it was treated as a part
of the peninsular lime-sink region (described farther on); but as
it is entirely disconnected from that, and differs somewhat in veg-
etation and other characters, it is now described separately.

Geology and Sotls—The whole area seems to be underlaid by
a limestone of Oligocene age, which crops out occasionally
through the surface sands in boulder-like patches a few square
feet in area and a few inches high, usually too small to have any
vegetation on them, This type of rock outcrop (namely, calcare-
ous rocks surrounded by sand) is not found in any of the regions
previously described, but it is rather common in some parts of the
Florida peninsula. Such outcrops are not found on every square
mile, however, and they constitute only an infinitesimal fraction
of the whole area. Some excavations in the neighborhood of
ponds and streams have disclosed a pale reddish sandy clay, sim-
ilar to that in various other long-leaf pine regions, but it seems
never to approach the surface nearer than a foot or two, and at
present there is no way of knowing just how extensive it 1s.

The prevailing surface material is a pale buff loamy sand
from one to several feet deep,* remarkably homogeneous
throughout except that the uppermost few inches, influenced by
the vegetation, are of course a little grayer. It is of rather fine
texture in Leon County, but a little coarser in Wakulla. In some
places where the ground-water is nearer the surface the sand is
firmer, and the vegetation considerably different.

The deep dry sand is called ‘Sandhill’ + in the government
soil survey of Leon County, and the mechanical analyses of it in

*Some railroad cuts ten feet deep do not reach the bottom of the sand.
On account of the character of the soil, this region, like other very sandy
regions (the northern part of the lower peninsula of Michigan, for example)
is traversed by a maze of ill-defined, “heavy” and changeable roads. But in
a few places the underlying clay has been dug out and used for surfacing the
roads, with very satisfactory results.

tNearly all the other areas hitherto classed as “Sandhill” by the U. S.
Bureau of Soils are along the fall-line in North and South Carolina (the
same type is also extensively developed in Georgia, but not yet mapped by

I2. BELLAIR SAND REGION, 281

that publication are reproduced herewith. The — locality from
which the samples were taken is not specified, nor are the respect-
ive depths. The first column is for soil and the second for sub-
soil.

MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF “SANDHILL,” Leon County.

Soil Subsoil

Hine serdyeleGo-te min.) ee 0.2 (Trace)
Comtstrsamm ct 5 pinitly ies = sae ese ean 8.6 9.3
Medium sand (.5-.25 mim.) =------={=-_-----__- 24.5 25.8
Fimessand (25-10 mitt an 51.9 49.7
Victyiersand (Gi Oo gis) tas eae no 11.1 11.4
Sil COs Ona iti eee ee eee re a ee I.1 1.0
Claw Goes-ov anime) (25-2282 eee or See ee 2. 2.4
ARG ea ee aes oie ee Ee ee eee 99.7 99.6

There is comparatively little difference between soil and sub-
soil; a fact brought out also by the chemical analysis given below.
Samples of soil and subsoil were collected by the writer on dry
sandy uplands about 3% miles south of Tallahassee, July 22,
1914, and analyzed by L. Heimburger, A’ssistant State Chemist,
in the manner described in the appendix. The first column of
figures represents the first six inches from the surface, and the
second, six to twelve inches.

\

ParTIAL CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF “SANDHILL,” LEON County.
Soil Subsoil

Moisture? 2-= see eee ae eet ee ee 12 04
Wolariler nimtietet esa eee oe meee eae eee 7.67)". 06
Nutone ene sO aka ea ee ee 089.085
fovea (8S) @ 9 Wee Sa ROS Tee Seek eee Ss 030.035
|v (1 CHO ) Msi SES et OE Ae ae ee 185.195
Prosphoric: acid "CRP2O sys. 2- ae ee oe See ee 8 032.022
Iron and alumina. (Fe203, Al2O3) ---=---------- 1 ete
Lnsoluble matter =36sacon seas A ote 97:38 97-690

Although this soil is of course poorer than that of the neigh-
boring red hills in humus and all soluble constituents, it is not the
poorest soil there’ is by any means, and there are many small
farms scattered over it.

them as such), along creeks and rivers in the coastal plain of the Carolinas
and Georgia, and near the Gulf coast of Florida. The area under considera-
tion belongs to neither of these classes, but in soil and vegetation it is very
similar to typical sand-hills. (For descriptions of the vegetation of the fall-
line sand-hills of the Carolinas see Bul. Torrey Bot. Club 37:413. 1910; 38:225:
1911; and for that of the fluvial sand-hills of Georgia see Ann. N. Y. Acad.
Sci. 17:82-89. 1906.)

282 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Ants and salamanders are common in this soil, and gophers,
moles, doodle-bugs and other subterranean animals occasional.

Topography and Hydrography—The topography is mostly
gently undulating, a little hilly in some places and nearly flat in
others, and pitted with numerous basin-like depressions.* The
records of the G., F. & A. Ry. give the altitude of Spring Hill as
169 feet and Hilliardville (Benhaden P. O.) as 142; but whether
these figures refer to sea-level or some assumed datum is not
known. Springs are unknown, or at least very scarce, and
streams are not common, but there are a few sluggish sloughs
and drains, and many ponds and lakes. These bodies of water
vary in size from an acre or so to several hundred acres. Some
of the smaller ponds are shallow enough to be dry a large part of
the time, while others are permanent. The seasonal fluctuation
of the water in different ponds seems to vary from about two to
ten feet; and some of those which fluctuate the most are con-
nected with sink-holes. As the slopes are usually very gentle,
some of the ponds have considerable areas around them which are
sometimes inundated and sometimes exposed. The water in both
ponds and streams is neither muddy nor calcareous, but coffee-
colored from dissolved and suspended vegetable matter.

Vegetation Types—The prevailing upland vegetation is very
open forests of rather small long-leaf pines, with a comparatively
dense “lower story’ of small black-jack and turkey oaks, usually
not over 15 feet tall and often shrub-like, and a herbaceous under-
growth which does not cover the ground completely, but exposes
some of the sand to the sun. There are, however, few bare spaces
large enough to afford much protection from the fires which sweep
through this as other long-leaf pine regions, so that plants (such
as annual herbs and thin-barked shrubs) which cannot stand fre-
quent fires are chiefly confined to railroads, fields and other clear-
ings, or to hammocks and swamps. Within a few miles of the
county line, where the ground-water is nearer the surface than
the average, the oaks are almost wanting and the pines and
herbage grow more densely.

The areas between high and low water marks around the

*This sort of topography is commonly supposed to indicate solution
rather than erosion, but it is possible that the wind has had something
to do with it too, for circular basins occur among the old dunes of the
West Florida coast, where solution seems to be out of the question, as
already pointed out.

12. BELLAIR SAND REGION. 283

ponds which fluctuate several feet are usually treeless, with a
characteristic vegetation of herbs and scattered shrubs, which in
the case of ponds which dry up completely covers the whole basin.
Such areas usually pass abruptly into the surrounding pine for-
ests, without any intervening fringe of hammock vegetation;
which presumably indicates that the pond-margin vegetation is
no barrier to fire in the dry season.

The ponds which fluctuate least usually contain cypress, at
least around their edges, where the water is not too deep. Just
outside of the cypress there is commonly a narrow belt of bay
vegetation, and next to that more or less hammock, which is pro-
tected from fire on one side by the pond.

The streams are bordered by narrow swamps which seem to
present no peculiar features, and some of them have hammocks
besides. Near some of the streams and ponds, especially within a
mile or two of the adjacent flatwoods (regions 9 and 16), there
are small areas of low pine land.

Plants—The following list is based on observations made
on 17 days in eight different months, as follows: January, 1;
March is April's: une).-3:: July, I 5; September,.2; October, 2:
Deccainee iL:

TREES
+53.0 Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine Uplands
++14.5 Quercus Catesbaei Black-jack oak Uplands

+ 5.3 Quercus cinerea Turkey oak Uplands
—4.4 Taxodium imbricarium (Pond) cypress Ponds, etc.
—1.6 Pinus Elliottii (Slash pine) Low pine land
—1I.2 Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine Richer soils
—1.0 Nyssa biflora Black gum Swamps
+1.0 Quercus geminata Live oak Around ponds, etc.

0-7 Quercus Virginiana Live oak ' Hammocks, etc.
—o.6 Liquidambar Styraciflua Sweet gum Richer soils
+0.6 Quercus Margaretta Post oak Uplands
—o.5 Magnolia glauca Bay Swamps

0-5 Quercus laurifolia Oak ‘ Hammocks

0.4 Hicoria alba Hickory Richer soils
—o.3 Pinus serotina (Black pine) Low pine land
—o.2 Quercus falcata Red oak Richer soils
-—0.2 Quercus nigra Water oak Richer soils
—o.2 Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia Hammocks
—o.2 Acer rubrum* Maple Swamps
—o.2 Taxodium distichum Cypress Sloughs, etc.

0.1 Hicoria glabra Hickory Hammocks

—0o.1 Ostrya Virginiana Hammocks

*Probably including the var. tridens.
18

284 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS

-+.14 Cyrilla racemiflora Tyty Swamps, etc.
+.07 Ilex myrtifolia Yaupon Around ponds
+.06 Cyrilla parvifolia Tyty Around ponds
.05 Diospyros Virginiana (X) Persimmon Old fields, etc.
.03 Nyssa Ogeche Tupelo gum Along creeks
+.02 Crataegus Michauxii? Haw Uplands
.o2 Osmanthus Americana Hammocks
-—.o1 Myrica cerifera Myrtle Hammocks

WOODY VINES

004 Smilax laurifolia Bamboo vine Swamps
+.002 Smilax Walteri Swamps
.002 Vitis rotundifolia Bullace or mus-
; cadine Hammocks
002 Gelsemium sempervirens Yellow jessamine Hammocks
.0OI Vitis aestivalis Wild grape Hammocks
.oot Ampelopsis arborea © Creek swamps
oot Berchemia scandens Rattan vine Creek swamps
SHRUBS
++.035 Quercus Catesbaei* Black-jack oak Sandy uplands
+.030 Hypericum fasciculatum Around ponds
+-+.027 Gaylussacia dumosa Uplands
-+.025 Chrysobalanus oblongifolius Uplands
+.020 Vaccinium nitidum Huckleberry Mostly near ponds
+.013 Cephalanthus occidentalis E!bow-bush Ponds
-—.013 Serenoa serrulata Saw-palmetto Mostly near ponds
+-+.010 Pieris Mariana Margins of ponds
.008 Rubus cuneifolius (X) Blackberry Clearings, etc.
+.008 Hypericum myrtifolium Around ponds
.007 Rhus copa!lina Sumac Clearings, etc.
.007 Asimina angustifolia Pawpaw Uplands
.004 Leucothoe racemosa Bays, etc.
.004 Quercus minima Oak runner Uiplands
—.004 Ilex glabra Gallberry Mostly near ponds
.003 Polycodium caesium? Gooseberry Hammocks, etc.
.003 Styrax Americana : Swamps
.003 Batodendron arboreum Sparkleberry Hammocks, etc.
.003 Myrica pumila Myrtle Uplands
.003 Pieris nitida Bays, etc
002 Rhus Toxicodendron Poison oak Uplands
.002 Cholisma ferruginea Hammocks
oot Viburnum obovatum
+-+.001 Quercus cinerea Turkey oak Uplands

+.o001 Quercus Margaretta Post oak - Uplands

*Specimens of this oak about knee-high are the most conspicuous feature
of the woody undergrowth, so that it is classed as a shrub as well as as_a tree.
Two other normally arborescent oaks are treated the same way in this list.

a_i

.OOT
-OOL
-OOT
-OOT
-OOT

+.012
Out

—.003
+.002

+-+.002
+-+.002
+.002

. 002
+.002
+.002
+.002
++.002
+.001
+--+ ,001
-OO1
+.001
+.001
+.001
-+-+.001
+.001
+.001
.0O
+-++.001
1.001
.00
+.001
.OOT
+.001
.OOT
.OOT
+.001
+-+.001

pa

a

+-F.o01
+.001
+.001
+-+.001
+-+.001
+.001

-OOI

EZ

Quercus pumila Oak runner
Clethra alnifolia

Ceanothus Americanus

Ceanothus microphyllus

Crookea microsepala

HERBS

Aristida stricta Wire-grass
Kuhnistera pinnata (Summer
farewell)

Tillandsia usneoides Spanish moss
Eupatorium
compositifolium (X)
Laciniaria tenuifolia
Chrysopsis flexuosa
Chrysopsis graminifolia
Pteridium aquilinum
Syngonanthus flavidulus
Sericocarpus bifoliatus
Berlandiera tomentosa
Ludwigia suffruticosa
Sarothra gentianoides (X)
Euphorbia gracilis
Vernonia angustifolia
Sporobolus gracilis
Croton argyranthemus
Eupatorium aromaticum
Triplasis Americana (X?)(A grass)
Chrysopsis gossypina
Diodia teres (X)
Solidago odora
Amsonia ciliata*
Laciniaria Chapmani
Helianthus Radula
Gibbesia Rugelii
Isopappus divaricatus (X)
Nymphaea orbiculata

Dog-fennel

(A fern)

(A grass)

Goldenrod

Bonnets

Psoralea canescens
Panicum hemitomon Maiden cane
Stenophyllys ciliatifolius
Eupatorium
leptophyllum? {Dog-fennel)

Gerardia divaricata

Pentstemon mu!tiflorus

Euthamia Caroliniana (X?)
Euphorbia Floridana

Eriocaulon septangulare

Cenchrus tribuloides (X) Sand-spur
Cnidoscolus stimiulosus (Nettle)

*Chiefly the var. filifolia See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 33: 240-241. 10906.

BELLAIR SAND REGION,

Uplands

Edges of swamps
Uplands

Uplands
Flatwoods, etc.

Uplands

Uplands
On trees

Clearings

Uplands

Uplands

Up!ands

Uplands

Around ponds
Uplands

Uplands

Pond margins

Old fields, railroads, &c
Uplands

Uplands

Uplands

Uplands

Richer uplands

Along railroads mostly
Uplands

Along railroads, etc.
Uplands

Uplands

Uplands

Uplands

Along railroads mostly
Old fields, etc.

Ponds

Uplands

Ponds

Uplands

Pond margins
Uplands

Clearings, etc.
Around ponds, etc
Uplands

Pond margins
Along railroads, etc.
Uplands

286 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

.oo1 Centella repanda
+.001 Stenophyllus Floridanus
(X) (Water grass) Fields, railroads, etc.
oor Stillingia sylvatica (Queen’s delight) Up!ands

Around ponds, etc.

+-+.001 Psoralea Lupinellus Uplands
.oo1 Castalia odorata \Vater-lily Ponds
++.001 Dicerandra linearifolia (X?)* - Along railroads
SF Brasenia purpurea Ponds
a Eleocharis melanocarpa (A sedge) Pond margins

ata Dolicholus simplicifolius (Dollar-weed) Uplands
Chamaecrista fasciculata (Partridge pea) Uplands

Crotalaria rotundifolia Uplands
=F Calophenes ob!ongifolia Up!ands
+E Polygonella gracilis Along railroads, etc.
Rhynchospora Grayii (A sedge) Uplands
Andropogon Virginicus Broom-sedge Uplands
sap Lupinus villosus (Lupine) Uplands
Anastrcphus paspaloides
(X?) (A grass) Pond margins
ae Lygodesmia aphylla Uplands
Morongia uncinata Uplands
Stylosanthes biflora Uplands
ip Aster concolor Uplands
ae Polypremum procumbens (X) Around ponds, ete.
=F Juncus repens Dried-up ponds, etc.
=F Ludwigia pilosa Swamps
Drosera capillaris Pond margins
Erigeron vernus Pond margins
Cracca chrysophylla Uplands
Lycopus sp. Around ponds, swamps
ar Lechea sp. Uplands
ate Chrysopsis aspera Uplands
sic Crotonopsis spinosa (X) Clearings
Sorghastrum secundum (Wild oats) Uplands
aia Eragrostis simplex (X) (A grass) Railroads
4045 Polypteris integrifolia Uplands
—_ Trilisa odoratissima Deer-tongue Low pine land
oF Scleria glabra (A sedge) Uplands
te Mayaca Aubleti Around ponds
Afzelia pectinata Uplands
ae Breweria humistrata Uplands
— Pterocaulon undulatum (Black-root) Near ponds, etc.
=a Scutellaria multiglandulosa Uplands
+ Asclepias humistrata Milkweed Uplands

*This handsome and fragrant annual is native on some sand-hills in

South Georgia, but here it seems to be confined to railroads, perhaps because
those are the only dry sunny places in this region that are sufficiently protected
from fire. Pentstemon muitiflorus and a few other species behave in a similar
manner. :

ae

.

I2. BELLAIR SAND REGION.

287

Richer uplands

sie Laciniaria elegans
Rhexia Mariana Around ponds
~- Pluchea bifrons Around ponds
— Acanthospermum
australe (X) Along railroads, etc.
— Helenium tenuifolium (X) Bitter-weed Roads and clearings
-— Eriogonum tomentosum Uplands
eet Juncus abortivus Pond margins
Aristida spiciformis (A grass) Low pine land
ate Euphorbia cordifolia Along railroads
ar Ruellia humilis Uplands
+ Chamaecrista nictitans (Partridge pea) Uplands
— Eupatorium
capillifolium (X?) Dog-fennel Low grounds
== Laciniaria gracilis Uplands
Galactia regularis Uplands
Eupatorium album Uplands
Xyris sp. Around ponds
Verbena carnea Uplands
Asclepias tuberosa Uplands
= Pontederia cordata Around ponds
os Mesosphaerum radiatum Near swamps
ta Cyperus speciosus? (A sedge) Pond margins
Lachnocaulon sp. Pond margins
aig Indigofera Caroliniana Uplands
3 Petalostemon a!bidus Uplands
Staal Psilocarya corymbiformis (A sedge) Pond margins
aa Eleocharis acicularis? (A. sedge) Pond margins
Juncus scirpoides compositus Pond margins
5 Ludwigiantha arcuata Pond margins

(and about 125 others seen less than 4 times).

The following plants which are common either in near-by regions or

in regions with similar soil are rare or absent here: Pinus serotina, P. echinata
(the common short-leaf pine of the Tallahassee red hills), Salix (witlow),
Carpinus (ironwood), Fagus (beech), Ostrya, Quercus Michaux, Q. falcata
(red oak), O. Marylandica (round-leaf black-jack oak), Ulinus (elms), Mag-
nolia grandiflora, Liriodendron (poplar), Malys (crab-apple), Crataegus (haws),
Prunus (plums and cherries), Ilex opaca (holly), Cornus florida (dogwood),
Persea (red bays), Fraxinus (ashes), Cliftonia (tyty), Serenoa (saw-palmetto),
Ilex glabra (gallberry), Eriogonum, Pitcheria, and Helenium tenuifolium
(bitterweed).

Some of these prefer richer and some wetter soils than are prevalent here;
but the scarcity of Eriogonum and Pitcheria, which abound in similar soils
in the same latitude (in the West Florida lake region, for instance), is hard
to explain. Neither is there any apparent reason for the scarcity of bitterweed,
which is too common in most other parts of northern Florida. Vines are
comparatively rare, doubtless because there are few areas sufficiently pro-
tected from fire for them to flourish.

On the other hand, this region contrasts with those just north and south
of it in the number of rare plants. Cyrilla parvifolia and Juncus abortivus

»88 . FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

seem to be confined to Florida, and Laciniaria Chapmani nearly so. Pieris
Mariana and Eriocaulon septangulare are rare elsewhere in the South, but
common enough here. Chrysopsis flexuosa, discovered first by Mr. Nash near
Bellair in 1895, was not known outside of this region, or outside of Leon Coun-
ty, until the past summer, when the writer found it in the Panacea country
(region 14).* The Eupatorium (dog-fennel), that grows on the treeless mar-
gins of ponds that fluctuate several feet, is not common elsewhere. Psilo-
carya corymbiformis is another rare plant.

The genera Chrysopsis and Laciniaria, each with four or five representa-

tives, seem to make up a larger proportion of the vegetation here than in any
other part of Florida, and are very conspicuous in the fall, when they bloom.

About 60% of the trees are evergreen, and 30% of the shrubs (or .07%
of the total vegetation) are Ericaceae, while 17.4% of the herbs are Legumin-
osae. The figures for both Ericaceae and Leguminosae are considerably above
the average, which is rather remarkable, and not easy to explain.

Economic Features—The deep sand is not well adapted to
agriculture, and probably not over 5% of the area is under culti-
vation. There has been considerable lumbering, but the pines
were never as large in this region as in some Others, and the best
ones have been cut out. Turpentining seems to be the leading in-
dustry at present. Much if not most of the fuel used in Tallahas-
see is long-leaf pine and black-jack oak, from this region. The
wire-grass affords pasturage to many cattle. The bulbs of La-
ciniaria tenufolia a few years ago were made the basis of a pat-
ent medicine by a doctor in Tallahassee.

No statistics of -population are available, but there are prob-
ably not over ten inhabitants to the square mile, and negroes’ ap-
pear to be in the majority. Bellair, in the northern edge of the
region, about four miles south of Tallahassee, was in ante-bellum
Gays a favorite summer resort for the aristocracy of the capital,
who went there mostly to escape malaria, apparently.; The place
is now almost extinct, probably partly because improved trans-
portation facilities now enable Tallahasseeans to reach more at-
tractive summer resorts quickly, and partly because we now know
better ways to avoid malaria than running away from it (and that
disease is much less prevalent now than formerly).

*The genus Chrysopsis is remarkable for the limited range of some of

its species. One species, C. pinifolia, discovered by Stephen Elliott about 100 .

years ago on the fall-line sand-hills of what is now Taylor County, Georgia,
is still known only from that county, though it is as common there as
C. flexuosa is around Belilair.

tThis is one more illustration of the correlation between soi! and health
that has never been fully explained. Just why malarial mosquitoes should have
been more numerous in the red hills than in the sand country with its numerous
ponds and sloughs is not obvious; unless possibly the water in sandy regions.
is lacking in some nutriment that they require.

13. WAKULLA HAMMOCK COUNTRY. 289

13. WAKULLA HAMMOCK COUNTRY.
(FIGURES 76-78)
References—Smith 2, p. 227 (a few notes on vegetation, evidently derived
from Eagan’s pamphlet). Illustrated in 3d Ann. Rep. pl. 21.1; 4th, Fig. 13.

Confined to the central part of Wakulla County, or nearly
so, this little region has an area of perhaps 150 square miles.
There seems to be nothing exactly like it elsewhere.

Geology and Soils—This region, like the preceding, seems to
be underlaid by Oligocene limestone, which protrudes through
the soil in a few places in much the same way, and crops out
around a few sinks. At a deep sink containing water, a mile or
two south of Wakulla Spring, there is a little reddish clay over-
lying the limestone, but no other exposures of clay are known to
the writer. The prevailing soil is an exceptionally coarse sandy
loam, with not enough clay to make it coherent. Samples were
taken by the writer on Oct. 8, 1914, from the same spot shown in
Fig. 77, representing the first and third foot from the surface,
and there is no perceptible difference between the two except a
small amount of organic matter in the surface soil. Both are
light brown or buff in color. A partial mechanical analysis has
been made by the writer, with a series of sieves having apertures
I, %, and ™% millimeters in diameter, respectively, with the fol-

lowing results:
Soil Subsoil

Pine corasicls (Ap oven Biniit) ere ene 1253 10.7
RY Se ot Seta do ete NT ty ee ne eee te ee 35-7 37:9
Medinm sand: (5-25 sam.) 25228222225 ee 40.0 40.3
Fine sand, silt and clay (.25-0 mm.) ---------- 12.0 II.1

Aye’ | aoe Ss Lo Seba CEE ee oe 100.0 100.0

Unfortunately it was not feasible to separate the silt and clay,
but these figures at least show the remarkably high proportion of
gravel and coarse sand. This coarseness is not strictly confined
to the region under consideration, though, for neighboring por-
tions of regions 9 and 12 seem to have coarser soils than the av-
erage for those regions. (No explanation for this state of affairs
can be suggested at the present writing.)

Although this is one of the coarsest soils in Florida, it is also
one of the richest. The sample was selected from a patch of ap-
parently virgin forest in which the trees are nearly all deciduous;
and if the same correlations between soils and deciduous trees

290 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

that have been observed elsewhere in the South hold tiue here the
soil should be rather high in potassium, if nothing else. (A chem-
‘ical analysis will be inserted near the end of this report if it 1s ob-
tained in time.) Within a stone’s throw of where the photograph
and samples were taken a part of the same forest had been dead-
ened a few months before (some of the trees were not quite dead
at the time) and planted in cotton, which in October was about
five feet tall, and was expected to produce about a bale to the acre.
Similar soils which have been cultivated for a generation or more
without fertilizer are still producing about half a bale of cotton to
the acre, it is said.

All soils in the region are not like this, however. Long-leaf
pine is the prevailing tree in many places, and there the soil is
paler and doubtless poorer, though it may be richer than the av- .
erage long-leaf pine land. And some of the hardwood forests
contain a considerable proportion of evergreens, presumably indi-
cating a dearth of potassium; but no examination has yet been
made of these poorer soils. Salamanders are common in the pine
land.

Topography and Hydrography—The topography is every-
where gently undulating, never flat, unless some flatwoods areas
which have been seen in this region are really parts of it and not
outliers of the Apalachicola flatwoods on the west. Where the
flatwoods occur (for example six miles east of Crawfordville on
the road to St. Marks) they seem to be a little higher than the
surrounding country. There are a few lime-sinks, sloughs and
small ponds, but hardly any surface streams except the Wakulla
River. This river has its source in Wakulla Spring, the greatest
natural wonder in the region. As far as dimensions are con-
cerned it is the largest spring in Florida, and perhaps the largest
in the world, being about 400 feet in diameter and over 80 feet
deep. In volume of water, however, it may be exceeded by the
noted Silver Spring, in Marion County. Its water, like that of
cther limestone springs, is transparent with a slight bluish tinge.
One or two creeks which rise northwest of this region sink into
the ground near its edge, and one of these may be the main source
of supply for Wakulla Spring.*

*Although these creeks have coffee-colored water, as is usual with coastal
plain streams, such water in passing through limestone for any considerable
distance has its vegetable matter precipitated and comes out clear, except when
the volume of water is too great for the precipitation to be completed in the

13. WAKULLA HAMMOCK COUNTRY, 291

Vegetation T’ypes—The poorest soils have a vegetation com-
posed mostly of long-leaf pine and black-jack oak, like that which
prevails in the neighboring Bellair sand region already described.
But there are all gradations between that and shady forests of
red oak, hickory, dogwood, and other deciduous trees. In a few
places the hardwood forests contain a good deal of magnolia,
evergreen willow oak, and other broad-leaved evergreens; a dif-
ference presumably correlated with the composition of the soil.
The occurrence of a few patches of flatwoods has been mentioned
above. The Wakulla River is bordered by swamps, and the few
ponds and sloughs have some characteristic vegetation around
them.

The high pine land and flatwoods nearly everywhere bear the
marks of fire, which naturally does not. invade the hardwood for-
ests much. Where broad-leaved evergreens are common the veg-
etation may have been pine originally, and the protection from
fire afforded by deciduous forests on one side may have allowed
hammock vegetation to develop, as seems to have happened in
many other places in the coastal plain.

Plants—The following list is based on observations made in
walking through the region four times, in April, June, July and
October.

TREES
—29.7 Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine Poorer soils
+5.8 Quercus falcata Red oak Uplands
+-+5.5 Hicoria alba Hickory Uplands
+5.5 Cornus florida Dogwood Uplands
+4.5 Quercus Catesbaei Black-jack oak Poorer soils
+3.90 Quercus laurifolia (Evergreen wil-
low oak) Hammocks
++3.3 Quercus stellata Post oak Up!ands
+3.1 Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine Uplands
+3.I Quercus cinerea (Turkey oak) Poorer soils
+2.6 Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia Hammocks
++2.6 Sassafras variifolium Sassafras Uplands
-—2.3 Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine Hammocks, etc.
—1.9 Liquidambar Styraciflua Sweet gum Various situations
+1.8 Diospyros Virginiana (X) Persimmon Old fields, ete.
++1.6 Quercus alba White oak Richer soils
+1.6 Tilia pubescens (Lin) Hammocks

time it remains underground. A few instances of springs in Florida in which
the water is sometimes clear and sometimes coffee-colored are mentioned on
page 284 of the Third Annual Report. (To the reference there given for Iche-
tucknee Spring can now be added Matson & Sanford, p. 287.)

292 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL \SURVEY—-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

+1.4 Ilex opaca
+3.4 Castanea pumila

1.3 Taxodium distichum
+1.1 Fagus grandifolia
—o.g Pinus serotina
+o.9 Malus angustifolia
+0.7 Nyssa uniflora

0:7 Quercus nigra

0.7 Quercus Virginiana .
+o0.7 Prunus serotina (X)

0.7 Acer rubrum
+0.7 Ostrya Virginiana
+0.6 Hicoria glabra
+o.4 Persea Borbonia
+0.4 Quercus Margaretta
—o.4 Nyssa biflora

0.4 Quercus Michauxii

+o.4 Fraxinus Americana
—o-.4 Pinus glabra
0-3 Quercus Marylandica
0.3 Carpinus Caroliniana
0.2 Fraxinus Caroliniana?
—o.1 Magnolia glauca

(and about 10 others).

SMALL TREES

++.16 Viburnum rufidulum
+.14 Batodendron arboreum
+-+.13 Crataegus sp.
-+.10 Prunus umbe!lata?*
+.07 Osmanthus Americana
+.06 Cercis Canadensis
.o4 Cyrilla racemiflora
+.04 Symplocos tinctoria
+.03 Crataegus Michauxii?
.03 Ilex vomitoria
.03 Bumelia lanuginosa
.03 Salix longipes?
.03 Cholisma ferruginea

Holly
Chinquapin
Cypress
Beech
(Black pine)
Crab-apple
Tupelo gum
Water oak
Live oak
Wild cherry
Maple

Hickory
Red bay
Post oak
Black gum

(Swamp chest-

nut oak)
Ash
Spruce pine

Black-jack oak

(Ironwood)
Ash
Bay

Hammocks
Uplands
Swamps
Hammocks
Flatwoods
Rich woods
Sloughs, ete.

Hammocks, etc.
Roadsides, etc.
Swamps
Hammocks
Hammocks
Hammocks
High pine land
Swamps

Hammocks
Rich woods
Hammocks
Uplands
Swamps, etc.
Swamps
Swamps

OR LARGE SHRUBS

Black haw
Sparkleberry
(Red) haw
Plum

(Redbud)
Tyty

(Red) haw

Willow

(and 6 others seen only once).

WOODY VINES.

+-+.033 Vitis aestivalis
+.010 Rhus radicans
+.009 Vitis rotundifolia

.004 Berchemia scandens
.oor Parthenocissus
quinquefolia

*The same as one that grows in region IT.

Wild grape
Poison ivy

Bullace or mus-

cadine
Rattan vine

Rich woods
Uplands
Uplands
Uplands
Hammocks
Hammocks
Swamps, etc.
Hammocks
Uplands
Hammocks
Hammocks
Swamps
Hammocks

Uplands

Hammocks & swamps

Hammocks, ete.
Swamps

Virginia creeper Hammocks

See page 273.

cs: WAKULLA HAMMOCK COUNTRY, 293

SHRUBS
+.026. Rhus copallina Sumac Uplands
+-+.021 Sassafras variifolium Sassafras Old fields
+.019 Callicarpa Americana French mulberry Hammocks, etc,
+.017 Rubus cuneifolius (X) Blackberry Roadsides, ete.
—.013 Serenoa serrulata Saw-palmetto Flatwoods, etc.
+.o11 Cornus asperifolia? Hammocks
+.o11 Hamamelis Virginiana W itch-hazel Hammocks
.o10 Myrica cerifera Myrtle Hammocks
.oog Cephalanthus occidentalis E]bow-bugh Swamps, etc.
+.009 Ascyrum hypericoides Uplands
.009 Vaccinium nitidum Huckleberry Flatwoods, etc.
.007 Rhus Toxicodendron Poison oak High pine !and
.006 Chionanthus Virginica Graybeard Hammocks
+.006 Polycodium sp. Gooseberry Uplands
—.006 Ilex glabra Gallberry “ Flatwoods, etc.
—.oo5. Chrysobalanus ae
oblongifolius High pine land
.004 Gaylussacia frondosa
nana Huckleberry Flatwoods
+.004 Crataegus uniflora Haw Uplands
.003 Cholisma fruticosa Flatwoods
.003 Asimina angustifolia Pawpaw High pine land
.003 Asimina parviflora Pawpaw Hammocks
.003 Rosa Carolina Wild rose Swamps
.003 Gaylussacia dumosa High pine land
.003 Itea Virginica Swamps
.002 Aesculus Pavia Buckeye Rich woods

.002 Baccharis halimifolia
(and about 12 others).

HERBS
+.005 Tillandsia usneoides Spanish moss On trees
+.004 Eupatorium compositi-
folium (X) Dog-fennel Old fields, etc.
+.044 Isopappus divaricatus (X) Old fields

+.003 Richardia scabra (X) (Mexican clover) Fie'ds

+.002 Diodia teres (X) Roadsides

.002 Aristida stricta Wire-grass High pine iand

.002 Pteridium aquilinum (A fern) High pine land
+.002 Stenophy!lus

Floridanus (X) (Water-grass) Fields and roadsides

+.002 Smilax pumila Hammocks
+.o01 Cassia Tora (X) Coffee-weed Fields, etc.

.0ot Solidago odora _ Goldenrod High pine land
+.oo1 Baptisia LeContei? Uplands

oor Stillingia sylvatica (Queen’s delight) High pine land

.oot Andropogon scoparius* (X) Broom-sedge Old fields, etc.

24 ‘

*And probably other species.

204

++

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

*

Croton argyranthemus
Sericocarpus bifoliatus
Crotonopsis spinosa (X)
Heteropogon melanocar-

pus (X) (A grass)
Acanthospermum

australe (X)
Vernonia angustifolia
Sagittaria natans lorata?
Eupatorium aromaticum
Chamaecrista fasciculata (Partridge pea)
Cenchrus tribuloides (X) Sand-spur
Polypodium polypodioides (A fern)
Ambrosia artemisiaefolia

(X) Ragweed
Hielianthemum sp. (X)
Bidens bipinnata (X) Spanish needles
Sarothra gentianoides (X
Laciniaria elegans
Cyperus retrofractus (A sedge)
Mitchella repens
Meibomia purpurea (X) Beggar-weed
Leptilon Canadense (X)

Eupatorium capillifolium }
(X) * Dog-fennel
Syntherisma sanguinale
(X) Crab-grass
Kuhnistera pinnata (Summer
farewell)
Chaetochloa sp. (X) (A grass)

Berlandiera tomentosa
Phytolacca rigida (X) Pokeberry
Oenothera cruciata (X) (Evening

primrose)
Lespedeza striata (X) Japan clover
Scirpus validus (Bulrush)
Aristida purpurascens?
(X) (A grass)

Euphorbia gracilis
Cracca spicata
Petalostemon albidus
Ipomoea pandurata (X?) Morning-glory
Paronychia riparia (X?)
Dolicholus simplicifotius (Dollar-weed)
Spermolepis divaricatus

(X)
Lepidium Virginicum (X) Peppergrass
Laciniaria tenuifolia
Erianthus sp. (X?) (A. grass)
Eragrostis ciliaris (X) (A grass)
‘Monarda punctata (X?)
Rhynchospora_ Grayii (A sedge)

High pine land
High pine land
Roadsides, etc.

Old fields

Roadsides
High pine land
Wakulla River
Uplands
Uplands
Roadsides

On trees

Roadsides, ete.
Roadsides

Fields and roadsides
Roadsides, etc.
Uplands

Uplands

(Partridge-berry) Hammocks

Old fie!ds
Old fields

Fields, etc.
High pine land

High pine land
Along fences, etc.

Fields
Roadsides, etc.
Wakulla River

Old fields

High pine !and
Uplands

High pine land
Roadsides, ete.

Roadsides

High ‘pine land

Old fields

; Roadsides, etc.

High pine land
Along fences
Roadsides

Old fields, ete
High pine land

i a a i

13. WAKULLA HAMMOCK COUNTRY. 295

Sporobolus gracilis (A grass) High pine land
Lechea sp. High pine land
Psoralea canescens High pine land
Stylosanthes biflora High pine land
Oplismenus setarius (A grass) Hammocks
Epidendrum conopseum (An orchi:i) On trees in hammocks
Galactia mollis? High pine land
Meibomia rigida (Beggar-weed) High pine land

+ Ceratophyllum demersum Wakulla River

(and about 80 others).

The following trees which are more or less common in other parts of
Wakulla or in some adjoining county are rare or absent here: Pinus Elliottiu
(slash pine), Taxodium imbricarium (pond cypress), Juniperus (cedar), Sabal
Palmetto (cabbage palmetto), Salix (willow), Quercus geminata (one of the
live oaks), Q. Marylandica, Celtis (hackberry), Magnolia glauca (bay), Lirio-
dendron (poplar), Oxydendrum (sourwood), and Halesia. As in the case of
the Tallahassee red hills, there are remarkably few rare plants, for such a unique
region. None of the species listed are confined to Florida.

But there are decidedly more species of trees in this region than in the
small regions immediately north and south of it, and some of them are excep-
tionally well developed. The dogwood seems to be more abundant here than
in any other part of Florida, with the possible exception of the Tallahassee red
hills, and trees of it a foot in diameter are not uncommon. Several oaks and
hickories, magnolia, chinquapin, sassafras, grape vines, and a few other species,
are also notably large or abundant, or both.

Weeds are rather abundant, for a region without railroads, but this is
doubtless a consequence of long cultivation, as in the case of the Tallahassee
red hills already mentioned. Fungi (none of which are listed) seem to be com-
moner here than in most other parts of Florida.

Only about 48% of the trees (and still fewer of the other plants) are ever-
green, which is the smallest proportion yet found in any equal area in the state,
and presumably indicates soils well supplied with potassium compounds. About
11% of the shrubs are Ericaceae, but if the flatwoods areas were excluded this
figure would be considerably less. About 12% of the herbs, including weeds,
are Leguminosae, which is not far from the average; the fire-swept pine lands
where these plants are abundant being just about counterbalanced by the rich
shady woods where they are scarce. ;

Economic Features—The long-leaf pine is turpentined here
as elsewhere, but there is hardly enough of it to invite extensive
lumbering operations. The large and abundant dogwood and
hickory have been utilized a little, it is said, but most manufactur-
ers have overlooked the supply of these important hardwoods in
this region, probably chiefly on acount of the lack of railroads.
They will be an important resource for the future. Some Span-
ish moss is gathered for mattress-making, but perhaps used only
locally. -

290 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY——-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

As this region is much smaller than a county no. statistics
of its population and the amount of improved land can be ob-
tained from the census reports. White people seem to be in the
tnajority around Crawfordville, the county-seat, and negroes near
the Wakulla River. (Some of the negro houses have chimneys of
a type which seems to be peculiar to this region, the lower part
built of rough limestone boulders and the upper part of the fa-
miliar sticks and mud. )

The amount of cleared land is perhaps 25%, but not all of
this is in cultivation at one time. The use of commercial fertilizer
seems to be almost unknown* (as in Holmes Valley previously de-
scribed), and probably for this reason it is found advantageous
to let the land lie fallow part of the time. Although no crop sta-
tistics for this region by itself are available, it probably includes
most of the cultivated area of Wakulla County; and the follow-
ing were the leading crops of the county in 1912, in order of val-
ue: Corn, sweet potatoes, peanuts, sugar-cane, upland cotton,
velvet beans, oats, field peas (and hay thereof), watermelons,
pears, peaches, pecans, (grass) hay, and grapes. (A region where
wild grapes and muscadines are so abundant ought to be well
adapted for grape culture. )

*The average annual expenditure for fertilizers, per acre of improved land,
in Wakulla County was about six cents by the state census of 1905 and four
cents by the government census of 1910; or approximately 1/40 as much per acre
as for the state as a whole. As most of the fertilizer was presumably used in
the flatwoods parts of the county (regions 9 and 15), it is evident that practically
none is used in this region; which corroborates the testimony of the farmers
(see page 290).

N

I4. PANACEA COUNTRY, 29

14, PANACEA COUNTRY.
(FIGURE 79)
Reference—Sellards & Gunter 3, p. 142 (analyses of water from Panacea
Springs).

An area of perhaps 60 square miles around Panacea Springs,
in the southern part of Wakulla County, although it has no strik-
ing peculiarities, differs too much from all neighboring regions
to be incorporated with any of them. Topographically and in
some other ways it resembles the Bellair sand region (no. 12)
most, and if it was contiguous to that it might have been treated
as a part of it. Its vegetation, however, has much in common
with the neighboring Apalachicola flatwoods (no. 9).

Geology and Soils—No outcrops of rock are known, and no
definite statement can be made about the geology. The soil is a
somewhat loamy sand of unknown depth, very similar to that in
region 12. Salamander-hills and ant-hills are common in it, and
gopher-holes occasional. The comparatively highly mineralized
waters of Panacea Springs indicate some peculiar formations be-
low the surface, which however seem to have no effect on. vege-
tation.

Topography and Hydrography—The surface is nearly every-
where undulating, with many small basins. In the middle of the
region some of the basins may be 20 feet deep or more, but to-
ward the coast the whole topography gradually flattens out.
Most of the basins contain water, which fluctuates comparatively
little, on account of its nearness to sea-level. Between Sopchoppy
and Panacea there are two southward-flowing creeks, Buckhorn
Creek on the west and Otter Creek on the east, with sour coffee-
colored water. Nothing is known at present of where they orig-
inate, as they are not shown on any available maps, but it is evi-
dent from the vegetation along them that they do not pass through
any distinctly calcareous or clayey country.

Vegetation Types—The prevailing vegetation is of the high
pine land or black-jack ridge type, as in the Bellair region. Most ot
the basins, however, contain bay vegetation, much like that in the
flatwoods a few miles to the westward. (The difference between
these bays and the cypress ponds and open ponds of region 12 is
doubtless correlated with differences in the amount of seasonal
fluctuation of the water, as eet out under region 2. e But

*In this connection see also Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 38:231-232. 1911.

298 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

most of those within a mile or two of the coast are devoid of
woody plants (the reason for this is not yet evident), and might
be designated as savannas or prairies. The vegetation along Ot-
ter Creek is much like that along small creeks in the flatwoods,
while that along Buckhorn Creek includes short-leaf pine, sweet
gum, and other plants indicating a moderately rich soil. The
coast is bordered by salt and brackish marshes.

Planis—The following list is based on observations made on
April 21 and June 19, 1910, and July 30, 1914. It cannot be very
complete, especially for plants that bloom in fall, and the percent-
age figures are omitted.

TREES
+ Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine Uplands
+ Taxodium imbricarium (Pond) cypress Bays and ponds
+ Quercus Catesbaei Black-jack oak Uplands
— Pinus Elliottii (Slash pine) Bays and swamps
+ Quercus cinerea Turkey oak Uplands '!
Nyssa biflora Black gum Swamps
+ Nyssa Ogeche Tupelo gum Along creeks
— Magnolia glauca Bay Bays and swamps
— Pinus serotina (Black pine) Bays, etc.
+ Persea pubescens Red bay Swamps
— Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine Along Buckhorn Creek
+ Pinus Caribaea? (Pitch pine) Near coast
— Liquidambar Styraciflua Sweet gum Along Buckhorn Creek
Liriodendron Tulipifera Poplar Swamps
— Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia Hammocks
Quercus Margaretta Post oak Uplands
SMALL TREES OR LA'RGE SHRUBS
+ Cyrilla parvifolia Ry tye. Bays
+ Ilex myrtifolia Yaupon Bays
+ Cliftonia monophylla Tyty Bays
Myrica cerifera Myrtle Hammocks
Osmanthus Americana Hammocks
WOODY VINES
+ Pieris phil!yreifolia Bays
Smilax laurifolia Bamboo vine Bays
SHRUBS
+-+ Gaylussacia dumosa High pine land
+ Serenoa serrulata Saw-palmetto Pine lands
Chrysobalanus oblongifolius High pine land
+ Quercus minima Oak runner Pine lands

Ilex glabra

Ouercus pumila

Gallberry

Oak runner

Low grounds
High pine land

a

14.

+ Pieris nitida

Vaccinium nitidum

Viburnum nudum

Hypericum myrtifolium

Mytica inodora

Myrica Carolinensis

Myrica pumila

+ Crookea microsepala
Itea Virginica

++

Gaylussacia fromdosa nana

Rhus Vernix
Clethra alnifolia
Hypericum fasciculatum

Aristida stricta
Baptisia lanceolata
Baptisia LeContei?
Scleria glabra
Vernonia angustifolia
Kuhnistera pinnata

Eriocaulon compressum
Pitcheria galactioides
Morongia uncinata
Chamaecrista fasciculata
Pluchea bifrons
Pteridium aquilinum
Sporobolus gracilis
Chrysopsis flexuosa
ChrysoOpsis gossypina
Croton argyranthemus
Cracca chrysophy!la
Pterocaulon undulatum
Helianthus Radula
Lygodesmia aphylla
Sisyrinchium sp.
Erigeron vernus
+ Rhynchospora Grayii
Rhexia Alifanus
Chrysopsis graminifolia
Cladium effusum
_, Stillingia sylvatica
Berlandiera tomentosa
+ Fuirena scirpoidea
Osmunda regalis
Crotalaria rotundifolia
+ Gratiola ramosa
+ Monniera Caroliniana
— Titlandsia usneoides
+ Juncus Roemerianus

+t++t+4+4++4¢+4+ F¢44+4+44+

+4

1Q

PANACEA COUNTRY.

(Hurrah bush)
Huckleberry

Myrtle
Myrtle
Myrtle

Huckleberry
Poison sumac

HERBS

Wire-grass

(A sedge)

(Summer
farewell)

(Partridge pea)

(A fern)
(A grass)

(Black-root)

(Blue-eyed grass) High pine

(A sedge)

Saw-grass

299

Bays and swamps
Pine lands
Swamps

Around bays
Bays and swamps
Bays and swamps
Pine lands

Low pine land
Swamps

Low ‘pine land
Swamps

Edges of swamps
Around bays

High
High
High
High
High

pine land
pine land
Pine land
pine ‘and
pine land

High
Bays
High
High pine
High pine
Ponds, ete.
High pine land
High pine !and
High pine land
High pine land
High pine land
High pine land
Pine lands

High pine land
High pine land
land
Around ponds
High pine land
Low ‘pine land
High pine land
Ponds near coast

pine land
land
land

land

pine

(Queen’s delight) High pine land

(A. sedge)
(A fern) ’

Spanish moss

High pine land
Low pine land
Creek swanips
High pine land
Shallow ponds
Shallow ponds
On trees
Brackish marshes

300 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Sericocarpus bifoliatus High pine land
++ Baptisia simplicifolia High pine land
Cnidoscolus stimulosus (Nettle) High pine land
+ Cyperus Martindalei (A sedge) High pine land
Lechea sp. High pine land
+ Euphorbia gracilis High pine land
Dichromena latifolia (A sedge) Ponds, etc.
Laciniaria gracilis? High pine land
Polygala nana Pine lands
Stylosanthes biflora

High pine land

Solidago odora Goldenrod High pine lattd
Sagittaria lancifolia Ponds’ near coast

+ Dolicholus simplicifolius (Dollar-weed) High pine land
Polygala lutea Edges of swamps

+ Aster adnatus Pine lands
Lespedeza hirta High pine land

+ Lupinus villosus (Lupine) High ‘pine land
Campulosus aromaticus (A grass) Low pine land

+ Eupatorium Mohrii? Around ponds

+ Indigofera Caroliniana (Indigo) High pine land
Juncus scirpoides compositus Around ponds

+ Polypteris integrifolia High pine land

+ Sabbatia decandra Ponds

+ Chrysopsis oligantha Pine lands

+ Aeschynomene viscidula High pine land

+ Lupinus perennis (Lupine) High pine land

+ Aster concolor High pine land
Panicum sp. (A grass)
Polygala grandiflora High pine land
Psoralea canescens High pine land

+ Eupatorium purpureum Along Buckhorn Creek
Osmunda cinnamomea (A fern) Edges of swataps
Andropogon Virginicus Broom-sedge High (pine land

(and about 45 others).

Many plants which prefer rich, calcareous, clayey or alluvial soils are
of course conspicuous by their absence here. There do not seem to be even
any hickories, willows, elms, haws, maples, dogwood or persimmon. But this
region, like no. 12, has decidedly more rare plants than the larger and more
fertile region immediately north of it. Cyrilla parvifolia, Crookea, Chrysopsis
flexuosa and Baptisia simplicifolia are not known outside of Florida, and Pieris
phillyreifolia, Myrica inodora, Pitcheria and Polypteris are comparatively rare
in other states. The fact that there are four species of Myrica and three
of Baptisia is noteworthy. There seem to be almost no weeds.

About 66% of the trees and a still larger proportion of the shrubs and vines
are evergreen. As in the Bellair sand region, the percentages of Ericaceae
(among the shrubs) and Leguminosae (among the herbs) are both well above
the average, being 31 and 28 respectively. Although more thorough exploration
might reduce these figures a little, it is safe to say that this region contains a
larger proportion of native leguminous plants than any other in northern

I4. PANACEA COUNTRY. 301

Florida. Practically all of them grow in the high pine land, and probably the
best explanation of their abundance is that the high pine land, with its lack
of humus (which these plants seem to have little use for, as already pointed
out) covers nearly the whole area.

Economic leatures—This region is sparsely settled and little
cultivated. Turpentining and grazing seem to be the principal in-
dustries. Panacea Springs, on the shore of Dickson’s Bay, is a
watering-place of considerable repute, with the additional attrac-
tions of boating and fishing, and has a hotel open all the year.
Before automobiles became so common it was connected with
Sopchoppy, the nearest railroad station, by a horse-car line nearly
seven miles long.

302 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

15. GULF HAMMOCK REGION.
(FIGURES 80, 81)

References—Gillmore (975), Harper 1 (222-223, 240, 242-244), Harper 4,
Matson & Sanford (413-415), Sellards 3 (294 or 48), Smith 2 (205, 206, 227,
234, 235), and U. S. soil survey of Jefferson Co. (by Jones, Tharp & Belden,
1908).

This region, which is very distinct from any other, borders
the Gulf coast from about St. Mark’s to Tarpon Springs. In the
area under consideration (i. e., west of the Suwannee River) it
extends 15 or 20 miles inland, and covers about 1,470 square
miles, —

Geology and Soils—The country is everywhere underlaid by
limestone, most of which has been mapped as Upper Oligocene.
Outcrops of it a few square feet in extent and projecting a few
inches above the surface are very abundant. In some places there
may be as many as a hundred such exposures to the acre, and
again they may be wanting over several square miles. This rock
extends out into the Gulf for an unknown distance, making a
rocky bottom in many places. Alternating with the hard rock are
unconsolidated beds of marl. The reddish clay that is common in
most of the regions previously described is rare here, if it occurs
at all. The greater part of the surface material is a more or less
loamy sand, a few inches to several feet deep, presumably Pleisto-
cene. :

In the drier places the limestone seems to have little or no
influence on vegetation; but the swamps, sloughs, low hammocks
and damp flatwods contain many plants that are very character-
istic, and presumably correlated with the presence of limestone.
Neither mechanical nor chemical analyses of the soils are avail-
able yet, but the following analysis of marl from a low hammock
in Wakulla County, given by Dr. Eugene A. Smith in the 6th
volume of the Tenth Census, page 205, is of some interest in this

connection:

Moisturesctiven (off, at 100" Cag sae ne eee 1.915 %
Comibitted Swat ei ee 1.159%
Cae OWi Cr aGiG yea 24.253 7%
IUiRG Ea ee Ss 30.986 %
Wi eesG) 222-3 o Soe Ssh 2 Se ae 42470
Potash --------------------~--=--------~~--------.- 372%
SOC ea 338%

15. GULF HAMMOCK REGION, 303

Sulphuric acid ------------------------------------- 331 Yo
Browi-oxiie of maigaiese ==-2--——.---------_--=_- 134%
(er Seaa i ena bya eee A CE eS ee 53490
NiltiniiG) | See 2 A ee 1.196%
Bnletiie, Silled, oS ye eee eee oe eg nanan 3.456%
WaspiiOle sina ttet aoe ee 35.5550

Total ----------+------------------------------ 100.667 %

(The percentage of lime given corresponds to about 55% of calcium car-
bonate, or limestone). .

The so-called Wakulla volcano, a column of smoke which is
said to have been visible from Tallahassee and other high points
in that neighborhood during most of the 19th century, must have
been in this region. No one ever succeeded in reaching it, and it
remains, and probably always will remain unless it becomes active
again, entirely unexplained.*

Topography and Hydrography—The whole region is less
than 100 feet above sea-level, and the surface is for the most part
level or nearly so; but there are some undulating areas with lime-
sink topography, scarcely distinguishable from the lime-sink re-
gion described farther on (no. 17). One such area, covering sev-
eral square miles at least, is in Taylor County, about half way
between Perry and the coast. As in most other parts of Florida,
shallow depressions of various sizes are very common. ‘There
are natural bridges as well as rocky shoals on several of the
creeks and rivers a few miles from their mouths, but apparently
no caves or open lime-sinks, probably because the ground-water is
too near the surface in most places.

Most of the streams have practically no valleys, the flatwoods
extending almost to their banks.; They are all sluggish, except at
the rocky rapids above mentioned, and most of thgm are coffee-col-
ored, like the majority of coastal plain streams. There are, how-
ever, several clear runs from limestone springs, which are rather
common along and near the inland edge of the region. Shallow

*Perhaps the most reliable account of this phenomenon is in Norton's
Handbook of Florida, 3d edition (1892), p. 346. There is a wood-cut of it
and some descriptive matter, rather fanciful though, in the article by Barton
D. Jones in Lippincott’s Magazine for March, 1882, p. 221 (see bibliography),
and one of the chapters in Maurice Thompson’s novel, “A Tallahassee Girl,”
is based on it.

+Where the Atlantic Coast Line R. R. crosses the Steinhatchee River on the
boundary between Taylor and Lafayette Counties the rails are not perceptibly
lower over the stream than they are a mile or two away on either side.

304 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

sloughs or drains which carry water only in wet weather are com-
mon in some portions.

Vegetation Types—The prevailing type of vegetation is open
pine woods subject to frequent fires, with a low shrubby and her-
baceous undergrowth, not very different from that of the strictly
non-caleareous flatwoods (regions 9, 16 and 19). But within a
few miles of the coast, and occasionally farther inland, the vegeta-
tion of the flatwoods, while having about the usual aspect, is quite
different in composition, including many plants which are known
or believed to prefer calcareous soils, and a few which are most
commonly found in or near brackish marshes. There is usually
nothing on the surface to indicate any reason for this floristic differ-
ence, but a chemical examination of the ground-water in such places
ought to reveal something of interest.* In the absence of any def-
inite information it is assumed that the soil in such _ places
is more calcareous than usual, and in the list below the plants char-
acteristic of such situations are assigned to “calcareous flatwoods.”
In an extreme phase of the calcareous flatwoods trees are wanting,
and such places might be called savannas or prairies.

Cypress ponds and bays similar to those already described are
frequent. Most of the streams and sloughs, of whatever size, are
bordered by low calcareous hammocks which are very characteris-
tic of this region. The coast, which is unique in having practically

10 sandy beaches, as pointed out in the Third Annual Report (pp.
222-2237), is bordered by marshes, which have been little studied
aS TVELs - 0

Plants—The following list is based on observations made on
12 different days, as follows: January, 3; March, 5; May, 1; June,
Teele 1s Seplenmber.. Ip

*

TREES
44.1 Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine Uplands
+11.7 Pinus Elliottii (Slash ipine) Ponds, etc.
—5.9 Taxodium imbricarium (Pond) cypress Ponds and bays
++4.1 Taxodium distichum Cypress Swamps and low ham-
mocks
4.1 Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine Low hammocks, etc.
+3.3 Sabal Palmetto Cabbage palmettoLow hammocks, etc.
25 Pig dane Styraciflua Sweet gum Low hammocks

¥*A eee ee of soil from — a place will Ss inserted in the
appendix if received in time,
tSee also F. P. Gulliver, Proc. Am. Acad. Arts & Sci. 24:23-235. 1890.

15. GULF HAMMOCK REGION, 305

+1.9 Pinus Caribaea? Mostly near coast
+1.7 Acer rubrum. (etc.) Maple - Swamps
—1.7 Magnolia glauca Bay Swamps, etc,
+1.4 Quercus Virginiana Live oak Hammocks, etc.
++1.3 Quercus hybrida? (Water oak) Low hammocks
++1.3 Carpinus Caroliniana {ronwood Low hammocks
+1.2 Fraxinus Caroliniana? Ash Swamps, etc.
++1.2 Ulmus Floridana Elm Low hammocks
—I.2 Quercus Catesbaei Black-jack oak Driest spots
+1.0 Quercus nigra Water oak Low hammocks, etc,
—1.0 Pinus serotina Black pine Flatwoods and bays
—o.9 Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia Hammocks
—o.7 Nyssa biflora Black gum Swamps
+o0.6 Juniperus Virginiana . Cedar Low hammocks
++0.6 Gleditschia triacanthos? (Honey) locust Sloughs, etc.
+-+0.5 Crataegus sp. Haw Low hammocks
++0.5 Crataegus viridis Haw Sloughs, etc.
+o.5 Taxodium sp.* Cypress Sloughs, etc.
+0.3 Persea Borbonia Red bay Low hammocks
+0.3 Morus rubra Mu!berry Low hammocks
—o.3 Quercus cinerea Turkey oak Driest spots
0.3 Ilex opaca Holly Hammocks
++0.3 Crataegus Crus-Galli? Haw Calcareous flatwoods
0-3 Quercus Michauxii (Swamp chest-
nut oak) Low hammocks
—o.2 Celtis occidentalis? _ Hackberry Low hammocks
+o0.2 Cercis Canadensis Redbud Hammocks
—o.2 Quercus falcata Red oak Richer |
-——0.1 Hicoria alba? Hickory Richer. soils
0.1 Fraxinus sp. Ash Sloughs, etc.
—o.1 Cornus florida Dogwood Richer soils
—o.I Quercus laurifolia Oak Hammocks
0.1 Tilia pubescens (Lin) Low hammocks
—0.I Quercus ste'lata ‘Post oak Richer soi!s
0.1 Quercus Schneckii? (Red oak) Low hammocks
+o.1 Ulmus alata Elm Hammocks
—o.1 Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine Richer soils
0.1 Hicoria sp. Hickory Hammocks

SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS

+-+.51 Myrica cerifera Myrtle Hammocks
++.18 Salix longipes? Willow Ponds, sloughs, etc.
+.07 Cyrilla parvifolia Tyty Bays 7
.04 Diospyros Virginiana (X) Persimmon O'd fields, etc.
.04 Cyrilla racemiflora Tyty Swamps
+.03 Chionanthus. Virginica Graybeard Hammocks
.o2 Batodendron arboreum Sparkleberry Hammocks
.o1 Quercus geminata Live oak Poorest soils

*Apparent'y an intermediate form or connecting link between T.
distichum and T. imbricarium,

306

+.01 Crataegus apiifolia Haw Low hammocks
.or Ilex Cassine Low hammocks
ol Cholisma ferruginea Hammocks
.ol Osmanthus Americana Hammocks
oI Ilex decidua Sloughs, etc
WOODY VINES
+.008 Rhus radicans Poison ivy Low hammocks, etc.
++.007 Berchemia scandens Rattan vine . Low hammocks, etc.
+.005 Decumaria barbara Low hammocks
+.004 Parthenocissus
quinquefolia Virginia creeper Low hammocks
.002 Smilax laurifolia Bamboo vine Bays, etc.
+.002 Ampe!opsis arborea Low hammocks, ete.
.002 Vitis aestivalis Wild grape Hammocks, etc.
002 Bignonia crucigera Cross-vine Low hammocks
.002 Tecoma radicans (Cow-itch) Sloughs
oot Smilax Wa!teri Swamps
.0O1 Vitis rotundifolia Bullace or mus-
cadine Hammocks, ete.
SHRUBS
+.075 Serenoa serrulata Saw-palmetto Flatwoods
+.023 Ilex glabra Gallberry Flatwoods
+.013 Cepha!anthus occidentalis Elbow-bush Ponds and sloughs
+.012 Quercus minima Oak-runner Flatwoods
+-+.011 Viburnum obovatum Low hammocks
+-+.009 Cornus stricta?* Sloughs, etc.
+.008 Stillingia aquatica Ponds
.008 Myrica pumila Myrtle Flatwoods
+.007 Crookea microsepala Flatwoods
+.006 Sabal glabra* Palmetto Low hammocks, etc.
.005 Hypericum myrtifoliurm Around ponds, etc.
.004 Ilex vomitoria Hammocks
.004 Vaccinium nitidum (Huckleberry) Flatwoods
.004 Aesculus Pavia Buckeye Richer soils
+.004 Iva frutescens Near coast
.003 Pieris nitida (Hurrah bush) Bays, etc.
+.003 Rosa Carolina Wild rose Sloughs, etc.
+.003 Amorpha fruticosa Low hammocks, etc.
.003 Hypericum fasciculatum Around bays, etc,
+.003 Baccharis angustifolia Near coast
.002 Cholisma fruticosa Flatwoods
.002 Itea ‘Virginica Swamps, etc.

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Drier flatwoods
Sterile sands
Low hammocks
Swamps, ete.
Richer soils

.002 Quercus pumila Oak runner
.002 Quercus myrtifolia
+-+.002 Sageretia minutiflora
+.002 Styrax Americana

.002 Rhus copallina Sumac

*Probably including also C. asperifolia, which I did not always distinguish
in the field.

15. GULF

Sebastiana ligustrina

Chrysobalanus oblongifolius

Aronia arbutifolia

Hypericum galioides
pallidum

Vaccinium virgatum?

Kalmia hirsuta
Gaylussacia dumosa

(and about 15 others).

Aristida stricta

4 Tillandsia usneoides -

Cladium effusum
Chondrophora nudata

Mesosphaerum radiatum

Pterocaulon undulatum

Pluchea bifrons

Chamaecrista fasciculata

Dichromena colorata

Chrysopsis graminifolia

Atamosco Atamasco
Pteridium aquilinum
Muhlenbergia filipes
Juncus Roemerianus

Saururus cernuus

Rhynchospora miliacea

Rudbeckia foliosa
Kuhnistera pinnata

Eupatorium

compositifolium (X)

Tubiflora Carolinensis
Helianthus Radula
Chaetoch!oa imberbis
Lippia sp.

Iris versicolor
Tillandsia tenuifolia
Salvia lyrata
Ambrosia sp.

Trilisa paniculata
Centella repanda
Dryopteris mollis?
Helenium autumnale
Chaptalia tomentosa
Mikania scandens?
Laciniaria spicata

Huckleberry
Rhapidophyllum Hystrix (Needle palm)

HERBS

Wire-grass
Spanish moss

Saw-grass

(Black-root)

(Partridge pea)

(A sedge)
(A fern)

(A grass)

(A sedge)

(Summer

farewell)

Dog-fennel

(A grass)

Air-plant

‘Ragweed)

(A fern)

HAMMOCK REGION, 307

Low hammocks
High pine land
Around bays, etc.

Swamps

Around bays, etc.
Low hammocks
Flatwoods

High pine land

Pine lands

On trees

Marshes, ponds, ete.

Flatwoods

Calcareous flatwoods,
etc.

Flatwoods

Flatwoods, etc.

Drier flatwoods

Calcareous flatwoods

Flatwoods

Ca!careous flatwoods

Flatwoods

Savannas, etc.

Brackish marshes and
calcareous flatwoods

Swamps, low ham-
mocks, etc.

Low hammocks

Calcareous flatwoods

High pine land

Roadsides, etc.

Low hammocks
Flatwoods

Savannas, etc.
Calcareous flatwoods
Shallow s!oughs, ets.
Swamps, etc.
Hammocks
Ca'tcareous flatwoods
Flatwoods

Flatwoods, etc.

Low hammocks, etc.
Calcareous flatwoods
Low pine land

Edges of marshes, etc-
Flatwoods

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Helenium tenuifolium (X) Bitter-weed
Sagittaria lancifolia
Afzelia cassioides
Stillingia sylvatica
Aster adnatus

Lythrum lanceolatum?
Eupatorium mikanioides

Monniera acuminata
Petalostemon albidus
Aristida spiciformis
Carex styloflexa?
Euthamia Caroliniana
Polypodium polypodioides (A fern)

(A grass)
(A sedge)

Pinguicula pumila

Sericocarpus bifoliatus
Elephantopus elatus?

Flaveria jsp.

Cenchrus tribuloides (X) Sand spur
Eupatorium aromaticum
Syngonanthus flavidulus
Viola lanceolata?

Vicia acutifolia
Ludwigia lanceolata?

White violet

Sporobolus gracilis (A grass)
Xyris Elliottii?

Uniola nitida (A grass)
Cyperus articulatus (A sedge)
Laciniaria tenuifolia

Gerardia sp.

Elionurus tripsacoides (A grass)
Spartina Bakeri (A grass)

Baldwinia uniflora
Berlandiera tomentosa
Epidendrum conopseum (An orchid)
Chrysopsis aspera
Juncus megacephalus
Hibiscus incanus
Ipomoea sagittifolia

Typha latifolia Cat-tail
Nama corymbosa

Dryopteris Floridana (A fern)
Panicum virgatum (A grass)

Buchnera elongata
(and about 150 others).

Morning-giory

Roadsides, etc.
Marshes, etc.
Flatwoods

(Queen’s delight)Drier flatwoods

Flatwoods
Calcareous flatwoods
Calcareous flatwoods
etc.
Caleareous flatwoods
Drier flatwoods
Sour flatwoods
Low hammocks
Around ponds, etc,
On trees in hammocks
etc.
Low flatwoods
Drier flatwoods
Flatwoods
Calcareous flatwoods
Along railroads, etc.
High pine land
Around bays, etc.
Margins of ponds
Low hammocks
Ponds,.ctc:
High pine land
Around ponds
Low hammocks
S'oughs, etc.
High pine land
Flatwoods
Calcareous flatwoods
Savannas, etc,
Flatwoods
High pine land
On. trees in hammocks
Drier flatwoods
Calcareous flatwoods
Around marshes, etc.
Near coast
Marshes
Low calcareous ‘flat-
woods
Low hammocks
Savannas, etc.
Calcareous flatwoods

Although there are more species of trees and shrubs in this region than in
some of the others, quite a number which are common not far away are

decidedly rare here, if they occur at all.

Among such are Pinus echinata

(short-leaf pine), P. glabra (spruce pine), Hicoria (hickories), Salix nigra

OO

I5. GULF HAMMOCK REGION, 309

(willow), Ostrya, Betula (birch), Fagus (beech), several of the oaks, Lirioden-
dron (poplar), Prunus (plums and cherries), Gordonia, Cornus florida (dog-
wood), Oxydendrum (sourwood), and Cliftonia (tyty). Most of these grow
best in drier and more clayey soils than the average of the Gulf hammock
region, but the absence of the last-named (and a few others) is probably best
explained by its aversion to lime. The genus Crutaegus (haws) seems to
make up a larger proportion of the forests here than in most other parts of
Florida (between I and 2%), which accords with the common belief that
these little trees are partial to limestone regions.

Most of the species which are more abundant here than elsewhere in
northern Florida grow in low hammocks and calcareous flatwoods. Some of
them are rather rare plants. For example, the Ambrosia which stands
27th in the list of herbs is known on!ly in calcareous flatwoods within
a few miles of St. Mark’s, and in a similar place near the southeastern
corner of Georgia (where it was found by the writer in 1902, in company
with Lippia, Elionurus, and a few other species included in the above list).
Some species too scarce to be listed here are probably sti!l more limited
in distribution. Very few weeds are abundant enough in this region to
be included among the first 200 species, a natural consequence of the
sparse population.

The percentage of evergreens is about 74.3, which is a little above the
average for northern Florida. The fact that this distinctly ca!careous re-
gion has decidedly more evergreens than regions 4, 5, 11 and 13, where
limestone is not much in evidence, seems to indicate once more that there
is no close relation between calcium (or limestone) and evergreens. Lime-
stone probably has some effect on the Ericaceae (heath fami-y) though,
for only 6.8% of the shrubs are of that family, and practically none of
these grow in calcareous flatwoods and low hammocks, The percentage of
Leguminosae among the herbs seems to be 5.8, which is also below the
average; the explanation probably being that few leguminous plants thrive
in damp soils.

Economic Features—Agriculture is not yet very extensively
developed here. In 1910 less than 5% of the area was cultivated,
and there were only about 7 inhabitants to the square mile—an in-
crease of 35% since 1900. (Most of this increase was in Taylor
County, which acquired several new railroads during the decade).
About 60% of the population is white.

_ Lumbering and turpentining of the long-leaf and slash pines
are flourishing industries, and considerable cedar is cut for pencil-
wood near the coast. Large numbers of cattle graze in the pine
woods all the year round, producing beef at very little expense to
their owners. |

The principal crops, judging from the returns from Taylor
County in the State census of 1905 (no crop statistics having been
received from the county in 1912), seem to be as follows: Corn,
sea-island cotton, peanuts, sugar-cane, sweet potatoes, Oats, velvet
beans, upland cotton.

310 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

16. MIDDLE FLORIDA FLATWOODS.

References. Gillmore (975, 1005), Harper 1 (221), Harper 4 (222-224),
Sellards 3 (204 or 48), and U. S. soil survey of Jeffegson County (by Jones,
Tharp & Belden, 1908). Jllustrated in 3d Ann, Rep., pl. 23.2.

The above designation is applied to two disconnected areas
parallel to the Gulf Coast and about 20 miles from it: one in Middle
Florida and one in East Florida. In the Third Annual Report they
were not separated from what is here called the Apalachicola flat-
woods (region 9), but their different geographical location entitles
them to separate treatment, and some differences in vegetation are
discernible. There are about 1,000 square miles of this kind of
country in the area under consideration, and a few hundred ad-
ditional in Levy County. It has no counterpart in any other region.
The greater part of the portion west of the Suwannee River is
known as San Pedro Bay (a name which appears on few maps).

Geology and Soils—This region is presumably underlaid by the
Oligocene limestones which characterize the country on both sides
of it, but no outcrops are known, and the limestone has little ef-
fect on soil or topography. There are a few spots where the vege-
tation seems to indicate thatthere is marl within reach of the roots
of trees, but the prevailing soil is mostly fine sand, mixed with more
or less vegetable matter, well supplied with water, and probably
underlaid by hardpan in many places.

In that part of the region lying in Jefferson Connie most of
the soil is mapped in the government report above cited as “Ports-
mouth fine sand.” The following mechanical analyses of a soil, sub-
soil, and lower subsoil (depths not indicated) are taken from that
report. The soil is described as ‘“‘a black fine sand with a depth of 6
or 8 inches,” with a. subsoil of “gray sand changing to reddish
brown at about 24 inches below the surface.’ The dark color of
the surface soil is said to be due entirely to vegetable matter; and
the dark material which cements the lower subsoil into “hardpan”
seems to be also mostly vegetable, with a small amount of iron com-
pounds. This soil is said to be entirely uncultivated, except on its
edges where it merges into the “Norfolk fine sand.”

16. MIDDLE FLORIDA FLATWOODs. 311

MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF “PortsMOUTH FINE SAND,” JEFFERSON COUNTY.

Soil. Subsoil. Lower subsoil.

Pine. esravel-(2-timm:)) woos- 4 0.9 0.6 0.4
Goarse sandsGi— symm: )) -2- = sae = = 3.4 4.6 4.8
Medium sand (.5-.25 mm.). -----=-_.--- 6.8 7A 7.3
Fine sand (25-0-mm,)~-—----——-2---_- 35.4 36.1 33.9
Very fine sand (.1-.05 mm.) ------------ 41.5 46.5 47.0
Sie eine cg) ea 6.6 3.8 3.0
Glay/4(Uo0S-O;smnily)\) ieee od ae ect 5.2 1.6 26

Aa VRS Se ee oS 99.8 100.6 99.0

The distribution of “‘silt’”? and “clay” in the soil and subsoil
seems to indicate that these materials are mostly vegetable matter
rather than true silt and clay. This analysis differs somewhat from
those of the soil similarly named in the East Florida flatwoods
(quoted farther on), but just what the differences indicate is not
clear.

Topography and Hydrography—The surface is level or nearly
so, and dotted with many very shallow depressions which are per-
manently wet and contain peat, indicating that the ground-water is
near the surface and fluctuates very little. San Pedro Bay is said
by Gillmore to be 85 feet above sea-level, and perceptibly higher
than the country around it. As in other flatwoods regions, there are
many sluggish creeks and branches with coffee-colored water.

Vegetawion Types—The prevailing vegetation on the drier areas
is open forests of long-leaf pine and a few other trees, bearing marks
of fire as usual. In the depressions there is much pond cypress,
sometimes in almost pure stands (cypress ponds), but more com-
monly mixed with evergreen vines and bushes (bays). The streams
are bordered by swamps of the non-alluvial type.

Plants—The following list is based on observations made on
three days in January and one each in March, May and July, and
does not pretend to be at all complete. Percentage figures are there-
fore omitted.

TREES
— Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine Drier soils
++ Taxodium imbricarium (Pond) cypress Bays and ponds
+ Pinus Elliottii (Slash pine) Bays and ponds
++ Pinus serotina (Black ‘pine) Low pine land
— Quercus cinerea Turkey oak High pine land
— Magnolia glauca em SE, Swamps
+ Acer rubrum Maple Swamps

— Nyssa biflora Black gum Swamps

312 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

+ Gordonia Lasianthus (Red bay) Bays and swamps
Taxodium distichum Cypress Marly (?) swamps

— Liquidambar Styraciflua Sweet gum Richer soils

— Quercus Catesbaei Black-jack oak Driest spots

—- Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine Richer soils

— Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia Hammocks

— Quercus nigra Water oak Richer soils

(and a few others seen only once).

SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS

+-+ Cyrilla parvifolia Tyty Bays
+ Cliftonia moncphylla Tyty Bays
+ Myrica cerifera Myrtle Hammocks, etc.
+ Ilex myrtifolia Yaupon Bays and ponds
Tlex Cassine Swamps
WOODY VINES
++ Smilax laurifolia Bamboo vine Bays, etc.
++ Pieris phillyreifolia Bays and ponds
Smilax Walteri Bays and swamps
Berchemia scandens Rattan vine Low hammocks
SHRUBS
+ Serenoa serrulata Saw palmetto Flatwoods
+-+ Pieris nitida (Hurrah bush) Bays, ete.
+ Ilex glabra Gallberry Flatwoods
-+-+ Crookea microsepala Flatwoods
+ Hypericum fasciculatum Around ponds, ete.
+ Myrica pumila Myrtle Flatwoods
Quercus pumila Oak runner Flatwoods
+ Aronia arbutifolia Around bays
Itea Virginica Bays and swamps
+ Clethra alnifolia Around bays
+ Leucothoe racemosa Bays
Quercus minima Oak runner Flatwoods
Phoradendron flavescens Mistletoe On trees
Cholisma fruticosa Flatwoods
+ Tlex coriacea Swamps
+ Kalmia hirsuta Flatwoods
(and about 10 others).
HERBS
++ Anchistea Virginica (A fern) Bays and ponds
+ Tillandsia usneoides Spanish moss On trees
++ Pontederia cordata Ponds
++ Polygala cymosa Ponds
— Aristida stricta Wire-grags Pine lands
Pteridium aquilinum (A fern) Pine lands
Pterocau!on undulatum (Black-root) Flatwoods
-+ Cladium effusum Saw grass Ponds, ete.
Sagittaria lancifolia Ponds

+ Eriocaulon decangulare Bays, ete.

LO. MIDDLE FLORIDA FLATWOODS, a's

Trilisa odoratissima Deer-tongue flatwoods
Chryscpsis graminifolia Flatwvods
+ Sarracenia psittacina Pitcher-plant Around bays
+ Bartonia verna Flatwoods
+ Panicum hemitomon Maiden-cane Ponds
Osmunda cinnamomea (A fern) ; Around bays, ete.
+ Xyris fimbriata Ponds
+ Eriocaulon compressum Ponds
+ Cuscuta compacta Love-vine 2 On bushes in swamps
+ Syngonanthus flavidulus Around bays
+ Lycopodium alopecuroides Around bays
Helianthus Radula Flatwoods
— Eupatorium compositifolium
(X) Dog-fennel Roadsides, ete.
Mesosphaerum radiatum Marly (?) places
+ Castalia odorata Water-lily Ponds
++ Polygala Rugelii Flatwoods
+ Eupatorium rotundifolium Flatwuods

(and about 4o others).

Most of the species of trees indigenous to northern Florida, especially those
preferring rich soils, are wanting here. None of the species listed are very rare,
but Cyrilla parvifolia, Crookea, and Polygala Rugelii are confined to Florida, or
nearly so. About 69% of the trees, and a still larger proportion of the small
trees, shrubs and vines, are evergreen. The percentage of Ericaceae among the
shrubs is 18.4, which is above the average. No leguminous plants have been
noticed, but they cannot be entirely wanting. The figures for evergreens,
Ericaceae and Leguminosae are all pretty close to the corresponding ones for
the Apalachicola flatwoods, and indicate acid soils deficient in potassium if not
in other minerals, Weeds are scarce, for obvious reasons.

Economic Features—As this region does not cover as much
as half of any one county, it is difficult to make an accurate estimate
of its population, etc. But it is evidently very sparsely settled, and
probably not more than 3% of the area is under cultivation at
present. Lumbering, turpentining and grazing are the leading in-
dustries. The abundant cypress will doubtless be a source of wealth
some time. .

Many regions with prevailingly acid soils are particularly rich
in honey-yielding plants, and that is the case here. The two most
abundant small trees and the saw-palmetto and gallberry are noted
honey plants, and many less common species are frequented by
bees. The 9,274 pounds of honey reported from Madison, Taylor
and Lafayette Counties by the State census of 1905 (and 14,525
pounds by the government census of 1910) probably came mostly
from San Pedro Bay and vicinity; and this industry is doubtless
capable of much greater development. This is therefore a land of
honey, if not of “milk and honey.”

314 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

17. PENINSULAR LIME-SINK REGION.
(FIGURES 82, 83)

References. Harper 1 (221), Matson & Sanford (359-361, 408-412), Sellards,
3d Ann, Rep. 21-32, Sellards 2 (29), Sellards 3 (294-295 or 48-49), and U. S. soil
survey of the “Gainesville area” (by Rice & Geib, 1905). Illustrated in 2nd
Nia, IRs NG Abi, hie ida polly Sha

This well-marked*region extends from a few miles north of
the Georgia line southward through the western half of the penin-
sula to Pasco County at least. About 2,000 square miles of it are
included in the arbitrary limits of this report. It bears some re-
semblance to the West Florida lime-sink region (no. 2), and still
more to the Bellair sand region (no. 12), but differs perceptibly
from both in its vegetation.

Geology and Soils—The bed-rock here is the Vicksburg lime-
stone, which is overlaid in many places by formations of later age,
particularly the hard-rock phosphate beds (Alachua or Dunnellon
formation), and nearly everywhere by several feet of pale loamy
sand. The rock protrudes through the sand in many places, as
in regions 12 and 15. Clay often lies between the rock and sand,
especially northward, but exposures of it are rare, and consequently
its areal extent is not definitely known. All the hard-rock phosphate
mined in Florida comes from this region, and the soil probably con-
tains more phosphorus than the average, though no analyses of it
are available at this writing.* :

The salamander seems to be more abundant in this region than
anywhere else, and its hills, a foot or more in diameter and a few
inches high, are nearly always in sight in the drier soils, particular-
ly in early spring just after the woods are burned over. Ants,
gophers, and no doubt several other subterranean animals are com-
mon, and influence the soil in much the same way that the salaman-
der does.

Topography and’ Hydrography—This region has a character-
istic solution, or karst, topography (though possibly influenced some
by the wind, as suggested elsewhere), with a profusion of low hills
and basin-like depressions, the smallest of which are nearly circular.

*In that part of the lime-sink region included in the “Gainesville area” the
soil is nearly all classed as “Norfolk sand” in the government soil survey above
cited, But the two mechanical analyses of it given there both represent samples
from the hammock belt (no. 10), so that it would not be proper to quote them
here.

i,

17. PENINSULAR LIME-SINK REGION, 315

The highest elevations are about 200 feet above sea-level. In the
most hilly portions there may be differences of elevation of 50 feet
in half a mile; but there seem to be no steep slopes except on the
immediate banks of rivers and sinks. At the other extreme the
country may be nearly flat. Some of the depressions contain per-
manent water and some are dry most of the time. There are a
few open sinks, caves, and natural bridges, formed by solution in the
usual manner. The best known natural bridge is probably that of
the Santa Fe River.

Streams are decidedly scarce, and most of those which do occur
are rivers which rise in other regions and flow through this one
without receiving any tributaries except a few short spring runs.
Consequently swamps are likewise scarce. There are whole town-
ships without any running water, and many square miles without
any surface water at all. The rain-water sinks into the sand almost
immediately, and gradually finds its way into subterranean chan-
nels in the porous limestone. Large limestone springs are fairly
common, and some of them are health and pleasure resorts.

In the more elevated areas the ground-water lies so deep that
it can be raised to the surface only by buckets or force-pumps. For
this reason, and also because of its hardness, many houses in the
rural districts have cisterns instead of wells. Practically all the
towns have artesian wells.

Vegetation Types—At least nine-tenths of the area was orig-
inally covered with park-like open forests of large long-leaf pines,
with a “lower story” of black-jack and turkey oaks in many places.
The limestone outcrops are too small and often also too silicified to
have any perceptible effect on vegetation, except where they are
close to streams or sinks and thus protected from fire. There is
hammock vegetation along some of the streams and around some of
the deeper sinks, where the fires which periodically sweep the pine
forests can approach from only one side. Swamps are chiefly con-
fined to the banks of the Suwannee River, and are not very exten-
sive even there. The ponds are nearly all treeless, probably be-
cause the water-level fluctuates too much, as is the case with some
of the ponds in region 12.

Planis—The following list is based on observations made on
22 different days, distributed through the year as follows: January,
4; February, 5; March, 2; April, 6; May, 1; July, 1; August, 1;
December, 2. No doubt some fall-blooming plants have been over-
looked, but otherwise the list ought to be reasonably accurate.

20

316

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

++73.8 Pinus palustris
+ 6.7 Quercus Catesbaei
++ 5.5 Quercus cinerea

2.6 Liquidambar Styraciflua

1.5
0.9
0.7

0.5 Taxodium imbricarium

0-5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.2

+ 0.2

0.2

+ 0.2

++++ +

|

0.2
0.2
0.1
O.t
0.1
O.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
O.T

04

03
.02
02
.OI
OL
OI
.O1
.O1
OI
.O1
.O1
OI

Quercus falcata
Pinus Taeda
Quercus Virginiana

Taxodium distichum
Quercus laurifolia
Quercus geminata
Cornus florida
Juniperus Virginiana
Magnolia grandiflora
Pinus Elliottii
Hicoria alba
Planera aquatica
Salix nigra?
Quercus Margaretta
Fraxinus Caroliniana
Betula nigra

Acer rubrum
Gieditschia xquatica?
Ulmus Floridana
Ilex opaca

Pinus glabra
Quercus nigra
Cercis Canadensis
Crataegus viridis
Sabal Palmetto

Acer rubrum tridens?

Persea Borbonia

Quercus lyrata

Quercus hybrida?
(and 14 others).

TREES
Long-leaf pine
Black-jack oak
Turkey oak
Sweet gum
Red oak
Short-leaf pine
Live oak
Pond cypress
Cypress

Live oak
Dogwood
Cedar
Magnolia
(Slash pine)
Hickory

Willow

Post oak
Ash

Birch

Maple

Honey locust
Elm

Holly

Spruce pine
Water oak
Redbud

Haw
Cabbage palmetto
Maple

Red bay

(Swamp post oak)

Always in sight
Uplands

Uplands
Hammocks, etc.
Richer soils

Along Suwannee R.
Hammocks, etc.
Shal‘ow ponds
Swamps
Hammocks
Upiands
Hammocks, ete.
Along Suwannee R.
Hammocks

Shallow ponds, etc.
Richer soils

Along Suwannee R.
River-banks, ete.
Uplands

Swamps

Along Suwannee R.
Swamps

Along Suwannee R.
Swamps
Hammocks

Along Suwannee R.
Low grounds
Richer soils

Along Suwannee R.
Along Suwannee R.
Along Suwannee R,
Hammocks

Along Suwannee R.

Low hammocks

SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS

Diospyros Virginiana
(X?)

Crataegus aestivalis

Ilex myrtifolia

Adelia acuminata

Crataegus Michauxii

Prunus angustifolia (X)

Myrica cerifera
Cyrilla racemiflora

Batodendron arboreum
Chionanthus Virginica
Sassafras variifolium (X)

Prunus umbe'lata?
Crataegus apiifolia

Persimmon
May haw
Yaupon

Haw

Wild plum
Myrtle

Tyty
Snarkleberry
Graybeard
Sassafras
Hoge plum
Haw

Up!ands

Ponds and swamps
Shallow ponds, ete.
Along Suwannee R.
Uplands

Old fields
Hammocks
Swamps
Hammoci:s
Hammocks

Old fields
Hammocks, etc.
Along Suwanee R.

.OOT

.OOT
.OOI

+-+.018
Og
+-+.006

++.004
- 003
++.003
Tot O2
+-+.002
-t-O08
+-+.001
+.001
+-+.001

-+---.001
+-+.o01

i

PENINSULAR LIME-SINK REGION.

WOODY VINES

Parthenocissus
quinquefolia
Berchemia scandens
Ampelopsis arborea
Wistaria frutescens
Vitis rotundifolia

Vitis aestivalis

Serenoa serrulata
Myrica pumila
Rhus copallina
Castanea alnifolia
Asimina speciosa
Quercus pumila
Chrysobalanus
oblongifolius
Ceratiola ericoides

Virginia creeper
Rattan vine

Wisteria
Bullace or Muscadine
Wild grape

SHRUBS

Saw palmetto
Myrtle

Sumac
Chinquapin
Pawpaw

Oak runner

Rosemary

Cephalanthus occidentalis E‘bow-bush

Asimina angustifolia
Rhus Toxicodendron
Pieris nitida

Cornus stricta?
Viburnum obovatum
Polycodium sp.

Phoradendron flavescens

@;. .
Aralia spinosa
Asimina parviflora

Pawpaw
Poison oak
(Hurrah bush)

Gooseberry
Mistletoe
Prickly ash
Pawpaw

Ceanothus microphyllus

Itea Virginica

Rubus cuneifolius (X)

Amorpha fruticosa

Blackberry

(and to or 12 others).

Aristida stricta
Kuhnistera pinnata
Eupatorium

compositifolium (X?)

Pteridium aquilinum
Tillandsia usneoides

HERBS

Wire-grass
Summer farewell

Dog-fennel
(A fern)
Spanish moss

Eriogonum tomentosum

Chamaecrista fasciculata

Psoraltea canescens

Partridge-pea

™

Eupatorium aromaticum

Andropogon Virginicus
Pterocau'on undulatum

Zamia integrifolia

Broom-sedge
B!ack-root
Coontie

Carphephorus corymbosus
Crotonopsis spinosa (X?)

317

Hammocks, ete.
Swamps

Edges of swamps
Along Suwannee R.
Hammocks, etc.
Hammocks

Pine lands

Pine lands
Various situations
High pine land
High pine land
High pine land

High pine land
‘Poorest soi!s
Ponds and swamps
High pine lanu
Pigh pine land
Around ponds
Swamps

Swamps

Sandy hammocks, ete.
On trees

Low hammocks
Hammocks

High pine land
Swamps

Roadsides, et:.
Along Suwannee R.

High pine land
High pine lanl

High pine lad
High pine land’
Cr trees
High pine land
Hich pine land
High pine land
High pine land
High pine land
Pine lands
High pine land,
Alachua Co.
High pine land
Roadsides, etc.

etc:

2

3 ite) FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

+.001 Croton argyranthemus High pine land
+.001 Sporobolus gracilis (A grass) lligh pine land
+-+.001 Actinospermum
angustifolium High pine land
oh Andropogon scoparius
(X?) Broom-sedge Old fields
AF Lespedeza hirta High pine land
Helenium tenuifolium (X) Bitter-weed Roadsides, etc,
Acanthospermum australe (X) Roadsides, etc.
=iRae Lygodesmia aphylla High pine land
Rumex hastatulus (X) (Sorrel) Fields
Stillingia sylvatica (Queen’s delight) High pine land
Amsonia ciliata High pine land
Glottidium vesicarium (X) Waste places
staat Berlandiera subacaulis High pine land
+ Vernonia angustifolia High pine land
lean Piriqueta Caroliniana High pine land
Heteropogon
melanocarpus (X) (A grass) Old fields
Cnidoscolus stimulosus Nettle High pine land
Baptisia LeContei? High pine land
=--F Silphium compositum High pine land
Erigeron ramosus (X) Old fields, etc.
Euthamia Caroliniana (X ?) Around ponds, ete.
Chrysopsis aspera? High pine land
Dolicholus simplicifolius (Dollar-weed) High pine land
as Opuntia vulgaris Prickly pear High pine land
=e Hymenopappus °
Carolinensis (X) Old fields, ete.
+ Indigofera Caroliniana High pine land
= Eupatorium album High pine land
Leptilon Canadense (X) Fields, etc.
ata Dactyloctenium
Aegyptium (X) Crowfoot grass Cultivated fields
Cassia, Dora - CO) Coffee-weed Waste places
Sericocarpus bifoliatus High pine land
=e Calophanes oblongifolia High pine land
iF Scutellaria multiglandulosa High pine land
Scleria glabra (A sedge) High. pine land
Stenophyllus Warei (A sedge) High pine land

(and about 75 others).

Most trees which prefer damp soils or clayey soils are scarce or absent in
this region. Small trees, shrubs and vines are relatively scarce, too, doubtless
because most such plants cannot stand much fire, and areas sufficiently protected
from fire for them to flourish (such as swamps) are very limited. The most
abundant shrub, the saw-palmetto, is less abundant here than it is in most other
parts of Florida. The first seven shrubs and some of the others have thick under-
ground stems which quickly send up new shoots after a fire, while the eighth,
which is very sensitive to fire, grows only in the poorest soils, where the vege-
tation is too sparse to carry flames readily. (See fig. 82.) Most of the

17. PENINSULAR LIME-SINK REGION, 319

herbs grow in the dry long-leaf pine forests, and quite a number of them
are more abundant here than in any other region previously described.

About 79.3% of the trees are evergreen, only 2.3% of the shrubs are
Ericaceae, and over 20% of the herbs are Leguminosae. The figure for ever-
green trees is mostly made up by one species, the long-leaf pine, which prefers
richer soils than some other evergreens, and the proportion of evergreens among
the shrubs and herbs is perceptibly lower. The very low figure for Ericaceae
is partially explained by the scarcity of low pine land, sour bays, non-alluvial
swamps, etc., but not wholly, for Gaylussacia dumosa, the commonest Ericaceous
shrub in the somewhat similar Bellair sand region, has not been observed in the
lime-sink region at all. It is possible that the soil is a little too limy for these
plants, as was suggested in the case of the Gulf hammock region. The percent-
age of Leguminosae is among the highest, and is doubtless correlated with the
prevalence of fire and consequent scarcity of humus, as well as the dry and
somewhat calcareous nature of the soil.

| Economic Features—Although the prevailing dry sandy soil

might look very unpromising, to a person unaccustomed to such
soils, it is capable of producing excellent crops. In 1910 about 22%
of the area was improved land (a pretty high figure for Florida),
and there were about 24 inhabitants to the square mile, an increase
of 12% in ten years. White people are slightly in the ma-
jority. Probably the chief drawback to residence in this region 1s
the scarcity of water, but that same condition also makes mosquitoes
scarce, which is no small compensation.

‘Some of the largest sawmills in the State have operated here,
turning out a vast amount of long-leaf pine lumber, and the supply
is far from being exhausted yet. Turpentining is of course also an
important industry. Around the phosphate mines, particularly in
Alachua County, the pine has been cut out pretty thoroughly for
fuel for drying the phosphate rock, leaving most desolate landscapes
(see fig. 83). But thickets of young pines are springing up in many
places, (there seemed to be more of them in 1914 than in 1909), and
if more conservative methods of drying the rock are adopted soon,
or even if the present depression in the phosphate export trade con-
tinues long enough, the forests may have a good chance to restore
themselves. }

The only county which is mostly in this region is Suwannee,
and no crop returns were received from that by the State agricul-
tural department in 1912. But according to the State census of 1905
its leading crops, in order of value, were as follows: Sea-island
cotton, corn, peanuts, sugar-cane, sweet potatoes, field peas, (grass)
hay, oats, velvet beans, pecans, peaches, and watermelons.

320 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

3. PENINSULAR LAKE, REGION.
(FIGURE 84)

References. Harper 1 (223-224), Harper 7 (359), Matson & Sanford (391-
393), Sellards, 2nd Ann. Rep. 242-243, Sellards 2 (12, 30-31), Sellards 3 (295-206,
or 49-50), Sellards & Gunter 2 (93-94, 153), Smith 2 (232, 233). Illustrated in
3d Ann. Rep., pl. 12.1; 4th, pl. 10.1; 5th, pl. 11.1.

This region is distinctly peculiar to Florida, with no counter-
part elsewhere. It extends from the vicinity of Lake Kingsley in
Clay County southward down the axis of the peninsula for some 200
miles. This report considers only that part included in Clay and
Putnam Counties, about 500 square miles,

Geology and Soils—Rock outcrops are very rare, and chiefly
confined to the vicinity of large springs, none of which are known in
the portion of the lake region under consideration; consequently no
cefinite statement can be made about the Tertiary geology. The
lowest stratum exposed in railroad cuts and other excavations is a
pale, more or less mottled clay, which is usually rather sandy, but in
soine places is pure enough to be mined for kaolin. On the uplands
the surface is everywhere several feet of more or less loamy sand,
about like that of the lime-sink region just described. (Neither
mechanical nor chemical analyses of it are available at this writing.)
Its prevailing color is cream or pale buff, but in the areas known as
scrub (described further under the head of vegetation) it is usually
aimost snow-white, on the surface at least. In many depressions
several feet of peat overlies the sand.

Salamanders, gophers, and other burrowing animals are almost
as common here as in the lime-sink region, but they seem to avoid
the white sand of the scrub.

Topography and Hydrography—The prevailing topography is
quch like that of the lime-sink region, with rounded hills and basins
and few streams or valleys, but on a somewhat larger scale. Some
of the basins may be as much as 100 feet deep (i. e., if filled with
water to overflowing the water would have that depth). It is
said that Lake Kingsley averages 60 feet deep, and has some
places in it considerably deeper. In the vicinity of the Ocklawaha
and St. Johns Rivers there are wide stretches of flatwoods scarce-
ly distinguishable from the East Florida flatwoods (described next),
with which they are indeed connected. The rolling topography of
the uplands is not so evidently the result of solution as is that of the
Iime-sink region, and no satisfactory explanation of it has yet been

18. PENINSULAR LAKE REGION. 321

offered. Lime-sinks, caves and natural bridges are unknown, and
springs rare. ;

The ground-water level is generally nearer the surface and
more constant here than in the lime-sink region. Nearly all the de-
pressions contain beautiful lakes, averaging at least one to the
square mile, and ranging in size from an acre to several square
niles. Lakes only a short distance apart sometimes differ consider-
ably in elevation, showing that the ground-water surface is irregu-
lar, probably conforming approximately with that of the clay sub-
stratum. Some of the smallest lakes have become filled with peat,
and some of the larger ones show plainly the effects of wave action
on their shores. Some of the lakes have remarkably clear water, but
in most of them, as in the few streams, it is tinged brown from
vegetable matter, though practically free from lime or mud.

Vegetation Types—The uplands are covered mostly with high
pine land vegetation, subject to fire every year or two, much like
that of the lime-sink region. A very different upland type of vege-
tation, in northern Florida almost confined to the lake region, is
known as scrub. This is almost wholly evergreen, and practically
devoid of grasses and Leguminosae. Both in the lake region and
elsewhere this sort of vegetation occurs almost always on white sand
with very little animal life in it. Fire sweeps through the scrub on
the average about once in the average life-time of the dominant tree
(Pinus clausa), and kills the pines, but they soon come up again
from seed. .

The more level areas, or flatwoods, have low pine land vegeta-
tion not very different from that in some of the other regions. In
the flatwoods near the Ocklawaha River there are places where the
vegetation seems to indicate marl near the surface, both in the fire-
swept pine forests and in shady low hammocks something like those
in the Gulf hammock region, Sandy hammocks, or high hammocks,
occur near some of the streams and lakes, especially on peninsulas.
The streams and lakes are bordered in many places by non-alluvial
swamp vegetation, and there are quite a number of peat prairies or
marshes, like those described in the Third Annual Report (pp. 274-
anes :

Plants—The following list is based on observations made on 3
days in January, 5 in May, 2 in July and 1 in December; only 11 in
all. It therefore cannot be considered very complete, especially for
fall flowers, and some of the percentages for herbs may not be very
accurate. ‘

4.3
3.0
2.5
1.4

ie
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1

++ +4

++.

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Pinus palustris
Quercus Catesbaei
Pinus serotina
Pinus Elliottii
Quercus cinerea
Pinus clausa
Magnolia glauca
Sabal Palmetto
Liquidambar
Styraciflua
Magnolia grandiflora
Taxodium imbricarium
Acer rubrum
Gordonia Lasianthus
Pinus Taeda
Taxodium distichum
Quercus Virginiana
Fraxinus Caroliniana?
Fraxinus sp.
Liriodendron Tulipifera
Quercus laurifolia
Quercus Chapmani
Carpinus Caroliniana
Quercus nigra
Quercus Margaretta
(and 5 others).

TREES
Long-leaf pine

Uplands

Black-jack oak Uplands

(Black pine)
(Slash pine)
Turkey oak
Spruce pine
Bay

Cabbage palmetto

Sweet gum
Magnolia
(Pond) cypress
Maple

(Red bay)
Short-leaf pine
Cypress

Live oak

Ash

Ash

Poplar

[ronwood
Water oak
Post oak

Low pine land
Low pine land
High pine land
Scrub

Swamps

Low ‘hammocks

Low hammocks, ete.
Hammocks

Shallow ponds
Swamps
Non-alluvial swamps
Low hammocks
River-swamps, etc.
Hammocks

Swamps

Swamps

Low hammocks
Hammocks

Sandy hammocks
Low hammocks, ete.
Swamps, etc.

High pine land

SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS

Quercus geminata
Quercus myrtifolia
Myrica cerifera
Cholisma ferruginea
Tlex Cassine
Batodendron arboreum
Persea pubescens?
Ilex opaca?

Persea humilis

(Smaller) live oak
Myrtle
Sparkleberry

Red bay
Holly

Prunus angustifolia (X) Wild plum

Osmanthus Americana

WOODY VINES

Smilax laurifolia
Vitis rotundifolia
Smilax auriculata
Parthenocissus
quinquefolia
(and 4 others).

Bamboo vine

Scrub, etc.

Scrub

Low hammocks, etc.
Scrub mostly
Non-alluvial swamps
Sandy hammocks
Non-alluvial swamps
Serub

Scrub

Old fields, etc.
Sandy hammocks

Non-alluvial swamps

Bullace or Muscadine Hammocks, etc.

Scrub

Virginia creeper Low hammocks

18.

SHRUBS

.077 Serenoa serrulata

+.024 Chrysobalanus
oblongifolius

+.o11 Asimina speciosa

+.o11 Hypericum fasciculatum

+.o11 Ilex glabra

-++.009 Pieris nitida

+.008 Cholisma fruticosa
+.007 Vaccinium nitidum
.007 Myrica pumila
+.006 Ceratiola ericoides
+-+.005 Garberia fruticosa
.004 Diospyros Virginiana (X)
+.003 Ceanothus microphyllus
.003 Rhus copa!lina
+.003 Bejaria racemosa
+.003 Quercus minima
.002 Sabal glabra
.002 Gaylussacia frondosa
.002

—.002 Cephalanthus occidentalis

.002 Kalmia hirsuta
.ool Phoradendron flavescens
oot Rubus cuneifolius (X)
.oor Aralia spinosa

(and about Io others).

Saw-palmetto

Pawpaw

Gallberry
(Hurrah ‘bush)

Myrtle
Rosemary

Persimmon
Sumiac
Oak runner

Palmetto
Huckleberry

Sambucus Canadensis (X?)

Elder

Mistletoe
Blackberry
Prickly ash

HERBS

+.007 Aristida stricta
+.005 Tillahdsia usneoides
+.005 Kuhnistera pinnata

Osmunda cinnamomea
Eupatorium
compasitifolium (X?)
Eriogonum tomentosum
Pterocaulon undulatum
Panicum hemitomon
Psoralea canescens
Anchistea Virginica
Cladium effusum
Pluchea bifrons
Actinospermum
angustifolium
Andropogon Virginicus
Rhexia Alifanus
Pteridium aquilinum

+.003
+.003

+.002
+.001
+.001
+.001
+.001
+.001

.00
+.001

La

+.001
.OOT
.OOI

Wire-grass
Spanish moss
(Summer

farewell)
(A fern)

Dog-fennel

(Black-root)
Maiden cane

(A. fern)
Saw-grass

Broom-sedge

(A fern)

PENINSULAR LAKE REGION. 323

Various situations,
including scrub

High pine land

High pine land

Around lakes

Flatwoods

Non-alluvial
ete;

Flatwoods

Low pine land, etc.

Pine lands

Scrub

Scrub

Up!ands

High pine land

Uplands

Low pine land, etc.

Flatwoods

River-swamps

Low pine land, etc,

swamps,

Swamps

Swamps, etc.
Flatwoods

On trees

Uplands

Low hammocks, etc.

High pine land
On trees

High pine land
Low pine land

Roadsides, etc.
High pine land
Pine lands

Lake shores, ete.
High pine land
Low pine: land, etc.
Marly (?) places
Marly (?) flatwoods

High pine land
High pine land
Low pine land
High. pine land

Croton argyranthemus
Froelichia Floridana (X)
Acanthospermum

australte (X)
Andropogon El‘iottii? (A grass)
Lachnocaulon Beyrichianum?

324 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT,
.oo!1 Sporobolus gracilis (A grass) High pine land
+.001 Doellingeria reticulata Low pine land
+.001 Spartina Bakeri (A grass) Around lakes, etc.
+.001 Nymphaea macrophylla (Bonnets) Lakes, etc.

.oo1 Si!phium compositum High pine land
Sarracenia minor Pitcher-plant Flatwoods
Fuirena scirpoidea (A sedge) Lake shores
Lygodesmia aphylla High pine land

== Eryngium aromaticum High pine land
_— He-ianthella grandiflora? Pine lands
== Stenophyllus ciliatifolius (A sedge) High pine land
= Castalia odorata Water-lily Lakes
=e Helenium tenuifolium (X) Bitter-weed Roadsides, etc.
Se Indigofera Caro iniana High pine !and
ot Mesadenia Floridana High pine land
Ludwigia virgata Flatwoods
Sericocarpus bifotiatus High pine land
=e Rhynchospora dodecandra(A sedge) Scrub
a5 Juncus scirpoides
compositus Lake shores, etc.
se Piaropus crassipes (X) Water-hyacinth Lakes and rivers
a Stenophyllus Warei (A sedge) High pine land
a4 Chapmania Floridana High pine land

High pine land
Fields

Roadsides, etc.
High pine land
Lake shores

Aletris lutea Flatwoods
Polygala cymosa Peat prairies, etc.
Campulosus aromaticus (A> grass) Flatwoods

(and about 75 others).

The following trees which are more or less Common in other gegions in the
same latitude are rare or absent in the northern part of the lake region :—
Pinus echinata (short-leaf pine), P. glabra (spruce pine), Taxodium (cypresses),
Chamaecyparis (juniper), Juniperus (cedar), Hicoria (hickories), Salix (wil-
lows), Osirya, Betula (birch), Fagus (beech), several species of Quercus (oaks),
Morus (mulberry), Ulinus (elms), Celtis, (hackberry), Malus (crab-apple),
Crataegus (haws), Prunus (plums), Cercis (redbud), Ilex opaca (holly), Tilia
(lin, basswood), Nyssa (black and tupelo gums), Cornus florida (dogwood),
Oxydendrum (sourwood), and Halesia. Most of these seem to be partial to
clayey, calcareous phosphatic or alluvial soils, and their absence is thus easily
explained. Weeds are likewise scarce, on account of the small amount of
cleared land.

Persea humilis, Garberia, and several herbs too rare to appear in the above
list are almost confined to the lake region, and their usual habitat is the scrub.
Chapmania, a characteristic though not verv common plant of the high pine
land, is confined to Florida, but grows in the lime-sink region as well. Pinus
clausa is almost confined to Florida, but grows along the coasts, like several other
scrub plants. (Farther south in the lake region there are many plants peculiar
to it.)

18. PENINSULAR LAKE REGION. 325

Ahout 79.6% of the trees are evergreen, 15.4% of the shrubs are Ericaceae,
and 15.2% of the herbs are Leguminosae. This is a much larger proportion ot
Ericaceae and a smaller proportion of Leguminosae than in the lime-sink region,
and doubtless indicates significant differences in the soil. It is noteworthy that
the percentage of evergreens among the small trees, shrubs and vines is consid-
erably higher here than in the lime-sink region, though that of evergreen trees
is nearly the same in both.

Economic Features—For some reason, or combination of
reasons, lumbering and turpentining do not seem to be practised as
extensively in this region as in most other parts of Florida. There
is not very much farming either, and what little there is is much
more typically Floridian than that in the lime-sink region, where the
crops are mostly the staples common to all the southeastern states.
In the lake region, unlike any previously described, citrous fruits
lead, and cotton and corn are of secondary importance. The leading
crops in Putnam County in 1912, in order of value, were as follows:
Oranges, Irish potatoes, grapefruit, corn, sweet potatoes, peaches,
sea-island cotton, field peas (and hay thereof), watermelons, pea-
nuts, pears, oats, tomatoes, cabbage, plums, pecans, rice and up-
land cotton. If the flatwoods which cover about half the county
could be excluded, it would probably make Irish potatoes, corn and
cotton take a still lower rank,

The proportion of improved land in Clay and Putnam Coun-
ties (including both lake region and flatwoods) in 1910 was less
than 4%, and the density of population about 15 per square mile, an
increase of 12% in ten years. White people are evidently in the
majority in the lake region.

One of the greatest assets of this region is its scenery. This
together with the climate for which Florida is famous attracts many
winter visitors of an unostentatious class, who like to enjoy them-
selves in a simple way.

6 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

lo

19, ) HASTE LORIDAZEEAT WOODS:
(FIGURES 85, 86)

References. Gillmore (974), Harper 1 (224-225, 250-251, 272, 287-290),
Harper 3 (229-232, 235), Matson & Clapp (29, 108-113), Matson & Sanford
(126, 267-270, 283-287, 296-301, 373-370, 394-398). Sellards & Gunter 2 (126, 135-
137, 141-143), Smith 2 (230-233), and U. S. soil surveys of the “Gainesville area”
(1905), “Jacksonville area” (1911), and Bradford Co. (1914). Illustrated in
2nd Ann. Rep.,-pl6:2; 3d, pl. 10.1, 14.3, 23.1,.28, fig. 245 4th; fis. 3; 5th, pl: 13:3,
14.1.

The flatwoods of northeastern Florida extend northward along
the coast to the vicinity of the Savannah River, where their char-
acter gradually changes. Going inland in Georgia this region passes
gradually at a distance of 50 to 100 miles from the coast into the
Altamaha Grit region or rolling wire-grass country, which is a
direct continuation of the West Florida pine hills already described
(region 7). In the area under consideration these flatwoods cover
about 5,300 square miles. Farther south there is nothing exactly
similar, for the extensive flatwoods of peninsular Florida differ in
several ways.

Geology and Soils—Fossiliferous marly strata are exposed on
the banks of a few creeks and rivers in the eastern half of this
region, and have been mapped as Miocene. Throughout the greater
part of the area the marl seems to be overlaid by several feet of
essentially non-calcareous sandy clay, and that in turn by a few
feet or inches of grayish sand, which is regarded by some as a
distinct Pleistocene formation and by others as a mere product of
weathering. In many places, however, particularly on Trail Ridge
(described under Topography, below) the sand passes at a depth of
two or three feet into blackish “hardpan,” and in such places there
are usually no excavations deep enough to disclose whether clay is
present beneath the hardpan or not. Another variation in the ar-
rangement of the surface formations (if the sand and clay be re-
garded as such) is that within 25 miles of the coast there are many
low spots where the vegetation seems to indicate the proximity of
marl to the surface, and consequently the sand and clay must be
thin or wanting.

The sand which forms the surface everywhere except in the
marly spots and where covered by muck or peat is fine-grained and
usually rather dark-colored from admixture of vegetable matter.
In all three of the government soil surveys above cited the most
extensive type of soil in the flatwoods is called “Portsmouth fine

IQ. EAST FLORIDA FLATWOODS. 327

sand.” (In the “Gainesville area,’ which is mostly in regions Io and
17, this soil is said to cover 11.5%, or 35,840 acres; in Bradford
County, which is about nine-tenths flatwoods, 39.3% ; and in the
“Jacksonville area,” which is all flatwoods, 46.5%. And some of
the other soils which cover large parts of these areas differ from this
one but slightly). The following mechanical analyses of this soil
and its subsoil are taken from the Gainesville and Jacksonville re-
ports (none being given in the Bradford County report).

1. One mile northwest of Paradise, Alachua Co.* A gray medium sand,
0 to 20 inches.

2. Subsoil of same. A brown medium sand, 20 to 36 inches.

3. Average of four localities in Duval County. Soil (depth not given).

4. Subsoil of same. Depth not given.

5. Lower subsoil, average of two localities. Depth not given.

MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF “PoRTSMOUTH FINE SAND,’ East Fioripa FLATWoops

I 2 3 4 5

Fine gravel (2-I mm.) ----------- 0-4 GS5e20 0) )
@oarse sand (1-.5 mm.)) ==-------—— 10.4 10.3 0.8 0.5 0.4
Medium sand (.5-.25 mm.) -----.-- 23.1 22.5 2.4 2.5 2.1
Hine sand s(.25- mye 49.8 468 849 83.7 838
Very fire sand (1.05 mm)ees 125 913.0 Oo Ao. 50). 5,7
StlemG.05-005M MMH.) (== eee a 2.4 2.5 4.9 3.8 4.1
Civ (005-0) min) 2=—22-—2-e =e 1.1 ay 277, 3.5 3.3

otal, seesaw so ee 99.7 99.7 99.7 99.9 99.4

: If these are all typical sample’ the soil is evidently of coarser
texture in Alachua County than in Duval; but what significance, if
any, is to be attached to this is not at present evident.

A chemical analysis of soil from the same region is given in
the Tenth Census, vol. 6, p. 202. The sample represents 10 inches
depth of “second-class pine land,’ with long-leaf pine and wire-
grass, 5 miles north of Lake City, Columbia County; collected by
Dr. Eugene A. Smith in the summer of 1880 and analyzed under
his direction at the University of Alabama by John B. Durrett, by
the acid digestion method mentioned on preceding pages.

*In the Gainesville report as published (page 20 of the advance sheets or
page 284 of the whole volume) this was inadvertently placed in a table headed
“Gainesville sand.”

328 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Water-andvorganiemmatter —--222--—=- eee ae 1.807 per cent
RR (HSIN Giese sos scn2 2a eee ees Se ee Se “LIZ
Soy sf: Wen ee eS Ee ee eee OAT ante
INS ShSsie 2 oo se ot See ae SS Ss O500r ame
Magnesia - ees a ee eee OAD tater
PRoOsphonicyacid ge es=—-- 2. — ee ae eee WOO 2s eA: oe
Sulphuricvactdiwes == =_ === Sa toa ee ea ee 105 Sue. ta
Brown joxidevar manganese —=—-==2- == 2-2-2 = a5 OAD Ar Mess
Peroxidesoritotgee ee =~ oes oo Sac See ee DOANE ES
Je SE UNIEY Goo oe cise oo UE ee ee eS 27 3st san
Solublevcilica@eesa=2 22-265 = = 2ssesn ee eee devo)
Insoluble tmiatteng= == 5 95,0305; wey
UNGUEN e553 eee es 99.493 “ “

As compared with the three other northern Florida soils ana-
lyzed in the same report, this has the most potash, soda, and in-
soluble matter, and the least organic matter, lime, iron, alumina, and
soluble silica. Just why the potash should be so high in such a soil
is a puzzle; unless possibly the woods had been burned over shortly
before the sample was taken. Additional analyses from the same
region would be very desirable.

The soils of this region, as in other pine flatwoods regions, are
prevailingly acid. The soil survey of Bradford County gives the
amounts of lime (CaO) and limestone (CaCO3) necessary to neu-
tralize the acidity of an acre of soil a foot thick for two of the prin-
cipal soil types. The following are the figures for the “Portsmouth
fine sand,” in pounds:

Lime Limestone
SURI Golly ee Se ee o e 3,850 7,700
laleGhalel Gee@iitiin ae ee 6,300 12,600
SIDS Ol lee eee eee See 2,450 5,900

Salamanders are common in the driest soils, but in much of the
area the ground-water seems to be too close to the surface for them.

Topography and Hydrography—The topography is for the
most part flat, as in some of the regions previously described, but
the land rises gradually in leaving the coast, until at the inland edge
of the region it reaches elevations of about 150 feet at Jasper, 200 at
Welborn and Lake City, and 175 at Gainesville. It is noteworthy
that all along this edge the flatwoods are higher than the adjacent
hammock belt, which slopes westward toward the Gulf. Near the
edge are several deep sinks where the strata overlying the limestone

Ig. EAST FLORIDA FLATWOODS, 329

have caved in.* South of Waldo the topography is a little undu-
luting, and may indicate somewhat different geological conditions.

The most striking topographic feature of the region is Trail
Ridge, which extends from a few miles west of Jesup, Georgia,
southward parallel to the coast and about forty miles distant from
it, until it merges with the western edge of the lake region. (It is
indicated by a dotted line on the map.) Its summit is said to be
210 feet above sea-level at Highland, and 238 feet east of Starke.+
Its origin has never been satisfactorily explained. In Florida it
coincides for some distance with the Atlantic and Gulf divide, but
that is probably merely accidental, for it has no such relation im
Georgia.

About fifteen miles east of Trail Ridge, and parallel to it, both
in Georgia and in Florida, is another ridge so low that a person not
specially looking for it would hardly notice it;£ but in some ways
it seems more significant than Trail Ridge. For it causes the Satil-
la and St. Mary’s Rivers to flow parallel to the coast for many miles
just before they break through it, and the marly spots mentioned in
a preceding paragraph nearly all lie east of it.

The stream valleys are mostly narrow and but little depressed
below the general surface, though in some of them there is a slight
development of the same sort of rolling topography that character-
izes the West Florida pine hills. Springs are rather scarce, but
there are a few large limestone springs, of which Green Cove
Springs, in the town of the same name, is probably the best known.
The streams are practically all coffee-colored, bordered by swamps,
and not subject to much fluctuation. The St. John’s River is nota-

*Probably the most noted of these sinks is the “Devil’s Mil'hopper,” in
Alachua County, about three miles west of Paradise or six miles northwest
of Gainesville. It is over 100 feet deep, nearly circu!ar, and surrounded by
level flatwoods. For additional notes on it, see Dall, U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull.
84:108. 1892; Vaughan, U. S. Geol. Surv. Min. Res. 1901:932. 1902; Se!lards,
Fla. Geol, Surv. Bull. 1:29. 1908; Matson & Clapp, Sellards & Gunter, 2nd
Ann. Rep. 71-72, 288. 1910; Se!lards, 4th Ann. Rep. 34-35- 1912.

tIn U. S. Geol. Surv. Bulletin 516, p. 17 (1912), the elevation of a point
2.6 miles northwest of Lake Kingsley, which must be on or near the summit of
Trail Ridge, is given as 238.382 feet. This agrees remarkably well with a
statement by Dr. W. I. Burnett in Am. Jour. Sci. 67:408 (1854) that a point
“one mile west of Kingsley’s pond and seven miles east of Sampson’s pond” is
2372 feet above low tide.

For references to previous literature relating to this ridge see Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 38:230. 1911. The Georgia end of it has since been described (as
a terrace) by Otto Veatch in Geol. Surv. Ga. Bull. 26:36, 426, 434. (Jan. 1912).

330 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.
ble for being a tidal estuary all the way through this region, a dis-
tance of nearly 100 miles.

Shallow ponds and bays a few acres in extent, which dry up in
spring, are frequent throughout, and west of Trail Ridge there are
several large shallow lakes.* The ground-water is nearly every-
where close enough to the surface to be easily raised by suction
pumps. Old-fashioned ‘‘well-sweeps” can still be seen in a few
places. Artesian wells are common, and furnish good water in
abundance, which rises above the surface nearly everywhere east of
the low ridge or terrace above mentioned. .

Vegetation Types—Open forests of long-leaf pine, with an un-
dergrowth of saw-palmetto, gallberry, wire-grass, etc., and bearing
the marks of frequent fires, are the dominant feature of the land-
scape. On the highest and driest spots the black-jack oak is a con-
spicuous feature, as in the high pine land of several other regions.
The streams are all bordered by swamps or hammocks, or both.
The shallow ponds are all full of trees, either black gum, cypress,
slash pine, or bay vegetation predominating, according to the na-
ture of the soil and the amount of seasonal fluctuation of the water.
Treeless marshes occur in some places along the St. John’s River
and its tributaries, passing gradually into the brackish marshes of
the coast. The vegetation of marly spots, referred to above, is much
like that of the low hammocks of the Gulf hammock region. A few
miles back from the coast in St. John’s County there are a few areas
of scrub vegetation, probably indicating old dunes.

Plants—In order to bring out certain differences, as well as
similarities, between the western and eastern halves of the region the
percentages have been computed separately for the portions on op-
posite sides of Trail Ridge. The first column of figures is for the
western division and the other for the eastern. Field work in the
western portion has been done on 30 different days, distributed
through the year as follows: January, 3; February, 1; March, 1;
April, 2; May, 8; July, 11; August, 2; December, 2. The eastern
portion has been explored on 21 different days, as follows: Janu-
ary, 3; February, 1; March, 2; May, 8; July, 2; August, 1; Decem-
ber, 4. As I have no notes for either portion between the first week
in August and the second week in December no doubt many of the
fall-blooming herbs do not figure as largely in the following list

*See 3d Ann. Rep., p. 272.

Ig. EAST FLORIDA FLATWOODS, 331

as they should. But with this exception it ought to be reasonably
accurate, } ele

TREES ee,
+ 47— 40 Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine Flatwoods
++ 20—17 Pinus Elliottii Slash pine Low grounds
+ 18— 13 Taxodium imbricarium(Pond) cypress Ponds, etc.
+1.4—9.0 Pinus serotina (Black pine) Low grounds
+2.6—2.8 Nyssa biflora Black gum Ponds and swamps
—1.0—2.7 Liquidambar
Styraciflua Sweet gum Richer soils °
—I.4—2.2 Quercus Catesbaei Black-jack oak Driest soils
—1.8—1.4 Magnolia glauca Bay Swamps
—1.4—1.5 Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine Richer soils
0.3—1.5 Acer rubrum Maple Swamps
+-+0.5—1.0 Gordonia Lasianthus (‘Red bay) Swamps and bays
—0.5—I.0 Quercus cinerea Turkey oak Driest soils
—0.5—0.8 Taxodium distichum Cypress Swamps
0.2—0.7 Sabal Palmetto Cabbage
palmetto Low hammocks, etc.
—o.2—0.7 Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia Hammocks
—o —o.7 Pinus clausa Spruce pine Old dunes?
0.2—0.5 Pinus Caribaea? (Pitch pine)
—0.2—0.2 Quercus nigra Water oak Low grounds
—0.2—-0.2 Quercus geminata Live oak Poorest soils
—o.I—0.2 Quercus Virginiana Live oak Hammocks
—o —o.2 Carpinus Caroliniana (Ironwood) Low hammocks, etc.
—0.3—O Quercus falcata Red oak Loamy uplands
0.I—0.2 Fraxinus sp. Ash Swamps
0.I—0.1 Hicoria glabra? Hickory Hammiocks
o —o.2 Fraxinus Caroliniana Ash Swamps
—o —0.2 Juniperus Virginiana Cedar Marly (?) swamps
—0.I—oO Quercus laurifolia Hammocks
—o, —0.I Liriodendron
, Tulipifera Poplar Branch-swamps
o —o.1 Ulmus Floridana? Elm Low hammocks
o —0.I Morus rubra Mulberry Low hammocks
0 —o.I Fraxinys profunda? Ash Swamps
—o.I—o Ostrya Virginiana Hammocks
—o.I—o Cornus florida Dogwood Loamy uplands
0 —-0.I Fraxinus lanceolata Ash Swamps

(and about 20 others).

SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS

+.090—.23 Myrica cerifera Myrtle Low hammocks
+.06—.04 Ilex myrtifolia Yaupon Shallow ponds
.o2—.02 Cyrilla racemiflora Tyty Swamps
o —.03 Salix longipes? Willow Marly (?) spots
.o2—.01 Nyssa’ Ogeche Tupelo gum Along ‘creeks, etc.
.oI—.o1 Diospyros Virginiana Persimmon Various situations

+.01—.o1 Persea pubescens Red bay Swamps

342

o —.o1 Cholisma ferruginea
o —o Ilex Cassine

(and 5 others).

VINES

.o12—.006 Smilax laurifolia Bamboo vine
—.002—.001 Vitis rotundifolia Bullace or
Muscadine

O “5-002

Rhus radicans Poison ivy

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Poorest soils
Swamps

Bays and swamps

Hammocks, etc,
Low hammocks, ete.

.002—0 Smilax Walteri Bays and swamps
o —.002 Berchemia scandens Rattan vine Low hammocks
.ool— 0 Gelsemium
sempervirens Yellow jessamine Hammocks, ete.
o -—.oor Ampelopsis arborea Low hammocks
.00I—o Tecoma radicans (Cow-itch) Various situations
o -—.oor Parthenocissus
quinquefolia Virginia creeper Hammocks, etc.
0 —.O0OI Vitis aestivalis? Wild grape Hammocks, etc.
o —0O £Decumaria barbara Swamps
(and 4 others).
SHRUBS
+.103—.096 Serenoa serrulata Saw-palmetto Flatwoods, ete.
+.045—.019 Ilex glabra Gallberry Flatwoods
+.012—.006 Myrica pumila Myrtle Flatwoods
+.014—.004 Pieris nitida Hurrah bush Bays, etc.
+.012—.004 Hypericum fascicula tum Around ponds, ete.
+.010—.002 Quercus minima Oak runner Flatwoods ,
+.009—.002 Vaccinium nitidum Flatwoods
+-+.009—.002 Bejaria racemosa Flatwoods
+-+.008—.002 Cholisma fruticosa (Poor grub) Flatwoods

+.oo1-—.004 Asimina speciasa? Pawpaw
.003—.002 Cephalanthus
occidentalis §Elbow-bush
.004—.00I Quercus pumila Oak runner
-+.001—-.004 Phoradendron
flavescens Mistletoe
.oo1r—.003 Aralia spinosa Prickly ash
o -—.002 Rhus copallina Sumac
.002—.001 Chrysobalanus
oblongifolius
+.002—.001 Gaylussacia
frondosa nana
.0ooI—.o001 Ceanothus microphy llus

O —.002

Quercus myrtifolia

.002—o Viburnum nudum
+.002—o Kalmia hirsuta
.002—0 Rubus cuneifolius (X)
Blackberry
o —.oo1 Sabal glabra Palmetto
—,.002—-0 Gaylussacia dumosa

Drier soils

Swamps, etc.
Flatwoods

On black gum mostly
Low hammocks, etc.
Uplands

Drier soils

Flatwoods, etc.
Drier soils
Poorest soils
Branch-swamps
Flatwoods

Roadsides, etc.
Low hammocks, etc.
Drier soils

IQ. EAST FLORIDA FLATWOODS,
.oo2—o Asimina angustifolia Pawpaw
.oo1—.oor Aronia arbutifolia
.0ooI—o Azalea viscosa Honeysuckle
o —.001 Baccharis halimifolia
o —.oor Amorpha fruticosa
o —.oo1 Ceratiola ericoides Rosemary
. .00I—0O Hypericum opacum
+.001—0o Decodon verticillatus
.00I— 0 Hypericum myrtifolium
.ooi—o Alnus rugosa Alder
o —.oor Cornus stricta?
o —o _ Itea Virginica
(and about 25 others).
HERBS

+.005—.004

Tillandsia usneoides Spanish moss

+-+.005—.002 Pterocaulon

+.003—.003
+.002—.002
+-+.002—.001
+.001I—.001
+-+.001—.001
+,001I—.001
.002— 0
+o —.oo1
+.00I—.001
+0 —.OOI
+-++.001—.001
+o —.oor
+o —.oo1
++0 —.oo1
++0o0 —.ooI
+o —.oo1
++0 —..oI
+o —,001
+o —.ooI
+o —o
+o —o
++0o0 —.or1
++o —o
Sporn
+o —oo1

undulatum Black-root

Aristida stricta Wire-grass
Anchistea Virginica (A fern)
Sarracenia minor Pitcher-plant
Osmunda

cinnamomea
Aletris lutea
Pteridium aquilinum (A fern)
Eupatorium

(A fern)

compositifolium (X) Dog-fennel

Rhexia Alifanus
Polygala cymosa
Campulosus

aromaticus
Doellingeria

reticulata
Chondrophora nudata
Trilisa odoratissima Deer-tongue
Galactia Elliottii
Rhexia lutea
Dichromena latifolia (A sedge)
Piaropus crassipes

(X) Water-hyacinth

Panicum hemitomon Maiden cane
Juncus Roemerianus
Cladium effusum
Polygala ramosa
Helianthus heteroph yllus
Eupatorium rotundifolium
Eryngium synchaetum
Eriocaulon decangul are

(A grass)

Saw-grass

+ Pontederia cordata
Saururus cernuus
Psoralea canescens

333

Drier soils

Edges of swamps
Branch-swamps, etc.
Low hammocks, etc,
Marly (?) swamps
Old dunes (?)
Flatwoods

Swamps

Around ponds
Along creeks, etc,
Low hammocks
Swamps

On trees

Flatwoods
Pine lands
Bays and ponds
Flatwoods

Low grounds
Flatwoods
Flatwoods, etc.

Roadsides, etc.
Flatwoods
Ponds

Flatwoods

Flatwoods, etc.
Flatwoods
Flatwoods
Flatwoods, etc.
Flatwoods
Flatwoods, etc.

Rivers, etc.
‘Ponds

Brackish marshes
Ponds and marshes
Flatwoods
Flatwoods
Flatwoods
Flatwoods
Around ponds
Ponds

Swamps

Drier soils

334 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.
+ Eupatorium Mohrii? Flatwoods
+ Spartina stricta (A grass) Marshes near coast
+-+ Tillandsia tenuifolia (Air-plant) Swamps
Berlandiera tomentosa Driest soils
Helenium tenuifolium (X) Bitter-weed Roadsides, ete.
++ Teucrium Nashii Marly spots
Glottidium vesicarium (X) Waste places
Pluchea bifrons Shallow ponds
++ Aristida spiciformis (A grass) Flatwoods
Spartina Bakeri (A grass) Marshes, etc.
++ Fimbristylis puberula (A sedge) Flatwoods
+ Polygala lutea Flatwoods, etc.
+-+ Aster squarrosus Flatwoods
++ Xyris flexuosa* Flatwoods
+ Coreopsis nudata Around ponds
Juncus effusus (Rush) Low grounds
+. Helianthus Radula Flatwoods
Centella repanda Around ponds, ete.
+ Osmunda regalis (A fern) Swamps
Eriogonum tomentosum Driest soils
+ Limodorum tuberosum? (An orchid) Flatwoods
++ Marshallia graminifolia Flatwoods
+ Sagittaria lancifolia Marshes, ete.
++ Canna flaccida (Wild canna) Marly (?) spots
+ Ipomoea sagittifolia (Morning-glory) Marly (?) spots
Silphium compositum Drier soils
++ Phlox Drummondii (X) Waste places
++ Polygala setacea Flatwoods
+ Lachnocaulon anceps Flatwoods
+ Leptopoda Helenium Around ponds, ete.
+ Nymphaea macrophylla Bonnets Creeks, etc.

Chrysopsis graminifolia

Flatwoods

(and about 200 others).

The following trees which are more or less common elsewhere in the
same latitude are rare or wanting here:—Pinus echinata (short-leaf pine), P.
glabra (spruce pine), Chamaecyparis (juniper), Salix nigra (willow), Betula
(birch), Fagus (beech), Quercus alba (white oak), and several other oaks, Lir-
todendron (poplar), Crataegus (haws) Prunus (plums), Ilex opaca (holly),
Tilia (lin, basswood), Cornus florida (dogwood), and Nyssa uniflora (tupelo
gum). Most of these probably prefer more clayey soils than those of the East
Florida flatwoods, but some no doubt are kept away by other reasons.

Two trees, Pinus Elliottii and Gordonia, two shrubs, Bejaria and Cholisma
fruticosa, and many herbs, are evidently more abundant here than elsewhere in
northern Florida; but just what combination of environmental conditions it is
that makes them so it is hard to say. The shrubs that grow in the flatwoods
nearly all have extensive underground stems, which are not killed by fire, as
already noticed in the lime-sink region; while those that grow in hammocks and
swamps probably have no such protective device. The great majority of the
herbs grow in the open pine forests, and nearly all of them have perennial under-

*X. torta of many authors,

Ig. EAST FLORIDA FLATWOODS. 335

ground parts too. (The percentage of annuals has not been estimated, but it
must be very small). Few if any of the species are confined to Florida.

Comparing the two columns of percentages in the plant list brings out some
very interesting and significant facts. It is evident that Quercus falcata, Q.
laurifolia, Cornus florida, Ostrya, Betula, Ilex opaca, Smilax laurifolia, Vitis
rotundifolia, Smilax Walteri, and many shrubs and herbs are more abundant
west of Trail Ridge than east thereof, while the reverse is true of many other
species. (It would take up entirely too much space to repeat their names here,
but they can easily be picked out from the list by any one who is sufficiently
interested). The first category includes the most shrubs, especially Ericaceous
shrubs, while the second includes about twice as many trees, small trees and
herbs as the first. If we could explain the reason for all these differences in
vegetation it would be an important contribution to ecological science; but the
problem is by no means a simple one. For the differences between the two
halves of the region, although mostly small in amount, are of course of every
conceivable kind; and any one of them might prove to be the key in some par-
ticular case. Just a few suggestions toward solving the problem will be given
here.

From what is known of their distribution elsewhere it appears that some
of the species which are more abundant in the western division prefer somewhat
clayey soils, some acid (or non-calcareous) soils, and a few are weeds which
have come in with the farmers; but this leaves the majority of cases still un-
accounted for. Many of the species more abundant eastward are partial to the
low hammocks or marly spots, which are scarcely represented west of Trail
Ridge (or even west of the smaller ridge 15 miles east of it). The greater
abundance of Liquidambar (sweet gum), Quercus cinerea (turkey oak), and Q.
Virginiana (live oak) eastward may possibly be correlated with phosphorus in
the soil, for these species have been observed elsewhere to thrive in decidedly
phosphatic soils, and phosphorus is generally more abundant coastward. Still
others are confined to the sterile sands or old dunes a few miles back from the
coast, while a few grow in or near marshes and perhaps belong more properly
to the next region.

The percentage of evergreens is about 74.7 west of the ridge and 73.9 east;
of Ericaceae among the shrubs I9 west and 7 east; and of Leguminosae among
the herbs 1.7 west and 4.4 east. If we had several chemical analyses of typical
soils from both halves of the region we would be in a better position to interpret
these figures; but a few suggestions can be made even with our present inade-
quate information.

The evergreen percentages, which are both above the average for northern
Florida, ought to indicate soils rather low in potassium, notwithstanding the
chemical analysis given a few pages back (which must be abnormal in that re-
spect). One of the figures for Ericaceae is above the average and the other
below; and the fact that the first is nearly three times as great as the second is
probably correlated with the fact that the western division is essentially non-
calcareous, while the eastern has marl near the surface in many places. For
the distribution of Ericaceae (particularly those that are not evergreen) seems
to be governed by lime more than by potash, as already intimated under the

336 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Gulf Hammock region.* The percentages of Leguminosae are both very low,
probably for the same reason as in regions 9, 10 (middle division), 15 and 16:
namely, the proximity of the ground-water level to the surface. But the Legum-
inosae are over twice as abundant in the eastern division as in the western,
perhaps for the same reason that the Ericaceae are less so, for a high percentage
of the one often goes with a low percentage of the other.

Weeds are comparatively scarce here as yet, a natural consequence of the
limited development of agriculture, pointed out below.

Economic Features—Lumbering, turpentining and grazing
have been the leading industries here, as in most other parts of
Florida, but they are being gradually superseded by agriculture. The
level topography has favored logging operations, and the best pines
have been removed, leaving some rather desolate landscapes. But
the long-leaf and slash pines reproduce themselves very well in
this kind of country, and will doubtless continue to do so until near-
ly all the upland is occupied by farms.

' In 1910 the western part had not over 14% of improved land,
and less than 20 inhabitants per square mile, 59.6% of them white.
The population increased 12.4% in the decade immediately preced-
ing. The eastern part had between 2 and 3% of improved land,
and nearly 34 inhabitants to the square mile. But counting out the
city of Jacksonville, which owes its development to its excellent
transportation facilities, and trade with all parts of the State, rather
than to the natural resources of the surrounding flatwoods, there
were Only 16.2 inhabitants to the square mile in the eastern divis-
ion; and outside of Duval County only 14.3. The increase of popu-
lation between 1900 and 1910 was for the whole eastern division
76%, but outside of Jacksonville only 30%, and’ outside of Duval
County 26%. (Even the last figure is above the average, though).
About 53% of the inhabitants, with or without Duval County, are
white.

At first thought it seems strange that the eastern part of the
flatwoods, with its apparently more calcareous soils, should have so

*On the Florida Keys, where the rock is all limestone, with little or no
soil on top of it, no Ericaceae at all have been found. .

The observation of the aversion of Ericaceae to calcareous soils is nothing
new (see Hilgard, Soils 522. 1906; Science II. 27:140-143. 1908; Coville, U. S.
Dept. Agr. Bur. Plant Industry, Bull. 193. 1911), but most persons who have
made such correlations before have regarded lime (or calcium) as the most im- .
portant factor in soils, and hardly considered potassium at all. It is possible that
phosphorus is just as inimical to the Ericaceae as calcium is, for some parts
of northern Florida which have few Ericaceae are known to have decidedly
phosphatic soils.

I9. EAST FLORIDA FLATWOODs, 337

much less improved land than the western; but the explanation is
probably that the most fertile soils are too wet to cultivate without
artificial drainage, which has not been undertaken very extensively
here as yet.

The leading crops in 1912, in order of value, were as follows.
In the western division, sea-island cotton, strawberries, corn, pea-
nuts, beans, sweet potatoes, sugar-cane, velvet beans, (grass) hay,
oats, oranges, Irish potatoes, field peas (including hay thereof), mil-
let, tomatoes, pecans, upland cotton, peaches, watermelons. In the
eastern division, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn, oranges,
(grass) hay, lettuce, beans, sugar-cane, onions, cabbage, peppers,
grapes, tomatoes, peaches, field peas (including hay thereof), pears,
watermelons, strawberries, sea-island cotton, figs, oats, pecans, vel-
vet beans, cantaloupes, peanuts.

In this region more than anywhere else in northern Florida is
exhibited the tendency—much more pronounced farther south—to
raise special crops, particularly vegetables, in restricted areas. The
order of importance of the several crops is very different in the two
divisions, and although soil no doubt has something to do with it,
there are also some complex human factors to be taken into con-
sideration. It would be rather difficult to explain, for instance, why
sea-island cotton ranks first in the western division and 19th in the
eastern, strawberries second in the western and 18th in the eastern,
and Irish potatoes first in the eastern and 12th in the western. The
special vegetable crops bring a much higher return per acre than
ordinary field crops, and the total value of agricultural products
in the East Florida flatwoods is considerably greater than that of
some other regions which have a larger area in cultivation. :

338 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

20) (BAST COAST ST RiP.
( FIGURES 87-90)

References. Curtiss, Harper 1 (226), Leeds; Matson & Sanford (155-166),
Mayer (858, 864, 865-868). Illustrated in 2nd Ann. Rep., pl. 7.2; 3d, pl. 11.1,
Tsien 7st ye Ath Ppl erase; 5th; cpl 10.1; er stte

The coast of Georgia is bordered by low sandy islands, behind
which are salt marshes several miles wide, intersected by an in-
tricate system of crooked tidal channels. The same sort of coun-
try extends into Florida, gradually narrowing, until in the southern
part of St. John’s County it is reduced to little more than a straight
sandy beach strip not over a mile wide, sometimes with a narrow
lagoon behind it, and sometimes connected with the mainland. This
coast strip covers probably not more than 200 square miles in Nas-
sau, Duval and St. John’s Counties.

Geology and Soils—The beaches and outermost dunes are com-
posed of cream-colored sand of Récent age, mixed with a varying
proportion of shell fragments. Usually the shell material is hardly
noticeable, but near the north end of Anastasia Island, and at vari-
ous places farther south, it makes up almost the whole of the mass,
and is more or less cemented together (especially on the surface),
forming a sort of rock called coquina. More sand is continually
being washed up on the beach and piled by the wind into dunes, but
at a distance of 100 yards or so from high-water mark it is prac-
tically motionless. The dune sand that has been stationary for
many years is usually nearly white, probably on account of
the leaching out of the soluble material (as was suggested in con-
nection with the West Florida coast strip). There are no salaman-
ders or gophers on the islands to counteract the leaching, and other
subterranean animals (other than fiddler-crabs in the marshes) are
probably scarce. The soil of the salt and brackish marshes, as in
similar situations in other states, is a very impure peat or muck,
with a somewhat sulphurous odor. Neither mechanical nor chemical
analyses of any of the soils are available, but the dune sand, espe-
cially that of the older dunes, must be very poor in soluble minerals,
while the marsh muck is probably just the opposite.

Topography and Hydrography—The beaches are generally
very smooth, firm and straight, so that they make good paths for
automobiles. The dune areas, both modern and ancient, are charac-
terized by a very wavy or knobby topography, with pretty steep
slopes in some places and a maximum elevation of perhaps 25 feet

EE

Ig. EAST FLORIDA FLATWOODS., 339

above the sea. Some of the hollows among the dunes are small,
rounded and concave, like the basins in the lime-sink region, while
others are larger, elongated, and flat-bottomed. The surface of the
marshes corresponds pretty closely with mean high-tide level.

Most of the surface water in the coast strip is salt, but just
behind the cuspate foreland at South Beach, on Anastasia Island,
if not in similar places elsewhere, there are some small shallow
pools of fresh water. There are practically no springs or streams,
but fresh water can be obtained a few feet below the surface in
many places, and deep wells yield a strong flow of rather hard and
sulphurous, but wholesome water.

Vegetation Types—On the outer beaches, below high-water
mark, there is usually no vegetation at all. Between that point and
the dunes, a short distance farther back, the vegetation is very
sparse, and consists mostly of running vines and a few tufted plants.
The outer or active dunes are characterized by some of the same
species as on the upper beach, together with sea-oats and a few other
grasses, and a few other plants, all or nearly all belonging to fami-
lies well represented in the arid southwestern states and northern
Mexico; and the resemblance of this vegetation to that of a desert
is rather striking. The next older dunes, which have been station-
ary a comparatively short time, have a vegetation composed mostly
of evergreen shrubs; and the oldest are well covered with trees,
forming hammocks. On the coquina areas cedar is the most promi-
nent tree, and there are a few other species which are commonly
supposed to be lime-loving.

The vegetation of the moist dune hollows is meadow-like, and
rather dense. It consists mostly of herbs which seem to like lime (if
not also phosphorus, sulphur, or something else) as well as moisture,
and includes some of the same species already noted as characteris-
tic of marly flatwoods in the Gulf hammock region. The salt marsh
vegetation comprises a few very abundant species, mostly tall stiff
grasses and rushes. On Amelia Island there are flatwoods some-
thing like those.of the mainland, but without long-leaf pine.* Fire
seems to be a negligible factor throughout the coast strip.

Plants—The flora of different islands and beaches differs con-
siderably, for no apparent reason. (The same state of affairy has
been observed also in the corresponding parts of Georgia.) The

*See 3d Ann. Rep., pl. 11.1, or 5th, pl. 10.1. Most if not all of the trees
in that picture (which was taken by Dr. Sellards) are probably Pinus serotina.

340 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

tollowing list is based on a few hours’ work on three islands in dif-
ferent counties; namely, near Fernandina on May 12, 1909, around
Mayport the next day, and on Anastasia Island, opposite St. Augus-
tine, on July 8, 1914. The percentage figures are omitted, as has
been done in the case of some of the other smaller regions.

TREES
++ Sabal Palmetto Cabbage
palmetto Various situations
+ Quercus geminata Live oak Hammocks
+ Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia Hammocks
+ Juniperus Virginiana Cedar Dune hollows and
coquina areas
+ Persea Borbonia? Red bay Hammocks
+ Quercus Virginiana Live oak Hammocks
+ Quercus laurifolia Hamnrocks
+ Liquidambar Styraciflua Sweet gum Various situations
Pinus serotina (Black pine) Flatwoods, Amelia I.
Pinus Elliottii? (Slash pine) Edges of marshes, etc.
Ilex opaca Holly Hammocks
(and 3 or 4 others).
.
SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS
+ Myrica cerifera Myrtle Dune hollows, etc.
+ Quercus myrtifolia Old dunes
++ Yucca aloifolia Spanish bayonet Dunes
++ Bumelia tenax? Older dunes
Batodendron arboreum (Sparkleberry) Hammiocks
++ Ilex vomitoria Hammocks
+ Osmanthus Americana Hammocks
++ Xanthoxylum Clava-Herculis Hammocks
Salix longipes? Willow Coquina hollows
VINES
+ Vitis rotundifolia Muscadine Hammocks, etc.
+ Parthenocissus quinquefolia Virginia creeper Hammocks, etc.
++ Smilax auriculata Old dunes
Vitis aestivalis? Wild grape Hammocks
SHRUBS
Serenoa serrulata Saw-palmetto Old dunes
+ Aralia spinosa Prickly ash Hammocks
+ Cholisma ferruginea Old dunes
+ Rhus copallina Sumac Hammocks, etc,
+ Callicarpa Americana French mulberry Hammocks
+ Ilex ambigua Hammocks

++ Iva frutescens Edges of marshes

oe

see

-

20.

Baccharis halimifolia
Batis maritima
Borrichia frutescens
Polycodium sp.

Iva imbricata
Sageretia minutiflora
Ceratiola ericoides
Asimina parviflora
Rhamnus Caroliniana

— Ilex glabra
— Vaccinium nitidum

a

a
a
oe
mo
a

+

Lantana Camara

Spartina stricta
Juncus Roemerianus
Lippia sp.
Dichromena colorata
Croton maritimus
Ipomoea Pes-caprae
Pteridium aquilinum
Boehmeria cylindrica
Dryopteris Thelypteris
Kosteletzkya sp.
Uniola paniculata
Spartina Bakeri

EAST COAST STRIP.

((Gooseberry)
Rosemary
Pawpaw
Gallberry
Lantana

HERBS

(A grass)
(Rush)

(A sedge)

(Morning-glory)

(A fern)
(A fern)

Sea-oats
(A grass)

Heterotheca subaxillaris (X?)

Scirpus Americanus
Juncus megacephalus

+ Muhlenbergia filipes?

a
—+

+ + 4+ ot
+tt++++t¢4+4+4+4+44+

+-
+

Oenothera humifusa
Ipomoea littoralis
Galactia Elliottii
Cnidoscolus stimulosus
Ambrosia sp.

Lemna sp.

Centella repanda
Scleria triglomerata
Distichlis spicata
Sagittaria lancifolia
Fimbristylis spadicea?
Chamaecrista sp.
Ludwigia maritima
Chaetochloa sp.
Cyperus dentatus?
Phyllanthus sp, (X?)
Carduus sp.

— Tillandsia usneoides

(A sedge)

(A grass)

(Morning-glory)

(Nettle)
(Ragweed)
(Duckweed)

(A sedge)
(A grass)

(A sedge)
(A. grass)
(A sedge)

Thistle
Spanish moss

Near marshes
Salt marshes
Edges of marshes
Hammocks
Upper beach
Hammocks
Old dunes
Hlammiocks
Coquina areas
Flatwoods
Flatwoods
Coquina areas

Salt marshes
Brackish marshes
Dune hollows
Dune hollows
Active dunes
Dunes and beaches
Hammocks

Dune hollows
Dune hollows
Dune hollows
Active dunes
Dune hollows
Waste places mostly
Dune hollows
Dune hollows
Dune hollows
Active dunes
Dunes and beaches
Old dunes
Hammocks, etc.
Dune hollows
Fresh-water pools
Dune hollows
Hammiocks

Salt marshes
Dune hollows
Dune hollows
Dunes

Dune hollows
Dune hollows
Dune hollows

Along car-tracks

Dune hollows
Hammocks

‘

342 FLORIDA: GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

++ Salicornia sp. (Samphire) Salt marshes
++ Cyperus cylindrostachys? (A sedge) Dune hollows
++ Opuntia Pes-corvi Prickly pear Older dunes
++ Gaura angustifolia (X?) Waste places, etc.
— Eupatorium jcapillifolium
(X?) Dog-fennel Low grounds
++ Sabbatia stellaris Dune hollows
++ Solidago Chapmani? Goldenrod Hammocks
++ Houstonia angustifolia Coquina areas
Saururus cernuus Dune hollows
Polypodium polypodioides (A fern) Hammocks
+ Teucrium Nashii Dune hollows *
Smilax pumila Hammocks
Mitchella repens (Partridge-berry) Hammocks
Epidendrum conopseum (An orchid) Hammocks
Monarda punctata (X?) Clearings
+ Chenopodium ambrosioides (X) Waste places -*

(and about 30 others).

A list of plants that are common farther inland and conspicuous by their
absence or scarcity here would be a long one; but the following trees at least
deserve special mention in this connection: Pinus palustris (long-leaf pine, en-
tirely absent), P. Taeda and P. echinata (short-leaf pines), P. glabra and P.
clausa (spruce pines), Taxodium (cypresses), Chamaecyparis (juniper), Hicoria
(hickories), Salix (willows), Carpinus, Ostrya, Fagus (beech), nearly all oaks
except the live oaks, Morus (mulberry), Ulmus (elms), Magnolia glauca (bay),
Liriodendron (poplar), Crataegus (haws), Prunus (plums and cherries), Acer
(maples), Tilia (basswood or lin), Gordonia, Nyssa (black gums and tupelo
gums), Cornus florida (dogwood), Oxydendrum (sourwood), Diospyros (per-
simmon), and Fraxinus (ashes). Most of these prefer somewhat clayey soils,
which are entirely absent in the coast strip; but of course no one explanation
will fit all cases. It may be that some of them are averse to salt, lime and
phosphorus. Sipe:

None of the trees and shrubs seem to be specially’ characteristic of this
region except the Yucca and perhaps the Bumelia on dunes, Iva frutescens, Batis
and Borrichia in and around salt marshes, and Iva imbricata on upper beaches.
Many of the herbs, however, especially those of salt marshes and dune hollows,
are almost confined to this region; and nearly all the herbs which grow here at
all are more abundant here than in the average of enone Florida (as indicated
by the + marks).

About 94% of the trees (but not so many of the other plants) are evergreen
and 10% of the shrubs Ericaceae, and there are very few Leguminosae; all of
which indicates the prevalence of very poor soils. The salt marshes and dune
hollows, which contain few or no evergreens or Ericaceae, are epderey much
richer than the average, though.

Economic Features—Asg in the case of the West*Florida coast
strip, there is practically no lumbering and no agriculture in this

20. EAST COAST STRIP, 343

region. The fertile marshes and dune hollows cannot be cultivated
without extensive diking and ditching to get rid of the salt water
(as has been done successfully in Holland), and the population is
hardly dense enough yet to warrant such undertakings. The per-
manent inhabitants, outside of Fernandina, are mostly fishermen,
persons engaged in some branch of navigation or commerce, and
those who cater to the wants of tourists. The coquina rock has
been used largely for building purposes in and around St. Augustine,
for over 300 years. .

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ILLUSTRATIONS

OF THE

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION
OF NORTHERN FLORIDA

Oo
oN
or

MARIANNA RED LANDS
Jackson County
(Pages 193-200)

Fic. 41. Upland hardwood forest cn red clay soil derived from limestone,
about 7 miles northwest of Marianna. Trees mostly Hagus grandifolia (beech)
and Quercus Schneckti (red oak), with a bushy undergrowth of Cercis (red-
bud) and a few oak sprouts. May 11, 1914.

346

4I

4

FIGURE

347

MARIANNA RED LANDS

(Pages 193-200)

Fic. 42. Rocky hillside near the Chipola or Long Moss Spring, with hard-

wood forest composed of Fagus (beech), Celtis (hackberry), Ulmus fulva

(slippery elm), Magnolia grandiflora (magnolia), and other trees. The rock
is limestone. March 10, 1910.

WEST FLORIDA LIME-SINK REGION

(Pages 201-209)

Fic. 43. Scene about 3 miles south of Sneads, Jackson Co., showing wet

pine land vegetation (Sarracenia flava, etc.) on slope in foreground, and a lime-

sink with denser growth of hardwood trees at bottom of same slope. April
27-1910,

Fic. 44. Small dry lime-sink in comparatively level long-leaf pine forest
in extreme eastern part of Walton County, between Sandy and Reedy Creeks.
The pines are all turpentined. The broad-leaved trees are mostly Liquidambar

(sweet gum), and the dark patch of vegetation in the sink is Osmunda cin-
namomea (a fern). May 7, to14.

345

2-44

S. 4

FIGURE

349

WEST FLORIDA LIME-SINK REGION
(Pages 201-209)

Fic. 45. Scene in open pine woods with no underbrush, and “pimply” soil,
on a hill near Hinson’s (or Douglass) Crossroads, about 9 miles west of
Vernon, Washingion County, looking toward a similar hill about a quarter of
a mile away. (The house is in the saddle between the two hills.) The trees
are all long-leaf pine, and the herbaceous vegetation is mostly wire-grass.
May 7,. 1914.

Fic. 46. Interior of a bay about 8 miles west of Vernon, Washington
County. The tree in the center is Tavodium imbricarium (pond cypress), and
the shrubbery is mostly //ex coriacea, Itea Virginica, and Leucothoe racemosa.
(Flowers of the last close to bottom of picture.) May 7, 1914.

350

FIGURES 45, 40

WEST FLORIDA LIME-SINK REGION
(Pages 201-209)

Fic. 47. Permanent pond with open water and scattered cypress trees
(Taxodium imbricarium) about 2 miles north of Vernon, Washington County.
The scattered shrubs in the water, barely visible in the picture, are Hypericum
fasciculatum. May 8, 1914.

Fic. 48. Interior of a small May-haw pond (dry at the time), about 8
miles west of Vernon, Washington County. Trees all Crataegus aestivalis.
May 7, I91r4.

APALACHICOLA RIVER BLUFF REGION
(Pages 210-216)

lic. 49. Looking north over hills and river-bottoms trom near top of
Aspalaga Bluff, Gadsden County. This view having been taken in early
spring when the deciduous trees were still leafless gives an idea of the pro-
portion of evergreens. Most of those in the picture are Pinus Taeda (short
leaf pine). The trees in the bottoms are all deciduous. March 7, 1900.

353

APALACHICOLA RIVER BLUFF REGION
(Pages 210-216)

Fic. 50. Looking up one of the shady ravines of Aspalaga Bluff, Gadsden
County. Foliage of Tumion taxifolium (stinking cedar) conspicuous in fore-
ground and elsewhere. (This is probably the first photograph of this tree in
its native haunts ever published.) March 5, 1900.

Fic. 51. Muddy swamp of Apalachicola River in northern part of Liberty
County. Trees all deciduous. The larger ones are mostly Liquidambar (sweet
gum), and the small leaning one in the foreground is Jlex decidua. March

8, 1909.

354

Sok

1979)

KNONSEMEE COUINGRM
WALTON COUNTY
(Pages 217-222)

Fic. 52. Dense second growth of Pinus Taeda (short-leaf pine) about
3 miles southeast of Eucheeanna and 5 miles southwest of Knox Hill. May
6, 1914.

HOLMES VALLEY
WASHINGTON CouNTY
(Pages 223, 224)

Fic. 53. Looking north across Holmes Valley from near its high southern
edge, about 2 miles south of Vernon. May 8, to14.

FIGURES 52, 53

WEST FLORIDA LAKE REGION
(Pages 225-228)

Fic. 54. Small circular lake surrounded by long-leaf pine forest, about
1o miles southeast of Vernon, Washington County. Photograph by F. G.
Clapp, 1908. (From 2nd Annual Report, plate 2.1.)

WES PEE ORD AG PINE sence
(Pages 229-241)

Fic. 55. Looking upstream from foot-bridge in estuarine swamp of Black-
water River opposite Milton, Santa Rosa County. The trees are mostly
Pinus Elliottii (slash pine), the bushes in the middle distance Hypericum fasci-
culatum, and the grass-like vegetation in the foreground Cladium effusum
(saw-grass). This vegetation is growing in peat too deep for roots to reach
the bottom of it. June 22, 1909.

FIGURES 54, 55

a9

WEST FEORIDA> PINE EILTEES
(Pages 229-241)
Fic. 56. Scene about 2 miles southeast of DeFuniak Springs, Walton
County, showing open pine forests, a small branch-swamp with Magnolia glauca
(bay) and Cyrilla racemifiora (tyty), and a wet slope with characteristic vege-

tation in foreground, May 6, ror4.

Fic, 57. Scene about half way between DeFuniak Springs and Portland,
showing a branch-swamp full of Cliftonia (tyty), bordered by a boggy slope

devoid of trees. September 23, gro.

WEST FLORIDA COAST REGION
(Pages 242-247)

Looking west along shore of St. George’s Sound near Lanark,

BiG. 58:
This shore is pretty well protected

Franklin County, at or about flood tide.
from wave action by Dog Island, a narrow barrier-beach two or three miles

out. The coarse grasses near the water are mostly Spartina junciformis and
S. Bakeri, and the trees are mostly Pinus Elliottii (or perhaps P. Caribaea).

June 9, 1900.

360

—_—

FIGURES 56-58

361

WEST FLORIDA COAST REGION
(Pages 242-247)

Fic. 59. Stationary dunes on narrow treeless part of Dog Island, about
5 miles due south of Carrabelle, Franklin County. Vegetation nearly all ever-
green shrubs. Serenoa (saw-palmetto) at right, Conradina (the grayish shrub)
and Ceratiola (smaller and darker) in foreground. Fire is impossible in such
vegetation. May 28, 1014.

Fic. 60. Forest of Pinus clausa (spruce pine) on narrow peninsula of
ancient dune sand on south side of Escambia Bay, Santa Rosa County. The
shrubs in the foreground are mostly Quercus myrtifolia (a dwarf evergreen
oak), and there is also some Ceratiola (rosemary), which the picture does not
bring out well. This locality is about 50 feet above sea-level, and the vegetation
is evidently in a more advanced stage than that shown above. No traces of
fire were observed here. September 19, I9g1O0.

Fic. 61. Looking south from a pine tree on highest old dunes near Lanark,
Franklin County, about 50 feet above sea-level. St. George’s Sound and Dog
Island in distance. Gophers and ants inhabit the soil here, but there are no
salamanders. Vegetation mostly Pinus palustris (long-leaf pine) and Quercus
Catesbaei (black-jack oak). August 2, 1914.

FIGURES 59-61

363

APALACHICOLA FLATWOODS
(Pages 247-253)
Fic. 62. Typical flatwoods scene on St. James Island about a mile inland

from Lanark, Franklin County. Long-leaf pine and saw-palmetto in fore-
ground, tyty bays in distance. August 2, 1914. :

Fic. 63. Looking down muddy bayou in estuarine swamps of Apalachicola
River about 7 miles north of Apalachicola. The trees are mostly Taxrodium
distichum (cypress), with some Juniperus Virginiana (cedar). Floating leaves
of Nymphaea fluviatilis (bonnets) in foreground, Scirpus validus (bulrush) at
water’s edge, and Cladinm effusum (saw-grass) a little farther back. April
24, IQI0.

364

FIGURES 62, 63

365

MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT
(Pages 254-265)

Fic. 64. Interior of gum swamp or bay about 5 miles WIN.W. of Talla-
hassee, Leon County. The larger trees are mostly Nyssa biflora (black gum),
and the smaller ones Magnolia glauca (bay). February 27, 1909. (Reprinted
from 3d Annual Report, p. 255, where additional information about the place
can be found.)

366

FIGURE 64

ers

me ae ae

eS OR pee pee ee ee A ee

nea bom

—
bi

‘

i
hil

a

Na
:6

¥

DS amen nes

367

MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT
(Pages 254-265)

Fic. 65. Flatwoods near Capitola, in the extreme eastern part of Leon
County. The trees are Pinus palustris and P. serotina, and the shrubby
undergrowth is mostly Serenoa (saw-palmetto) and Jlex glabra (gallberry).
March 21, 1910.

Fic. 66. Large marsh, or marshy prairie, with several feet of peat, about
5 miles east of Greenville, Madison County. Trees all Tarodium imbricarium
(pond cypress). May 24, 1910. (Described in 3d Annual Report, pp. 276-277.)

368

S 65, 06

URE

FIG

369

MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT
(Pages 254-265)

Fic. 67. Looking up Santa Fe River from bridge near Worthington
Springs. (Bradford County on the left, Alachua on the right.) Hammock
and bottom vegetation on both sides. May 26, I900.

Fic. 68. Field of peanuts on rich gray loamy sand (which is very char-
acteristic of this part of the hammock belt), about 3 miles south of Alachua,
Alachua County; showing horizontal circular rows following contours around a
dry lime-sink, with patch of weeds in center. Hardwood forests in background,
solitary sweet gum tree at left. July 14, 1914. (The soil here is probably
well supplied with phosphorus, among other things, and the sweet gum is one
of the trees that seems to prefer phosphatic soils.)

370

FIGURES 67, 68

371

IPNILANEUNS Sao, RBI) VUULILS),
Leon CouNTY
(Pages 266-279)

Fic. 69. Looking about north across fields and hills about 11-2 miles west
of Tallahassee. Some of the hills are crowned with forests of Pinus echinata
(short-leaf pine), probably mostly second growth in this case. November 24,
1910. (The prevailing colors of the landscape at this season are dark green,
gray and brown, the last including the soil.) The entire absence of gullies is
noteworthy.

Fic. 70. Looking east across fields of brown loam about 5 miles east of
Tallahassee, showing two ponds at different levels, and a few dead live oaks
(which are as characteristic of cultivated fields in this region as dead pines are
in the long-leaf pine regions). April 4, 1914.

Fic. 71. View of eastern part of Lake Lafayette, showing Taxodium im-
bricarium (pond cypress), Tillandsia usneoides (Spanish moss), and a dense
growth of Panicum hemitomon (maiden cane) in middle distance. Water
near its highest stage. March 24, 1914. (At this time the cypress trees were
just beginning to put out their leaves.)

372

FIGURES 60-71

373

TALLAHASSEE, RED HILLS,
Lrton County
(Pages 266-279)

Fic. 72. Short-leaf pine woods on uplands about 5 miles northeast of
Tallahassee. Trees nearly all Pinus echinata. April 4, 1914. (Reprinted from
Popular Science Monthly, October, 1914.)

Fic. 73. Dry woods about 3 miles north of Chaires. Trees mostly Quercus
falcata (red oak) and Cornus florida (dogwood), both in bloom. Tillandsia
usneoides (Spanish moss) abundant. April 4, 1014.

ow
~I
He

ca

IN

x

’

N

FIGURES 7

BELLAIR SAND REGION
(Pages 280-288)

Fic. 74. Pinus palustris (long-leaf pine) and Quercus Catesbaei (black-
jack oak) on deep dry sand about 1-2 mile south of Bellair (or 41-2 miles
S.S.E. of Tallahassee). The black-jack oaks are rather small here, most
of them being mere shrubs. The absence of Spanish moss is noteworthy.
September 26, ror4.

Fic. 75. Looking east across Munson’s Lake, or Pond, about 5 miles
south of Tallahassee, at low water or nearly so. (The shore in the foreground
is evidently all inundated at high water.) The trees standing alone are all
Taxodium imbricarium (pond cypress). June 20, 1914.

376

FIGURES 74,

NI

24 3

~I
~J

WAKULLA HAMMOCK COUNTRY
WAKULLA CouNTY
(Pages 289-296)
Fic. 76. Looking up Wakulla River from upper bridge, about 2 miles
southwest of Wakulla station, and 3 miles below the great spring .of the

same name. The trees are Tavodium distichum (cypress), and the vegetation
in the foreground is mostly Sagiitaria lancifolia. April 9, 1910.

Fic. 77. Forest of red oak, hickory and dogwood, with a very few long-
leaf pines (none of which show in the picture), about a mile north of Craw-
fordville. June 20, 1914. (This is the precise locality where the soil samples
mentioned herein were taken a few months later.)

378

+
4
:
i

&

37

‘

WAKULLA HAMMOCK COUNTRY
WAKULLA COUNTY
(Pages 289-206)

Fic. 78. Scene about 61-2 miles east of Crawfordville on road to St.
Mark’s, overhung by long-leaf pine, red oak, wild grape vines, etc. June 109,
IQI4.

PANACEA COUNTRY
WAKULLA CoUNTY
(Pages 297-301)

Fic. 79. Small bay about 2 miles northwest of Panacea Springs, with
Taxodium imbricarium (pond cypress), Cyrilla parvifolia and Ilex myrtifolia.
High pine land in foreground, with a decided slope down to the bay. July 30,
IQT4.

380

FIGURES 78, 79

cae |

=n

Je

ee

te
a

Bars

381

GULF HAMMOCK REGION
(Pages 302-300)

Fic. 80. Marly(?) flatwoods about 8 miles southeast of Hampton Springs,
Taylor County. Trees mostly Pinus Elhiottii and Sabal Palmetto. March 30,
IQTO.

Fic. 81. Interior of “Pumpkin Swamp,” a large low hammock near Hines,
Lafayette County, showing young trees of Sabal Palmetto (cabbage palmetto)
and a large trunk of Taxrodium distichum (cypress). March 31, 1910.

382

FIGURES 8o, 81

383

PENINSULAR LIME-SINK REGION
(Pages 314-319)

Fic. 82. High pine land about 2 miles west of Archer, Alachua County,
showing especially Ceratiola ericoides (rosemary), which is rare in this region.
This is a place where the soil is so poor that the vegetation is sparse enough
to afford the rosemary sufficient protection from fire (to which it is very
sensitive). April 27, 1900.

Fic. 83. Looking about north or northwest from Buda (or Clark),
Alachua County, showing high pine land almost completely deforested to sup-
ply fuel for phosphate mines in the vicinity. The topography here is some-
what rolling, though the picture does not bring it out very well. There is no
surface water within several miles. July 15, 1914.

PENINSULAR LAKE REGION
(NorTHERN Part)
(Pages 320-325)

Fic. 84. Scrub vegetation on white sand on east side of Lake Kingsley,
Clay County. The pinés are Pinus clausa, and the shrubs in the foreground
are Ceratiola ericoides. There is almost no herbaceous vegetation, and con-
sequently fires are very infrequent. May 14, 1909. (This view was selected
because it is very characteristic of the lake region, but it is not at all typical;
i. e., the average appearance of the region is quite different. But no typical
view of the small part of the lake region covered by this report happened
to be available.)

384

FIGURES 82-84

EAST FLORIDA FLATWOODS.
(Pages 326-337)

Fic. 85. Cypress pond near Bellamy, Alachua County. Trees mostly Taxo-
dium imbricarium, with some Pinus Elliotti. July 17, 1910.

Fic. 86. Looking north across Lake Butler, Bradford County, from near
edge of the town of the samz name. The trees are Taxvodium wmnbricarium
(pond cypress), draped with Tillandsia usneoides as usual. May 27, 1900.

386

86

55,

LS

4

FIGURI

387

EAST COAST STRIP
(Pages 338-343)

Fic. 87. Exposure of coquina rock on shore of Anastasia Island, St.
John’s County. Photograph by F. G. Clapp, December, 1907. (From 2nd An-
nual Report, pl. 7. 2.)

Fic. 88. Salt marshes near Mayport, Duval County, with dunes in distance.
The grass in the foreground seems to be all Spartina stricta. The cause of
the circular pools is not obvious. May 13, 1909.

388

FIGURES 87,

=F
os

c

eos:

i

ah men ow |

389

EAST COAST STRIP
(Pages 338-343)

Fic. 89. Salt marsh and hammock on inner side of Anastasia Island,
looking west toward St. Augustine. The hammock is ou an ancient dune
rising abruptly from the marsh, which makes up about half of the apparent
height of the trees. The trees are mostly live oaks. The smoothness of the
top of the forest is probably due largely to the effects of wind. July 8, 1914.

Fic. 90. Looking north from summit of outermost dunes on Anastasia
Island about a mile south of South Beach, showing beach and surf at right,
dunes in center, and shrubby thickets or dwarf hammocks at left. Ipomoea Pes-
caprae (seaside morning-glory) conspicuous in foreground. July 8, 1914.

390

FIGURES 89, go

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i es : 3
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- Such =m * ia ae . Hip atl =" = =7 .
fo ;
.
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,
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. bs
‘ =? 5 * a
at
.

STATISTICAL SUMMARY

In the foregoing pages some of the fundamental and significant character-
istics of each region have been expressed numerically. It will now be very in-
structive to bring together as many as possible of such numbers in a single
table for purposes of comparison, and see what conclusions may be drawn
from them,

It has been stated in the introduction that in northern Florida, if not else-
where, the differences in vegetation, density of population, etc., between neigh-
boring regions seem to depend on soil and topography more than anything else.
And one of the purposes of this report is to show how a study of the native
vegetation may indicate the character of the soil, and more particularly its ag-
ricultural value. But unfortunately our knowledge of the soil in this area is
still so imperfect that it is difficult to make definite correlations. We have in-
deed many physical or mechanical analyses of soils, thanks to the activity of
the U. S. Bureau of Soils, but no one seems to have ever pointed out any close
correlations between such analyses and the vegetation or even the productivity,
beyond the bare fact that a good soil ought to have a certain amount of silt
and clay. Chemical composition seems to be more significant (though some
limiting factors often have to be taken into consideration, as intimated in the
footnote on pp. 175-176), and some correlations between evergreens and potash,
Ericaceae and lime, etc., have already been indicated. But at present we have
chemical analyses from only ten of the twenty geographical divisions, and seven
of those are represented by only one analysis each; and it is of course impos-
sible for a single soil sample, no matter how carefully selected, to be typical of
a somewhat diversified region. Consequently it would be rather risky to base
any important conclusions on these data.

Another index of the fertility of the soil is the amount of fertilizer used
by the farmers. Of course in the long run nearly as much mineral plant food
should be put back into the soil as is removed by crops, regardless of the orig-
inal fertility; but in most parts of Florida agriculture is as yet a comparatively
undeveloped industry, and the farmers are still drawing on the natural re-
sources of the soil to a considerable extent. Consequently the least fertilizer
is generally used on the richest soils, and vice versa.

Statistics of the annual expenditure for fertilizers in each county are read-
ily obtained from both:state and government census reports (but were discov-
ered too late to be mentioned in the earlier pages of this report). But nat-
urally there are several chances of error in trying to obtain the average amount
of fertilizer used per acre. in different regions from the census returns. First,
in regions where the amount of cultivated land is very small a slight variation
in the total amount of fertilizer used in different years may make a consider-
able difference in the amount per acre, and the census year might not be an
average year. Second, in regions which do not cover as much as half of any
one county it is impossible to apportion the fertilizer among different regions
in the same county accurately. A similar difficulty was encountered in appor-
tioning the population and improved land (see p. 188), but it is more accentu-
ated in the case of fertilizer, which seems to vary more from one region to an-
other than the population, in Florida at least, and is not so easily checked up

25 398

394 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

by personal observation. For example, in Wakulla County probably most of
the tilled land is in region 13, which covers less than one-fourth of the county,
and practically no fertilizer is used there (see p. 296) ; but about half the county
is in region 9, where fertilizer is used at the rate of about a dollar’s worth per
acre per year. So instead of the flatwoods part of the county having half the
tilled land and using half the fertilizer, it probably has something like one-tenth
of the tilled land and uses nine-tenths of the fertilizer. Third, economic con-
ditions sometimes cause the use of much more fertilizer than the ordinary sta-
ple crops would naturally require, as in Gadsden County, where large areas are
devoted to tobacco, which requires a. great deal of potash, and in the neighbor-
hood of cities and along trunk lines of railroad, where truck-farming is carried
on extensively.

The first column of figures in the table is for areas, in square miles, and
the next three for the percentages of evergreens, Ericaceae (among the shrubs)
and Leguminosae (among the herbs), most of which have already been given
in the regional descriptions. The fifth is for the percentage of original forest
remaining, which is of course a little less than the difference between that of
improved land and 100%. The sixth column represents the amount expended in
1909 for fertilizer, per acre of improved land, according to the 13th U. S. census.
The seventh is for density of population (number of inhabitants per square
mile), and the last for the percentage of whites. (The cities of Pensacola and
Jacksonville are excluded from the calculations of density of population, for the
reasons given on pages 229 and 336.) It did not seem worth while to insert in
this table the rates of increase of population, which have been mentioned in
some of the regional descriptions, for although they differ greatly in different
regions, they vary too much from one decade to another to have much geo-
graphical significance.

All the figures of course are only approximate, but in the first five columns
the average error is probably not more than 10% one way or another. The last
three columns are less reliable..on account of the lack of minute detail in the
census reports, as already explained; but the averages for the whole of north-
ern Florida, at the bottom of these columns, are just as accurate as the work
of the census enumerators, if not more so. In some of the columns figures un-
known but believed to be above the average for northern Florida in that par-
ticular thing are indicated by + and the reverse by —, somewhat as was done
in the plant lists. Where no such guess can be safely made an interrogation
point is used.

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA, 395

STATISTICAL, TABLE

Western division -------- | 3200|

REGIONS Area Percentage of ee ES 38 by
: ——_—_—_——_ |! ° ee lecsh ee
| Evere | Eric. |Legum forest PK As 2 3
| | | | | |
1. Marianna red lands---------- | 440|| 49 | 2 | Io || 502| .15?|40%|40?
2. W. Ila. lime-sink region--_-- | 1600}| 65 | 12. 6 || 8&5 | 99 lee 69
3. Apalachicola bluffs -.-------- bea S055 7 2 i SS ge
4. Kao dah icountry==— 2220.5 | Sully : | Pat| ——logelne
| (56 | 25 r)
5. Holmes Valley ------------- | 30), § | Nh eeconed Woy a ee (ee
6. West Fla. lake region-------- eu 75 ? ? o7?| 2 |— |+
7. West Fla. pine hills— |
|
|

|
|
| 75 |
bis 10 95 | 2.33 |13*|62
Eastern division) =-2s=———— 750|| 77
82 West bla.coast stripes. 22_ fe 80 a 8 99 | ? |— I+
g. Apalachicola flatwoods ------ 2600|| 68 16 I | 97 | 1.00 | 8 |58
10. Middle Fla. hammock belt-—
Western division —~_------ 440|; 74 8 8 2? |3.46 |+ |—
Middle division ---------- 800} 69 20 2 a T2714 | 32
Eastern division ----_ —— 4 66 9 8 75 | .48 |26 |50
11. Tallahassee red hills -------- 340|| 53 8 9 407] .10%|40%\25?
i bellairesand Gertom oes eS 240|| 60 30 17 95 TNs
13. Wakulla hammock country --| 1I50|| 48 II 12 PAshts\ pa® Weal Faia OL
iy anaced country oes. se 60|| 66 31 28 99 ea, oe
15. Gulf hammock region ----_ --| 1470]| 74 7 6 95 | .20 | 7 |60
16. Middle Fla. flatwoods ~------ Tooo|| 69 18 — o8 | 2? |— [+
17. Peninsular lime-sink region--| 2000|| 79 2 20 75 | .35 |24 |51
18. Peninsular lake region ~----- 500|| 80 15 15 SEP ee iGalae
19. East Fla. flatwoods—
Western division -------- 2050|| 75 19 2 85 | 1.00 |20 |60
Eastern: division’ -=-==—=— i ee 74 Gi 4 96 | 3.78 |16T|53
20, Hast coast}'stripy S222 23 eh se 94 10 4 99 ? Paleee
Be Ses EE eee eee 2) PE | EES tey HS
Northern Florida. 2--2-._- |22600|| 70 | 12 7 89 | .89 |20 |54
!

*Excluding Pensacola.
tExcluding Jacksonville.

It will be noticed that in general high percentages of evergreens and Erica-
ceae go with much virgin forest, considerable expenditure for fertilizers (in
regions that have been cultivated enough to get any fertilizer statistics from),
and sparse population with whites predominating; and vice versa. There are

-some exceptions, of course, but most of those are due to somewhat accidental

or psychological factors, and have been partly explained in the regional de-
scriptions. It is certain at least that the six small regions with less than 60%
of evergreens (indicated by shading on the map) have required very little fer-
tilizer as yet, and most of them have at least 25% of their area cleared, and
more negroes than white people. The relations of leguminous plants to soils
and economic features are not quite so simple ,but some of them have been sug-
gested in the regional descriptions.

Tt is also evident that nearly all the regions that spend over a dollar an acre
a year for fertilizer have more evergreens than the average, and also more
white people. In region 9 the evergreen percentage is a little below the aver-
age, on account of the Apalachicola River swamps, in which deciduous trees
predominate, but those fertile swamps are almost too wet to cultivate, and
therefore do not perceptibly increase the amount of land that is cultivated with

396 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH.ANNUAL REPORT.

little or no fertilizer. In the western division of region 10 the percentage of
whites is evidently below the average, but the high expenditure for fertilizer
there is mainly due to the tobacco industry, whose concentration there may be
very largely accidental. (The influence of the trucking industry on fertilizer
expenditure is shown plainly in the eastern division of region 19, and less so
in the eastern division of region 10.)

Although one very rarely sees any such statement in print, it must be a
fact that the pioneer farmers in northern Florida (if not in most other eastern
states), who of course know little about soil physics or chemistry, and cannot
afford to experiment much, in selecting land for cultivation must have been
guided largely by the proportions of evergreen and deciduous trees in the for-
ests.* And deciduous forests are nearly always cleared first, provided their lo-
cation, drainage, etc., are suitable. Just how much the average farmer reacts
to the presence of Ericaceae, Leguminosae, and other indicative plants it is
hard to say, for he cannot be expected to have an intimate acquaintance with
them. But probably almost every farmer knows that huckleberry bushes (Erica-
ceae) generally indicate poor soil, and clover and beggar-weed (Leguminosae)
the opposite.

Our very sandy hammocks, which although pretty well supplied with humus
(as nearly all hammocks are) are characterized by a preponderance of ever-
greens, are quite generally left uncultivated, as are the sour flatwoods and scrub,
in which the vegetation is nearly all evergreen. And it cannot be doubted that
the early settlers who began to clear up the land around Crawfordville in the
first half of the 19th century, when most of Wakulla County was a “howling
wilderness,” were attracted by the predominance of deciduous trees in the for-
ests, and not deterred by the coarse and unpromising appearance of the soil.

*Quite a number of botanists and soil investigators have discussed the prob-
lem of determining the agricultural value of virgin soils by means of vegeta-
tion, particularly Hilgard (Tenth Census 5:68-69, 229; Soils, xvili-xx, 313-318,
487-526), Mohr (Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 6:821-824. 1901), Kearney (Contr. U.
S. Nat. Herb. 5 :481-484. 1901), Shantz (U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Industry,
Bull. 201. 1911), and Kearney, Shantz and others (Jour. Agric. Research, 1 :365-
417, pl. 42-47. Feb. 1914) ; but all these studies have been merely or mainly qualita-
tive, as explained on page 173, and therefore of little value to one who does
not happen to know the plants discussed. And they usually make no special
reference to the percentage of evergreens, which is one of the most prominent
and easily determined features of any forest. (That evergreens have practically
the same significance as far north as upper Michigan—latitude 46°—that they
do here has been pointed out by the writer in Rep. Mich. Acad. Sci. 15 :197.
IQI4.)

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 397

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ABOUT SOILS.

In the regional descriptions a number of mechanical analyses of soils have
been quoted from government soil surveys; but in those published since 1905 the
localities and depths of the samples are not given. Some of the missing data
have just been obtained from the records of the U. S. Bureau of Soils through
the kindness of Prof. C. F. Marbut, in charge of the soil survey work, and are
given here, having been received too late for insertion in the proper places.

Region 1, p. 194. The sample of “Norfolk fine sandy loam” came from 3
miles north of Aycock, and should therefore have been given under region 2, on
page 202. ;

Region 6, page 225. Both samples of “Norfolk sand” are from localities
outside of the lake region; but perhaps there 1s no essential difference between
them and the lake region soils, in texture at least.

Region 9, page 248. The ‘Leon sand” is from one mile north of Grand Bay,
which would be about in S. 24, T. 1 S., R. 4 W. The depths of soil and subsoil
are 0-8 and 8-36 inches respectively.

Region 10, page 255. The samples of “Norfolk sand” from Jefferson
County are from % mile south of Ashville and 2 miles south of Lloyd's.

Region 11, page 268. It turns out that neither sample of “Norfolk sand”
from Leon County was from the Tallahassee red hills, so that its omission from
the table was justified.

Region 16, page 310, The “Portsmouth fine sand” samples from Jefferson
County were taken 2 miles north of Delph (now called Fanlew), which would
probably be in S. 20, T. 2 S., R. 3 E. The depths are 0-8, 8-20, and 20-36
inches.

Six additional chemical analyses of soils have been made by L. Heimburger,
Assistant State Chemist, since the printing of the foregoing pages was well ad-
vanced. As in the case of those given on pages 270 and 281, he used the A. O.
A. C. methods for fertilizers, described in Bulletin 107 of the Bureau of Chem-
istry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, revised edition of 1912. To be more specific,
the phosphoric acid was determined by method 3(a) (2) (a2) on page 2, the
nitrogen by method 4(d) (modified Gunning method) on page 8, and the potash
by method 5(a) (2) (b) on page q1. The sodium, sulphur, magnesium, man- _
ganese, and several other minor or less important constituents were not deter-
mined for lack of time. The volatile matter includes nitrogen.

The samples are as follows:

1. (Region 2, page 201.) Pine land on east side of Choctawhatchee River,
81% miles northeast of Cerro Gordo, Holmes Co. Collected by Dr. E. H. Sel-
lards.

2. (Region 9, page 247.) Flatwoods near 32-mile-post on G., F. & A. Ry.
(between Hilliardville and Arran), Wakulla Co. Oct. 8, 1914. A rather coarse
gray sand, o-1 ft. Vegetation long-leaf pine, saw-palmetto, gallberry, wire-grass,
deer-tongue, and several less familiar plants. (Jhis would probably be classed
as “Leon sand” by the U. S. Bureau of Soils.)

3. (Region 13, page 280.) Coarse yellowish sandy loam from rich woods
about a mile north of Crawfordville, Wakulla Co. (The same spot shown in
fig. 77.) Oct. 8, 1914. Vegetation mostly red oak, hickory and dogwood, with
very little underbrush or herbaceous vegetation. Sample taken to a depth of
one foot.

4. Same locality, 2 to 3 feet below surface. Subsoil, very similar in ap-
pearance to surface soil. (See mechanical analysis on page 289.)

398 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

5. (Region 15, page 304.) Calcareous flatwoods, close to sea-level, about
a mile northwest of St. Mark’s, Wakulla Co. Sept. 19, 1914. A blackish medi-
um sand, with almost no silt and clay, taken to a depth of 6 inches. Vegetation
Ambrosia sp. Flaveria sp., Chondrophora nudata, Pluchea bifrons, Cladium
effusum (saw-grass), Mesosphaerum radiatum, Monniera acuminata, Lippia sp.,
Dichromena colorata, Centella repanda, Eupatorium mikaniodes, and a few
other peculiar herbs, with wire-grass and small scattered long-leaf pines. A
few earthworms found here, strange to say.

6. (Region 17, page 314.) High pine land near Wade, Alachua Co. Depth
of sample 0-3 feet. Collected by Dr. E. H. Sellards.

ANALYSES.
Tiss 2intaiSi aia Au Sian
Moisture! (HzO) —==2===—-==-—===-—— 0.29 0.06 0.33 0.09 0.63 0.03
Volatilesmatter =-——-—------------——— 208). I-35 2,305 1200 4.3'07. 0152
Nitrogen -------------------------- AISe 110), “120 2083)a-14A5) 075
Potash (K2O) -------------------- 090 .029 .044 .033 .072 .033
ite eA 0) eee 145 .085 .090 .060 .190 .II5
Phosphoric. acid (P205)) ===--===== .064 .044 .064 .044 .050 .072
Iron and alumina (Fe203,Al203) -- . 3.83 0.33 1.38 1.14 1.53 0.60
insoluble amatter —222---—---=---—- = 93.50 98.35 96.08 97.86 94.87 98.80

Although these analyses do not all come out exactly as was expected, they
are not wholly inconsistent with what was already known of the vegetation and
agricultural resources of their respective regions.

No. I is a pretty good average soil for northern Florida, and the statistics
given a few pages back for the region from which it comes (the West Florida
lime-sink or cypress pond region) are not far from the average for the whole
area.

No. 2 has less of all soluble and volatile constituents.than any other in the
table, except that it exceeds in humus and the components thereof No. 4, which
is a subsoil, and No. 6, which is soil and subsoil mixed, and has a little more
lime than No. 4. It is not surprising therefore that it is uncultivated.

The greatest surprise was in the case of Nos. 3 and 4, the soil and subsoil
so carefully selected from near Crawfordville, on a special trip made for the
purpose. By all accepted physical and chemical standards this should be a
rather poor soil; but the vegetation and crops indicate decidedly otherwise.
Perhaps the main source of fertility lies in some constituent not considered in
these analyses; or perhaps the soil has some peculiarity that enables plant roots |
(especially in the case of trees, which have a life-time to do it in) to get more
out of it than the chemists’ reagents do in a few days.* Another possibility is
that there is a more fertile stratum below the depth sounded (three feet),

*Possibly a different method of analysis would give results more consistent
with the surface indications. Hilgard (Soils 343, 375) states that the A. O. A. C.
methods for soils extract less of some constituents, particularly potash, than his
acid-digestion method; and Mr. Heimburger used the A. O. A. C. methods for
fertilizers, which may differ in still other ways. And yet all of his analyses
having been made by the same method, ought to be strictly comparable with
each other, if not with those made by other methods; unless there is some
significant difference in the rate of reaction of soils of different texture to the
same reagents.

GEOGRAPHy AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 399

which is reached by the roots of trees but not by those of herbs. For. strange
to say, the native herbs of region 13 are nearly all species characteristic of high
pine land and sandy hammocks, the red oak and dogwood forests being almost
devoid of herbaceous vegetation. In this particular this region is much like No,
AI, but a good deal different from Nos, 4 and 5, and very, very different from
Nos. 1 and 3; although the arborescent flora of these six hardwood regions
(which are shaded on the map) has much in common. But the fact that there
is more potash, lime, phosphorus, iron and alumina in the soil than in the sub-
soil would not be easy to explain on the last hypothesis, nor would the pro-
ductivity of the soil; for it is not likely that the roots of annual crops go as
deep as three feet. (The soil is indeed loose and easily penetrated for consid-
erable depths, but so is that of regions 12 and 17, which are much less fertile.)
This soil problem thus adds one more to the several mysteries or curiosities
for which Wakulla County is already noted.*

No. 5 contains more lime than any of the others in this lot ,as was ex-
pected, and also more humus, which is often correlated with lime. (This was
the only one of the last six soils in which earthworms were noticed.) It con-
tains considerably less lime, though, than the clayey soils previously analyzed,
and whether the amount of lime in it completely explains the peculiarity of its
vegetation or not cannot be said to be definitely settled.

No. 6 is the poorest of the six in humus, but the richest in phosphorus,
which might have been expected, as it comes from the phosphate country. It
contains less phosphorus than the (more clayey) soils of regions 1 and 11,
‘however, if we may judge from the analyses.

*The name of the county is said to be an Indian word meaning mystery.
(See Norton’s Handbook of Florida, 3d edition, 1892, pp. 98, 347.)

400 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

LIST OF TREES

The following list comprises all the native trees (including many small
trees) mentioned in the foregoing pages (and a few additional ones too rare
to appear in any of the regional lists), with their percentages of abundance
for northern Florida as a whole, their technical and common names, and a few
words about their distribution and habitat. The percentages are given only to
the nearest tenth of one per cent, and therefore those less than .05% are rep-
resented by 0. In the case of the small trees, which have been estimated on a
smaller scale than the large ones, as explained on pages 178 and 186, the per-
centages are not given, but are replaced by interrogation points. None of them
would exceed 1% even if they were given. Evergreens are indicated by heavy
type, as before. The sequence is very nearly the same as in Small’s Trees of
Florida (1913), in which can be found the names of several species which are
not mentioned here because they are confined to the southern parts of the state,
or are not native, or have not been identified by the writer, or are too small to

be «egarded as trees.

41.7 Pinus palustris Mill. LonG-LEAF PINE.
Sandier soils, in every region except the last.
0.2 Pinus Caribaea Morelet?
Mostly near Gulf coast. Not well understood as yet.
9.2 Pinus Elliottii Engelm. (SLasH PINe.)
Ponds, bays, non-alluvial swamps, etc., nearly throughout.
4.7 Pinus Taeda L. Swort-LeaF pine. (Also called loblolly pine and black
pine.)
Hammocks, bottoms, and other moderately rich soils, nearly throughout.
2.9 Pinus serotina Mx. (BLACK PINE.)
Bays, flatwoods, etc., rare westward, common eastward.
1.8 Pinus echinata Mill. Swort-Lear PINE. (Also called rosemary pine.)
Mostly on clayey uplands. West and Middle Florida.
0.7 Pinus glabra Walt. Spruce PINE.
Hamniocks, etc., common westward, rare eastward.
0.5 Pinus clausa (Engelm.) Vasey. Spruce PINE.
Old dunes near coast, and scrub of peninsular lake region.
0.9 Taxodium distichum (L.) Richard. Cypress.
Mostly in marly or alluvial swamps; common but not abundant.
8.8 Taxodium imbricarium (Nutt.) Harper. (TJ. ascendens Brong.) (Ponp)
CypREss.
Ponds, bays, non-alluvial swamps, etc., nearly throughout. Trees apparently
intermediate between this and the preceding occur in the Gulf hammock
region.
0.2 Chamaecyparis thyoides (L.) BSP. Juniper.
Non-alluvial and estuarine swamps, in West Florida pine hills.
0.3 Juniperus Virginiana L. (Rep) cepar.
Rock outcrops, low hammocks, etc., mostly in calcareous regions.
0.1 Tumion taxifolium (Arn.) Greene. STINKING CEDAR, or SAVIN.
Apalachicola River bluffs, in shade of other trees. Not known elsewhere.*

*See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 32:149. 1905.

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 401

o Taxus Floridana Nutt.
Alum Bluff, and reported from farther up the same river. Confined to
region 3, like the preceding.

0.5 Sabal Palmetto (Walt.) R. & S. CABBAGE PALMETTO.
Mostly in low hammocks and near coast. Not known west of St. An-
drew’s Bay.

? Yucca aloifolia L. SpaNisH BAYONET.
Dunes of east coast.

o Juglans nigra L. (BLaAcK) WALNUT.
Richest soils in regions 1 and 3.

o Hicoria aquatica (Mx.f) Britton. (Swamp) HICKorY.
Mostly in alluvial swamps, but not confined to muddy streams.

0.3 Hicoria alba (L.) Britton? Hickory.
Moderately rich uplands, widely distributed.

0.1 Hicoria glabra (Mill.) Britton? Hickory.
Mostly in hammocks, with poorer soil than the preceding requires.
(There are probably two or three other hickories in our area, but they are
difficult to distinguish from the two preceding.)

? Myrica cerifera L. Myrtie. (Usually only a shrub.)
Low hammocks, etc., rather common.

? Myrica inodora Bartr.
Non-alluvial swamps in Middle and West Florida. Occasionally arbores-
cent in region 7.
0.1 Populus deltoides Marsh. CorroNwoon.
Banks of Apalachicola River mostly.
o Populus heterophylla L. (Cottonwoop.)
Banks of lower Apalachicola River, in region 9.
0.3:Salix nigra Marsh. WILLow.
Banks of streams, etc., mostly westward.
? Salix longipes Anders.? WHILLow.
Mostly in marly swamps and low hammocks, particularly in region 15.
? Salix Floridana Chapm.
Somewhat calcareous swamps in regions 1 and 2; rare.
0.3 Carpinus Caroliniana Walt. (IroNwoop.)
Bottoms, low hammocks, etc., mostly northward.
0.2 Ostrya Virginiana ( Mill.) Willd.
Rich woods and hammocks, mostly westward.
0.2 Betula nigra L. Bircu.
Banks of creeks and rivers, mostly northward.
(Several current botanical manuals credit betula lenta L. to West Flor-
ida, but that seems to be wholly unfounded, for that species is not known
south of the mountains of Georgia and Alabama, and it is very stunted
even there.)

0.4 Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. (F. Americana Sweet.) (Our tree has been sep-
arated from the northern one as var. Caroliniana, but the differences are not
very marked.) BeEeEcu.

Rich woods and hammocks; common westward, rare or absent eastward.

o Castanea pumila (L.) Mill. CHinguapin.

A small to medium-sized tree in regions 4 and 14; rare and usually only a
shrub elsewhere.

402 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

0.2 Quercus alba L. WHITE oAk.

Rich woods, mostly westward. Not seen east of region Io.

0.1 Quercus Margaretta Ashe. Post oak. (Sometimes called black-jack oak.)
Sandy uplands, nearly throughout.

0.2 Quercus stellata Wang. Post oak.

Clayey uplands, west of Suwannee River.

0.1 Quercus lyrata Walt. (Swamp Post OAK. OVERCUP OAK.)
Bottoms of Chipola, Apalachicola and Suwannee Rivers mostly.

? Quercus Chapmani Sarg.

Sandy hammocks in peninsular lake region.

0.2 Quercus Michauxii Nutt. (SwAMp CHESTNUT OAK. CHESTNUT WHITE OAK.)
Low hammocks, bottoms, etc.; rather widely distributed.

o Quercus Muhlenbergii Engelm.

Rich calcareous uplands in regions I and 3.

0.5 Quercus Virginiana Mill. Live oaK.

Hammocks, lake shores, etc., apparently preferring phosphatic soils.

0.3 Quercus geminata Small. (SMALLER, Or SCRUB) LIVE OAK.

In poorest Ury sandy soils, such as old dunes, and scrub, also in sandy ham-
‘mocks. Often scarcely more than a shrub.

? Quercus myrtifolia Willd.

Often with the preceding, but confined to still poorer soils if anything, and
only rarely arborescent.

0.5 Quercus laurifolia Mx. (EVERGREEN WILLOW OAK?)

Sandy hammocks, etc., pretty widely distributed.

o Quercus Phellos L. Wu LLow oak.

In clayey soil around small ponds in region 1. Very rare farther south.

0.1 Quercus hybrida (Chapm.) Small?

Common in low hammocks in the Gulf hammock region, and occasionally
in similar situations elsewhere.

0.7 Quercus nigra L. WatTeER OAK.

Bottoms and other low grounds, common except near coast.

1.7 Quercus cinerea Mx. TurKEY oAK. (Sometimes called upland willow oak
or narrow-leaf black-jack.)

Dry sandy uplands; apparently with a slight preference for phosphatic soils.

3.4 Quercus Catesbaei Mx. Bracx-yack oAK. (Also called turkey oak or
forked-leaf black-jack.)

Dry sandy uplands, in every region except nos. 11 and 20.

0.3 Quercus Marylandica Muench. BLack-jack oAK. (Sometimes called round-
leaf black-jack or dollar-leaf oak to distinguish it from the preceding.)
Mostly on driest red clay uplands, from Leon County westward.

1.3 Quercus falcata Mx. (Q. digitata Sudw.) Rep oak. (“Spanish oak” of
the books.)

Rich dry uplands, west of Trail Ridge.

0 Quercus pagodaefolia (Ell.) Ashe. (Rep oak.)
Bottoms of Apalachicola River.

0 Quercus velutina Lam. (Brack oak.)

Dry red clay uplands, mostly in Tallahassee red hills.

o© Quercus Schneckii Britton? (RED oAK?)

Rich woods and hammocks, mostly in regions 1 and 3. (Q. rubra L., the
northern red oak, which resembles it considerably, may possibly occur
with it.)

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 403

0.1 Morus rubra L. MULBERRY.
Rich woods and low hammocks in calcareous regions.
o Ulmus alata Mx. ELM.
Rich woods, especially in calcareous soils; rare.
0.1 Ulmus Floridana Chapm. ELm.
Calcareous bottoms, low hammocks, etc., especially in Gulf hammock region.
o Ulmus Americana L.? ELM.
Along Chipola and Apalachicola Rivers.
o Ulmus fulva Mx. S Liprery ELM,
Rich calcareous woods in regions I and 3; very rare.
0.1 Plancra aquatica (Walt.) Gmel.
Along Apalachicola and Suwannee Rivers, and in a few other places where
the water fluctuates several feet during the year
0.1 Celtis occidentalis L.2 Hacxkpzerry. (Perhaps more than one species.)
River-bottoms, rich hammocks, etc.
1.8 Magnolia grandiflora L. Macnoxia. (Occasionally called loblolly.)
A characteristic tree of hammocks, in every region.
3.0 Magnolia glauca L. (WulITE) Bay.
Bays and non-alluvial swamps, in every region except the last.
? Magnolia macrophylla Mx. CUCUMBER TREE.
Rich woods in Knox Hill country and Holmes Valley.
? Magnolia pyramidata Pursh. CUCUMBER TREE.
With the preceding, but rarer.
0.5 Liriodendron Tulipifera L. Popvar.
Branch-swamps and wet woods, mostly northward.*

x

-2.4 Liquidambar Styraciflua L.~Swerer cum. (Red gum of the lumber trade.)

In various situations, nearly throughout; apparently preferring somewhat
phosphatic soils.
0.1 Platanus occidentalis L. Sycamore.
Banks of Apalachicola River, in regions 2, 3 and 9.
0.1 Malus angustifolia (Ait.) Mx. CRras-ApPLe.
Moderately rich uplands, west of Suwannee River.
? Amelanchier Canadensis (L.) Med.?
Rich woods in West Florida; rare.
? Crataegus apiifolia (Marsh.) Mx. (PARSLEY HAW.)
Bottoms, low hammocks, etc.; not common.
? Crataegus spathulata Mx.
Bluffs of upper Apalachicola River.
? Crataegus aestivalis (Walt.) T. & G. May uaw.
Suwannee River bottoms, and shallow ponds in clayey soil westward.
0.1 Crataegus viridis L. Haw.
Bottoms and sloughs, mostly in regions 2 and 15. (This is the largest of
our haws, but it is never more than a medium-sized tree.)

*About two years ago Prof. P. H. Rolfs found this tree being cut for lum-
ber in the southwestern part of Putnam County, which was farther south than it
had previously been known to grow. (See Torreya 13:69. 1913.) On July 9,
1914, the writer passed through the same section on the Ocala Northern R. R.
and saw enough of this tree to warrant its inclusion in the list of plants for the
peninsular lake region (page 322).

404 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

? Crataegus Michauxii Pers.? Haw.
Moderately rich sandy uplands, particularly in old fields.
? Crataegus lacrimata Small. Haw.
Sandy ridge in central part of Walton Co.
? Crataegus Crus-Galli L.? Haw.
Calcareous flatwoods in Gulf hammock region.
Several other species of this difficult genus, which have not been identified,
occur in regions 11, 13, 15, and elsewhere. (See index.) In Small’s Trees
of Florida 48 alleged species of Crataegus are enumerated, most of them
from the area covered by this report.
? Prunus umbellata Ell. Hoc pLum.
Dry woods, etc., mostly northward.
(There is another species, apparently undescribed, which differs from this
in having red and more edible fruit. It grows mostly along roads in re-
gions 10, IL and 13, and may not be native.)
o Prunus Americana Marsh. WILD (GoOSE) PLUM.
Rich calcareous woods in regions 1 and 3.
o Prunus Caroliniana (Mill.) Ait. Mock ORANGE.
Bluffs of Apalachicola River, etc. Very rare in the wild state.
0.1 Cercis Canadensis L. Repsup.
Rich, especially calcareous, upland woods.
o Gleditschia triacanthos L.? (HoNeEy Locust.)
Calcareous sloughs, etc., in Gulf hammock region, and perhaps elsewhere.
o Gleditschia aquatica Marsh?
Banks of Suwannee River, etc.
? Xanthoxylum Clava-Herculis L.
Phosphatic (?) sandy hammocks in Alachua County and along east coast.
? Cyrilla racemiflora L. Tyty. (Also spelled tietie, tighteye and titi.)
Branch and creek swamps, etc.; common in most of the regions.
? Cyrilla parvifolia Raf. Tyty. (Usually only a shrub.)
Bays, etc.; almost confined to Middle Florida.
? Cliftonia monophylla (Lam.) Sarg. Tyry.
Bays and sour swamps, from Jefferson County westward.
? Ilex decidua Walt.
Alluvial bottoms of Apalachicola River, etc.
? Ilex myrtifolia Walt. Yaupon. |
Shallow ponds, in most of the counties north of latitude 30.
? Ilex Cassine L. (J. Dahoon Walt.)
Non-alluvial swamps, mostly southeastward.
? Ilex vomitoria Ait. (J. Cassine Walt.)
Sandy hammocks, especially along east coast.
0.4 Ilex opaca Ait. Hotty.
In hammocks, commonest westward.
? Aesculus Pavia L. BucKeye.
Bluffs and moderately rich uplands; usually only a shrub.
o Acer saccharinum L. (A. dasycarpum Ehrh.) (Strver) MAPLE.
Banks of Apalachicola River, in regions 2, 3 and 9.
0.8 Acer rubrum L. (Rep) MAPLE.
Mostly in non-alluvial swamps, in nearly every region.
The var. tridens (or A. Carolinianum Walt.) is difficult to distinguish from
this. It seems to prefer richer soils.

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 405

0.1 Acer Floridanum (Chapm.) Pax. SUuGAR-MAPLE.
Rich calcareous woods, mostly in regions I and 3.
o Acer Negundo L. Box-E.per.
Along Apalachicola River, and in hammocks in central Florida. (As these
two habitats are quite different, and also pretty widely separated, there may
be two species involved, but botanists have not yet distinguished them.)
o Sapindus marginatus Willd.
Phospkatic (?) hammocks around Alachua Sink.
o Tilia Floridana Small. (Lin, or Basswoon.)
Rich woods and bluffs near Apalachicola River, Jackson and Gadsden Cos.
0.1 Tilia pubescens Ait.
Mostly in low or phosphatic hammocks, in regions 10, 13, etc.
0.2 Gordonia Lasianthus (L.) Ellis. (RED, TAN, Or LOBLOLLY BAY.)
Bays and non-alluvial swamps; rare west of Suwannee River, common east
of Trail Ridge.
0.1, Persea Borbonia (L.) Sarg. (REpD Bay.)
Hammocks; commonest eastward.
o Persea pubescens (Pursh) Sarg. (REp Bay.)
Non-alluvial swamps, etc.; widely distributed but rather scarce.
? Persea humilis Nash.
Scrub in the peninsular lake region.
0.1 Sassafras variifolium (Sal.) Kuntze. SASSAFRAS.
Arborescent in the Wakulla hammock country. Elsewhere usually a shrub
in old fields. Rare in East and West Florida.
o Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. BLack GUM.
Clayey uplands, mostly northward.
2.0 Nyssa biflora Walt. Btack cuM.
Non-alluvial and estuarine swamps and shallow ponds.
0.2 Nyssa uniflora Wang. (N. aquatica L.?) Tupelo cum.
Swamps and sloughs, from Choctawhatchee River to Wakulla Co.
0.2 Nyssa Ogeche Marsh. Tuprto cum. (Ogeechee Lime.)
Swamps and sloughs, especially of lower Apalachicola River.
0.9 Cornus florida L. Docwoop.
On loamy uplands, in shade of other trees.
? Cholisma (originally misspelled Xolisma) ferruginea (Wa!t.) Heller.
Sandy hammocks and scrub, Middle and East Florida; usually no more than
a shrub.
0.1, Oxydendrum arboreum (L.) DC. Sourwoop.
Loamy uplands, north of lat. 30° and west of Suwannee River.
? Batodendron arboreum (Marsh.) Nutt. SPpARKLEBERRY.
Sandy hammocks and other dry places protected from fire.
? Diospyros Virginiana L. PErstmMmon,
Old fields, etc.; common, but perhaps not native, and often little more than
a shrub. In the vicinity of Tallahassee its fruit begins to ripen about the
last week in August, notwithstanding the old tradition about persimmons
and frost (which probably originated in Virginia, and may be true there).
o Bumelia lycioides (L.) Gaert.
Calcareous bluffs of Apalachicola River, Gadsden Co.
? Bumelia lanuginosa (Mx.) Pers.
Sandy hammocks mostly.

406 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

? Symplocos tinctoria (L.) L’Her.
Hammocks and bluffs, west of Suwannee River.
o Halesia Carolina L.
Rich woods near Chipola and Suwannee Rivers, etc.
o Halesia diptera Ellis.
Apalachicola River bluffs, etc.
o Fraxinus Americana L. AsH.
Rich woods, mostly in regions 1 and 13.
0.2 Fraxinus Caroliniana Mill. Asn.
Swamps of various kinds, especially alluvial and calcareous.
Two or three other species of Fravrinus, difficult to distinguish without fruit,
grow in situations similar to the last.
? Adelia acuminata Mx.
Banks of Apalachicola and Suwannee Rivers.
? Chionanthus Virginica L. GRAYBEARD.
Hammocks and rich woods, mostly in Middle Florida.
? Osmanthus Americana (L.) B & H.
Hammocks.
o Catalpa bignonioides Walt. CaTALPaA.
Banks of smaller rivers; possibly not native.
? Viburnum rufidulum Raf. BLackK HAw.
Rich upland woods, mostly northward and westward.

This list contains about 126 species (or nearly the same number as in
either of the two adjoining states), about 40 of which (12 gymnosperms and 28
angiosperms, together making up about 70% of the forest) are evergreen. The
only ones which seem to make up more than 1% of the forest (13 in number)
may be arranged in order of abundance as follows: Pinus palustris, P. Elliottit,
Taxodium imbricarium, Pinus Taeda, Quercus Catesbaei, Magnolia glauca,
Pinus serotina, Liquidambar, Nyssa biflora, Magnolia grandiflora, Pinus echinata,
Quercus cinerea, Q. falcata. ;

The eight pines make up about 62% of the forests, or 60% of the total veg-
etation, and 21 arborescent oaks between 9 and 10%. (Alabama has the same
. number of pines and of oaks, but in that state each makes up about 20% of the
forests, amd not over 40% of the trees are evergreen.)

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA, 407

LIST OF ERICACEAE AND LEGUMINOSAE.

In each regional description some statistics of the quantity of Ericaceous
and leguminous plants have been given, but it would be difficult if not impossi-
ble for a non-botanical reader to verify the figures from the regional lists alone.
A list of the plants belonging to these families is therefore appended here.
With the Ericaceae are included two closely related families now generally re-
garded as distinct, namely, Clethraceae and Vacciniaceae; and with the Legu-
minosae are included two smaller families formerly (and still by some botanists)
united therewith, namely, Mimosaceae and Caesalpiniaceae. As these other
families are believed to have essentially the same scil preferences as the Erica-
ceae and Leguminosae proper, they have been counted into the statistics in every
case.

Of the Ericaceae and related families, Oxydendrum is a tree, Batodendron
a small tree or large shrub. Cholisma ferruginea occasionally arborescent,
Pieris phillyreifolia usually a vine (something very exceptional in this family*)
and the rest shrubs, ranging in size from Kalmia latifolia, which is mentioned
in some books on trees, to Gaylussacia dumosa, which is smaller than many
herbs. Of the Leguminosae Cercis and Gleditschia are trees, Wistaria a woody
vine, Amorpha fruticosa a shrub, and the rest ordinary herbs or herbaceous
vines.

The following list does not include all the plants of these families that are
known in northern Florida, or even all seen by the writer, but only those seen
often enough to be mentioned in one or more of the foregoing regional lists.
The names of a few additional Ericaceae can be found in Small’s Shrubs of
Florida (New York, 1913), and of several additional species of both families
in the Flora of the Southeastern United States by the same author (1903 and
1913).

In this list, as in the regional lists, evergreens are indicated by heavy type
and weeds by (X). Common names are given when known. Instead of stating
the habitat and distribution, as in the foregoing list of trees, the names of the
species are here followed by the numbers of the regions from which they
have been listed; and the interested reader can turn back to the proper pages for
additional information. Thesé numbers of course do not indicate all the regions
in which the species have been seen, but only those in which they are abundant
enough to be listed. s
CLETHRACEAE.

Clethra alnifolia L. (including C. tomentosa Lam.) 2, 7, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16.

ERICACEAE.
Bejaria racemosa Vent. 18, 109.
Azalea nudiflora L. HoNEysuckKLe. 3, 4, 10, II.
Azalea viscosa L. HoNeEysucKLE, 7, 10.
Kalmia latifolia L. Ivy. 2, 3, 4, 7.
Kalmia hirsuta Walt. 9, 15, 16, 18, 19.
Leucothoe axillaris (Lam.) Don. 3, Io.
Leucothoe racemosa (L.) Gray (including L. elongata Small) 2.0, ‘12,10:
Pieris phillyreifolia (Hock.) DC. 2, 7, 10, 14, 16.
Pieris nitida (Bartr.) B. & H. (Hurraw susu.) 2, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16,
L718, 10!

*See Torreya 3 :2I-22. 1903.

408 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Pieris Mariana (L.) B. & H. 12.

Cholisma ferruginea (Walt.)) Heller. 8, 10, 12, 13, 15, 18, 19, 20.
Cholisma fruticosa (Mx.) Nash. (Poor GRruB.) 9, 10, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19.
Cholisma ligustrina (L) Britton. 9, 10.

Oxydendrum arboreum (L.) DC. Sourwoop. 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, £1.

VACCINIACEAE.

Gaylussacia dumosa (Andr.) T. & G. 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 19.

Gaylussacia hirtella (Ait.) Klotzsch. 7.

Gaylussacia frondosa (L.) T. & G. (Including the varieties nana and tomen-
tosa, sometimes treated as distinct species.) HUCKLEBERRY. 2, 7, 9, 10, 13,
14, 18, 19.

Batodendron arboreum (Marsh.) Nutt. SPARKLEBERRY. I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, II,
2) 08S 55, liz. 1G; 20.

Polycodium (probably two or three species). GOOSEBERRY. 4, II, 12, 13, 17, 20.

Vaccinium nitidum Andr. (V. Myrsinites Lam?) 2, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, I5,
18, 19, 20.

Vaccinium virgatum Ait. (and probably a few other species). HUCKLEBERRY.
2AM IO. 15.

MIMOSACEAE.

Morongia uncinata (Willd.) Britton. 1, 2, II, 12, 14.

CAESALPINIACEAE (or Cassiaceae).

Cercis Canadensis L. Redbud. 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 13, ¥5, 17.
Cassia Tora L. (X) Coffee-weed. 10, 11, 13, 17.

Chamaecrista fasciculata (Mx.) Greene (and a few other species) Partridge
Pea FOUR nT2) Sc PAN Te | ae teao! ;
Gleditschia (perhaps both G. triacanthos L. and G. aquatica Marsh.) Honey

LOCHISt LS) 17.

LEGUMINOSAE (or Fabaceae.)

Baptisia simplicifolia Croom. 14.

Baptisia LeContei T. & G.? 8.9, 13, 14, 17.
Baptisia hirsuta Small. 7.

Baptisia lanceolata Walt. 2, 6, 7, 14.

Baptisia alba (L.) R. Br. 1.

Baptisia leucantha T. & G. Io, 11.

Crotalaria rotundifolia (Walt.) Poir. 12, 14.
Lupinus perennis L. Lupine. 14.

Lupinus villosus Willd. 12, 14.

Medicago Arabica All. (X). Bur-cLover. 11.
Trifolium Carolinianum Mx. (X) Cover. 11.
Indigofera Caroliniana Walt. 12, 14, 17, 18. .
Cracca Virginiana L. Dervit’s SHOESTRING. 7.
Cracca spicata (Walt.) Kuntze? 13.

Cracca chrysophylla (Pursh) Kuntze. 2, 7, 12, 14.

Wistaria frutescens (L.) Poir. WustTerIA. 9, 17.
Glottidium vesicarium (Jacq.) Mohr. (X)_ 10, 17, 109.
Psoralea Lupinellus Mx. 12.

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 409

Psoralea canescens Mx. 2, 7, 10, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18, 19.

Amorpha fruticosa L. I, 2, 9, 15, 17, 10.

Petalostemon albidus (T. & G.) Small. 12, 13, 15.

Kuhnistera pinnata (Walt.) Kuntze. (SUMMER FAREWELL.) 2, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13,
T4, 15, s07peo:

Aeschynomene Virginica (L.) B.S.P. (X) 11.

Aeschynomene viscidula Mx. 14.

Stylosanthes biflora (L.) B.S.P. 2, 12, 13, 14.

Chapmania Floridana T. & G. 18.

Meibomia nudiflora (L.) Kuntze. (This and other species of the same genus
are often called BrGGAR-LICE.) 1.

Meibomia laevigata (Nutt.) Kuntze. 1.

Meibomia rigida (Ell.) Kuntze. 13.

Meibomia purpurea (Mill.) Vail. (X) Brccar-weEep. II, 13.

Lespedeza striata (Thunb.) H. & A. (X) JAPANESE CLOVER. II, 13.

Lespedeza hirta (L.) Ell. 11, 14, 17.

Pitcheria galactioides Nutt. 2, 6, 7, 8, 14.

Dolicholus simplicifolius (Walt.) Vail. DoLLtar-wEED. 2, 7, 12, 13, 14, 17.

Erythrina herbacea L. It.

Galactia erecta (Walt.) Vail. 2.

Galactia regularis (L.) B.S.P. 12.

Galactia mollis Mx. 13.

Galactia Elliottii Nutt. 19, 20.

Phaseolus polystachyus (L.) B.S.P. 11.

Vicia acutifolia Ell. 15.

It appears from the foregoing that the sparkleberry (Batodendron) is the
commonest Ericaceous plant in northern Florida, and that three others grow in
ten or more of the twenty regions. Kuhnistera pinnata is the only leguminous
plant listed from as many as ten regions, and nearly half the Leguminosae are
listed from only one region each.*

It has already been shown in the statistical summary that regions 12 and
- 14 contain the largest quantity of Ericaceae, proportionately, and regions 14 and
17 the most Leguminosae. But statistics based on number of species, regardless
of relative abundance, naturally do not give exactly the same results. Regions
7 and Io seem to contain the most species of Ericaceae, and 12, 13 and 14 the
most species of Leguminosae. —

It is interesting to note that none of the Ericaceae are weeds, and none of
the Leguminosae are evergreen.

*In the Altamaha Grit region of South Georgia, which corresponds to re-
gion 7 of this report, it has been estimated that the average Ericaceous plant
grows in 2.87 different habitats, and the average leguminous plant in 1.56. (See
Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 17:326. 1906.)

26

410 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

This list aims to include only works in which the geography or vegetation
of some part of northern Florida is described, and therefore excludes purely
geological papers and mere lists of plants, except a few of the latter which deal
with some particular small area. Some pertinent titles which were given in the
First or Third Annual Report are omitted here to avoid undue repetition, as
are most papers in which some general features of the state are described with-
out locating them definitely enough to be cited in the foregoing regional descrip-
tions.

The names of authors are arranged alphabetically and the writings of each
one chronologically, if there is more than one.

Adams, J. S. (Commissioner of Immigration).

Florida: its climate, soil and productions, with a sketch of its history,
natural features and social condition A manual of reliable information con-
cerning the resources of the state and the inducements which it offers to those
seeking new homes.—8vo. pamphlet, 69 pp., a few illustrations, and folded map.
New York, 1870.

A 64-page pamphlet with very nearly the same title, apparently official or
semi-official, but with no author indicated, was published by L. F. Dewey &
Co. of Jacksonville in 1868.

Barbour, G. M.

Florida—for tourists, invalids and settlers; containing practical informa-
tion regarding climate, soil, and productions; cities, towns, and people; the
culture of the orange and other tropical fruits; farming and gardening; scenery
and resorts; sport; routes of travel, etc., etc —310 pp., 39 figs., folded map. D.
Appleton & Co., New York, 1882.

Bartram, William.

Travels through North & South Carolina, Georgia, East & West Flor-
ida, the Cherokee country, the extensive territories of the Muscogulges, or
Creek Confederacy, and the country of the Chactaws; containing an account
of the soil and natural productions of those regions, together with observa-
tions on the manners of the Indians.—522 pp. and a few plates. t2mo. James
& Johnson, Philadelphia, 1791. (Soon afterwards reprinted in London and
Dublin, and also translated into French and German.)

The author’s travels in Florida (described on pages 70-254, 303-3060, 413-417
of the first edition) extended south to what is now Volusia County, and west
to the Suwannee River, with a brief visit to Pensacola by way of Mobile. His
descriptions of the country in Florida seem less accurate than in the case of the
other southern states (see 3d Ann. Rep., p. 242), and it is difficult to trace his
route in this state with any degree of accuracy.

Burnett; We i.) (Moy)
(Notes on Florida, extracted from a letter to Prof. J. D. Dana.)—Am.
Jour. Sci. 67:407-412. 1854.

Bush, B. F.
“Notes on the botany of some southern swamps.—Garden & Forest 10:514-
516. Dec. 20, 1807.

Contains a few notes on the river-swamps near Apalachicola.

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. AI!

Carse, G. B.

Florida: its climate, soil, productions and agricultural capabilities. (With
chapters by A. W’. Chapman and J. H. Foss.)—U. S. Dept. Agric. [Report 21]
98 pp. 1882.

Chapman, A. W. (M. D.)

Torreya taxifolia, Arnott. A reminiscence—Bot. Gaz. 10:251-254. pl. 5
(map). April, 188s.

Contains a list of plants characteristic of the Apalachicola bluff region
(no. 3); the only one published up to the present time.

Croom, H. B.

Botanical communications——Am. Jour. Sci. 25:69-78; 26:313-320; 28:165-
168. 1833-1835.

These papers contain valuable information about the flora of Middle
Florida, particularly around Tallahassee’ and Aspalaga. (See 3d Ann. Rep.,
p- 333. footnote.)

Curtiss, A. H.

A visit to the shell islands of Florida—Bot. Gaz. 4:117-119, 132-137, 154-
158. 1870.

These islands are near the mouth of the St. John’s River.

Dall, W. H., & Stanley-Brown, J.
Cenozoic geology along the Apalachicola River.—Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.

5:147-170. 18094.

Eagan, Dennis. (Commissioner of Lands and Immigration.)

The Florida settler, or immigrants’ guide; a complete manual of informa-
tion concerning the climate, soil, products and resources of the state—S8vo pam-
phlet, 160 pp. Tallahassee, 1873.

A copy of this rare pamphlet has been seen in the library of Dr. Eugene
A. Smith, who made good use of it in writing his description of Florida for the
Tenth Census. It has no index or table of contents. The first 54 pages are
devoted to the general features of the state, and the remainder mostly to
county descriptions, which are somewhat optimisticaily exaggerated, as is often
the case. The following statement about malaria, on page 11, is of interest, and
probably true: “St. Augustine has long enjoyed a total exemption from all
kinds of fever; Jacksonville is equally favored. In Pensacola the treatment
of malarial fever is not a part of the practice of the city physicians.”

. Garber, A. P. (M. D.)

I. Botanical rambles in East Florida. —Bot. Gaz. 2:70-72, 82-83. Jan. and
Feb. 1877.

2. Botanical rambles in Middle Florida—Bot. Gaz. 2:102-103. May, 1877.

(This deals with the country around Gainesville, and not with Middle
Florida, which the author seems never to have visited.)

Gilmore. (Gen.) Q. A.

Survey for a ship-canal from St. Mary’s River, Florida, to the Gulf of
Mexico.—Ann. Rep. Chief of Engineers (U. S. Army) 1880:973-1010, with
folded map. 1880.

Contains valuable information about the topography of parts of Middle and
East Florida.

Aske? FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Gray, Asa (M. D.)

A pilgrimage to Torreya——Am. Agriculturist 34 :266-267. July, 1875. (Re-
printed with some alterations in Scientific Papers of Asa Gray, 1 :188-196. 1889.)

Describes a visit to River Junction in the spring of 1875, to find Tumion
taxifolium (then known as Torreya taxifolia, named in honor .of his colleague
Dr. John Torrey) and Croomia pauciflora, both of which were discovered a
few miles farther down the river about 40 years before by H. B. Croom. (See
pages 214-215 of this report for notes on the relative abundance of these two

plants at the present time.)

Harper, R. M.

1. Preliminary report on the peat deposits of Florida—Fla. Geol. Surv.,
3d Ann. Rep., 201-375 (including figs. 17-30), pl. 16-28. Jan. Io1Tt.

Plate 16 is a folded map showing the geographical divisions of the state.

2. Chondrophora virgata in West Florida.—Torreya 11 :92-98, fig. 1. April,
IQII.

Describes the geology and vegetation of Rock. Hill, Washington Co.

3. Early spring aspects of the coastal plain vegetation of South Carolina,
Georgia, and northeastern Florida—Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 38:223-236. “May”
[June], r9rt.

Describes the vegetation s*en from a fast train on March 4, 1910, arranged
by regions and in order of abundance.

4. A quest for the Wakulla volcano.—Florida Review 6:215-224, with 3
half-tones. Sept., IgIt.

Describes parts of the Gulf hammock region and Middle Florida flatwoods,
in Wakulla and Jefferson Counties.

5. The river-bank vegetation of the lower Apalachicola, and a new prin-
ciple illustrated thereby.—Torreya 11:225-234, fig. 1. Nov., IQII.

6 Notes on the distribution of the southeastern salamanders (Geomys
Tuza and allies).—Science 11:35:115-119. Jan. 19, 1912.

Mostly about Florida. (Even at this writing the writer has never seen a
salamander. )

7. The coniferous forests of eastern North America—Pop. Sci. Monthly
85 :338-361, with 16 half-tones not numbered. Oct., 1914.

Two illustrations are from northern Florida.

8. (Topography, streams and ‘springs, lakes and ponds, coast and harbors,
climate, vegetation, flora, fauna, and forest products of Florida.)—New Inter-
national Encyclopaedia, Second Edition, 7:706-709, 713. Dodd, Mead & Co.,
New York, Dec. 1914. (Also about % column on Hammocks in vol. 9.)

Harshberger, John W.

The vegetation of South Florida, south of 27° 30’ north, exclusive of the
Florida Keys—Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. (Philadelphia) 7:49-189, with
map, 2 text-figures and Io plates. Dec. 1914.

On pages 64, 69 and 71 are descriptions of the vegetation of Anastasia
Island, St. John’s Co., introduced by way of comparison.

Johnson, L. C.
1. The structure of Florida—Am. Jour. Sci. 136 :230-236. 1888.
2. The Chattahoochee embayment.—Bull. Geol. Soc. Ann. 3 :128-132. 1891.

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 413

Jones, Barton D.

On the Gulf coast [of Florida].—Lippincott’s Mag. 29 :113-122, 217-229, with
11 wood-cuts. February and March, 1882.

Not restricted to the coast, but describes most of the counties in Middle and
West Florida.

Lanier, Sidney.

Florida: its scenery, climate and history. With an account of Charleston,
Savannah, Augusta, and Aiken, and a chapter for consumptives ; being a com-
plete hand-book and guide—226 pp. and numerous wood-cuts. J. B. Lippin-
cott & Co., Philadelphia, 1875 (and later editions).

Leeds, B. F.
Winter vegetation on Florida sand dunes. [Pablo Beach, Duval Co.].—
Garden & Forest 5:21-22. Jan. 13, 1892.

Long, (Mrs.) Ellen Call.
Forest fires in the southern pines——Forest Leaves 2:94. 1889.

Claims that long-leaf pine forests would gradually be converted into ham-
mocks if fully protected from fire. One of the first papers in which this theory
is proposed.

Matson, G. C., & Clapp, F. G. (of U- S. Geol. Surv.)

A preliminary report on the geology of Florida, with, special reference to
the stratigraphy.—Fla. Geol. Surv., 2nd Ann. Rep., 5-8, 21-173, pl. 1-8, figs. 1-5,
and folded colored map in pocket. Jan. 1gIo.

Matson, G. C., & Sanford, Samuel. .

Geology and ground waters of Florida—U. S. Geol. Surv. Water Supply
Paper 319. 445 pp., 7 text-figures, 14 half-tone plates, 3 maps, and numerous in-
serted tables. Jan. 1914?

This practically supersedes the preceding.

Mayer, A. G.
Our neglected southern coast—Nat. Geog. Mag. 19:859-871. Dec., 1908.
Contains several excellent views of the east coast of Florida.

McAtee, W. L.
A list of plants collected on St. Vincent Island, [Franklin Co.] Florida.—
Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 6:39-52. March, 1913.

Mohr, Charles.

The timber pines of the southern United States—U. S. Dept. Agriculture,
Div. Forestry, Bull. 13. Quarto, 160 pp., 27 plates. 1806. (Second edition, 176
pp., 1897.)

See also under Sargent, below.

Nash, George V.

Notes on some Florida plants. I].—Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 23 :95-108. March,
1896.

Relates mostly to northern Florida.

Neal, J: €...(M. Dd.)
Weeds of Florida—Fla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 8:7-16. 1890.

AI4 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Pierce, James.
Notices of the agriculture, scenery, geology, and animal, vegetable and min-

eral productions of the Floridas and of the Indian tripes—Am. Jour. Sci. 9:110-
136. 1825.

Reynolds, (Miss) Mary C.
Notes from St. Augustine, Fla—Bot. Gaz. 4:227-230. Nov., 1879.

Sargent, C. S.
(Forests of) Florida. (Including notes on Middle and East Florida by

A. H. Curtiss and on West Florida by Charles Mohr.)—Tenth Census U. S.
9 1520-523, with map. 1884.

Some of Dr. Mohr’'s observations have been quoted on pages 239-240 of
this report. Mr. Curtiss expressed somewhat different views about the future
of our pine forests, as follows: “One of the most important facts in regard
to the pine forests of Florida is their permanence. Owing to the sterility of
soil and the liability to inundation of most of the state, it is certain that but a
very small portion of Florida will ever be cleared of its forest covering. Tak-
ing into consideration the great area covered with valuable pine forests, and
the fact that there will be a continuous new growth if the spread of forest fires
can be checked, only trees of the largest size being cut, it is evident that Flor-
ida will furnish a perpetual supply of the most valuable pine lumber.” The truth
doubtless lay somewhere between these statements and Dr. Mohr’s.

Sellards, E. H.

1. Some Florida lakes and lake basins—Fla. Geol. Surv., 3d Ann. Rep.,
43-76, pl. 6-9. Dec., 1910. (Reprinted with some alterations in the present vol-
ume. )

2. The soils and other surface residual materials of Florida—Fla. Geol.
Surv., 4th Ann. Rep., 1-79, figs. I-3, pl. 1-12, and map. 1912.

3. Classification of the soils of Florida—12th Bien. Rep. Dept. Agr. Fla.,
249-2990, 4 text-figs., and single-page outline map. 1913. (Also issued separately,
with corresponding pages numbered 3-53.)

Contains brief descriptions of the geographical divisions of the State.

Sellards, E. H., & Gunter, H.

1. The fuller’s earth deposits of Gadsden County, Florida, with notes on
similar deposits found elsewhere in the state—Fla. Geol. Surv., 2nd Ann. Rep.,
253-201, pl. 16, 17, 19, and 3 line-drawings in the text (one of which is a map
of Gadsden Co. and some contiguous territory). Jan., 1910.

2. The artesian water supply of eastern Florida—Fla. Geol. Surv., 3d Ann.
Rep., 77-195, figs. 6-16, pl. 10-15 (one of which is a map of the state). Jan.,
IQII.

Deals with the counties east of Trail Ridge.

3. The water supply of west-central and West Florida—Fla. Geol. Surv.,
4th Ann. Rep., 81-155, figs. 4-15 (including map and 7 half-tones), pla T3=ne!
IQI2.

Treats all the counties of Middle and West Florida except Hamilton.

4. The artes‘an water supply of eastern and southern Florida.—Fla. Geol.
Surv., 5th Ann. Rep., 103-290, figs. 1-17, pl. 19-14. 1913.

As far as northern Florida is concerned this covers the same ground as
no. 2.

GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA, AIS

Smith, Eugene A.

1. On the geology of Florida—Am., Jour. Sci. 121 :292-309 (including map).
April, 1881.

2. Report on the cotton production of the state of Florida, with an account
of the general agricultural features of the state—Tenth Census U. S. 6:175-257,
with 3 single-page (quarto) maps, two of which are colored and inserted, 1834.

For an appreciation of this report see 3d Ann. Rep., p. 365, and p. 172 of
the present volume.

Smith, J. D. (of Marianna)

About unknown Florida—Fla. Review 2:33-39 (including 3 full-page half-
tones). July, 1909.

Mostly about the caves of Jackson County.

Stickney, L. D. |
Florida Soil, climate and productions.—Rep. U. S. Com. Agr. 1852 :52-65.
1863.
(This was published at a time when Florida and other southern states were
temporarily out of the Union, a fact which is mildly commented upon in the
report. )

Thompson, Maurice.
A Tallahassee Girl.—16-mo., 355 pp. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 188t.
Although this is a novel, it contains valuable information about geographical
and social conditions in and around Tallahassee at that time. (The author was
state geologist of Indiana from about 1885 to 1888.)

Torrey, Bradford.

A Florida Sketch-book—Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1894.

This contains many interesting notes on the plants, birds, people, etc.,
around Tallahassee, St. Augustine, and some places farther south, by a well-
known naturalist. Most if not all of the chapters were previously published in
the Atlantic Monthly.

U. S. Army Engineers.

The annval reports of the Chief of Engineers of the U. S. Army contain
a great deal of detailed geographical information about Florida rivers which is
not found elsewhere. Many reports on particular rivers and harbors by the
Army Engineers have also been transmitted to Congress by the Secretary of
War and published as Congressional documents. Such reports are so numerous
that it would be out of the question to refer to them individually here.

U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau (formerly Division) of Soils.

Soil surveys of various counties and similar areas, in annual reports of
Field Operations.

The following areas in northern Florida have been reported on by this or-
ganization up to the present time. (The dates given are the years in which the
field work was completed, and the reports are found in the volume for that
year. But the separate reports usually appear the following year, and the com-
plete volvmes about two years after the field work. The latest complete volume
on hand is that for 191t.) Gadsden Co., 1903; “Gainesville area,” 1901; Leon
Co., 1905; Escambia Co., 1906; Jefferson Co., 1907; “Marianna area,” 1009;
“Jacksonville area,” 1910; Bradford Co., 1913. A survey of Payne’s Prairie,

410 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

in Alachua Co., was published in 1912 as Circular 72 of the Bureau. In the last
few years the State Geological Survey has co-operated in this work to some

extent.

Vignoles, Charles.
Observations upon the Floridas.—i90 pp. and map. New York, 1823
See Third Annual Report, p 365, for comments on this rare work.

Whiting, Henry.
Cursory remarks upon East Florida, in 1838—Am. Jour. Sci. 35 :47-64. 1838.

Williams, (Col.) John Lee.

1. A view of West Florida, embracing its geography, topography, etc., with
an appendix, treating of its antiquities, land titles, and canals, and containing
a map, exhibiting a chart of the coast, a plan of Pensacola, and the entrance of
the harbour.—178 pp. and folded colored map. Philadelphia, 1827.

“West Florida” at that time included also what was later called Middle
Florida.

2, The territory of Florida: or sketches of the topography, civil and nat-
ural history of the country, the climate, and the Indian tribes, from the first
discovery to the present time, with a map, views, etc. 304 pp. A. T. Goodrich,
New York, 1837.

These two extremely interesting and valuable books by Col. Williams have
been seen only in the New York Public Library, and could not very well be
cited by page in the foregoing regional descriptions. They furnished Dr. Eugene
A. Smith much accurate information about the-parts of Florida which he was
unable to visit in 188o.

INDEX OF PLANT NAMES

This index includes both technical and common names of the plants men-
tioned in the report on northern Florida, and also many synonyms, with cross-
references, which are inserted for the benefit of persons who may know some
of the species better by other names than those used in the body of this report.
Common names are enclosed in quotations, so that the non-botanical reader can
pick them out readily.

Where the name of a genus is not followed by any specific name it means
either that-only one species of that genus has been seen by the writer in
northern Florida and the specific name is omitted to save space, or that the
identity of the species is doubtful, or that some statement is made in the text
at the page indicated that applies to several or all of the species of that genus.

As there are many places in the text where species are referred to by
only the technical name or only the common name, especially in the case of
trees, the reader who wants to be sure to find everything that is said about
a given species should bear both names in mind. In this index numbers in
parentheses refer to pages where the plant in question is referred to indirectly
or under a different name; and this device is used in most of the cases referred
to in the preceding sentence, but not in all of them.

Numbers in heavy type refer to pages belonging to the regional list in
which the species named stands highest, or is most abundant. They do not
correspond exactly with the double + marks in the plant lists, because it was
not possible to make careful comparisons between all the lists before they were
printed (especially in the case of the herbs whose percentage numbers are not
given), owing to the fact that the first parts of the manuscript were sent to
the printers before the last parts were finished, and many of the + and —
marks were therefore located by guess. The necessary comparisons have been
made in the paged proof, however, resulting in the discovery of several incon-
sistencies and many places where the double + marks should have been used
and were not; all of which are now rectified in the index as far as possible.
There are over twice as many numbers in heavy type in this index as there
are double + marks in the plant lists, partly on account of the more careful
comparisons just mentioned, and partly because they are given here for techni-
cal and common names separately and also for families.

The object of making these numbers conspicuous’ in the index, as stated
on pages 186-187, is to enable any one who desires a supply of any particular
tree or other plant to tell in two or three glances in which part of northern
Florida it is most abundant.

Where the references to any plant do not include any number in heavy
type either the name is a synonym, or an extra-limital species mentioned inci-
dentally, or else it is difficult to decide in which of several regions the species
is most abundant. And where there are two or more such numbers in the same
line either it is a name (generic or common) which belongs to two or more
species, or else the species in question seems to be equally abundant in two
or more regions and perceptibly less so in the rest.

The number of species listed is about 750 (including nearly too weeds,
which probably did not grow in this area before the discovery of America),
which is probably not over half the total number of vascular plants in northern
Florida. But those omitted, together with all the cellular cryptogams (which

417

418

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

may be still more numerous) probably do not make up more than one or two
per cent of the total bulk of vegetation, and would hardly be noticed by any

one traveling by rail.

As the 19 regional lists together contain about 2600 lines

of plant names, it is evident that the average species here listed grows in about

3% regions.

(But if the lists had been made more complete this ratio would

be smaller, for the rarer species are naturally less widely distributed.)

A.
Acanthospermum, 287, 2094, 318, 324
Acer, 342

Carolinianum, 404
dasycarpum, 404 (see A. saccharin-
um)
Floridanum, 196, 205, 212, 219, 404
Negundo, 213, 259, 263, 404
rubrum, 197; 204, 219, 234, 249, 258,
27D 2035" 202. . 305, | Biit,) alow 522;
331, 404
var. tridens, 204, 273. 283, 316, 404
saccharinum, 205, 212, 215, 404
Actinospermum, 237, 318, 323
Adelia acuminata, 213, 316, 400
ligustrina, 198, 214
Adiantum, 214
Aeschynomene hispida (see next)
Virginica, 277, 409
viscidula, 300, 409
Aescu.us, 198, 206, 213, 220, 261, 263,
274, 203, 306, 404
Afzelia cassioides, 252, 308
pectinata, 286
Agalinis (see Gerardia)
“Air-pant,” 397, 334
“Alder,” 206, 213, 220, 235, 250, 333
Alotris aurea, 207, 237
ier Ao, AS, sel, Sick:
Allium striatum (see Nothoscordum)
Alnus, 206, 213, 220, 235. 250, 333
Alsine pubera, 215
Amaranthus spinosus, 277
Ambrosia, 307, 300, 341, 398
artemisiaefo ia (elatior), 274, 294
hispida? 246
Amelanchier, 205, 219, 403
Amianthium (see Chrosperma, Tra-
cyanthus)
Amorpha, 198, 206, 251, 306, 317, 333,
407, 4c8
Ampelopsis arborea, 197; 205, 250,
274, 284, 309, 317, 332
quinquefolia (see Parthenocissus)

Ampelothamnus (see Pieris phillyrei-
folia)
Amsonia, 285, 318
Anastrophus paspaloides, 286
Atchistea, 246; 251,262, 3x2, 323,0038
Andromeda (see Cholisma, Leuco-
thoe, Pieris)
Andropogon, 274, 293
argyraeus, 274
E‘liotti1? 324
scOparius, 199, 220, 263, 274, 293, 318
Virginicus, 207, 227, 237, 286, 300,
317, 323
Anemonella (see Syndesmon)
Angelica, 275
Anisostichus (see Bignonia)

_Anthemis, 199, 276

Apium, 275
Aquilegia, 199, 200
Aralia, 198, 214, 220, 261, 274, 317, 323.
332, 340
Arenaria Caroliniana, 237
Argemone, 277
Arisaema Dracontium, 199, 214
Aristida purpurascens? 2094
spiciformis, 252, 287, 308, 334
Sthicta. 200) 210A 220) 12272805025 16
2025285. 298; 200) 307; 312) 93175
323, 333 (see also Wire-grass)
Aristolochia, 215
Aronia, 206, 214, 235, 262, 307, 312, 333
Arsenococcus (see Chotisma ligus-
trina)
Arundinaria macrosperma, 213, 215,
250
tecta, 235, 261, 203, 274
Asarum, 220
Asclepias humistrata, 286
tuberosa, 287
variegata, 198, 220
Ascyrum hypericoides, 293
microsepalum (see Crookea)
stans, 206, 236

‘
INDEX OF PLANT NAMES.

“Ash,” 197, 204, 212, 224, 234, 236, 238,
246, 249, 259; 287, 202, 305, 316,
322, 331, 342, 400

Asimina angustifolia, 206, 227, 262,
203, 284, 203, 317, 333

parviflora, 198, 220, 274, 293, 317, 341
speciosa, 317, (318), 323, 332

Aspidium (see Dryopteris, Polystich-
um) ’

Asplenium Filix-foemina 221
parvulum (see A. resi-iens)
platyneuron, 275
resiliens, 198, 214

Aster adnatus, 207, 237. 300, 308
concolor, 286, 300
eryngiifolius, 208, 237, 251
squarrosus, 334

Atamosco, 199; 215, 307

Azalea nudiflora, 214, 220, 261, 274,
407

viscosa, 407

235> 333;

Be.

Baccharis angustifolia, 306
halimifolia, 245, 262, 274, 203, 333,
341
Ba!dwinia multiflora (see Actinos-
permum)
uniflora, 236, 251, 308
“Bamboo vine,” 205, 213, 235, 245;
250, 260, 284, 306, 312, 322, 332
Baptisia, 300
alba, 198, 408
hirsuta, 236, 238, 408
lanceolata, 207, 227, 236, 299, 408
LeContei? 246, 252. 293, 299, 318, 408
leucantha, 263, 276, 408
simplicifolia, 300, 408
Bartonia verna, 313
“Basswood,” 259, 272, 324, 334, 342)
405 (see also Tilia)
Batis, 341, 342
Batodendron, 197, 205, 213, 219, 234,
245, 200, 273, 284, 292, 305, 316,
322, 340, 405, 407-409
Batschia, 227, 235
“Bay,” red, 197, 234, 250, 260, 287,
202), 2055, 2G8;,.305; 312). 310,, 322,
331, 340, 405 (see also Gordonia
and Persea)
loblolly, or tan, 405 (see Gordouia)

419

“Bay’’—Continued
(white). 196, 204, 212, 218, 234, 245,

249, 258, 263, 272, 283, 292, 208,

Sle322,0 33h 3426) apo sOOmAOs

(see also Magnolia glauca)
“Bean,” wild, 276

“Bear-foot,” 199, 276
“Bear-grass,” 215
“Beech,” 196, 204, 212, 218, 234, 246,

253, 258, 272, 287, 292, 309, 324,
334; 342, 346, 348, 401
“Begegar-lice,’ 199, 409 (see also

Meibomia)
“Beggar-weed,” 276, 294, 295, 396, 409
Bejaria, 323, 332; 334, 407
Berchemia, 1098, 205, 213, 201, 263,
284, 292, 306, 312, 317; 332
Berlandiera pumila (see B. tomento-
sa)
subacaulis, 318
tomentosa, 207, 215, 220, 227, 236,
285, 204, 209, 308. 334
“Bermuda grass,” 275
Betula, 199, 204, 212, 219, (224). 234,
249, 259, 278, 309, 316, 324, 334,
335, 401 (see a!so Birch)
Bidens bipinnata, 276, 294
coronata, 237, 277
Bigelovia (see Chondrophora)
Bignonia crucigera (capreolata), 198,
205, 213, 219, 260, 263, 273, 306
radicans (see Tecoma)
“Birch,” (109), 204, 212, 224, 234, 240,
259, (278), 309, 316, 324. 334, (335),

AOI
“Bitter-weed,” 207, 263, 275, 287, 308,
318, 324, 334

“Blackberry,” 198, 206, 220, 235, 261,
274, 284, 293, 317, 323) 332

“Black gum,” 196, 197, 203, 204, 213,
218, 219, 233, 234, 245, 246, 249,
258, 272, 273, 283, 292, 298, 305,
311, 324, 330, 331, 332, 342) 366,
405 (see also Nyssa)

“Black: haw,’ 197, 205, 213, 273,
406

“Black-jack oak” (Quercus Cates-
baei), 195, 197. 204, 208, 212, 2109,
224, 226, 233, 234, 244, 245, 249,
258, (278), 282, 283, 284, 201, 297,
208;,-305;) 302). 35s4 310.8 322513820,
3513025370. AZ

292,

-

420 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

“Black-jack oak” (Quercus Marylan-

dica), 196, 204, 219, 224, 230, 234,
259, 272, 277, 292, (295), 402
“Black oak,” 272, 277, 402
“Black pine,’ 208, 218, 219, 221, 226,
234, 249, 258, 283, 202, 208, 305,
311, 322, 331, 340, 400
“Black-root,” 251, 263, 286, 209, 307,

Bie, 3175; 323,333

“Black walnut” (see Juglans)

“Blood-root,” 199, 214

“Blue-eyed grass,” 209

Boehmeria, 276, 341

“Boneset,” 276

“Bonnets,” 198, 208, 252, 263, 285, 334,
364

Borraginaceae, 227 (see also Bats-
chia, Lithospermum)

Borrichia, 341, 342

“Box-elder,” 213, 259, 404

Brachiaria (see Panicum hemito-
mon)

Brasenia, 276, 286

Breweria, 286

“Broom-sedge,”’ 199, 207; 220, 227,
237, 263, 274, 286, 203, 300, 317,
318, 323

Brunnichia, 250

Buchnera,; 308

“Buckeye,” 198, 206, 213, 220, 261, 274,
293, 306

“Biullace,” 198,9213;/ 219,235... 260),

273, 284, 292, (296), 306, 317, 322,
332 (see also Muscadine)
“Bulrush,”’ 252, 204, 364
Bumelia lanuginosa, 205,
273, 292, 405
lycioides. 213,
tenax, 340, 342
“Bur clover,” 276, 408

260, 263,

215, 405

Cc;

“Cabbage palmetto,” 238, 246, 2509,
205, 304, 316, 322, 331, 340, 382,
401 (see also Sabal Palmetto)

Cacalia (see Mesadenia)

Caesalpiniaceae, 407, 408

Calamintha (see Clinopodium, Con-
radina)

Callicarpa, 198, 213, 220, 245, 261, 274,
293, 340

Calophanes, 286, 318
Calopogon (see Limodorum)
Campanula Americana, 214, 215
Campulosus, 207, 237, 251, 300, 324,
3833:
Canna, 334
Capriola, 275
Carduus, 341
“Careless,” 277
Carex debilis, 221
Harperi, 199
leptalea or polytrichoides (see pre-
ceding)
styloflexa, 308
Carphephorus corymbosus, 317
Pseudo-Liatris, 238, 252
Carpinus, 196, 204, 212, 219, 238, 259.
273, 287, 292, 305, 322, 331, 342,
401
Carya porcina (see Hicoria glabra)
tomentosa (see H. alba)

“Carrot,” wild, 199
Cassia Chamaectrista, etc. (see Cha-
maecrista)

obtusifolia (same as next)
Tora, 263, 275, 293, 318, 408
Castalia, 207, 237, 262, 275, 286, 313,
324.
Castanea alnifolia (nana), 262,
274, 317, (318) .
pumila, 205, 219, 235, (253), 292, 401
Catalpa, 205, 406
ni@cit=tallee 2528300
Ceanothus Americanus, 198, 206, 235,
274, 285
microphyllus,
323, 332
“Cedar” (red), 173, 196, 200, 208, 212,
221, 253, 205, 305, 309, 316, 324,
331, 339, 340, 364, 400 (see also
Juniperus)
stinking, 212, 400 :
white, 238 (see also Chamaseyneee
and Juniper)

263,

206, 236, 285, 317,

“Cellular cryptogams,” 186, 418
Celtis. 197, 205, 212, 250, 263, 205, 305.
324, 348. 403 (see also Hack-
berry)
pumila, 273

Cenchrus echinatus, 276
tribuloides, 277, 285, 204, 308

INDEX OF PLANT NAMES,

Centella, 208, 246, 252, 286, 307, 334,
341, 398

Cephalanthus, 198, 205, 206, 214, 220,
250, 261, 263, 274, 284, 293, 306,
317, 323, 332

Cephaloxys (see Juncus repens)

Ceranthera (see Dicerandra)

Ceratiola, 236, 245, 317, (318), 323,
333, 341, 362, 384

Ceratophyllum, 2095

Ceratoschoenus (see Rhynchospora
corniculata, R. Tracyi)

GErcis. 190,204,212) 210, -250;. 272;
292, 305, 316, 324, 346, 404, 407, 408

Cerothamnus (see Myrica)

Chaerophyllum, 275

Chaetochloa, 276, 204, 341

imberbis, 307

Chamaecrista, 236, 275, 286, 287, 204,
209, 307, 317, 341, 408

Chamaecyparis, 178, 208, 234,
(253), 324, 334, 342, 400

Chamaesyce (see Euphorbia)

Chapmania 324, 400

Chaptalia, 207, 237, 352, 307

‘Chenopodium, 342

“Cherokee rose,” 273, 277

“Cherry,” wild, 197, 250. 272, 277, 287,
202, 309, 342

“Chestnut white oak,” 402 (see Quer-
cus Michauxii)

“Chinaberry,” 197, 212, 219, 259, 272,

Dy BET.

“Chinquapin,” 205, 219, 235, 253, 262,
274, 292, 295, 317, (318), 401
Chionanthus, 197, 205, 235, 260, 273,

293, 305, 316, 406
Cholisma ferruginea, 245, 260, 263,
284, 292, 306, 322, 322, 340, 405, 408
fruticosa, 250, 262, 293, 306, 312, 323,
332, 334, 408
ligustrina, 251, 262, 408
Chondrophora nudata, 207, 236, 251,
307, 333, 398
virgata 412
. Ohrosperma, 207, 220
Chrysobalanus, 206, 227, 235, 245, 251,
284, 293, 208, 307, 317, (318), 323,
332
Chrysoma, 235, 245, 246
_ Chrysopogon avenaceus 277 (see also
Sorghastrum)

238,

Chrysopsis, 288

argentea? 237

aspera, 237, 286, 308, 318

flexuosa, 285, 288, 299, 300

gossypina, 285, 299

graminifolia, 207, 236, 252, 263, 275,
285, 209, 307, 313, 334
Mariana, 277

oligantha, 208, 237; 252, 300

pilosa (see C. gossypina)

pinifolia, 288

Cirsium (see Carduus)

Cladium, 236, 246, 251, 200, 307, 312,
323, 333, 358, 304, 3908 (see also
Sawgrass)

Clethra, 206, 235, 250, 261, 285, 290,
312, 407

Cliftonia, 205, 213, 227, 234, 245, 250,
260, 263, 287, 208, 309, 312, 360, 404

Clinopodium coccineum, 235, 245, 246

dentatum, 214, 215

“Clover,” 274, 396, 408

Cnicus (see Carduus)

Cnidoscolus, 199, 275, 285, 300, 318, 341

Cochranea (see Heliotropium)

“Coffee-weed,” 263, 275, 203, 318, 408

Collinsonia, 199

“Columbine,” 199

Compositae, 177

“Compti” (see Coontie)

mComterse si17o,eAT2

Conopholis, 199; 214

Conradina, 245, 246, 250, 362

“Coontie,” 317

Coreopsis aurea (see Bidens coron-
ata)

nudata, 207, 251, 334

Cornus, 274

asperifolia, 198, 293, 306

florida, 196, 204, 212, 218,
258, 263, 272, 287, 291, 305,
316, 324, 331, 334, 335, 342,
405 (see also Dogwood)

stricta, 198, 251, 262, 306, 317,

“Cottonwood,” 107, 204, 212, 249,
401

“Cow-itch,” 197,
273, 306, 332

“Crab-apple,” 205, 212, 221, 250, (263),
272, 287, 292, 324, 403

“Crab-grass” (crap grass, crop grass)
275, 204

227 5

218210). 250, 2

422
Cracca chrysophylla, 208, 237, 286,
299, 408
spicata, 294, 408
Virginiana, 230, 237, 408
Crataegus, (221). 273. 287, 292, 305,
300, 324, 334, 342, 404 (see also
Haw) |
aestivalis, 197, 205, 235, 260, 273.

316, 352, 403
arborescens (see C. viridis)
apiifolia, 205, 306, 316, 403
Crus-Galli? 205, 305, 404
lacrimata, 234, 238, 403
Michauxii? 284, 292, 316, 403
spathulata, 213, 403
uniflora, 274, 293
viridis, 204, 305, 316, 403
Crookea, 245. 250, 261, 263, 285, 299,
B001 900) 31250313
Croomia, 214, 215, 412
“Crop grass,” (see Crab-grass)
“Cross-vine, 198, 205, 213, 219,
273, 306
Crota_aria rotundifolia, 286, 299, 408
Croton argyranthemus, 207, 220, 227,
236, 285, 204. 299, 318, 324
glandulosus, 277
maritimus, 341
Crotonopsis, 286, 204, 317
“Crowfoot grass,” 318
Ctenium (see Campulosus)
“Cucumber tree,’ 219, 221, 403
Cuscuta compacta, 313
Cynodon (see Capriola)
Cynoxylon (see Cornus florida)
Cyperus articulatus, 308
cylindrostachys? 342
dentatus? 341
Martindalei, 300
retrofractus, 204
rotundus, 275
speciosus? 287
distichum),
196, 204, 209, 212, 219,
246, 249, 259, 273, 292;
316, 322, 324, 331, 342;
382, 400
imbricarium), (178),
204, 209, 221, 226, 232-
248, 249, 258, 271, 272,
297, 298, 304, 311, 313,
330, 331, 342, 350, 352,
376, 380, 386, 400

“Cypress” (Taxodium
173, 178,
234, 238,
304, 312,
364, 378,

(Taxodium
197, 203,
234, 245;
283, 295,
316, 324,
368, 372,

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Cyrilla parvifolia, 206, 208, 245,
261, 284, 287, 298, 300, 305,
313, 380, 404

racemiflora I97, 205, 213, 219,
234, 250, 260, 263, 273, 284,
305, 316, 331, 360, 404

250,
312,

227A
202,

D.
Dactyloctenium, 318

Danthonia, 220, 221
Dasystoma Virginica, 199, 270

| Daucus, 199, 276

Decodon, 262, 333

Decumaria, 1097, 205, 213, 219, 261,
263, 273, 306, 332

“Deer-tongue,”’ 207, 220, 237, 251, 263,
286, 313, 333, 397 ;

Dendropogon (see Tillandsia usne-
oides)

Dentaria, 215

Desmodium (see Meibomia)

Desmothamnus (see Pieris nitida)

“Devil’s shoestring,” 230, 237, 408

“Dewberry, 273

Dianthera crassifolia, 252

Dicerandra, 199, 286

Dichromena colorata, 307, 341, 398

latifolia 207, 237, 251, 300, 333

Diodia teres, 252, 275, 285, 293

Dioscorea, 214, 276

Diospyros, 186, 197,
259, 260, 272, 284,
323, 331, 342, 405

Diplopappus obovatus (see Doelling-
eria reticulata)

205, + 2102275
291, 305, 316,

Ditca 2135265
Distichlis, 341
Doellingeria, 237, 238, 203, 324, 333
“Dog-fenne!,” 199, 207, 220, 227, 236,

262, 263, 275, 276, 285, 287, 203,
204, 313, 317, 323, 333, 342

“Dogwood,” 196, 204, 212, 210, 221,
22a ODT 23s ats 246, 253, 258,
271, 272, 277, 287, 291, 295, 300, -
305, 309. 316, 324, 331, 334, 342,
372, 378, 397, 405

Dolicholus simplicifolius, 208, 236,

286, 204, 300, 318, 409
“Dollar-weed,” same as preceding)
“Dollar-leaf oak,” 402 (see Quercus

Marylandica)

INDEX OF PLANT

Drosera capillaris, 207, 238, 252, 286
filiformis Tracyi, 207, 236, 251
Dryopteris Floridana, 308
mol-is? 307
patens? 1908, 214
The'ypteris, 190, 341
“Duckweed,” 341
Dupatya (see Syngonanthus)

E.

Eichhornia (see Piaropus)
“Elbow-bush,” 198, 205, 206, 214, 220,
250, 261, 274, 203, 306, 317, 332
“Eider,” 220, 261, (263), 274, 323
Eleocharis acicularis, 287
Baldwinii, 252
equisetoides (same as next)
interstincta, 263
melanocarpa, 2860
Elephantopus, 275, 308
Eleusine, 276
Elionurus, 308, 300

“dene Oy.” 20s, Aire, Avi ass. AIO.
249, 287, 300, 305, 316, 324, 331,
342, 403

slippery, 212, 348, 403
E!odes (see Triadenum)
Endorima (see Baldwinia)
.Epidendrum, 220, 295. 308, ~
Epifagus (same as next)
Epiphegus, 199, 214, 221
Eragrostis Brownei (see E. simplex)
ciliaris 294
simplex, 286
Erianthus, 199, 275, 204
Ericaceae, 177, 180, 188, 200, 2c8, 215,
221, 224, 238, 253, 264, 278, 288,
295. 300, 309, 313, 319, 325, 335,
336, 342, 393-396, 407-409
Erigeron Canadensis (see Leptilon)
ramosus (strigosus), 275, 318
. vernus, 207, 252, 286, 209
Eriocaulon compressum.
251, 209, 313
decangulare, 207, 236, 251, 312, 333
gnaphalodes (see FE. compressum)
septangulare, 285, 287
villosum (see Lachnocaulon an-
ceps)
Eriogonum, 207, 215, 227, 236, 263,
287, 317, 323, 334

20720}

NAMES. 423
Eryngium aromaticum, 324
synchaetum, 208, 251, 333
virgatum, 207, 237
Erythrina, 276, 409
Eubotrys (see Leucothoe)
Euonymus, 198, 214, 262, 274
Eupatorium album, 287, 318
aromaticum, 285, 294, 308, 317
capillifolium, 263, 264, 275, 287, 294,
342
compositifolium (coronopifolium),
WOGy 2076220! «227.236, 202, 2604,
275, 285, 293, 307, 313, 317, 323. 333
foeniculaceum (see E. capillifoli-
um)
leptophyllum, 285, 288
mikanioides, 308, 398
Mohrii? 300, 334
perfoliatum, 276
purpureum, 300
rotundifolium,
313) 333
Euphorbia commutata, 214, 215
cordifolia, 287
dentata (inadvertent!y
heterophylla), 277
Floridana, 236, 285
gracilis, 246, 285, 204, 300
inundata, 251
sphaerosperma (see E. Floridana)
Euphorbiaceae, 177
Euthamia, 285, 308, 318
“Evening primrose,” 275, 204
“Evergreen willow oak” (see Quer-
cus laurifolia)

208, 238, 251, 262,

called E.

F.

Fabaceae, 408

Facelis apiculata, 207, 208

Fagus, 196, 204, 212, 218, 234, 258; 263,
272, 277, 287, 292, 300, 324, 334,
342, 346, 348, 401

“Ferns,” 198, 199, 207, 214,
221, 227, 236-238, 246,
262, 263, 275-277, 285,
299, 300, 307, 308, 312,
323, 333, 334, 341, 348

Fimbristylia puberula, 334

spadicea, 246, 341
Flaveria, 308, 398
Forestiera (see Adelia)

215,
251,
203,
313;

220,
ZED
2094,
317,

424 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

“Forked-leaf black-jack aak,” 402
(see Quercus Catesbaei)
Forsteronia (see Trachelospermum)
Frangula (see Rhamnus)
Fraxinus, 212, 238, 278, 287, 305, 322,
331, 342, 406
Americana, 197, 212, 292, 406
Caroliniana, 197, 204, 234, 236, 259,
292, 305, 316, 322, 331, 406
lanceolata? 331
profunda? 2409, 331
“French mulberry,’ 108,
245, 261, 274, 203, 340
Froelichia 324
Fuirena scirpoidea. 246, 252, 200, 324
Fungi, 178, 186, 295

213, 220,

G.

.

Galactia Elliottii, 333, 341, 400
erecta, 207, 409
glabella (see G. regularis)
mollis, 295, 400
regularis, 287, 400
sessiliflora (see G. erecta)
Galium uniflorum, 215
“Gallberry,” 198, 206, 214, 220, 235,
Z2EO W253, 255, 250, 201, (203).7284:

Asi, AOE MA ow eaon Ste Sie ee
. 330, 332, 341, 368, 307
Garberia, 323, 324
Gaura angustifolia, 342
filipes (same as next)
Michauxii, 207, 236
Gaylussacia dumosa, 206, 220, 227.
235, 251, 284, 203, 298, 307, 319,

332, 407, 408
frondosa (and varieties). 206, 235,
250, 262, 293, 200, 323, 332, 408
hirtella, 235, 408
Gelsemium, 197, 205,
ZOO 273 eo Anes s 2
Geobalanus (see Chrysobalanus)
Geranium, 275
Gerardia, 308
divaricata, 285
fasciculata, 277
Gibbesia, 285
Gleditschia, 199, 278, 305,316, 404,
407, 408
Glottidium, 263, 318, 334, 408
Gnaphalium purpureum, 207, 275

213, 2109,

235, |

“Goldenrod,” 198, 208, 276, 285. 293,

300, 342

“Gooseberry,” 220, 274, 284, 203, 317,
341, 408

Gordonia, 208, 238, 300, 312, 322, 331,
334, 342, 405

“Grape,” wild, 213. 250, 261, 273, 284,
292, 205, 206, 306, 317, 332, 340,
380

“Grasses,” 1745, 177-170; TOS! TOO; 2075

(208), 214, 220, 237, 238. 243, 246,
Distt 263, 274-278, 285-287,
203-295, 209, 300, 307, 308, 317,
318, 321, 323, 324, 333, 334, 339,
341. 360, 388
Gratiola Floridana, rI99
quadridentata (same as next)
ramosa, 299
spaerocarpa, I99
“Graybeard.” 107.0205. 235. 200), 273"
203, 305, 316, 406
“Gum,” black (see Black gum, Nyssa
biflora, N.-sylvatica)
red or sweet (see Sweet gum, Li-
quidambar)
tupelo (see Tupelo gum,
Ogeche, N. uniflora)
Gyrotheca, 251

LAS)
=);

Nyssa

H:

“Hackberry,” 197, 205. 212, 22%, 238;
259, 273, 205, 305, 324, 348, 403
(see also Celtis)

Halesia, 205, 324

Carolina, 197, 406
diptera, 212, 273, 406
tetraptera (see H. Carolina)

Hamamelis, 214, 220, 245, 262, 293

Hartmannia, 198

“Haw,” 07) /205, 213; 221, 2aqsecaue
253, 273, 274, 284, 292, 203, 300,
305, 306, 300, 316. 324. 334, 403
(see also Black haw, Crataegus,
May haw, Possum haw)

“Heart-leaf,”’ 220

| “Heath family,’ 177, 300, (see also

Ericaceae)
Helenium autumnale, 307
tenuifolium, 207, 263, 275, 287,

308, 318, 324, 334
Helianthella, 251, 324

INDEX OF PLANT NAMES,

Helianthemum, 294
Carolinianum, 276
Helianthus heterophyllus, 207, 333
Radula, 207, 236, 285, 209, 307, 313;
334
Heliotropium anchusaefolium, 276
Helosciadium (see Apium)
Hepatica, 214
Herpestis amplexicaulis (see Monni-
era Caroliniana)
nigrescens (see M. acuminata)
Heteropogon, 263, 275, 204, 318
Heterotheca, 341
Hibiscus incanus (lasiocarpus), 308
“Hickory,” 194, 196, 204, 205, 208,
BIG 2TO 221-6227") 2390) 2a n2s8:
245, 253, 255, 250, 268, 271, 272,
277, 283, 291, 202, 295, 300, 305,
308, 316, 324, 331, 342. 378, 397, 401
Hicoria, 205, 212, 259, 263, 305, 308,
324, 342, 401 (see also Hickory)
alba. 190, 204." 210; 234, 250) 272)
277, 283, 291, 305, 316, 401
aquatica, 204, 213, 278, 401
glabra, 199, 208, 227, 245, 259, 272,
277, 283, 202, 331, 401
“Hog plum,” 219, 260, 273, 316, 404
“Holly,” 196, 204, 212, 218, 234, 253,
259, (263), 272, 287, 202; 305, 316,
: 322, 324, 334, (335), 340, 404
“Honey locust,” 305, 316, 404, 408 (see
also Gleditschia)
“Honeysuckle” (Azalea), 214, 220,
235, 201,..274) 333; 407 |
(Lonicera), 273
“Hop hornbeam” (see Ostrya)
Houstonia angustifolia, 342
“Huckleberry,” 206, 220, 221, 227,
230, 235, 250, 261, 262, 284, 2093,
209, 306, 307, 323, 306, 408 (see
also Gaylussacia and Vaccinium)
“Hurrah bush,” 206, 235, 245, 261,
(284), 299, 306, 312, 317, 323, 332,
407
“Hyacinth,” water
Water hyacinth)
Hydrangea, 108, 213
Hydrolea (see Nama)
Hymenocallis, 199, 208
Hymenopappus, 277, 318

(see Piaropus,

ho
N

425

Hypericum aspalathoides, 245
aureum, 214, 215
fasciculatum, 198, 206, 227, 235, 245,
250, 261, 284, 290, 306, 312, 323,
332, 352, 358
galioides (etc.), 198, 206, 235, 262,
307 (see 3d Ann, Rep., p. 329)
gentianoides (see Sarothra)
microsepalum (see Crookea)
myrtifolium, 206, 250, 284, 299, 306,
Soo
Opacum, 251, 333
Hyptis (see Mesosphaerum)

1

Ilex ambigua (Caroliniana), 340
Cassine, 234, 306, 312, 322, 332, 404
coriacea, 206, 214, 235, 250, 262, 312,
350 :

Dahoon (see I. cassine)

decidua, 205, 213, 306, 354, 404

glabra, 198, 206, 214, 220, 235. 250,
(253. 255, 256), 261, 263, 284, 287,
293), 200,300.) 312,08 (315), 323;
(330), 332, 341, 368

lucida (see I. coriacea)

myrtifolia, 205, 234, 250, 260, 284,
298, 312, 316, 331. 380, 404

opaca, 196, 204, 212, 218, 234, (253),
250 203) (27258257, 202, 305, 316)
322, 324, 334: 335, 340, 404

vomitoria, 206, 220, 234, 245,
306, 340, 404

Illicium, 214, 220, 235, 238

“Indigo” (same as next)

Indigofera, 287, 300, 318, 324, 408

Inodes (see Sabal)

Ipomoea littoralis, 341
pandurata, 294
Pes-Caprae, 341, 390
sagittata (sagittifolia,

308, 334

Iris 208, 252, 307

“Tronweed,” 227 (see Vernonia)

“Tronwood,” 196, 204, 219, 238, 250,

2735-20721 202,. 305. 322,327. | A0T
(see also Carpinus)

Isolepis (see Stenophyllus)

Isopappus, 263, 276, 285, 293

Tsopyrum, 199

202,

speciosa),

426

Itea, 198, 206, 220, 250, 261, 274, 293,
299, 306, 312, 333, 350
Iva frutescens, 245, 250, 306, 340, 342
imbricata, 341, 342
lvive we 2O0) e2TAse220,8235, 407
poison (see Poison ivy)

J.

“Japanese clover,’ 275, 204, 409
“Japanese honeysuckle,” 273
Jatropha stimulosa (see Cnidoscolus)
“Jessamine,” yellow (see Gelsemium)
“Johnson grass; 199
Juglans. 197, 213, 278, 401
Juncus abortivus, 287
biflorus, 252
candatus (see J. trigonocarpus)
effusus, 220, 275, 334
megacephalus, 308, 341
repens, 198, 207, 286

Roemerianus, 236, 246, 252, 290,
307, 333, 341
scirpoides compositus, 252, 287, 300,
324

trigonocarpus, 237
“Juniper,” 208, 234, 238, 253, 324, 334,
342, 400 (see also Chamaecy-
paris)
Juniperus, 196, 208, 212, 219, 278, 295,
305, 316, 324, 331, 340, 364, 400

K.

Kalmia hirsuta, 250, 307, 312, 323, 332,

407
latifolia, 206, 214, 215, 220, 235, 407

Kneiffia, 220, 276

Kosteletzkya, 341

Kraunhia (see Wistaria)

Kuhnistera, 207, 236, 252, 263, 264,
285, 204, 209, 307, 317, 323, 408,
409

iby

Lachnanthes (see Gyrotheca)
Lachnocau!on anceps, 238, 251, 334

Beyrichianum? 287, 324

Michauxii (see L. anceps)
Laciniaria, 288

Chapmani, 246, 285, 287

elegans, 286, 204

gracilis, 287, 300

spicata, 307

tenuifolia, 237, 285, 288, 204, 308

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY——SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Lantana Camara, 274, 277, 341
Sellowiana, 274, 277

Laportea (see Urticastrum)

“Laurel,” (see Kalmia latifolia)

Lechea, 286, 295, 300

Legouzia (see Specutaria)

Leguminosae (“leguminous plants”),
177, 179, 180, 188, 200, 208, 215, 221,
224, 238, 246, 253, 264, 278, 288,
295, 300, 309, 313, 319, 321, 325,
335, 336 342, 394-396, 407-409

Leitneria, 251

Lemna, 341

Lepidium, 275, 204

Leptamnium (see Epiphegus)

Leptilon Canadense, 275, 294. 318

Leptocaulis (see Spermolepis)

Leptopoda, 237, 251, 334

Lespedeza hirta, 276, 300, 318, 409

striata, 275, 294, 409

Leucothoe axillaris,

407
elongata, 407 (see next)
racemosa, 206, 261, 284, 312, 350, 407

Liatris (see Laciniaria, Trilisa)

“Lichens,” 178, 186, 267

Limodorum, 334

“in,” 205. 212; 238,. 250; 272) 201, 505;
324, 334, 342: 405 (see also Tilia)

Linaria Canadensis, 275

Linum Floridanum, 238

Lippia, 307, 300, 341, 398

Liquidambar, 196, 204, 212, 218, 234,
249, 258, 263, 272, 283, 201, 208,
304. 312, 316, 322, 331, 335, 340,
348. 354, 403 406 (see also Sweet
gum)

Liriodendron, 197, 204, 212, 219, 226,
‘234, 240, 258, 263, 273, 278, 287,
295. 298, 309, 332, 331, 334, 342. 403

Lithospermum Gmelini, 227, (236)

tuberosum, 214

“ive: Oaks-)107. 204.205) 22h meas
238, 245, 247, 250, 250, 272, 277,
283, 202, 205, 305, 316; 322; 33h
340, 342, 372, 390, 402 (see also
Quercus geminata and Q. Vir-
giniana)

“Loblolly,” 1906 (see Magnolia)

“Loblo'ly bay,” 405 (see Gordonia)

“Loblolly pine,” 106, 221 (see Pinus
Taeda)

“Locust” (see Gleditschia, Honey lo-
cust)

PA AS, ANG.

INDEX OF PLANT NAMES, 427

“Long-leaf pine,” 178, 184-185, 195,
196, 200, 203, 204, 208, 209, (211),
212, 218, 226, 228, (229,) 230, 231,
233, 234, 239-241, 244, 245, 247-240,
255, 256, 258, 266, 271, 272, 270,
282, 283, 290, 291, 295, 298, 304,
309, 311, 315. 316, 319, (321), 322,
327, 330, 331,° 330, 339, 342, 348,
350, 358, 362, 364. 372. 378, 380,
(384). 397, 398, 400, 413 (see also
Pinus palustris)

“Long moss,” (see Spanish moss,
Ti-landsia usneoides)

Lonicera Japonica, 273

sempervirens, 273

Lophiola, 208, 236, 246, 251

Lorinseria, 220, 263, 276

“Love-vine,” 313

Ludwigia capitata (see L. suffruti-
cosa)

lanceolata, 308
maritima, 341
pilosa, 208, 263, 286
suffruticosa, 208, 285
virgata, 252, 324

Ludwigiantha, 287

“Lupine,” 286, 300, 408

Lupinus perennis, 300, 408

villosus, 286, 300, 408

Lycopodium alopecuroides, 237, 313

Caro‘inianum, 237, 252
Lycopus, 286
Lygodesmia, 286, 299, 318, 324
Lyonia (see Pieris)
Lythrum, 308

M.

Macranthera, 238
“Magnolia,” 196, 204, 211, 212, 218,
226, 234, 245. 249, 258, 272, 283,
(287), 201, 295, 208. 305, 312, 316,
322, 331, 340, 348, 403
Magnolia foetida (see M. grandi-
flora)
Fraseri (see M. pyramidata)
glauca, 196, 204, 212, 218, 226, 234,
245, 240, 258, 263, 272, 283, 292,
295, 298, 305, 311, 322, 331, 342.
360, 366, 403, 406
grandiflora, 196, 204, 212, 218, 226,
234, 245, 249, 258, 263, 272, 277,

Magnolia—Continued

283, 287, 291, 298, 305, 312, 316,
322, 331, 340, 348, 403, 406
macrophylla, 199, 219, 221, 278, 403
pyramidata, 219, 221, 403
Virginiana (see M. glauca)
“Maiden-cane,” 207, 262, 274, 313, 323,
372
“Maidenhair fern,” 214
Matus, 205, 212, (221), 250, 263, 272,
287, 292) 324, 403

“Maple,” 196, 197, 204, 205, 212, 219,
234, 246, 249, 258, 272, 273, 283,
2027" 300:11305.0. 411, 310, ) 322), 331"
342, 404

Marginaria (see Polypodium)

Marshallia, 334

Maruta (see Anthemis)

Mayaca, 237, 286

“May haw,” 197, 203, 205, 235, 260,
273, 316, 352, 403

Medicago Arabica (maculata), 276,

408
Meibomia laevigata, 199, 409
nudiflora, 199, 409
purpurea, 276, 294, 400
rigida, 295, 409
Melia, 197, 212, 219, 250, 272
Melica, 214
Mesadenia diversifolia,
Floridana, 324
sulcata, 236
Mesosphaerum, 276
radiatum (rugosum), 287, 307, 313.
398
“Mexican clover,” (275), 293
Mikania, 307
“Milkweed,” 198, 220, 286
Mimosaceae, 407, 408
“Mistletoe,” 206, 213, 235, 250,
274, 312, 317, 323, 332
Mitchella, 198, 208, 214, 220, 263, 275,
204, 342
“Mock orange,” 212, 404
Mohrodendron (see Halesia)
Monarda punctata, 294, 342
Monniera acuminata, 308, 308
Caroliniana, 299
Morella (see Myrica)
“Morning-glory,” 2094, 308, 334,
390

198

261,

341,

428 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Morongia, 199, 208, 276, 286, 299, 408 | Nyssa—Continued

Morus, 197, 205, 212, (221), 259, 263, aquatica, 405 (see N. uniflora)
272, 305, 324, 331, 342, 403 biflora, 196, 204, 218, 234, 245, 240,
“Moss,” Spanish, (see Spanish moss, 258, 272, 283, 292, 208, 305, 311,
Tillandsia usneoides) 331, 306, 405, 406
“Mosses,” 178, 186 | capitata (same as next)
Muhlenbergia expansa (see M. tri- | Ogeche, 186, 204, 205, 208, 235, 238,
chopodes) | 249, 260, 263, 284. 208, 331, 405
filipes, 307, 341 | sylvatica, 197, 213, 219, 273, 405
trichopodes, 208, 238 : uniflora, 196, 204, 219, 238, 249, 259,
“Mulberry,” 197, 205, 212; 221, 250, | 263, 272, 202s 93

(263), 272, 305, 324, 331, 342, 403
French (see French mulberry)
“Muscadine,” 198, 213, 219, 235, 260.

273, 284, 292, 206, 306, 317, 322,

: O.
~ Oak,” 175. S107; 204; 9213.9 240,. 25a.
253, 255, 305, 309, 324, 334, 342,

406
332, 340 (see also Bullace) Gade 272, 277, 402
Myrica, 300 | black-jack, 196, 197, 204, 212, 2109,
Carolinensis, 206, 235, 250, 299 | 224.) 220) 230, 233, 234. BAA eeAgs
cerifera, 197, 205, 213, 219, 234, 245, | ‘249, 258, 250, 272, 277, 282-284,
250, 260, 273, 284, 203, 208, 305, | 287, 292, 208, 305, 312, 315, 316,
312, 316, 322, 331, 340, 401 322, 330, 331, 362, 376, 402
inodora, 206, 208, 235, 238, 2990. 390, chestnut white, 402 (see Quercus
401 Michauxii)
pumila, 206, 235, 250, 261, 263, 284, | dollar-leaf, 402

299, 306, 312, 317, (318), 323, 332 = evergreen willow, 196, 402 (see Q.
Myriophyllum, 199 laurifolia)
“Myrtle,” 197, 205, 206, 213, 219, 234, forked-leaf black-jack, 402
235, 245, 250, 260, 261, 273, 284,| live, 197, 204, 205, 234, 238, 245, 247,
293, 208; 299, 305, 306, 312, 316, 250, 250, 272, 277, 283, 202, 205,

317, 322, 323, 331, 332, 401 305, 316, 322, 331, 335. 340, 342,
372, 402 :
N. narrow-leaf black-jack, 230, 402
overcup, 402
Nama corymbosa, 308 poison (see Poison oak, Rhus Tox-
“Narrow-leaf black-jack oak,” 230, | icodendron)

402 (see Quercus cinerea) post, 194, 196, 204, 218, 219, 226,
“Needle palm,” 168, 214, 261, 307 230, 234.) 238) 250, 208, 2725277.
Negundo (see Acer Negundo) 283, 284, 291, 292, 298, 305, 316,
Nelumbo, 276 322, 402
Neopieris (see Pieris Mariana) red, 194, 196, 204, 212, 213, 218, 230,
“Nettle,” 199, 275, 285, 300, 318, 341 234, 258, 268, 271, 272, 277, 283,
Nothoscordum, 199 | 287, 291, 305, 316, 331, 346; 374,
Nuphar (see Nymphaea) 378, 380, 397, 402
“Nut-grass,” 275 round-leaf black-jack, 230, 287, 402
Nymphaea chartacea, 198 (see Q. Marylandica)

fluviatilis, 252, 364 scrub, 231

macrophylla, 263. 324, 334 Spanish, 194, 196, 268

odorata (see Castalia) swamp chestnut, 197, 204, 212, 210,

orbiculata, 285 240, 250, 272, 202, 305. 402
Nyssa, 324, 342 (see also Black gum, | swamp post, 197, 204, 212, 240, 316,

Tupelo gum) | * 402

INDEX OF PLANT NAMES.

“Oak.”—Continued.
turkey, 197, 204, 212, 219, 234, 245,
240, 259, 282-284, 291, 298, 305,
3II, 315, 316, 322, 331, 335, 402
upland willow, 402

water, 196, 204, 212, 219, 234, 249,
258, 272, 277, 283, 292, 305, 312,
310. 48227" (23T,..402

white, 196, 205, 212, 218, 238, 250,
272, 291, 334, 402

willow, 197, 402

“Oak runner,” 206, 230, 235, 250, 256,

261, 274, 284, 285, 298, 306, 312,
317, 323: 332
“Oats,” sea, 246, 330, 341
wild, 208, 230, 236, 286
Oenothera biennis, 275
cruciata, 294
humifusa, 341
linearis (see Kneiffia)
speciosa (see Hartmannia)
“Ogeechee lime,’ 405 (see Nyssa
Ogeche, Tupelo gum)
Onoclea, 215
Onosmodium, 238
Oplismenus, 214, 295
Opuntia Pes-Corvi, 342
vulgaris, 318
“Orchids,” 208, 220, 221, 295, 308,
334, 342
Orontium, 237
Osmanthus, 197, 205, 213, 219, 234,
260, 273, 284, 292, 298, 306, 322,
340, 406
Osmunda cinnamomea, 207, 220, 237,
252, 262, 276, 300, 313, 323, 333, 348
regalis, 238, 252, 263, 209. 334
Ostrya, 196, 205, 212, 219, 234, 259,
272, 277, 283, 287, 202, 300, 324,
331, 335, 342, 401
“Overcup oak,” 402 (see Quercus ly-
rata)
Oxalis, 275
Oxydendrum, 200, 212, 218, 234, 245,
259, 263, 273, 295, 300, 324, 342,
, 405, 407, 408
Oxypolis filiformis, 208, 236
vias Pp.
Pachysandra, 139, 200
Paepalanthus (see Syngonanthus)

429

“Palmetto,” 198, 206, 213, 220, 236,
250, 261, 306, 323, 332 .(see also

Cabbage palmetto, Sabal, Saw
palmetto, Serenoa)
“Palms,” (see above, also Needle

palm, Rhapidophyllum)
Pancratium (see Hymenocallis)
Panicum, 252, 300
angustifolium? 207, 237
commutatum, 276
digitarioides (see P. hemitomon)
erectifolium? 246
gibbum, 276
hemitomon, 207, 262, 274, 285, 313,
323, 333, 372
proliferum, 277
sanguinale (see Syntherisma)
virgatum, 308

Paronychia riparia, 294

“Parsley haw,” 403 (see Crataegus
apiifolia)

Parthenocissus, 197, 205, 213, 219,
250, 260, 273, 277, 292, 300, 317,
322, 332, 340

“Partridge-berry,” 198, 208, 214, 220,
263, 275, 294, 342

“Partridge-pea,” 227, 236, 275, 286,
287, 204, 299, 307, 317, 408

Paspalum, 276

“Pawpaw, 198, 206, 220, 227, 262,
274, 284, 203, 317, 323, 332, 333,
341

Pentstemon hirsutus, 207, 221, 237

multiflorus, 285, 286
“Peppergrass,” 275, 204
Persea, 208, 278, 287 /
Borbonia, 197, 259, 263, 2092, 305
316, 340, 405
humilis, 322, 324, 405
pubescens, 234, 260, 298, 322, 331, 405.

“Persimmon,” 186, 197, 205, 219, 227,
246, 259, 260, 272, 277, 284, 201,
300, 305, 316, 323, 331, 342, 405

Petalostemon albidis, 287, 294, 308,
408

corymbosus (see Kuhnistera)

Phaseolus, 276, 400

Phegopteris, 215

Phlox amoena, 221

divaricata, 214
Drummondii, 334

430 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Phoradendron, 206, 213, 235, 250, 261,
274, 312, 317, 323, 332
Phragmites, 252
Phyla (see Lippia)
Phyllanthus, 341
Phytolacca rigida, 277, 294
Piaropus, 324, 333
Pieris Mariana, 284, 287, 408
nitida, 206, 235, 245, 261, 284, 2090,
306, 312, 317, 323. 332, 407
phillyreifolia, 205, 235, 260, 298, 300,
312, 407
Pinckneya, 214, 235, 250, 261, 263
“Pine,2 175, 169; 222.220, 243. 257;
297, 321, 384, 397, 406, 413, 414
black (see Black pine)
loblolly, 196, 221 (see Pinus Taeda)
long-leaf (see Long-leaf pine)
pitch (see Pinus Caribaea)
short-leaf (see Pinus echinata, P.
Taeda)
slash (see Slash pine)
spruce (see Spruce pine)
yellow (see Pinus palustris, P. El-
liottii)
Pinguicula pumila, 308
Pinus Caribaea, 234, 245, 208,
331, 360, 400 |
clausa, 178, 234, 238, 244, 245, 246,
249, 278, 321, 322, 324. 331, 342,
362, 384. 400
echinata, 178, 196, 204, 212, 218, 222,
224, 234; 253, 250; 203, 271; 272,
277, 287, 291, 305, 308, 324, 334,
342, 372, 374, 400, 406
Etliottii, 178, 106, 204, 210, 226,
234, 245, 249, 258, 272, 283. 2095,
298, 304, 311, 316, 322, 331, 334,
340, 358, 360, 382. 386, 400. 406
(see also Slash pine)
glabra, 196, 204, 212, 218, 234, 240,
258, 203: 272; +292) 9308, 310. 324;

305;

334: 342, 400

mitis (see P. echinata)

palustris, 178, 196, 204, 212, 218,
226, 234, 245, 249. 258, 263, 272,

283, 201, 208, 304, 311, 316, 322,

.

331, 339, 342, 362, 368, 376, (384).

400, 406 (see also Long-leaf
pine)
serotina, 178, 199, 208, 219, 226,

Pinus.—Continued.

234, 249, 258, 278, 283, 287, 202,
298, 305, 311, 322, 331, 339, 340.
368, 400, 406
Taeda, 178, 196, 204, 212, 218, 221,

(224), 234, 249, 258, 263, 272, 277,
283, 201, 298, 304, 312, 316, 322,
331, 342, 352, 356, 400, 406

Piriqueta, 318

Pitcheria, 207, 208, 227, 236, 238, 246
287. 299, 300, 409

“Pitcher-plant,” 199, 206, 207, 236,
237, 246, 251, 252, 313, 324, 333

“Pitch-pine,” 298, 331

P'anera, 204, 212, 260, 316, 403

Plantago Virginica (“Plantain”), 274

Platanus, 199, 204, 212, 215, 240, 278,
403

Pleea, 236

’

Pluchea bifrons (foetida), 207, 287.
209, 307, 323, 334, 398
“Plums,” 197, 205, 212, 213, 221, 238,
246, 253, 260, 273, 287. 292, 300,
316, 322, 324. 334, 342, 404
Pogonia ophioglossoides, 208
Poinsettia (see Euphorbia)
“Poison ivy,” 197, 205, 213, 235, 250,
261, 273, 202, 306, 332
“Poison oak,” 206, 227, 236, 274, 284,
293, 317
“Poison sumac,” 235, 262, 274, 299
“Pokeberry,” 277, 204
Polycodium, 220, 274, 284, 293. 317,
341, 408
Polygata cruciata, 238
cymosa, 207, 238, 251, 312, 324, 333
grandiflora, 300
lutea, 208, 237, 246, 252, 300, 334
nana, 208, 221, 300
Yamosa, 207. 237, 333
Rugelii, 313
setacea, 334
Polygonatum, 215
Polygonella, 245, 286
Polygonum hydropiperoides, 220, 276
Polymnia, 199, 276
Po'ypodium, 214, 277, 294, 308, 342
Polypremum, 286
Polypteris, 286, 300
Polystichum, 199, 214, 220

INDEX OF PLANT NAMES.

“Pond cypress,” 197, 203, (204), 221,
226, (233), 234 (248), 249, 258,
(271), 272, (283). 295, (297), 298,
304, 311, 316, 322, (324, 330), 331;
350, (352), 368, 372; 376, 380, 386,
400

Pontederia, 207, 237, 251, 263, 275,
287, 312, 333

“Poor grub,” 250, 262, 332, 408 (see
also Cholisma fruticosa)

“Poplar,” 197, 204, 212, 219, 226, 234,
246, 249, 258, (263), 273, (278),
287, 295, 298, 309, 322, 331: 334,
342, 403

Populus deltoides, 197, 204, 212, 215,
249, 278, 401

heterophylla, 249, 253, 401

“Possum haw,” 251, 262 (see also
Viburnum nudum)

“Post oak” (Quercus Margaretta),
204, 219, 226, 230, 234, 259, 283,
284, 292, 298, 316, 322, 402

(Quercus stellata), 194, 196, 204,
218, 238, 259, 268, 272, 277, 291,
305, 402

“Poverty weed,’ 199 (see also Sar-
othra)

“Prickly ash,” 198, 214, 220, 261, 274,
317, 323. 332, 340

“Prickly pear,’ 318, 342

Prunus, 273, 287, 292, 309, 324, 334;
342, 404

Americana, 197, 212, 404

angustifolia, 197, 205, 219, 260, 273,
316, 322

Caroliniana, 212, 404

Chicasa (see P. angustifolia)

serotina, 197, 259, 272, 2902

umbellata, 197, 205, 213, 219, 260,
273, 202, 316, 404

Psilocarya, 287, 288

Psoralea canescens, 208, 237, 263, 264,
285, 205, 300, 317, 323, 333, 408

Lupinellus, 286, 408

Ptelea, 214

Pteridium (or Pteris), 207, 220, 227,
236, 252, 263, 264, 275, 285. 293,
209, 307, 312, 317, 323, 333, 34!

Pterocaulon, 251, 263, 286, 299, 307,
312. 317, 323, 333

431

Pyrrhopappus (see Sitilias)
Pyrus (see Aronia, Malus)

Q.
(237), 286,

“Queen’s delight,” 220,
293, 299, 308, 318
Quercus, 324

acuminata (see Q. Muhlenbergii)

alba, 196, 205, 212, 218, 259, 263, 272,
291, 334, 402

aquatica (see Q. nigra)

brevifolia (see Q. cinerea)

Catesbaei, 197, 199, 204, 208, 212,
219, (224), 226, 231, 234, 245, 249,
258, 263, 278, 283, 284, 291, 208,
305, 312, 316, 322, 331, 362, 376,
402, 406

Chapmani, 322, 402

cinerea, 197, 204, 212, 219, 226,
234, 245, 249, 259, 203, 278, 283,
284, 291, 298, 305, 312, 316, 322,
331, 402, 406

digitata (see Q. falcata)

falcata, 196. 200, 204, 212, 218, 230,
234, 258, 263, 272, 283, 287. 291,
305, 316, 331, 335» 374, 402, 406
(see also Red oak)

geminata, 199, 205, 234, 245; 250,
259, 278, 283, 295, 305, 316. 322,
331, 340, 402

hybrida? 305, 316, 402

laurifolia, 196, 204, 212, 219,

226, 234, 258, 272, 277, 283, 291,
305, 316, 322, 331, 335, 340, 402
lyrata, 197, 204, 212, 249, 263, 316,
402

Margaretta, 204, 219, 226, 234, 259,
263, 283, 284, 292, 298, 316, 322,
402

Marylandica, 196, 200, 204, 219,
(224), 230, 234, 259, 263, 272, 277,
287, 292, 295, 402

Michauxii, 197, 204, 212, 219, 249,
259, 263, 272, 287, 292, 305. 402

minima. 206, 250, 284, 208, 306, 312,
329832

minor (see Q. stellata)

Muhlenbergii. 197, 213, 402

myrtifolia, 245, 246, 250, 306, 322,
332, 340, 362, 402

432

Quercus.—Continued.

nigra, 196, 204, 212, 219, 234, 249,
DEOwI2 20203, 202305) 312, 310;
322.4331, 1402

obtusiloba (see Q. stellata)

pagodaefolia, 213, 215, 402

Pheilos, 197, 208, 278, 402

pumila, 206, 208, 230, 235, 238, 250,
261, 263. 274, 285, 208, 306, 312,
S750 GSI8),e 332

rubra, 402

Schneckii, 196, 212, 305, 346, 402

stellata, 196, 204, 218, 238, 250, 272,
291, 305, 402

tinctoria (see Q. velutina)

triloba (see Q. falcata)

velutina, 272, 402

virens (same as next)

Virginiana, 197, 204, 250, 263, 272,
283, 202, 305, 316, 322, 331, 335;
340. 402 (see also Live oak)

R.

“Ragweed,” 246, 274, 294, 307, 341

“Rattan vine,’ 198, 205, 213, 261,
284, 202, 306, 312. 332

“Red bay,” 107, 234, 250, 260, 287,
202, 208, 305, 312, 316, 322,. 331,
340, 405

“Redbud,” 196, 204, 212, 219, 238, 250,
272, 292, 305, 316, 324, 346, 404,
408 :

“Red cedar,” (see Cedar, Juniperus)

“Red gum,” 403 (see Liquidambar,
Sweet gum)

“Red haw,” 204, 213,
also Crataegus)

“Red maple,” 404 (see Acer rubrum)

273, 292 (see

“Red. oak,” 194, 196, 204, 212, 213,
218, 230, 234, 258, 268, 271, 272,
277, 283,.° 287; 291, 305, 316,

331, 346, 374. 378, 380, 397, 402
(see also Quercus falcata, Q.
pagcedaefolia, Q. Schneckii)

“Red-shank,” 108, 235, 274 (see also
Ceanothus Americanus)

“Reed,” 213, 235, 250, 261, 274

“Reed-grass,” 252

Rhamnus, 198, 341

Rhapidophyllum, 108, 214, 261, 263, 307

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Rhexia Alifanus, 206, 236, 246, 251,
263, 299, 323, 333
ciliosa, 237
glabella (see R. Alifanus)
lutea, 251, 333
Mariana, 287
stricta, 208

Rhododendron (see Azalea)

Rhus copallina, 198, 206, 213, 220,
235, 261, 263, 274, 284, 293, 306,
317, (318), 323, 332, 340

radicans, 197, 205, 213, 235, 250, 261,

273, 274, 292, 300, 332
Toxicodendron, 206, 227, 236, 274,
284, 293, 317

Vernix, 235, 262, 274, 2099
Rhynchosia (see Dolicholus)
Rhynchospora alba, 237

axillaris, 237

Baldwinii, 238

capitata (see R, Tracyi)

cephalantha (see R. axillaris)

Chapmani, 237, 246, 252

corniculata, 207, 252

dodecandra, 246, 324

Grayli, 207, 236, 286. 294, 299

leptorhyncha, 246

miliacea, 307

rariflora, 238

semiplumosa, 252

Tracyi, 237

Richardia (Richardsonia) scabra, 275,
293

Rosa Carolina, 251, 262, 293, 306

laevigata, 273
“Rose,” ‘Cherokee, 273
wild, 251, 262, 293, 306

“Rosemary,” 236, 245, 317, 323, 333,
"341, 362, 384

“Rosemary pine.” 218, (see Pinus
echinata)

“Round-leaf black-jack oak,’ 230,
287, 402 (see also Quercus Mary-
landica)

Rubus cuneifolius, 198, 206, 220, 235,.
261, 274, 284, 203, 317, 323, 332

trivialis, 273

Rudbeckia, 199

foliosa, 307
Ruellia humilis, 287

INDEX OF PLANT NAMES,

Rumex hastatulus, 220, 263, 275, 318

“Rush,” 220, 236, 246, 275, 334, 339, 341
Rynchospora (see Rhynchospora)

S.

Sabal Adansonii (same as next)
glabra, 198, 206, 213, 220, 236, 250,
261, 263, 323, 332
Palmetto, 249, 259, 263, 278, 205,
304, 316, 322, 331, 340, 382, 4OI
(see also Cabbage palmetto)
Sabbatia campanulata, 252
decandra, 300
macrophylla, 238, 251
stellaris, 342
Sabina (see Juniperus)
“Sage,” 237 (see also Salvia)
Sageretia, 306, 341
Sagittaria lancifolia, 237, Bci
308, 312, 334, 341, 378
latifolia, 276
natans lorata? 199, 204
variabilis (see S. latifolia)
Salicornia, 342
Salix, 287, 295, 324, 342
Floridana, 401
humilis, 274
longipes? 250, 278, 292, 305, 331,
340, 401
nigra 197, 204, 212, 219, 235, 240,
259, 263, 272, 308, 316, 334, 401
Salomonia (see Polygonatum)
Salvia azurea, 237
lyrata, 198, 276, 307
Sambucus, 220, 261, 263, 274, 323
“Samphire,” 342
“Sand-spur,” 276, 277, 285, 294, 308
Sanguinaria, 199, 214
Sanicula gregaria, 198
Mary!andica, 199, 276
Sapindus, 4os
Sarothra, 199, 285, 294
Sarracenia Drummondii, 236, 252
flava, 190, 206, 236, 251, 348
minor, 324, 333
psittacina, 207, 237, 246, 251, 313
purpurea, 237
variolaris (see S. minor)
Sassafras, 186, 197, 199, 238, 273, 277,
291, 293, 205, 316, 405

300,

433

Saururus, 208, 215, 240, 252, 263, 276,
397, 333, 342
“Savin,” 400 (see Tumion)

“Saw-grass,” 173, 236, 246, 251, 299,
307, 312, 323, 333, 358, 364, 308
“Saw-palmetto,” 198, 206, 221, 227,

235, 245, (246), 247, 250, 253, 255,
256, 261, (263), 271, 284, 287, 293,
208, 306, 312, 313, 317, 318, 323,
330, 332, 340, 362, 364, 368, 307
Schizachyrium (see Andropogon)
Schizandra, 213
Schmaltzia (see Rhus)
Schrankia (see Morongia)
Scirpus Americanus, 341
lacustris (see S, validus)
pungens (see S. Americanus)
validus, 252, 294, 364
Scleria glabra, 227, 237, 286, 299, 318
triglomerata, 341
Scrophularia, 199
“Scrub oak,” 231
Scutellaria multiglandulosa, 286, 318
“Sea oats,” 246, 330, 341
“Seaside morning-glory,” 380
“Seaweeds,” 243
Sebastiana, 108, 206, 213, 262, 307
“Sedges,” 177, 199, 207, 221, 227, 236-
238, 246, 251, 252, 263, 286, 287,
294, 299, 300, 307, 308, 318, 324,
341, 342
Selaginella apus, 214, 215
Septilia (see Monniera)

j Senecio lobatus, 2IA, 252

obovatus, 199

Serenoa, 198, 206, (221), 227, 235) 24K.
246, (247), 250, (253, 255, 256),
261, 263, (271), 284, 287, 203, 208,
306, 312, (313), 317, (318), 323,
(330), 332, 340, 362, 368

Sericocarpus bifoliatus (tortifolius),
208, 252, 276, 285, 204, 300, 308,
318, 324

“Service-berry,” 205, 219

Sesbania vesicaria (see Glottidium)

“Seven-bark,” 198, 213

Seymeria (see Afzelia)

“Short-leaf pine” (Pinus echinata),
196, 204, 212, 218, 222, 234, 246,
253, 258, 268, 269-272, 277, 287,

434

“Short-leaf pine”’—Continued

291, 305, 308, 324, 334, 342, 372,
374, 400
(Pinus Taeda),
218, 224, 234, 246, 249, 255, 238.
272, 283, 291, 208, 304, 312. 316,
322, 331, 342, 352. 356, 400
Sida acuta (carpinifolia), 276
rhombifolia, 275
Silphium compositum, 318, 324. 334
“Siiver maple,” 404 (see Acer sac-
charinum)
Siphonychia. 246
Sisyrinchium, 299
Sitilias, 275
“Slash pine,” 196, 203, 204, 209, 219,
226, 233, 234, 244, 245. 249, 258,
272, 283, 295, 208, 304, 309. 311,
316, 322, 330, 33%, 330, 340. 358,
400 (see also Pinus Elliottii)
“Slippery elm,’ 212, 348, 403
“Smartweed,” 220, 276
Smilax auriculata (Beyrichii), 245,
322, 340
glauca, 273
lanceolata, 197, 213;
273, 279
laurifolia, 205, 213, 235, 245, 250;
260, 284, 208, 306. 312, 322, 332,
335
pumila, 199, 214, 220, 263, 276, 293,
342
rotundifolia? 274
Walteri, 205, 235, 250, 260, 284. 306,
312, 332, 335
“Smilax,” wild, 197, 213, 219, 260, 273,
279
“Snake-root,” 215 (see also Eryngi-
um, Laciniaria, Sanicula)
Solanum Carolinense, 275
Solidago amplexicaulis, 198
Chapmani, 342
odora, 208, 276, 285, 293, 300
pauciflosculosa (see Chrysoma)
tenuifolia (see Centhamia)
Sonchus, 276

196, 204, 211, 212.

219, 260, 263,

Sorghastrum Linneanum, 277
nutans, 277
secundum. 208, 230, 236, 277, 286
Sorghum Halepense, 199

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

“Sorrel,” 220, 263, 275, 318

“Sourwood,” 212, 218, 234. 245, 253,
250, 273, 295, 309, 324, 342, 405,
408 (see also Oxydendrum)

“Spanish bayonet,” 340, 401

“Spanish moss,” 179, 207, 214, 220,
227, 236, 251, 262, 274, 279, 285,
203, 295, 299, 307, 312, 317, 323.
333, 341, 372-376 (see also Til-
landsia usneoides)

“Spanish needles,” 276, 204

“Spanish oak,” 194, 196, 268

“Sparkleberry,”: 197, 205, 213. 219,
234, 245. 2600, 273, 284, 202, 305,
316, 322, 340, 405. 408, 409

Spartina Bakeri, 308. 324, 334, 341,
360 ;
glabra (see S. stricta)
gracilis (juncea), 246
junciformis, 360
maritima (see S. stricta)
patens (see S. gracilis)
stricta, 334, 341, 388
Specularia, 275
Spermolepis, 275, 204
“Spider-lily.” 199, 208
Sporobolus ejuncidus (see next),
gracilis, 237, 285, 205, 299. 308, 318,
324

Indicus, 274
junceus (see S. gracilis)

“Spruce pine” (Pinus clausa), 234,
244, 245, 240, 258, 322, 331. 342,
362, (384), 400

(Pinus glabra), 196, 204, 212, 218,
234, 240, 272, 292, 308. 316, 324,
334, 342. 400

Stel‘aria (see Alsine)

Stenophyllus ciliatifolius, 285, 324
Floridanus, 263, 286, 293
Warei, 246, 318. 324

Stewartia (see Stuartia)

Stillingia aquatica, 206, 250, 306
ligustrina (see Sebastiana)
sy!vatica, 207, 220, 237, 286, 293,

299, 308, 318

“Stink-bush,” 214, 220, 235

“Stinking cedar,” 212, 354, 400 (see
also Torreya. Tumion)

“Strawberry bush,” 108, 214 (see also
Euonymus)

INDEX OF PLANT NAMES.

Stuartia, 220, 221

Stylisma (see Breweria)

Stylosanthes, 208, 286, 295, 300, 400

Styrax Americana, 206, 274, 284, 306

grandifolia, 213, 220

“Sugar-berry.” (see Celtis)

“Sugar-maple,” 196, 205, 212, 219, 404

“Sumac,” 198, 206, 213, 220, 235, 261,
274, 284, 203, 300, 317, 323, 332,
340

poison, 235, 262. 274, 200

“Summer farewell,” 207, 236, 246,
252, 263, 285, 204, 299, 307, 317,
323, 408

“Sundew,” 252 (see also Drosera)

Svida (see Cornus asperifolia,
stricta)

“Swamp chestnut oak,” 197, 204, 212,
219, 259, 272, 202, 305, 402

“Swamp hickory.” 204, 213, 401

“Swamp post oak,” 197, 204, 212, 249,
316, 402

“Sweet bay,” (see Persea, Red bay)

“Sweet gum,” 194, 196, 204, 212, 218,
234, 246, 249, 258, 268, 272, 277,
283, 201, 298, 304, 312; 316, 322,
331, 335, 340. 348, 354, 370, 403
(see also Liquidambar)

“Sycamore,” 204, 212, 238, 249, 403
(see also Platanus)

Symplocos, 197, 205, 213, 210, 234,
260, 263, 273, 202. 405

Syndesmon, 214, 215

Syngonanthus, 246, 251, 285, 308, 313

Syntherisma sanguinale, 275, 204

ce

ae

Tamala (see Persea)
“Tan bay,” 400 (see Gordonia)
Taxodium, 305. 324, 342 (see also
Cypress)
ascendens (see T. imbricarium)
distichum, 196, 204, 212, 219, 234,
238, 246, 249, 259, 263, 273, 278,
283, 202, 304,. 312, 316, 322, 341,
364, 378, 382, 400 .
imbricarium, 178, 197, 204, 226,
(232, 233), 234, 245. 249, 258 (271),
272, 283, 205, 208, 304, 311, 316,
322, (330), 331, 350, 352, 368,
372, 376, 380, 386, 400, 406

SS

435

Taxus Floridana, 213, 215, 401
“Tea-weed,” 275
Tecoma, 197, 213, 219, 250, 261, 263,
273, 306, 332
Tephrosia (see Cracca)
Teucrium, 334, 342
Thaspium, 198
“Thistle,” 341
Thyrsanthema (see Chaptalia)
Tiedemannia (see Oxypolis)
“Tietie, tighteye,” (see Tyty)
Tilia, 199, 212, 238, 334, 342
Floridana, 205, 405
pubescens, 250, 263, 272. 291, 305,
405
Tillandsia tenuifolia, 307, 334
usneoides, 198, 207, 214, 220, 227,
236, 251, 262, 264, 274, 285. 203,
2909, 307. 312, 317, 323, 333, 341,
372, 374, 386 (see also Spanish
moOss
Tipularia, 215, 221
Tithymalopsis, Tithymalus (see Eu-
phorbia)
“Titi,” (see Tyty)
Tofieldia, 207, 237
Torreya, 215, 411, 412 (see Tumion)
Toxicodendron (see Rhus)
Trachelospermum, 205
Tracyanthus, 251
Triadenum petiolatum, 199
Trichelostylis (see Fimbristylis)
Tricuspis (see Triplasis)
Trifolium Carolinianum, 274, 408
Trilisa odoratissima, 207, 220, 230,
237. 251, 263, 286, 313, 333 (see
also Deer-tongue)
paniculata, 252, 307
Trillium Hugeri, 199, 214, 221
lanceolatum, 215
Triplasis Americana, 285
Tubiflora, 307
Tumion, 212, 215. 354, 400, 412
“Tupelo gum,” 196, 204, 205, 200, 210,
235, 238, 249, 253, 250, 260, 272,
284, 292, 208, 324, 331, 334, 342,
405 (see also Nyssa Ogeche, N.
uniflora)
“Turkey oak,” 197, 204, 212, 219, 226,
234, 245, 249, 250, 282-284, 201,
208, 305, 300, 312, 316, 331, 402

430 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Typha, 252, 308

Mibytye) 197, 4205," 2005 213, 210, 226,
227, 233, 234, 244, 245, 250, 253;
260, 261, 273, 284, 287, 292, 2098,
305, 309, 312, 316, 331, 360, 404

Loe

Ulmus, 278, 287, 324, 342
alata, 205, 305, 403
Americana, 197, 212, 249, 403
Floridana, 197, 205. 249, 305, 316,
331, 403
fulva, 212, 348, 403
Uniola nitida, 308
paniculata, 246, (339), 341
“Upland willow oak,” 402 (see Quer-
cus cinerea)
Urticastrum, 199
Utricularia cornuta, 246
inflata, 276

V.

Vaccinium arboreum (see Batoden-
dron)
Myrsinites (see next)
nitidum, 206, 227, 235, 250, 261, 284,
293. 209, 306, 323, 332, 341, 408
stamineum (see Polycodium)
virgatum? 206, 220, 221, 262, 307,

408

“Vanilla,” 230 (see Trilisa odoratis-
sima)

Verbena carnea (Carolina), 207, 237,
287

Vernonia angustifolia, 207;, 2275) 2375
285, 204, 299, 318
Viburnum acerifolium, 224
densiflorum, 220, 224
nudum, 235, 251, 262, 200, 332
obovatum, 198, 206, 208, 214, 261,
284, 306, 317
prunifolium (see next)
rufidulum (rufotomentosum), 197,
205, 213, 273, 292, 406
semitomentosum, 198, 206, 220
Vicia acutifolia, 308, 409
Viola affinis? 199
lanceolata, 308
multicaulis, 214
villosa, 214

“Violet,” 199, 214, 308
“Virginia creeper,” 197, 205, 213, 219,
250," 200;° 273,202 300,316: aa2et
332, 340
Vitis aestivalis, 213, 250, .261, 273,
284, 292, 306, 316, 332, 340
bipinnata (see Ampelopsis ar-
iborea)
rotundifolia, 198, 213, 219, 235, 260,
263, 273, 284, 292, 306, 316, 332,
335, 340

W.

“Walnut,” 197, 213, 401

“Water chinquapin,” (see Nelumbo)

“Water-grass,” 286, 293 (see also
Stenophyllus Floridanus)

“Water-hyacinth,” 324, 333

“Water-lily,” 207, 262, 275, 286, 313,
324

“Water oak,” 196, 204, 212, 234, 2490,
256, 272, 277, 283; 202, 05; sie;
BG, Say seni, loys

“White cedar,” 238 (see Chamaecy-
paris, Juniper)

“White oak,” 196, 205, 212, 218, 238,
230, 272, 201, 402

“White violet,” 308

“Wild bean,” 276

“Wild canna,” 234

“Wild carrot,’ 199, (276)

“Wild cherry,” 197. 259, 272, 277, 202,
(309), 342

“Wild goose plum,” 404 (see Prunus
Americana)

“Wild grape,” 213, 250, 261, 273, 284,
292, 205, 2906, 306, 317, 332, 349,
380

“Wild oats,” 208, 230, 236, 286

“Wild plum,” 197, 205, 212, 213, 219,
260, 273, 277, 316, 322

“Wild rice,’ 252

“Wild rose,” 251, 262, 293, 306

“Wild smilax,” 107, 213, 260, 273,
279 :

“Wild yam,” 214, 276

Willoughbya, Willugbaeya (see Mik-
ania)

INDEX OF PLANT NAMES.

“Willow,” 197, 204, 212, 219, 235, 238,
246, 249, 250, 259, 272, 274, 287,
292, 295, 300, 305, 309, 316, 324,
340, 342, 401

“Willow oak,” 197, 208, 402

“Wire-grass,” 179, 206, 209, 214, 220,
226, 227, 230, 231, 236, 247, 251, 262,
271, 285, 203, 299, 307, 312, 317,
323, 326, 327, 330, 333, 350, 397, 398

“Winkapin,” 276

Wistaria, “Wisteria,” 250, 317, 407,
408

“Witch-hazel;” 214, 220, 245, 262, 293

Woodwardia angustifolia, areolata
(see Lorinseria)

Virginica (see Anchistea)

X.

Xanthorrhiza, 214, 215
Xanthoxylum, 260, 263, 340, 404
Xolisma, 405 (see Cholisma)
Xylopleurum (see Hartmannia)
Kay fis, 237, 287

Elliottii? 308

fimbriata, 208, 313

437

Xyris—Continued

flexuosa, 251, 334
pallescens, 252
torta (see X. flexuosa)

»

“VYankapin,” 276

“Yaupon,” 205, 234, 250, 260, 284, 208,
312, 316, 331, 404

“Vellow jessamine,” 197, 205,
219, 235, 200, 273, 284, 332

“Yellow pine.” (see Long-leaf pine,
Pinus palustris)

“Yellow poplar,” (see Liriodendron,
Poplar)

Yucca aloifolia, 340, 342, 401

213,

Z.

Zamia, 317
Zanthorhiza (see Xanthorrhiza)
Zanthoxylum (see Xanthoxylum)
Zephyranthes (see Atamosco)
Zizania, 252
Zygadenus angustifolius (see Trac-

yanthus)

General Index

A.

Acid soils, 313, 328, 335
Adams, J. S., pamphlet by, 410
Agassiz, L., cited, 42
Agricultural developments, possibilities,
etc., 173, 189, 201, 238, 246, 253,
278, 288, 309, 319, 336, 342, 303
Alabama, 92, 93, 77, 184, 185, 193, 200,
201, 208, 217, 221, 223, 224, 220,
239, 267, 277, 279, 401, 406
Alachua, 264, 370
“clays (Alachua formation), 161,
162, 314
County, 58, 119, 120, 134, 146, 255,
265, 317, 319, 327, 320, 370, 384,
386, 3908, 401, 416, (see also
Archer, Gainesville, Micanopy,
Payne’s Prairie)
Lake, 120, 134-146, 154
Sink, (135, 136, 141), 145, 405
Alapaha River, 47
Alaqua Creek, Walton Co., 217, 230,
233, 240
Algeria, phosphates of, 95
Alligato1 Lake, 120, 133, 134, 138, 155
Alluvial bottoms, soils, swamps, 200,
210, 211, 247, 278, 300, 324, 400, 401,
404, 406
Altamaha Grit, 201, 210, 229, 326, 409
Altitude, 183, 210, 226, 232, 244, 248,
257, 270, 282, 303, 311, 315, 328, 320,
338
Alumina in soils, 123, 195, 230, 260, 270,
281, 303, 328, 308, 399
Alum Bluff, 211, 213, 232, 401
Alum Bluff formation, 34, 76-78, 80,
108, 156, 158, 210, 217
Amelia Island, 339, 340
Analyses of peat, 59-63
Analyses of soils (chemical), 195, 230,
269, 270, 281, 302, 328, 308
mechanical or physical, 194, 225,
232, 243, 248, 256, 268, 281, 280,
311, 327

ce

“cc

“

“

Anastasia Island, 40, 338-340, 388-301,

412

43

Anguar Island, phosphates of, 97
Animals (see Cattle, Fiddler crabs,
Hogs, Insects, Subterranean ani-
mals)
Annual plants, 282, 286, 335
Annuttalagga Hammock, 173
Anticline of Coffee Mill Hammock, 43
Ant-lion (see Doodle-bug)
Ants, 181, 243, 248, 257, 282, 207, 314,
362
Apalachicola bluffs, 191, 210-216, 277,
352, 355, 395, 399, 400, 404, 405,
4II
flatwoods, 191, 247-253, 207, 310,
364, 394, 395, 397, 398
River, 202, 210, 215, 233, 247-249,
253, 354, 364, 395, 401-406, 411,
412
Apatite, 73
Apiaries (see Honey)
Archer, 183, 384
Arid climates or regions, 176, 330
Argillaceous limestone, 210
“sandstone, 201
Arkansas, 30, 33, 87, 88, 175
Artesian wells, 106-113, 203, 229, 271,

“ce

315, 330, (339), 414, (see also
Wells)
Aruba Island, phosphates, of, 98
Aspalaga Bluff, 210, 211, 352-355
Association of Official Agricultural

Chemists, methods of analysis, 397,
308
Atlantic Refining Co., 34, 35
Attapulgus, Ga., fuller’s earth at, 33
Automobiles, 301, 338

B.
Bagdad, 240
Baker County. (see Macclenny, Trail
Ridge)
Ball, John, cited, 95
Ball clay or plastic kaolin, 23, 24, (320)
Barbour, G. M., book by, 410
Bartow Junction, clays, 23
Bartram, William, cited, 136, 410

we)

440

Basins, 121, 124-131, 133-137, 146-148,
151, 202, 282, 297, 314, 320, 339

Baygalls, 248

Bayous, 364

Bays, 202; 203, 225, 227, 233; 244-240,
248, 257, 264, 283, 207, 304, 311, 319,
330, 350, 364, 366, 380, 400, 403, 405

Beaches, 242, 243, 304, 338, 339, 360, 390

Beans, 253, 256, 265, 337 (see also Vel-
vet beans)

Bear Head, 232

Beef, 309 (see also Cattle)

Bee-keeping, Beeswax, 253 (see also
Honey)

Beets, 265

Belden, H. L., soil surveys by, (229),
242, 302, 310, (415)

Belgium, phosphates of, 96

Bellair sand region, 289-288, 297, 314,
319, 376, 395, 399

Benhaden, altitude of, 282

Bennett, H. H., quoted, 255

Bibliographic references explained, 180

Bibliography, 410-416

Bjystra (Bystra), H. 149

Blackwater Bay, 239, 240

“ River, 240, 358

Blowers Lime and Phosphate Co., 37

Blue Springs, 123, (195), 202, (257,
303, 315)

Bluffs, 135, 158, 210, 232, 352-354, 404,
405

Boating, 301

Botanists, 174, 179, 187, 215, 253, (412)

Bottoms, 210, 255, 352, 370, 400, 402-
404

Brackish marshes, 242, 244, 246, 208,
299, 304, 330, 338

Bradford County, 326-328, 370, 386,
415

Branches, branch-swamps, 202, 217,
232, 233, 250, 271, 272, 311, 360, 403,
404

Branner, J. C., cited, 88, 175

Brick and tile, 25, 255

Bristol, 210, 214

British Thermal Unit, 62

“Britton, J. C., soil survey by,
(194, 201, 225, 415)

Building stones of Florida, 40, 41, 193

Burchard, E. F., quoted, 37-390

Burnett, W. I., 329, 410

193,

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Burrowing animals, 182 (see also sub-
terranean animals)
Bush, B. F., cited, 247, 410

- Buttgenbach, J. & Co., 95, 100

Byers, W. C., soil survey of Bradford
Co., (326-328, 415)
Bystra, H., (see Bjystra)

C.

Cabbage, 209, 241, 253, 256, 265, 325,
337
Calcareous soils or water, calcium,
123, 176, 177, 193, 238, 242, 255,
266, 280, 282, 300, 303-305, 307-309,
319, 336, 398, 400, 402-404, 406
influence on vegetation, 176, 177,
238, 243, 300, 302, 304, 305, 307-
309, 319, 335, 336, 339, 342, 393,
398, 400, 402-404, 406
Calhoun County, 248, 253
California, fuller’s earth of, 33, 34
Caloosahatchee marl, 42, 58
f River, 2b ede: rr
Camel, fossil, 162
Cameron, W. W., 136
Campbellton, soil near, 104
Canals for logging, 239
Cane (see sugar cane)
Cantaloupes, 253, 265, 337
Capitola, scene near, 368
Carbonic acid in marl, 302
Caribbean Sea, phosphates of islands
of, 98
Carrabelle, climate of, 183
Carse, G. B., cited, 411
Car window notes, (178), 179, (226,
403, 412)
Cattle, 145, 188, 209, 222, 279, 288, 300
(see also grazing)
Caves, 195, 210, 257, 270, 303, 315, 321,
415
Cedar Keys, sand from, 47
Census figures or reports, 172, 174,
188, 104, 230, 239, 264, 268, 206,
302, 313, 303, 304, 414
Centerville, Leon Co., 272
Chapman, A. W., writings of, 210, 411
Chattahoochee formation, 54, 57, 76,
797. TAY, 1150, 193, 201, 210
River, 202, 2II, 215

“ee

GENERAL INDEX

Chemical analyses of soils, etc., 195,
230, 268-270, 281, 302, 303, 328,
397, 308
comments on, 175, 176, 181, 256,

264, 290, 304, 335, 393, 397-399

Cherrapongee, rainfall of, 184

Chert, occurrence of in Florida, 57

Chief Engineer, State Drainage Com-
mission, 41

Chimney rock, chimneys, 40, 193, 296

Chione cancellata, 42, 44

Chipola River, 193, 195, 248, 402, 403,
405 :

Chlorides, amount removed by solution,
123

Choctawhatchee formation, 217, 223

“National Forest, 240
“ River, 239, 240, 247, 240, 397, 405

Christmas decorations, 279

Christmas Island, phosphates of, 98

Chubb (see Bartow Junction)

Cisterns, used in lime-sink region, 315

Citrous fruits, 256, 265, 325

Citrus County, 47, 60

Civilization, effects of, 185, 187

Civil War, 221, (415)

Clapp, F. G., 193, 201, 210, 217, 225, 254,
266, 320, 358, 388, 413

Clarke, F..'W, cited,-725 74% (75

Classification of soils, 173

“of streams, 233

Clay and clay products, paper on, 23-36

Clay County, 50, 320, 325, (329), 384

Cleared land, clearings, 178, (241), 257,
264, 295, 324, 414 (see also Im-
proved land)

Cliffs, 195, 109

Climate, 173, 182-184, 325, 412

Coast line, permanence of, 242

Coastal plain, 176, 181, 182, 211, 291,
303

Coffee-colored water, 233, 248, 257, 282,
290, 201, 207, 303, 311, (321), 320

Coffee Mill Hammock, geology of, 43,
44

Cold, effects on soils, 176

Colluvial soils, 254

Colorado, fuller’s earth of, 33

Columbia County, 57, 120, 133, 134,
257, 327 (see also Alligator Lake,
Lake City) ;

Commerce, 246, 343

441

Common names of plants, 187

Concrete, 48, 57, 58

Co-operation between State Geological
Survey and U. S. Government, 16,
17, 416 Y

Coquina, 40, 48, 338, 339-341, 343, 388

Corduroy roads, 217

Corn, 145, 175, 177, 200, 200,
241, 253, 255, 264, 279, 296, 309,
319, 325, 337

Cory, C., soil analyses by, (195), 268

Cotton, 145, 172, 175, 177, 188, 200, 200,
222-224, 241, 253, 255, 264, 279, 290,
296, 309, 319, 325, 337, 414

Coville, F. V., cited 175, 336

Cowpeas (see Field peas)

(Gore, Nie Maley sls

Crabs, 182, 338

Crawfish, 182, 248

Crawfordville, 296, 378, 396-398

Croom, H. B., 210, 408, 411, 412

Crops, 172, 188, 189, 200-237, 394, 308

Cross-ties, 209

Crustacea, 182 :

Cucumbers, 265

Cuestas, 210, 223

Cultivated plants, 185 (see also Crops)

Curacao Island, phosphates of, 98

Curtiss, A H., writings of, 338, 411, 414

Cuspate forelands, 339 5

Cypress ponds (see Cypress in plant
index, and Ponds)

200 2K.

D.

Dade County, 52, 60

Dairymen, 278

Dall, W. H., writings of, 136, 145, 161,
210, 320, 411 !

Dana, je D> Aro

Davis, Chas. A., 62-64

Dead Lakes, Calhoun Co., 248

Deciduous trees, 175, 176, 189, 195, 22T,
352-354, 396

DeFuniak Springs, 183, 232, 240, 360

Delaware, 255 '

Density of population, 172,
304, 395

Depressions, 226, 244, 303, 311, 315

Deserts, 339

DeSoto County, 23, 60

Devil’s Millhopper, Alachua Co., 320

200-336,

442

Diatomaceous “earth,” 26-27

Dickey, J. B. R., soil survey of Brad-
ford Co., (326-328, 415)

Distribution of fuller’s earth, 33, 34

Distribution of reports, Io

Dog Island, Franklin Co., 360, 362

Doodle-bugs (ant-lions), 282

Drainage wells, 148

Drains, 513i.) 202; 5304

Drake, J. A., soil surveys by, (229),

242, (247, 254), 266, (267, 280, 415) |

Drying of phosphate rock, 84, 3109,
(384)
Dunes, 220, 242-246, 282, 330, 333, 335,

338, 339, 342, 362, 388-301, 400- |

402, 413
Dunnellon formation, 161, 162, 314
Durrett, J. B, soil analysis by, 327
Dust as plant food, 176
Duval County, 60, 63, 327, 336, 338, 388,
413 (see also Jacksonville, May-
port)

E.

Eagan, D., pamphlet by, 280, 411

Earthworms, 181, 269, 270, 398, 399

East coast strip, I91, 338-343, 388-391,
395, 404

East Florida flatwoods, I91, 256, 320,
326-337, 386-387, 305, 306

Economic aspects or features, 172, 200-
343, 395

Edgar, kaolin mined at, 23, 24, (320)

Egypt, phosphates of, 95, 96

Elevations (see Altitude)

Elliott, Stephen, 288

Encyclopedias, 171, 412

English peas, 265

Environment, 173

Epiphytes, 176

Erosion, 122, 202, 217, 232, 257, 270,
282

Errata, 170

Escambia Bay, 232, 239, 240, 362

“ County, 50, 183, 229, 230, 231, 242,
255, 415 (see also Pensacola)

River, 233, 236

Escarpments, 210, 233

Estimating timber, 177

Estuaries, estuarine swamps, 249, 330,
358, 364, 400, 405

Eucheeanna, 217, 221

e

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Everglades, 41-46, 57, 60, 62, 173

Evergreens, percentage of, 174, 176,
184, 187, 188, 200-342, 394-396, 400,
406

Evergreens, relations to soil, 175, 177,
184, 306

Evinston, 58

Exceptions, LI71

Exhibition of geological material, 12,
14

Exports of lumber, 239, 264

132.
Fallowing, 295
Farmers, farms, 173, 178, 224, 241, 257,
279, 206, 325, 335, 303, 306

| Fences, 197, 200, 279

Ferguson, J. E., soil survey of “Jack-
sonville area,” (326, 327, 415)

Fernandina, 340, 343

Ferruginous concretions, pebbles, sand-
stone, soils, 200, 201, 230, 231, 254,
255, 260 (see also Iron)

Fertile regions insalubrious? 224, (288)

Fertilizers, use of, 189, 200,02314925>)
255, 279, 290, 205, 303-305, 397, 308

Fiddler-crabs, 338

Field peas, 200, 209, 241, 253, 265, 270,
206, 319, 325, 337

Figs, 200, 241, 253, 265, 270, 337

Financial statement, 17-19.

Fippin, E. O., soil survey of Gadsden
Co., 210, (229, 254, 415)

Fire, influence of on vegetation, 184-
185, 196, 200, 203, 204, 211, 218, 224,
220; 231,239) (2Ad. 267,27 ere
274, 282, 283, 286, 201, 205, 304,
311, (314), 315, 318, 32,5 (sea),
334, 339, 362, 384, 405, 413

Fishing, fishermen, 246, 301, 343

Flatwoods, I91, 242, 244, 245, 254-256,
264, 2900, 291, 205, 206, 302-304, 320,
321, 325, 326, 339, 340, 341, 364,-
368, 382, 394, 396, 308, 400

| Flint and chert in Florida, 57, 58, 90

Flint River, 210, 211

Flomaton, climate of, 183, 231

Florida Brick Co., kiln of, 25

Florida Keys, soil and vegetation, 336

Floridin Co., 34, 35

Floristic studies, 174 (see also Qualita-
tive studies)

GENERAL INDEX,

Fluctuation of water, 157, 202, 203, 211,
226, 248, 271, 282, 283, 288, 297, 315,
329, 330, (372, 376), 403

Folded strata, 223

Fort Meade, depth to Vicksburg lime-
stone at, 46

Fort Thompson, geology, 42, 43, 52, 56

Fossils, 12, 42, 76, 90, 162, 223, 220, 247,
266, 326

France, phosphates of, 96

Franklin County, 60, 242, 247, 249, 360-
365, 41g (see also Apalachicola,
Carrabelle, Lanark, St. James Is-
land)

Freeze of 1895, 256

Frost, 182

Fuel, 188, 200, 279, 288, 310, 384

Fuller's earth, 28-36, 210, 414

G.

Gadsden County, 30, 34, 35, 210, 22
23a) 254 255, 9250, 204, ° 205,. 352-
354, 394, 405, 414, 415 (see also
Aspalaga, River Junction)

“Gadsden sand,” 254, 268

Gainesville, 135, 154, 156, 183, 264,
4II

“Gainesville sand,” 255, 256, 321.

“Galveston sand,” 242, 243

Garber, A. P., cited, 254, 411

Gardner, J: H., cited, o1

Geib, W. J., soil surveys by, (247, 254),
266, (267, 280), 314, (326, 327, 415)

Geographers, 174

Geographical divisions, 171, 190, IQI ©

Geographical significance of vegetation,
173

Geological material, exhibition of, 12

Geology of Everglades, 41-46

Geomys, 182, 412 (see also Salamander )

Georgia, 33, 93, 184, 193, 200, 201, 208,
BO, 205 22Ae 2201 254, 255.) 20s
266, 277, 280, 281, 288, 300, 314,

. 326, 320, 338, 339, 401, 400, 412

Gilbert, F. S., well drilled by, 110

Gillmore, Q. A., cited, 302, 310, 311,
326, 4II ;

Girty, G. H., cited, 80

Gophers (Gopherus Polyphemus), 182, |

230, 243, 248, 282, 297, 314, 320,
338, 362
28

443

Government reports, surveys, etc., (see
LOL SBD)

Grape-fruit, 265, 325

Grapes, 209, 241, 253, 265, 296, 337

Gray, Asa, cited, 210, 412

Grazing, (188, 209), 238, 243,
309, 313, 330 (see also Cattle)

301,

Green Cove Springs, 104, 329

Greene, E. P., 63, 140

“Greenville” soils, 198

Griffen, A. M., soil survey by, (229),
242, (415)

Ground-water level, 155, 157, 202-203,
248, 271, 280, 282, 304, 311, 315, 321,
330, 336, 413, 414

Growing season, 182-183

Guano, 80-81

Gulf of Mexico, 302

Gulf hammock region, 173, I9I, 302-
309, 319, 330, 336, 330, 382, 395,
398, 400, 402, 404, 412
Gullies, 267, 372
Gulliver, F. P., cited, 304
Gunter, H.,) cited, 201, 210, 217, 223,
225220 Ao AeA0Ol I 2O7 0820. va2,
320, 414
Ee
| Habitats of plants, 174, 175, 187, 203-

342, 400, 407, 409

Hamilton County (see Jasper, White
Springs )

Hammocks, 134, 173, 185, 203, 226, 227,
233, 244, 245, 254-257, 282, 283, 2
302, 304, 309, 315, 321, 330, 334; 335;
370, 382, 300, 396, 399, 400-406,
413

Hardison, R. B., soil survey by, 193
(194, 201, 225, 415)

Hardwoods, 185, 196, 211, 216, 218,
224, 256, 264, 272, 290, 201, 295, 346,
348, 370, (378), (see also Decidu-
ous trees)

Harper, R. M., paper by, 163
_ photographs by, 27, 53 (f. 12), 59,

139 (£32), 141 (f.26), 347-301
quoted, 50-64.

Harshberger, J. W., cited, 412

Hawthorne, sands near, 24

Hay, 200, 209, 241, 253, 265, 279, 206,
319, 325, 337

444

Hayes, C. W.,' cited, 79

Heilprin, A., cited, 42

Heimburger, L., analyses by,
269, 281, 397, 398

Henry, A. M., photograph by, 139

Hernando County, 60, 120

Highland, altitude of, 320

High pine land, 173, 203, 257, 297, 301,
321, 384, 399

Hilgard, E. W., cited, 174, 176, 268,
336, 396, 308

Hilliardville, altitude of, 282

Glisten eO2 ein 207, 223,220) 254)
25" 257,200,270," 314;" 320,- 350,
352, 372

Hillsborough County, 76

Hogs, 222, 279

Hogtown Prairie, 146, 147

Holland, 343

Hollows, 244, 339 (see also Basins, De-
pressions)

Holmes County, 103, 120, 239, 397

Holmes Valley, 191, 218, 223, 224, 205,
356, 395, 399, 403

Honey, 188, 209, 253, 313

Horse, fossil, 162

Horse-cars, 301

Howe, C. D., cited, 185

Hughes Specialty Well Drilling Co.,
109

(193),

Humus, 194, 210, 211, 215-218, 221, 238, |

269, 270, 272, 281, 301, 319, 398, 300
Hunting, 279
Huntington, climate of, 183
Hydrated lime, 36, 38, 390

Hydraulic mining of phosphate, 82, 93.

I.

Ichetucknee Spring, 123, 291

Illinois, 176, 277

Illustrations explained, 189

Improved land, 188, 189, 200-336, 393,
304 |

Impurities of phosphate rock, 69-71

Indiana, 176, 415

Indians, 48, 136, 145, 278, 410, 416

Infusorial earth, 26-27

Insects, 182 (see also Ants, Doodle-
bugs, Mosquitoes )

Irish potatoes, 200, 241, 253, 265, 325,
337

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Iron in soils, 123, 195, 230, 268-270, 277,
281, 303, 310, 328, 3908, 399 (see also
ferruginous soils)

influence on vegetation (200), 277

Islands, 97, 98, 182, 220, 242, 243, 338,

360-364.

a:

| Jackson County, 52, 147, 193, 200, 225,

346-348, 405, 415 (see also Mari-
anna)
Jacksonville, 109, 110, 183, 336, 394, 411
Jasper, 264, 328
Jefferson County, 120, 126, 130, 254,
255, 264, 266, 302, 310, 397, 404, 412,
415 ‘
Johnson, L. C., cited, 412
Jones, B. D., cited, 303, 413
“ G. B., ‘soil surveys by, 193, (104,
201, 225, 247, 254), 206, (267, 280),
3024 13109320 3272405)

K.

Kaolin or ball clay, 23, 24, 320

Karst topography, 314

Katz, F. J., quoted, 26-27

Kearney, T. H., cited, 306

Kentucky, 91, 176

Key Vaca, well on, 112 ;

Key West, 46, 112

Keys of Florida, 336

Keyster, H. R., sample of phosphate
contributed by, 85

Kirk, N. M., soil survey of Bradford
Co., (326-328, 415)

| Knox Hill country, 191, 217-223, 356,

395, 399, 403 ,
Kolbe, L. A., soil survey by, (229), 242,

(415)

| Krome, W. J., 63

L.

Lafayette County, 303, 313, 382

Lafayette formation, 193, 194, 201, 210,
229, 230, 267

Lagoons, 338

Lake Alfred, (see Bartow Junction)

Lake: Butler, 386

Lake Chipola, 248

Lake City, 183, 264, 328

GENERAL INDEX,

Lake County, 23, 26, 50, 60

Lake Hicpochee, limestone near, 43

Lake Iamonia, 120, 125-127, 148

Lake Jackson, 120, 128-129, 138

Lake Kingsley, 320, 329, 384

Lake Lafayette, 120, 129-130, 140, 271,
272. 372

Lake Miccosukee, 130-183, 137

Lake Okeechobee, 41, 43-45, 54

Lake regions, (see Peninsular and
West Florida)

Lake Weir, sand from, 47

Lakes, 225, 226, 232, 256, 257, 266, 271,
282, 321, 330, 358, 387, 412, 414

Lakes and lake basins, paper on, II5-
159

Lanark, 243, 360, 362

Land pebble phosphates, 78

Lanier, S., book by, 413

Largest spring in the world? 290

Leaching of soils, 182, 184, 243, 244,
338

Ledoux, A. R., cited, 81

Lee County, 52

Leeds, B. F., cited, 338, 413

Leesburg, sand near, 24

leguminous plants (see Leguminosae
in plant index)

Leon County, 60, I19, 120, 125, 126,

128-130, 247, 248, 254, 266-268, 280, |
288, 366-368, 372-377, 402, 415 (see |

also Bellair, Lakes Iamonia, Jack-
son and Lafayette, Tallahassee)

“Leon sand,’ 247-248, 307

Lettuce, 256, 265, 337

Levy County, 47, 120, 310

Liberty County, 211, 238, 254, 354 (see
also Alum Bluff, Bristol)

Library of the State Survey, 13

Life-zones, 173

Lightning, 184, 203

Lime, limestone, 36, 37, 39, 40, 45,
Olga LOA TOS a 105, 2015) 202,
22th 243, 255.0 250, 260, .270,” 280,
281, 289, 296, 302, 303, 300, 310,
314, 315, 319, 328, 335, 336, 339,
342, 346, 348, 303, 397-399 (see also
Calcium)

Lime-sinks, 195, 202, 203, 210, 256,
200, 303, 321, 348, 370 (see also
sinks )

| Lumber, lumbering, lumbermen,

445

Lime-sink regions (see Peninsular and
West Florida)

Lingula, phosphate in shell of, 73

Live Oak, 57, 264

Lloyd, J. U., (Lloyd’s reagent), 28

Lobster, phosphate in shell of, 73, 74

Long, Mrs. E. C., cited, 185, 413

Long Moss Spring, 195, 348

| Lower Oligocene, 76, 90, 161, 193 (see

also Vicksburg)

172,
177, 178, 188, 200, 208, 209, 228,
238-241, 246, 253, 264, 279, 288, 295,
309, 313, 325, 336, 342

M.

Macclenny, climate of, 183

Madison County, 60, 64, 120, 264, 266,
313, 368

Magnesia, magnesium, in soils and
water, 123, 195, 217, 230, 269, 302,
328, 397

Makatea Island, phosphates of, 97, 98

Malaria, 224, 288, 411

Manatee County, 34, 35, 60

Manganese in soils, 195, 230, 269, 303,
328, 397

Mansfield, G. R., cited, 80

Map of northern Florida, 190

Marbut, C. F., information from, 397

Marianna, climate of, 183

_ Marianna red lands, 190-200, 278, 346-

349, 395, 397, 399, (401)
Marion County, 47, 58, 120, 123, 254,
290 (see also Dunnellon, Ocala)

Marl, 42, 43, 46, 58, 247, 302, 310, 312,

321, 323, 326, 320-331, 333-335, 339,
382, 400, 401

Marshes, 242-246, 257, 208, 304, 321,
330, 334, 335, 338, 339, 342, 343,
368, 388-301

Massachusetts, fuller’s earth of, 33

Mastodon, fossil, 162

Materials for mortar and concrete, 46-
48

Matson, G. C., cited, 193, 201, 210, 217,
223, 220, 247, 254, 266, 291, 302,
314, 320, 326, 320, 338, 413

Mattress-making, 279, 205

Mayer, A. G., cited, 338, 413

446 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

May-haw ponds (see May haw in plant
index, and Ponds)

Mayport, 340, 388

McAtee, W. L., cited, 242, 413

McCalley, H., soil analysis by, (230)

McCallie, S. W., cited, 93, 154

McMeekin, ball clays near, 23

Mechanical analyses of soils, 194, 225,
230-232, 243, 248, 254-256, 267-268,
281, 289, 310-311, 314, 327, 393

comments on, 181, 194, 232, 243, |

255, 256, 267, 303
Medicine from plants, 288
Megatherium, 162
Methods of draining lakes, 148-150
Methods of quantitative analysis of
vegetation, 177-180
Mexico, 339
Miami, 41, 42
* Oolite, 41, 45,
River, 42
Micanopy, 58, 256, 264
Michigan, 280, 396
Middle Florida, 310, 400, 404, 411, 413,
414, 416
Middle Florida flatwoods, I91, 310-313,

52

“ce

395, 397, 412

Middle Florida hammock belt, 191, 254-
265, 328, 366-371, (304), 305-
397

Middleton, Jefferson, cited, 34

Millet, 337

Milton, 240, 358

Mineral industries and resources of
Florida, 23-104, 172, 181

Mineral water, 104

Minerals of phosphate rock, 67-69

Mining of phosphate rock, 81, 82

Miocene, 46, 161, 162, 217, 223, 220,
326

Mississippi, 176, 193, 217, 220, 242, 255

Mohr, Charles, writings of, 239. 240, |

306, 413, 414
Moles, 182, 270, 282
Monticello, 264
Mooney, C. N., on Payne’s Prairie,
(415)
Mortar, materials for, 46
Mosquitoes, 224, 288, 319
Mossy Head, 232
Mt. Pleasant, soils near, 2
Muck, 326, 338

oe)
°
to
oo
Loe |

Mud, 203, 321, 354

Muddy streams, 211, 248, 255, 257, 282,
401

Munroe, Hersey, 145

Munson’s Lake or Pond, 271, 376

Museum of State Geological Survey, 14

N.

Nash, G. V., on Florida plants, 210,
280, 288, 413

Nassau County, 338

Natural bridges, 195, 202, 270-271, 303,
SIA B21

| Natural divisions of northern Florida,

| Odocoileus,

I7I, 172, 190, I9I, 412, 414

Naura Island, phosphates of, 97

Naval stores, 188, 200, 228 (see
also turpentine)

Navassa Island, phosphates of, 80

Neal, J. C., on Florida weeds, 185, 413

Needs of the Geological Survey, 13

Negroes, 189, 224, 264, 279, 288, 296,

3905 (see also Population)

Newland Springs, 123

Newnan’s Lake, 135, 136, 145

New York libraries, 181, 416

Nitrogen in soils, 175, 177, 238, 270, 281,
397, 398

Nodules, 201, 266

Non-alluvial swamps, 233, 311, 319, 321,
400, 401, 403, 405

“Norfolk” soils, 194, 202, 225,
232, 255-257, 268, 310, 314, 307

North Carolina, 92, 267, 277, 280, 281

North New River Canal, limestones
along, 44, 45, 54

Norton, C. L., handbook of Florida,
303, 399

Number of plants enumerated, 417

“a+,

231,

O.

Oats, 200, 209, 241, 253, 265, 279, 300,
319, 325, 337

Ocean Island, phosphates of, 97

Ocheesee Lake, 120, 147-148

Ocklawaha River, 320, 321

“Ocklocknee clay,” 255

Ocklocknee River, 127, 242, 255, 257, 271

162

Old fields, 185, 272, 293, 204, 305, 318,
322, 403, 405

GENERAL

Oligocene formations, 46, 193, 217, 220,
254, 266, 280, 289, 302, 310 (see
also. Lower and Upper)

Onions, 241, 253, 265, 337

“Orangeburg” soils, 194, 231, 232, 255,
267, 269

Orange County, 63, 120

Oranges, 175, 177, 241, 253, 2605, 325, 337

Organic matter in soils, 195, 230, 232,
255, 256, 260, 328

Osceola County, 60

Oxen, 279

Ee:

Pablo Beach, 413

Palatlakaha Creek, 23

Palatka, flowing well at, 105

Palm Beach, deep well at, 46, 112

Palmetto Phosphate Co., well samples
from, I10

Panacea country, Panacea Springs, 104,
I9I, 288, 297-301, 380, 395

Parsons, Charles L., cited, 32

Pasco County, 314

Pasturage, 188, 209, 288 (see also Graz-

ing)

Payne’s Prairie, 134-136, 140, 145,
(154), 156, 173, 415

Peaches, 200, 209, 241, 253, 265, 270,
296, 319, 325, 337

Peanuts, 200, 209, 241, 253, 265, 270,
296, 309, 319, 325, 337, 370

Pears, 209, 241, 253, (265), 279, 206,

Be ea GOd
Peas, 256, 265 (see also field peas)

Peat, peaty soils,

246, 311, 320, 321, 324, 326, 338, |
358, 368, 412

Pecans, 200, 209, 241, 253, 265, 279, |
296, 319, 325, 337

Pencil wood, 200, 3090

Peninsular lake region, 191, 320-325,

384, 395, 402, 403, 405

Peninsular lime-sink region, 191, 280,
314-319, 321, 324, 325, 384, 395, 308,
399

Peninsulas, 242, 244, 362

Pensacola, 183, 229, 239, 246, 304, AIO,
416

Peppel, S. V., cited, 36

Peppers, 265, 337

59-64, 175, 176, 242 |

Perdido River, 239

INDEX, 447

Peter, R., method of soil analysis, 268

Phalen, W. C., cited, 86, 94

Phosphate rock, distribution, origin,
mining, production, etc., 65-101,
266, 314, 319, 384, 309

Phosphatic soils, phosphoric acid, phos-
phorus, 123, 175, 195, 217, 223, 230,

264, 266, 267, 2690, 270, 277, 281,
302, 314, 328, 335, 336, 370, 397-
399, 402-405.

influence on vegetation, 217,

223, 264, 270, 277, 324, 335, 330, 330,

342, 370, 402-405
Physical analyses of soils, 181
Piedmont region, 211, 224
Pierce, James, cited, 136, 413
Piles, cypress, 209
“Pimply land,” 201, 266, 350

Planorbis, 42

Plant ecology and sociology, 176, (335)

Pleistocene formations, 42, 162, 220,
242, 247, 302, 326

Pliocene formations, 42, 45, 90, 162, 229

Plums, 253, 325

Poles, cypress, 209, 217

Polk County, 23, 26, 59, 60, 76, 110

Ponce de Leon Spring, 103

Pond snails, 42

Ponds, 196, 202, 203, 223, 224, 232,
233, 244, 257, 271, 280, 282, 283,
288, 290, 291, 297, 304, 311, 315, 330,
352, 372, 386, 400, 402, 404, 405, 412

Population, 172, 188, 189, 200-243, 303-
395

Porter, John T., cited, 29, 32

Portland (Walton County), 240, 360

“Portsmouth” soils, 255, 256, 310, 326-

328, 397

Potash, potassium, in soils, 175-177,
184, 194, 195, 203, 211, 216, 230,
231, 238, 243, 246, 255, 260, 270, 281,
290, 205, 302, 313, 328, 335, 336,
393, 394, 397-399

Potash, influence on vegetation, 175-
L77; 194), 203) 211i, 2x6, 238) 243)
246, 200, 205, 302, 313, 335, 303

Potatoes, 177, 200-337

Praities, 120; ag4: 36 145-147 s1 7,
177: 256: 257, 208). B04. 321. eA,
368

Preparation of phosphate for market,
82-84

448

Production of phosphate for 1913, 86

Psychological factors, 395

Publications issued by the Survey, 9-10

Pumps, 202, 203, 314, 330

Purdue, A. H., cited, 87

Pure water, 229, 238

Putnam County, 23, 60, 183, 320, 325,
403

Q.

Quadrat method of studying vegeta-
EION 7/7,

Qualitative ‘studies of vegetation, inad-
equacy of, 173, 177, 396

Quantitative analyses or studies, 173,
175-180, 185, 217

Quincy, 34, 35, 254, 264

R.

Rafting timber, 239

Railroads, 171, 172, 185, 223, 226, 228,
ZO), FB, FO, Bios Ady 270, 272
280, 282, 285-287, 205, 303, 300, 320,
394, 403

Rain, rainfall, 131, 133-136, I51, 155, 157,
158, 182-184, 243, 315

Rangia cuneata, 44

Ranson, Robert, 50, 63

Ravines, 211, 217, 218, 354

Recent formations, 242, 338

Red Bay (Walton Co.), 217

Red hills, 254, 266, 288

Reef rock, Lake Okeechobee, 43

Reese, Chas. L:, cited, 71, 72

Relation of vegetation to soils, 173-
177, 393, 396

Resorts, 301, 315,
and Winter)

Reynolds, Miss M. C., cited, 414

Rhinoceros, fossil, 162

Rice, 6325

Rice, T. D., soil survey ‘by, (254), 314,
(326, 327, 415)

Richards, R. W., cited, 80

River Junction, 54, 412

Road materials of Florida, 1o1-102

Roads, condition and statistics of, 102,
201, 203, 217, 247, 267, 270, 280, 380

Rock Hill, Washington Co., 201, 412

(see also Summer

| St.
St

(Pais

hte

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Rock outcrops, 193, 195, 196, 198, 200,
201, 220, 247, 254, 266, 280, 302,
314, 320, 348, 400 ;

Rocky shoals, 303

Rogers, Austin F., cited, 68, 79

Rolfs; -P:, “H., (403

Root, A. S., soil survey by, 210, (2209,
254, 415)

“Round timber,” 240, (351)

Rowe, R. W., soil survey by, 193, (194,
201, 225, 415)

Russia, phosphates of, 96

S.

Sabin, L. S., cited, 48

St. Andrews, climate of, 183
Andrews Bay, 228, 246, 401
Augustine, 40, 48, 112, 183, 340,
343, 411, 415

George’s Sound, 360, 362

James Island, 242, 244, 246, 364
John’s County, 338, 388, 390 (see
also Anastasia Island, St. Augus-
tine)

John’s River, 48, 320, 329, 330, 412
Mark’s, 309, 398

Mary de Galves Bay, 239, 240
Mary’s River, 329

Stephens limestone, 193

Vincent Island, 413

St.
St.

S18
Si
SE

St.
Se

Salamanders, 182, 226, 230, 231, 243,
248, 257, 270, 282, 200, 207, 314,
820) 3204330) 402), Ale

Salt marshes, 242, 244, 298, 338, 339,
342, 388-391

Salubrity (?) of fertile regions, 224,
288

Sand and gravel, production of, 102,
103

Sand-hills, “Sandhill” soil, 242, 280,

281, 288

Sand-lime brick, companies producing,
103, 104

Sandstone, 201, 229

Sanford, Samuel, 42, 112, 193, 201, 210,
217, 220, 247, 254, 266, 291, 302, 314,
320, 326, 338, 413

San Pedro Bay, 173, 310, 311, 313

Santa Fe River, 315, 370

Santa Rosa County, 60, 238, 358, 362

Santa Rosa Sound, 239

GENERAL INDEX,

Sargent, C. S., cited, 414

Savannas, 134, 298, 304, 307, 308

Sawmills, 239, 240, 247, 264, 319 (see
also Lumber)

Scenery, 325 (346-391)

Scotchmen in Walton Co., 221

Scrub, 173, 320-324, 330, 384, 396, 400,
402, 405

Sea-island cotton, (188), 200, 241, 255,
265, 309, 319, 325, 337

Seasonal distribution of rain, 182-184,
(195), 211, (238)

Seasonal fluctuation of water
Fluctuation)

Sellards, E. H., cited, 201, 210, 217, 223,

225, 220, 247, 254, 257, 266, 271,

297, 302, 310, 314, 320, 326, 320,

339, 397, 398, 414

papers by, 9-165

Shantz, H. L., cited, 396

Shell fragments in beach soils, 243, 338

Shell mounds, 48, 242

Shingles, 209

Ship-building, 247

Shoals in Gulf hammock region, 303

Silica in soil or water, 123, 195, 230,
269, 303, 328

Silver’ Spring, 122, 123, 290

Sink-holes, sinks, 57, I2I, 124, 126-
136, 140, 146, 147, 151, 155, 156, 158,
16%, 102\s 195, “201; 2545, 257," 271,
282, 280, 315, 328, 329. (see also
Lime-sinks)

(see

“ee

Sloughs, 196, 223, 224, 272, 282, 288,
290, 291, 292, 302, 304-306, 403-405

Small, J. K., cited, 187, 400, 404, 407

Smith, Buckingham, cited, 42

Smith, Eugene A., 93, 136, 172,
193-104) <200- 217; 223%. 220,
254, 266, 268, 270, 2890, 302,
326, 327, 411, 415, 416

Smith, J. D., cited, 193, 415

Soda, sodium, in soils, 195, 230,
302, 328, 397

Soil fauna, 181, 244 (see also Subter-
ranean animals)

Soil maps, soil surveys, 17 (see also
U. S. Bureau of Soils)

Soils (see Analyses) é

Solid matter removed by solution, 122-
123

189,
247,
320,

260,

449

Solution topography, 202, 203, (217),
257, 271, 282, 314, 315, 320

Sopchoppy, 297, 301

Sopchoppy River, 247, 248

Sounds of West Florida coast, 242,
360, 362

South Carolina, 86, 87, 267, 280, 281, 412

South New River canal, limestone
from, 44, 45

Spanish grants, 264

Spouting well near Orlando, 143, 154

Spring flowers, 211

Spring Hill, Leon Co., altitude of, 282

Springs, 123, 195, 202, 211, 218, 220, 244,
2E7l 271, 2a2s 200;\, 303; 315,320;
321, 329, 339, 412

Squashes, 265

Stanley-Brown, J., cited, 210, 411

Stanton, F. M., peat analyses, 59

State Board of Health, 113

State Chemist (and assistants), anal-
yses by 44, 45, 63, (193, 266), 269,
281, 397, 398

State Drainage Commission, paper pre-
pared for 41-46

State Supreme Court, decision on lakes,
120

Statistical information, collection of, 12

Statistical summary for northern Flor-
ida, 303-397

Steep-heads, 211, 232

Steep slopes, 202, (217), 226, 315, 338

Steinhatchee River, 303

Stephensville, climate of,

Stickney, L. D., cited, 415

Stock laws, (188), 279

Stock-raising (see Cattle, Hogs)

Stockmen, 278

Stose, G. W., cited, 92

Strawberries, 337

Substitutes for wood, 241

Subterranean animals, 181, 182, 243,
257, 282, 314, 338 (see also Ants,
Crabs, Crawfish, Crustacea, Doodle |
bugs, Earthworms, Gophers, In-
sects, Moles, Salamanders

Sugar-cane, 200, 209, 241, 253, 265, 279,
296, 309, 319, 337

Sulphur, sulphuric acid, in soil or
water, 195, 230, 269, 303, 328, 338,
339, 397

183

x

450 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT.

Summary of mineral production in
Florida, 114
Summer rains, 184, 238 (see also
Seasonal distribution)

Summer resorts, 246, 288, (301)

Sumter County, 57-58, 60

Superficial formations, 193 (see also
Lafayette)

Suwannee County, 47, 120, 319 (see
also Live oak, Welborn)

Suwannee River, 47, 310, 315-317, 402-
406, 410

Suwannee Springs, 123

Swamps, 173, 178, 195-334, 354, 358,
364, 366, 395, 400-406

Sweet potatoes, 200, 209, 241, 253, 265,

279, 296, 309, 319, 325, 337
Synopsis of geographical divisions of
northern Florida, 191
Synopsis of regional descriptions, 180
Syrup (see Sugar-cane)

i.

Tallahassee, 183, 271, 276, 303, 415

Tallahassee red hills, 191, 223, 254, 266- |

279, 295, 372-375, 395, 397, 399, 402
Tapirus, fossil, 162
Taxonomic studies of plants, 173
Taylor, A. E., soil survey of Brad-
ford County, (326-328, 415)
Taylor County, 183, 303, 300, 313, 382

Technical names and terms explained, |

172, elo 7 LOO

Temperature, 182-183

Tennessee, 79, 80, 88, 80, 176

Terraces, 202

Tertiary formations, 201, 210, 223, 256,
320 (see also Miocene, Oligocene,
Pliocene)

Testudo
Gopher )

Polyphemus, 182 (see also

Texas, 267

Tharp, W. E., soil survey by, (254),
302, 310, (415)

Thickets, 390

Thompson, Maurice, cited, 266, 303, 415

Tidal channels, 338

Tiger Bay, record of well at, 110-112

Tomatoes, 241, 253, 265, 325, 337

Topographic maps, need of, 14-16

hue

Topography, 172, 173, 183, 185, 195-339,
393, 412
Torrey, B., book by, 266, 415
Mlohn are
Tourists, 343

Dra Rides moon 420 e20nmesONnsaes
402, 405, 414

Tropical soils, 176

Truck-farming, 152, 394, 396 (see also
Crops, Vegetables)

Tunis, phosphates of, 94

Tuomey, M., cited, 42

Turpentine, turpentining, 177, 200, 222
238, 240, 253, 264, 279, 288, 295, 301,
309, 313, 319, 325, 336, 348

Turtle (see Testudo)

U.
Ulrich) BOs. cited, 70
Underground water, 172, 181 (see also

Ground water
(Uiarig, IR, ID ky was iss}
United States Army Engineers, 415
U. S. Board on Geographic Names, 145
U. S. Bureau of Mines, 32
U. S. Bureau of Chemistry, 307
SS) Bureau of (sols 17 lol Los
LO4, 201/250. 1225) 2200— 2u 7 maa.
255, 266-268, 280, 302, 310, 326, 303,
397, 415
U. S. Bureau of Standards, 37
U. S. Department of Agriculture, 177,
203 .
Division of Forestry, 413

| U. S. Geological Survey, 16, 23, 26, 27,

20; 34,37, 59; 63, 72, 174) 75; 029,
80, 86, 88, 92, 94, 90, 135, 145,
225, 329, 413

U. S. Weather Bureau, 182

Upland cotton (see cotton)

Upper Oligocene, 34, 76, 126, 131, 161,
193, 214, 220, 254, 266, 302

Vi.

Valleys, 210,211, 218,' 232, 270, 303,
320, 320

Van Hise, C. R., cited, 125

Variation in ground water level, 157

Vaughan, T. W., cited, 329

Veatch, Otto, cited, 3209

Vegetables, 145,, 175, 265, 337

GENERAL INDEX.

Velvet beans, 200, 209, 241, 253, 265,
279, 296, 309, 319, 337

Vernon, 223, 226, 240, 256

Vicksburg formation, 40, 41, 46, 49, 52,
57, 58, 76, 90, 109-112, 135, 147,
154, 158, 193, 201, 314

Vignoles, Chas., book by, 416

Vines, 174, 186, 203, 227, 287, 318

Virginia, 92, 277, 405

Virginia-Florida Lime Co., 37

Volcano, Wakulla, 303

Volusia County, 410

Ww.

Wakulla County, 247, 249, 280, 280,
295-297, 378-380, 393, 397-399, 405,
412

Wakulla hammock country, 191, 289-
296, 378-381, 393, 395, (396), 397-
399, 405.

Wakulla River, 247, 290, 291, 204-206,
378

Wakulla Spring, 289,, 200, (378)

Wakulla station, 378

Wakulla volcano, 303, 412

Waldo, 329

Walton County, 60, 217, 221, 230, 232,
348, 356, 360, 404 (see also Alaqua,
DeFuniak, Knox Hill)

Washington County, 202, 223, 225, 240,
350-352, 350, 358, 412 (see also
Holmes Valley, Vernon)

Watermelons, 200, 209, 241, 265, 279,
206, 319, 325, 337

Water-power, 195, 232

Wausau, 223

Wave action, 321, 360

Weathering, 125, 193, 210, 217, 220, 250,
326 (see also Leaching)

451

Weeds, 185, 187, 238, 246, 253, 272, 277-
278, 205, 300, 309, 313, 324, 335,
336, 370, 407, 409, 413

Weekiwachee Spring, 123

Welborn, altitude of, 328

Well records, utility of, 105-113

Wells, 148-155, 159, 202, 203, 229, 271,
315, 330, 339

Wesson, David, cited, 29

West Florida coast strip, 191, 242-247,
282, 360-363, 395

West Florida lake region, 191, 223,
225-228, 358, 395, 397

West Florida lime-sink region, 191, 201-
209, 223, 314, 348-352, 395, 397, 398

West Florida pine hills, 191, 229-241,
326, 320, 358-361, 395, 400

Wet summers, 183, 184, (195, 230, 231),
238, 243

White limestone, 193

White (Sulphur) Springs, 123

Whiting, H., cited, 416

Wilder, H. J., soil survey by, (247,
254), 266, (267, 280, 415)

Wiley, H. W., cited, 177, 203

Willcox, Joseph, 42

Williams, J. L., books by, 217, 223, 416

Wind, effects of, 242-244, 282, 314,
338, 390

Winter resorts, 247, (279, 301, 325)

Withlacoochee River (of Georgia) 257

World production of phosphate rock,
94

Worms (see Earthworms)

Worthington Springs, 370

¥.

Yazoo Delta, 176
Yellow River, 233, 236, 239
Yonge, P. K., cited, 239

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