poewesacrareaceet a TT oe ADE path a Pt Kin aT IL CAEL etebsharriny inset Aeris itis stra ay) datrisesaal erie ee eeretaeyt r Stee Jaoen eb tt rbens ba paet dit. t/a thas: be haendd shea Watt atten arte rcin arn NINETEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OR EEE GorNeLL” UNIVERSITY Agricultural Experiment Station DREEAeA, N.. ¥: LIBRARY Igo 6 NEW YORK BOTANICAI GARDEN TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE JANUARY 14, 1907 ALBANY J. B. LYON COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS 1907 Si sre OriNEW YORK. No. 20. IN ASSEMBLY, JANUARY 14, 1907. NINETEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Agricultural Experiment Station of Cornell University. STA TE-OF NEW YORK: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY, January I4, 1907. To the Honorable the Legislature of the State of New York: In accordance with the provisions of the statutes relating thereto, I have the honor to ere transmit the Nineteenth Annual Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station at Cornell University. CHARLES: Ey WIETING, Commissioner of Agriculture. ORGANIZATION Or THe CorNELL UNIvERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BOARD OF CONTROL THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL JACOB GOULD SCHURMAVN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the Agricultural College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. THOMAS F. HUNT, Professor of Agronomy. EXPERIMENTING STAFF LIBERTY, EE. BAYLEY, Director: JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology. HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry. GEORGE F. ATKINSON, Botany. JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture. THOMAS F. HUNT, Agronomy. RAYMOND A. PEARSON, Dairy Industry. MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. JOHN L. STONE, Agronomy. JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry. JOHN W. GILMORE, Agronomy. HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology. SAMUEL FRASER, Agronomy. JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry. ELMER O. FIPPIN, Soil Investigation. CHARLES E. HUNN, Horticulture. Office of the Director, 17 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New York State who request them. a 4 ~ Ar ok = 7 Se) a? ie ; ; Cas ed Re | ae Pee - Ae t we ve 3 . 2 ‘4 * . te -_- ae + i vas ‘; z ees te i Bou ‘=. i ae rT. Ww = ee ee 3 Jin ae ir, realy. or 46 . *, December 1, 1906. The Governor of the State of New York, Albany, N. Y., The Secretary of the Treasury, Washington, D. C., The Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., The Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany, N. Y.: The Act of Congress, approved March 2, 1887, establishing Agri- cultural Experiment Stations in connection with the Land Grant Colleges, contains the following provision: “ It shall be the duty of each of said stations, annually, on or before the first day of February, to make to the governor of the state or territory in which it is located, a full and detailed report of its operations, including a state- ment of receipts and expenditures, a copy of which report shall be sent to each of said stations, to the commissioner of agriculture, and to the secretary of the treasury of the United States.” And the Act of the Legislature of the State of New York, ap- proved April 12, 1906, providing for the administration of the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, contains the following provision: ‘ The said University shall expend such moneys and use such property of the State in administering said College of Agriculture as above provided, and shall report to the commissioner of agriculture in each year on or before the first day of December, a detailed statement of such expenditures and of the general operations of the said College of Agriculture for the year ending the thirtieth day of September then next preceding.” In conformity with these mandates I have the honor to submit on behalf of Cornell University the following report: The law quoted above calls for an annual report on the State Col- lege of Agriculture for the year ending the thirtieth day of Septem- ber. By chapter 655 of the Laws of 1904, the State appropriated $250,000 for the purpose of constructing and equipping buildings for the State College of Agriculture at Cornell University. But funds for the maintenance of the College were not provided until 1906 when the above mentioned law for the administration of the College was also enacted. The clause in the Appropriation Act of 1906 is as follows: “For the State College of Agriculture at Cornell University for the promotion of agricultural knowledge throughout the State as provided by chapter four hundred and thirty of the laws of eighteen hundred and ninety-nine, and for the maintenance, equipment and necessary material to conduct the College of Agriculture, one [7] 8 REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. hundred thousand dollars ($100,000), payable to the treasurer of Cornell University on the warrant of the comptroller.” As this money did not become available until October 1st, and the present report covers the year ending September 30th, it is obvious that no account can be given of its expenditure. For several years, however, the State had appropriated to Cornell University - funds for extension work in agriculture, and the results of this work have been reported annually to the Commissioner of Agriculture for the year ending September 30th. The present report therefore properly concerns itself only with that extension work. As, how- ever, during the last two years Cornell University has had charge of the erection of the buildings for the State College of Agriculture and has constantly been planning for the inauguration of the State College which went into operation on October Ist, it seems proper that this report should contain a full account of all the agricultural activities at Corneli University, of the plans for their improvement and enlargement, and of the funds by which they have been sup- ported. In this way there will be a record of the condition of things when the New York State College of Agriculture first went into operation, which will undoubtedly be useful for future reference. It is natural to begin with the buildings for the New York State College of Agriculture, for which the Legislature in 1904 appro- priated $250,000. They comprise four members —a main building, a dairy building, an agronomy building, and an animal husbandry building. Of these the dairy building is now in use, and it is hoped the agronomy building may be fit for use before the close of the year. The main building is very nearly completed, and it seems safe to predict, in spite of many delays in the past, that all the buildings will be completed by the spring. It is important to call attention to the fact that they have been constructed within the appropriation, which will also serve to equip the buildings so as to make them usable. The residue of the appropriation, however, is not large enough to furnish the buildings with equipment to make them as efficient as they might and should be made. The first need, therefore, of the College is additional equipment. It will be seen also from the reports of the Director and the heads of several departments herewith annexed, that the College needs a new barn, new glass houses, more land and stock, besides other facilities to give to the work of instruction and research its maximum efficiency. The primary object of the New York State College of Agriculture is to increase the productiveness and profitableness of farming. To REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. 9 that end the Administration Act (chapter 218 of the Laws of 19060) authorized it to give instruction, to conduct research, and to dis- seminate agricultural knowledge throughout the State by publi- cations, lectures, demonstrations, “and in such other ways as may by deemed advisable.” The entire control of the College is vested in the Board of Trustees of Cornell University. But it is specifically provided that “said University shall receive no income, profit or compensation therefor, but all moneys received from state appro- priations for said college of agriculture or derived from other sources in the course of the administration thereof, shall be credited by said University to a separate fund, and shall be used exclu- sively for said New York State College of Agriculture.” - With the enlarged staff of instruction which the State appro- priation has made it possible to appoint, the College is now conduct- ing extensive and thorough courses of instruction for students in agriculture who come to Ithaca and also disseminating agricultural knowledge throughout the State in a manner which is command- ing not only the favorable comment of the people of New York but also attracting the attention of other States and countries. The Act (chapter 655 of the Laws of 1904) appropriating $250,000 for buildings for the New York State College of Agricul- ture at Cornell University contains the following provision: “ Nothing in this act shall be construed to relieve Cornell University of any of its obligations to the State to provide for instruction in agriculture or otherwise and the provisions of this act are intended to provide additional facilities therefor.” This clause forbids Cornell University to shift to the State any obligations that may be imposed upon it by law to provide for instruction in agriculture. That is to say, the University must in the future, as a matter of good faith with the State which now co-operates with it, continue to do not less than it has done in the past for the maintenance and support of instruc- tion in agriculture. The clause just cited makes no reference to research, and properly so because the work of research in agriculture at Cornell University is conducted by an Experiment Station main- tained by Federal appropriations. But whatever the University has in the past done to support instruction in agriculture it must continue to do in the future. Recognizing this obligation, the Trustees of Cornell University called on the Treasurer to make a report upon the regular appro- priations and moneys expended for the College of Agriculture for the year 1903-4, the year of the passage of the Act in question, and also for the seven preceding years, together with the sources thereof. That report is as follows :— REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. Io r “WOlZBzZIULBIOSL OY} Ul AjIsIoAiuA e443 4q pouinsse puv Alvyes s,uosuTyyY "Jorg wo uoTye4g yUOWIIOdxX | wory pred Aj1oUIIOJ Ooo'rg yonpap spuny AjIsIeAtUA feIeUey oy} wWoIZ yUSUIAEd 9y4 WOI,T 00 vzg'zzgy IS L69‘9 00 OCOO‘O! oo Siz‘r Ov 116'F $ So bzg‘zzg Colo Mmololo wat 4 co #290‘g 00 ooc‘I1I¢ p—f£o061 co 00S ‘org gl zogte oo OSL‘s 00 096 zz Ler‘o ¢ co ooS$ ‘org 00 coos 09 OOf‘T 00 ooo‘ co coz'ss €—zo6r1 coos ¢ z—-1061 co coz ‘Lig Lo” rns Se oo oSL's LL Leetz Or 116'S ¢ 00 coz ‘lig ©0 0900's ©0 OOf'T 00 006‘ 00 coo'Ss I-oo61 oSS‘org oo oSgteé ol oSZ's fofe) s¢ Sti Lz6‘r fee) Sg6‘p g Sx oSS‘org oo ololo wa [efe) ooc'r [ole] ooStsZ [efo} osg‘v g oO o—66gr 00z ‘org coz ‘org fololo at oog'tr ooStsL ooS'r ¢ 6-g6g1 oof sig ololo a 9 ooz‘r cog‘s ooste ¢ g—46gr foe} cl oo ob‘ gig 96L'z ama OOOOCT: oxeagh GAR (shicy. Qed) feiouay oSZl's seseeeeees es DUN [elljsnpuy [euolssaisu0g 61 bees Meningie TSU dou ofa feta nraqus tg o00g't erie Reena tee eae a LOA €Lz'o9 $ I tes ate IOU IE MOOT Va hes foe [eyuowysedeq :SMO][OJ Se poprAoid o1eM sesuedxa assay} Joy spunj oy, opr‘ org 000 *SOT}I IOV} IO} puny [elIJsnpuy feuotssersu0g 066 sore seeseee ss -uomerndoirdde feinjmons0py oor see eeeeeceeees -uoneidoidde [einqnoisy oSz‘s ¢ ee eT Cae ee ioe ees SEL TCS 4—96gr Ee “SHUNLIGNAGKY AVINIAY REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. II It appears from this report that, apart from departmental receipts, fees, and Congressional funds the highest contribution from the University treasury to the maintenance of agricultural instruction was in 1903-4 when it amounted to $5,697.51. But these appropriations do not exhaust the service which the University has rendered to the cause of agricultural instruction. It was permitted students in agriculture to take work in other Col- leges of the University free of charge to such extent as the Faculty of Agriculture deem advisable. The Registrar was accordingly instructed to ascertain the amount of such free instruction given to agricultural students during the period covered by the Treasurer's report, which closed with 1904, the year of the passage of the Act in question. As this investigation demanded the compilation of a vast number of figures, the Registrar was instructed to report for the first, the last, and the middle years covered by the Treasurer’s report. The Registrar’s report is as follows: REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. I2 _—————_———— i ge OLII I Lz z 99 6s OzgI Iv 6991 aie 20 z 99 Ls 6rete ee S26 € og v 601 °9 oglt 6¢ $98 ote up I ve °9 oser syoofqns syoefqns syoafqns sjoofqns que. J9yj0 [[e Ur qua Aijsaioy ut queso "JOA UT 4us0 ‘Id VW Ur Jeg uoTjOnI4SUrT Jag uorjoOnI4sur lag uoTjONA4SUL rag uorjonI}sUt jo sinoy jo sinoy jo sinoy jo sinoy jo Joquinyy jo Jaquinyy jo Joquinn jo loqunyy “LYOdAY S UVULSIOAY Ifl Ig1 “ir 98 yrom ‘ISy suryey sqyuepnys jo Jequinu TEIOL oe eee eee eee ‘aBLIOAY aeiu exe ays) ai6 ee elsiae SC ey Or. tte eee eee eee _ OO6r okeje.ola's) 2's lee @ieiele sO ORT uvaz REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. £3 It will be seen from the foregoing statement that the largest amount of instruction by Cornell University to students of agri- culture in subjects outside the College of Agriculture (and other State colleges) was in the year 1903-4, when it aggregated 1,669 hours. As a student in order to graduate must take thirty hours a year, and is permitted to take thirty-six hours a year, on the basis of thirty-three hours per year, 1,669 hours would represent almost exactly the total instruction given to fifty students or half the instruc- tion given to 100 students for one year. After consideration of these reports of the Treasurer and of the Registrar at meetings held on October 2, 1906, and November 27, 1906, the Executive Committee of the Board of Trustees of Cornell University appropriated for the support of the State College of Agriculture $5,700 from the University treasury and $10,000 from the Congressional Industrial Fund, and voted also that the receipts from the University farms, plant, etc., and agricultural fees hitherto turned into the University treasury, be credited direct to the State College of Agriculture, and that the University assume the obliga- tion of furnishing to students in Agriculture, free of charge, instruc- tion in other Colleges of the University, if there be a demand there- for, up to an aggregate of 1,669 hours. As has been already explained, the principal object of the New York State College of Agriculture is to improve the agricultural methods of the State; to develop the agricultural resources of the State in the production of crops of all kinds, in the rearing and breeding of live stock, in the manufacture of dairy and other pro- ducts, in determining better methods of handling and marketing such products, and in other ways; and to increase intelligence ana elevate the standards of living in the rural districts. But the law organizing the College does not exclude investigation and research. On the contrary the College is authorized “ to make researches in the physical, chemical, biological and other problems of agriculture, the application of such investigations to the agriculture of New York, and the publication of the results thereof.” Nevertheless, it is planned that the College shall devote itself, if not exclusively, at least pre-eminently, to giving instruction to students who come to Ithaca in the arts and sciences of agriculture and to the diffusion of agricultural knowledge throughout the State. The work of in- vestigation and research is, in the meantime, delegated to the Federal Experiment Station. And men who engage in research are to do no teaching whatever, their time and energy being devoted solely to the 14 REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. _ discovery of new truths in the field of agricultural science. Already two fuil professors have been appointed in the Experiment Station whose sole duty is research. One 1s to work in the field of plant physiology and the other is grappling with some of the numerous problems that arise in soil physics and soil chemistry with special reference to the problems of different kinds of soil under different treatment. The expansion of the work in the Federal Experiment Station has been made possible by the Act of Congress approved March 6, 19006, providing for an increased annual appropriation for Federal Experiment Stations and by the concurrent resolutions relative to this Act of Congress adopted by the Senate and Assembly of the State of New York on April 19, 1906. The annual increase to the appropriation for Experiment Stations made by this Act is $5,000 for the first year and a further increase of $2,000 a year for the next five years, making the annual amount to be paid to each State and Territory $30,000 instead of $15,000 as heretofore. By the concurrent resolutions above mentioned it is provided that in New York State nine-tenths of the increase shall be assigned to the Federal Experiment Station at Cornell University and the other one- tenth to the State Experiment Station at Geneva, this being the pro- portion in which the original appropriation of $15,000 annually, as provided by the Experiment Station or Hatch Act of March 2, 1887, was divided between the two stations. The Act provides that the Federal appropriation for experiment stations shall be applied “only to paying the necessary expenses of conducting original researches or experiments bearing directly on the agri- cultural industry of the United States, having due regard to the vary- ing conditions and needs of the respective States and Territories.” The work of the Experiment Station and of the College of Agri- culture is very varied and extensive. For a complete description of it I beg to refer to the accompanying reports of the Director and heads of the several departments, which are to be regarded as an integral part of this report. Instruction and research in agri- culture are necessarily expensive. The Federal Government holds the Stations to strict accountability for all their expenditures, which are regularly reported with expenditures itemized. This report includes a statement of the expenditure of State funds, which are all carefully guarded by the State Commissioner of Agriculture. The list of the staff of instruction in the New York State College of Agriculture and of the Federal Experiment Station on September REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. 15 30, 1906, is also given. And for further information there are appended the series of bulletins of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Nos. 233 to 241 inclusive, the Junior Naturalist Monthly, new series, vol. 2, Nos. 1 to 8 inclusive with supplements, the Cor- nell Reading Course for Farmers leaflets, Series VI, Nos. 26 to 30 inclusive, the Cornell Reading Course for Farmers’ Wives leaflets, Series IV, Nos. 16 to 20 inclusive, and the Home Nature-Study Course leaflets, new series, vol. II, Nos. 1 to 4 inclusive. The report of the Director is chiefly devoted to the question of the proper organization of a College of Agriculture. It is a timely discussion, in view of the action of the Legislature establishing a State College of Agriculture at Cornell University in 1904 and pro- viding for its administration in 1905. The aim of a College of Agriculture is on the one hand to increase the productiveness and profitableness of farming and on the other to educate the people of the country for country life, to enlarge their horizon, to elevate their ideals, and to make them more efficient producers and better citizens. And the College addresses itself not only to students present in its halls, but to farmers all over the State; and it is not only a teaching institution but also an institution of research and experiment. College teaching in agriculture at Ithaca, the diffusion of agricultural knowledge throughout the State of New York, and original investigations and experiments with a view to new dis- coveries in agricultural science — these are the threefold functions of the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University. As to the teaching of students in the College it may be pointed out that the attendance is steadily increasing. In 1904-5 there were 508 students enrolled. About half of these were students in the winter school, and the others students in the four-year course, special or graduate students. The subjects of study, apart from the fundamental arts and sciences, are divided by the Director into the crop-growing group and the animal-growing group. The former includes the fertility of the land, the breeding of plants, the diseases of plants, and methods of growing and handling different kinds of crops. The latter includes the feeding of animals, the breeding of animals, the diseases of animals, and methods of rearing and handling different kinds of animals. Besides these central and fundamental agricultural subjects there are also courses on farm mechanics and machinery, rural engineering, technology and manu- facture, rural art, etc. 16 REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, The second function of the College is extension work. This work, says the Director, comprises all those teaching enterprises that aim to reach the farmers of the State and their problems in the places where the problems are. No agricultural teaching is at present more needful or capable of accomplishing more good in the State. It is not, indeed, the scholarly work of the College; but it is the bureau of publicity of agricultural knowledge. The extension enterprises fall into several categories among which may be mentioned reading-courses, experiments and demonstrations on farms, tests and inspections, orchard and other surveys, lectures and schools, correspondence, popular publications, etc. This variety of work is conducted by a special staff, which is largely differentiated from the teaching faculty of the College. There is a still more complete differentiation in regard to the third function of the New York State College of Agriculture — the func- tion of research and experiment. In 1904-5 the Federal apprc- priation available for the object was $13,500, and with an annual augmentation it will, four years hence, be $27,000 annually. Already two able scientists in the field of agriculture have been secured as investigators, and others of the same standing will be secured in the future. For just as the College is to engage in teaching students and the extension department is to carry knowledge and help to the farmers, so the Experiment Station must be manned with scientists competent to conduct genuine investigations and_ original experiments. The remainder of the full report is divided into eleven main heads as follows :— I. In the department of Agronomy the teaching reached during the year under consideration 523 students. An attempt has been made to correlate the instruction in soils with that in agronomy and an innovation has been introduced in securing Dr. J. G. Lipman as a non-resident lecturer on soil bacteriology. The needs of this department are for new barns and new glass houses in which to conduct instruction and experiment. The Federal Experiment Station work has been carried on in a series of twenty-five experiments at Cornell. Especial attention has been paid to experiments relative to agricultural chemistry. A small temporary bungalow has been constructed on the Mitchell farm for the use of the directors of the field experiments. The report on State Extension Work in Agronomy shows 508 experiments conducted with the aid of about 300 co-operators in REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. i fifty-five different counties. There have been two objects in view: (a) to gain information in regard to the soil and crops under experi- ment and (b) to extend the educational influence of the experiments to the farmers who are doing the work and to their neighbors who observe them. The personnel of the department has been changed by the addition of Professors Lyon, Warren and Fippin and Mr. C. F. Clark. II. In Animal Husbandry instruction has been given to more than 300 students during the year 1905-1906. The increased demands make an addition to the teaching staff imperative. The State extension work has been carried on by means of lectures before farmers’ meetings and by supervision of the records of cattle. Cattle have been examined for over 100 owners in New York State. The Federal Experiment Station work has been con- cerned chiefly with beef, mutton and pork production. Instruction in the sub-department of Poultry Husbandry (main- tained by special State appropriations) was offered to 152 students in seven courses last year. Work in investigation resulted in thirty-nine separate experiments on such subjects as incubation, feeding fowls, breeding poultry, etc. Correspondence has been answered to the extent of more than 2,500 letters and the tendency toward increase is marked. The extension work in Poultry Hus- bandry is conducted through reading-courses, co-operative experi- ments, lectures, exhibits and personal exchange of views. III. The report of the department of Horticulture shows that experimental work has been carried on with both State and Federal funds. The former has included experiments on the comparative value of garden vegetables, spraying investigations, cultural experi- ments, orchard surveys and studies of the “little peach’” disease. The latter has consisted of investigations into the characteristics of garden beans and of the effect of acetylene, sulphur, ether and of lime upon certain plants. The department of Horticulture has done effective extension work through lectures, visitations and corres- pondence. The demand for this aid seems to be increasing. The remainder of the report on Horticulture deals with the equip- ment of that department and explains the need of new forcing houses and experiment facilities. IV. The department of Dairy Industry has been ina very unsettled condition pending the completion of the new State dairy building and its work has been handicapped on that account. Instruction has been given to 108 regular and special students as compared 2 18 REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. with seventy-four in 1904-5. Ninety-one students were registered in the Winter Dairy course (State Extension work). The class _ was unusually regular in attendance and attentive to work. The demand for the men who have taken this winter dairy course exceeds the.supply. Correspondence amounting to over 5,000 letters was conducted by this department in 1905-1906. Seventy- five visits have been made by Mr. Hall and his assistants to establish- ments where former students are employed. Investigation has been hampered by the unsettled conditions before mentioned but a study of the bacteria of freshly drawn milk has been begun. V. The department of Rural Art has been in existence since 1904-1905 only. Its second year has been encouraging. The num- ber of courses offered has been increased from one to four. The courses now being given are Theory and Aesthetics of Landscape Design, Work with Plans and Drafting, Plant Materials for Land- scape Effect, and Advanced Work in General Landscape Design. VI. The department of Entomology has published two bulletins in the Federal Experiment Station work. Bulletin No. 233 dealt with saw-fly miners on European elms and alders. Bulletin No. 234 discussed the bronze birch borer. The Extension Work with State funds has been carried on under three divisions. (a) The regular teaching work consisted of a course on injurious insects given to thirty-eight students in the short winter course in agriculture. (b) The experimental work resulted in the issuance of Bulletin No. 235 on Co-operative Spray- ing experiments. (c) The co-operative experiments have dealt largely with insecticides and their effectiveness in killing the plum curculio, rose-chafer and San José scale. The experiments prove that these pests can be controlled by proper spraying. VII. The work of the Federal Division of the department of Agricultural Chemistry has consisted of analyses of green corn (30 samples), of root crops (182 samples), of soil (48 samples) and of soil solutions (96 samples). The Extension Work has been carried on chiefly in connection with analyses at the request of farmers, the principal subjects of analysis being insecticides and fertilizers. This department is now attempting to solve the prob- lems relating to soil fertility on the Mitchell farm. VIII. A final and summary report is submitted by the depart- ment of Botany in the Federal Experiment Station. The adoption of the policy of separating the work of the Experiment Station from that of teaching and research will necessarily make this the final REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. 19 report of the professor in charge. An extended account is given of the experiments of the department since 1892. It is shown that the subjects treated have been physiological investigations, diseases of plants and studies in the higher fungi. The State Extension work in Botany has been continued by means of lectures at farmers’ institutes, by horticultural meetings, by farm- ers’ field meetings and by exhibits at fairs and by teaching in the winter courses. The exhibits made at the fairs were certain cul- tivated plants of New York State, showing some of the more com- mon diseases. Co-operative experiments and correspondence work also took a prominent part in the department of Botany. The report earnestly recommends a continuance and expansion of the extension work, especially that which relates to plant diseases. The following are some of the investigations conducted by the department in 1905-0: The prevention of the pod spot on beans, the alternaria blight of ginseng, the fire blight of pears and apples, spraying experiments on septoria leaf blight of the tomato, experiments on the control of rust on hollyhocks and investigations into the nature of root rot of peas. IX. The farmers’ reading-course (maintained by State appro- priation) enrolled 9,654 members during the past year, 2,271 of whom were new members within the year. Two thousand five hundred and forty-six of these farmers were organized into 125 reading-course clubs. An attempt has been made to extend the work so that farmers who desire to secure the bulletins but are unable to fill out the discussion papers may still be placed on the mailing list. X. The report of the farmers’ wives’ reading-course (maintained by State appropriations) shows an enrollment at the end of the year of 20,284. During the year 2,077 discussion papers were returned. The Winter-course in Home Economics, which is a natural outgrowth of the reading-course, enrolled forty during the winter of 1906. XI. The Bureau of Nature Study (maintained by State appro- priations) reports that their latest records show a total of 1,506 clubs for junior naturalists with a membership of 30,083. The total number of letters received from the children was 20,8096: The children wrote on thirty-one different topics, such as “tracks in the snow,” “ evergreens,” “ snowflakes,” etc. This bureau also enrolled 33,476 children in the children’s gardening and junior agricultural course. 20 REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. Nature-study for the home has also been attempted by this depart- ment and over 10,000 lessons on birds, trees, insects, plants and fish have been sent to the farm homes of the State. Such is the outline of the work carried on in the numerous depart- ments of the College of Agriculture. The farmers of the State are manifesting an increasing interest in this work, as is shown by the larger demaid for bulletins, leaflets and personal advice, by the influx of new students, and by the hearty co-operation which is given to all enterprises in experiment and research. The growing and successfui work of the College makes necessary an increase in the provisions for its maintenance and support. Undoubtedly, the Legislature in the foundation of the New York State College of Agriculture contemplated an institution worthy of the Empire State and commensurate with its agricultural interests. For buildings and equipment the Legislature appropriated $250,000 to which was added by Cornell University $40,000 as required by the law author- izing the University to appropriate the former dairy building. This sum of $290,000 has been spent largely on the buildings, leaving only a comparatively small amount for equipment. While this equipment will enable the buildings to be used, it will not draw from them their maximum efficiency, or make an exhibition worthy of the agricultural interests of the State of New York. An appro- priation for the adequate equipment of the College should be made as a direct investment in the interest of the people of the State. And in the next place the College should be supplied with barns, stock and farms that might serve on the one hand as models to the farmer and on the other as means for the conduct of the instruction, experiment and research to which the College is dedicated. As agents of the State in the administration of this College, Cornell University calls the attention of the Legislature to these needs. Respectfully submitted, J. G. SCHURMAN, President of Carnell University. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. The demands of the College of Agriculture have grown greatly in the past year, but there has been no growth in the staff or equip- ment. The expected completion of the new buildings within the next year and the hope of maintenance funds from the State, sup- port the enthusiasm of the staff and the student body and make it possible to hold the College together. The College of Agricul- ture is a most complex institution, touching very many public ques- tions and prosecuting its work all over the State as well as at Ithaca. No other college at Cornell University has such diverse interests. The undergraduate student body has made an increase over last year of 22 per cent. The students pursuing agricultural work in 1905-6 (not counting students registered in arts and other colleges and taking work in the College of Agriculture) are as follows: ResMianetOur-Veat StUCENES.oi45.b secs. conc eeacee tees 128 SWAGHIS vols ce Hobo oie OTe Oe aR ICE Teor meres. 102 230 WINTER-COURSES. emer AORICTIELING 6 oo t.4 vis cha te ke osere Suajn dine a atures, ees obh os Zit 2 DRG. paid AF ycs 5 Ge Se ee ae le Bil rahants cP ASE apo teted 90 LPODIELINEN? CRA PSS Ba ade Wao Ses a a 35 Meme TNT CCM Mt tics ctr, 2 5 Ror otek: At ca So Lb Qote ae 15 BeM Cre ENC OMOIEMCS. 62;.,85 aceon oat we ko heen ctw oO 40 251 481 (Cominieal Ria OS AS Rea rokd Ion DISSED dro SEDI aoe Eee 5 476 Students in graduate department pursuing work in Agri- culture: WRG ESIAC IIE Cuties acces ayerareie Licks aise Steeeteromn tte de cows Oaadaies 28 NitaMeUSELibla teers cee ters ... 4.2262 octee Sows Le wr 1900 PMMEET Ett ys “POO. SPOTS. «vi. oasnsiloetis on ds een See dake eek 1906 EMAMnOSM A ONM kes atte ese en ce a ee 1906 Reese MECEHMIOMCOLM 2ake SHOR . Mo Soa Sek hee en 1906 PAPE MEGO MSs HEM CRIAISR ws css vic arou sale casey ven wien eke aed on whee 1905 RTC OGM Mit xtra t se og eae es 3 eee iar un a Ea 1904 Raat RMAC ORR CUOIY e-iee oae iaie Ge scahcrc Aa oes lors x Sidiac ect woe Me 1905 Potato varieties. GASSES MEV ARICLICS iia att ms been erry RN eR fra Ob wis ake dw Pr Op 1904 44 AGRONOMY. Year begun Limothy, tate Of seeding «2.5 320... 62 3 ohne oe ee 1904 iimothy. fertilizer treatmentesas mae oe eee eee ene 1904 Siimotmnys Size. Ol SECUn 0. ar menses Sets ect Rite ee oe 1904 Nitaltan lime and! w1oculattonmcsc setae cre ce ae eee 1904 Wunothy. selection. >..- 2 oe AA eee er 1905 diimothysselected for vigor question... 2c. eee nee 1904 Root crops, selection of, amother cabbages.-: 2..uce ae eee 1906 Do smancel, io 6; 1.0) 3 ates eet Od eile ee 1906 IOGE CLODS. <2 15 «cm osm Ba osteoma oie paar She ete 1906 Rooticrops;. latesplantedina.8 sacs Se 6 eee ee eee ee 1905 Alfalfa inoculated” and’ fertilization? =... +s: c2 eee eee 1905 CormMvarieiestiiuh seen tee os noe ee eee ees 1905 As you well know the field expenses of these investigations have been paid for principally out of appropriations made by the Board of Trustees from their general funds, the appropriation available from the Federal fund being entirely inadequate for this purpose. Unless otherwise directed it will be the policy of this Department to pay the field expenses of these experiments largely out of State funds set aside for the maintenance of the Department of Agronomy. During the past three years certain investigations have been in progress in the Department of Agronomy in connection with the Department of Agricultural Chemistry, which have sought to deter- mine what are the differences in the essential factors of plant growth, under normal field conditions caused by different. methods of fer- tilization and different cultural methods. Last winter the Depart- ment also had the assistance of the U. S. Bureau of Soils through a detail of men who worked upon certain phases of this problem. The investigations thus far made have led to some important sug- gestions. It is now the purpose of Dr. Lyon to conduct a series of field and laboratory researches upon these fundamental questions. The nature of these investigation’ is indicated in the following titles, viz. : (1) to study methods for determining the fertilizer requirements of soils; (2) an examination of soil solutions under different methods of soil treatment; (3) inquiry into certain soil conditions detri- mental to crop production. At present Dr. Lyon has no laboratory in which to conduct the laboratory side of these investigations. It is proposed as soon as the new agronomy building is ready, to use $500 to $800 of the $1,500 set aside from the Federal fund for the maintenance of the investigations in agronomy in equipping a labora- tory and conducting the experiments outlined by Dr. Lyon. Per AGRONOMY. 45 During the year there has been constructed on the experimental ‘grounds at the Mitchell farm a small bungalow for the use of those having charge of field experiments. This structure is looked upon only as a temporary affair. As soon as the policy is settled as to the place of field experiments an adequate field laboratory should be constructed for those in charge of the field work. This should be a plain brick structure, two stories high, the first story having cement floor and containing apparatus for the threshing and weighing of seeds, grains and other products of the experiment plats; suitable accommodation for such tools as may be necessary for the daily prosecution of the field work; and a suitable place where the field men can write up their daily notes: while the second floor should be arranged for the storage of experimental materials that it is neces- sary to keep from year to year. The following bulletins have been prepared by the Department of Agronomy during the year: Bulletin 237, Alfalfa, Report of Progress. Bulletin 238, Buckwheat. Bulletin 241, Second Report on the Influence of Fertilizers on the Yield of Timothy Hay. Jee Reading-Course Bul. Series VI, 30, Barns and Outbuildings. Li: THE-EXTENSION..WORK. The co-operative experiments in agronomy have been carried on during the past year along the lines heretofore announced. It is never possible at this time of the year to summarize fully the results of the year immediately preceding. The co-operative work with alfalfa for the year 1905 has been summarized and published in Bul- letin No. 237 of the Cornell Experiment Station. A few of the features of the present year may be mentioned. The new liquid method of preparing and distributing cultures by the United States Department of Agriculture has been compared with soil. Liquid cultures for alfalfa were sent to 59 experimenters, for soy beans and other legumes to 21; alfalfa soil was sent to 20 experimenters and soy bean soil to 7. The reports from these experimenters indicate briefly that in a few instances cultures seem to have produced an increase in the abundance of nodules and in still fewer cases in the vigor of the plants, but usually no result whatever was obtained _ from the use of cultures. Dressings of soil uniformly produced an abundance of nodules and almost always increased vigor of plants. 40 AGRONOMY. The foliowing table shows the character of the co-operative ex- periments and the number of experiments arranged by Professor Stone during 1906: Altalias Ha Fave isle 0.8 soko De TOI eo a ce OE CE eee 75 ORIG) Se ik Ae oe MEINE 8 Sty Bec CHU San cod aio cod 45 [Rein Ib kAS dea ai RAE ie CeO tS yo Sawin or Bode Gb aacoa ae ce II IBOLALOES! Hee. s) riceteccs ee Ce ee eee CeO ern ee eee ere 157 Rotatotculbures® . 3... Avec ete aces omens see ee een eee 6 SMM OW ETS vic!) ahaa hee Oe GENE TE eee ee eee 14 Sovepeans and, other Jécumessusroo een “coer e eee Ore 30 Gr I a emer eat ean ie a hte ce ly meier a Rawe a hls 5 coc 34 BU Cke wil Ga ts a 23 ai Sicoane. cracors Pale Ee OPS ESS eae eho es Maio Eek EPR era ote 16 Wieteln Sit sta iidonis tate. Gree yas oie soot eer eee 7, \INCa0 a ee eee, CPM ee Boia outa SOE he coe 66 PETC, P55 navorolaistace cond Se he Sak ei eee CLEC EEE 8 IMIG A COWS\ aca sac-s0 eis cae iiss lot ohn 75 Oe ae eR ne 16 DA, ee as atl Co a eee em aa Mr con Sa AE CIE ng ead IN a 13 IME keto a niet Rad Ser Re am tl ik Ra 10 otal eke pth, ois hash eeioloas Ohad a Hee ey ee ee ee 508 About 300 different persons located in 55 different counties co- operated in these experiments. Two important objects in the co-operative experiments have been (1) to gain information in regard to the soil and crops under expert- ment, and (2) to extend the educational influence of the experiments to the farmers who are doing the work or to their neighbors who observe them. Heretofore the second of these objects has received the greatest emphasis. It is now believed that the time has come when more emphasis should be placed upon the research rather than the educational aspect of the work. This does not mean that a less number of experiments of the ordinary co-operative type should be conducted, but that more experiments should be conducted in differ- ent parts of the State which are directly under the supervision of the College of Agriculture. Many problems will require a thorough investigation which cannot be caried out here at the Experiment Station because of local conditions. In making up the list of sug- gested experiments for the coming year, Dr. Warren has divided them into two categofies, viz., investigations and co-operative experi- ments. The list of experiments to be conducted under each head is given below. A. INVESTIGATIONS: 1. A study in the growth of clovers and alfalfa on volusia loam. 2. The influence of fertilizers and manure on the economic production of timothy hay, AGRONOMY. 47 B. C0-OFERATIVE EXTERIMENTS: 3. Renewal of pastures without plowing Meadows, same as 3. Similar to 2. Trial of meadow fescue. Alfalfa, use soil and manure on all. BONG (a) Lime and no lime. (b) Inoculation. (c) And clover mixed. (d) Seed in grain and after grain and after tillage only. 8. Vetch and rye. 9g. Vetch in corn. 10. Soy beans in corn. II. Soy beans alone. 12. Peas and oats for hay and soiling. 13. Oat variety test. 14. Wheat variety test. 15. Field bean variety test. 16. Potato variety test. 17. Buckwheat variety - test. 18. Buckwheat mixed variety test. 19. Buckwheat cultural test. 20. Potato cultural test. 1. Value of sunflower in silage. 22. Spraying for wild mustard. 23. Test of soil with litmus and lime. 24. Fertilizer trial any crop. 5. Profht or loss in growing any crop. ‘26. Farm labor. 27. Use of more horse power on farms and other labor saving devices. 28. Corn breeding. 29. Potato breeding. 3c. Breeding any other farm crop. IV... PERSONNEL. On May 1, 1906, Professor Samuel Fraser, Assistant Agronc- mist, resigned to accept a position of greater responsibility. Pro- fessor Fraser is a man of wide knowledge, a careful observer, and a thorough investigator. Mr. Charles F. Clark, a graduate of the University of Vermont, and a post graduate student with his major in agronomy at Cornell, has been elected to succeed him. Professor T. L. Lyon was elected Professor of Experimental Ag- ronomy and entered upon his duties the first of September, 1906. Professor Elmer O. Fippin, who had heretofore been detailed by the Bureau of Soils to give instruction at Cornell, was elected Assist- 48 AGRONOMY, ant Professor of Agronomy with speciai reference to Soils, and entered upon his duties under the new arrangement October Ist. Professor George F. Warren, Horticulturist of the New Jersey Experiment Station, was elected Assistant Professor of Agronomy and began his duties on October Ist. These additions to the Department of Agronomy have made it possible to readjust the work of the Department. Professor Lyon is to devote his time to research work and is to have general super- ~vision of the work in soils. He is not to teach classes, but may re- ceive post graduate students. Professor Fippin is to have immediate charge of the undergraduate instruction in soils. Professor John W. Gilmore, who has been promoted from the position of Instructor in Agronomy to that of Assistant Professor of Agronomy, is to con- tinue in charge of the experimental work along the line of crop im- provement and has been placed in immediate charge of some of the undergraduate classes in the Department. In order that Professor Gilmore may give more time to the work of instruction and research, he has been relieved of the business management of the farm, which has been placed in charge of Professor Stone. Professor Stone has been placed in charge of the instruction in Farm Practice, has been definitely assigned to the care of the students in the Winter-Course in General Agriculture, and will continue to give the instruction in agronomy to the Winter-Course students. In order that he may have time for these new duties he has been relieved of the extension work which has been placed in the hands of Professor Warren, whose recommendations I have incorporated in this report. I am glad of this opportunity to testify again to the energy and devotion to duty as well as the personal co-operation received from every inember of the staff of the Department of Agronomy. THOMAS Fy BUA Professer of Agronomy. 7 II. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. ‘I submit herewith a report of the Department of Animal Hus- Landry for the year from July 1, 1905, to June 30, 1906. f TEACHING: During the College year 1905-1906, instruction in Animal Hus- bandry was offered in five distinct courses and in Poultry Husbandry in seven courses. ‘The details of the latter will be found in the accompanying report of Professor Rice. In the courses in Animal Husbandry proper, the registration was as follows: First Second term. term. Course 31, General course in animal husbandry........ 63 52 Course 32, Advanced course in animal husbandry...... 14 8 Course 34, Advanced course in animal mechanics....... 35 Course 35, Practice course in feeding and stable man- BE MSCMIE gs 2 Uk. Tie pei gate tiene eee at 4 Course 36, Elementary animal husbandry, given only to students in the Veterinary College........ 16 BRO Calle e eet ete Nera ne WahsIe ook al ges Ric ad iors eh cet i 03 99 / In addition, instruction was given to Winter-Course students, as follows: MARGE COS AiG DEEECING Secs eh crc ae c see eels Phat anelawa ds 49 (ha. Sigales anita Aieeichinee eno Coon eS bocan don na veotacoGouad Ucn 149 inespecial lectures to poultry Course: 20. he eee ee el 23 GE ie bolita CR a tial a oe SR oe A ar a ine a img 221 Making a grand total of 313 students for one term. The work of instruction was carried on fairly successfully, and the records made by the students were exceptionally good when it is considered that the work was very much hampered by enforced removal from the old dairy building at the end of the Easter Recess. On account of being unable to secure any accommodation elsewhere, a part of the work usually given to students in Course 31 was neces- sarily omitted. 4 : Sais, [49] 50 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. With the growing numbers in courses in Animal Husbandry, the need of additions to the teaching force is more and more felt, and an additional instructor is necessary if the work 1s to be maintained at its present grade, to say nothing of development. The courses offered in Animal Husbandry should be amplified and extended so as to give opportunity not only for a larger amount of work in this subject, but for specialization in various directions. Aside from the teaching force, additional equipment in the way of class room material and particularly in the line of additional live stock must also be provided in the near future, and this calls for additional land, and particularly for new and modern barns and stables. With the larger number of students coming to us from a wide range of terri- tory, it becomes imperative to have at hand a much wider variety of live stock for illustrative and educational purposes than we have ever had. We should at least double the number of breeds now rep- resented in our cattle, sheep and swine, before the equipment can be considered at all adequate, and the number of representatives of each breed should also be largely increased. An adequate equipment in live stock would call for the maintenance of at least 150 cattle, an equal number of sheep, and from 30 to 50 breeding swine. The College should also have good representative specimens of the vari- ous types of horses, not only for the sake of performing the neces- sary labor upon the farm, but for class room use with the students. It is hardly necessary to mention that this branch of the live stock has been entirely neglected for a good many years, and not only is the present stock of horses entirely useless, from an instructional standpoint, bit 1s entirely inadequate to perform the necessary labor upon the farm. The College could profitably use at least 20 horses. Il. EXTENSION WORK. While a few lectures have been given before farmers’ meetings, the greater part of the effort along the line of agricultural extension has been in the supervision of the records of pure bred cattle for owners of several of the leading dairy breeds. This work, begin- ning in 1894 when only two records were supervised, has steadily erown in amount and in appreciation of its usefulness by owners and breeders. During the year, records of cows belonging to five breeds, namely, Holstein, Jersey, Guernsey, Brown Swiss and Ayrshire, were supervised by representatives of the College. The amount of this work is indicated by the following tabulation ; ANIMAL: HUSBANDARY. 51 For breeders of Holstein-Friesian cattle. Records of 8€6 cows for 7 days. Records of 54 cows for 14 days. Records of 8 cows for 21 days. Records of 63 cows for 30 days. Records of 2 cows for 60 days. Records of 1 cow for 182% days. These cows were owned by about reco different individuals and firms, nearly all of which were in the State of New York. For breeders of Jersey cattle. Records of 3 cows for 7 days. Periodical supervision of 5 cows once each month for 2 days at a time. These cows belonged to 3 different breeders. For breeders of Brown Swiss cattle. Records of 1 cow for 7 days. Records of I cow for 30 days. Periodical supervision of 2 cows once each month for I day at a time. These cows belonged to one breeder. For breeders of Guernsey cattle. Periodical supervision of 64 cows once each month for 1 day at a time. These cows belonged to 12 different breeders. For breeders of Ayrshire cattie. Records of 2 cows for 7 days. These cows belonged to one breeder. The expense of this work is largely borne by the breeders, they paying all traveling expenses and per diem of the representatives of the College. During the past year the constant services of about a dozen men were required, except during the months of July and August, while at the height of the season, in the late winter and early spring, as many as twenty-five men were employed. The supervision of these men in the field and the checking of their reports entails considerable work upon the office force of the Department. The College also furnishes the necessary equipment, which, where so many men are employed, is considerable. But the usefulness of the work in stimulating greater interest in selecting, breeding and deveioping cattle, and its appreciation by the breeders during the past twelve years, leads us to believe that it is probably as useful a form of extension work as could demand our attention and activities, 52 ANIMAL HUSBANDARY. III]. EXPERIMENTATION. : During the year, investigations that have been carried on for several years along the line of beef, mutton and pork production, have been continued as opportunity offered, and a mass of data is being accumulated which will warrant publication some time in the future. In the meantime, every available opportunity is utilized to make additions to the general mass. But the demands upon the time of the staff of the Department for teaching and extension work, have been so great as to preclude very much attention being given toward experimentation. i. WING; Professor of Animal Husbandry. Ila. SUB-DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY. I submit the following report of the work of the sub-department of poultry husbandry for the year estimated as ending December Ist. The activities of this department are five-fold. They have to do with: First, administration ; second, instruction; third, investigation ; - fourth, correspondence ; fifth, extension. I. ADMINISTRATION. During the past year the stock, buildings, and equipment of the Poultry Department have been materially increased. There has been expended for scientific apparatus, primarilly for investigational pur- poses, approximately $800. For equipments for instructional pur- poses, approximately $300. For permanent improvements, approxi- mately $500. The latter includes nine New York State gasoline heated colony houses, three summer houses, and a laying house. Many important improvements to existing buildings have also been made. The plant, as now arranged, comprises forty-nine pens and the main poultry building, having a total capacity for wintering 1,000 head of poultry and for rearing 2,000 chickens annually. With this capacity we can give instruction in pen practice to thirty students at one time without interfering with the regular experiments now under way. We can also provide instruction to thirty students at one time in incubator practice, although in doing this they are much crowded. This increase in capacity for giving instruction, how- ever, is not sufficient to meet the demands of the present year. In order thoroughly to systematize the business end of the poultry department and to thereby give an accurate and comprehensive ac- count each week and month of the expenditures and incomes, a system of records has been worked out and is now in active use. A copy of each of these forms is here appended, which show at the end of each day the condition of the cash transactions and of the inventory, and gives an account of all stock bought, sold, or which has died, all feed purchased or fed, all eggs used for market or incu- _bators, all equipments purchased or destroyed, etc. The successful [53] 54 Ila. Sun-DEPpARTMENT oF PouLtry Huspannpry. working out of this system entails much careful attention to detail but it is worth while and has never, until this year, been possibie to accomplish. . The gross sales during the past twelve months were $1,330.50. The present estimated value of the poultry plant and equipment 3 are: stock, 1,291 head, value, $1,500; equipments, value, $2,500; buildings, etc., value, Aes total value, $5,550. i INSTRUCTION. Seven courses of instruction are now offered in poultry husbandry. The first, second, third and fourth courses (see courses 37, 33a, 33b, 38c, general announcement 1905-07) are given to regular and special students throughout the college year. The fifth is a special winter course of twelve weeks, covering practically the same field as courses one, two, three and four. The sixth is an advanced course for students who have completed courses one, two, three and four, or course five, and is intended to give students an opportunity to specialize in poultry husbandry and to do original research work in order to fit themselves for positions of responsibility in charge of large commercial poultry plants or poultry departments at the Agri- cultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. The seventh is a special course of twenty-four lectures given to students who elect poultry husbandry from the various winter-courses. The iecture course, 37 (two hours per week), should be made a three hour course in order to better cover the subject and to give opportunity for recitation periods now not given. The afternoon practice course, 38a, now given two afternoons per week up to December 6th and after February 27th (credit one hour per term), should be continued during the entire year and should be made a two hour course. The present arrangement is unsatis- factory and unfair but is made necessary because of lack of help, laboratory room, and equipments to carry on the course while the winter poultry course is in progress. A practice course of one afternoon per week should be given in connection with the lecture course (No. 7) to the winter-course students, not in the poultry course, who elect.poultry husbandry, not now provided because of lack of facilities, etc., as above. The following table shows the number of students who have elected poultry husbandry each year, the courses which they have taken, and the total number of hours of instruction given: : IJA, Sus-DErARTMENT OF PouLTRY HUSBANDRY. 55 RHE oRADION “IN POULTRY HUSBANDRY: IN~-.COR- NEE UNIVERSITY. 1903-4 1904-5 ICO5-6 1906-7 rst 2nd ard 1st year year yar half year only * letal number of students registered, (COURSES As ne etna AOL R ac ae RES 27 53 Sone ENING - (DENCIAKelen Ista ors ba coe Seeds 22 ei Ae Morning, Noon and Night, 38b........... a) 16 2OmenAs Seminary (Advance Course) 39.-.,........- fe) FI TAU Giac Post graduates for M. S. degree minor SUSU SSE US AMS Bl, A ne ces Yo Rane ir ee ear fe) (e) I o* ‘SHSiTMCirS} A KECTIC ap peas 6 SEO eee eee fe) O 2 ais One vear. specials in poultry husbandry.... oO ) 3 ies Tctal number of students registered in the CITCRAV CAA NCOUES CGH Om ead, Snares Wiemostaraseee 27 60 Filip AOU} Tota) number of hours University credit in HE MOME Vedi. ICOULSES mee amare acts oe cies WO" M7ie) 20). AS A Wettiten=GOULSOuE mad fein ounce il ae sys ok oO 17 35 ii Electing poultry husbandry from the other not PMabes COUEGES. am eat ok Seine. a. een eS 30 20 41 avail. Total number’ of students taking some not form of poultry instruction at one time.. 57 LO7 ) T52havail: There are to date, November 22, 1906, 52 signed applications for the winter poultry course to be compared with 18 which had been received last year on the same date. It is certain that we will be unable to accommodate all who apply. The large increase in attendance is due to three contributary causes. First, the scarcity and the newness of schools where in- struction in poultry husbandry can be obtained. Second, to the ex- cept-onally attractive opportunities offered to persons who complete a thorough poultry course. Third, to the high regard in which Cor- nell University and the New York State College of Agriculture are held, throughout the country. The wide range of residence of the students who take the winter poultry course, confirms the accuracy of the above statement. Of the students who have taken the winter- course or who have signed applications for the present year, there were, in 1905, 13 from New York State, 4 from other states. In 1906, 25 from New York State, 10 from other states. In 1907, 37 signed applications to date from New York State, 15 from other states. The different states represented above are: Conn., 1; D. C,, Midd et: la. 01> Mass...5° Md...3: Mey: 13 Minn:, > 3; Miss..2< Reese Onion; Pa. 3 Utah, mh Va..-1- Wisi, 2: ¥ Not available. 52 signed applications. 56 IIA. SuB-DEPARTMENT OF PoULTRY HUSBANDRY. We are unable to meet the demand for students to fill positions of responsibility. Since January 1, 1906, there have been 65 requests for men to accept positions as poultrymen, many of which are now on the waiting list. Many of the requests for poultrymen came from agricultural colleges and experiment stations, thus showing the awakening interest in the subject of instruction and investigation in poultry husbandry throughout the country. During the past year the following Cornell men have accepted po- sitions in poultry departments in connection with colleges or experi- ment stations : J. G. Halpin, B. S. A., 1905, Instructor in Poultry Husbandry, Michigan Agricultural College. H. C. Pierce, 1907, Instructor in Poultry Husbandry, Iowa Agri- cultural College. C. L. Opperman, Special 1905, Assistant in Poultry Husbandry, Iowa Agricultural College. : F. G. Thayer, Special 1905, Assistant in Poultry Husbandry, Sub- Experiment Station, Minn. R. R. Slocum, 1906, Poultryman in Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. (Civil Service appointment). R. C. Lawry, Special 1905, Instructor in Poultry Husbandry, Cornell University. C. A. Rogers, 1905, Assistant in Poultry Husbandry, Cornell University. Hl. INVESTIGATION. During the years 1904-05-06, thirty-nine separate investigations have been conducted or are now in progress, which may be classi- fied as follows: 7 incubation, 13 feeding fowls, 6 breeding poultry, 4 fattening poultry, 5 poultry buildings, and 4 rearing chickens. The work of investigation has been completely separated recently, from the work of instruction, in order that both might be made more effective and efficient. In order to bring this about, the investiga- tional work is divided into two classes. First, the investigation in- tended for student instruction, and second, the investigation not in- tended for student instruction. Each are of equal importance and both are absolutely necessary to an efficient poultry department. The former is necessary for student inspiration and development and may also be made to furnish accurate data worthy of publication. The latter is necessary in order to insure absolute accuracy and to IJA. Sus-DEPARTMENT OF PoULTRY HUSBANDRY. 57 carry out investigations requiring close application. Persons en- ' gaged in instruction and in student investigation have absolutely nothing to do with regular experiments in progress, and the per- sons responsible for the latter, have nothing to do with instruction or student investigation. An attempt has been made to bring about uniformity, complete- ness, and accuracy in all experiment work and instructional work. To this end a blank form has been devised and adopted which is used alike by all persons in pen practice, student investigation, or regular experiment. It will be seen that this system provides for once a week reports and continuous posting of results on a single sheet. Posting and reports are rigidly required of all persons. By this system, the instructor, the students, or a visitor can tell at a glance the results accomplished at any particular time. As a necessary accompaniment of the above system, zinc plates are being prepared to be placed on each of the 49 pens, each giving the number of the pen, kind of fowl, nature of experiment, and person in charge. For example: Pen No. 3. Student investigation No. 29 C. “ Forcing versus Retarding Pullets.”’ ad This pen forced. Wet mash. In charge of Clara Nixon. By this means any person will be enabled to know the nature of the experiment in progress. The person in charge will have the added incentive to greater neatness and accuracy owing to the fact that either responsibility for carelessness or credit for good work will be publicly and specifically placed on the person in charge. Ill. CORRESPONDENCE. The correspondence is large and rapidly increasing. A record of the letters answered from this office from April 12, 19005, to April 12, 1906, shows that 2,336 letters were received and answered, an average of 6.4 letters per day for the year. A record kept for five weeks from April 7th to May 12, 1906, shows that 2098 letters were received and answered, an average of 8.5 per day. The relative average increase per day for the five weeks above as compared with the daily average per year would be 2.1 letters per day. The cor- respondence from October 29, 1906, to November 22, 1905, shows 245 letters written, or an average of 11 letters per day, an increase of 2% letters per day since May 12, 1906. 43% of all the corre- spondence is with persons outside of the State and 41% of the 58 IIa. Sus-DEPARTMENT oF PouLTRy HusBANnprY. requests for information or publications are from outside New York State. This, like the large proportion of students from other states coming to us for instruction, is due to the dearth of infor- mation on poultry husbandry available in other state agricultural colleges. With the publication of severai poultry bulletins which will soon be ready for the press, the. correspondence will neces- sarily be materially increased. It is interesting to note the nature of the correspondence. Of the 298 letters above mentioned, 97 asked for specific information, 46 were in regard to positions, 21 were of a business nature, 21 requested poultry publications, 18 had to do with co-operative experiments in poultry husbandry, 16 sought information about the poultry courses, 79 were of a general mis- cellaneous nature on a large variety of subjects, difficult to classify. IV. EXTENSION WORK. The extension work is carried on through several avenues of reaching the people as foliows: (a) The reading courses, although under the direct charge of. the extension department, calls for frequent and sometimes lengthy interviews from that officer in order that he may meet the inquiries for technical information. &, (b) Co-operative experiments. 152 persons in New York State have kept some form of record of their “incubators” or “ feed and production ” records of their flocks or “mortality records” of their chickens. This work is capable of indefinite extension and should result in much good, but with the present force it has been impos- sible to do justice to the persons who have co-operated with us. (c) By lectures at poultry institutes, farmers’ institutes, meetings of poultry associations, granges, ete. The demand for this outside teaching is increasing far more rapidly than. we are able to meet it. Eight requests from outside this State, several from within the State, for the months of November and December, 1906, have had to be declined owing to press of work at the College. Fifteen meet- ings were aitended last year in this State. We should not only be able to send a speaker to meet all these requests from within the State, but should arrange a definite schedule of lectures providing at least one lecture each year before every poultry association within the State. (d) By educational exhibits at the State and county fairs. The first attempt was made last year ane repeated this year at the Tomp- kins county fair and last year at the New York State Breeders’ Association, and also this year at the New York State fair. The IIA. Sus-DEPARTMENT OF PouULTRY HUSBANDRY. 59 good resuits which followed from the exhibit of models, charts, etc., are apparent from the interest Shown by visitors at the fairs and the number of persons who gave their names for publications and the correspondence which followed. They would abundantly justify a continuation of this means of reaching the poultrymen of the State. Approximately, 212 persons signed cards requesting the publications at the New York State Breeders’ Association, 159 at the New York State fair, and 50 at the Tompkins County fair. (e) Receiving visitors. A large number of visitors from this and other states and countries do us the honor each year of in- specting the poultry plant. To give them cheerful, painstaking at- tention is our privilege and our duty, and it is also a most fruitful source of consumption of time which some one must supply. GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS. If the poultry department is to continue to grow as it has in the past, it will be necessary to provide more land, more help, more buildings and more equipments. The growing demand for instruc- tion in poultry husbandry, both in the long and short courses, and the pressing need for experiment and research to solve the many perplexing problems confronting poultrymen, will justify the ex- pense. If the demand is met, it will be giving to the large poultry interests of the State only what already has been too long withheld. In view of the above I would recommend the following improve- ments to be made in the near future: 1. In order to separate more completely the instructional from the investigational work, a senarate poultry plant should be estab- lished on land easily accessible to the University. The present plant should then be used wholly, for instructional purposes. For the ex- periment plant there should be not less than 20 acres and buildings to accommodate not less than 1,000 fowls and provide a general feed and supply room with dormitory facilities. 2. It is apparent that the three laying houses now south of the road, will have to be removed. I would recommend that they, to- gether with the three old poultry buildings north of the road, be torn down and the materials, in so far as possible, be used in recon- structing the poultry plant. 3. A new buildine consisting of 28 pens. each 12x12. should be constructed, connecting the main building with the new poultry house now in process of erection and shown on accompanying plans, which also show an arrangement of walks, ro-dway, etc. This 60 IIA. Sub-DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY. house should be built primarily for instructional purposes. It could be built, including fences, for approximately $2,000, including labor. ‘This would accommodate 30 students at one time. Another build- ing similar to this and extending parallel to it should be located at the north end of the present poultry yards. y. 4. A large winter brooder house should be built. At present we nave no means for giving the winter-course students instruction in brooding. The New York State gasoline type of colony brooder house with which we now rear our chickens is not adapted to mid- winter use, therefore there should be built a modern brooder house, heated by hot water and fitted with not less than 50 individual brooders. This would cost in the neighborhood of $2,000. The need for this building is made more urgent on account of the earlier opening of the winter-course which makes it necessary to rear chickens under mid-winter conditions. 5. All of the poultry buildings should be painted to match and harmonize with the new College of Agriculture, and plantings made to harmonize artistically with the surroundings. 6. We have outgrown every room in the poultry building. A lecture room large enough to seat at least 100 students, and a laboratory room large encugh to accommedate from 50 to 60 stu- dents, should be provided in some of the buildings in the New York State College of Agriculture or elsewhere. The old judging pavil- ion, if properly fitted, could be used for the above purpose tempo- rarily, by putting in a floor and heating by steam from the college heating plant and also lighting by electricity. The poultry building should be fitted with electric lights and also steam heat from the college system. The present method of light- ing by many lamps and heating by five stoves, increases fire risks, causes dirt, extra expense. and inconvenience. An entrance with porch should be built on the west end of this building, permitting entrance to the basement and to the first floor in order to relieve congestion at the south entrance. It would take approximately $10,000 to construct the buildings and make the other improvements to meet the immediate needs of the sub-department of poultry husbandry. Hearty appreciation is felt by all who are connected with the sub- department of poultry husbandry and poultrymen generally, for the personal interest shown and cordial support given by the Dean of the College of Agriculture and others who are in authority. JAMES. E. RICE, Assistant Professor of Poultry Husbandry. III. HORTICULTURE. I present a report of the progress of work in the Department of Horticulture, covering educational and investigational efforts for the year just closed: L*GENERAL REMARKS. The year’s work in the Department of Horticulture may be re- garded as expressing a satisfactory amount of growth along inves- tigational and educational lines under existing conditions. An im- portant addition to the teaching staff of the Department has been made by the appointment of Mr. L. B. Judson as Assistant Pro- fessor of Horticulture. Professor Judson takes charge of two im- portant courses, practical and sub-tropical pomology, in addition to several others of minor importance. ‘There has long been a demand for instruction in the culture of citrus and southern fruits by students in the graduate school and by students from the South American countries and our own southern states. The opportunities for in- vestigation are considerably limited by reason of inadequate field and laboratory equipment, and also by reason of the increasing de- mands upon the time of the staff of the Department by students in class-room and practicum. The number of students electing horti- culture this year is larger than ever before in both graduate and undergraduate classes. It has been necessary to divide the begin- ning class into two sections in order to carry on the work in a satis- factory manner. Il. EXPERIMENTS. Under Federal Funds: The following studies have been con- ducted under federal appropriation during the present year: 1. An exhaustive examination of the characteristics of garden beans with special‘reference to their uses and adaptations, together with a system of classification based upon the characters of seed. In preparation for publication. 2. Investigations on the influence of acetylene light on crops grown under glass. These studies have covered a period of two University years, and are being continued the present year. [61] 62 IIL Horricutrure. 3. Studies of the influence of sulphurous ether upon plants grown under glass. The ether is applied to the plant while in a dormant condition and the plant is then brought under the influence of con- ditions favoring growth. The investigation covers one year and is in progress at this writing. 4. The influence of ether and acetylene in combination as agents in stimulating growth of forced plants. The investigation has covered one year and is in progress. 5. Influence of lime upon rhododendrons and members of the heath family. The work has covered one year and is in progress. Preliminary reports on all these studies are being prepared and will be submitted for publication at the earliest moment possible. Unper STAte Funps: I. Variety studies; comparative values of garden vegetables. (a) Cucurbits. ; 1. Cucumbers under glass. 2. Squashes in field. (b) Garden peas in field. (c) Radishes in field. (d) Beans in field. (e) Tomatoes under glass. II. Spraying investigations. (a) A study of injury caused by sprays. Two field experi- ments. (b) Experiments for the prevention of black rot of the grape. Three co-operative vineyard experiments. III. Cultural experiments. The growing of plants under shade in the greenhouse and in the field. Reports of the spraying experiments are being prepared for publication. Notes on other work recorded above under state funds will be held till additional investigations make it worth publishing them. IV. Orchard survey. For the past two years a determined effort has been put forth to make such an examination of actual fruit- growing conditions in Niagara county as would allow us to present the results with proper deductions in bulletin form. Lack of means has prevented the prosecution of this important work. The reports on orchard conditions in Wayne and Orleans counties, published as Bulletins 226 and 220, have attracted wide- spread attention, and the edition of these bulletins is already exhausted. This has caused us to lay considerable stress upon the importance of studying fruit conditions in other important fruit-producing counties. The work in Niagara county was commenced in 1905 and continued this summer; and although all the ground we would like to have examined has not been covered, nevertheless sufficient data has been obtained on the III .dfORTICULTURE. 63 peach and apple-growing of the county to enable us to make a preliminary report. This report is in the process of preparation. V. Little peach disease. This obscure disease has obtained a serious foothold in Niagara county, New York. In co-operation with the Division of Plant Pathology of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, Washington, an examination of peach orchards in the river section of Niagara county was under- taken last summer, first, for the purpose of discovering the ex- tent of the disease, and second, of ascertaining whether it could be stamped out by applying the extermination method. This means the prompt destruction of all infested trees. A definite area was covered twice by the agents of the Department, the trees marked and the owners requested to destroy them as prompily as possible. The success of the method will probably be measured by the thoroughness with which the owners of the infested trees root out and destroy these individuals. This work will be continued next season. lil. EXTENSION TEACHING. 1. Lectures.— The members of the staff of the Department of Horticulture have been called upon frequently during the past year to speak before such organizations as the following and have in each case responded whenever it was possible to leave Universit: duties : | State Fruit Growers’ Associations. County Fruit Growers’ Organizations. Farmers’ Clubs. State Farmers’ Instittites (to which each member of the staff gave ap- proximately two weeks of his time). Pomona and subordinate Granges. In addition to this, the head of the Department has spoken several times before Village Improvement Societies and Civic Associations on the general topic of civic improvement. 2. Visitations.— From time to time, requests have come to the Department for the services of an expert to study local orchard troubles caused by soil, climate or parasites. Whenever such re- quests affected a considerable area, and where the interests were sufficiently large to warrant, a special visitation was made, the con- ditions carefuliy studied and, when possible, a meeting of the farm- ers calied for the purpose of discussing the whole matter with them. This is a personal and valuable type of extension effort. 3. Correspondence.— The volume and scope of the correspond- ence of the Department continues to grow each year; and with the 64 IIl Horticutturé. extension of our efforts and‘the addition of new members to the staff, this phase of our work will assume a very important relation to the efficiency of the Department’s work as a whole. The increase in the volume of our correspondence expresses a healthy desire on the part of our horticultural constituents to learn and know more about the affairs of the orchard and garden. DEPARTMENTAL EQUIPMENT. The teaching staff of the Department has been materially strength- ened. The number of courses has been greatly increased. But though men are the mainsprings of good instruction and sound in- vestigation, the quality of these is seriously impaired by inadequate equipment. The suite of rooms assigned to the Department of Horticulture in the new Hall of Agriculture may be expected to satisfy the needs of classroom and laboratory only temporarily. A building for horticulture, closely connected with a set of glass ranges, is one of the desiderata in the near future. This leads me to make some observations upon the material equipment of the Depart- ment of Horticulture in the past and as it stands to-day. Character of Experimental Grounds. The field equipment originally set apart for the Department of Horticulture comprised about ten acres of rolling land with a strik- ing admixture of sand, loam and joint clay distributed in irregular patches throughout. This variation in make-up is so great as to make it impossible to secure perhaps more than half an acre of uni- form soil in any one place. As the University has grown, this area (being central) has been invaded by other departments from time to time. Moreover, experiments involving the harvesting of fruits —and, to some extent, this is true of flowers — are quite impossible on this area, as it is in the direct path of the student to or from the athletic field; and fruits are looked upon as the legitimate prey of the average student as he comes from or goes to his exercise. The area will serve a very useful purpose in growing illustration material. For experiments in fruit-breeding, orchard-culture and all experi- ments involving the harvesting of fruit-crops, land somewhat re- moved from University activities must be secured. This is one of the urgent needs of the Department. Considering the great fruit interests of the State of New York, this defect is serious and should receive immediate attention, III Horrtcutture. 65 Forcing-Houses. This small group of cheap, mostly frame, houses has grown up gradually in response to the urgent needs of the Department and the energy of the former head. In the beginning, they were used for the growing of winter vegetables and the forcing of flowers. In this connection, the bulletins of the Department of Horticulture bear excellent testimony to the efficiency of the buildings and the industry of those who had charge of them. These are now used “almost exclusively in meeting the needs of the graduate students pur- suing advanced work in horticulture and in providing facilities for laboratory exercises in greenhouse management and nursery and orchard practice for the beginner. This they do very inadequately. The older houses being of wood and in use fifteen or sixteen years, are now in a bad condition, and the annual bill for repairs grows larger each year. The heating plant is not only inadequate to the requirements made upon it, but the limit of growth has been passed. The houses themselves are unsuited for the purposes to which they are put and utterly unfit to represent the modern glass house and equipment of an up-to-date college of agriculture. Allow me to summarize briefly some of the more urgent require- ments of the Department of Horticulture for the carrying on of in- struction and the conducting of investigations. MIMEDIATE AND PRESSING NEEDS OF THE DEPART- MENT OF HORTICULTURE: t. A glass house equipment ccmprising (a) a winter garden for laboratory use especially designed to meet the needs of the class in elementary horticulture and the students in the special winter- courses. (b) A glass house especially designed for research work for graduate students. The facilities for work of this kind in our pres- ent group are utterly inadequate. (c) A glass house for the forcing of tree fruits in which speci- mens of the citrus fruits may also be cultivated for the use of stu- dents interested in sub-tropical horticulture. (d) A series of ranges for the growing of the leading com- mercial crops of flowers and vegetables. We are badly in need of houses where crops of carnations, roses, chrysanthemums, violets and stove plants may be handled in the manner practiced by the commercial florist. Such an equipment is urgently needed at once. The houses should be modern in all respects, should be of the best material, and an equipment of this kind will cost not less than $25,000. 5 66 III Horricutrure. 2. Additional class-room and laboratory requisites. The follow- ing are needed to assist in giving the kind of instruction that we hope to offer when we equip our quarters in the new agricultural compound: Lantern slides for sub-tropical horticulture................- $100 Charts,’ maps,! ‘pritits Sete eae bets tet eee oc ene eee eee ’. “360 Models, -of ‘ftuit.21i+ 32. scope eee aoe oe eee eee 200 3. Experiment grounds atid field equipment. An area of fifty acres is needed for permanent orchard experiments and for the carrying on of market gardening and trucking experiments. It is exceedingly important in the interests of Tompkins county and the central counties of the State that the College of Agriculture should demonstrate the feasibility of fruit-growing in this section. . M. V. SLINGERLAND, Assistant Professor of Economic Entomology VII. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. The following report of the work of the chemical division of the Experiment Station has been rendered by Dr. J. A. Bizzell, the assistant chemist oi the Station. GEO. W. CAVANAGH, Assistant Professor of Chemistry im its Relations with Agriculture. I. WORK OF THE FEDERAL DIVISION. On September 27, 1905, the Assistant Chemist was requested to take sampies of sweet corn from the farm of N. B. Keeney & Son at LeRoy, N. Y. Selections of seed had been made with a view to increasing the sugar content of the grain as mentioned in previous reports of this Department. The green crop and the dry seed had been examined for sugar content the preceding year. On the data indicated above, thirty samples of green ears were taken and the grain examined for sugar. The grower has made no further re- quests for analyses for seed or crop. The experiments with the root crops as outlined in the last annual report have been continued during the present year. In this con- nection 182 samples have been examined. At the request of the department of agronomy forty-eight samples of soil were examined for moisture content. During the spring of 1905 soil and inoculation experiments with alfalfa were begun, the object being to determine the best methods of soil treatment for this crop. This Department undertook analyses ef soil solutions from each of the experimental plots, in order to determine whether the differences in growth could be traced to dif- ferences in the plant food solution. The results, including the analyses of.g6 soil samples, show that liming at the rate of 2,000 Ibs. per acre on Dunkirk clay loam, increased very decidedly the amount of water soluble nitrates in the soil. The crop was also decidedly benefited by the liming. [77] 78 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. Il. EXTENSION WORK. As in previous years the work under the extension fund has been of a miscellaneous character. In response to various requests — farmers, analyses have been made of the following: i Samples. « Driedapples “Sire aca Gack ven bev ates eee ee r ERIS CEICICES iY eter styate ae arate Tod aie cabs eee ae a eee ee 12 ZENS) 9 al E) 1aae eAORG Se SS MR ARR PAE Ss 3 BS CU Se souls sot ce ae oo, Sie ore MRC RG lace es 928 soe &: 6. din cla ee I MPIGUESTONE. aie 1s Natio s Set eee Pe bas acd wel Geran te I Preservatives xt iss ax cee eee nee coe ce Ss haa Pec ones eee I OMAStZ 25 Ses sd Le es SL ets Se ae I Water «oC 55,)tc55 Stes averse eae eae cieareelc cata est one nie cee ee I At the request of the Poultry Department analyses were made of the following : Samples. Ghick feed «2:55 awe fo PR ee ene or i ee 19 ot gee ee Se ee A Wee Dah eR Ce A Oh Aopen 4 Co | ees ee ea I Lt SSS are ae et SR I Oyster: Smells. cg sycts. ow 5.2 oa orate ae ets os Fo ee ee ee I Ill. WORK IN PROGRESS. Several problems pertaining to soil fertility have ariseu during the present year. This Department is now undertaking work, which it is hoped will bring to light facts of fundamental nature in regard to this much discussed question. During the season of 1905 certain small areas on the Mitchell farm were noticed to be decidedly un- productive, while the surrounding soil although of the same type and possessing the same properties as far as could be determined, was productive.. Analyses of the soil solutions from the two areas showed no differences except that the unproductive soil eontained a much larger quantity of soluble nitrates. A chemical study of the soil solutions has been begun and will be continued throughout the growing season. Analyses of thirty-four samples have already been made. A series of trials with alfalfa and timothy with special reference to the effect of liming and the accumulation of nitrogen in the soil, have been begun and will be continued during the present season. Thirty-six samples have been examined for nitrates, and analyses will be made at short intervals throughout the season. Eight samples of soil have been analyzed in connection with the timothy fertilizer experiments. The results seem to warrant a further study of the AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 79 composition of the crop, in order to learn something of the recovery and loss of nitrogen applied as nitrate of soda. Other experiments not yet definitely outlined, but bearing on the problem of soil fertility will be studied during the coming year. to Ac BIZ ZEL, Assistant Chemist of the Experiment Station. VIII. BOTANY IN THE EXPERIMENT STATION. I present the following report, being a brief resumé of the work of the Division of Botany from September, 1892, to the present time. Since the policy recently adopted by Cornell University of clearly separating the work of the Experiment Station from that of teaching and research in the University has lately gone into effect, I take this opportunity of making my final report from the Division of Botany since my work henceforth will be devoted entirely to the educational and research work in botany for the University. It seems appropriate also that I should give at this time a brief resumé of the principal work undertaken by the Division of Botany during my connection with the Experiment Station. My connection with the Cornell University Agricultural Experi- ment Station dates from September, 1892. During this period my position at Cornell University has been a dual one, as Professor of Botany at Cornell University, and as Botanist of the Experiment Station. Two-thirds of my time has been devoted to educational and research work in botany on the University side, and one-third of my time during this period has been devoted to investigation work in botany for the Experiment Station. This report, there- fore, so far as it relates to my own work is confined to the results of investigations for one-third of the time during the period from September, 1892, to the present. During my connection with the Experiment Station, the work in the Botanical Division has been chiefly confined to plant diseases caused by fungi, or of a physiological nature, and to studies of mushrooms and wood destroying fungi. The greater part of this work has been the investigation of new and little known diseases of plants. At the sane time the botanist has been called upon to determine and name plant diseases or fungi which have been sent in for this purpose. This with the correspondence entailed has con- sumed a great deal of time, since it was necessary to indicate remedial treatment to check or obviate the trouble in the future in the case of diseases. Besides, many weeds, flowers, grasses, etc., have been communicated to the Botanist for determination. [80] BOTANY IN THE EXPERIMENT STATION. 81 Investigations in the Federal Division. PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. - Investigations in the Federal Division have been carried on by myself and were begun in the autumn of 1892. The three chief subjects of a physiological nature which have been investigated may be referred to first. One of these the “ Oedema of Tomatoes” or “ Dropsy”’ of Tomatoes, was published as Bulletin No. 53, May, 1893. This trouble was characterized by numerous intumescences upon the succulent stems and the veins on the under- side of the leaves. The cells of the tissue in these regions became greatly enlarged, the walls thin, and finally the endosmotic pressure became so great that the cells collapsed. Experiments demonstrated that the trouble was due to excessive root absorption while the con- ditions of the greenhouse were such as to check transpiration and tavor the accumulation of osmotically active substances in the tis- sues. Suggestions were made as to how this trouble could be cor- rected by proper lighting and ventilation of the houses. The second physiological trouble was a similar one on apple trees, and was published in Bulletin No. 61, December, 1893. The third physiological investigation was an inquiry into the food value of mushrooms for higher plants and was published as Bul- letin No. 240, June, 1906. The results obtained showed that a por- tion of the substance of the common mushroom, and probably of ali Basidiomycetes, becomes available as food for autotrophic green plants, just as was anticipated in the case of the decay of these plants. They showed also that the common mushroom contains a nearly perfect food for the higher plants, and indicate that the higher plants can make use of simple ammonium compounds. This opens an interesting field for investigation and will perhaps aid in throwing light on the symbiotic relation between fungus mycelium and autotrophic green plants growing in various degrees of associ- ation. DISEASES OF PLANTS: The investigations on the diseases of plants have been carried on with special reference to the determination of the cause of unknown diseases, studies of the morphology of the fungi causing them and especially studies of development in order to learn the life history of the parasite as far as possible. In connection with this work progress has been made in the improvement of devices for photo- graphing of the fungi, methods of culture, etc. The chief one of 6 82 BoTaANy IN THE EXPERIMENT STATION. these devices perhaps is that for photographing cultures of fungi and bacteria by transmitted light and for which the Botanist was awarded a diploma and given a gold medal at the Universal Expo- sition at St Louis in 1904. The diseases of plants investigated, the results of which have been published in bulletins, are as follows: A new Anthracnose of the Privet, and the Cercospora of Celery Blight, both in bulletin No. 49, December 1892. After the article on the anthracnose of the privet was published the perfect stage, or ascus stage, appeared in the cultures. This was the first discovery by exact methods of the connection of an ascus stage with one of the anthracnoses*. In Bulletin No. 61, December, 1893, were published two sundry articles on plant diseases caused by fungi, Artificial Cultures of Melanconium fuligineum-and Powdery mildews of Crucifers. An extended study of Carnation diseases was also made, but the results were published in the American Florist, 1893. In 1894 an extended investigation was made of the fungi which cause leaf curl and plum pockets. This was a morphological, struc- tural, and taxonomic study, and included illustrations by photo- graphs, microscopic structure and descriptions of the species then known to occur on the genus Prunus in the United States. It was published as Bulletin No. 73, September, 1894. The question of the damping off of seedlings was investigated during the same and following year. The results of this investiga- tion were published in Bulletin 94, May, 1895. It included a study of development and parasitism of Pythium debaryanum on seed- lings. Pythium intermedium on fern prothallia, and Completoria complens, the rare member of the Entomophthorales on fern pro- thallia which was here noted for the first time in America. A new cutting bed fungus (Volutella leucotricha) was described, and some notes were published on a sterile damping off fungus (Rhizoctonia) and it was shown here, as the writer has shown formerly,} that a large percentage of damping off of seedlings which previously had been attributed to Pythium dcbaryanum was caused by this fungus. For the past year and at the present time investigations are being made into the life history of the pear and quince leaf spot (Entomo- — *See Bot. Gaz., 26, 101, 1808. f?Some diseases of Cotton, Bull. 41, Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta., Dec. 1892. Dis- eases of Cotton, in the Cotton Plant, Bull. 33, U. S. Dept. Agr. Office Ex- periment Station, 292, 1896. BoTANY IN THE EXPERIMENT STATION. 83 sporium maculatum), and it was shown by the writer as early as 1897* that the perfect stage of this fungus was a Fabraea. STUDIES OF THE HIGHER FUNGI. The third subject for investigation has been the study of the higher fungi, with special reference to the edible and poisonous mushrooms, the wood and timber destroying fungi, and the members of this group which are parasitic. The first studies were published as Studies and Illustrations of Mushrooms I & II, in Bulletins 138, 1897, and 168, 1899, the former containing an account of Agaricus campestris, Lepiota naucina, and the poisonous Amanita phalloides, and the second giving an account of Coprinus atramentarius, comatus and micaceus. These bulletins are profusely illustrated with life size photographs. Some of the studies of wood destroying fungi appear in Bulletin 193. Studies of some Shade Tree and Timber destroying Fungi, June, 1901. These investigations describe the mode of entrance of these wound parasites into the trees, their progress in the tree, special characteris- tics in the decay of the timber for each species, a comparison of the fruit structures, and the result of a study to show that the sheets of “punk ” so abundant in old coniferous logs, and sometimes found between the boards in a lumber pile are formed of the mycelium of Polyporus pinicola so common on all conifers. Suggestions are also made as to the necessity of care in forestry operations and in the pruning of shade and fruit trees to prevent the entrance of these injurious fungi. Some investigations have also been made in the cultivation of mushrooms to acquire sufficient experience to give directions for the growing of mushrooms on a small scale with little expense for family use. The results of this study were published in Bulletin 227, Mushroom Growing for Amateurs, March, 1905. A large number of other studies have been made and are still in progress on the development, structure, taxonomy and economic relations of the higher fungi as well as upon the parasitic fungi, and a great number of photographs have been accumulated. Some of these studies were published in book form,+ and others have been published in leading botanical journals of the United States and *Leaf Spot of Pear, Garden & Forest, 10, 73, 74, 1897. Studies of American Fungi, BiUSEogreS; Edible, Poisonous, etc., Henry Holt & Co., New York. 84 BoTANY IN THE EXPERIMENT STATION. Europe, and material is accruing for further studies on development and for monographic work, but as these studies have been largely made on the University side of the work they will not be more fully reported here. Investigations on the Nixon Fund. The State Fund given to the Experiment Station under provision of chapter 437 of the Laws of 1896 resulted in establishing a posi- tion for an assistant in the Division of Botany in 1896, whose special duty should be the investigation of diseases of plants caused by parasitic fungi, and who should also take part in the educational extension work among the farmers and horticulturists of the State. This position has been held by several young men in succession. The first, Dr. E. J. Durand, was appointed in 1896. As a result of his investigations an account of a serious disease of Currant Canes was published as Bulletin No. 125, February, 1897, in which the general and botanical characters of the disease are described and illustrated, and remedial measures are recommended. Dr. B. M. Duggar was appointed assistant in the year 1896-97. His first work was published in Bulletin No. 132, as joint author with Professor L. H. Bailey, Notes on Celery, March, 1897. The investigations of Dr. Duggar here related to Two Destructive Celery Blights, the early blight (Cercospora apti) and late blight (Septoria petroselint var. apii). The botanical and structural characters of these parasites are described and illustrated, and remedies suggested to prevent the trouble in the field and in storage where the late blight is sometimes especially injurious. In 1808 the results of his studies on pear diseases were published in Bulletin No. 145, Some Important Pear Diseases, February, i808. Four diseases were treated of here,— Leaf Spot (Septoria piricola Desm.), Leaf Blight (Entomosporium maculatum), Pear Scab ( Fust- cladium pirinum (Lib., Fchl.), and Pear Blight (Bacillus amylovo- rus Burrill). This was followed by Bulletin No. 163, Three Im- portant Fungous Diseases of the Sugar Beet, February, 1899. These are as follows: Root-Rot of Beets (Rhizoctonia betae Kuhn), Leaf Spot of the Beet (Cercospora heticola Sacc.) and Beet Scab (Oos- pora scabies Thaxter). This was a timely bulletin on the diseases of this new crop for the State. The symptoms and characters of the diseases are described and illustrated, and suggestions are made for treatment. 3ulletin No. 164, Peach Leaf Curl, and notes on the shot-hole BOTANY IN THE EXPERIMENT STATION. 85 effect of Peaches and Piums, February, 1899, was the result of some investigations during 1898. Dr. Duggar showed that a weak Bor- deaux mixture was effective in preventing or greatly lessening the peach leaf curl (E-xoascus deformans). He also brought out the interesting fact that leaves of peach.and plum were both injured by improper spraying in such a way as to produce small circular holes in them resembling the effect of the shot-hole fungus. This work on The Prevention of Peach Leaf Curl was continued by Dr. W. A. Murrill, who was appointed assistant for the year 1899-1900 during Dr. Duggar’s absence in Europe, and his results, which confirmed and extended the earlier ones, were published in Bulletin No. 180, March, 1900. Dr. Murrill began a study of the injuries to shade trees in cities from various causes during his con- nection with the Experiment Station. This work was continued by him afterward during a stay in Europe, and in 1902 a Bulletin, No. 205, Shade Trees, was published. Many devices for protecting trees are illustrated. The injuries to a great variety of plants due to the soil fungus Rhizoctonia were found to be so great from gradual accumulation of material that a special Bulletin, No. 186, was published: upon this subject in January, 1901, The Sterile Fungus Rhizoctonia as a Cause of Plant Diseases in America. This was a joint bulletin by Dr. Duggar and Mr. F. C. Stewart of the Geneva New York Ex- periment Station. The disease is described on about twenty differ- ent hosts in America, and a short history of its occurrence in Europe and Arnerica is given. Dr. Duggar resigned in 1901 to enter Government work; Mr. Clayton O. Smith was assistant, 1901-02, and Mr. J. M. Van Hook was assistant 1902-03. Mr. Van Hook gave especial attention to the “wilt disease” of ginseng, and this work led to the study of other diseases of this new and important crop, which were found to be surprisingly large for a plant so recently brought into cultivation, and which has so few fungus enemies in a state of nature. Bulletin No. 219, Diseases of Ginseng, June, 1904, was the result of this work. In 1903, Mr. H. H. Whetzel was appointed assistant in this work, and he has prosecuted the investigations with great vigor and suc- cess. His first bulletin was No. 218, Onion Blight, April, 1904, which deals with a serious disease of the onion crop caused by Peronospora schleideniana. A study was made of the conditions favoring the infection. and spread of the disease and recommenda- 86 BoTANY IN THE EXPERIMENT STATION. tions made for preventing it. The most important contribution as a result of his investigations thus far is the Blight Canker of Apple Trees, Bulietin No. 236, February, 1906. This is a widespread and very serious disease, especially in certain parts of the State. Mr. Whetzel demonstrated the identity of this disease with the Fire Blight of Apples and Pears and gives a history of it, a full discus- sion of its characters, and its method of attack, with suggestions as to its control. The bulletin is illustrated with a large number of photographs showing the injuries caused by the disease. Bulletin No. 239, Some Diseases of Beans, is largely a compila- tion prepared as an emergency bulletin to meet the demand for in- formation on this subject from bean growers in the State. Professor Whetzel has now in progress studies on a large number of diseases of plants. Among these is a leaf spot disease of ginseng, caused by a species of Alternaria. This is the most serious and widespread disease of ginseng in this State. Material is nearly teady for a bulletin on this subject. Professor Whetzel himself will make a fuller report on work which he has in progress. GEO. F. ATKINSON, Botanist. aa! = . IX. BOTANY iN THE EXTENSION WORK. Li THE REPORT ON THE TEACHING ENTERPRISES OF THRE YEAR. Winter course students— During the winter-course session of 1906 this Department offered a course in Farm Botany and Plant Diseases, which consisted of one lecture and one laboratory period each week. The work was given in the laboratory of the Botanical Depariment of the University, the apparatus and supplies being furnished chiefly by that Department and to which Department I ‘believe all the laboratory fees were credited. Fifty students made requests to take this work. Provision, however, had been made for only twenty-five so that it was necessary to limit the number of those entering. The original limit was increased to forty by making an extra effort and giving some of the work on Saturday afternoon. This number was finally reduced in various ways to twenty-nine, most of which number successfully completed the work. Extension teaching among the farmers of the State— This work consisted of several distinct lines: first, Farmers’ Institutes. Four Farmers’ Institutes were attended during the year 1906 and 1907, two or three lectures being delivered at each meeting. The sub- jects discussed were Fire Blight, Apple Tree Cankers, Bean Dis- eases, Brown Rot of Peaches, Cucumber, Onion and Celery Diseases. The structure and nature of the leguminous tubercles were also ex- plained. Besides these other miscellaneous diseases were taken up upon special request of those present at the meetings. I have made it a practice during the past year to carry a compound microscope with me, together with such specimens as were necessary to demon- strate the talk in hand. I found a microscope a most excellent adjunct to the work. The fact that a man might by looking through the microscope, see the fungus or bacterium under discussion made a great deal of difference in getting his attention and arousing his interest. Horticultural meetings— Two horticultural meetings were at- tended during the year,—the Western New York State Horticul- tural Society and the New York State Fruit Growers’ Association. At the former a paper was presented on the Blight Canker of Apple Trees. At the latter an exhibit of plant diseases was made. [87] 88 BoTANY IN THE EXTENSION WORK. Farmers’ field meetings.— Under this heading I have included all meetings of farmers’ associations aside from Institutes and Horti- cultural Meetings. A Farmers’ Field Meet was held at Le Roy under the auspices of a Farmers’ Reading Club. Another meeting of a similar nature was held at Jacksonville in connection with the Farmers’ Reading-course work in the Jacksonville Grange. A iecture on the diseases of beans was given before the Byron Grange, Byron, N. Y., and another before the Association of Farmers’ Read- ing Clubs at Batavia, N. Y. A talk was also given before the Busi- ness Men’s Club at Newark, N. Y. The work at these meetings consisted of lantern slide lectures, talks and demonstrations with the microscope. Two of them were all day meetings. Fairs.— Plant disease exhibits were made at three of the fairs in the State this year extending throughout the time that the fairs were in session. The first was at the State Fair, Syracuse, N. Y. From there the exhibit was taken to the Oneonta Fair, Oneonta, N. Y., and was again set up at the Tompkins County Fair, Ithaca, N. Y. The exhibit consisted of specimens of the cultivated plants of the State, showing some oi the more common diseases. Charts were prepared showing photographs of these diseases, the nature of the organism causing them and the results of treatment. Either myself or an assistant was always present with the exhibit to answer questions, explain the nature of these diseases and show with the microscope the organism causing them. Directions for the treatment of some ~ cf the diseases were passed out to those who cared to have them. The name and address of the plant pathologist was also distributed to a large number of persons who expressed a desire to write later in the year for information on different diseases. Co-operative experiments.— An outline of 6 co-operative experi- ments was prepared and published and sent out by the College of Agriculture for the year 1906. Detailed outlines for carrying on these experiments were prepared and mailed to about twelve per- sons. These were chiefly winter-course students. Correspondence.— The correspondence during the past year in- creased remarkably. During the previous year about 400 letters were written by this Department in reply to inquiries of various kinds along the lines of plant diseases. During the year just ended, however, this number has more than doubted itself so that we have written during the past year in the neighborhood of 1,000 letters. The letters received were for the most part inquiries in regard to diseases of different sorts and often entailed an extended examina- BoTANY IN THE EXTENSION Work. 89 tion of diseased material. Such correspondence naturally requires considerable time and careful work in order that it be properly done. Mee LANS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR. THE EN- SUING YEAR ALONG THESE. LINES: Teaching work with students in the college As already planned and outlined in the catalogue of the College of Agriculture, this work for the coming year is to be greatly enlarged and extended. The removal of the Department from its present quarters in the Botanical Laboratory of the University to the new building of the College of Agriculture will necessitate a new and complete equipment. In order that the work outlined may be presented in the most efficient manner, sufficient money should be set aside to provide for the neces- Sary equipment and the maintenance of the teaching work. Since botany, presented from an agricultural point of view, is a funda- mental subject in a general agricultural course, the sum set aside ought to be sufficiently large to make the work as valuable as pos- sible. The sum necessary this year will, for reasons indicated above, be larger than wouid probably be necessary hereafter for the main- tenance of the Department. The work as planned for next year contemplates two courses for winter-course students,—one course in elementary agricultural botany for specials, an advanced course in plant diseases open to both specials and regulars, and a course for graduate students in which the technique of plant pathology will be taken up along with special lines of investigation. All of these courses include much laboratory work and the necessity for a regular assistant in the Department seems evident. Farmers’ Institutes— It seems very desirable that some work be done in Farmers’ Institutes along the lines of plant diseases. I think that the most good can be accomplished by discussing diseases of those crops.in which the farmers of any given locality are especially interested. To make this valuable the speaker should have notice some considerable time beforehand as to the localities he would be expected to visit. He should also be furnished with information in regard to the crops grown in those sections. The talks should I believe be illustrated with as great an abundance of material as pos- sible and the use of a microscope. During the work of last winter T found the microscope of most valuable assistance. go Botany IN THE ExTENSION Work. Horticultural meetings.— Experience with the plant disease ex- hibit at Lockport last winter convinced me that this should be a permanent part of the work of the Department. The growers of the State showed the greatest interest in the exhibit and kept me busy at nearly all hours of the day answering questions and showing the organisms of the disease under the microscope. The exhibition of the different diseases of fruit trees accurately named and labeled and the distribution of literature to those persons who are especially in- terested will I am sure become one of the most valuable features of the Horticultural meetings. Farmers field meeting and Grange lectures—The work along these lines also offers great opportunities in teaching the farmers of the State in regard to the nature and treatment of the fungus diseases of their crops. These lectures and talks should be well illustrated with specimens, lantern slides, photographs and the micro- scope. The Fairs.— The apparent success of the Plant Disease exhibit at — the fairs this year indicates that this also ought to be a permanent feature of the work of the botanical Department. In order to make this most valuable complete sets of specimens, photographs, etc., should be prepared illustrating the life history and treatment of the more common fungus and bacterial diseases that occur in this State. This will call for considerable expenditures as the preparation of such material is expensive. Moreover, if many fairs are to be at- tended these sets will have to be duplicated. To be effective these exhibits must be in charge of some one competent to carefully ex- plain the nature of the diseases represented and to answer the ques- tions of parties interested. Co-operative experiments.— Judging from the reports on these experiments during the past year would say that I think them of questionable value so far at least as results are concerned. The chief benefit derived I believe is to the person who is carrying on the experiment, and from this point of view the work no doubt well re- pays the effort put upon it. } Correspondence.— The increased correspondence has taken a great deal of the time of the pathologist. The indications are that the correspondence for next year will be much heavier. The corre- spondence entails not only the work of determining the material sent in and the answering of the letters, but it also necessitates the careful preservation of much of the material for future reference and illus- tration and the preparation and the recording of extensive notes in BoTANY IN THE EXTENSION Work. Qu a great many cases. Besides this it is often necessary to carry on a more or less extended investigation requiring much laboratory and clerical work. It, therefore, seems very desirable that the Depart- ment should have its own stenographer who might give all her time to the work. At the present time the arrangement with Professor Atkinson for stenographic work is satisfactory to neither of us, as one interferes more or less with the plans and work of the other. For this reason it frequently happens that correspondence must go unanswered for several days, while the careful keeping of notes, etc., is practically out of the question. The increase along all the lines of work as outlined above would seem to make it desirable that more money be appropriated for the regular work of the Department. The $300 at present appropriated to this Department for all of its work, both teaching and investiga- tion, is entirely inadequate. This is especially true since the removal of the Department to the new building will necessitate the buying of almost complete equipment in the way of apparatus and furniture. This manifestly cannot be made with the $300, but aside from that the $300 is not sufficient for the running expenses of the Depart- ment, especially when the stenographer must be paid out of this fund. Not only does it seem that the appropriation should be-in- creased for running expenses, but if the work outlined for the Farm- ers’ Institutes, Horticultural Meetings and Fairs is to be carried out and enlarged more assistance will be necessary. I would respect- fully recommend the establishment of an assistantship paying at least $500 and tuition, to be given to a young man well grounded in botanical work, the assistant to devote half of his time to the Department throughout the year, the other half to be available for the continuation of his studies as a student in the College. Such an assistantship would greatly relieve the pressure of work in the De- partment during the teaching period and would also provide for a continuation of the investigation work during the vacation of the man in charge. lil. INVESTIGATION ENTERPRISES. The work of investigation during the past year has been devoted to the following problems. First, a careful investigation into the methods of preventing the anthracnose or pod spot of beans. The work was undertaken io determine if the recommendations usually given for the treatment of this disease and as outlined in our Bulletin 239 were practical when-applied to field operations. If such recom- mendations were not practical, to determine if possible some means 92 BoTANY IN THE EXTENSION Work. by which the ravages of this disease throughout the State might be reduced. Thanks to the kindness of two large canning com- panies at Rome and Oneida, N. Y., excellent opportunities were afforded for testing the spraying of beans on large areas and with the most modern apparatus. Moreover, these companies stood all expenses in the way of materials and paid our traveling expenses. The result of the summer’s work seems to indicate that spraying for this disease is not efficient at least so far as large field operations are concerned. It is thought that we must look to other means for the control of this disease. Repeated tests of seed in the laboratory have shown that practically all of the seed offered in the markets is badly diseased. During the next year it is planned to carry on extensive tests of bean seed offered in the market and it is hoped we may be able to devise a plan for the growing of clean beans for seed. I believe that the solution of the problem lies in the obtaining of seed entirely free from the disease. Second, the work on the Alternaria Blight of Ginseng was con- tinued throughout the past season and the solution of the control of this disease finally worked out. We were able to establish beyond a doubt that thorough and systematic spraying would grow plants perfectly free from the disease. Third, work on the fire blight of pears and apples was also carried on to some extent in continuation of the work begun last year. It is hoped that this work may be continued again next year. Fourth, spraying experiments on the Septoria Leaf Blight of tomato were repeated again the past year with results that seemed to indicate that this disease may be entirely controlled if the spray- ing is properly done and the removal of the diseased leaves as iast as they appear is systematically attended to. Fifth, some preliminary spraying experiments were also made for the control of the rust of hollyhocks. Two sprayings with Bor- deaux mixture gave remarkable results in the control of this disease. It is planned to complete the work on this problem next year. Sixth, some investigations were also made on the nature of the root rot of peas. This disease caused considerable loss in the pea fields of the State. The work was of a preliminary nature, and it is expected that it may be carried on during the coming season. Three bulletins are now in preparation and it is hoped that at least one of these may be ready for publication during the early part of the coming year. These bulletins will be The Alternaria Blight of Ginseng, The Fire Blight of Apples and Pears, and The Septoria Leaf Blight of Tomatoes. Botany IN THE EXTENSION Work. 93 In connection with the United States Department of Agriculture a plant disease survey of the State is being made. This is done largely through correspondence with farmers in different parts of the State, and an annual report is made and submitted to the Depart- ment of Agriculture. This report is based on materials received through correspondence and from the observations and collections made by the pathologist during the year. . fH oOWHETZEE: Assistant Professor of Botany. X. REPORT OF THE FARMERS’ READING-COURSE FOR THE YEAR 1905-1906. Progress of the Farmers’ Reading-Course work during the past year has been in the direction of more intimate contact with the readers rather than in securing more readers. On October 1, 1905, the reports of the Department showed a total enrollment of 9,654, of which 2,271 were newly enrolled during the twelve months preceding and 2,546 of whom were organized into 125 Reading-Course Clubs. During the year, 3,014 Discussion- Papers had been returned. By comparing the number of Discus- sion-Papers returned with the total number of readers it is readily seen that a large proportion of them returned no Discussion-Papers. The average is one Discussion-Paper for 3.2 readers. Since the second Bulletin of any series was not sent to a reader unless he returned the Discussion-Paper, there were a great many readers who received only one Bulletin during the year. It seemed to those directing the work that there must be a great many of our readers who really wanted the Bulletins but found it impossible to fill out the Discussion-Papers and return them. Ac- cordingly, after sending the next Bulletin in series to each of the old readers and waiting about two weeks, we sent a circular letter to each man, a part of which read as follows: “We feel that you can obtain the most value from this by return- ing the Discussion-Papers with answers to the questions or with questions for us to answer. Still if you do not feel that you can do this and yet want the lessons, we will put your name on a permanent mailing list and send you one Bulletin each month through the winter. If you wish to avail yourself of this offer, kindly fill in the blank space on the enclosed card, with your name, address, and the subject you would like to study.” One gratifying result of this circular letter was that it brought back a large number of Discussion-Papers. The readers would say that they had in- tended to answer but the Bulletin had been laid aside and the Dis- cussion-Paper forgotten. Besides those who returned the card sent for that purpose, all those who returned the Discussion-Papers and all new readers were put on the permanent mailing list. Practically every one, therefore, whose name is found on the list, has himself [94] X. Report oF FarMers’ READING-CouRSE DEPARTMENT. 95 requested the Bulletins during the year. On the 15th or 16th of each of the five months of the Reading-Course term we sent the next Bulletin to every reader on this list unless he had returned a Dis- cussion-Paper and received a Bulletin since the first of the month. With the exception of the few who enrolled late in the winter or during the summer, practically all our readers have received under this arrangement a complete series of five Bulletins. The new Bul- letins were sent to those who returned Discussion-Papers and a special effort was made to answer all questions found on the Dis- cussion-Papers within a few days of the time the Discussion-Papers reached this office. On August I, 1906, the reports of the Department show an en- rollment of 6,700, of whom 3,498 were newly enrolled during the ten months preceding, and 911 of whom were organized into 45 Reading-Course Clubs. During the ten months 6,092 Discussion- Papers have been returned. In round numbers we have 2,coo readers who are corresponding with us. The remaining 4,700 have simply requested that the Bul- letins be sent to them. Of those returning Discussion-Papers 1140 have been answering fully 383 have been answering in part 138 have written very little 291 have written nothing except their name 44 have said they had no experience and therefore could not answer 800 have asked questions for us to answer In answer to requests for information we have sent 3,109 letters. These were sent under two cent stamp. Besides these, about 16,000 circular letters were sent under one cent stamp. We have received many requests for information on such general subjects that we could not answer fully in a letter. In such cases after answering as fully as possible we have referred the reader to Bulletins from the Experiment Station here or at Geneva, or to the Farmers’ Bulletins from Washington. Lists of the available Bulletins from these places are kept on hand at all times. If no Bul- ietins touching the subject were available, books were recommended. _ We know that many of the readers have received and read the litera- ture recommended in this way; but we do not know how many. The case of those who apply for correspondence work is a good example. They fill out a card asking for literature on a certain subject. We recommend certain books which they may purchase. We always ask them to correspond with us freely so that we can help them on 96 X. Report or Farmers’ REaApING-Course DEPARTMENT. any points not understood. It is only occasionally, however, that we hear from these parties. We have no way of knowing whether the books are used or not. For the full development of this end of the work it seems almost necessary that the books be sent from the Col- lege. If there were a way whereby the parties interested could secure the books through the College and either pay the publisher’s rates or regard them as loaned for a short time, it would be pos- sible to get the farmers interested in this kind of literature. After becoming interested, many would buy the books who would not have done so if they had been obliged to buy them before having an opportunity to read them. Possibly a small circulating library of the best books on each subject could be sent to each applicant with the understanding that he was to return them within a certain time, unless he wished to purchase them. Another part of the work which should be deveioped is the Club work. We have tried to develop this through correspondence with the members and officers of the Clubs. We find it hard to keep in touch with them in this wey. At the beginning of the year all the old Clubs were invited to organize new Reading-Course Clubs. The Secretaries were asked to procure as far as possible the literature recommended at the end of many of the Bulletins for supplementary reading. If some method could be found whereby the Clubs could be furnished or could be induced to procure books on the subject they are studying, the work could be made much more valuable. No doubt this could be brought about more readily if the Supervisor could visit the Clubs once or twice each year. We have found it hard to do much of this work without neglecting the cor- respondence. During the fall months when the correspondence is not heavy, a man could help the old Clubs and start many new ones by visiting the places which have the largest number of active readers. In many places, doctors and pastors of rural churches will lend enthusiastic support to this work. Several Clubs were formed this year by men in these professions. An encouraging phase of the Club work has developed in Genesee county where an organization has been formed for the purpose of promoting Reading-Course work in that county. The local Clubs meet once every two weeks at the houses of the members. It was planned to have a meeting of the members of all the Clubs at some central point once a month. These meetings were held in the day time and when possible a speaker from the College of Agriculture was provided. Experiments and demonstrations illustrating the X. Report oF FARMERS’ READING-CoURSE DEPARTMENT. 97 work and also field meetings were found very helpful in stimulating interest in the work. The work of this organization has been very successful during the year and will no doubt be continued during the coming year. During the year another Series has been added to the Reading- Course, making in all six Series and thirty Bulletins. The Bulletins now available are as follows: I. The Soil and the Plant— The Bulletins in this Series are Coe ties-sol- Whatlt-Is: (2) Tillace and Under-Drainace; (3) Fertility of the Soil; (4) How the Plant Gets its Food from the Soil; (5) How the Plant Gets its Food from the Air. II. Stock-Feeding.— The five Bulletins in this Series are (1) Balanced Rations for Stock; (2) The Computing of Balanced Rations; (3) Sample Rations for Milch Cows; f4) Soiling Crops, Silage and Roots; (5) Pastures and Meadows. III. Orcharding.— The five Bulletins in this Series are (1) How a Fruit Tree Grows; (2) Planting the Orchard; (3) Tilling and Fertilizing the Orchard; (4) Pruning and Spraying; (5) Picking, Storing and Marketing Fruit. IV. Poultry.— The five Bulletins in this Series are: (1) Building Poultry-Houses; (2) Feeding of Laying Hens: The Principles ; (3) Rations for Poultry; (4) Raising Chickens; (5) Marketing Poultry Products. V. Dairying —The five Bulletins of this Series are: (1) The Care of Milk on the Farm; (2) The Composition of Milk and Cream and their By-Products; (3) Construction of Sanitary Dairy Stables; (4) Farm Butter-Making; (5)The Dairy Herd. VI. Buildings and Yards.— The five Bulletins of this Series are: (1) Tasteful Farm Buildings; (2) Tasteful Farm Yards; (3) The Plan of the Farmhouse; (4) Water Supplies for Farm Residences ; (5) Barns and Outbuildings. The popularity and use of the various Series may be judged by the following table: Number Number Number either of new Discussion starting or readers Papers finishing. starting. returned. Semmes I Ane Sronl aval tite IAkites Soo oononooce 3338 1303 1476 Seniesa Stock=Meedine nse cn. ciciee eeemscrne 2008 204 990 Semesm Mm Orchancinommms ty ia wan eletlen aes 1523 485 Tez At SGP ING IEG lien Bardo e oie Man eer eee 2836 1157 1663 EIS Ne Daliny Ice ee stows «utes wa satoncie CAR plese 1202 179 510 Series. Vi Buildines.and Yards:.2..... 5.0000. 410 80 282 98 X. Report oF FARMERS’ READING-CouRSE DEPARTMENT. It must be borne in mind that new readers are advised to start with Series I and that a great many never finish more than that one Series. The Series of Bulletins first published seem to be more widely known and more in demand than the recent Series. GEO. W. HORSFORD, Supervisor Farmers’ Reading-Course. XI. FARMERS’ WIVES’ READING-COURSE. The extension work among farm women in the College of Agri- culture for the year 1905-00 has been in relation to Bulletins which are sent each month from November to March; in the organization and promotion of clubs among farm women; and a course in home economics established for three months of the winter in the Univer- sity for the benefit of farm women who have been able to attend. October 1, 1906, there was the following membership in the Read- ing-Course : SKB ESI fa Ven Ieee he ER aes Ome LO yt LSP ae EN 2040 SOLD CRABS EN NE ek EEE NO PE eet Og SR Se ee aD 6860 SBT IES STi eas ot Re ay a Ae a PEER CEI ae ul ea a 4459 5S CIEE ois Tas Sa A ie alee Eo iced an AR an ee oe 25 inh Gcl dents sf » S AOU R AE est hay lecees Searchin Aon Pe a he REP eee Re 20284 The Discussion-Papers returned were: SSIES) i ee ecb AB cRNA eS REI Case NE Met en aN 999 SELIeSE 2 awe Dae tien aN santas cis otre Seto anton ales a tucers 550 SOBIGS SSCA? aaa ano Cpe ERR SRA CRS ICRanare renate nirad h a a aan rare CEE: 32 SGINUDS. FNS eRe aie agi eae UU ee ey At aR ON es 205 TICGY TL Ree Ap Oe at ra ie EI Aki OAR Sat ae a 2077 An effort has been made to determine why more women did not answer the discussion-paper and letters are at hand to show that a lack of time, a diffidence about offering ideas and the lack of prac- tice in writing leads many women to omit the return of the discus- sion-paper and at the same time to ask to have the Bulletins con- tinued. In general where discussion-papers are returned much information is obtained which keeps the Department in touch with the farm home, establishing a better acquaintance and making it possible to furnish a more efficient Reading-Course. Farmers’ Wives’ Clubs have been established in the Grange and in separate organizations where the members have made the Read- ing-Course a basis of work with the addition of some literary topics. Most excellent results have followed from the establishment of the clubs in rural districts. The club idea is growing and bids fair to be a prominent feature in social and intellectual rural life. It keeps [99] 100 FARMERS WIvES’ READING-COURSE. the women in a community in sympathy with each other in their general interests. It prevents isolation of women in farm homes and is inspiring those interested to grow intellectually. By means of the Reading-Course inquiries have been made to determine what literature is read in the farm home. It has been gratifying to know that the Bulletins have stimulated further reading. It is observed that the farm women both in Grange, Farmers’ In- stitutes and other meetings show a deeper interest and better knowl- edge of the scientific side of home making than is evidenced among the village women. The Winter-Course in Home Economics in the winter of 1906 had a membership of 40 and the constant attendance of many out- side of those registered. Lectures were given by women holding prominent positions in the field of Home Economics from the best institutions of the country. Assistance was also rendered by men and women connected with the University. This course is a natural outgrowth of the Reading-Course which has by printed bulletin gone into the farm home. If that becomes efficient it must necessarily follow that the more extended knowledge of home matters will be desired by the home makers. MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER, Supervisor Farmers’ Wives’ Reading-Course. XM. NATURE-STUDY. The Bureau of Nature-Study, during the school year of 1905-06, has maintained its usual field of work in the same manner and efficiency as since its installation, ten years ago. Through the teachers, children were organized into clubs called Junior Naturalist Clubs. The members elected a president and secretary. Many teachers took the occasion when the election of officers took place to give a lesson in civics. A number of teachers also had the clubs hold meetings under parliamentary rules. These clubs were under the able management of Miss Alice G. McCloskey, who edited the monthly publication known as the Junior Naturalist Monthly and every club member was considered a sub- scriber. These publications were remarkable for the fine English, apt and free illustrations and subjects germane to the season of the issue. Each number contained several topics. The pupils were asked — not required —to write letters to the Bureau of Nature- Study telling what they had observed under the inspiration of these ieaflets. These letters were written during the language period of school. The record of these clubs closed on July 2, 1906. The number of clubs in the State of New York............ 1,500 MROtaleme»mpenshipxotyclulbse avec cestas ier ae vere tole) s ie eks r-hele 30,083 Total number of letters received from children during LOO SOO. MEP Mr trac taich cata sepreterste tsetse | Oats 7 debe 20,806 Under the suggestions of the publication, children wrote on 31 different topics as follows: Tiras ahr SialGniedeas ace sole Sao Ue eee eo ma on ae On aa Rem Bem 205 [2 HEIT SUS es. pe Oa bio o ood xe aolo Nae ers a one Sasi note ira One 51 STO WAL AICCSEr eH ae rit SEARS Gea Ee es ls See ce pais Se ate Douche Te 1€0 THiGianvesinlkatnier, care ceo ocloagne Cotman cree poe ah cero aod aac 90 Pes ee is Ree ee ate ee othe hah Scape Sharia Raat ncea dria alae ites hs 87 (ChayROXOTTIS: Say ys ad lane Rene acti acerca Bari enna th eae ee eran 449 INTEC oop MeN Marge a ITED yea crs, eer aA erties ey ala at syaloteis ce 660 (Crayciatt se Aaa parte che, oles bo Pac atin Coon ct pga nea rT 1,132 TORN It A 5 Se Roe PR OIRO CEE EIEN aS CRE rR OS Se a 32 IPGReUNAe SS Goings Moe Deip don abtoonac abu, coetn uadod cd oeo pads 1,043 Weed 2S laa teeta: SE ios eae anes acres hr cis ee Sion eee aac 502 NOES hee Raticie Mea aE BORG CO Se0o Care AORN Sony cemegeer 1,132 (Be ea cilarele hw 0 A sarah Neo aR men Ope en ea Ae Ar pan en Aes ea 73 102 XII. NAtTuRE-StTupy. Pigzzle: eo) aes We Sinisa ve Ee an Se ee ecto a) op oes 850 Derraritm. 9) \.cnsd Seo yee ee oe ee =o ioc es 27 Wiesetables: a: Gcccieie Cement nto COE aC Ee eer ares 1,220 Seeds... versie monte chontewges wastes 6 vee ee een dee cca kane 8 Sil Aa7h, vaso ote Ree OC TON oe CE EEE EEE Cre eee 939 SenEieS. "a2 2 eealers Wines ere stents eat c eect eels Perso siete 32 Indian. “Pipes, Shs ies chetactite ce ote ay eC I ois Goce nine 52 Length: Of oct: 2 Vin sao ace ee ee ent: oat 50 Jack ,OMLam terns: S20 posse cataract teenie mete ieee tey shal ale hale 41 Bie, Jans cick os os Rees heres ree area een eer Ee oats ereiaie uae 437 Growth or planta .ccace evoke Choe ee roe oer eeebroneraee 156 BIT SR ec, eck ONS ARGS OE ee OSE EMERGE ee 1,340 EES ae EEE a ae ree eee Ca eR etch cent een 165 Schoolhousex sa iencah eee oo ae So re 306 Chicken:shia mimock sc 1. favycaae elite lo tide eevee onze sire eee 50 WeamdScapes < eo lets ae ccttraepteistoitichs suserate eb ecorese sea mere eae oie oer tele 199 lome lib rary. ceteris stots cts aa teks aseveres serene reteset opevepenAVehe fo RTI 90 The 140,000 pages of the Junior Naturalist Monthly were dis- tributed through the following months: October WOOF ce sn where. oo sere bette PE eM tr tO 40,000 pages IN Ghieinal sie ees OCS ena oe ig ug tartnn a catiom.c dou to theboode 64,000 pages December, MOOSe ES Ate hin eae clos eee ore 120,000 pages January, T OOO scree Rae oe EER Oe Oe 120,000 pages REbnuanys, OIOCO sot anise eee cece oecene eer Oe 60,000 pages March, TQOG Sees. we Space cere esos Seen a RLS re 144,000 pages April, TOQOO Hs aah yayoks aero Soe Seas Oe eRe 72,000 pages May, TOOO cists is wheckaler- Ctl NERO ee rote ete aeroes 120,000 pages It is with pleasure that I call attention to the results of our special effort made to give instruction in children’s gardens and junior agriculture in the public schools of the State of New York, during the year of 1905-06. At the opening of the public schools of the State in September of 1905, we did not have a single pupil enrolled. At the close of the school year, June, 1906, the total number enrolled was 33,476. The enrollment and instruction given were by means of leaflets and cor- respondence through the teachers. Six supplemental leaflets were published for small children on gardening topics, bearing date and topics as follows: November, Children’s Plants and How They Grow. December, How to Help Plants to Grow. January, Uncle John’s Talk with Gardeners. February, Contest Between Beans and Potatoes. March, Billy Boy and His Garden. April. Pepperpod’s Berry-box Garden. XII. NaAtuRe-STupy. 103 Circular letters were sent with five of the above issues for the pur- pose of awakening interest. Several thousand letters were written answering children who asked information concerning probleins that came in their garden experience. In writing, an effort was made to encourage and instruct from a child’s point of view. The cost of the above work was four cents per child per school year. JNOP We SPENCER Supervisor Bureau Nature-Study. HOME NATURE-STUDY. A special effort was made last September to reach the teachers in the rural schools. We concluded to send out fewer leaflets; there- fore, they were sent to those outside of the rural schools only upon special request. It was difficult to get the names and addresses of the rural teachers, for the lists given in the previous year’s report did not give the correct address. The Granges were asked to assist us in getting the names of the rural teachers. The following letter was sent to the secretaries of the six hundred Granges of New York State: “We are trusting in your interest as a patron to assist us in an effort to reach the children of the rural districts, and get them interested in nature-study as a direct aid to farming. “Ti the young people are to stay on the farm it will be because they find that life most attractive. They should get to know the problems of the farm and get interested in solving them. They should know not only the names, but the value of the trees, plants, insects, birds and all the living things which are sure to occupy their farms with them to their benefit or detriment. Such studies if properly in- troduced in the district school will not crowd out the regular studies, but will, on the contrary, be a help in making reading, geography, drawing, composition and even arithmetic more interesting. “Wiil you please to help us by mailing the enclosed postal cards to the teachers of your own and adjoining districts? And will you kindly bring this matter before the next meeting of your Grange, hoping that we may thus gain the direct influence of the members in this work of educating the children toward the farm instead of away from it.” In each of these letters were sent three postal cards like the en- closed. IrHaca; N? -Y.) SEPT 155 1905: To THE TEACHER: You know the life in your schoolroom; would you like to know some- thing of the life just outside your school house, and use this knowledge to give your pupils a new interest in the school and the farm? If so, we will help you in any two of the following lines: The Birds, their names, food habits and relations to agriculture. The IVild Flowers, their names, methods of growth and seed distribution, especial attention being given to weeds. The Trees, their names, characteristics, their flowers and fruits, and their special uses. [104] Home NATUuRE-STUDY. 105 The Insects, a study of the insect friends and foes of the farmer, how to deal with them; also the life habits of common butterflies and moths. The Fishes, a study of the names, habits, foods and uses of those common to our streams. Suggestions will be given as to how these subjects may aid the school work in language, drawing and geography. The course is free of all expense to all teachers in New York State, and is conducted by correspondence. Send a postal card giving your name and address. ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK, Home Nature-Study Course, Bureau of Nature-Study, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Although we received but a limited number of answers from the secretaries, yet in many instances they sent the postals to the rural teachers of the neighborhood without replying to us directly. As a result we had 849 rural school teachers in the Home Nature-Study Course. A smaller proportion of these teachers wrote out the answers than was the case with teachers in cities and villages, who composed our previous classes. However, the answers were of special excellence containing very little superficial work, and, on the whole, it seemed that our efforts have met with fair success. We sent the leaflets only to those training classes where the teacher requested them specially. Our plan was carried out of publishing with each issue a special leaflet on each of the following subjects: birds, trees, plants, insects, fishes. We suggested to the pupils that each take two of these sub- jects and specialize in them rather than try to cover the whole ground. Lessons sent out for the year: NS Tiel Sarena eae pratense eve odcyar Minar kal Scksts avicy v6, cce raha vast State! eis 2,830 TREO Bae eA Heat SOIC OREO EO aR eee 2,515 TEE W TG Get, | BTCC Oe URAC EPO ECON TO CIRO ICO Cer ace ean 2,226 TTI SCCES MR BRU et Sa Seta Meters et an een eerste eactrctng, soiehe 1,576 | VES 1 ae pete gd baunidccponeobay Bhidiec Onna ohare ae conan 1,081 10,228 These lessons were sent out in the aggregate as follows: Wctobere NOVien beta pve were cts Aoiaia oiehotcrevcke isle uavaye ove chokelchens, anatase -s 2,196 IDQGET XS EHTEEN ARO Bik) Binds Omoobccn eo omicO a Com On pemiadars ook 2,428 J Glomieiny Wilkie), 6" heoon dds cbbdnavboons JarpaonboU one ao adoo 2,730 PUM es VAR ath Mercy atone at Ss iene ce ta Sect cha Sta arp aare wi duns winks ohne al Gage 2,874 106 Home NATuRE-STUDY. It will be seen that there was a steady increase in the numbers sent out in each succeeding issue, this increase being due to special requests for the lessons. Lessons received: October-Novembers isl ncs.: bas Heke ection ee 471 December January. 2s sere ee see eRe echo nero 199 Rebriiary=Marchttys Sie Garris Serene eae seer rage hab rm 162 Acprale Mialy. 4s) :< Seed Stee Sek ee eee ie ences teoerotaee aes Wy 949 Letters received: Wethers: con aud mache tates colavtoope pares Ge Ne rs cae aie eee ete ate 862 Postal) Cardswc x ei tinsbaateis oe c- oteake whos oer eee eee 20 1,282 Letters sent out: EEE ERS Selo e Licey e myca el 5 erate yeterebereeeRe rake arora sl POG HeaShOre homeo siaIe STOTT Poteet 2,500 Circular Letters. if cas steele ors ea oeie Cem erie eer ite 2,5CO Postal Cards" as s2: eantmerac soe aoa ais etna reals cha etele ntiterate 2,000 7,000 ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOEK, Lecturer in Nature-Study. JUNIOR NATURALIST WORK, AND UNIVERSITY TEACHING. The work under my supervision in the College of Agriculture is twofold: Instruction in Nature-Study in the College and Extension Teaching. In the Extension Teaching I have carried on the following lines of work during the past year. First, the Junior Naturalist Clubs, which during the year numbered 28,000 children. These clubs are organized as follows: Public school teachers in New York State are requested to or- ganize the children into clubs for correspondence work in Nature Study. The members of the clubs are known as Junior Natural- ists. Each Junior Naturalist receives an illustrated leaflet, issued monthly during the school year. The purpose of this leaflet is to interest him in his natural environment: the birds, the trees, the wild flowers, the crops, ete. To every child who is an active Junior Naturalist for four months, sending to Uncle John one letter each month concerning some sub- ject mentioned in the leaflets, we send a picture. To the teacher who co-operates with us in this work, we send a picture suitable for hanging in the schoolroom. During the past year the Junior Naturalist work has been more satisfactory than in any previous year. The letters from the children have shown more thought and more actual observation. From the children 20,896 letters were received on the following subjects: Poultry, Teasel, Apple, Potato Bug, Weed Secds, Terrarium, Pump- kin, Soil, Seeds, Berries, Indian Pipes, Study of Roots, Jack O’Lantern, Growth of Plant, Bird, Schoolhouse, Country Scenes, Nature-Study Library, Tracks, Evergreens, Snow Flakes, Home Making, Pigeons, Cocoons, Mice, Corn, Toads, Bluejays, Cats, A Little Chick’s Hammock. That some subjects are more popular with the children than others will be shown by the following report of letters by subjects as received from the children: Poultry, 1043; Teasel, 502; Apple, 1,132; Potato Bug, 73; Puzzle, 850; Vegetable, i220, Terrarium, 27; Pumpkin; 86; Soil, 939; Seeds, 8; Berries, 52; Indian Pipes, 52; Length of Roots, 50; Jack O’Lantern, 41 ; Growth of Plant, 156; Bird, 1,340; Schoolhouse, 306; View, 199; Library, Lto7] 108 Junior Naturatist Work. go; Tracks, 295; Evergreen, 51; Snow Flakes, 160; Home Making, go; Pigeons, 87; Cocoons, 449; Mice, 660; Corn, 1,132; Toads, 329; Bluejay, 437; Cats, 165; Hammock, 50. In the final issue of the Junior Naturalist Monthly a plan suggest- ing sumimer study relating to country life was published. Prizes were offered for the best compositions on these subjects. Following are a few of the letters that will illustrate observation along these lines: 1. Prize offered for the best letter on birds. “Dear Uncle John: “Last term our teacher started a Junior Naturalist Club and the last little paper I got there was offered prizes for the best composition on out- door life. ; “T have tried the best I could to write, I hope I will get a book. This is the first time I ever wrote to the Junior Naturalist Club. “The History of Two Families of Birds in Our Orchard. “Tn our orchard there is an old apple tree. The tree has been there about 25 years and blossoms about the middle of May. The blossoms are quite pink. The apples are good when they are ripe. “This summer a family of robins built in this tree and also up in the other end of the orchard the family of black-birds built their nest. They went up io the very top up in the thick branches and built a nest of sticks and straws. ; “The robins built their nest about 12 inches from the ground, in the crotch of the tree. “The old birds brought straw and dry grass and strings. It took them about two days to do this, then the mother bird lined it with sofi, dry grass and a few feathers. In about 5 days after I first saw them start to build the nest there was one egg in the nest. In three days there was three eggs in it. “Then the mother bird began to set. She set about nine days and then there was one baby robin in it. The old ones fed it and worked to get enough for them and their baby bird. The other two eggs did not hatch and I took them out of the nest. “One day I came home from school and found the baby bird had grown too big for the nest and had to sit on the edge of it. “But meanwhile the other family of birds had hatched and the black- Dirds tried to get the little baby robin away from its parents. “One night I was washing dishes and heard such a noise out in the orchard I ran out to see what it was. When I got there one of the black-birds had the little baby robin in its mouth and was flying away with it. I picked up a stone and threw it at it and hit it on the wing but it did not drop it so I had to let it go. “T really think that the black-birds ought to be banished to the woods ‘Junior NAtTuRALIsT Work. . 109 like the crows. They do so much harm robbing song-birds’ nests and eating the young birds. “T am disgusted with them. I think they ought to be shot. This is not the only case I know of. They have often killed old birds on their nest while defending their little birds. “T have no sympathy for them at all. They are thieves and robbers. “ Hoping my letter is not too long, I will close. “From EDITH, L: WRIGHT; ‘Age I2 years. “ Ogdensburg, N. Y.” 2. Prize for best letter on country roadsides. “Dear Uncle John: “T have been studying the country roadside this summer and I thought I would tell you about it. “The dandelions come about the first here. The flowers are of a yellow color. They grow very thick all over the hillsides and pastures and the roadsides. The next flowers that bloom, I think, were the buttercups and daisies. The buttercups grow quite tall and the flowers are yellow. The daisies grow quite tall also. They are yellow in the centre with a white frill around the edge. “Then violets, strawberry, bloodroot and mandrake blossom. The violet is dark blue. These flowers are cousins to the pansy and look very much like it. The flowers of the strawberry plant are quite small and white. The plant is a sort of a vine that runs on the ground a short distance and roots start out along the vine. The berry is red and the seeds grow quite different from most plants. They are on the otitside of the berry. “The bloodroot is a white blossom but it grows a little higher than the strawberry. The reason it is called bloodroot is because when you break the stem there is a sort of juice that comes out and the color of the juice is reddish orange. The mandrake has a pretty flower. “The thistle grows in pastures and roads. The leaves to it are a little different from most plants. There is sort of thorns on the edge of the leaves. The thistle has two different colors. They are purple or white. “The clover is very common all over around here and the plant grows all the year. “ Forget-me-nots, wild roses and wild bluebells come about next. The forget-me-nots grow along in the little brooks that flow by the road. These flowers are very small and they are light blue. “The wild rose is a pink or red flower. This flower has little thorns something like the thistle only this is woodlike. “Bluebells grow in quite swampy places. The flower is described very well by its name for it is really a blue bell. “The ‘flower de luce’ blossoms in the same place as the bluebell. It wants swampy ground. “Then last of all come the goldenrod, Jacob’s ladder or butter and eggs. The goldenrod is yellow. It grows taller than most plants. “From your niece ; ' “RUTH KIDDER Age 10 years. “Jamestown, N, Y.” 110 JuNiIoR NATURALIST WorRK. 3. Prise for best letter on gardens. “My garden is located at the southwest corner of our house. It is about 3 by 14 feet in size. “T planted it about the middle of May and sowed cosmos, asters, pansies, mignonette, bachelor buttons, petunias, dianthus, nasturtiums, and a wild garden. Also there is a queer little flower, that I do not know the name of and another strange flower. “Then I had my gourd seeds to plant. There is a story connected with them. “T put them in a little room in the rear of our house and left them there till I was ready to plant them. When it came time to plant them I picked up the envelope and saw it was all kerosene oil. “ Mother said this would kill the seeds and I felt very bad about it because I had never had any before, but I planted them in one corner of my garden. Then father came along and planted two rhubarb plants and the seeds were all mixed around for about a square foot. “T had not looked at my garden for a couple of days and so I thought I would see the plants and also water them. So I went around and what did I see but two little shoots poking their heads above the ground. J watched them for a few days and when the leaves were large mother said they were gourds. “They are now very large plants and three more have come up. My bachelor buttons are just blossoming and my garden is going to be a very pretty one. “About a week ago my uncle came and my garden was not in very good condition then. He said, ‘Come on and fix this garden up.’ He said +o get a spade and a basket. We did not have the right kind of a spade, and so I got the axe and asked if that would do, and uncle saying yes, we went to work. First I took the axe and trimmed it all around by cutting the sod off in a straight line, and doing this all around. Then I took all the grass and dirt and put it into the basket and carried it away. Then we weeded it all out and the most troublesome weed of all was the chickweed, next came the pigweed and the rest did not trouble me very much. “There are lots and lots of butterflies around our house and they visit the flowers a good deal and the bees too. They come to get the honey out oi the nasturtiums and other flowers. The plant lice trouble me a good deal by coming mostly on my poppies and swarming on the stems. “When they do this I pick off the stem and put it into the fire so destroy- ing the flower but getting rid of the pests. Another funny experience I had was this. I had picked off the stem to a weed and saw a very fat, green stem about one inch long and taking hold of it I was astonished to feel it move in my hands. Dropping it on the sidewalk I examined it and it proved te be a worm very fat indeed. I then stepped on it. “No birds have yet visited my garden that I have seen. I expect to see the bluebirds again this fall. These birds come every fall and hopping on our clothesposts bid us goodbye with a song. “DONALD HOMER TYLER.” Junior NATURALIST Work. Tat 4. Prise for best letter on farm crops. “Dear Uncle John: “As I have some spare time I will write a composition on the ‘Farm Crops’ to help in the work of Plant Life. “The corn crop is the most interesting to me. We endeavor to top dress it in the winter and plow it in the spring. As soon as we get the sod plowed we fix it for the corn to be planted by the use of spring tooth harrow and roller. “We roll the piece over once and then go over the field two times with a pec tooth harrow, then we roll it again. “When we want a very good growth of corn and not such a growth of fodder, we plant it with a planter, and when we want a very large growth of fodder we plant it with a drill, the rows being three feet apart. “We have a very gocd crop for our soil and climate. We sowed haif yellow corn and half early white corn until mixed and still have continued to sow it. “When it is up about four inches we commence cultivating it and we cultivate it about every three weeks until it is about thirty-four inches high. “When the corn is ripe we go in with a corn binder and cut it, then we go along behind the binder and set the corn up in shocks containing bundles. We draw it down to the barn in three or four weeks. “As soon as it is fit we husk it or shred it. It is not a very good plan to shred it unless you have a silo, for it will meld. “Corn is raised chiefly in the central part of United States but there is some raised in the eastern part. Corn is used in fatting stock for market. ~B CURRY WEATHER BYE? 5. Prize for best letter on brook. “Dear Uncle John: “In the brook by my home there are many different fish. They are minnows. They are about three inches long. There are lots of tad-poles in the pond and poly-wogs are a plenty too. There are frogs and toads too. The frogs have green eyes and a brown back. The toads are all brown. “There are crabs in the brook too. These crabs are very strong. When they get a hold of your finger you think they will never let go. They are a brown color. Some of them are black. Forget-me-nots grow all along the bank of the creek and wild sun flowers grow there too. All these fish, crabs, and flowers died because the brook dried up. “Yours truly = JOSEPH GARBIFED:. “This brook was called ‘Swift Brook’ by the Indians. “Tt is about four miles long and twelve or fifteen feet wide in the widest place. The deepest place that I have found is not more than four feet deep. “In the Spring it is so high that it washes the bridge away sometimes. Where the brook is widest there are falls different from any I have ever seen and difficult to describe. The water falls over rocks that resemble a broad staircase of the tiniest steps. 112 Junior NATURALIST Work. “The source is a spring. The bed is mostly smooth rock, too slippery to stand on. In lots of places the bank is steep and rocky with water trickling down the rocks. “The trees near the brook are hemlock, beach, birch and maple. In one place a hemlock grew out over the water. It is dead now and another has grown out over the first. “T have seen minnows in this brook and little water flies darting back and forth in the water. “What I have written so far is about the brook in summer when the water is lowest. Now I will tell what I have seen in time of a flood. “The water was muddy and roaring, at least four times as high as it usually is. It came over the road and washed one bridge away. The rain of a night and a day caused this. “There is a lovely ravine that we drive through often. The road follows the brook for half a mile with the brook on one side of the road. og iC ty ia hy arb iy 3 f , MJ 3 oa hae! "“ TIE ; : ; ; Pye Dol. haa ie. , A P see : ' Uae 4 ; ‘ aw, ia ‘ t Fi opie {i See alte Pi * ui waghe " ( ; mm? tele = 2 ‘ aa “3 ) 3 bh 0 EW ARS dyed Paap ed - Pena: peanha, ‘ oS F ’ ‘ a ie yet ET Fe Ce emt satin . ae 7 $ . er rac ait asa CO Ae aves vos Ret LF dell bh again ie eel ¢ uy . - ‘a oF 1 =s ey at + cate JANUARY, 1906 BULLETIN 234 CORNEDL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE COLreEGE. OF: AGRICUBTURE Department of Entomology THES BRONZE. BIRCH: BORER - AN INSECT DESTROYING THE WHITE BIRCH An infested birch in one of the Buffalo Parks By M. V. SLINGERLAND ITHACA, Ne VY: PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 137 ORGANIZATION OF THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BOARD OF CONTROL THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL JACOB GCULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the Agricultural College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. THOMAS F. HUNT, Professor of Agronomy. EXPERIMENTING STAFF LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director. JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology. HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry. GEORGE F. ATKINSON, Botany. JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture. THOMAS F. HUNT, Agronomy. RAYMOND A. PEARSON, Dairy Industry. MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. JOHN L. STONE, Agronomy. JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry. JOHN W. GILMORE, Agronomy. HERBERT -H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology. SAMUEL FRASER, Agronomy. JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry. ELMER O. FIPPIN, Soil Investigation. CHARLES E. HUNN, Horticulture. Office of the Director, 17 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New York State who request them. 138 THE BRONZE BIRCH BORER Agrilus anxius Gory Order CoLeorTera ; family BUPRESTIDZ The birch trees with their graceful habits, their slender, often pendu- lous branches, and their picturesque trunks are conspicuous features of any landscape. The European white birch in its various weeping and cut-leaved forms has been extensively planted in American city parks and private lawns. Its artistic beauty, with its silvery stemmed branches and fluttering leaves “ floating at the discretion of the winds ’’ makes the white birch a constant source of delight both in summer and winter. As com- pared with the elm or maple, the white birch is considered a short-lived tree, but they frequently survive to grace a landscape for thirty years or more. It is with much regret, therefore, that this Experiment Station finds it necessary through this bulletin to announce to lovers of these beau- tiful white birches that a deadly insect enemy has recently ap- peared which is fast destroying these trees in city parks and on home grounds. Hundreds of the finest specimens of these graceful trees in Buffalo, (see frontis- piece) Ithaca and other cities and towns of New York have suc- cumbed to this enemy within the past eight years. About half of the score of white birches on the _ Cornell University Campus (Fig. 34), some of them over thirty fi years old, have been killed by the insect within three years ; and several of the remaining trees are infested and will not survive more than a year or two. These facts demonstrate the seriousness of the situation, and demand that city authorities and private own- ers of these valuable trees ac- FIG. 30.—a, Characteristic rusty brown spots ; ; on bark over the borer in autumn, natural quaint themselves with the de- size; b, birch branch showing the peculiar tails of the work and life-habits "¢ged effect over the burrow of borer, re- eh j duced in size. of this insect so that remedial measures may be promptly and judiciously applied. 139 140 BULLETIN 234. INDICATIONS OF THE INSECT’s PRESENCE The presence of this insect in birch trees is not easily determined until it has been at work for a year or more. The first intimation one usually has of its presence is the dying of some of the top branches of the tree. This is well shown in the frontispiece and in Fig. 34. This dying of the tops of the trees has been very characteristic of the work of this pest wherever I have seen it in New York. The whole tree often succumbs in another year or two. Rarely the trees might begin to die at the top from a condition known as “ stag head” caused by lack of moisture and food materials. A careful examination should readily locate the borer if it is the culprit. Some have tried to save a tree by pruning out the dead branches or top, but without avail, for by that time the whole tree usually is infested. Sometimes one can determine in autumn whether a tree is infested by this insect, even before any branches have been killed. Characteristic red- dish or rusty brown spots or discolorations, as shown at a in Fig. 30, often occur on the white bark of the trunk and larger branches at the point where the insect is preparing to hibernate and transform in the wood be- neath. Usually the insect can be easily located by cutting through the bark and into the wood beneath these rather conspicuous spots. Another peculiarity which characterizes the work of the insect is the ridge which often develops in the bark over the burrow on the branches, as shown at 0 in Fig. 30. Thus, while the insect works in rather an obscure manner, it indi- cates its presence in the above described characteristic and sometimes con- spicuous ways. Unfortunately, however, it is usually then too late to save the tree, but much can be done to prevent further infestation of other trees. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENEMY This destroyer of white birches is a small, slender, olive-bronze colored beetle nearly half an inch in length (7.5-11.5 mm.), as shown in Figs. 31 and 35. “Its general color and the fact that it works mostly in birch trees suggested the good popular name of Bronze Birch Borer for the insect. However, it is not in this adult or beetle stage that the insect is destructive. It is injurious only during its life as a larva or grub when it is a borer. *Chittenden (Bull. 18, U. S. Div. of Entomology, p. 47) technically describes it as “of moderately robust form, subopaque, olivaceous bronze in color. The last ventral segment is oval at the apex; the punctuation of the prothorax is transversely strigoso-punctate, and its posterior angles are carinate in both sexes; the first ventral segment in the male is broadly grooved; the second more deeply, the groove being narrow and smooth (see b in Fig. 31). The serration of the antennal joints begins with the fourth joint. The elytra bear each a rather vague longitudinal costa and the scutellum is transversely carinate.”” The popular name of the insect was first suggested in this account by Chittenden. THE Bronze Bircu Borer. The borer (Figs. 31 and 35) is a slender, flattened, footless, creamy white grub about three-fourths of an inch long when fully grown. Its small head with dark brown mouth- parts is retracted into the wide, flattened first thoracic segment giving it a flat-headed ap- pearance. The other segments of the body are not so wide, the second and third thoracic being the narrowest. The caudal end of the body ends in two brown, horny, forceps-like processes with bidentate inner margins. It is this slender creature which is responsible for the killing of the trees. It may be found in autumn by cutting into the trees beneath the rusty-colored spots described on page 140 as occurring on the bark ( Fig. 30,a). These grubs make tortuous or zigzag burrows in the sap- wood around and across the trunk and branches of infested trees, as shown in Figs. 36, a and 32. WoRK OF THE INSECT This borer attacks white birches of all sizes I4I Fic. 31.—The Bronze Birch Borer. a. female beetle; b, first abdominal segments of male from below; c, grub or borer. All enlarged about three and one-half times. (From Bull. 18, U.S. Bu- reau of Entomology). from nursery trees to stately monarchs more than a quarter of a century old. All parts of the tree, from branches a quarter of an inch in diameter to the main trunk, may be infested. Fic. 32.—Tee burrow of a single borer as it stgzagged around and through this 2-foot branch for a distance of over 5 fect. Much reduced. The top branches are always first attacked and killed, then the infestation the and spreads into other branches trunk. The hatching egg laid by the adult tiny borer, from an or beetle on the bark, begins a narrow mine or burrow through the bark. The burrow is ex- tended in a tortuous or zigzag direction the getting wider as the along branch, borer grows, and running mostly in the sap-wood just beneath the bark, 142 BULLETIN 234. but sometimes going for a short distance deeper into the wood, even to the center of the branch. The borer packs the burrow behind it with its excrement and wood particles which turn dark brown in the first or smaller portion of the mine. The flattened grub makes a shallow burrow that gradually widens to an eighth of an inch. Many of these zigzag, packed burrows are shown at a in Fig. 36. It is difficult to follow a burrow throughout its whole length. Larsen (Mich. Acad. Sci., 3rd Rept. 1902, p. 48) states that he followed one “through its winding course a distance of 1 foot and 7 inches in a length of branch of 4 inches, now near the bark, now deep down in the wood; ‘ Fic. 69 Pedi Pua ‘ z 1 . : ce —Actively growing pear twigs blighted by ariificial inoculation with bacteria jrom canker on limb of apple tree. ing about the trees or from the gnawing of animals; one of the worst animals in New York is the woodchuck. A large percentage of such wounds heal over eventually, but frequently through the agency of insects or other means these wounds serve as infection courts for the canker bacillus. An interesting case of wound infection came under my observa- tion last season. In cutting a cankered branch I accidentally “barked” a healthy limb with the cut end of the diseased branch. The tree was not again visited until some weeks later, when a large and actively spread- ing canker was found to have developed about the abrasion (see front cover). The bacteria were found in abundance in the diseased tissue and pure cultures were secured. 196 Fic. 70.— Half grown apple tnoculated with pure cul- ture of bacteria from can- ker on limb of apple tree. Noie milky drops exuding from diseased tissue. BULLETIN 236. The wounds or punctures of insects seem to be directly responsible for some of the in- fections. Sometimes cankers on the bodies of trees cannot be attributed to infection through blighted shoots. In some cases these cankers have been traced directly to the wounds made by insects. Fig. 78 shows a hole made by a borer at the base of a tree and surrounding it is a well developed canker. It is very probable that many of the cankers at the base of young trees origi- nate in wounds made by borers. The bac- teria are probably carried to these wounds by flies or other insects which visit these places to feed on the exuding sap and excre- ment. The infecting agents in the case of crotch cankers have not as yet been defi- nitely determined. It seems likely that in- sects again are here responsible. I have Fic. 71.— Naturally infected apple. Infection probably took place in the spur at the base of the stem, through which ut worked its way to the young fruit. Lo ‘ey, rete BLIGHT CANKER OF THE APPLE TREE. 197 found them repeatedly hiding in the crevices of the dead bark that ac- cumulates in the crotches, and one species seems to feed to some extent on the living tissue in such places. | have also observed this same species feeding on the exuding sap of cankered limbs and stubs. That it may carry the bacteria to the crotches seems obvious. Besides this, many of the crotches are of such a form that they readily retain moisture and thus afford the best of conditions for bacterial growth. Fic. 72.—Cankers on limbs of apple tree which originated through blighted spurs. At a general deduction, then, it may be stated that infection occurs only through a wound of some sort. Moreover, the infection court must be of such a nature that it will not dry out quickly. An abundance of moisture is known to be necessary to the rapid growth and development of the blight organism. This was repeatedly demonstrated in the large number of pure cultures which I had under observation during the sum- mer. The growth was most abundant and vigorous in liquid media. This peculiarity accounts for the ease with which growing shoots are infected. When the diseased tissue of an active canker was at once cut out and the wound exposed to the drying heat of the sun without any other treatment, the canker ceased to spread and the place healed rapidly. 198 BULLETIN 236. 6. TREATMENT THAT PROMISES BEST RESULTS Although the work of the past season has been devoted largely to a study of the various manifestations of the disease, its cause and distribu- tion, still some attention has been given to the means of combating it. Through the kindness of several men, in different parts of the State, 1 have had the opportunity of carrying on some experiments along this line on their trees. PREVENTION rather than cuRE is one of the axioms of plant pathology. In most cases the curing of a diseased plant is impossi- ble, or its value does not warrant the effort required to save it. However, in the case of trees just com- ing into bearing it seems that, if possible, some means of saving them should be worked out. Several things were ac- cordingly tried, but the one that so far gives most promise of definite results is to cut out the cankers (Fig. 76). With a sharp knife remove all the diseased tissue (Fig. 79), swab out the wound with a weak solution of corrosive sublimate (one tablet to one pint of water), or with a three per cent solution of copper sulfate (1 ounce to I quart of water), and when dry, paint over thoroughly with some heavy lead paint. This should be done early in the season, as soon as the cankers are dis- Fic. 73.—Recently blighted shoot on limb oj covered, for two reasons: Ist, - Cone apple tree with well marked the spreading of the canker active canker about tits base. and its consequent damage to the tree is checked; 2d, the wound is thus given a long period in which to heal. The painting should be repeated again toward the close of the season and again the next year, or until the wound has completely healed. This prevents a second infection or the entrance of rot fungi. A_ twice- monthly inspection of every tree should be made and all cankers carefully cut out and treated as soon as they appear. Cankered trees so treated early in the spring of 1905 have formed good calluses and are fast heal- ing the wounds (Figs. 80 and 81). , BiiGHT CANKER OF THE APPLE TREE, 199 Fic. 74.—Typical body canker in tts first stage. Re- y sulting from injection through blighted watersprouts. Fic. 76.—Pruned stub canker. The bacteria did not die the first Fic. 75.—Pruned stub canker. In- ep jected at time of pruning, probably season, but continued through- by the saw. Note the collar of dead out the winter slowly to work Bork: down the stde of the amb. The diseased bark has all been cut away preparatory to treating and painting the wound. 200 BULLETIN 236. 7. PREVENTIVE MEASURES. It is scarcely necessary to point out that every precaution should be taken to prevent bruises or injuries of any sort, since these make excellent infection courts for the entrance of the bacteria. All dead limbs and trees should be promptly removed from the orchard and BURNED. Old pear trees in the neighborhood of young apple orchards are often a constant source of infection, and, unless kept abso- lutely free of the blight, should be removed. A neighbor careless in respect to blight in his pear trees provides a dangerous source of infection. Cut out and burn every trace of twig blight from both pear and apple trees as soon as it is detected. Fic. 77.—Pruned stub canker resulting from cutting away a watersprout with a knife used shortly before to cut out an active canker and not disinfected. When pruning, treat all cut surfaces with the corrosive sublimate or _copper sulfate solution and keep them painted until healed. Treat all accidental wounds in the same way. Keep the body and main limbs of the tree free of watersprouts throughout the summer. In planting, choose trees with open or spreading crotches. Avoid excessive fertilizing with nitrogenous manures. Apply some form of phosphoric acid to ripen new growths, BLIGHT CANKER OF THE APPLE TREE. 201 The planting of varieties known to be more or less resistant to this disease is to be recommended. The Wolf River and Talman Sweet appear to be of this sort, while Baldwin and Ben Davis suffer most severely. Desirable non-resistant varieties may be top grafted on resistant stocks. Mr. M. B. Wait; in a lecture at Lockport, N. Y., January 3, 1906, before the New York State Fruit Growers’ Association, recommended the spraying of pear trees early in the spring with the Lime-Sulphur wash as Fic. 78.—Canker formed about Fic. 79.—Pruned stub canker, with diseased the mouth of the burrow of a bark and stub removed, treated with corrosive borer near base of an apple tree. sublimate and painted over. This is the same canker as Fig. 75, ajter treatment. a means of covering up “hold over” cankers of the fire blight that had been overlooked in the “ cutting out process.’ This treatment serves only to destroy any bacteria that may exude from trees already diseased, and thus prevent the cankers from serving as sources of infection. It will not protect healthy trees trom infection. A similar treatment of can- kered apple trees would certainly be of value. 202 , Fic. 80.— Pruned stub BULLETIN 236. 8. DISTRIBUTION AND SEVERITY OF THE DISEASE & ae is can- ker that had spread down side of limb during early spring of second year. Diseased tissue cleaned away, treated with corro- sive sublimate and painted. Good calluses jormed. Canker ceased to spread. Since the first specimen of blight canker was received from the Upper Hudson River region early in the summer of 1904, evidence has been constantly accumulating that points to a very wide distribution of the disease. Numerous trips during the last two seasons have con- vinced me of its very general occurrence throughout this State. Practically no orchard of any size visited has been without some trace Oat Certain sections have suffered much more severely than the rest of the State. The ac- companying map (Fig. 82) shows the regions known to be most seriously affected. No doubt other localities have suffered as severely as those indicated, but limited time and funds at our disposal for this work have made a more A careful and systematic examination of the orchards in all of the apple-growing sections of the State is very desirable, not only that the exact extent and severity of this disease may be determined but also that a comparative study of the dis- tribution of other canker diseases may be made. As already pointed out, the disease has been epidemic only in a few rather well marked and restricted sections of the State. In the Hudson River valley north of Albany the canker has destroyed nearly every young orchard. In the region about Schuylerville and Saratoga its ravages seem to have most fatal. Throughout that section a number of orchards were set some ten to twelve years ago. These were just coming into bearing when the dis- extensive survey impossible. been ease began to appear in alarming severity. At first only a few trees died here and there in an orchard, but by 1904 the loss had in many cases reached more than 50 per cent, and a careful examination of sev- eral orchards showed that not less than 95 per cent of the trees were diseased. All along the line of the trolley north of Albany and about Saratoga, the dead and leafless branches of the young apple trees bear ee eee ee ee re a j ee a Pures =. ee ee BiicHT CANKER OF THE APPLE TREE. 203 witness to the destructiveness of the malady. The severe winters of 1902-3 and 1903-4 no doubt seriously affected the vitality of the trees, rendering them especially susceptible to attacks of the blight organism. The constant occurrence of the cankers indicate, however, that they were the chief factors in the death of the trees. No dead or dying trees in the young orchards were found that did not show cankers. Moreover, trees were observed here and there that bore no trace of canker and were apparently healthy and vigorous but showed upon examination the black- ened cambium region due to freezing. In one orchard of originally some 400 trees (Fig. 83) which began to go out in 1903, less than 50 were still alive in June, 1905, and but a very few of these were entirely free from Fic. 81.—Body canker cleaned out, treated and painted about eight weeks after treatment. Good, healthy calluses formed, which, with proper care, will completely heal this wound. the canker. The old orchards in this section have also suffered consider- ably from this same malady, and pear trees have almost entirely gone out. In the region about Kirkville and Chittenango in the northern part of Onondaga and Madison counties, a condition almost identical with that in the Hudson River region exists. The young orchards, while fewer in number, have suffered almost total destruction from this canker. The old trees in this section do not seem to have suffered to any con- siderable extent as yet. The disease appears to have become epidemic in this locality at about the same time as in the Hudson River region. In neither of these sections were many active cankers observed in 1905. 204 BULLETIN 236. Practically all of them seem to have been formed during the seasons of Ig02 and 1903. The summer of 1902 was a very rainy one in those regions, offering the very best of conditions for infection and develop- ment of the cankers. No doubt many of them appeared during that time but passed unnoticed by the ordinary grower until their baneful effects began to show in 1903. A few active cankers, however, were noted on trees here and there in these badly diseased orchards. The force of the Fic. 82.—Map showing localities in the State where the disease is known to have been epidemic. The disease probably occurs throughout the orchards of the State, but 1s seldom severe. epidemic seems to have spent itself by the end of 1903, the completion of the destruction being effected by the rot fungi that had gained entrance to the heartwood through the canker wounds. In Jefferson county along the eastern end of Lake Ontario, especially in the neighborhood of Chaumont, the disease had completely wiped out many of the young orchards even before 1903. Farmers in this district assured me that their trees had been dying from this disease of trunks BLIGHT CANKER OF THE APPLE TREE. 205 and limbs for several years. Their statements were borne out by the ad- vanced stage of decay of most of the cankered trees. The disease was active in trees which had not yet succumbed, and reports from that section showed that it was still at work in 1905. The three sections already described are, so far as I know, the only places in which loss from the canker has been severe. An examination of the young orchards about Ithaca show a large percentage of affected trees, but as yet the disease has not occasioned serious losses. In an orchard of about 350 trees which has been under observation throughout the past season, about Se per cent of the trees show cankers, while the actual number of dead trees resulting from its attacks has not exceeded five per cent. It is, on the other hand, a significant fact that a very large Fic. 83.—Orchard of Mr. Henry Peck near Schuylerville, which originally con- tained some 400 trees. They began to go out in 1903 and in June, 1905, less than 50 trees were still alive. A very few of the 50 were entirely free from the canker. proportion of this five per cent has died during the past summer. Reports of what appear to be the same disease have come from other sections of the State. The canker is not confined to this State alone. Reports and speci- mens from different places indicate that it is more or less common in New Jersey, Delaware, Kentucky, Kansas, lowa and Wisconsin. What is doubtless the same disease is also reported from Canada. In fact, it is safe to say that wherever the “ twig blight” form of the disease occurs, ‘the canker form on limbs and body is more or less common. A study of horticultural and agricultural literature shows that the disease has been destructive not only in nearly every apple-growing region of the United States and Canada, but probably also in England,?! as well. 206 BULLETIN 236. 9. THE BLiicHt CANKER IN ITs RELATIONS TO WEATHER CONDITIONS It is well known that the “blight” in the twigs of pear and apple trees is most active and severe during acontinued period of warm, muggy weather. The same is to be said of the cankers on the limbs and bodies of the trees. Considering that both are due to the activity of the same organisms, this is to be expected. It was repeatedly noticed during the past season that the active spread of the cankers was coincident with certain periods of rainy weather. The progress of the disease through the bark is always abruptly checked on the appearance of bright, sunny days. The recurrence of favorable weather may often cause a renewal of activity, the canker spreading and increasing its former extent. This usually results in concentric cracks within the cankered area. (Fig. 53.) This relation between the activity of the canker and the condition of the weather seems to be dependent on two factors: (1) The increased moisture content of the soil results in an increased amount of water in the bark and growing tissue of the tree, which, in connection with high temperature, causes the rapid growth of succulent tissue. This con- dition of the host is the most favorable for the growth and rapid multi- plication of the bacteria. (2) The atmospheric humidity itself seems in some way directly to affect the activity of the parasite; for, although a heavy rain followed by bright, warm weather would seem to afford ideal conditions for the rapid growth of the tree, such weather was observed to be much less favorable to the activity of the cankers than damp, cloudy days. Smith has observed?’ in his work on the asparagus rust that at- mospheric conditions, aside from their indirect effects through the host, exercise a direct influence on the formation of zcidiospores by the para- site. The spores were observed to form only during periods of abundant atmospheric moisture,— conditions most favorable to their germination. The effect of cloudy weather on the canker organism seems to be of a similar nature. The rapid growth and multiplication of the bacteria re- sult in their exudation in large drops (Fig. 51) from the diseased tissue, from which, through the agency of insects, they are carried to other trees. Bright, sunny weather would cause this viscid substance to dry and harden at once. But, as we have seen, the activity of the organism is checked by bright days, and consequently there is no exudation, Humidity of the atmosphere is necessary not only for the best de- velopment of the bacteria, but is requisite also for the successful infection of healthy tissue by them. As has been stated before, infection can take place only through a wound of some sort. The moisture in the air pre- vents the rapid drying out of the infection court, thus affording the bacteria sufficient time, under favorable conditions, in which thoroughly BLIGHT CANKER OF THE APPLE TREE. 207 to establish themselves. The bacteria are quickly killed by the drying out of the wound before they have infected the living tissue. : As a general conclusion, then, we may say that those weather con- ditions most favorable to the activity of the disease in the tissues of the host are also the most favorable to the dissemination of the bacteria and the infection of healthy trees. The disease generally manifests itself in the twigs only during the warmer seasons of the year. The cankers, although they grow most rapidly at this time, may be active at almost any season. I have observed them slowly extending along a limb during March and April (Fig. 76). 10. Proors oF THE BACTERIAL NATURE OF THE DISEASE I stated in the early parts of this bulletin that the cankers are caused directly by bacteria. It remains to indicate more in detail the proofs of this assertion. These are as follows: 1. Presence of the bacteria in the cankers.— These are always to be found in abundance in actively spreading cankers and in milky, viscid drops which frequently exude from the diseased bark. 2. Absence of fungi—Although diligent search with the micro- scope was made repeatedly, no trace of fungous mycelium was ever dis- covered in freshly cankered bark. The mycelium of common rot fungi is almost always to be found in the dry tissues of old cankers. In some cases, these saprophytic forms enter very soon after the bacteria have killed the bark. 3. Production of cankers by inoculation. (Figs. 65 and 66.) — Fortu- nately for my investigations, an active canker was discovered on an apple tree on the University grounds. Bacteria taken directly from this canker were introduced into the body of a healthy apple tree and also into that of a healthy pear tree. A sterile scalpel was used in making the incision into the bark, which had been washed with a solution of cor- rosive sublimate. A bit of the diseased tissue was carefully removed with a sterile scalpel and inserted into the wound, which was then sealed with grafting wax. A number of inoculations were made in each tree. Two typical cankers developed in each case. Those on the pear (Fig. 66) developed first and became more extensive. Those on the apple (Fig. 65) developed more slowly and never became so large. It was sub- sequently found that pure cultures of the organism could be regularly obtained by transferring with sterile scalpel bits of the diseased bark to potato bouillon. These inoculations may then be regarded as made from practically pure cultures. Two accidental inoculations (Figs. 77 and ~ 208 BULLETIN 236. cover) of the bacteria into healthy trees and limbs also resulted in well developed cankers. To these I have already referred (page 195). 4. Production of twig blight with bacteria from canker (Figs. 67 and 69).—At the same time that the inoculations into the bodies of the trees were made, bacteria from the same canker were introduced into blossoms and tips of growing twigs of both pears and apples. These were practically pure cultures, as a sterile needle was used to transfer the bacteria from the canker to the twigs and blossoms. Infection took place from nearly every inoculation, giving well developed cases of twig and blossom blight in 10 to 14 days (Fig. 68). In the meantime, pure cultures were secured by dilution in agar plates and also by direct transfer from the diseased tissue of the canker into potato bouillon. A set of inoculations was now made from these pure cultures into twigs and green fruits of both pears and apples. These like- wise: resulted in nearly roo per cent of infections. 5. Observations on the formation of cankers.— During the early part of July, twig blight became very common on the apple trees throughout the region about Ithaca. There was also a second severe attack of it during the latter part of the month and the early part of August. The blighting of watersprouts and short shoots on the bodies and main limbs of the trees resulted in the formation of many small cankers. Several of these I carefully observed and photographed at different stages in their de- velopment (Fig. 74). Pure cultures of the bacteria were also secured from these sources. There was absolutely no doubt as to the nature of the organism causing them. Ir. THE IDENTITY OF THE CANKER ORGANISM WITH THAT OF THE FIRE BLIGHT OF PEARS During the epidemics of twig blight just referred to, many of the fruits of both pears and apples were observed to be affected with the disease (Fig. 71). They showed on the surface watery spots which gradually turned brownish, and during cloudy days drops of viscous exu- dation appeared on the exterior. On cutting one of the fruits open the flesh was found to be tough and leathery with a milky sap collecting at the core. Gradually the flesh became brown and the fruit withered, finally turning black, especially in the case of the pear, drying up and falling to the ground. Pure cultures were now secured from the following sources: 1. Active cankers on the limbs of apple trees (natural infection). 2. Blighted twigs of apple (natural infection). 3. Blighted twigs of pear (natural infection). BLIGHT CANKER OF THE APPLE TREE. 4. Blighted fruit of pear (natural infection). 5. Blighted fruit of apple (natural infection). (Two cultures from widely separated local- ities. ) 6. Blighted fruit of apple (artificially infected from canker on apple limb). The pure cultures of bacteria from these dif- ferent sources were each carried through 12 differentiating kinds of media (see page 210) and a careful record of growth, characters and reactions made. The comparative study showed the growth on a given medium to be the same for all the different cultures, thus establishing beyond a doubt the identity of the organisms causing the canker on the bodies 209 Fic. 84.—Bacteria directly jrom active canker on apple tree. Stained in carbol fuchsin. Showing various forms of the or- ganism as they occur in the diseased bark. and limbs of apple and pear trees and the fire- and twig-blight of these trees. A third set of inoculations was made with the bacteria from certain of the above cultures. This was in August and the young shoots of the pear had ceased to grow. The fruits, however, were in just the right stage for infection. The shoots of the apple were still actively growing. Some 10-12 cross inoculations each were made as follows with the bacteria : 1. From canker to twigs of apples. 2. From canker to fruit of pears. 3. From twigs of pears to twigs of apples. All gave nearly 100 per cent of infections. 12. Notes oN THE MorPHOLOGY AND CULTURAL CHARACTERS OF THE ORGANISM, BACILLUS AMYLORORUS (BurR.) DETONI Morphology.— Direct from an active apple tree canker in hanging drop of sterile tap water. Short rods with rounded ends, single in- dividuals nearly oval, 1.5-2 long, a little more than half as thick, oc- curring singly, in pairs, fours or even more, end to end. Many but not all motile. The organism was also examined (in hanging drop of beef bouillon) from cultures on the following media: Beef bouillon, agar plate, agar slant, milk and potato plugs. All of these cultures were two days old except the agar plate and milk, which were several days older. The milk had thickened. The organisms varied little in these different media from the form and size observed in those direct from the diseased bark. They occurred singly or in pairs and frequently in short threads except on the potato plugs. There they were nearly all single. They were motile in all of the media examined but exceedingly so on potato plugs where they also appeared to be slightly larger. 14 210 BULLETIN 236. ~~ Cultural characters. Pure cultures obtained from the sources al- ready detailed on pages 208-209 were grown in the different media during July and August at ordinary room temperature. The media were all titrated to 1.5 acid unless otherwise noted. The work was done in the Bacteriological Laboratory of the State Veterinary College. Gelatine plates—— Growth very slow, colonies becoming evident in about three to five days as tiny specks. Under the low power of the microscope they appear as small globose or lenticular growths, sharply outlined, yellowish. Surface colonies slowly liquifying the gelatin, form- ing little pits. Agar plates.— Colonies evident by the second day, becoming char- acteristic by the fourth or fifth day. The surface colonies are then from twotothreemm.in diameter in the form of a thin, white, finely granular or cloudy circular growth with a dense, sharply defined white center; margins even or slightly wavy. Deep colonies somewhat larger than the central mass of the surface colonies, globose or more often lens-shaped, dense opaque, yellowish. Under the microscope the central mass of the surface colonies and the entire deep colonies appear opaque, homogeneous and sharply defined, yellowish. The surface growth is coarsely granular or flocculent, whitish. Potato bowillon.— Becomes uniformly and moderately clouded in 24 hours. When shaken shows waves or clouds from the surface into the lower liquid, indicating that growth is most active at the surface; with slight sediment and flocci, the flocci are easily dissipated on shaking; slightly acid to litmus paper. After about 48 hours the liquid becomes uniformly and heavily clouded. Flocci more aboundant and more or less persistent. Alkaline. After about 20 days the liquid becomes clear above with abundant sediment and flocci at the bottom and strongly alkaline. No odor ever developed. Beef bouillon.— Becomes faintly and uniformly clouded after 24 hours with flocci and sediment, slightly acid. After 48 hours cloudiness slightly increased. Flocci abundant and more or less persistent, neutral to litmus paper, becoming finally strongly alkaline and after 20 days showing tendency to clear. Odor not marked. Sugar free bouillon.— Perfectly clear after 24 hours, the only evi- dence of growth being a slight sediment at the bottom. Neutral to litmus paper. After several days becoming faintly cloudy and alkaline. No indol produced. Agar slant.—Growth in 24 hours, moderate, glistening white opal- escent, thick but not spreading much, often in isolated circular colonies above, becoming more diffuse and spreading below toward the water at the base of the slant. Water of condensation turpid and with flocci. Growth not viscid. Increase of growth after this time very slight. BLIGHT CANKER OF THE APPLE TREE. 2T1 Gelatin stab.— Growth slow and at first feeble. Beaded or granular along line of needle. Surface growth spreading with irregular or erose margin, which is thick and white, the center thin and granulose; liqui- faction very slow, becoming evident only after several days, crateriform to stratiform. Potato plugs.— Growth feeble, becoming evident after a day or two as a thin moist pearly white coating over the surface of the potato, not viscid. No further change noted even after several days. Glucose agar.— (Melted, inoculated, shaken and allowed to cool.) — No gas. Growth in 24 hours vigorous forming a thick white layer at the top, below granular from the minute buried colonies. Little change later except in increased thickness of this white surface layer. Milk.— No change until about the third or fourth day when it begins to thicken, becoming very thick by the fifth or sixth day. The milk does not curdle but becomes subgelatinous. Finally after ten days or two weeks the thickened portion gradually settles leaving a clear watery liquid above. At first acid becoming strongly alkaline. Litmus milki— No change even after two weeks, never thickens. Glucose bouillon.— Uniformly clouded at the end of 24 hours with abundant large floeci and frequently a weak pellicle. Little change in growth later. Remaining acid. Lactose and saccharose bouillon. No growth evident even after ten days. Three descriptions of Bacillus amylovorus based on cultural char- acters seem to have appeared thus far in literature. The first of these is a part of the classical work on pear blight done by Arthur! in 1886. He - grew the bacteria in various. kinds of broths or liquid media and to a limited extent on solid media. The next description to appear was one by Chester (1900) based upon the study of a single pure culture from a _ blighted pear twig. The organism was grown in but a relatively small number of kinds of media and the reactions recorded differ strikingly from those obtained by Jones? who published the third and most recent description (1902). The work of Jones was based upon a study of the organism from blighted twigs of both the pear and plum carried in parallel series through many kinds of media and extending over a period of eight months. Numerous successful inoculations were also made with bacteria from these cultures at different times throughout the period during which the cultures were under observation. My own cultural ‘studies while not as extensive as those of Jones tally quite closely with the reactions which he obtained on similar media. It should be recalled in this connection that the bacteria which I had in culture were from the various forms of the disease on the apple tree as well as from the pear. in ; e i 212 BULLETIN 236. 13. SECONDARY FACTORS IN THE DESTRUCTIVENESS OF THE DISEASE I have already made casual references to certain things and con- ditions that may strongly aggravate the effects of canker attacks, My own observations along this line, while of a very general nature, indicate that this phase of the subject is one of extreme importance; for upon these secondary factors may depend not only the very general appearance of the disease in a given locality but also the subsequent effects of the same. Those agents which seem most frequently to aggravate canker attacks are: winter injury of the trees, cultivation, fertilizing, and attacks of secondary organisms like rot fungi, etc. The first three of these result in a predisposition of the host to attacks of the bacteria, while the fourth, by taking advantage of the wounds made by the canker, may complete the destruction already begun. A summary of my observations on each of these factors follows: Winter injury.— Anything that reduces the general vitality of the tree tends to render it more susceptible to attacks of the bacteria. I have already referred to the apparent effects of low temperature in relation to this disease in the Hudson River region. A long growing season during 1902, with excessive rains followed by a sudden and extreme fall of temperature early in December, is referred to by growers in that section as the beginning of the injury to their orchards. The winter that followed was a severe one with sudden and severe changes of temperature during the early days of the spring of 1903. Many trees failed to leaf out and large cankers were now observed on limbs an1 bodies of dead and dying trees. The general conclusion at once prevailed that these dead spots were the direct results of these weather conditions. Careful questioning, however, brought out the fact that previous to 1902 certain growers had observed these cankers on the bodies of their trees and some few trees had died, apparently from those injuries of the bark. It is also pertinent to point out at this place, that the rainy weather of 1902, which resulted in an excessive and long continued growth of tender tissues, afforded conditions most favorable to the infestation and development of the canker bacteria. It seems very reasonable to suppose that many of the cankers appeared during the summer and autumn of that year. That they were not generally observed by the grower until 1903 is probably ex- plained by the fact that the effects of their attack did not become evident in the foliage of the trees until that season. My own observations on cankers with whose entire development from the beginning I have been acquainted, show that rarely do they cause the death of the affected limb or tree the first season. More than that, no evidence of their presence is to be detected in the appearance of the foliage. I am, therefore, of the BLicHt CANKER OF THE APPLE TREE. Za) opinion that many of the trees in the Hudson River valley and about Kirkville were cankered prior to the winter of 1902-3. The severe weather no doubt weakened the trees yet free from the disease, thus rendering them more susceptible to attack during the summer of 1903. It also further weakened the trees already affected, rendering their de- struction from further growth of the cankers certain. The appearance of a large number of the cankers in 1904 showed clearly that they had originated in 1903; others gave evidence that they had originated prior to that time (Fig. 54). The winter of 1903-4 was also a severe one and no doubt added to the sum of the injury already produced. To just what extent the winter injury in this section is responsible for the death of the trees is a question. In certain cases it was very evident that the tree had died from this cause. Such injuries were easily distinguished, however, from canker spots. That these dead spots on limbs and body and in the crotches resulted from freezing is, to say the least, exceedingly improbable. I base my opinion on the following facts: (1) The cankers may appear on any side of the body or main limbs; (2) The spots are usually more or less circular or oval with sharply de- fined margins; (3) The cankers are in practically every case formed about the base of a shoot or about a wound of some sort; (4) Every indi- _ vidual canker whose entire history is known was observed first to appear during the warm weather of spring or summer ; (5) Typical cankers have been observed to form about the base of young sprouts which have been twig blighted; (6) Typical crotch cankers appeared during the past sum- mer in trees which throughout the spring and early summer appeared to be perfectly healthy; (7) The bacteria of pear blight have been found repeatedly in the tissue of actively spreading cankers; (8) Spots, to every appearance exactly like typical cankers, were produced in the bark of healthy trees by inoculation with blight bacteria. Cultivation.— It is known that well cultivated pear trees suffer more severely from “fire blight” than do those not so treated. Constant culti- vation results in rapid growth and consequently succulent tissues, which are most favorable for the development of the blight bacteria. My ob- servations seem to show that the same thing is true as regards the canker form of the disease in the apple tree. A number of young orchards were visited that had received little or no cultivation since setting and had consequently made a much slower growth than cultivated ones of the same age. They were, however, remarkably free from cankers, although not entirely so. In one orchard visited, it was noticed that three or four rows of trees at one end were practically free from the disease while the re- mainder had nearly all died from its effects. Inquiry brought out the fact that these few rows had received but little cultivation while the remainder of the orchard had the best of care in this respect. 214 BULLETIN 236. Fertilizing.— The abundant application of nitrogenous manures also results in rapid and excessive growth. The tissue does not ripen promptly and so affords conditions favorable to the blight. Certain growers say that they can prevent the ravages of blight by the use of phosphates, either bone meal or some form of phosphoric acid and potash. They do not use stable manure. They point out that the phosphates cause the new growths to ripen quickly. Rot fungii— In the first part of this bulletin, I have pointed out that the wounds resulting from the formation of the cankers afford in- fection courts for the entrance of decay-inducing fungi. The dead bark affords a most suitable food supply on which the fungus can feed in the: first stages of its germination and growth. It serves, moreover, as a sponge in the retention of the moisture necessary for the further de- velopment of the fungus and its entrance into the wood of the tree. If the canker has been formed about the base of a blighted watersprout, the dead tissue of the shoot affcrds a Cirect entrance for the decay fungus to the heartwood of the tree. Once in the heartwood, the mycelium spreads rapicly through the lifeless tissue, causing it to rot. It also frequently attacks the living sapwood and Cestroys it also, so that the tree is ruined or even killed outright. The crotches- of trees where attacked by the canker serve admirably for the entrance of these rot erganisms. The cankers formed about pruned stubs also act as in- fection courts: first, by preventing the prompt and rapid healing of the exposed cut surface ; and second, by affording in the dead tissue of the cankered collar, food and moisture for the saprophytic forms. Almost invariably on removing the cankered bark from these stubs, it was found to cover a weft of white mycelium which surrounded and penetrated the dead stub. The heartwood of these diseased stubs had frequently reached that stage of Cecay that it was soft and watery and was easily removed with a knife blade for a long distance down into the limb. In the Hudson River valley, diseased trees were frequently so heart-rotten that limbs apparently healthy were easily snapped in two, showing only a very thin outer shell of healthy sapwood and bark. This matter of the decay fungi that follow the canker is of very con- siderable importance and a factor to be reckoned with in any method of treating the cankered trees. Their relatively early appearance in cankered areas makes it imperative that to secure immunity from their attacks the diseased tissue must be removed as soon as discovered and the wound properly treated and painted over. An examination of a number of old cankers will show a large variety of forms of these saprophytes. Many common species of the imperfect as well as ascomycetous fungi will be found. I have also observed various species of the basidiomycetes fruiting in these dead areas. . 4 7 “ a te = |S" BriGHT CANKER OF THE APPLE TREE. 215 14. RESISTANT AND SUSCEPTIBLE VARIETIES Early in the investigations it was observed that certain varieties are more susceptible to attacks of the canker than others. Jl*ortunately, in the orchards examined there was in each case a number of varieties repre- sented so that considerable data as to relative resistance was secured. Only one variety so far has been observed that seems to be entirely immune to canker attacks. In an orchard of some 200 trees in the worst infected section of the Hudson River region, all the trees had gone out but seven. These were Wolf River. They showed not a single canker and were strong and thrifty. A single tree of this same variety was also observed in another orchard in the same locality. It, too, was entirely free from the disease. The Wolf River is not regarded as a desirable fruit but could be used to advantage as stock for top-grafting. By setting desirable varieties well out on the main limb the chief source of trouble would be removed. Talman Sweet, although not entirely im- mune, appears to be fairly resistant and as stock for top grafting seems to be valuable. A provisional arrangement of varieties so far observed in the order of their resistance may be said to be: Wolf River, Talman Sweet, Pewau- kee, Red Astrachan, Tetofsky, Grimes Golden, Wine Sap, Fameuse. In most of the affected orchards the Baldwin was the first to go out from canker attacks. The Ben Davis seems to be almost as subject to the disease as the Baldwin. The susceptibility of this variety to the so- called “sun scald” has been reported by growers in the Mississippi val- ley.2 The more susceptible varieties seem to be: Baldwin, Ben Davis, Mann, Hubbardston, Fall Pippin, Stark, Greening. In general, summer and fall varieties seem to be less liable to attacks of the disease, or at least suffer less, while winter varieties are apparently more susceptible. It may be mentioned here that the writer has observed this same peculiarity in the attacks of the apple rust, the roestelia stage of Gymnosporangium macropus. The study of varietal resistance has not been extensive and the above lists are to be regarded as entirely provisional. Further observation along this line will no doubt very materially change the number and arrangement of varieties. Enough has been observed, however, to indicate that it offers valuable suggestions to growers in regions known to be especially subject to canker epidemics. 15. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer takes this occasion to acknowledge the many kindnesses and courtesies extended to him by growers whose orchards he has had occasion to examine. He is especially indebted to Mr. L. B.-Frear of 216 . BULLETIN 236. Ithaca who placed his entire orchard at the writer’s disposal for observa- tion and experiment. To Mr. V. W. Burt and Mr. Henry Peck of Schuy- lerville, Mr. H. K. Prosser of Kirkville and Dr. A. R. Amidon of Chau- mont he is also indebted for numerous courtesies. To Professor G. F. Atkinson thanks are due for critical reading of the entire bulletin and to Mr. W. E. King and Dr. G. F. White of the bac- teriological department for suggestions and assistance in connection with the study of the cultural characters of the organism. 16. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Only those articles to which special reference is made in the text or which have direct references to the “canker form” of the blight are here listed. They have been arranged alphabetically by authors and numbered. These numbers are used in the text to refer to this bibliographical list: 1. Arthur, J. C. History and Biology of Pear Blight. Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., 322-341, Pl. I1I. 1886. 2. Beckwith, M. H. Blight affecting the body of Pear and Apple Trees. Del. Sta. Rept., 158-9. 1805. 3. Bryant, A. Report on General Horticulture, 2d district. Trans. Ill. Sta. Hort. Soc., 60. 1880. 4. Burrill, LT. J. Pear and Apple Tree Blight rans: WI State” Hort soes 157-167. 1880. 5 = Topics from’ the Query Box “Sun Scald.” Trans: Ill. State Hort. Soc. 157. 1881. 6. The Effect of Frost on the Trunks of Apple Trees. Trans. Ill. Hort. Soc., 220-225. 1883. Fe Trunks of Apple Trees. Trans. Wis. Sta. Hort. Soc., 216. 1885 8. and Blair, J. C., Bitter Rot of Apples. Ill. State Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 77; 335-306, pl. 6. 10902. 9g. Chester, F. D., Notes on Pear Blight. Del. Rept., 12, 38-46. Ig9co. 10. Cordley, A. B. Some Observations on Apple Tree Anthracnose. Bot. Gaz., 30, 48-58. 19CO. 11. Denning, Wm. On the Decay of Apple Trees. Trans. Soc. for Promotion of Agr., etc., pt. 2, 219-222. 1704. 12, Hasselbring, H. Canker of Apple Trees. Ill. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 70, 225-230, pl..4. 1902. 13. Jones, L. R. Studies upon Plum Blight. Centralb. fiir Bacteriologie, Parasiten- kunde u. Insektionkrankheiten, 9, No. 22-23, Dec. 15, 1902, pp. 835-841. 14. Lawrence, W. H. Black Spot Canker. Wash. State Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 66, T354 plnms egos 15. Paddock, Wm. The European Canker. N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 185, 212-213. 1900. Quotation from Paddock, Wm., European Apple Tree Canker in Amer- 1Ga. Sci L2, 207-200. 16. The New York Apple Tree Canker. N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 163, 179-206, pl. 6. 1890. Gp The New York Apple Tree Canker (Second Report). N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta., Bull. No. 185, 205-212, pl. 4. 1900. a7. 18. KO; 20. Br, 22. BLIGHT CANKER OF THE APPLE TREE. 217 Sackett, W. G. Some Bacterial Diseases of Plants prevalent in Michigan. Pear Blight, Mich: State Agr. Exp. Sta., Bull. No. 230, 205-210. 1905. Smith, R. E. The Water Relation of Puccinia asparagi. Bot. Gaz. 38, 30-31. 1904. Sturgis, W. C. Fire Blight (Microccus amylovorus Burr). Conn. State Exp. Sig, INGE, Wiig, Tisoyb Whetzel, H. H. Blight Cankers of Apple Trees. The Fruit Grower, St. Joseph, Mo., 5-9, Fig. 8. Nov., 1905. Author? Canker on Apple Trees. Jour. Bd. Agr. (London, Eng.), No. 1, 66-69 6(18909). Author? The Canker Fungus (Nectria detissima). Bd. Agr. (London, Eng.), Leaflet No. 56, p. 7, Fig. 2. 1899. x eh se it Reve C) re y 7 = “ Ah is hig MARCH, 1906 BULLETIN 237 CORNELE- UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF fore COLLEGE. OF AGRICUETURE Department of Agronomy (Extension Work) ALFALFA A REPORT OF PROGRESS ALSO AN OUTLINE OF COOPERATIVE DEMONSTRATIONS FOR 1906 Made under the Direction of THOMAS F. HUNT By J. L. STONE, JOHN W. GILMORE and SAMUEL FRASER PRAGA. NoaYs PUBLISHED BY THE:-UNIVERSITY. 219 ORGANIZATION Or THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BOARD OF CONTROL THE TRUSTEES OF TERE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLECE AND STATION COUNCIL JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the Agricultural College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. . JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. H. H. WING, Professor of Animal Husbandry. EXPERIMENTING STAFF LIBERTY, EE BARE Ys Dinector: JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology. HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry. GEORGE F. ATKINSON, Botany. JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture. THOMAS F. HUNT, Agronomy. RAYMOND A. PEARSON, Dairy Industry. MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. JOHN L. STONE, Agronomy. JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry. CHARLES S. WILSON, Horticulture. ELMER O. FIPPIN, Soil Investigation. JOHN W. GILMORE, Agronomy. HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology. SAMUEL FRASER, Agronomy. JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry. CHARLES E. HUNN, Horticulture. Office of the Director, 17 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New York State who request them. 220 ALFALFA A REPORT OF PROGRESS In Bulletin 221, “Alfalfa in New York,” issued by this Experiment Station in July, 1904, is discussed the effect of the unusually severe winter of 1903-4 on the alfalfa fields of the State. Suggestions as to the methods to pursue in attempting to grow the crop are presented. During the nearly two seasons that have passed since Bulletin 221 was prepared, studies of the crop have been continued, both on the College farm and by means of codperative experiments and observations throughout the State. While many of the problems on which light is needed have not been solved, it is believed that the work accomplished affords enough sugges- tions that will be helpful to those interested in alfalfa growing to warrant _ this further report of progress. I. (CO-OPERATIVE TESTS Two lines of effort have been undertaken in the study of practical alfalfa problems: Codperative tests or experiments with farmers in several parts of the State; field tests on the College farms at Ithaca. We will first consider the codperative tests. 1. Soils for alfalfa The data secured during the past two seasons serves in the main but to emphasize the importance of the suggestions made in the former bulletin as to suitable soils; their thorough preparation; an abundant _ supply of available plant food (especially in the form of stable manure) ; freedom from weeds; good, pure seed; dressing with lime in most cases ; and inoculation with the proper nitrogen-gathering bacteria. Our observations and experience are not yet sufficiently extensive to enable us to define with exactness the types and grades of soils on which alfalfa may be successfully grown in the State of New York. It is well understood that the loamy soils with porous subsoils are generally favorable to the crop and it is probable that all soils coming into this class will produce alfalfa successfully if skillfully managed. On the other hand, it is known that soils having an impervious subsoil (especially “hardpan”) are unfavorable and it is probable that we will never be able to secure satisfactory results on such soils. There are large areas in the State, intermediate in character between these two, in regard to 221 222 BULLETIN 237. some of which it is hoped and believed that further investigation will develop a method of handling that will secure satisfactory results with alfalfa. The tests conducted on the College farm during the past two seasons and to be considered later, point to favorable results with a soil far removed from the ideal alfalfa type. Observations made about the State in the inspection of alfalfa, and various cooperative experiments, have convinced us that in some sections of the State there are large areas that will grow alfalfa successfully, while in other sections it is only on the creek bottom land that is so situated as not to be subject to serious overflow that success may be expected. Until the soil survey of the State, which is being conducted by the Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture, is completed we shall not be able to state with any exactness the location _ of the areas that will probably prove to be suited to the crop. As this survey is not likely to be completed for many years, we have asked Pro- fessor E. O. Fippin, now in charge of the work here, to make a general statement of the prevailing types of soil of the State and the sections in which those favorable to alfalfa growing are most abundant. Professor Fippin’s statement follows: “Not all of the soils of New York State are equally well adapted to the growth of alfalfa. Thorough drainage is chief among the require- ments of the plant. Saturation of the soil for even a few days is very injurious to its growth and freezing in this saturated condition is even more disastrous to the life of the roots. Given good drainage the alfalfa plant will make a fair growth under very adverse soil conditions. “The soils of the State may be grouped into two general classes according to their adaptation to the growth of the crop and these follow closely the natural drainage conditions of those soils. In general, it may be said that the soils in the northern two-thirds of the State are better suited to the production of alfalfa than the soils in the southern third. “Stretching along lakes Erie and Ontario is a more or less continu- ous strip of rather dense lake clay known as the Dunkirk clay. The width varies from one to several miles, and east of Buffalo it attains nearly 20 miles. The same soil extends southward in the form of tongues in several of the large river valleys and along the “finger lakes” like Chautauqua, Seneca and Cayuga. It also occurs in small detached areas higher up on the upland. Because of its naturally poor drainage this tyne is probably the least favorable of the extensive types for the pro- duction of alfalfa, but is improved by drainage and the use of lime and in the early stages of growth by the use of organic manures. “The upland stony and shaly loams which occupy the major portion of this section of the State are generally well adapted to the growing of alfalfa. These soils are classed as the Miami stony loam, Alton stony ALFALFA. 223 loam and the Volusia loam. The first two contain chierly limestone, sandstone and granitic gravel and stone while the last named contains chiefly shale gravel. These soils are fairly well drained and sufficiently open to favor deep development. The Miami silt loam associated with these types is also a desirable soil for the crop. “In the northeastern quarter of the State, outside of the roughly mountainous part, gravelly and stony soils predominate and with the exception of small areas will produce alfalfa quite satisfactorily. Through the northern half of the State bed rock not infrequently comes near the surface of the soil but alfalfa has been shown to make a good growth even where the soil covering is only a foot or more in depth, as at points in the vicinity of Syracuse. The roots are able to thread their way along the seams of the stratified rocks and secure sustenance. “The soils in the river and small stream bottoms of the State, which are for the most part light alluviums, are texturally suited to alfalfa growing, but the drainage must be watched as it not infrequently is de- fective because of the near approach of the water table to the surface. This is the difficulty with much of the Miami loam which forms the lowest terrace along most of the larger streams. With the exception of very light sand, such as is found chiefly on the eastern end of —Long Island, this class of soils is well suited to the crop. The gravels and gravelly loams are mostly good alfalia soil. The heavier gravelly loam, known as the Miami gravelly loam, is a most excellent soil for alfalfa in this State and the one on which most success has been attained with this crop on the Cornell University farm. It is found as the second terrace along most of the large streams like the Genesee, Mohawk and Susque- hanna and their tributaries and the bottoms of nearly all of the smaller streams. Then there is another gravelly soil which is very much more coarse and open and the lower section is frequently used as a source of gravel for commercial purposes. It forms an outward fringe of much of the Dunkirk clay and is classed as the Dunkirk gravelly loam. It is too loose and porous for marked success with alfalfa, but the crop can _ probably be grown with a moderate degree of success in many places on this soil. “The soils on the hills in the southern third of the State are generally compact shaly silt and clay loams, mostly the former, with a dense mottled subsoil. Depressed areas have very insufficient drainage and much of the type would be benefited by the use of tile. Special examples of this type may be seen almost anywhere on the southern boundary of the State, in southern Chautauqua, Steuben, southern Tomp- kins and Delaware counties and in most of the northern counties of Pennsylvania. It is the most extensive uniform body of soil in the State and it reaches furthest north on the highest divides. 224 BULLETIN 237. “Tt cannot be said to be well adapted to alfalfa growing but by proper attention to drainage and careful handling of the crop in the early stage of growth it seems probable that a moderate degree of success may be attained. The first proposition must be kept in mind, viz. that good drainage will offset serious physical difficulties, such as hardpan and shallow stony soil.” 2. Inoculation During the past season the interest of the codperative experimenters as regards alfalfa growing seemed to center around the question of inoculation with nitrogen-gathering bacteria. Two hundred farmers asked for and received packages of about four pounds of alfalfa seed, part of which was treated with cultures of the alfalfa bacteria and part without treatment for comparison. Sacks of soil from an old alfalfa field were also sent to a number of persons who expressed a desire to compare soil inoculation with the artificial cultures. Sixty-four reports containing definite statements have been received at this writing, evidently based on careful examination, regarding the presence and abundance of nodules on the roots of the plants grown under the different treatments. Results with plain seed.—In the case of plants grown without any attempt at inoculation by soil or cultures, forty of the sixty-four reports state that no nodules were found on the roots; twenty state that a few were found and only four that the nodules were abundant. These figures may probably be taken as fairly representing what may be expected when sowing alfalfa in New York outside the sections where alfalfa growing is well established.. In slightly more than six per cent of these cases abundant inoculation took place; in about 31% a partial inoculation oc- curred that probably by repeated sowings would become abundant; while in about 63% of the cases no nodules were found. Certainly New York farmers must look well after the matter of inoculation if they would secure success with alfalfa. Results with culture-treated seed—In the case of plants grown from seed that had been treated with cultures of the alfalfa bacteria, forty-two out of sixty-four reports state that there was no apparent increase of nodules:due to the treatment, while twenty-two report that nodules seem to be more abundant than on the plat sown with plain seed. Reduced to percentages, slightly more than 34% of these show increase of nodules supposedly due to treatment of the seed and about 66% show no such increase. As to the effect upon the vigor and growth of the plants, eleven out of sixty-four, or 17%, report increased vigor apparently due to treating the seed with cultures, while in fifty-three cases, or 83%, no improvement can be detected. Of these eleven cases showing increased growth, two of ALFALFA. 225 them are plats on which no nodules were found. In Bulletin No. 71, Bureau of Plant Industry, “Soil Inoculation for Legumes,” p. 36, Dr. Moore states that sometimes inoculation takes place within the roots, producing the usual benefit to the plant but no nodules being formed. Possibly the two cases just mentioned are of this character. Both of ae os! pla eG Ss ~ - Fic. 85.—The eight plants at the left were grown from culture-treated seed, those on the right from untreated seed. these cases came under the writer’s personal observation and there is certainly no question but that the plants grown from the treated seed were more vigorous than the others and many plants were examined without finding a single nodule. No means were at hand for detecting the presence of alfalfa bacteria within the roots. 15 226 BULLETIN 237. In the same Bulletin, at p. 34, Dr. Moore calls attention to two forms of alfalfa bacteria, a branched form and a rod form, the former only seeming to be a benefit to the host plant. Whether the thirteen cases in which increased abundance of nodules are reported without any apparent increase of vigor of the plants are due to the presence of the rod form of bacteria or to inaccuracy of observation it is impossible to state. This data makes a rather disappointing showing for seed inoculation. Only 17 per cent of the experiments indicate any benefit from the treatment and in nearly all these cases the benefit while noticeable was not very marked. The only marked case of benefit apparently due to seed-inoculation coming to our notice during the two seasons’ observa- tions occurred in 1904 on the farm of Mr. Hallock in central Long Island. Fig. 85 illustrates eight average plants grown from treated seed on the left and eight average plants from untreated seed on the right. These plats were inspected in October and the difference shown in the field was as manifest as in the illustration. Both plats produced nodules but they were much more abundant where inoculated seed was used. October 30, 1905, Mr. Hallock reports in regard to these plats: “In this the second year from the seeding there is no appreciable difference be- tween plats where seed was inoculated and where it was not. All roots show nodules. The crop has been cut twice this year yielding moderately well each time.” In 1904 the cultures used for seed inoculation were prepared from treated cotton furnished by the United States Department of Agriculture, following the Department’s directions. In 1905, treated cotton was se- cured from the Department of Agriculture and from a commercial con- cern for alfalfa and several other legumes and were placed in the hands of Professor A. H. Harding, bacteriologist of the Geneva Station, for examination. Professor Harding found these cottons wanting in live alfalfa bacteria. (See Bulletin No. 270, New York State Experiment Station.) However, he supplied a bottle of live cultures which were further propagated in the usual way and the seed used in the 1905 ex- periments was treated with these. Results of inoculation with soil— Seventeen reports giving data relative to the effect of applications of soil from an old alfalfa field have been received. Fifteen of these, or 88 per cent, report an increased abund- ance of nodules resulting from the treatment, and all but one of those thus reporting, state that there was also an increase in the growth and vigor of the crop. The extent of the increase of growth of the crop was much greater in those cases in which soil was used than where culture inoculation of the seed was practised. This conclusion is based on both an inspection of many of the plats by a representative of the College ALFALFA. 23? and the farmers’ statements in the reports. In both the cases where the soil application did not increase the abundance of the nodules, it is stated that nodules were abundant on the plat sown with plain seed and con- sequently there was no need of inoculation. This makes a record of practically uniform success for soil inoculation and we are of the opinion that this method of inoculation, when needed, will not fail of giving results, unless the soil is in such condition that the bacteria cannot live in it. The much lower efficiency of the cotton culture method of inocula- tion as compared with the use of soil (if, indeed, Professor Harding’s work does not show the former to be without merit), should leave no question as to which method a farmer should use when he has occasion to attempt inoculation when growing legumes new to his land. It is to be hoped, however, that further investigation and improvement of the method of handling cultures will lead to satisfactory practical results ; for the soil method is confessedly somewhat inconvenient and expensive, and involves the risk of introducing insect, weed and fungous pests into localities where they had not before gained a foothold. 3. Lime for alfalfa Seventeen reports state that lime was applied to part of the area sown to alfalfa, and part left without lime for comparison. Of this number ten state that the limed area was distinctly better than the un- limed. Six state that there was no benefit and one reports apparent damage. The marked effect of lime in the experiments conducted on some heavy soil of the College farm, to be described later, taken in con- junction with these results secured throughout the State, indicates that liming takes an important place in connection with alfalfa growing in New York. The data regarding the present condition of crop growing on the cooperative experiment plats for 1905 is as follows: Number ,of favorable reports received .............. 32 Number of unfavorable reports received ............ 30 Number of doubtful reports received ............... 25 From this showing it is evidently wise for those without experience with the crop, or in localities where its culture has not yet become well established to begin with small areas, so that failure will not mean heavy loss, and increase as their experience and successes seem to indicate. II. ALFALFA EXPERIMENTS ON THE COLLEGE FARM AT ITHACA On the College farm are found some areas having a gravelly or stony loam soil with a porous subsoil. On these areas alfalfa may be caused _to grow successfully with only ordinary effort. On other areas is found 228 BULLETIN 237. a rather stiff soil underlaid by clay. The Bureau of Soils of the U. S. Department of Agriculture has classified this soil as the Dunkirk clay loam. Judged both by the experience of the College in trying to grow alfalfa here, and from theoretical considerations as to its soil require- ments, this land is not favorable to the crop. It is, however, similar to much land in the State on which farmers would like to produce alfalfa. It was decided, therefore, to begin in the spring of 1904 experiments on this iand with a view of determining what treatment, if any, will result in success upon lands known to be naturally unsuited to alfalfa. These investigations are being made under the direction of Professor Thomas F. Hunt by John W. Gilmore and Samuel Fraser. The tract on which these experiments are being conducted has come only recently into the possession of Cornell University. The former management had been such as to reduce somewhat, though not seriously, its crop-producing power. The soil is tenacious and is difficult to work except when moisture conditions are just right. It is usually difficult to get upon this land early in the spring, and early fall rains may prevent fall seeding. It is well adapted to the growth of timothy; and fairly well adapted to the production of wheat, when properly fertilized; and is less valuable for the production of corn and potatoes. 1. Lessons from the 1904 Seeding This land had been in corn in 1902 and in oats in 1903. The oats were removed and the land plowed August 23-25 and fitted on September 13 for wheat. Early fall rains prevented the seeding of the wheat on this tenacious clay soil and it was later decided to devote part of the area to experiments with alfalfa. On May 6, 1904, this land was harrowed and ground unslaked lime was applied to the north half of the plats from the fertilizer distributor of the grain drill at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre. The drill was driven over the south half of the plats to secure an equal amount of tillage on all plats. The seeding was done May 7 at the rate of 25 pounds per acre. The plats are 84.88 feet long and 25.67 feet wide and contain one- twentieth acre each. This width is used in much of our plat work because it is the distance covered by four courses of our grain drill. Ten of these plats are devoted to the alfalfa experiment,— every third plat being used as a check and receiving no special treatment except the lime on its north half. The scheme was as follows: Plat No. 741. Nothing. 742. Stable manure, 20 tons per acre. 743. Soil, 400 pounds per acre from an old alfalfa field. 744. Nothing. ALFALFA, 229 Plat No. 745. Stable manure and soil as above. 746. Seed inoculated by cultures from U. S. Department of Agriculture. 747. Nothing. 748. Manure and inoculated seed. 749. Commercial fertilizer, 500 pounds per acre 4-12-4 goods. 750. Nothing. The alfalfa came up promptly and evenly over the several plats and for some time little difference could be observed,— a satisfactory and even stand having been secured. Toward the latter part of June those plats receiving manure or fertilizer began to show to better advantage, and at about the same time it became evident that the north half of all the plats where lime had been applied were making better growth than the south half. On July 12, areas of one-half square yard, of as nearly average quality as possible, were selected from each end of each plat and all the plants in these areas taken up and critically studied to ascertain just what development was being made on each. The data secured included the number of alfalfa plants on the area, the total fresh weight of these, the length of each plant and the number of leaves it bore, the presence or absence of nodules on the roots, the number of weeds and the kinds and the fresh weight of the weeds. From this data the average weight of the alfalfa plants, their average length and the average number of leaves were computed. Table No. I gives a summary of this study: BULLETIN 237. 230 98° LZ FSO €9°SSI 6° e9 OT ‘OTT OST os" ¢9 0g cc S61 OIT 02° 06T OL 0S 12% 9ST GL°SSS COL Ge" LL T&I G8 &6 1¢ C8 OF SF 09° 6% £3 09° S0z EST 98°06 9¢ 02 '1E $e 0s 82 69 0S '8F cP ST'9L 6¢ 00° 6F& €8I GG° ILS OIL 00°S6 #8 cS" 9L 6¢ Csuy Ysol J ) “Spoom SpoomM JeaquinNn 4319 MW oP Satie tous aInueU pue poses peye[NoouT tress SuTUAON Renan Gems 6 Animas [los pue omnuryy DeCOR ONO cht corns Per: Pore uit ar * -BuIyION PaO ety eee Cn RY CC [ros Aq poye[noouy “LNUNLVAYL “LPL “OFL pits Sai ere. 2°01 PLS 19° GI ¢9 o°86 **ouly ON Se a eee, 3 Go él 61°22 98° 02°18 ¢° Sor a LETC, 0 8°6 99°F T¢° OF GF €8 **9ull, ON 10) €°3r €°9 ae S6'62 ORD itt a: oul’ 0 OST T's 60°T OF FIT SOT “out] ON 0 (Oye Z 6 FIT GL EET 271] ina ee ouly 0 6°8 (S74 69° LL°OL €0L sult] ON I £6 0°6 Il'T S9° €6 171: jee Dotlll Weiahaae” oul’ 0 €° Or 8° Lg° GE 6F 248 out] ON 0 1°6 8°¢ y¢° cS OL OFT Ae tei gull’ 10) O°FRI mS. 92° Gc 69 16 sult] ON 0 9° LT (Og /4 POT ¢6° LOT BOL eee Oull’T sutoOG 9° €T 62 98° 62°89 08 out, ON sulog 2°61 9°6 alee £698 Sli eee lie oe oullT 0 0°6 0'F 6h" 00°9¢ FIT sully] ON 0 0°OL GG 19° O€ O08 OG. * 1\esage oull’T 0 8°6 an 4 Gg Go SP $6 out] ON aulOg rs) (0)! 0°¢ s¢° OL’ 6¢ A010 a cee oull’T 0 9°9 9°¢ OF ° 0c ' 19 PEL **ouatT ON 10) 0°€1 8°83 £6" 0g 248 PSie Gia oullT 10) LGt Gg GL’ GG OL v6 * otutT ON 0 Sack gg jade OF GL PGcoe |e te oul’ (suty)) “ey[esle (sayoury) squetd (sur) *squei{d ‘so[NnpOoN uO S9AVOIT “ey[ey[e ej[ejyle yset\q) PJ[eJ[e Jo jo Jaquinu yysuesl JO JYUDIOM “‘eyeyye requinyy asvIOAY asvIIAY aBeIOAY UBIO M zI AIN{ qdauooay VIVG *po6l ‘INAWINGdXY VATVATY—'I ‘ON a1AV L ALFALFA, 231 It is noticeable that up to this time the chief influence of the stable manure had been to stimulate the growth of weeds, as seen by comparing the figures in the column at the right. This increase was largely of alsike and red clover — the seeds of which are supposed to have been in _ the manure. The crowding of these weeds had hindered the growth of the alfalfa as much as the manure had helped it. The fertilizer had helped the growth both of alfalfa and weeds. It is also noticeable that lime had helped the growth of alfalfa in every instance, and that up to this date very little development of nodules had taken place on any of the plats. The plats were clipped July 14, and on October 18 other areas were selected and the plants taken up and examined as before. In this case the work could not be promptly completed and weight of the dry plants is taken instead of the fresh. Table No. 2 gives the data obtained by this second study of the plats (in the “inoculation ” column, o means no inoculation; + abundant inoculation; +++, very abundant; —, very little inoculation; I, one plant found with inoculation). diet tile At thane —s - ~~ on i = — ee . 0°89 CG’ SL 6S SG 9°ST 1°99 sO CELTIC NIM ebauste te relate cottauce olor ater sb avaltate tak oite''s, dt wi oréns\ stare tar eta Lrg z9 i IF 1°93 £9 so OUT] a ak css GI 0 PE Fa 0°6 ps So SLL LT ONT | Ttate el sue nia) §) 0:10.60 hee 666 6 )n eens ele ae eels shave (m4 ap ¢°6¢ 6E 0 ge Les GTZ go pee ecarry BUIMION |° "OSL Cc’16 L9 0 6°¢S eae 0°94 VAo} PAOULLUTO Nile orc ratae nin taitet olcelehereterorataie! Mini kev rel eialerss : vate o° 82 19 0 Le 62" O°FZ €8 a 2 ie ae alr aL O°eLI real 0 IF Pe" SIZ r9 re atintluO Nie Merbrng oe .'. y catviaris ne 0° 021 Zel te 4 IE Cte A weet ic 3 Sumy] aInUvUI pue peas pazenoouy SFL ¢c’Sé 99 (0) PE 9° ¢° 0G O8 pReCen COUNTS | irenauenatayeteliads ~blie taliaia telaperaiiate! efwaeia aie tersial alate init nas 0. 98 GF 0 Ly ge 0°62 Bou ata our] BURHION 4° LPL N 0°22 cg 0 e'¢ 9g ¢° 0 1g SOmt] ON Wu, e ss... Ahi eae en Ni gree OF 0 69 eg e7d¢ BP atoll pees owl] a ah ac 1 a a : ot Ont ZIT + PS ge 0'°8z eh ‘eum on |..... COMES Got a SM ae ee 4 EB! 0°29 z9 ++ 06 69° GCP an he awry Bee eet eae ake O° LT 9g (0) CT SL Csr 62 SUITE Olea leceatetteverat ciel aiehe ee ees. ele spejavehaie ete sy/nlasn lee heie fe ie AG 5S ore IP 0 €°F 0g" 0°02 i apa | awry AUMION [°° "PRL jaa) ; = 4 ; = es O'IT GS == Oss iT G* OT 96 SLUT COIN a bttictelelsistaie ais eee eee settee eee eee 0° ee LL Ta gc 6f" 0'FZ rayne, aPaeos our] [Ios Aq payejnoouy SPL ¢°c6 69T T Lae cS ¢’et cc PO TIDEOINTG lnc: siabeuestehateneeinter siete ni dtahatalis tne tale tare seas 0°68 £01 0 9°F 8c" 0ST Dp 2 BNE ouVy eUeUr eqers GPL ¢°9¢ £9 0 (9) te) O¢° GOL 9¢ POON ONE hs sen Als suns inion ets myeleha setae Gece scree eseors als OF 96 0 9° 63" Zo Dh tis Se SR wry BUMION [°THL (‘sur4)) (seyourt) ‘sjzue|d “a Aiq) “spoom “U0T}ET “eyleyye eyese (sursy ‘squeyd ; ‘ON “spoom IequinN -noouy y4Bue] jo YSIOM AIq) ey[eyle Jo *INAWLVAUL JI qYBIOM aBVIOAY asvIOAY “eJIeILV Jequinyy gI ‘L0Q daquooay VIVG ‘“hobl ‘INAWINdDdXY VATVATW—'2 ‘ON ATAVE 232 i ALFALFA. 233 An inspection of Table No. 2 shows that the weed growth on all plats dressed with stable manure continues to be vigorous, that inoculating the seed with cultures from U. S. Department of Agriculture produced no appreciable improvement either in growth of plant or abundance of nodules while soil alone even surpassed manure alone, that commercial fertilizer which promised so well early in the season failed to maintain its position to the end, that the benefit produced by lime is still very apparent, and finally that the combination of stable manure, lime and soil inoculation alone produced results that promise ultimate success in alfalfa growing on this soil. In order that the significance of the data given in Tables 1 and 2 may be made more easy of comprehension, Tables 3, 4, 5 and 6 have been compiled from them, each presenting a single feature for consideration. Table No. 3 shows how the vigor of the plants as measured by their average weight and average length was affected by manure, lime and inoculation. Table No. 4 shows the influence of the application of lime on the number and vigor of alfalfa plants and weeds on an area 12x18 inches. Table No. 5 shows the relative abundance of nodules developed by inoculation with soil, inoculation of seed by cultures and no inoculation. Table No. 6 shows the influence of a dressing of stable manure on weed production on these plats. TaBLe No. 3.—Vicor oF PLANnTs aS EFFECTED BY MANURE, LIME AND INOCULA- TION. ALFALFA EXPERIMENTS 1904. DaTa RECORDED Oct. 18 aut | TREATMENT. Nodules. | eee oe TTT = Sa ee a en in a (aaa en MUIR Ag err 744" ~ }| Nothing. Average of two plats..| Nu"Guic’'| None... 2cccll] 5 1B 3045 itso). Stable manures: 22.2. 8c4 00) 2 Tne 0 6 Ae Deere 38 ae 743....| Inoculated by soil............... ries pre eants sa sue Bee 745....| Manure and soil inoculation.... Re yd Nescpuseent. ; ae ae 746....) Seed inoculated by cultures... eg meee : eee iis ents ae pea 750., }| Nothing. Average of two plats.| Nome! | Nomeslll2002/| 128 314° 748....] Manure and inoculated seed. es : Ss ute ee eis ae ma -749....| Commercial fertilizer (50 Ibs. per| Lime..... Noneint.aies «0 .29 Biot MOCO AA Wyre ses oie -ailefets)sgeio Snes Noilime..|' None. ...,... «+. .28 3.9 eS ES eee eos Oe 234 TaBLe No. 4.—INFLUENCE OF LIME. BULLETIN 237: Sort, CLay Loam; SuBSOIL, CLAY. ALFALFA EXPERIMENTS, 1904 Jury 12 OcToBER 18. AVERAGE OF TEN PLAtTs. a eee Lime No lime Lime No lime. Number alfalfa plantson 12x18 inches........ 103.5 98.5 63 66.7 Wieoht otalfalfaplants.. tcl os.. sees: Fresh 87.7 65:12 | Dry 26.1 18.6 Average weight of plants. . Fresh . 86 .67 ; -28 Average length of plants, inches. Tpke) 5.74 yaa! 3.9 Average number of leaves.... 322 TOT) |) casei te | eee Average number of weeds on. 12x18 ‘nches.| Fresh 63.2 108.4 62 78.5 Average weight of weeds on 12x18 inches.| Fresh 122.53 L27286" | Dry ion 68 TABLE No. 5.—INocULATION EXPERIMENT, SOIL, CLay LOAM; SUBSOIL, CLAY, 1904 July 12. October 18. { With limes 7 .cce . .feee-e eee wome nodules: many: Very abundant Soil inoculation......... 4 Nioclime src oe erase No nodules found.| Very few nodules } Manure and lime {| Manure and no lime With lime. No lime. Manure and lime. Manure and no lime Seed inoculated by artifi- cial cultures Goplatsswibh limes. o.. cee No inoculation attempted {é plats mo vVimiel-< Gsss ses Some nodules Some nodules None found None found One found None found None found None found Very abundant Abundant None found None found Very few nodules None found None found One found TasLteE No 6.— THE INFLUENCE OF A DRESSING oF MANURE ON WEED PRODUCTION, 1904 : July 12. October 18. Average number of weeds on 3 manured plats Nos. 2,5,8 U7: II5 Average number of weeds on 7 unmanured plats........ 72 58 Gms. Gms. Average weight of weeds on 3 manured plats........... Average weight of weeds on 7 unmanured plats (fresh) 215.2 (dry) I10.1 (fresh) 86.3 (dry) 38.3 A series of photographs showing graphically the size and vigor of the alfalfa plants and the abundance of weeds on the various plats was made, but as the same teachings are brought out in illustrations of 1905 seeding to be considered later, it is thought best not to take space for these pictures here. The winter of 1904-1905 was about normal at Ithaca and there was no unusual damage to alfalfa. On June 9, 1905, the following observa- tions as to the general condition of the various plats of the 1904 seeding were made: Plat No. 741. Check, no treatment. Plants light in color, small and not thick, many small weeds, ground covered with small grass. ALFALFA. 235 Plat No. 742. Stable manure. A solid mat of clover, red and alsike with some fireweed. Alfalfa not prominent but larger than in No. 741, better growth of clover on the limed area than on no-lime. ; Plat No. 743. Soil inoculation. This plat has a good stand of good looking alfalfa. It is noticeably better, and more nodules are found on the lime portion. On no-lime area plants are weaker and lighter colored. Plat No. 744. Check, no. treatment. On no-lime end the alfalfa and weeds are weak and light colored. On the limed end the alfalfa is stronger, better color and weeds are abundant and larger. Some nodules on limed end. Plat No. 745. Stable manure and inoculated soil. A thick stand of red and alsike clover, color of alfalfa good, many nodules on alfalfa and clover. Plat No. 746. Seed inoculated with U. S. D. A. cultures. Very weedy, the limed area much the better and somewhat better color than same area of Check 747. Plat No. 747. Check, no treatment. Like 746 except as noted above. Plat No. 748. Stable manure and inoculated seed. A thick mat of red and alsike clover. Plat appears about the same all over but there are fewer alfalfa plants on the no-lime area. Plat No. 749. Commercial fertilizer. Very poor, many fireweeds, alfalfa is of light color. Plat No. 750. Check, no treatment. Very poor, weeds not so vigorous as in 749. On the same date (June 9, 1905), an area of four square feet (2 feet square) was measured off on each end of each of the plats and all of the plants on these areas were taken up and separated into the follow- ing categories: alfalfa, clover, grass and weeds. The plants in each class were then counted and weighed green with as much of the root as would come out of the ground, the soil having been washed off. The result of this detailed study of the plants growing on these plats is condensed into tabular form and given below: BULLETIN 237. 236 OIG 0€ 8 GE 98 6P LT SI cor 9¢ OL sel Zcl Og cE L9 PP pe Hote e sired | niarcs nines 191 86 Il L OFT O€ LT 9T 9P O€ LY GL col Gr SG i 08 86 GG £6 9LT GPF ia 8I OGG 0€ v G SOL ai 0€ LI C8 69 81 0G bL €1 € ¥ 86 £6 8& Itt cL Or 61 v 62 6 Wieiieran eb @ rely |) | UGhAn se eae. e ate ost iS 9 9 e241 ST §I 66 (‘surei4y) d (‘suie14)) . “Vy 810 Jequin N 7y BIO AY Jequin yy sdaaM SSVU4) LE 8 6 T 0€ F 90T‘T 66 68F ‘1 v eo | oF ZT € OL G 099 OF cV9 ied s9 9 F I v € 006‘ T cE 621 'T GE Or G 61 & “SUIPI‘)) . : Cryaratt Jequinyy ‘UDAOTSD G I 901 69 9L cT a) 98 € G 69 0€ TZ £6 PSI ZOT oF 0G SST 86 66 19 P8E rai GL 9¢ II TZ OFS TOL [66 601 cP €T L¥ FL Sor OL LG1 €8 “sumel . ere Jaquinn “‘vVATVATY "* uIT ON soi We "aul, ON oer aan "@urTT ON ae Noe "unt, ON ae aur " @ullT ON mee Baie cece. aur] cece au] cee ee aul] VAR itaks 2) eG Sichuan ae BulyjON a a IOZII19} [elolouIWIOD “*77 +" *9IMUBUI PUB pods po}B[NOOUT NINE UN icin Sima tes gp err cnet BUIYION SEN EC MRT AO EEA DogtN peas payenoouy erat a aie) aye ales pa ie «eta nie [Ios pue sinuryy rete hatisv n Talay SP einin omaha etait wie ts anee! eligits SuryjoN Boar Fisch oe OE at es [os Aq paye[noouy “LNAWLVAUL “*0S2Z *“6FL "SPL “LPL ““OPL “PPL 74 NAGS) CAHODITM ‘(ONIGaAG O61) “Lady AUVNOS UNOY ‘GANINVXY VAUY AHL *So6r ‘6 aNnf aaquooay vVIVq—'4 ‘ON ATAVYE, ALFALFA. 237 Certain lessons seem to be indicated in Table 7 to which it may be well to call attention, though this experiment alone will not warrant accepting them as conclusions. It will be observed that whenever stable manure was applied (plats 742, 745, and 748), the clover was abundant and grew vigorously — contesting possession of the soil with the alfalfa. This suggests the importance of using manure, if possible, free from seeds that may act as weeds in the alfalfa. Comparing these manured plats with those adjacent it seems that this crowding of the clover was more detrimental to the alfalfa than was doing without the plant food the manure supplied, except on plat 745 in which case the alfalfa plants becoming abundantly inoculated through the use of soil from an old field were able to contest the ground stoutly with the clover and make fair growth itself while it held the clover down to about one-half the growth it made on plats 742 and 748. Comparing plats 742 and 743 it seems that so far as the welfare of the alfalfa is concerned the inoculated soil alone is far more effective for good than the manure alone. Compar- ing 745 and 748 it seems that seed inoculation has been without benefit in this case. Comparing plats 749 and 750 it seems that the application of 500 lbs. per acre of a 4-12-4 fertilizer had no permanent beneficial effect, though it will be remembered that this plat started out with much promise at the beginning. It is believed that had inoculation been early effected on this plat the showing would have been different. The yield of hay. These plats were mown for hay on June 17, August 24 and October 13, 1905. At the first and second cuttings the herbage contained much that was not alfalfa. Plats 742, 745 and 748, which had received stable manure, produced much clover, the others pro- duced some clover and more weeds. The yields of hay secured at these cuttings do not represent the development ofthe alfalfa on the several plats at the time. Unfortunately in raking the hay of the second crop the produce of the “limed”’ and “not limed” areas of each plat were not kept separate for weighing. The respective yields of these areas, ‘however, were computed from the total yields of the plats and the respective yields of the limed and not limed areas at the first cutting, which is approximately correct. The third cutting was almost clear alfalfa and the yields closely represent the relative condition of the alfalfa plants on the various plats. This crop was gathered and weighed green. Because of the weeds and clover in the hay of the first and second cuttings these yields or the total yield for the season do not furnish a measure of the vigor of the alfalfa on the various plats. The third cut- ting taken alone is a better measure. Table No. 8 gives the yields of the plats on June 17, August 24 and October 13, 1905, and the total yields for the season: 238 BULLETIN 237. oo TaBLeE No. 8.—YIELDs oF Hay oN ONE YEAR OLD ALFALFA SEEDING, 1905 Computed : ; total yield Plat First Second Third of hay_ No. TREATMENT. cutting cutting cutting j/at the three lbs. dry. lbs. dry. | lbs. green. | cuttings lbs. per acre. | eee 2 = |—_——_——|—_—_—_—__— (i ; limes... 20 32 12 2,186 741 INO Gin gto ARO Rhy Sel rer cee Noe dlimcas 13 15 1 1129 = Lime. <<: 91 135 52 11,098 742 Stable oat G YEW ey ancy eas uel ene. No lime. . 89 68 34 6,579 yee Lime..... 42 94 50 5,880 743 inoeiiated ny-soilen: . ens. 4 ok Waninens 9 20 40 1.512 | , : Time :<25 23 63 31 3,713 744 INODHIN DY 2s neers cea eee No lime. .| 7 19 17, 1,190 | 5 : ame. .... | 76 134 115 9,412 745 WeannnetamaySoils ey: cee see aeee eee Notiinae 62 110 61 7/417 | ‘ ime so. 21 59 26 3,429 746 Inoculated seed... 2-0-5 2 ties No lime. .| 11 2] 10 1/768 , ee ime see | 15 58 20 3,096 vie ew na 5 | 70 127 OZ 748 Inoculated seed and manure... No liaie: a 59 107 a B aee : oh oes Eimear H 13 oe 13 2,024 749 Commercial fertilizer. -- 4.2... <0 No linens 10 97 5 1/524 re F alisteme se oes 7 24 ff 1,302 F erm ere nie 37.3 ford 35.8 4,851 | Average.........0 2-2. e eee ee No lime. . 27.4 44.9 19.4 3,063 An inspection of Table No. 8 reveals several points of interest. Most noticeable is the regularity with which the limed areas outyield the not limed areas. In the case of the first two cuttings which include the weeds and clover as well as the alfalfa the increase is 56 per cent. In the third cutting which is nearly clear alfalfa it is 85 per cent. At the first and second cuttings all the plats that had received stable manure (742, 745 and 748) produced markedly heavier yields than the others, but at the third cutting only 745, which also received a dressing of inoculated soil, maintained its superiority in any considerable degree. It will be remembered that these three plats were quite thoroughly seeded to clover by the manure that was applied to them, so that the hay that was secured from them at the first and second cuttings was chiefly clover with some alfalfa and few weeds. It is of interest to observe that the average yield for the season of the limed ends of these plats was 9,557 pounds of hay per acre while the average yield of the unlimed ends was 6,940 pounds, a difference of 2,617 pounds. ALFALFA, __ Nothing. Soil inoculation. 5 Nothing. Nolime. Lime. No lime. Lime. ime. No lime. Lime. Fic. 86.—Tiird cro Cultures. Sor] and manure. : Nolime. Lime. No lime. Lime. No lim Lime. No lime. Lime. hird crop; plats 747, 746, 745, 744- Pras Nothing. Fertilizers. Manure and cultures. ‘ : Nolime, Lime. No Lime. Lime. Nolime. Lime. No lime, Lime. Fic. 88.—Third crop; plats 750, 749, 748, 747- 240 BULLETIN 237. At the time of harvesting the third crop the produce of the several plats was placed in bunches and photographed. In each case the crops from the limed and not limed areas are shown side by side. Inoculated by cultures. Inoculated by soil. No lime. Lime. No lime. Lime. Fic. 89.—Third crop; pats 746, 743. No manure applied to these. Inoculated by cultures. Inoculated by soil. No lime. Lime. No lime. Lime. Fic. 90.—Third crop; plats 748, 745. Manure applied to these. 2. Lessons from the 1905 Seeding of Alfalfa While most of the plats of 1904 seeding of alfalfa did not show up well enough in the spring of 1905 to give assurance of their final success, still the combination of lime, stable manure and soil inoculation produced encouraging results. It was decided to continue the effort to grow alfalfa ALFALFA. 241 on this soil and another series of plats was arranged in a different part of the same field. In this series the checks, which occupy each third plat, were treated in the manner that was productive of best results in the | 1904 seeding, but it was hoped to escape the introduction of clover seed to the plats receiving manure. The iand selected for this experiment had been in timothy meadow for several years past and was plowed to a depth of eight inches on May 1. The soil was rolled while still fresh, afterward disked, harrowed with the spring-tooth harrow and finally fitted with a Meeker harrow. With this treatment the surface of the ground was rendered fine. Following the preparation, eighteen one-twentieth acre plats were laid off and divided into four portions transversely. Lime, reduced to powder by the addition of«sufficient water to produce dry slaking, was applied to each’ of these plats as follows: The north fourth of each plat received at the rate of 3,000 lbs. per acre. The next fourth south received at the rate of 2,000 lbs. per acre. The third fourth south received 1,000 lbs. per acre. The south fourth of each plat received no lime. The numbering and plan of the plats in this experiment were as follows: 1501. Discard. Plain seed, stable manure and soil. Check 1502. Plain seed, stable manure and soil. 1503. Inoculated seed and stable manure. 1504. Plain seed, stable manure. Check 1505. Plain seed, stable manure and soil. 1506. Plain seed, stable manure, commercial fertilizer and soil. 1507. Plain seed, stable manure and commercial fertilizer. Check 1508. Plain seed, stable manure and soil. 1509. Plain seed, commercial fertilizer and soil. 1510. Plain seed and stable manure. Check 1511. Plain seed, stable manure and soil. 1512. Plain seed, stable manure and commercial fertilizer. 1513. Plain seed, stable manure, commercial fertilizer and soil. Check 1514. Plain seed, stable manure and soil. 1515. Plain seed and soil. 1516. Inoculated seed. Check 1517. Plain seed, stable manure and soil. 1518. Discard. Plain seed, stable manure and soil. Well rotted manure not being available for this work, somewhat coarse manure was applied to the plats indicated in the plan at the rate of 20 tons per acre, and thoroughly disked in, 16 242 BULLETIN 237. Screened soil from an old alfalfa field where tubercular growth was abundant upon the alfalfa roots was sown upon the plats indicated at the rate of 500 lbs. per acre. A fertilizer mixture containing four per cent nitrogen, 12 per cent phosphoric acid and four per cent potash was applied to the five plats indicated at the rate of 500 Ibs. per acre. Seed that had been treated with alfalfa cultures grown from stock received from Professor H. A. Harding of the State Experiment Station at Geneva, was sown on plats 1503 and 1516. On all other plats un- treated seed was sown. The rate of seeding was 25 lbs. per acre and the date of sowing was May 25. The stand secured on this series of plats was very good and while some weeds appeared, fortunately the manure used did not seed the plats to which it was applied to clover as occurred the previous year. Very heavy rains occurred in June which were unfavorable for the crop, but did not produce disaster. The Summer Study of the 1905 Seeding During the summer numerous observations were made upon these plats. Probably those made July 22-209, and October 30, will sufficiently show the progress of the experiment. On July 28-29, an area of four square feet from the 2-lime section and the no-lime section of average thickness and growth was taken from each plat. The alfalfa plants on each of these areas were counted and divided into three lots according to size. The grass and other weed plants were also counted and put in bunches. The plants from each plat were then placed against a screen marked off into six-inch squares and photographed, those from the limed area on the right, those from the not limed area on the left. Figures 91 to 93 show the relative growth made on some of the various plats at this date. The notes made at the same dates, showing number of plants of each kind, help to a correct under- standing of the results. The notes of October 30 give the appearance of the plats just before the green alfalfa was frozen down. The plats were last clipped July 29 and the estimate of vigor of the plants is based on the growth they have made since that date and October 30. Nodules are found on all sections of all the plats. It is difficult to estimate their relative abundance as they seem to be losing their vitality and are so easily detached from the roots and the soil is so adhesive that not finding nodules on a plant is not satisfactory evidence that none were there. Nodules do not seem to be very abundant anywhere but can be found on all sections if diligent search is made. ALFALFA. 243 Ten of these eighteen plats received applications of soil from an old alfalfa field and are so distributed among the others that in only one case are there two plats side by side that did not have a dressing of soil. Fic..91.— Plat 1511. Plain seed, manure and soil. Alfalfa and weeds from four square feet. Fic. 92.—Plat 1510. Plain seed and manure. Alfalfa and weeds from four square feet. The land slopes from the northeast corner of these plats to the south- west, but more from east to west than from north to south. The soil is rather impervious to water and the rainfall during the season has been 244 BULLETIN 237. abundant. At times it has been superabundant and there has been con- siderable drainage across these plats, both over the surface in times of downpour and by percolation at other times. On July 28-29, when the earlier notes were taken, numerous plats, or parts of plats, were found Fic. 93.—Plat 1516. Culture treated seed. No manure. Alfalfa and weeds from four square feet. Fic. 94.—Plat 1503. Culture treated seedand manure. Alfalfa and weeds from four square feet. (Note. Incomparing Fig. 94 with 91, tt should be borne in mind that all the plats soon became inoculated from natural causes, probably owing to proxim- ity to plats to which soil had been applied. See page 162 near bottom.) that seemed to produce no nodules, but now (October 30) nodules seem to be quite evenly distributed over the whole area. No doubt the lay of the land and the manner of drainage brought about this result. a a i a i ALFALFA. 245 The soil seems to be dryer and in better physical condition at the east or 1501 end of the series, but darker colored, richer and wetter at the west end. In a general way the growth since clipping has been a trifle larger toward the west end and the stand seems to be a trifle thicker toward the east end. This comment is based on a comparison of the check plats. Plats 1501 and 1518 are discards and are not discussed in the notes. Prat 1502. CHECK. Pian SEED, MANURE AND INOCULATED Som. JuLy 28 No lime. Lime. PUT cD clea RAT Svar St yetere + fe Nee oF owe pslolauslens a aie aySie wes oi 214 (GieaISS oR Bkeeicemo to Onin Ob DIE Mot at Een CIC arieaa 21 17 TCE tae fae orci use sic gi cove iets Pee ois Pied 8 watee pure Se 22 57 NG all Ses PAR Bre kad GeO eine Eee eect 594 288 Alfalfa (and weeds) a good stand, alfalfa mostly dark color. Nodules abundant on all sections. Oct. 30. Plat 1502. Good stand of healthy looking plants on the limed areas and a poor stand of weak, small plants on the no-lime section. Very little difference between the 1-lime, 2-lime and 3-lime sections. The plants mostly stand at five to eight inches high. PLaT 1503. INOCULATED SEED AND MANURE. JuLy 28 No lime. Lime. PNISISIGER «eal BREESE Ee Eee OARS arr Cre anne 134 211 (SEEDS Ag SB cabc RB ce Be GIG Bic IOC RICE RET eae a 51 26 (a DEO NCTE IE ieee tal og Ne ea 14 48 MO tallpor ne re aaa LN ante atte ne ates ote as 199 285 The weeds on this plat are quite abundant, though the alfalfa is of good growth. On the 3-lime and 2-lime sections a few green spots occur and these are abundantly inoculated, but there are no nodules on the plants of the 1-lime and no-lime sections. Not all of the plants in these green spots, however, bear nodules, and the question 1s raised whether these plants do not derive some benefit from the inoculated plants. (See Fig. 94.) Oct. 30. Plat 1503. Patchy and uneven on limed areas. Some of the plants are strong as on 1502. No-lime area like same on 1502. Piat 1504. PLaIn SEED, MANURE. JULY 28 No lime. Lime. INURE oh as Seca 5 fy BR Oe ERLE oe CR ORE OSS 131 150 REBE a aoaioeiiac BOE CO Or iac COO OR enc mince er aera 47 54 ROL EINCTARV CCU SHER. EN ort iy aistcrare, ar oraes oe iter evoke, for ed ois Sieeoeial os 23 26 DOIN SARA eee iclbtg Rae ee oe eee tek ine eR ce een te 201 230 The alfalfa on this plat is quite large and branched. It is quite spotted, however, showing frequent green patches where nodules may be 246 BULLETIN 237. found. No nodules were found on the no-lime section. The three limed sections are much alike. This plat as a whole is quite similar to 1503, the alfalfa not being dark green save in the inoculated spots. Oct. 30.. Plat r504. Like*1503." Not equal to 1502 or 1505. Prat 1505. CHECK. Piarin SEED, MANurE, INocULATED Sort. Juty 28 No lime. Lime. yA TERE eee eR re nie Then it oi ict ih ee Rene Cid oe 577 204 (GEASS tere sree Sea Ce IO OE MRE tte Bisa leanne 48 27, Otherjweeds, 4. osca¢ shah aera ae ene ie ee estas slate atals 7 19 Wotal Sighs £2 kaa bt nee teers Sc iSiass Dole tee Ces 632 340 The alfalfa on the no-lime section is very small and yellow. It may be that earlier in the season the plants were more abundant on the other sections and the vigorous ones have killed the weak ones. The color and vigor of the alfalfa on the limed sections are satisfactory, inoculation good. Oct. 30. Plat 1505. Good stand and fair.vigor except on no-lime area which is thin and poor. PLat 1506. PLAIN SEED, MANURE, FERTILIZER AND Sort. JuLy 28 No lime. Lime. JAULISN DE ee A EE Pe aE irae Aaa ie Sl eM aed. a Hob Ge 346 371 (GAS S psf in Bates Be Sey ates Seca Mee eee oes TE 36 SI there weeds Wy caiewsasie wa ctetiowews wale omen sae ate Oe ee 15 II Potal 02 42 coos awh oe dosed ee ee 307 433 The weeds in this plat are not quite so abundant (apparently) as in some of the preceding. The plat shows quite a spotted appearance, the yellow areas having few or no nodules. This plat indicates that dark green color may be due to good condition for growth as well as to inocu- lation, there being many dark green areas where no nodules occur. The limed sections are much alike. The alfalfa on the no-lime section is much more vigorous than on same section on the adjoining check plat (1505) probably because of the lime supplied in the fertilizer. Oct. 30. Plat 1506. Good stand throughout. Vigorous growth on 3-lime and 2-lime, fair on 1-lime and weak on no-lime areas. PLAT 1507. PLAIN SEED, MANURE AND FERTILIZERS. JULY 28 No lime. Lime. J 1% 1. eg Sr Lah A eG NA ky Sse ra 204 231 NGTAGS 8 he Sechina'e Se be Mok Oh ae we uae eee DEL REECE Lene 23 21 REGIE. VERS 5 220s xo diahora bse bie nie AE OS Oe Meteo ea 8 9 ata Ps odie es Reccixs aie Bch teal og Mirren Bice mec 235 261 The weeds on this plat are not abundant. Abundant inoculation was found on the limed sections, but few nodules on the no-lime section. The ALFALFA. 249 limed sections are quite uniform. It is noticed that where no nodules occur the roots of the alfalfa are simpler and not so ramifying as they are where nodules occur. Oct. 30. Plat 1507. A good stand throughout but weaker in growth than 1506 and 1508. It is noticeable that 1506 and 1507, having commercial fertilizer, are both better on the no-lime sections than 1505 and 1508. The fertilizer seems to make up somewhat for the absence of lime but produces little additional effect where lime was applied. Piat 1508. CHEcK. PLAIn SEED, MANURE AND Sort. JuLy 28 No lime. Lime. ANIaING: “oS Bea ee ORS AS Or Lea OE CRT IER CIC ree 204 241 (GAGS. SEA Sue am die DOR Oa OISES A iG ic OSCAR Caen EE 48 16 ONES e: SFASTECG Ens A eet et Ae ae Crs Cr a II 35 Loyal le, as Cond oO one hae te Rie CRI Sc Si Ooi PIS ee 353 292 This plat is somewhat spotted, there being few or no nodules in the yellow patches. The green patches are well inoculated. Weeds well de- veloped, and good stand. The 2-lime and 3-lime sections have produced alfalfa a little better than the 1-lime or no-lime sections. Oct. 30. Plat 1508. Stand fair to good throughout. Vigor fair to good except on no-lime area where plants are small. PLat 1509. PLAIN SEED, FERTILIZER AND SoIL. JULY 28 No lime. Lime. ANTBIN Ga Ries Bess ae apie eS re Oot ea Rr ere: 332 223 (GSS “SSE Hae RUC an Oo RODE cao Rere ts hearer 71 23 @feravieed Susy Nr cre mers cea etre ore oy aaa cites 16 26 BIRO freee iers eee sat oot Nene ick noi cescehe ata scaloichadeete Get ars 419 272 The alfalfa on the no-lime is very small and pale. There are less weeds on this section than the others. Only one plant found bearing nodules on the no-lime section. On the 1I-lime section the alfalfa and weeds are a little better than the no-lime and inoculation is a little more abundant, but only where the alfalfa is dark green. On the 2-lime and 3-lime sections both the alfalfa and the weeds are still better and inocula- tion is abundant. Oct. 30. Plat 1509. Poorer than 1508 but better than 1510 except on no-lime section which is nearly gone. PLAT 1510. PLAIN SEED AND MANURE. JULY 28 No lime. Lime. FABIEN UIE) Sra Bac ORE ONG eRe OORT IER RES ET FE 159 141 (GREE: Fes enti Pelion tec ree ice eerie Or CT AE enone 34 24 CONIAREFR Goer eta (ES a am ateek Rn Ae or Ae a a Be 18 21 PROFS Me Ror ese, sara aS Riot eens PIM 186 The alfalfa on the limed sections is vigorous and plants branched, _ but the color on all sections is not good. Slight inoculation found on 248 BULLETIN 237. 3-lime and 1-lime sections. The no-lime section is more weedy than the others. The three limed sections are markedly spotted with green patches. Oct. 30. Plat 1510. Fair stand on 3-lime and 2-lime sections; poorer on 1-lime and very poor on no-lime areas. The general vigor of the plants is less than on 1509 and markedly less than on 1511. (See Fig. 92.) PLAT 1511. CHECK. PLAIn SEED, MANURE AND Sort. JuLy 28 No lime. Lime. SIU GL SR BPP RPS, Deseo chai) ho 1) 9 ACH a rs me 1905 298 MESS A SSDS oa. a Sore tone Re OR ERR ae tacos are 47 8 Diner Weeds» (is ova oe OP Oe OE Oe BS his II 25 Gta gaia os x7, Sok eee ee ee ne 253 331 All sections of this plat have a few yellow patches where no inocula- tion has taken place. It is abundant in other portions. The stand of alfalfa is good, but the weeds do not seem to be so abundant. 1-lime alfalfa larger, dark spots in bloom, nodules abundant, other sections similar, alfalfa dense, good color except in a few spots which have no nodules. (See Fig. 91.) Oct. 30. Plat 1511. Good stand and good vigor on the 3-lime and 2-lime sections, a noticeable falling off on the 1-lime section and more especially on the no-lime area. PLAT 1512. PLatn SEED, MANURE AND FERTILIZER. JULY 28 No lime. Lime. MCE c att coin oe nto mis aye ane aeteon Mina eed ee eS 120 195 CG Senta ee nee San TA ARAM USAAL Sati 2 got) 3 43 II Other swieedsys, seivaethet teers Soe oc ae ne hee ee 24 34 Motal: 2 Gig hehe AAS eae Ok: CER en ce 187 240 This plat as a whole is quite weedy and the alfalfa is not uniform. There are a few green spots on all sections where nodules may be found, but they are wanting in the other portions. On the limed sections the weeds are much stimulated, in fact, they are now covering the alfalfa. Oct. 30. Plat 1512. Patchy. The good areas as good as 1513 and 1514. The effect of the fertilizer is manifest on the no-lime area which is better than the same area in 1511. Nodules are found in the weakest patches. PLAT 1513. Pratn Seep, MANURE, FERTILIZER AND SoIL. JuLy 28 No lime. Lime. PNbaliat Mio eee re 2 ck KERR ERE EERE REE EBEE ERE EOS en 195 163 HCAS SA Sls ave DAML ATA GENS be WORN Ee Ree e DEL EtdR ys tee 108 68 ere weeds ol... .cn Naik eee ceee eis ERAREREROEEE Cone 23 65 Mgbitall: Ves Ss Chis eee SV ewE es PERS ee eee aa 326 206 Similar to 1512 for weeds. The weeds and alfalfa are quite dense and the whole plat is well inoculated and in many places the nodules are ALFALFA. 249 in masses as large as a kernel of corn. On the limed portions the weeds are large and prosperous. Oct. 30. Plat 1513. Slightly stronger growth throughout than on 1514, especially on the no-lime area. PLAT 1514. CHECK. PLAIN SEED, MANURE AND Sort. JuLy 28 No lime. Lime. AN iar Sa he BON aaah A oan tot ice Pe a ane Aa eo 170 188 GEASS Spc Gti SOIC CEE IDE er Ret para 84 32 AO PMEGRVAE CCL Sir y.tersenPrt aoe erste tensests orareiG) Susie Gear eels e a siahs 23 40 TORE bn 3% dea esha an tical BE A eRe ORO 277 260 This plat is quite weedy, dock especially abounding on the limed por- tions. The alfalfa is not uniform, being vigorous in some places and weak in others. On the vigorous and green portions nodules may be found on all sections. The weeds are not so abundant on the no-lime section. . Oct. 30. Plat 1514. Good stand, good vigor except on no-lime section. 3-lime area somewhat better than 2-lime and 1-lime, but the difference between no-lime and 1-lime is much greater than between 1-lime and 2-lime or 3-lime areas. This is probably the strongest check plat and only slightly excelled by 1513. PLAT 1515. PLAIN SEFD AND SoIL. JULY 28 No lime. Lime. ANIL ce SOO as ROR ee ODOC On CEE CERN aoe 190 174 (GASS ec oS AS SAD Ere Ca er eer Se 81 34 Otieniwiced src errs, ryan abet iee aoe te helped siau,e Mes hee 2 15 TRG fare eye ey ek i ee eg eho, ok atone ears are 283 223 The weeds are much smaller and fewer than on the preceding plat. The alfalfa, however, on all sections is not so patchy. There are green and pale plants, but they are interspersed. The green plants bear nodules. The alfalfa on no-lime section is small, but green. This end is wet and low. It is more vigorous and of better color on the limed section. Oct. 30. Plat 1515. Stand fair. Vigor medium on limed areas and rather poor on no-lime. There is little difference between I-lime, 2- lime and 3-lime areas. PLatT 1516. INOCULATED SEED. JuLy 28 No lime. Lime. JANIE hia oe ploloias.6. oR GO RCH Cea pROR Cio GEE oe riers 118 162 Girslee! ee eet Be OOH REO MRE DIATE ctetals caren meee 59 55 @ithicraviecd Se sere reper occa eere ta ohare ave ath qyautlera tiers nese Gj II IEG Se eee er RES ees Coe De aes ei ae ee Pe 184 228 The effect of lime in invigorating the plants does not seem to be so noticeable as on other plats. No nodules could be found on the 3-lime 250 BULLETIN 237. and 2-lime sections, but they are abundant in spots on the 1I-lime and no-lime sections. Weeds on this plat are not so abundant as on preced- ing plats. The alfalfa on 1-lime section is small and pale, except where nodules occur. On the limed sections, however, it is better, but this may be due, to some extent, to drainage. Oct. 30. Plat 1516. Scarcely distinguishable in any respect from 1515. Nodules are found on the limed and no-limed areas of both. Pat 1517. CHECK. PLain SEED, MANURE AND Sort. JuLy 28 No lime. Lime. PSY Fen ie ns ste berg Ant Bipcars Bacchi 8 Bion ao ees 95 160 STE ISSI ecas See aaa ee aR EE RN ee AeA tay Sel SM se RR 23 37 DERermMeedS: chs eke kt Ao cer eee Lee eee Dane 8 26 otal £0 Ar cot capes ies ee tins Mee Se en ERE 126 223 The plants on this plat, neither weeds nor grass, are so vigorous as on those plats toward the other end of the series, but this end is moist. The alfalfa is generally of good color and well inoculated. On the limed sections the weeds and alfalfa are stronger and more vigorous. (See Fig. 93.) Oct. 30. Plat 1517. Stand good. Vigor good but greatest at 3- lime and inferior on no-lime section. Slightly less growth of top than on 1514. 3. Seeding With and Without a Foster Crop During 1904 a study was made of the effect of a foster crop on the growth of alfalfa seeding. The seeding was made upon a gravelly loam soil well adapted to alfalfa. A mixture of oats and barley was sown with the alfalfa on part of the area at the rate of one bushel per acre early in May. The stand secured was good and the growth normal. The field was clipped twice during the summer. Critical study of both areas was made on July 12, just before the first clipping, and November 3, at the end of the growing season. For purposes of study a representative spot was selected in each area and one-half square yard was carefully taken from each and the growths separated into their classes, counted and weighed. The following table shows the result of this examination: a OO ALFALFA. 251 TaBLE No. 9.— SEEDING ALFALFA With and Without a Foster Crop (one-half square yard) Alfalfa Alfalfa with oats and Data obtained July r2. alone. barley. IVOmOlmalialtamplammtisiey as, seve ete etviete oe ccs ct steloleds 215 269 NiOMRO HE WICCUS Rbet are pee en oe ee cota tone © at Oias 362 266 iNomotOatandeparleys plamtsenes a. tee se ose sclest cts 33 Weight of fresh alfalfa plants, gms.............. 178.84 100.08 Average weight of alfalfa plants, gms............ .83 37; Wieioht of fresh) weeds. ginss.. 2.2.2 ascs+ cee cels os 445.80 156.00 Weight of oats and barley plants, gms............ 614.05 Average height of alfalfa plants, inches........... 7.4 GE2 Data obtained Nov. 3. Nomotaltabham planitse tec 5 cacti os sicaly ie Seite sine 288 282 INI@s. GE TWIGS Sh Sc MRIS hr aes pcr er eee 216 87 eemOC CELE Oat PLAMES = sarstas fers again Sbtecs'a siore oe + 2.5 «3s 27 Wrerchimotadriedtaltaltaeplants.soms* 4.2.4.0. 151.5 84.0 Average weight of dried alfalfa plants, gms........ .74 .30 Wiciteittotudmied weeds gins. 145. saccencuoaeens 132.0 102 Weight of-dead oat stubbles, gms............0... 66 Average height of alfalfa plants in inches......... (Op Hl Aoi It would appear from this data that the alfalfa grown without a nurse crop certainly possessed double the vigor, at the time of going into the first winter, of that grown with a nurse crop. The following season, however, no difference in the appearance of the different sections was observable, and the plats were therefore not harvested separately. 4. The Loss of Weight of Alfalfa Hay in the Barn Opportunity was embraced in 1904 to secure some data relating to the loss of weight of well cured alfalfa hay after storing in the barn. On June 20, two bags of alfalfa hay were taken from the loads as brought in. The hay was well cured in the field having been cut 9 days and lying in cocks, without rain for most of this period. The two bags weighed 2 lIbs., 5 ozs. when empty and 29 lbs., 6 ozs. gross, when filled leaving 27 Ibs., 1 oz. of alfalfa. Assuming that the bags weighed practically the same at later weigh- ings the loss of weight of the 27 lbs., 1 0z. of alfalfa on the various dates is shown below. Lbs. Ozs. Actual loss. RGA OU evra, 85 ot. het oe Gross weight 29 6 Ulam Were cps ie aera oe Gross weight 26 14 2.8 Tiwiky N22ee BARES ees eae Gross weight 25 4 4.2 Js ST Ea CAN ES et Gross weight 25 2 4.4 2 Es eee ee Gross weight 25 3 4.3 / 252 BULLETIN 237. * Gross Weight of Total loss weight, alfalfa, in weight, Loss, ounces. ounces. ounces. per ct. SRCM EO noe corte Sn oe estek oe 470 433 Vaan Sra eak etree bee bees 430 303 40 9.24 VO eel Fs tonc F etawee lS aatece ans 404 307 66 15.24 PSD ie fe Ae eh Rt a cieesa a 402 365 68 15.70 Stet) he ce ee irene Grete 403 366 67 15.47 The weighing made September 26 was during a wet period when the humidity was high. The hay appears to have reached its lowest weight by August 2, just about seven weeks after it was put in the barn. That a larger quantity placed in one pile in a barn would have lost its water so rapidly is doubtful. The small quantity in a bag permits rapid drying, but then this may check some other losses, which occur when the hay “sweats.” The variation in weight thus far is much smaller than occurs with timothy. The loss being probably principally water will depend upon the condition when taken from the field. SUMMARY 1. Soil— The observations and experience of the past two years con- firm the opinion that there are large areas in New York suited to alfalfa and also considerable areas upon which the crop is not likely to succeed. The loamy soils with porous subsoils are best adapted and these are chiefly located in the northern two-thirds of the State. The heavy soils, es- pecially those having impervious clay or hardpan subsoils, are least adapted and these constitute the bulk of the soils in the southern third of the State. Usually creek or river bottom land if not subject to serious overflow will produce alfalfa if skilfully managed. 2. Inoculation necessary.— Outside of the districts where alfalfa growing is already well established only six per cent of the codperative tests indicate no need of efforts to secure inoculation. In 63 per cent of the cases no nodules at all were found. Certainly New York farmers must look well after the matter of inoculation if they would secure success with alfalfa, for without the alfalfa organism the crop does not succeed in New York. 3. Results with the cotton method of transporting alfalfa bacteria — During two seasons only one case of marked increase of vigor of alfalfa plants has attended our efforts to inoculate the seed with bacteria secured on cotton. Our own experience and the results of studies made at the Geneva Station (Geneva Bulletin No. 270) lead to the conclusion that the cotton method is not sufficiently reliable to be of practical value. 4. Inoculation by soil_— Extended experiments and observations lead to the conclusion that where inoculation is needed and the conditions are ALFALFA. ~ 253 favorable for the bacteria the use of soil from,an old alfalfa field uniformly results in abundance of nodules. 5. Lime.— Dressings of lime usually prove beneficial to the crop. On - the heavier soil of the College farm, lime is essential to the establishment of the crop. At the end of the first season it appears that 2,000 pounds per acre has produced somewhat better results than 1,000 and practically as good as 3,000 pounds. 6. Combination treatments.—On that part of the College farm having the heavy soil, the only method of treatment that produced results that seem to promise ultimate success was a combination of lime, stable ‘manure and inoculation by means of soil from an old alfalfa field. The plats thus treated do at the present time encourage us to believe that _ practical success may be secured with alfalfa on many soils of the State that are regarded as unsuited to the crop. 7. Nurse crop.— On some gravelly loam soil on the College farm, alfalfa grown without a nurse crop went into the first winter manifestly much stronger than that grown with a nurse crop. After a winter of no unusual severity this superiority was not maintained in the season’s production. 8. Loss in barn.— Thoroughly field-cured alfalfa hay lost between 15- and 16 per cent in weight upon being stored three months in the barn. ~ COOPERATIVE EXPERIMENTS 1906 COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE CORNELL UNIVERSITY OUTLINE OF COOPERATIVE DEMONSTRATIONS TO BE MADE IN 1906 The following schedule gives a list of the demonstrations or ex- periments that it is proposed to make with New York farmers in the season of 1906. These experiments cover some of the most important of the newer problems that are just now pressing themselves on the at- tention of our farmers. The list contains enough subjects to offer to every farmer one or two for his particular study. We desire to cor- respond with any person in the State who may wish to take up any one or more of these subjects on his own place. If there are other important problems pressing for solution in any locality, we should be glad to con- sider them; but in order to make the work efficient, it is necessary to limit our endeavors. There are three purposes in this extension experiment work: (1) To illustrate or teach,— to instruct the codperator in methods, to set him at the working out of his own problems, to bring him into touch with the latest discoveries and points of view. (2) To demonstrate in various parts of the State the value or the inefficiency of various new theories and discoveries,— to determine how far these newer ideas are applicable to local conditions. (3) To discover new truth, which may be worthy of record in bulletins ; this is usually the least of the results that follow from such experiments because the experiments are not under perfect control nor continuously under the eye of a trained observer. These 55 demonstrations and experiments are in eight categories, each category in charge of a specialist: I. Agronomy, J. L. Stone; II. Plant Selection and Breeding, J. W. Gilmore; II]. Horticulture, John Craig; IV. Entomology, M. V. Slingerland; V. Animal Husbandry, H. H. Wing; VI. Poultry Husbandry, J. E. Rice; VII. Dairy Industry, R. A. Pearson; VIII. Plant Diseases, H. H. Whetzel. Correspondence should be addressed to the persons who have charge of these branches at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Specify by number the experiments in which you are interested. The general plan of work is mutual or codperative,— the farmer to provide land and labor and to have the crop, the expert to give advice and supervision and, so far as possible, to inspect the work. In some cases, 254 ALFALFA. 255 the College furnishes seeds and other materials. It does not furnish fertilizers. The person on whose farm the experiment is located will receive most of the benefit, but we desire reports from each man so that the results may be given to others. It will be impossible, of course, to serve every one. We shall take only as many experiments as we think we can handle satisfactorily. Persons who desire to engage in this work must apply quickly. Full instructions, together with blanks for the making of reports, will be sent to applicants. I. AGRONOMY OR FIELD CROPS (J. L. Stone) No. 1. Alfalfa. (a) The experimenter to report the conditions existing, the manner of treating the crop and the successes and the fail- ures met in his experience. The direct experiments suggested are (b) Seeding with and without a nurse crop; (c) Treating a portion of the area with lime; (d) When nodules are not found on the alfalfa roots, obtain some infected soil from a field where nodules are abundantly produced and scatter it over a portion of the area; (e) Apply stable manure to a part of the inoculated area and also to an uninoculated plat. No. 2. Oats. eee Check= Noth! 5227 34.4 Liles ee. June 20.. Tsteen| SapAneseee meme Check.” ‘Nothing. =k oe 31.2 DO: a5 June OO. se eRe Sa Siiver Hales Check. Nothing........ 20.4 ile soreness Jane 20. ws nc.s< etic hee ee | Common Grayvee) Checks Nothing. .. 2) ade 30 ni ee Seb Yunie ZO se... es tte oo eae eee (AOL Ver Eri eee ae 200 Acid socks. 32. ashee 24.8 Geis see AIMS 20s occ eerie tsneje levees Rete) Mere al lee 100 Muriate of potash....|_ PAE | 16S S. Humes 20s... taeecevesses 4 es oll Diver ELahlee ae 200) Dried blood... .... 6 25.8 ty Sans be spurte 220 oz sects eee tei] ME ere lirel Le eee 200VActd' tock. io.) ee 24.3 100 Muriate of potash.... US Sate oe June ZO. Gees cicterc oe ee vies eh POLL Verdana c 200 AcidkrGek: oi ieee 2 258 200 Dried blood......... 24.1 OS ects une ZOraNe ee satowe oe eee oe wer Ebuleere an 100 Muriate of potash.... 200 Dried blood: - 22.2. 22.6 DO sci se tine ZO)... sche oe aoe Sel Moll ver ality eee. ZOO. Acidirock: eee ae 100 Muriate of potash.... 200-Dried bloods... 322. 22.8 Ne earn Silver Hull..... 200° Acid OCk se eee 100 Muriate of potash.... 200 Dried blood 22 Silver Hull..... Nothing... 21.4 Se oft Y 22.8 DSsuk es Dilwersbnal ter yemte Nothing...... eae 18.7 ih, Seen Common, Gray,... |) Nothingdsne. eee eee 23.6 DD ce eee Japanese. seo. Nothing: 2th en ceee 2.8 Seeding.— The amount of seed used per acre in seeding buckwheat varies from three to five pecks but is usually four pecks. It may be sown with the ordinary grain drill or broadcasted and harrowed in. The time of seeding varies in different localities, but in New York and Pennsylvania is the last week in June or the first week in July. To avoid hot weather while the grain is forming, it is desirable to sow as late as possible and have the crop well developed before severe frosts occur. Buckwheat begins to bloom before the plants have nearly reached full growth and continues blooming till stopped by frost or the harvest. Hence there will be at harvest time on the same plants mature and immature grain and flowers. It is sought to cut the crop just before the first hard frost. Much of the immature grain will ripen while lying in the swath or gravel. Harvesting.— Buckwheat is rarely harvested with the self-binder, but may be cut with the hand-cradle or the dropper-reaper. To avoid the shelling and loss of the more mature grains it is preferably cut early in the morning while damp from dew or during damp, cloudy weather. It is usually allowed to lie a few days.in swath or gravel when it is set up in small independent shocks or stooks. It is not bound tightly by bands as are most cereal grains, but the tops of the shocks are held together by a few stems being twisted around in a way peculiar to the crop. This setting up is also usually done when the crop is damp to avoid shelling of the grain. BucKWHEAT. 293 The unthreshed crop is not often stored in barns or stacked but is threshed direct from the field. Formerly much of the threshing was done with the hand flail, in which case it is necessary that the work be per- formed on a dry, airy day so that the grain will shell easily. If threshed by machinery, neither crop nor day need be so dry. It is usual to remove from the thresher the spiked concave and put in its place a smooth one, or a suitable piece of hardwood plank. This is to avoid cracking the grain and unnecessarily breaking the straw. The pedicels bearing the seeds are slender, and these as well as the straw, when dry, are brittle so that the grain threshes much easier than the cereals. Fic. 99.—Buckwheat in the stook. A plat on the Cornell Station grounds. Rotation.— Buckwheat usually has no definite place in the rotation of crops. This is chiefly due to its being used as a substitute for meadow or spring-planted crops that have failed. The poorer lands and the left-over fields are usually sown to buckwheat. While buckwheat seems not to be materially affected by the crop that precedes it, on the other hand it is reported to affect unfavorably certain crops when they follow it. Oats and corn are said by many to be less successful after buckwheat than after other crops. That this is so has not been established by any experiment Station. Buckwheat leaves the soil in a peculiarly mellow, ashy condition. In the case of rather heavy soils on which it is desired to grow potatoes, 18 274 BULLETIN 238. this is a decided benefit and in some localities the practice of preceding potatoes by buckwheat, for the purpose of securing this effect, has come to be common. The following rotation is sometimes recommended for such soils: clover, buckwheat, potatoes, oats or wheat with clover seeds. The first crop of clover is harvested early and the land immediately plowed and sown to buckwheat as a preparation for potatoes. Varieties.— There are three principal varieties of buckwheat grown in America,— the Common Gray, Silver Hull, and Japanese. The seed of Silver Hull is slightly smaller than the Common Gray,— the color is lighter and of a glossy, silvery appearance. The Japanese is larger than the Gray, of somewhat darker color and there is a tendency for the angles or edges of the hull to extend into a wing, making the faces of the grain more concave. The plant of the Japanese variety is a somewhat larger grower than the others, the fresh stem has a green color and the flowers seem not to be quite so subject to blasting from hot sunshine as the others. On this account it is recommended in some localities to sow the Silver Hull and Japanese varieties mixed, it being said that the later and hardier Japanese will shade and protect the others from hot sunshine, thus avoid- ing blasting and securing a larger zone of seed-bearing straw than is furnished by either sort alone, a larger yield resulting. The Silver Hull variety has a red stem and branches more freely than the others. The leaves also are smaller. Each of these varieties has produced largest yield in certain tests. It seems that there is adaptation of variety to soil or climate or, perhaps, to weather conditions that has not yet been worked out, that produces these contradictory results. However, the yielding quality of the Japanese variety is usually conceded to be superior to that of the others. By reference to Table No. 2 it will be seen that plats 11, 12, 13, also 23, 24 and 25, give the comparative yields of the three varieties in the IQOI experiment. In each case the Japanese variety gives largest yield and Silver Hull smallest. It was observed in these tests that Silver Hull is much slower-growing and less vigorous in its early stages but comes on later to make a good stand. In the case before us the average yields were: WAP AN EGE Si rsnsete tous ap kccoee eh ae eee CRE mae tite 27.5 bushels per acre Commons Gray ac sete ce eee tee eee Ee ai eee oe i 20.8 bushels per acre miver trials) perkiss4 cotsate Cece oo cote eaten Be 19.5 bushels per acre In this experiment there were eleven plats seeded with Japanese buck- wheat and eleven with Silver Hull. The fertilizers and also the culture treatment applied to one are duplicated on the other. The average of the eleven plats sown to Japanese variety was 36.6 bushels and of the eleven sown to Silver Hull was 23.1 bushels per acre. Probably these figures are BUCKWHEAT. 275 \ unfair to Silver Hull, as apparently the east end of the field was less productive than the west end where the Japanese was grown, though there was nothing to indicate this in the appearance of the soil. Comparative tests of the Japanese and Silver Hull varieties have been included in the codperative experiments conducted among the farmers in various parts of the State. Table No. 3 gives the results secured in a number of these tests: TaBLE No. 3.—YIELDS OF JAPANESE AND SILUER Hutt BUCKWHEAT IN Co- OPERATIVE EXPERIMENTS EXPERIMENTS. County. Japanese bu.}| Silver-Hull per acre. bu. per acre. rmeGeme a tlici. apnea wiinevsi Geowiavdargveteve « i NVERahbayeieroln a SiGe oe Bela ceee 41.50 39 (eee Ghace (frosted) !........0.. 5... eee Chautala, sere sce see 14.25 12.50 OTE CH COCK « BEAN? BEIGHT The blight is a bacterial disease. It is caused by a minute parasitic plant (Bacterium phaseoli) in form and habits of life quite unlike the anthracnose fungus. These tiny bacteria have no mycelial threads and no spores. Each little Gell (Fig. 112) 1s a plant in itself. The bacteria increase in numbers by each one simply dividing into two which, when full grown, repeat the process. Each one is supplied with a long fine flagellum or tail by which it may wiggle about to some extent in the tissues of the bean. The blight attacks the ordinary field and garden varieties and also the Lima Beans. It was first observed in this State by Professor Beach of the State Experiment Station me 1892... Like. the tacks all parts of the bean above ground but is most con- spicuous on the foliage and pods. The disease on leaves.— The first evidence of the blight is usually to be observed in the leaves. These show large brown dead patches (Fig. Iog), often spreading through the entire leaf. When wet, the spot is soft and watery, but when dry, becomes papery and brittle. On a badly blighted patch the leaves become dry and curled, as if scorched. The bacteria probably always enter the bean plant through a wound. Judg- ing from some observations made last season, it seems likely that certain insects are in most cases the agents by which this disease is carried from plant to plant. This is an important point in the life history of the para- Fic. 111.—“Blight”’ on pods of Lima beans. From New Jersey Bulletin No. 151. 296 BULLETIN 239. site and one that requires further observation before definite statements can be made. Having gained entrance to the leaf, the disease gradually ~ travels down the stem to other leaves and to the pods. Professor Barlow, of the Ontario Agricultural College, has shown that the progress of the disease is comparatively slow. Leaves of beans inoculated with the bac- teria did not show-symptoms of the disease until the third week. The bacteria increase in such numbers that finally they may fill up the sap tubes in the stem, cutting off the water supply and so cause the entire plant to wilt and die. . The disease in the pods—— Through wounds or by way of the stem the bacteria find their way into the pods which, if young, may shrivel and die. In the larger pods they produce spreading watery spots ( Figs. 110 and 111) which finally become more or less discolored but never sunken and black as in the case of the anthracnose. The disease in the secd—F¥rom the pod the disease readily gains entrance to the growing seeds. The pods are not destroyed unless at- tacked when very young, and when ripe they may show considerable dis- coloration or none at all. The bacteria, however, having gained entrance into the seed, as in the case of the anthracnose, remain there dormant throughout the winter. With the germination of the seed ee, in the spring the bacteria also begin to multiply and find o—9 ~~ their way to healthy beans and so the infection spreads. erie ia 7 ae Treatment of Blight i gato blecht Seed treatment No method of treating the seed to S much magni- prevent the blight has yet been proposed and properly enh) Sard tested. Professor Barlow has demonstrated that the bac- teria are readily killed by exposure for ten minutes to Fic. 113.—Bean rust. A. Summer spores on under side oj leaf. B. and C. Winter spore. Note the light border around the spots on the upper side of the leaf B. Some DiskAseEs oF BEANS. 207 _ water heated to 122° F., while dry beans can endure such a temperature for some time without injury. While this gives some promise of success the treatment is open to many of the objections raised in the case of the anthracnose (See page 291). Selection of clean seed.— The sorting of seed affected with anthrac- ~ nose has been shown to be highly desirable. Its value in the case of seed affected with blight is very questionable. Owing to the fact that blight- _affected seeds are often not discolored, it is manifestly impossible to sort them from the healthy ones. The safest method is to discard all seed known to have come from fields that showed the disease. Destruction of diseased tops; rotation.— In regard to these practices Professor Barlow says, “A field where beans have sickened with this dis- ease is unfit for growing beans for at least one season, as the germ lives over at least one winter in the stems and leaves left on the ground. How long such a field may re- main. infected is un- known, for we do not yet know whether the germ can live and in- crease in the soil where | no beans are growing, although this is probable. :- Bean straw from in- & fected fields may be burned. If it is fed to animals or used in bed- ding, the manure should be returned to the field on which the beans grew, and not spread on fields as yet free from the dis- ease. Spraying—At the _ leat Tissue —~ New Jersey Experiment ; : , : J y P Fic. 114.—Diagrammatic section across a bean leaf af- Station, Dr. Halsted has fected with “summer stage’’ of the “ Rust.’ The spores experimented for a num- are formed on the ends of the mycelial threads, just . beneath the epidermis which 1s pushed up and 7 S Ty 2 V4 d - . ; ber of wears with several broken. The light brown summer spores are thin- '- spray mixtures for the walled and warted. The mycelium grows through prevention of bean the leaf tissues between the cells which become shrunken and distorted, and so unable to do their work properly. bop ) 9 LSet i i i Wi el : blight. The Bordeaux mixture of the strength recommended for the anthracnose has been found to be very satisfactory. _ Probably a larger number of applications will be necessary for the blight than for the anthracnose, 4 2098 BULLETIN 230. Iil< BEAN RUST The true rust of beans is, like the anthracnose, a fungous disease. It differs from the anthracnose, however, in many important respects. The most important difference from the grower’s point of view is that it is a much less common and destructive disease. It occurs usually only on the leaves of the bean, rarely on the stems and pods. Except in very severe cases, it does not materially injure the leaves, Epi dermis of Leaf REE "== Yourng Spore 9 Om — Leaf Tissue Fic. 115.—Diagrammatic section through a bean leaf affected with “winter slage’’ of the “ Rust.’ The spores are formed like the summer spores on the ends of mycelial threads just beneath the epidermis. The spores are, however, smooth and very dark brown or nearly black. Their walls are thick and their contents oily, which enables them to withstand much cold and drying. The rust fungus (Uromyces appendiculatus) sends its mycelial threads into the tissues of the bean leaf, there to secure nourish- ment for its own growth and development. From the ends of the threads that come to the surface at certain spots, spores are formed (Fig. 114). These are of two kinds: the summer spores, brown and forming powdery specks (Fig. 113 A) on the under side of the leaf which readily rub off on the hands as a rusty brown powder ; the winter spores, black and produced in small compact warts on the under side of the leaf or sometimes also on the upper side (Fig. 113 B and C). The spots on the upper side are commonly surrounded by a yellow border. The summer spores appear rather early in the season and are produced in abundance. SomE DIsEASES OF BEANS. 299 It is by means of these spores that the disease is spread. The black winter spores (Fig. 115) appear later. They result from the late in- fections by the summer spores. The mycelium never spreads far from the point of infection and, unless these points are numerous, but little damage is done to the leaf. The disease winters in the old leaves. Treatment of Rust While this disease is not common and is rarely destructive, yet it is desirable that it should not become well established on a farm. Under very favorable conditions it might become sufficiently abundant materially to injure the crop. Therefore, it is well to learn to know it and so be able to stamp it out whenever it appears. Since the disease winters only in the diseased tops, it is readily exterminated by burning all diseased plants after the beans are harvested. When beans are sprayed for anthracnose this disease will also be controlled. DME SAE PAR ALUS FOR SPRAYING BEANS Any sprayer that will thoroughly cover every part of the plant with the Bordeaux mixture may be used. It is not possible to recommend any one machine as the best for spraying beans. The kind of power used is im- material so far as effectiveness is concerned, provided it gives sufficient pressure. The grower must decide for himself what power will be most desirable in his case. The important thing aside from the pressure is the arrangement of nozzles. Fig. 109g shows an arrangement of nozzles which are said to be very satisfactory. Below is given a list of spraying machine manufacturers who furnish with their machines nozzle arrangements for spraying beans (probably others will also furnish them) : Niagara Sprayer Company, Middleport, N. Y. Liquified Carbonic Gas. The E. C. Brown Company, Rochester, N. Y. Compressed air, com- pressed by power from the axle. The Gould’s Manufacturing Company, Seneca Falls, N. Y. Hand power or Gasoline engine. The Standard Harrow Company, Utica, N. Y. Field Force Pump Co., Elmira, N. Y. Bateman Manufacturing Co., Grenloch, N. J . ot 7 oT 4 ® h * " A, . : =! er bt Oia Ske, SECS OR eae “AK Ly aNele 3 as rp Maye ep + earth Atle bake ens 6 on atey pa BAS fh Ut. Rawr Gan ie stakes ead nd) ai Serine 2 LOPE Aldcy i ceeet Gs No ety & See 2 a Yaa # peres “Eta 4 “= ; : a « i i ‘ - « Bus ‘ ? ee T° (Re a peated nd ed he ae ' ot ae v ¥ RQ J r “eal wif eka . : — ‘ >. . y . . " : ~ « ” - a ‘i ad ‘ i te Mie 7 oS Ls a i ~ e -" ‘ ms ; = r <—e- i d wes rs a x . . — se > t i ee ‘ i » yy 5 ~ SS at A - a E-& ‘ 4 * ‘ - i = = er : r ~~ ry oa .% ¥ } ; . of . : 5 iD ne = a f ; ? ; ln § - “4 " : f 4 ae = . = = ’ ‘ Z 2% yar os a “ ‘ 7 ~ L LF) ‘* r Pe : o. : f _ i a * > , 3 Fels: Perak ES ae. it & Th EON ar et ¥ als is 4 e . gS JUNE, 1906 BULLETIN 240 CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE-GOLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Botanical Division THE INFLUENCE OF MUSHROOMS ON The Growth of Some Plants By GEO. F. ATHINSON ITEAGA,. SovY PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY. 30 THE INFLUENCE OF MUSHROOMS ON THE GROWTH OF SOME PLANTS* By Gero. F. ATKINSON The problem.— The large number of mushrooms, or fleshy fungi, in- cluding the large basidiomycetes which are developed annually and then disintegrate, represent a large amount of plant substance. Some of the food substances of certain fleshy fungi are probably in a form which is available for the green plants as food, but the large number of the basidio- mycetes make use of organic matter for food which is not in a condition to be used by the green plants. The problem set for this investigation is to determine if the substance of these fungi whether derived from food substances already available for the green plants or from organic matter not available to them can be used as food to any extent by the green plants in an undecomposed condition, or when partially decomposed by bacteria or fungi, or both, or when the substance is completely decomposed. It would also include a study of the influence of decoctions of mush- rooms, or of decaying mushrooms in different stages of putrefaction on the growth of green plants. Finally it should include the determination of the products of decomposition of these fungi to learn the final end products of decay, and their relation to the nutrition of green plants, or to the questions of increase or decrease of available substances for the nutrition of green plants. All these fungi are of importance in the matter of the disintegration of plant remains, reducing the bulky and firm parts of dead plants to a finer condition of forest or vegetable mold which in itself is beneficial since this detritus improves the physical con- dition of soils, and represents steps also in returning at least some of the organic matter not absorbed as food by these plants to a condition in which it can again enter the circulation of food substances for autotrophic green plants. In addition to this is the actual substance of the fleshy fungi lost, or is all or a part of it finally returned to the circulation again ? Some preliminary experiments were conducted during the spring of 1905 with Agaricus campestris as the source of plant food for corn, peas, beans and buckwheat. Sterile sand was employed as a substratum, some pots being of pure sand for checks, while in others fresh mushrooms were crushed and plentifully mixed with the lower layer of the sand. Where there was an abundance of the mushroom substance and near the surface the decomposition products formed in the decay of the mushroom either caused the seed to rot, or prevented the growth of the roots. In other cases where the mushroom substance was less in quantity and in the *Contribution from the Department of Botany of Cornell University No, 112, ag 5 393 304. | BULLETIN 240. Fic. 116.—Corn seedlings showing conditions of roots after growing in mushroom . 3 =) os . © . 5S * . material. The two plants at the lejt show the black root tips which are injured by growing in the fermenting mushroom material. The two at the right show healthy root tips which were growing in previously jermenling mushroom material. INFLUENCE OF MUSHROOMS ON GROWTH OF SOME PLANTS. — 305 bottom of the pot the tap roots growing into this fermenting substance were killed and blackened at the tips. The leaves died back from the tips, and the plants showed symptoms of severe injury. But as the fermenta- tion was completed the plants gradually recovered, became healthy, grew to some size, and the buckwheat, peas and beans flowered. Since the ex- periment was a preliminary one to obtain suggestions for more accurate work, the plants were watered with ordinary tap water which contained certain mineral and possibly other substances available as plant food. Notwithstanding this the plants which were supplied with mushrooms for food made more growth than the checks. In the winter and spring of 1906 these experiments were repeated Fic. 117.—Corn seedlings growing in mushroom material. Photographed April 13th. From left to right the matcrial ts as follows: First, distilled water; second, not previously fermented mushroom material; third, stronger concentration of pre- viously fermented mushroom material; fourth, weaker concentration of previously jermented mushroom material. under conditions of greater precision and better control, while at the same time so arranged as to answer several of the phases of the problem as outlined above. i “CULTURES WITH QUARTZ SAND AS SUBSTRATUM A rather coarse quartz sand was obtained by special order through a local construction company. This was analyzed by Mr. Bizzel in the Chemical Division of the Experiment Station and was found to contain 20 306 BULLETIN 240. less than one-tenth of one per cent organic matter and less than one-tenth of one per cent mineral matter, the latter being mostly an iron substance. Wire culture baskets nineteen and one-half cm. deep by twelve cm. in diameter were employed, and after being filled with sand were paraffined according to the method employed by the Bureau of Soils of the U. 5. Dept. Agr.* The mushrooms were grown in the basement and in the greenhouse. They were first dried and then powdered. Some of this material was used fresh, i. e., it was placed in the crates of sand in an unfermented condition, while other material was allowed to ferment in distilled water Fic. 118.—Corn seedlings growing in mushroom material. Photographed May 7h. From left to right the material 1s as follows: First, distilled water; second, not pre- viously fermented mushroom material; third, s.ronger concentration of previously fermented mushroom material; fourth, weaker concentration of previously jermented mushroom material. before using at the rate of two grams dried mushrooms to two hundred cc. distilled water and a weaker concentration at the rate of two-thirds gram powdered dry mushroom in two hundred cc. distilled water. There were thirty-six baskets with ingredients of the foregoing as follows: Numbers 1-14 contained two grams powdered dry unfermented mushroom in the bottom third of each basket. Numbers 15—23, pure sand as check. * Circular No. 18, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1-6, 1905. INFLUENCE OF MUSHROOMS ON GROWTH OF SOME PLANTS. — 307 Numbers 24-30, 200 cc liquid containing two grams powdered dry mushroom which had fermented, placed in bottom third of each basket. Number 31, 200 cc. liquid containing one and one-third grams pow- dered dry mushroom which had fermented, placed in bottom third of basket. Number 32-36, 200 cc liquid containing two-thirds gram powdered dry mushroom which had fermented, placed in bottom third of each basket. The mushroom material was placed in the bottom third of the baskets in order to allow the seedlings a good start before coming in contact with the substance. These were planted March 22, 1906, with seeds previously germinated as follows: Two-thirds Two grams powdered Two grams gram mushroom. Check. fermented fermented mushroom. mushroom. Wiheabenep tts tc che a ceeias sec Nitmibers: 12305 } Ese as DAP Dy 32 {SiC SHS CE ae cee ee eee eee Numbers 4, 5, 6....... alg cialis} Zoot 33 (CORSE Baa echcn oe a eee eee ere ae Numbers 9, 10, 11... 20% 21 28, 29 34 RSCUTMIOV Clecre creases tctervsonire usr anevanse cl Numbers 12, 13, 14..| 225 528 30 Bay 401 }One and one- | third grams solid fer- mented mushroom. HRCA LIS ln wen oterchicncnsder “sor Veaebeiece-csesancne INumibersd/eSia a... tee ao) (at eee Re ame ane 31 The material in baskets was all watered with carefully distilled water at time of planting, and thereafter as necessary. April 4th, there was a noticeable difference in the growth; in the corn, wheat, sunflower, buckwheat, the stronger fermented substance producing the richest color and the plants were taller. The weaker strength of fermented substance stood next, the unfermented mushroom next, and the check plants were the smallest and had the poorest color. In the fermented mushroom material the roots of the plants having reached the material were normal. In the wunfermented mush- room the root tips having reached the mushroom) substanc2 which was now fermenting by the action of bacteria were black and dead, but there were numerous lateral roots above, which probably obtained some of the fermented substance which had risen in the sand by diffusion and which was not strong enough to cause injury but furnished plant food. The tips of some of the blades of corn in the check were dead. The roots of the buckwheat had not yet reached the lower third where the mushroom was located. The sun- flower and buckwheat showed less difference, except in case of the fer- 308 BULLETIN 240. mented material where the growth and color were strikingly better, the first leaves after the cotyledons appearing sooner and growing more rapidly than in the checks and in the unfermented mushroom. In case of buckwheat the plants in unfermented mushroom were slightly better than in checks, while the sunflower plants showed little advantage. In the checks and unfermented mushroom the sunflower plants did not do well. Large areas on the stem were collapsed and dead; also dead spots ap- peared on the leaves. Some of these plants later died and some of the Fic. 119.—Wheat seedlings growing in mushroom material. Photographed A pril 13th. From left to right the material is as follows: First, distilied water; second, not previously fermznted mushroom material; third, stronger concentration of pry- viously fermented mushroom material; fourth, weaker concentration of previously jermented mushroom matcriac. leaves later showed Botrytis. The sunflower plants seemed to be weak- ened by the action of the freshly formed products of fermentation so that they were susceptible to the attack of the Botrytis. In case of the radish, the plants in the baskets with unfermented mushroom outgrew all the others and showed better color, those in the fermented were next, all showing rich color. The checks were small, puny, and yellowish on margins of leaves. - INFLUENCE OF MUSHROOMS ON GROWTH OF SOME PLANTS. 309 3 ag oe nel Fic. 120.—Wheat seedlings growing in mushroom material. Photographed May ‘th. From left to righi the material is as follows: First, distilled water; second, not pre- viously fermented mushroom material; third, stronger concentration of previously fer- mented mushroom material; fourth, weaker concentration of previously fermented mush- a — room material. } Co ae ee! er es * 310 BULLETIN 240. These differences in all became more pronounced during the follow- ing week, except in case of sunflower in which the plants in the unfer- mented mushroom were no better than in the checks. April 5th a set of the corn plants was photographed after being taken from the soil to show injury to roots by the fermenting mushroom (See Fig. 116). On April 13th the sets were photographed to show the relative size of the individuals growing under the different conditions, one basket of each different kind or concentration of material used, and were arranged in all cases from left to right as follows: pure sand, two grams dried mush- room not previously fermented, two grams dried mushroom previously fermented, and two-thirds gram dried mushroom previously fermented. Since an accident happened soon after to one of the radish plants, these Fic. 121.—Buckwheat seedlings growing in mushroom material. Photographed April 13th. From left to right ihe material is as follows: — First, distilled water; second, not previously fermented mushroom material; third, sironger concentration of previously fermen:ed mushroom material; fourth, weaker concentration of pre- viously fermented mushroom material. were not photographed again, but the corn, wheat sunflower and buck- wheat were photographed again on May 7, 1906. Since the test had con- tinued long enough to get comparative results, and since the baskets were not large enough to grow the corn to maturity this experiment was discontinued on May 18th, and the following notes were taken at that time, although the plants had been allowed to suffer slightly for the last two days for want of water. Buckwheat.— Check plants five to seven cm. high, with flowers on one plant. Plants in fermenting material eight to thirteen cm. high, flowers on several. Plants in stronger concentration of previously INFLUENCE OF MUSHROOMS ON GROWTH OF SOME PLANTS, gail fermented material twenty to twenty-five cm. high, flowers numerous on each. Plants in weaker concentration of previously fermented material ten to sixteen cm. high, several flowers on each. Sunflower.— Check plants which were still alive four to six cm. high, with three crowded pairs of leaves. Plants in fermenting material all dead. Plant in stronger concentration of previously fermented material forty-three cm. high. Plant in weaker concentration of previously fermented material thirty-eight cm. high. 2. Fic. 122.—Buckwheat seedlings growing in mushroom material. Photographed May “th. From left to right the material ts as follows: First, distilled water; second, not previously fermenied mushroom material; third, stronger concentration of pre- viously fermented mushroom material; jourth, weaker concentration of previously fermented mushroom material. Wheat.— Check plants thirteen to fifteen cm. high, several of the lower leaves dead. Plants in fermenting material forty to forty-two cm. high, best condition of all, green. Plants in stronger concentration of previously fermented material thirty-eight to forty cm. high; green. Plants in weaker concentration of previously fermented material thirty-seven cm. high. 312 BULLETIN 240. Corn.— Check plants twelve to fifteen cm. high, somewhat yellowish and several of the lower leaves dead. Plants in fermenting material forty-five to fifty-three cm. high, with better green color than any other of the corn plants but some yellowish patches. Plants in stronger concentration of previously fermented material forty-five to sixty cm. high, yellowish tinged and somewhat yellowish striped. Plants in weaker concentration of previously fermented material twenty-five to thirty em. high, yellowish. An examination of the photographs shows the constancy of the curve of growth in all the different kinds of plants. In the earlier period the plants in stronger concentration of previously fermented material outgrew the others and presented a healthier growth. There being more food sub- Fic. 123.—Sunflower seedlings growing in mushroom material. Photographed April 13th. From left to right the material is as follows: First, distilled walter; second, not previously fermented mushroom material; third, stronger conceniration of previously fermented mushroom matcrial; jourth, weaker concentration of pre- viously fermented mushroom material. stance in the stronger concentration, it is reasonable to conclude, accounts for the greater growth of the plants than in the weaker concentration. The plants supplied with the previously fermented material, while out- growing those in pure sand are checked somewhat perhaps because of the slight injury to the tips of the deeper roots from the fermentation now going on, but it is likely due more to the small amount of food made available at first by the process of fermentation. But after the material has reached an advanced stage of fermentation the corn and wheat plants in the baskets where fermentation was going on during their growth soon surpassed the others in healthy color and equalled or surpassed them in height. INFLUENCE OF MUSHROOMS ON GROWTH OF SOME PLANTS, 313 feo PURE CULTURES WITH AGAR-AGAR AS A SUBSTRATUM These cultures were made for the purpose of getting at the relative value of fermented and unfermented mushroom for plant food under con- ditions of precision which would permit the control of the material from fermentation or change by the action of other organisms during the period of growth of the plant employed in the cultures. Radishes and cabbages were planted in the medium. Bottles and flasks* with a capacity of three- fourths of one liter were used and each contained 250 cc. of the medium employed. The consistency of the agar-agar was six-tenths per cent ex- cept that containing Schimper’s nutrient solution which was nine-tenths per cent. The mushroom material was dried and powdered Agaricus campestris, and was used in three different conditions: first, a cold in- fusion with the solid matter retained; second, a cold infusion of five hours with the solid parts then filtered out; third, material which had fermented for two to three months in distilled water. After some preliminary experiments to obtain some idea as to the strength of material to use and to determine a method of sterilizing the seed to shut out bacteria and mold fungi, the following media and methods were employed. The media with infusion minus the solid matter was employed in two strengths so that in some flasks there was the infusion from five- twelfths gram of mushroom, and in others from five twenty-fourths gram of mushroom. The media with the solid matter retained was also in two strengths, in some there was five twenty-fourths gram of mushroom, ard in others there was five forty-eighths gram of mushroom. In the case of the fermented mushroom some contained the liquid from five twenty-fourths gram and others from five forty-eighths gram. Several flasks were prepared with agar-agar alone for checks and others with Schimper’s normal nutrient solution} to which a trace of iron was added. *See also Molliard, M., Sur la production expérimentale de Radis a réserves amylacées, Comp. rend. Acad. sci., Paris 139, 885-887, 1904. +6. g& calcium nitrate g potassium nitrate Z magnesium sulphate 1.5 g neutral potassium phosphate g sodium chloride 600 cc distilled water 314 BULLETIN 240. The flasks and bottles were wide mouthed, each received 250 cc. medium, were plugged with cotton and sterilized in the autoclav. The seedlings were prepared as follows: radish seed were rinsed in sixty-five per cent alcohol for one minute, then in a one-tenth per cent corrosive sublimate for five minutes, followed by rinsing in four per cent formalin for eight minutes. The rinsing was done in a Petri dish, the formalin was decanted and the seeds were lifted with the aid of a looped, flamed platinum needle and were transplanted on to wet cotton in a test tube pre- viously sterilized in the autoclav. The cotton was slanted in the tube and sufficient water was added to cover the base of the slant (See Fig. 125). The seeds were placed in the test tubes April 6, 1906, and on April oth young seedlings were trans- planted to the culture flasks. FIG. 124.—Sunflower seedlings growing in mushroom material. Photographed May wth. From left to right the material is as follows: First, distilled water; second, not previously fermented mushroom material; third, stronger concentraiion of pre- viously fermented mushroom material; fourth, weaker concentration of previously fermented mushroom material. The seedlings were lifted with a flamed platinum needle and, as an assistant opened the culture flask by holding it in a nearly horizontal position to avoid as much as possible the gravitation of germs into the medium were transplanted one each in a flask. Where the root was long enough it was pushed into the agar-agar. After a few days the few seed- lings which had not gained a roothold were pushed with a platinum needle into the agar-agar. The transplanting of the seedlings was done INFLUENCE OF MUSHROOMS ON GROWTH OF SOME PLANTS. = 315, in a moist room of the green house since there would be less danger of contamination than in a dry room of the laboratory. Nearly all of the cultures remained pure, that is, there were very few in which moulds or bacteria entered at the time of transplanting the seed. The growth was fair in all the media. It was the best in the nutrient solution, the poorest in distilled water, in the fermented mushroom slightly better than in the unfermented mushroom, whether in the infusion alone or in infusion with fine solid matter. In the two latter the growth was about equal. There was a tendency to a chlorotic condition in the leaves ofthe plants grown in the unfermented mushroom, giving the leaves a somewhat mottled appearance. This was more striking in some than in others. In some cases all of the leaf was whitish except along the principal veins where it remained green. In forty days those in nutrient solution were eleven cm. high, those in the stronger fermented medium nine cm. high, those in the stronger powdered un- fermented medium four to nine cm. high, those in the weaker powdered, unfermented medium four to five cm. high, those in the weaker fermented medium five cm. high. In the weaker fermented medium there was a tendency to the chlorotic con- dition, and a few plants in the stronger fermented medium also showed a slight chlorosis. Those grown in distilled water were three to four cm. high. The plants were photographed on May 17, 1906, as follows: one in distilled water, one in the stronger powdered unfermented medium, one in the Fie. r25.—Test tubes showing pure culture of seedlings ready to fermented medium, one in the nutrient solution. trans plant. These plants had developed the following number of leaves besides the cotyledons: in distilled water, four leaves with one young one; in the stronger powdered unfermented medium, five leaves and one medium young; in the stronger fermented mushroom, four leaves, stronger unfermented infusion, one in the stronger one very young; in nutrient solution, six leaves, one medium young. In general there was a good development of the root system, ex- tending well into the medium, but in the great majority of cases with mushroom as nutrient food there was quite a profuse development of 316 BULLETIN 240. roots on the surface of the agar. In the nutrient solution and distilled water the root system was developed altogether underneath the surface. Pure cultures-in sterilized mushroom agar were also made with cab- bage, the seeds being sterilized and the strengths and kinds of the medium being the same as with the pure cultures of the radish. The growth of the cabbage was somewhat slower than the radish. The fact that cab- bages do well in swampy and partially fermented ground when brought into cultivation suggested that this plant might perhaps be an especially favorable one to experiment with in using these peculiar substances as nutrients. So far as the present experiments go the cabbage has not grown quite so luxuriantly as the radish, but the healthfulness of the Fic. 126.—Radish seedlings growing in sterilized material in bottles. From left to right the material is as follows: Firs., distilled water; second, in unfermented ma- terial with fine solid particles included; third, in unjermented infusion; fourth, in fermented material; fifih, in Schimper’s normal nutrient solution. plant is about the same. While in the case of the radish plants the nutrient value of the substances as indicated by growth showed that the previously fermented mushroom stood next to Schimper’s normal nutrient solution, with the other substances in order as follows: infusion of dried mushroom unfermented, infusion of dried mushroom with fine solid par- ticles included and unfermented, distilled water; in the cabbage so far as size of the plants is concerned the plants in previously fermented substance stood next those grown in distilled water, while those in the unfermented mushroom whether infusion alone or with the fine solid particles included stood next those grown in Schimper’s solution, If INFLUENCE OF MUSHROOMS ON GROWTH OF SOME PLANTS. — 317 there was any difference between the nutrient value of the unfermented material it was in favor of the infusion with the fine solid particles included. The cultures were started April 25th. On June 15th all of the plants whether in unfermented or previously fermented material had the same number of leaves, viz., seven including the cotyledons, while some of those in the unfermented material were larger and the plants were taller. (The plants in the normal solution had seven leaves while those in dis- tilled water had four.) The plants in the fermented material were, how- ever, healthier, the leaves of those grown in the unfermented material showing a slight chlorotic condition between the veins due probably to a slight toxic influence of certain of the salts like sulphuric acid which are abundant in the common mushroom and thus out of proportion to other constituents as compared with a normal solution. These pure cultures show that for the radish and cabbage there is plant food for autotrophs in an unfermented infusion of the common mushroom, for they grow to a larger size here than in distilled water. The unfermented mushroom, however, does not offer so good a nutrient as the products of fermentation do, and this is not surprising although it is a little surprising that the unfermented mushroom can serve as a nutrient for autotrophic green plants. Mendel* (p. 227) has shown, however, that a considerable part of the nitrogen in mushrooms probably exists as non-proteid nitrogen, some in the form of cellulose nitrogen and some in a form which can be extracted with alcohol (“extractive nitro- gen”). The former probably becomes available in the fermented mush- room while the latter probably is directly available in the infusions of the unfermented mushroom. Another interesting fact is that while in the unfermented mushroom as well as in the products of fermentation there are nutrient substances for autotrophs, it either does not form a perfect plant food, or there are certain slightly poisonous substances both in the unfermented and fermented mushrooms. This seems to be manifested in a more or less chlorotic condition of most of the plants fed on these substances. That it is not due to the lack of iron is shown first by the fact that the check plants grown in distilled water had not so long as the experiment continued shown any signs of chlorosis, and second by the fact that a chemical analysis of the common mushroom (Agaricus campestris) shows the presence of iron. Analysis also shows that all of the substances required in a normal solution for autotrophs are present in the common mushfoom,} as nitrogen, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron, chlorine, phosphoric and sulphuric acids. *The chemical composition and nutritive value of some edible American fungi, Am. Jour. Phys., 1, 225-238, 1808. + Zopf. Die Pilze, 117, 1890. 318 BULLETIN 240. Dr. Lafayette B. Mendel of Yale University, who has given some attention to the analysis of different mushrooms from the standpoint of their nutritive value as food for man, kindly offered to analyze some of the liquids containing fermented mushroom prepared in the same way _and at the same time as that used as “ fermented” mushroom in these experiments. I here quote from his report,— “My attention was first directed to the character and relative amounts of the nitrogenous constituents im solution. The filtered fer- mented infusions were examined quantitatively for total nitrogen content (Kjeldahl’s method); nitrogen in the form of ammonium compounds (Folin’s method); nitrogen in the form of compounds of albuminoid nature, precipitable by tannic acid (by the method of Hedin: Jour. Physiol. xxx). The solutions were practically neutral to litmus and therefore contained no free ammonia at the time they were examined. The analytical data are summarized in the following table: SUMMARY OF ANALYSES OF THE SOLUBLE “ FERMENTATION PrRopUtctTs”’ Nitrogenous Compounds ONE HUNDRED CC. CONTAIN IN MGRMS. No. 1 Per cent. No. 3 | Per cent. mgrms. total megrms. total nitrogen. nitrogen. nitrogen. | nitrogen. FRO AWaMIE ROL ETL ec eesri\s mantt aie coica cis tale ia ee SO 100 79 100 Tannic-acid nitrogen (‘‘albuminoids’’)..... 14 173 27 35 Non-proteid nitrogen in filtrate........... 66 824 52 65 Nitrogen in ammonium compounds........ 12 15 rf 9 Non-proteid N. not as NH,—compounds...| ........ BTA Nes Pot elec 56 It will be noted that the bulk of the nitrogen is represented by com- pounds not precipitated by tannic acid, such as amino-acids, amides, diamines, etc., in addition to the ammonia nitrogen (easily available) which I estimated separately and which is not so abundant relatively. I made no search for the possible occurrence of nitrates. The fluids contain no tryptophan and only traces, if any, of indol and skatol. I have searched for the types of sulphur compounds present, by the methods pursued in my laboratory by Rettger: American Journ. Physiol., viii, 284. Mercaptan was not found; but traces of hydrogen sulphide were present in each case. I was quite surprised to find a con- siderable quantity of sulphates in the fluids. The solutions contain volatile fatty acids which furnish a part of the available carbon in the culture medium. INFLUENCE OF MUSHROOMS ON GROWTH OF SOME PLANTS. — 319 The ash of the preparation contains iron, phosphoric acid and sulphuric acid salts in abundance. Judging from the results of Czapek’s interesting studies in Hol- meister’s Beitrage zur chemischen Physiologie, i and iu, the high food value of nutrient solutions such as the ones analyzed, would be at- tributable to the relative richness in nitrogenous compounds of the non- proteid type indicated in the analyses. Of course, his studies apply only to such plants as can utilize organic nitrogenous compounds directly. In the absence of information as to the character of the plants studied by you, i. e., whether fungi or higher plants, etc., I cannot say whether such a suggestion would apply. If you are working with the higher forms, it may be that the final decomposition of the mushroom constituents is of a type speedily resulting in the more available nitrogen compounds like ammonia. At any rate your extracts soon pass into a stage where there is relatively little nitrogen left in forms precipitable by tannic acid.” The heating in sterilization of the unfermented mushroom probably results in making some of the material available while the decomposition products resulting from the fermentative decay of the mushroom furnish a greater quantity of available ammonium compounds, sulphates, etc. It would be interesting to know how extensive is the formation of am- monium compounds, since these are directly available to corn and wheat (and other Graminez), and in the forests where mushrooms are more abundant, the nitrates are small in quantity, and forest trees and other forest plants obtain most of their nitrogen in the form of ammonia com- pounds.* The large quantity of sulphuric acid salts in the ash of the fer- mented mushroom as well as in the ash (24.29 per cent) of the unfer- mented mushroom, may account for the slightly poisonous effect on the radish and cabbage plants in the pure cultures, and the still less poisonous effect of the fermented mushroom on the corn and wheat in the sand cultures. In the forest or field these injurious salts would quickly filter away in the soil during rains and their injurious effect would probably not be felt except in case of very large masses of decaying mushrooms. One reason why certain ammonium compounds are harmful to green plants is due to the fact that they are strongly alkaline. The ammonia nitrogen at the time of its formation during the ferment action of the bacteria is probably alkaline. This may have caused the injury to the tips of the roots of the corn, wheat, sunflower and buckwheat in the early stage of growth of the seedlings when the fermentation was more active. Later when the fermentation is less active, the corn and wheat in the *Jost, Vorlesungen iiber Pflanzenphysiologie, 163, 1904. 320 BULLETIN 240. fermenting mushroom surpass in growth and in healthy color that grown in the previously fermented material. This may be due to the fact that during the process of decomposition of the mushroom material in the sand by bacteria simple nitrogen compounds (non-proteid) in the form of ammonia compounds are formed which are immediately available for plant food by the green plants, while in the mushroom material which was previously fermented some of these simple compounds may be held in a more complex and less available form. If this is so it might explain why the corn and wheat made proportionately more growth than the buckwheat in the material which was fermenting during the period of growth, and also why the sunflower plants were so weakened. ‘That certain of the ammonia compounds may be used by growing corn without nitrification 1s very probable in view of the work of Mazé* who obtained as great an increase in feeding corn with a one-half per cent solution of ammonium sulfate as with nitrate feeding. The other Gramineae also can make use of ammonium compounds without nitrification. If the toxic effect of the fermenting mushroom, the material ferments rapidly, is due to the alkalinity of certain of the simple ammonia com- pounds formed during the more active fermentation by the bacteria, this is not manifest in the case of the plants grown in the previously fer- mented material. The simple ammonia nitrogen which is formed during the rapid and early stage of decomposition of the mushroom does not appear to be lost, however, even in the case of the mushroom material pre- viously fermented. As Dr. Mendel’s analysis shows one characteristic of the fermented extracts of the mushroom is that fatty acids are present and these probably hold the ammonia compounds formed in the putre- faction of the mushroom which in the case of the putrefaction of animals volatilizes and is lost, since there are no carbohydrate groups present to form the fatty acids and the medium becomes alkaline. The ammonia compounds and the fatty acids probably furnish some of the available food both nitrogen and carbon for Lovinson+ has shown that certain fatty acids can replace to a certain extent the mineral acids in a normal culture solution for autotrophs. In conclusion then we can say as a result of these experiments that a portion of the substance of the common mushroom, and probably of * Mazé, P., Récherches sur L’influence de l’azote nitrique et de l’azote ammonia- cal sur le développement du Mais, Ann. Inst. Pasteur 14, 26-48, Igoo. See also Soave, M., L’azotoammoniacale e l’azoto nitrico nello sviluppo del mais Annali di Bot., 4, 99-114, 1906. TLovinson, O., Ueber Keimungs—und Wachsthtmsversuche an Erbsen in Losungen von fettsauren Salzen unter Ausschluss von Mineral-sauren, Bot, Centralb., 83, 1-12, 33-43, 65-75, 97-106, 129-138, 185-195, 209-2118, 1900. INFLUENCE OF MUSHROOMS ON GROWTH OF SOME PLANTS. — 321 all the Basidiomycetes becomes available as food for autotrophic green plants. This was anticipated since it is well known that in many proc- esses of decay decomposition products are formed by the nutrient and physiological action of micro-organisms, some of which are at once avail- able as food for the autotrophs, while other decomposition products be- come the prey of successive micro-organisms with different nutritive and physiological demands so that the final products themselves become avail- able. But it is rather surprising that the decomposition products from a heterotrophic plant should form so nearly a perfect food for an auto- troph. The decomposition of the larger fungi thus is seen to proceed along the same general physiological lines as that of other organisms which have been studied, the final products entering again into circulation in the organic world. ‘There is also probably a greater conservation of the ammonia nitrogen in the decomposition of the mushrooms in nature than in the case of the putrefaction of animal bodies because of the alka- linity of the products of the latter compared with the acidity of the products of the former. The chief ecological function of the mushroom is to disintegrate leafy and woody structures without which action the world would in time be choked with a deep layer of debris. These disintegrated remnants after serving as food for many successive kinds of organisms with different nutritive and physiological demands become available as food for auto- trophs again, much of it in the meantime playing an important role in improving the physical condition of the soil. But while this is their chief ecological function they themselves are subject to similar decomposition stages and again enter into the general nutritive circulation in the organic world. It would be interesting to know if the symbiosis observed in the case of certain fairy ring fungi growing in grass, where the grass in the ring of mushrooms is greener than that on either side of the ring, has any relation to available simple ammonia compounds formed by the mycelium of the fungi. These might be obtained either from old portions of the mycelium which have died and fermented, or through absorption by the roots of the grass from living mycelium in contact. The results of this study may also help to explain the method of nutrition of mycorhiza, where the fungus symbiont from the humus and other organic matter produces simple ammonia compounds as well as certain carbon -com- pounds, mineral substances, etc., which are passed on to the higher plant whether a green plant or a chlorophylless one. In the latter case nearly all the food may be supplied by the fungus symbiont. In the case of the so-called saprophytic seed plants a similar relation may exist between fungus mysilia not in contact, but within the area of root action pro- 21 322 BULLETIN 240. ducing these food substances which are later absorbed by the “ sapro- phyte”’ as in typical cases of metabiosis. I wish in closing to acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr. L. B. Men- del of Yale University for the analysis of the fermented mushroom extracts, and for suggestions on certain of the chemical problems, and to C. W. Edgerton, Assistant in Botany in Cornell University, who under my direction has prepared all the media, the distilled water, and has assisted in other ways. SEPTEMBER, 1906 BULLETIN 241 CORNEEL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE “COPEEGE“.OF: AGRICUETURE Department of Agronomy SECOND herOkT ON THE INFLUENCE: OF PERDIEIZERS “ON THE“ YIELD OF TIMOTHY HAY Made under the Direction of THOMAS F. HUNT By JOHN W. GILMORE and CHARLES F. CLARK ITHACA N.Y. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 323 ORGANIZA’TON OF THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BOARD OF CONTROL THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. LIBERTY H*BAILEY, Director of the Agricultural College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. HENRY H. WING, Professor of Animal Husbandry. EXPERIMENTING STAFF LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director. JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology. HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry. JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture. THOMAS F. HUNT, Agronomy. RAYMOND A. PEARSON, Dairy Industry. T. L. LYON, Agronomy. MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. S GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. JOHN L. STONE, Agronomy. JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry. CHARLES S. WILSON, Horticulture. ELMER O. FIPPIN, Soil Investigation. JOHN W. GILMORE, Agronomy. HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology. CHARLES F. CLARK, Agronomy. JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry. CYRUS R. CROSBY, Entomology. Office of the Director, 17 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New York State who request them. 324 moore RIMENTS- “ON - THE. INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZERS UPON. THE YIELD: OF TIMOTHY HAY “WHEN GROWN ON. DUNKIRK “CLAY - LOAM-IN TOMPKINS COUNTY, NEW “YORK On Dunkirk clay loam a single application of stable manure at the rate of 20 tons per acre, applied in the fall of 1903, has produced an in- creased yield of oats in 1904 and an increased yield of hay in 1905 and 1906 valued at $51.69. The value of the increase yield of hay alone was $47.88. The increase yield of oats and hay where to tons of manure were applied, was at about the same rate per ton of manure when 20 tons were applied, the value of the increase being at the rate of $2.58 per 714 713 712 7II No treatment 80 lbs. muriate potash 320]bs. acid phosphate No treatment 4040lbs.hay peracre 5370 lbs. hay per acre 4670 lbs. hay per acre 4360 lbs hay per acre ton of manure applied. Notwithstanding the cost of the application of commercial fertilizers to the oat crop was in every case greater than the value of the increase in the oats, yet during three years the annual _ applications of commercial fertilizers have cost less than the value of the increase in the oats and timothy hay produced. The most important ingredient in increasing the yield of timothy hay has been nitrate of soda. Muriate of potash has caused a marked increase in the growth of “volunteer ” Alsike clover, and thereby increased the yield somewhat. Acid phosphate had but little effect and when applied in 325 326 BULLETIN 241. too large proportions seemed clearly to decrease the yield of hay, fig. —. Within certain limits the “net gain’? from larger applications has been greater than from smaller applications of fertilizers. The best results from the use of commercial fertilizers as a top dressing for timothy meadows were with 320 pounds of nitrate of soda, 320 pounds of acid phosphate and 80 pounds of muriate of potash, per acre. With this appli- cation made annually during three years the value of the increase has been about $16 greater than the cost of the fertilizer applied. The increase yield of six plats receiving complete fertilizer was 3848.5 pounds. The experiments suggest that better results might have been obtained if a larger proportion of nitrogen to phosphorus had been used. Very important factors in the results obtained have been the soil, a stiff clay loam, and the seasons, which have been especially favorable to the yield of timothy hay and probably to the action of the fertilizers applied. In connection with a study of grasses and other forage crops for New York State, the Cornell Station published in 1905 the results of experiments begun in 1903, on the influence of fertilizers upon the yield of timothy hay when grown on Dunkirk clay loam in central New York. The results for 1906 tend to confirm in the main those obtained in the previous years and bring out some additional points of importance. Since Bulletin 232 gives the details of this experiment, they will not be repeated in this bulletin except so far as is necessary to a general understanding of the results obtained. The tract of land on which this experiment is being conducted is a rather tenacious clay loam, difficult to work except when moisture condi- tions are just right. The former management had been such as to reduce somewhat, although not seriously, the crop-producing power of the soil. It is well adapted to the production of timothy ; fairly well adapted to the production of wheat, when properly fertilized, and is less valuable for the production of corn and potatoes. The area was in corn in 1902; in oats in 1903, and would properly have been sown to wheat in fall of 1903. Early fall rains, however, prevented upon this type of soil the seeding of wheat. Oats were therefore sown again in the spring of 1904 and the land seeded to timothy. The first application of fertilizers was made, however, in the fall of 1903 instead of in the spring of 1904. In 1906 the same kinds and amounts of fertilizers were applied as in 1904 and 1905 with the exception of plats 727 and 728 which were treated as follows: (See Bulletin 232, . ) Prange Beoulbs.eNitrate.! Of ySOda 4 «sos acarverm «ete autora iets Rom swe uniatesOr mp OtaSit. doc ais a cicvemreniers emits AO ABS... NEI \ E WOSDNALC siry.< s :5 Sis obs dlarsiale = spin ae ROG Y% applied April 17 Y% applied May 8 INFLUENCE OF [FERTILIZERS ON THE YIELD OF TIMOTHY Hay. 327 717 716 715 No treatment 160 lbs. nitrate soda 160 lbs. nitrate soda 3520 lbs. hay per acre 320 lbs acid phosphate 5590 lbs. hay per acre 5920 lbs. hay per acre 720 719 . 4718 No treatment 80 lbs. muriate potash 160 lbs. nitrate soda 3700 lbs. hay per acre 6110 lbs. hay per acre 320 lbs. acid phosphate 80 lbs. muriate of potash 5360 lbs. hay per acre 328 - BULLETIN 241. Prat 728. OAOvIbSseNitratewor SOGAs ok renee en eee ce Soulbs es Muniate ot smotash? tesncceee cee ie eee eee B20 bs. AAC ae OSpilates ater. eae a ee mee Y%4 applied April 17 Y% applied May 8 The fertilizers were applied April 17 with the exception of the second application on plats 727 and 728 as noted above. The hay on all the plats was cut July 11, and was weighed July 12, 13. ~ In this experiment there are 22 tenth acre plats, eight of which are left ‘without the application of fertilizer of any kind in order to determine the increase due to the fertilizer applied to the other 14 plats. Twelve. plats | received commercial fertilizers of various kinds, combinations and amounts, while two received an application of stable manure. There is * this: important difference between the application of the commercial fer-. s-and the stable manure: thus far only one application of stable ire has been made to the plats thus treated, while in the case of the. commercial. fertilizers, three annual applications have thus far been made. ° One. of these applications was made in the fall of 1903 preceding the. sowing of the oats in the spring of 1904, while both in the spring of 1905 and 1906 the timothy has received a top dressing of commercial fertilizers as indicated in the table on page —. The only application of stable manure was made in the fall of 1903, on one plat at the rate of 1o tons per acre and on the other at the rate of 20 tons per acre. In the table on page — are given the actual yields calculated in pounds per acre and also the apparent increase in yield due to the application of the different fer-_ tilizers as indicated, 1905. 1906. Average = < % z pg eS an peas apparent — at a REATMENT. : pDparent r: pparent | increase in ~ No. | mica St increase in seid at increasein | yield of - yop yield of yi yield of hay, lbs, acre, lbs. hay, ibs acre, lbs. Rares . 7112) No trettment..)......0.. 0g LS OLOG| Starrs 4,360 (777. i505 | ee ee : 71#= | $20 Ibs. acid phosphate........, 2,680 607 4,670 417 pole 713% 80 Ibs. muriate potash.......... 3,190 954 5,370 1,224 - 1,089 714. deNb treatment. icfs.... 100.5 at 2400 bo ee. 4 /0407)| <>. Str. po) eee i 715 .| 160 lbs: nitrate of soda..:,..... 3,550 1,216 5,590 1,723 1,470 716.-| 320 lbs. acid phosphate......... | ! 160 lbs. nitrate soda........... 3,840 1,573 5,820 2,126 | 1,850 717 Nottreatment.. voi. che os. ~ee 2 DOOF ere t6c% see kao)’ Jal a eens LOM 3 cater 718 | 320 Ibs. tid phosphate......... : 80 lbs. muriate potash.......... 2,800 510 5,360 1,780 1,145. 719 LOO Abs: titrate SsOdasc....0. 6s 80 lbs. muriate potash.......... 4,280 1,900 6,110 2,470 2,185 720 IN OWULOALINENES:.). «ioaniemie eae ots cts DLO Lot ate STOO | tihets. cesses rl eee at eee 721 160 lbs. nitrate soda........... 80 lbs. muriate potash.......... 320 lbs. acid phosphate......... 4,590 1,877 6,550 2,987 2,432 ) INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZERS ON THE YIELD oF TimotHy Hay. 329 i 1905. 1806, Average Pl TREATMENT A 74 A eee at y: F r: pparent : pparent | increase in No. pee ee increase in ee of increase in| yield of yD yield of ¥>DEe yield of | hay, lbs. acre, lbs. hay, Ibs. | 2¢Te, lbs. ay, Ibs 722 160 Ibs. nitrate soda........... 80 lbs. muriate potash.......... 640 lbs. acid phosphate......... 4,350 1,394 5,730 2,304 1,849 723 INoatreatment sso. cots ccs elie oom SOO Wnortiere este S,2900R Es anata ose ee 724 320 Ibs. nitrate soda.......... $ 80 lbs. muriate potash.......... 640 lbs. acid phosphate......... 5,880 3,044 7,940 4,683 3,864 725 320 lbs. nitrate soda.......... : 80 lbs. muriate potash.......... 320 Ibs. acid phosphate......... 6,610 4,137 7,420 4,197 4,167 726 Noktreabment/c ack. cds o< ces ccs DA OM Were eres 8 oie U0 Pen lull ha reenact d= 727 320Mbs: nitrate soda...2.5....- : 80 lbs. muriate potash.......... 320 lbs. acid phosphate......... 4,310 2,380 7,110 4,120 3,250 728 640 lbs. nitrate soda.......... : 80 lbs. muriate potash ......... 320 lbs. acid phosphate......... 2,470 720 7,590 4,800 * 729 INGrireabMIentacs tone < cok cle ssis ae TR O)sil | Peacck oan ct steve ZOO! “VE ihm A AES a oer are 730 INertreatments nses cco meietece os fe ADO Reese Se Di DOO Ih Vea. ake ae: (toe Seeeaee ee 731 NOonsiof mamtire: 6.5 ace... e ee 4,090 2,595 4,350 1,940 - 2,268 132 DOFCONS Of MANUTE. occ. cc0s 0 2: 5,520 4,025 7,420 5,010 4,518 A striking difference is noted in the greater average yield of the plats receiving no fertilizer in 1906 than in 1905. In 1905 the eight plats receiv- ing no fertilizer gave an average yield of 2160 pounds, while in 1906 these same plats without any additional treatment of any kind gave an average yield of 3365 pounds, or a yield fully 55 per cent greater. This increased yield may be fairly attributed to more favorable weather conditions. The months of April, May and June in 1906 averaged higher in tem- perature and rainfall than in 1905. The total rainfall during the three months mentioned was 11.37 inches in 1905, and 12.54 inches in 1906 This indicates unusually favorable It is also probable that against a normal of 9.65 inches. weather conditions for the growth of timothy. these seasons have been especially favorable for the use of commercial fertilizers and it may be that when seasons of normal or less than normal rainfall occur during these months, that less benefit will be derived from the application of fertilizers. * Received no application of fertilizer in 1905. 330 BULLETIN 241. MONTHLY AND ANNUAL TEMPERATURES AT ITHACA, NEw YORK Normal. 1903. | 1904. 1905. 1906. Wheat trarays tS lac acorn cB cl svearte ieruseace nose area 23.8 25.0 | 16.8 20.0 31.8 Reb rtiary: pisiarctatcc Sa ciaeelare Meats chassis poreos 24.2 27.8 17.0 18.4 23.4 INiamelisrercpa aor ese fucyertern erst! Bec beysyiene 31.5 42.1 30.4 32.8 27.0 PANG hans t Reverse cs ape parses Sty Sectors nao etna 44.4 44.6 40.2 42.9 44.7 WGN Rastcic beta) aac ews die S5% Saemele tic wees tourls 57.3 57.6 59.6 55.8 56.1 WLI eee iics cahace ane, alters, wens) oe eslvantay = eee 66.3 60.8 65.6 65.4 67.0 HINDU ese yet msenise ces c/s, sess. Teva Bae ns bet rage 70.2 67.4 68.4 70.4 69.4 ATT RIS Greene cae aoe: j Sire we Ss As ieetes 67.8 63.6 65.8 67.1 7pik(0) DEVPEMUDER Hie wists comes Se atic oa eraerers 61.5 61.6 59.6 61.45|) - oe WCCO DER eater ensue Cotas e aia ete ac yo Gate te rete 50.0 50.6 47 .2 50'..6" | eee INOWEMUDER Erik fiers 4 yet aoare tre, seeks ws 38.4 34.7 36.0 S624 |e Pekar IDEGerm peters ye ers sie ye, = sr eh ae, hee he oer 28.9 Dene 23.6 S12 t nee ree ENSUED ieee: nate heen its, Harare eal tlegs otters 47.0 46.6 44.2 46.0 42. ee , MONTHLY AND ANNUAL PRECIPITATION aT ITHAcA, NEW YorRK Normal. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. [ESERIES SON Sy ae eieanes Bt co heRSAte oe py al lid 2.19 3.46 2.82 1.07 ie DRUATVaciae cis c Mite te ktris mane, neces ers 1.$3 107, 1.40 0.71 L220 BVUELT Clie aprets crusts soe ets. cate. e, eRe TS tc teenenere 2.52 4.62 2.29 3.06 3.28 PODUL eens cases A wire ee Case noe tee net 2.22 1.04 2.93 2.64 ian Ra eed Benue ey yeasks bitte ee eee = eh 3.72 0.30 4.64 1.92 3.71 EIA sieeve eGo Acca tans Set eon? Bimal 9.65 abe 7c 6.81 7.06 Mine rain is 6 gies + 5 a aghisnarsts Seeker Seb Me oe 3.81 2.64 3.79 4.97 1.94 POLE UISE Seto tes eB Poop ers enc 6 Ma eeker: 3.37 Choos) 2.20 2.83 2.53 MEDULCIUDE Tarik SaciSac ce on Sash iemice ie cane 2.78 ileepit 1.93 3..\66)- |) te eereeneee WChODer ee weekly isc lecs esate esate 3.16 5.69 2.71 4:36.| in. 2 eee BVOMERDIOTY. vz atvens.soi cin eae caste 2.52 1.83 0.84 1°34") ceSeeose WWECETIDEE At Sa Ae 5 eh ke eee Joe 2.49 1 Bett Ibs) 2.08 2/92 |" one eee rnialinet. cyswe? Rite che eee Sear nee 34.40 35.46 30.04 380441)" siesta sees A It is interesting to note that the apparent increase in yield due to fertilizer was also greater in 1906 than in 1905. Thus, while eight plats in 1905 receiving no fertilizers yielded 2160 pounds, the average apparent increase in yield of ten plats receiving commercial fertilizers was 1721.2 pounds, but in 1906 when the average yield of the eight plats receiving no fertilizer was at the rate of 3365, the apparent increase in yield, on the INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZERS ON THE YIELD oF T1iMotTHy Hay. 331 sgn i 723 722 No treatment 160 lbs. nitrate soda 3290 lbs. hay per acre 640 lbs. acid phosphate 80 lbs. muriate potash 5730 lbs. hay per acre 160 lbs. nitrate soda 320 lbs. acid phosphate 80 lbs muriate potash 6550 lbs. hay per acre 726 725 No treatment 320 Ibs. nitrate soda 3190 lbs. hay per acre 80 lbs. muriate potash 320,lbs. acid phosphate 7420 lbs. hay per acre 724 320 Ibs. nitrate soda 80 lbs. muriate potash 640 lbs. acid phosphate 7940 lbs. hay per acre 332 BULLETIN 241. ten plats receiving precisely the same application of commercial fertilizer as in the year 1905, was at the rate of 2391.1 pounds per acre or 39 per cent greater. While the actual increase was thus greater in 1906, the percentage increase, when compared with the yield of the plats receiving no treatment considered as 100, was generally less (See table p. ie There are two possible explanations for this result. The greater increase in yield may have been due to the more favorable season for the growth of timothy, making it possible for the plants to make greater use of the fertilizers applied, or the application of the previous year may have had a residual effect, either in the way of plant food actually carried over, or by producing more vigorous plants. It is fair to assume that a vigorous plant will stool more abundantly, and that the new plants thus produced will be more vigorous than those from less vigorous plants, if the better environment is maintained. Thus, the number and vigor of plants may be increased upon the plats receiving fertilizers as compared with those which did not have such treatment. Whether in this case the greater increase in yield, when fertilizers were applied in 1906, as compared with 1905, was due to the previous application of the fertilizer or to better seasonal conditions in 1906, must be left for further study, but it seems not unlikely that both may have been factors in the results obtained. RESULTS WITH FERTILIZERS STATED IN TERMS OF MONEY In 1906, in every case the increase in hay was worth more than the cost of the fertilizer applied. The value of the increase over the cost of the fertilizer applied, varied from 61 cents per acre, when acid phosphate only was applied in the spring of 1g06, to $26.54 per acre, when 20 tons of manure had been applied in the fall of 1903. The cost of the fer- tilizers applied to the oat crop raised in 1904 was in every instance greater than the value of the increase. Starting with this handicap, the cost of the fertilizers applied during the three years, has been less than the value of the increase in. the three crops with the exception-of the plats where acid phosphate alone was applied, or an excessive proportion of acid phosphate was applied. Aside from the stable manure, the largest net gain from the application’ of fertilizers was where- 320 potinds of nitrate of soda, 320 pounds of acid phosphate and 80 pounds of muriate of potash were applied. The reader should be careful to observe that the net gain is not necessarily the new profit obtained from the application of the fertilizers. The net gain or net loss is merely the difference between the value of the crop produced, based upon the December farm price of’ the product for an average of ten years and the cost of the fertilizer at the valuation placed upon them in Bulletin 232, p. 3. It is entirely prob- A INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZERS ON THE YIELD OF TIMOTHY Hay. 333 729 No treatment 2590 lbs. hay per acre 732 No treatment 20 tons manure 7420 lbs. hay per acre 728 640 lbs. nitrate soda 320 lbs. acid phosphate 80 lbs. muriate potash 7590 lbs. hay per acre 731 to tons manure 4350 lbs. hay per acre 727 320 lbs. nitrate soda 320 lbs. acid phosphate 80 lbs. muriate potash 4X to lbs. hay per acre 730 No treatment 2230 lbs. hay per acre 334 BULLETIN 241. able that the farmer may pay more for the fertilizers when purchased at retail, or may sell his oats and hay or may value them for feeding pur- poses at more or less than the average December farm price. In any case there are other factors which enter into the actual profit or loss and must be considered by each farmer for himself. The table on page is simply a comparative statement of increased yields as related to fer- tilizers applied, stated in terms of money. Net Gain or LOSS FROM FERTILIZERS WITH OATS AND TimotTHy Hay B20nibs* acid phosphates jccioe. oiler cis MO: «0% INOMELeA UMD. Mr. eh, 5 Se ets chapels a ee es MaOeecci = MN ORELC ACME ti) c/otai fel ole eet + wa) 2' 5) sa ee (oh er HOSLGMS Of seaATITe!. vrs wens 4 sisin shaun’ sant — 3.20 13.75 10.27 20.82 Maden Be AOOLONSIOLMANANULE Wachtel dink os ule bau) 21.33 = Net GAIn or Loss (—) FroM FERTILIZER WITH at No. TREATMENT. ——— SS Oats Timothy | Timothy Three 1904. 1905. 1906. crops. (La Nae aa Noh ane acnHaalesnt tater gicina erode a Gia wan eo One FD eats 320 lbs: acid phosphate:...-..--2-..--- —$2.82 $1.61 $0.61 $0.60 idoicern.oc SOMbssmimmiabespotasbiets coy eyele)- cies cienen — 4.05 3.45 4.89 4,29 (IC aetna INOuEreapinent arya creectetoie eo cteirie crete reece Gall Oieyeea tere NG6OMibswenitratersodam. situs sree — 2.07 2.84 Sepe 6.30 HALO tel eet SZOuibs. acidephosphate: «> cic ae sie 2s 60M bssanitsate soda... cc. see Gaeis: — 3.09 3.14 6.07 6.12 CGE ae INK) Tee mea(sekrotg5 cin Baws Clo ao Obie ola D BO] (ptsen aoa 320 Ibs: acid phosphate®....<-. .... 4... SOMbsmiuniapespotashimee: ermal (oS saith) — .50 6.23 4.74 (Noone UGOMibsSaitirateisodarm. cere yet rae | 2{0) Ifo eaaekbhmtha ole silt 4 505655 0ce0 65 —— ria 4.87 7.89 11.03 Miz rc Sce INOstre atime nite a orate iis tektn tis oyisy costae eens Viele ncrcte HOM pseemitrateisOGarn sete teencts sere oer SUMS amuiIniatenWOLaSiw. wera reseie oie ony oa ono Sq! i) 9.03 8.58 SOON ps vacidiphosphatece «10 i) ete | DoD alm LOOWl bss Mibrate,SOd2 sp we ashes se os fares | BOMbscemi Mita te DObaSite = cue .ieearsieiereueens |S Ae) — 1.01 3.81 — 3.19 640 lbs. acid phosphate ~............ ‘| diDeaitvere. INoMireatimentomrter ake ope slit ate cere ce lepsnets | 128 S2OlbSamitrahe SOG ae ois cid spatsyere ie ane SOlbs: muriate potashs:- 25.2.5...) 640 ibs. acid phosphate. ....~........- — 1.92 ARS 12.82 9.03 (PE Sanoe S2OslbS wii Tate: SOGA preteen seke bene rete) a as SOMbs) muniate potash)... --.se Ones 320 Jbs--acid" phosphate? ..-..).ce 2. <5 — 6.90 11.53 11.83 16.46 W268 NGreETeabIMe;nnt sr cn laces her cueirae ee caste SPE wae BLO Nbss Nibtate SOG ari. yeh lorcle ss oye) olen de SOs. muriate POLASMiw.wys tek tints). eerie ta S20iibsacidphosphate..: «set ates > — 5.24 5.81 11.44 12.01 CAS AE, GA0MbSsaaitrace SOCa . sein Pv New SERIES, OCTOBER, 1905. 345 caterpillars, and many butterflies, among which were the monarch, mourn- -ing cloak, painted lady, painted beauty, and viceroy. Then there was the little bat that hung himself upside down on the wire screening, and a Caroline box turtle that had to be banished from the terrarium because he insisted on eating up so many of his small associates. The floor of this terrarium was covered with stones, gravel, and rich soil, over the greater part of which a carpet of moss was laid. A tiny maple tree lived in it for a season, and many pretty wood plants have made it attractive at different times. One year the pet of the school was Bufo, a very solemn old toad. Often he was so unsocial as to back down into the earth and refuse to come out, but the children would take him gently in their hands and he did not seem to mind. Once when we were watching a cabbage butterfly that was in the terrarium, Bufo came out of his hiding place to watch it, poo... Lle.-: ré- mained as. still as a stone and looked like one. The cabbage butterfly flitted down and rested on old Bufo’s nose. Of course you know what Mappen.ed . Bufo’s tongue Was out and the cabbage butter- fly was in itis mouth before you could wink an eye. This is one of the ways in which Bufo showed that he is a good gar- dener. The cab- bage butterfly, you know, lays the eggs from which the cater- pillars hatch that Fic. 4.—The terrarium. 346 Junior Naturatist MONTHLY. eat the cabbages. If you watch a toad in the garden, you will find that he eats many destructive insects. Now I hope that there will be well-stocked terrariums in many of your schools. You will enjoy watching the little wild neighbors and you will learn a great deal from your observations. Here are a few things you ought to remember in trying to make your visitors comfortable :— 1. The terrarium world will need an occasional shower. A small watering can is convenient for this purpose. 2. A partition should be built between turtles and frogs for they do not always live in friendly relations, 3. Try to find the food that your terrarium folk will eat. Cater- pillars should have fresh leaves from the plant on which you find them feeding. Your butterflies may sip the sweets from flowers. Put some thistle blossoms, milk weed plants, and other flowering plants where they can treach~them. In 4resh mosses and rich soil the toads and salamanders will prob- ably find food to their liking. x x * x xx Fic. 5.—Larve of potato beetle just hatched. They When boys are fishing in have eaten their own egg-shells. ponds and streams, they often find interesting water forms. These should be taken to school and placed in a glass jar filled with water, - Fig. 3. Unless the aquarium jar is large only a few things should be kept in it at one time. Place a few stones in the bottom, but do not put mud into the jar. I find that the water salamanders, water insects, and little fishes will eat fish food. They will also eat each other, 1f you are not careful. The large dark-colored beetles (predacious diving beetles) are not at all considerate for their associates and will eat whatever they can reach. You would better keep them by themselves in a Mason fruit can. The water scorpion that looks like a twig will dispose of your small fishes. I think that he, too, should live by himself. Uncle John will hope to hear of some interesting experiences that Junior Naturalists have had in their study of animal life found in the water. New SERIES, OCTOBER, 1905. 347 LESSON IV. AN UNINVITED GUEST Nearly all of our Junior Natural- ists are gardeners, and good gar- deners need to know insect pests and how to keep them away from the growing plants. The potato beetles, or potato bugs, as they are commonly called, are among the most frequent and troublesome visitors that enter our gardens. They arrive early, remain late, and, judging from their appe- tites, the air usually agrees with them. Fic. 6.—Colorado potato beetle larve or Let us study potato beetles this 52/4 shells” or “slugs,” as the farmers ‘ call them. Natural size. fall and perhaps we shall be able to keep them away from our gardens next year. Even if you have no garden you will find the beetles interesting to study, and you may be helpful to people near your home who are trying to grow a good crop of potatoes. How to Study the Potato Beetle I. Go into a potato field and notice whether there are any beetles on the planis. Have the leaves been eaten to any great extent? 2. Carry a plant with some of the beetles on it into the schoolroom. Watch the beetles from day to day. Keep the plant as fresh as possible. Give the beetles new leaves when needed. If you have no terrarium keep your specimens in a box covered with mosquito netting, or place them under a lamp chimney and cover the top with a piece of netting. Fic. 7.—Pupa in its 3. I suppose many Junior Naturalists know earthen cell in_ soil, enlarged, that some insects appear in four different forms ; 348 Junior Naturatist MonTHLY. . during their lives. This is true-of the potato beetle. The eggs, dark orange in color, are usually found in clusters of from 10 to 40, on the under side of the leaves. The young or larve, Figs. 5, 6, are called “ soft-shells ” by the farmers. The period of rest, called the pupa, Fig. 7, when the “ soft-shells’ change to beetles. This change takes place in little round cells in the earth. The fourth period is the adult or beetle, Fig. 8, with its striped wing covers. How many stages in the life of the potato beetle can you find? 4. Late in the fall the beetles go down into the earth to sleep until spring. See whether you can find any in the field. It is said that usually ~ they do not go down deeper than ten inches. 5. Find out whether the beetles eat as well as the young. 6. There are little friends in our gardens as well as enemies. One of these good friends is a lady bird beetle, or lady bug. You have often sung: “Lady bug, lady bug, fly away home, Your house is on fire and your children will burn!” When you come to know the lady bug you will hope that when she does fly away she will find her home in your garden, One thing that most of the lady birds do is to eat the eggs of the potato beetle, and some feed on the young; so, you see, they help us to control the potato bugs. The lady bug’s eggs look much like the eggs of the potato beetle. They are smaller and there are not so many in each cluster, but it is difficult to distinguish the two kinds of eggs. LESSONS V. -THEABPEE (HARVES® The apple harvest time is here, The tender apple harvest time; A sheltering calm, unknown at prime, Settles upon the brooding year. — Biiss CARMAN. How many varieties of apples are raised near your home? “Appoint a committee of four or five members of your class to secure an apple of each variety. Let these apples be labeled, if possible, that the children New SERIES, OCTOBER, 1905. 349 - may become familiar with ; kinds. The ever, are not the names of the different names, how- so important as to note the differences in the apples: Shape, size, ‘color, flavor, ere. Try to become famil- iar with the trees on which the ap- ples. grew. Try to learn why the farmer grows different kinds of apples. Some day, ask your teacher to give you an opportunity to study an apple in the schoolroom. Then write to Uncle John and answer the fol- lowing questions about it: Fic. 8.—Colorado potato beetle, natural size, from life. How much of the apple is occupied by the core? How many parts or compartments are there in the core? How many seeds are there in each part? Which way do the seeds point? Are the seeds attached or joined to any part of the core? Explain. What do you see in the blossom end of the apple? What do you see in the opposite end? Is there any connection between the blossom end and the core? Find a wormy apple and see whether you can make out where the worm left the apple. Perhaps you can make a drawing. To do this, cut the apple in two. Press the cut surface on a piece of paper. When the apple is removed, you can trace out the marks. 10. When you hold an apple in your hand, see which way it looks to be bigger,— lengthwise or crosswise, then cut in two lengthwise, measure it each way, and see which diameter is the greater. NOOO Mertmrnceya want Ri eee Sel = (lS wee Baas aaa ee ves 2 ? les i.) ¥ Cie Fee is Pa ere Mare at ee 2 ote “t ; ; Sar vay" age ; eee ae ‘ * a a 4 : Se a : ‘ ~ Hab ‘ey he Pea ae is. RPMS: Pd Be Bae 12, es ; ih * “4 , nD. ve te eta % i -— Funior Maturalist ASontbly Published by the College of Agriculture of Cornell University, from October to May, and entered at Ithaca as second-class matter. L.H. Bailey, Director ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Editor New Sehies.n Ol 2 PRAACAS ON. Y.5 NOVEMBER, 1905; No. 2 November woods are bare and still; November days are clear and bright; Each noon burns up the morning’s chill; The morning’s snow is gone by night. Each day my steps grow slow, grow light, As through the woods I reverent creep, Watching all things lie “ down to sleep.” — HELEN Hunt JAcKSON. FOR HOME AND SCHOOL Home is the best place in the world, and the more attractive and cheery it is the better we enjoy being init. Boys and girls can do a great deal to make at- tractive homes, This year we are planning to publish each month in the Junior NATURALIST MonrTHty simple suggestions for giving a clean, bright touch to the home and school. We are sure that many girls and boys will be able also to give sugges- tions along these lines that will be worth the while. If so, we shall publish them from time to time. Occasionally you may be e. ae aon pipes. The dish im which able to send us a photograph to 1e Indian pipes are placed was modeled |. ; by school children. illustrate your idea. Not long ago I was associated with some young persons in a summer school. They were active natural- ‘ists and knew how to enjoy the out-of-doors. These young folk had been taught to protect the things of beauty in the woods and along the wayside, and did not gather them in large quantities ; but on one occasion a little girl, in passing through a deep wood, found a small colony of Indian pipes. She did not know what they were and brought them into 351 352 Junior Naturatist MonrHLy. the schoolroom to learn their name. The Indian pipes were very much admired, and since they had been gathered we decided to make the most of them. In a clay dish which had been modeled in the school, some moss and rich mould from the woods were placed in which the Indian pipes were planted. We expected that the strange, white plants accustomed to forest shade would turn black when exposed to the light, but for the several days they were very pretty. The illustration, Fig. 1, will show how they looked. Do you not think the dish made by the children was — just the thing for the Indian pipes? I have seen this same clay dish used for ferns and other plants found in the woods. If you have clay modeling in your school, perhaps the teacher will let you make a similar dish and have it fired so that it will not fall apart. Try the effect of Fic. 2.—Sced-lheads of ten common weeds. How many do you know ? placing it on a table in your schoolroom with a piece of clean, nicely- ironed linen underneath. Then keep something fresh and pretty from the out-of-doors in it. You will not be able to get Indian pipes in November, but I have found very attractive ferns at this season and little sprays of partridge berry will give a touch of color which I know you will enjoy. Try this and let me know what success you have. WEEDS AND THEIR SEEDS HERBERT WHETZEL Most girls and boys like to work out puzzles, so I think you will enjoy this puzzle in weeds. In Fig. 2 are illustrated the seed-heads of ten of our common weeds. I gathered them all in one back-yard and New Series, NOVEMBER, 1905. 353 garden as I walked through the other morning. How many of them grow about your home and what do you call each of them? Run to the garden and see how many you can find. Here are a few hints to help you in naming them. Numbers 1 and 2 are named from their resemblance to parts of certain animals. The canary is very fond of the seeds of No. 3. No. 4 is the “ Hobo” of the crowd. No. 5 must have been used by Good Queen Isabel in making her royal robes. No. 6 is a near cousin to the plant which gives material for your winter morning pancakes. It is the only climber among these weeds. No. 7 is a cousin of the radish. It is so common that I fear you have never stopped to look at it. No. 8 has a large red root and very tiny black seeds. I used to make little baskets of g. No. 10 is the queerest of all. Some people call it the “ bird’s nest weed.” Can you guess why? Vig. 3 illustrates the seeds from nine of these weeds. Find out which of the seeds belong to the weeds shown in Fig. 2. Numbers 5 and 6 are Fic. 3.—Sceeds from nine of the weeds. black and shiny, almost alike, but you will notice that those at 5 are the smaller. After you have found out the names of these common weeds and have learned to know their seeds you will like to find out some other things about them, especially if you have to help keep them out of the garden and yard. Some of them live only through the summer, produe- ing their seed and then dying, root and all. Others die down to the ground when the frost comes but their roots live all winter and send up new sprouts in the spring. You see you will have to fight each one in a slightly different way, for each has peculiar habits of its own. You will want to find out which ones produce their seeds the first year and which must grow for two seasons before they have seeds. Then, too, there is the question of how the seeds get into the garden. Some have hooks and have come with you from the woods or fields. How do others travel ? 23 354 Junior Naturatist MonruHLy. I wish that each of you would send me an answer to this puzzle. You can write it out like this: Seed-head No. 7 is hedge mustard; its seeds No. 4. Then tell anything you may know about this weed ; how you would try to banish it from your garden and why you would fight it in the way you suggest. I will then send you a correct answer to the puzzle and some interesting things that I know about the weeds. If you keep a copy of the letter that you send me you can tell how many you had correct. LESSONS ONSOILS Do you remember, boys and girls, how you used to enjoy playing in the sand long ago? And how you knew the kind of sand that would make good mud pies and the kind of sand that would make a fort or a castle? Perhaps you also recall the many hours you spent breaking wayside peb- bles to see the pretty colors and sparkling bits inside, not knowing that you were helping to make soil. In those days you used the soil as a play- thing; now you are ready to learn some of the things about it that a naturalist should know. LESSON: NO! i. WHAT tee Sole is E. O. Fiprrn The soil is the covering of the land portion of the globe in which plants grow. It covers a large part of the earth. High in the mountains and on dry deserts there are always a few plants growing, and hence there is soil in those places though it may not be very productive. The plants of all kinds reach their roots into it for food, water and warmth, and for a solid foundation to hold their tops upright in the air. Whether there are many or few roots depends on whether the soil offers them a good place in which to grow. It will be seen that the soil is very important. It is interesting to look at and think about since it furnishes all the crops that are food for man, the fibers that are made into his clothing, such as cotton and flax, and the forest trees that yield wood for building houses and many other useful purposes. Many plants are small and have short roots and many others have most of their roots near the surface of the ground. These open numerous passageways in the soil. Many of these die and, with leaves and twigs, are mixed with the surface of the ground, forming a material that is usually darker in color and more easy to dig than the material beneath, New Serres, NovEMBER, 1905. 355 This darker and more loose material is the true soil. It is one of the two parts of the great earth covering that produces plants. Just beneath the soil the material is of a different color — usually lighter — and not so loose and open, for it does not contain so many plant roots androtten wood and is not stirred. This is the subsoil. It reaches down several feet or as far as plant roots grow, and is just as important as the true soil, since it helps to furnish what the plant must have — food, water, and heat. Fic. 4.—A spray of barberry. Ouestions on Lesson I 1. Do you know of any place in the field or among the hills where plants do not grow? 2. How deep in the ground did you ever find roots of plants? Look at the creek bank where the water has washed away the earth or where the earth has been carried away in making the road more level, and see the many roots — some fine and threadlike and others large and knotty. 3. Can you tell the difference between the soil and the subsoil in the school yard? 4. Do the soil and the subsoil look the same in different places, as in the creek bottom and on the hillside? 5. What is the greatest depth of soil you know anywhere in your neighborhood ? ~ 35 Junior Naturatist Montsty. SOME AUTUMN AND WINTER BERRIES How many boys and girls know barberry? It is often used as an ornamental shrub in the garden. One can make use of the berries for eT. PS” Ca 7 . - table decoration at Thanksgiving and Christmas time. Then, too, it furnishes food for winter birds. It may be that you will find barberry growing near your home, and, if so, I wish you would help mother make the table attractive with it for the Thanksgiving dinner. You need not gather a great deal because you want to leave some of it out-of-doors to — look pretty and some for the birds. A small spray of the berries by the side of each plate and a few larger sprays in the center oi the table will be sufficient. Perhaps you might write some pretty bit of poetry or prose of three or four lines on a white card, and lay the piece of barberry on the card beside the plate. Ii you do this, I wish you would let me know whether you are successful in making your table attractive and also what poetry you use. I think that your parents and the Thanksgiving guests would probably enjoy lines relating to the out-oi-doors. If you cannot find barberry, you may be able to secure some of the false or climbing bittersweet. The false bittersweet has the crimson and orange fruit. Many persons speak oi this as the bittersweet, a name that is more often given to the nightshade. The common bittersweet or night- shade is very attractive out-of-doors but it does not make such a pretty table decoration as the false bittersweet. \ ee E———————————<« Se FEATHERS James E. Rice “Why do hens have feathers?” That is a good question. Who can ~ — answer it? “To keep them comfortable?” Yes, during the winter, but how about the summer? Do the feathers then keep the birds warm or cool? Watch hens on a hot day and notice how they raise their wings and loosen up their feathers. Look in an encyclopedia and find out whether feathers are good non-conductors of heat. How warm we sleep in a feather bed! But who has another reason why hens have feathers? “To protect their bodies from the sun, the heat and the rain?” Good! but there are other reasons. How about protection against injury and wet? Does it hurt your hands with gloves on as it does with bare hands to catch a hard ball? Feathers form a splendid armor plate. Each feather is a little shield. They are lapped over one another like shingles on a roof, so that they are several feathers deep on all parts of the body. New Series, NOVEMBER, 1905. 357 Who can tell by the appearance of a feather what part of the bird's body it came from? Here is a good opportunity for bright eyes to observe common sense styles in hens’ clothing. I wanted to help you a little on this question, therefore photographed some feathers. Notice how each kind of feather has a particular utility for which it is perfectly adapted. No. 5 is a wing feather. Do you see how strong and broad it is to enable the bird to fly? No. 4 is the beautiful curved sickle feather that adds so much grace and beauty to the fowl. Which has sickle feathers, hens or roosters? No. 3 is one of the tail coverts that cover up the wide Fic. 5.—There are many different kinds of feathers on fowls. How many can you jind on a hen or rooster ? strong main tail feathers that serve as a rudder with which to steer when birds fly. No. 11 is a “fluff” feather. How different it looks? All soft and downy. It came from the under side of the body, back of the thighs where there is great need of protection against excessive heat and cold, but where there is less danger from injury, because less exposed, than any other part of thebody. Heavy, hard feathers would be in the way. No. 2 is—Oh! I guess you would better catch a chicken and find out for yourself what part of the body the rest of the feathers shown came from. Do not make the mistake, however, of trying to find all the kinds of feathers on a hen. Try a rooster. No. 12 is from the back of a pullet. No. 13 is from the same place on a cockerel. Do you see the difference? There is at least one more good reason why hens have feathers. The photograph shows it. Who knows what it is? I will let you think about this until you get your next Junior Naturalist Monthly. 358 Junior Naturatist Montu ty. VEGETABLES- AT THANKSGIVING TIME. How many of you in passing markets enjoy looking at the vegetables spread out to attract purchasers? I sometimes find them as interesting and often as handsome as flowers. Now, at this season of the year, when the harvest time is past, you will see many varieties and I think you can have some good Nature-Study lessons in connection with them. Suppose you plan to have different members of the class bring cer- tain kinds of vegetables to school. John, perhaps, will get a fine, large pumpkin; Mary might bring two or three carrots; Helen a squash; Fic. 6.—A collection of vegetables. How many kinds are there ? Richard some beets; other members of the class might get a few onions, some corn, beans, celery, or anything else that is grown in the country round. Arrange the vegetables on a table in a corner of the room where you can look at them. Then, when you have finished your other work, answer the following questions and ask your teacher to send your written observations to Uncle John: 1. Write a list of the vegetables that are on the table and after each one state what part of the vegetable has been harvested, Is it the whole root, part of the root, the stem, or the fruit? New Serres, NOVEMBER, 1905. 359 2. Notice the colors in the group of vegetables. How many colors can you see and name? Which vegetable lying on the table has the greatest number of colors? Which do you think is the handsomest of all? Which one do you think makes the best food? 3. How many in the class know how the seeds of differ- ent nye secaples look? Could you make a drawing of the seeds of the pumpkin? What can you tell about the seeds of) the onion; of celery; of carrots? 4. If you have an ear of pop corn and’ one cof the common corn, com- pare them and tell what differences you can see, 5. After you have finished your study of the vegetables, some of them Fic. 7.— Nightfall. All-hallow-c’en. might be used for a Thanksgiving basket. The basket might be given to some one who could make good use of the contents. The grain is gatheréd in; The season’s work is done; No more the hurrying din Of the stress of noon-time sun. But beautiful and calm, And full of healing balm, The autumn rest is won. — Eupora S. BUMSTEAD. Sunior Waturalist Monthly Published by the College of Agriculture of Cornell University, from October to May, and entered at Ithaca as second-class matter. L.H. Bailey, Director ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Editor New Series. Vol.2 ITHACA, N. Y., DECEMBER, 1005. No. 3 WINTER BIRDS Ah, may I be as cheerful As yonder winter birds, Through ills and petty crosses, With no repining words; So, teaching me this lesson, Away, away they go, And leave their tiny footprints In stars upon the snow. — GEORGE COoorPeER. If I should go into your school and should ask you why so many birds go South in the winter, what would you answer? Do you think you would say, “Because it is so cold?” Probably, and yet the real reason is becattse a great many birds that stay with us in summer cannot get food enough when snows lie deep and winds blow cold. Now, in order to un- derstand why birds cannot get the food they need in winter, we must consider what they eat. I shall mention a number of things and perhaps some of our girls and boys will be able ; to add to the list. Fic, 1.—A hungry little bird. ete mensec: | + birds: seat seeds, such as ragweed, smartweed, rib grass, tick trefoil, and pigeon grass, Berries, such as wintergreen, partridge berry, sumac berries, ber- 362 362 Junior Naturatist Monrtuey. ries of poison ivy, cranberries, black alder, dogwood, and wild grapes. Nuts, as acorns. Buds of trees, particularly those of the apple, ironwood, birch, and poplar. They also eat mushrooms, grains, insects, spiders, mice, eggs and young of many insects, and some of the larger birds eat rabbits, squirrels and poultry. Then you remember that old Jim Crow, as well as other birds, eats corn, and some birds will attack ripening fruit and garden vegetables. As you look over this list, you will see that if all the birds stayed with us in the winter time, they would have great difficulty in finding food; particularly those birds that feed largely on insects. What would the flicker do in winter for the ant-hill that you find him haunting in the summer time? How long do you think a flycatcher would sit on a tele- graph pole before an insect in passing would give him an opportunity to get something for his dinner? And what would the birds do that feed on worms, caterpillars, and butterflies ? No, large numbers of birds leave us in winter; yet there are a few that brave the cold weather, and by their industry and by adapting them- selves to the kind of food that can be found in winter fields and woods, they are able to stay with us. How fortunate we are to have them! Who would be without the downy woodpecker, the busy nuthatch, or the cheery chickadee? Who would permit one of these little birds to go hungry out- side his window if he could help it to get food? These are questions for young naturalists to consider these cold days, and to decide what they can do to help the little out-door brothers. For many years we have asked Junior Naturalists to have a Christ- mas tree for the birds. We hope that as each year comes round, boys and girls will enjoy furnishing one for the winter neighbors and give them a feast day occasionally. Winter birds often become tame and will come very near to your window for something to eat. The woodpecker, nuthatch, and chickadee are able to stay in our climate during the winter because they eat the eggs, larve, and pupz of insects that are found beneath the bark of trees. They seem to like quite as well as this their natural food, a piece of suet fastened to a tree by some thoughtful naturalist. This gives the little bird a chance to get something good to eat on a cold day, and gives the Junior Naturalist a chance to study the bird near at hand. For the seed- eaters, it will be well to furnish some grain or seeds of weeds which can still be found above the snow. Occasionally you might hang out a bone that has a little meat on it and put some seeds in a basket so that they will not blow away. These will be thoughtful attentions which I am sure the birds will appreciate. Keep a record of every bird that visits you and see each time whether you can learn something new of its appearance or ways. Fic. 2.—A winter night. What can you see from your window.when the moon and stars are out? - 364 Junior Naturatist Montutey. A NIGHT. BEFORE (CHRISTMAS *Twas night And all life Dreaming in repcse was still; The fields, the wood, the mountain rill. The beasts, And many tinted birds, The fishes in the lakes, The herds. The golden stars sailed on, And sorrow, care, ° And sin had gone. — Jac Lowe L..* Some evening this De- cember, a little while before mother savs it is bedtime, raise the curtain and look out at the stars. I want you also to see the moon- light at least once during the month. Perhaps you will wrap up warmly and stand out-of-doors a few minutes under the starry sky. Ask father to go with you and to tell you some ot Fic. 3.—An arrangement for measuring the growth the things that he knows of plants. Who can make one like it? about the stars and the moon and the great, still night. How beautiful the fields look in the moonlight, so white and so shadowy and so quiet! How far can you see from your window on a moonlight night? How far can you see by starlight? Notice the trees in the night. Look at the stars through the branches. Watch the shadows of the trees on the snow. What sounds can you hear at night? What little animals of the field are out? Look in the morning and see whether you find tracks that any of them have made in the snow. HOW FAST DO PLANTS GROW? HERBERT WHETZEL Of course you know that plants grow. That is how trees become taller and strawberry runners longer. That is how the morning glory climbs the string that you tie up at the window for it. But do you know *From Birds and Nature, by courtesy of The Mumford Publishing Company. New Series, DECEMBER, 1905. 305 how fast these plants grow? What is needed to make them grow most rapidly? When do they grow most, at night or in the day time, or just as fast one time as another? I think you will find it good fun to try to find out the answers to some of these questions. The best way to find out these things is to let the plants answer the questions. First, then, we must have the plants. Get three small pots, cans, or boxes. Fill each with earth, sawdust, or even fine chaff from the barn will do. Plant three grains of corn in one can, five grains of oats in another, and five grains of buckwheat in a third. If you do not have these seeds, any other kind will do. Wet the soil of each with lukewarm water and place near the stove. Now, while we wait for our plants to come up, we will make some machines with which to measure how fast they grow. The girls may make a machine like this, such as we have illustrated in Fig 4; if, how- ever, they know how to use a jackknife or have a brother to make one for them, they may prefer the one shown in Fig. 3. The machine in Fig, 4 is.a smooth, flat stick with inches, | half inches, and quarter inches marked onit. When the little plant first peeps above the ground, put the stick into the soil beside the plant, pushing it down until the zero mark comes just to the tip. Put the plant back by the stove and see whether the tip stays at zero all night. You can make a ma- | chine for each plant and see which grows the fastest. Many of you I am sure will like to make a machine like the one shown in Fig. 3. You will need some thin pine boards, pins, thread, paper, a jackknife, and gimlet to work with, The long arm of the pointer is four times as long as the short arm includ- ing the pin. The tip of the pointer is dipped in ink so that it will show more Hic!) 4.—=Al more sample arranuapicne plainly. A common pin is used as a for measuring the growth of plants. pivot at 4 on which the pointer must se Ses swing freely. The long piece of paper with the pin holes in it is used so that you can regulate the length of the thread to suit the distance from the tip of the plant to the short arm of the pointer. The short bit of paper is to attach the plant to the machine. Stick this bit of paper to 306 Junior Naturatist MONTHLY. the tip with some paste or the white of an egg. The pin at the top of the scale is a place on which the pointer can rest until the paste has dried and fastened the tip of the plant to the machine. This pin should be a little above the zero mark so that when the paste is dry you can remove the pin carefully and the pointer will stand exactly at zero. The machine with the plant attached should be set in a warm place where it will not be moved or interfered with. It is best to do this before the plant is attached and certainly before the pin is removed that releases the pointer. This machine is better than the other for at least one reason. Can you tell what the reason is? Does the pointer show exactly how much the plant grows? If not, how will you find the true growth in length? The machine should be kept attached to one plant at least twenty- four hours. ‘ It should not be moved during this time. Try it on the different plants. Be sure to keep the machine for we shall want to use it next month. See how many of the questions you ask about plant growth can be answered by the machine. A SUGGESTION FOR CHRISTMAS TIME “ Every young person should have a library all his own and he should learn to take care of his books. I should like our boys and girls to begin now to make a collection of good reading material and to have it in your own room or in some attractive corner of the living room. If you do not own a bookcase, perhaps it will be well to consult St. Nicholas in regard to the matter. In the stores, one can purchase small bookcases such as you see illustrated in Fig. 5, for one dollar and twenty-five cents each, and I doubt not that there are many to be found in the workshop where Christmas gifts are made. Then, when you have your bookcase, I hope you will get some good Nature-Study books for it. The real naturalist must study out-of-door things, not books, but it will always interest him to learn what other naturalists have found out, and the experience of older naturalists will be helpful always to young students. From time to time, therefore, we shall suggest some good Nature-Study books for the library of Junior Natural- ists. Following are three that I have in mind for this issue of the Leaflet : Bird Life, by Chapman. Insect life, by J. H. Comstock. Familiar Trees and Their Leaves, by S. Mathews. Note.—lWVe shall occasionally suggest books that will be uscful on the teacher's desk. Nature-Study and Life, by C. F. Hodge, of Clark Univer- sity, contains many useful suggestions for Nature-Study in the public schools, New Serres, DECEMBER, 1905. 367 Fic. 5.——-Two bookcases that cost one dollar and twenty-five cents each. Start a nature library. 308 Junior Naturalist MONTHLY. AVISIT: TO A RURAL SCHOOL Not long ago I spent an afternoon in a country schoolhouse in which there were fifteen boys and girls. I had such a happy time there and saw so many things to interest me, that I want Junior Naturalists to know something about it. The schoolhouse stood alone in a very attractive place. There were rolling hills in front and all about were brown fields rich in late autumn colors. Many splendid trees could be seen from the windows and above them was a wonderful gray sky. It was a very pretty place for a school building and I wondered how many of the young persons had learned to love the rolling hills, the fine trees, and the gray sky. But it was not the outside of this school that interested me most that October afternoon. It was what had been done inside to make a cheerful and homelike place —a-place in which young hearts and minds could grow. In the first place, the room was clean. The children, with the help and direction of a wise teacher, took care of it. The floor was nicely swept, the desks dusted. In one corner of the room was a box neatly covered, on which was a sofa cushion. This made a little cosy corner in which some boy or girl might sit and read. Then at each window was a white curtain. The curtains were made by the pupils and gave a clean and cheerful touch to the room. On the window sills were plants, some of which had bright scarlet blossoms. But best of all was the library! This consisted of a bookcase in which were several books, many, if not all, owned by the teacher. The children had the privilege of using these books. The walls had been made attractive by some pictures and charts. I noticed one chart on which were pictures of birds. The teacher informed me that she had in her possession several of these pictures, and when the children saw a bird, they were allowed to place the picture of it on the wall. I was pleased to see that the young folks had been successful in seeing a number of birds although it was late in the year. On the desk at which I sat was a small white card on which was written: “Aim high and believe yourself capable of great things.” I liked to read this. Do you know why? I was sorry when my afternoon came to an end, there was so much to interest me in the little school; and as I went away along the country road, I had much to think about. In how many rural schools, I wondered, have teachers and pupils worked together to make the schoolroom cheerful and homelike, and full of happy thoughts and bright spirits? If there are such, I should like to hear about them. Tell Uncle John about your schoolroom, Sunior Maturalist Monthly Published by the College of Agriculture of Cornell University, from October to May, and entered at Ithaca as second-class matter, L.H. Bailey, Director ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Editor New Series. Vol.2 ITHACA, N. Y., JANUARY, 1906. No. 4 OF WHAT THE SOIL IS COMPOSED, AND THE KINDS OF SOIL O, H, Freern The soil is made of small particles of rock and of decayed plants. In most soils nearly all these particles are bits of rock of all sizes. Stones and pebbles may be found, but most of the particles are so small that they cannot be seen with naked eye. A hundred of the finest particles in a row would only equal the thickness of this paper. These finest particles are called clay. Those particles a little larger are called silt, and a handful of them would feel soft and velvety. The fine particles that can be seen with the eye alone are sand. Some of these sand particles are very fine and can just be seen, | while others are as large as the head of a- pin. . Sand> “feels gritty and makes a dull harsh noise when rubbed together. A lump of soil may | contain all these dif- J ferent sized particles. It may look as if it is composed of a lot of little grains, but these are the fine particles Fic. 1.—Experimenting with soils. that stick together. Stones and gravel are a real part of the soil when they occur in it. When these different sized particles are mixed in different amounts, they form different kinds of soil. If most of them are very fine, the soil is a clay and when wet has a slippery, greasy feeling. If the soil contains mostly sand particles, it is a sand or sandy loam. It may consist of the coarse or the fine grade of sand, or all of these, as is usually the case. 369 24 370 Junior Naturatist MonrTuHLy. The important points to remember are, that the soil is made up of a very great number of particles of different sizes, with small spaces between the particles as there are in a pile of brick or stone, and that there is every imaginable mixture of these particles. The soil down by the creek may be very different from that on the hill. Questions on Soils 1. How many kinds of particles can you find in a handful of soil? 2. Put a little soil on a hot stove. Does any of it burn? Does the color change any? How? : 3. You like to play in clean white sand and you remember it is made up of an innumerable lot of little particles — grains, you might call them. Can you find any of these sand particles in the soil from the garden? 4. Did you ever notice the fine sparkle of some soils? What colors are there? 5. How many different sizes of particles can you see? 6. What is the shape of some of these little particles? Are they shaped any- thing like the boulders you have seen at the gravel pit or on the stone pile? 7. How many different kinds of soil do you know, such as sand, clay, éte.? 8. When you washed the different sized particles from the soil, did you find it as good as making mud pies? Note— Many Junior Naturalists collected samples of soil in October. This lesson will give them an opportunity to do some experimental work with the soils. SOMETHING ABOUT MICE In my office there is a little house mouse as friendly and as much at home there as if it were his own abiding place, and such he has made it. He comes in and plays about my chair, runs across my desk, and in general keeps in touch with what is going on about him. Now I do not think that we can permit mice to live in our homes and I am sure that the good housekeeper is right when she refuses to share her house with them. I do think, however, that the young naturalist can learn much from the study of house mice and field mice, and this is a good time to begin. The true naturalist will always find out for himself the animal life that is useful and that which is harmful. This can be done only by patient and careful study. Here are a few questions that will help you: Are there mice in your home? Where do they live? What do they eat? When do they come out to find food? What harm do they do? Have you found them of use in any way? Of what do they make their nests? \ New SERIES, JANUARY, 1906. 371 There are two wild mice that you ought to know: the meadow mouse that-looks like a tiny bear, and the little deer mouse or white-footed mouse, as it is sometimes called. Do you ever see these mice in winter? What kind of tracks do they make in the snow? Do you know any way in which they are useful? In which they do harm? THE THISTLEDOWN HOUSE VAUGHAN McCAuGHEY One cloudy afternoon in October when most persons were indoors, a friend and I were sitting on a mossy old rail fence, near the edge of a little patch of woodland, watching the birds. The birds were as busy Fic. 2.—What kind of mouse ts this ? and cheerful as if it were June. Robins were feeding among the dead leaves, field sparrows were twittering in the weeds, and a little wood- pecker was pounding vigorously at the loose bark of a nearby stump. His “rat-a-tat-tat’ attracted our attention, and after he had flown away, we went over to examine the stump. The bark was so loose that a great, flaky fragment fell off into my hand, disclosing to our astonished gaze a thistledown house. Near the top of the stump was a small opening, so rough and jagged that no one would imagine it to be the front door of a silver palace. This front door opened into a little round runway, between the stump and the loose bark. This hallway in turn opened into a snug little room, thickly 372 Junior Naturatist MoNTHLY. lined with soft, warm, glistening white thistledown. We scarcely had time to notice this cozy nest when out jumped a deer mouse, exposing to our delight three dainty pink and white baby mice, nestled together. Upon careful search we found the shy little mother, a deer mouse, trembling under a fence-rail near. Gently we placed her in the thistledown nest, and when her young ones again cuddled against her warm breast, she took courage and laid still. Softly we laid back the strip of bark, propped it securely in place and stole away, leaving in peace the thistledown house. TRACKS IN THE SNOW Apa E. GEORGIA What a wonderful teacher and playfellow is the snow! When it first comes, how the children shout in anticipation of the good times they will have with it, snowballing, coasting, end building forts! But did you ever go to it quietly and ask it to tell you some of the strange and wonderful things it knows? Sometimes it can tell most interesting stories and tell them very plainly. We like to read stories of the Indian hunters who follow “trails” so skilfully, but how came they to have such keen eyes? Yours and mine are probably just as good if only we knew how to look. Let us see whether we can read a few tracks in the snow, taking the very easiest and nearest at hand. Can you tell your Malta cat’s track from that of your neighbor’s terrier whose feet are no larger? Look sharp! : Oh, yes; Puss draws back every claw in its sheath and leaves only the mark of a velvet pad with four toe dots in front. Nipper’s nails do not retract and each leaves its mark in front of the toe. Also Malta’s hind feet drop neatly upon the front paw’s tracks, so that she seems to walk two-footed. Nipper cannot match his tracks like that. Study the tracks of your chickens and pigeons and the birds of the street ; even the tracks of different people are very interesting. On my way home from school one winter evening, I saw the tracks of two persons which pleased me greatly; one of them a tall man—I knew he was tall by the long steps—and beside these tracks were the mark of some wee rubber boots, trotting three steps to one. They were new rubber boots and I smiled as I pictured a little man wearing his first pair and going proudly out to meet father. Presently I turned a corner and came into view of the track-makers and the little man turned out to New SERIES, JANUARY, 1906. 373 be a little girl, Do you not think she enjoyed wearing the new rubber boots as well as any boy would? But it is the country lad that can play at trailing. About the poultry yard comes the marauding skunk, fox, and weasel and every wood path tells a story —if the snow is just right. c I remember one March morning when a “sap snow” covered the ground and I was on my way through a little wood to a country school, I came across a most remarkable track. It looked just like a tiny baby’s foot. The well-defined heel, the slender sole, each dainty separate toe — it was perfect! It led down to the recently thawed brook. Much puzzled I went on to school and asked my pupils about it, and there was a shout, “°*Twas a coon! Oh, teacher, coons have waked up!” Through the pastures and brush lots Bunny Cottontail goes ; but look out that you do not trail him backward, for. Bunny overreaches and at every jump plants his larger and longer hind feet well in front of the tracks made by his tiny forepaws. Squirrels, with the exception of the ground squirrel, are ready to come out every warm spell and search for the nuts they have hidden. And mice! They are everywhere: especially along the edge of a millet field. They do not seem to take winter naps. They make miles of little runways through the grass under the snow, which are uncovered when it melts, and seem to have a social time above it as well, from their numberless tracks. Sometimes you catch sight of a mouse track that is perfect from each tiny claw mark to the knitting-needle scratch of mousie’s little tail. Do not fail to take walks in winter weather and question the snow. Keep a record of all the different tracks that you find. If you do not know what animal made the tracks, send us drawings of them. Perhaps we can tell you what they are. THINGS THAT MAKE PLANTS GROW HERBERT WHETZEL Well, what did the measuring machine tell you? Did you learn while watching it that water made the plant grow faster and that heat did the same thing? You know how necessary it is that the rain should come in the spring and summer. When there is plenty of it, how fast the corn grows and how tall! You walk between the rows and look up to see the tassels just peeping out and sometimes even the ears are lifted above your head. But when a dry summer comes, and day after day the sky is clear and the sun is hot, what a difference it makes in the cornfield! 374 Junior Naturatist MonrtuLy. You cannot hide in the corn for you are often taller than the stalks, and the farmer’s back aches as he bends over all day to cut the short fodder. The shocks are small and far apart. ‘Dry weather,” says the farmer as he looks at his field. Thirsty plants cannot grow. Have you ever noticed the cornfield when the spring days are cold?-' Therew plenty of water; it rains often, but still the little plants get no taller as you watch them day after day. “Warm nights,” says the farmer, “ we must Fic. 3.— Keeping a record of the growth of a plant. have warm nights.” Then by and by when every one is sure the crops will all fail and every one looks glum and growls about the weather, suddenly the sky clears and the nights grow warm. Sometimes it is so hot you cannot sleep, but it is fine for the corn. See how it grows in a night. It seems as though you can almost see it grow. If the cold weather has not lingered too long, the little plants may forget the chilly days and grow tall and strong, seeming to make up for lost time when the warm weather does come. But if the cold nights continue too long, the stalks will never be tall and the ears will be small, even though there has been plenty of rain. Warm weather and plenty of rain; that 1s what makes plants grow. What did the machine tell you about the growth during day time and during night time? When the plants were small, you will perhaps have noticed but little difference in the rapidity of growth during night and day. If you will measure the growth of the youngest leaf on your wheat plant when the plant is a month old, you will very likely find that it grows quite a bit faster at night. When the little plant is very young, it lives almost entirely on the starch that the mother plant made and packed away in the seed for it. This food is ready to be used at once and can be made over into root, stem, and leaf during the day as well as at night. As it gets older, this starch food is used up and the little plant must make starch for itself, New Series, JANUARY, 1906. boi Now starch is only made in green parts of plants, the leaves and green stems. The leaves of plants are the only starch factories in the world. But the green leaves can only make the starch when the sun shines upon them. The sunlight is the power that makes the factory go. It is, then, in the daylight that the food is made. During the night this starch is changed to root, stem, and leaf — the little plant grows. To be sure it grows some during the day but most of its energy is then given to making food. A shower in the morning, a warm, sunny afternoon and a warm night; what could suit a growing plant better? Have you made a machine for measuring the growth of plants? If not, try it this month. The boy in the picture is keeping a daily record of his plant. If you keep such a record, Uncle John will be glad to see it. HOME MAKING There are many ways in which even small boys and girls can make the home brighter and happier. How many things have you done during the past month to be helpful to mother or a comfort to father? What can you do this month? Oftentimes boys and girls would do more for the home folks if they knew how to begin. It is best to start with small efforts. The little things done every day count most. I was much interested one summer in a young friend who, by a simple daily act, made life mean more to one for whom she cared. Early in the morning she went into the field, gathered a bunch of pink clover wet with dew, and left it in the room of her friend. All through the summer, in sunshine and rain, this small bouquet was gathered, and it was so fresh and sweet that the whole household as well as the one to whom it was given enjoyed it. I am sure you will believe that this little girl was missed when she went away and the bunch of pink clover no longer appeared. Let each one of us think of a daily kind act that we can do for some one in the home. Why not plan this month to make father feel that he is in our minds and hearts while he is away at work? You can do some little thing that he will appreciate even though he may not say anything about it. Perhaps you might make the place where he reads his evening paper more at- tractive. Ask mother if you may make the table neat for him this one month and see how much you will enjoy it. Now Jet us think of some simple way in which this can be done. First, take everything off from the table and dust it well. Then see that the JuNniIon NATURALIST MoNnTHLY. Fic. 4.—The table ready for father. The clean table looks better than if it were covered with a dusty, soiled cloth, New SeErRIES, JANUARY, 1906. a7} lamp is well cleaned and the wick trimmed. Next, place on the table a piece of clean, nicely-ironed linen, fringed or pin-stitched by some little maid who enjoys seeing things neat in the home. On this piece of linen put a plate of apples which you have wiped off carefully with a clean, damp cloth. There will still be room on the table for the plant that the young naturalist has been taking care of. I hope it is a geranium with a bright scarlet blossom, for this kind of a plant always looks so cheery. Then do not forget the evening paper. Be sure it is on the table so that father will not have to look for it. For Little Home Makers to Remember 1. A feather. duster should never be used. A cloth that can be washed frequently is best for dusting. 2. It is better to have one thrifty plant in a clean place than a great many surrounded by untidy conditions. Give your plant water and light and keep the foliage clean; then when you put it on the table, you will enjoy it. 3. Do not have many things on the table at which father reads. Neat- ness and convenience are important to comfort. 4. At first you may get tired of doing the same thing every day, but if you persevere you will soon enjoy doing something that makes home more comfortable for the home folks. NOTES 1. Although Uncle John has not this year insisted that Junior Naturalists should write a letter each month, he is hoping that you may choose to tell him at least as often as this, what you are doing in your study of nature. He would feel very sorry indeed not to have the usual number of letters from his boys and girls. 2. Do not forget to keep a record of the winter birds. See how many new things you can learn about them. Have you put out any food for them? Have you seen a red headed woodpecker, a nuthatch, a bluejay, a chickadee or any of the other winter neighbors? 3. Make a list of things you find out-of-doors this month that birds could eat. How many seeds of weeds do you find? Have you seen any insects ? : 4. Can you name all the evergreens that grow about your home and school? Do you know the hemlock tree, the spruce, the white pine, the 378 Junior NaturRAList MONTHLY. cedar, and fir trees? What have you learned new this year about the evergreens? 5. Observe the forms of snow flakes. Count the rays and angles of the star-shaped ones when they fall on your woolen wraps as you play out in the snow. If you find one that is not rayed in multiples of three, tell us about it. 6. The mailing list for the Junior Naturalist Monthly is being revised. All persons desiring the publication who have not registcred as Junior Naturalists this year, should send their names to the editor as soon as possible, Junior Maturalist Monthly Published by the College of Agriculture of Cornell University, from October to May, and entered at Ithaca as second-class matter. L.H. Bailey, Director ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Editor — New Series. Vol. 2. ITHACA, N. Y., February, 1906. ; No. 5 Chill airs and wintry winds! My ear Has grown familiar with your song; I hear it in the opening year, I listen, and it cheers me long. — Henry WapswortH LONGFELLOW. SOMETHING ABOUT PIGEONS A long time ago in a far away country I became acquainted with some pigeons. I was a stranger in a strange land and these friendly little birds were in a garden where I was being served with refreshments. I had ordered cake and coffee. The pigeons seemed to understand that something of interest to them was about to hap- pen, and they approached my table with as much self-possession as if they were invited guests. Two of them perched on the back of my chair, and one, more courageous than the rest, took a place on the table. When the cake was brought, this bold little pigeon flew away for a minute, but he soon returned, and, without waiting to find out whether I would share my luncheon with him, he immediately began to eat the cake. The two that were on my chair joined him. Being a polite hostess on this occasion, lL thought I would wait until my guests were well served before I took my share of refreshment. The pigeons, however, seemed to forget that I was there, and pretty soon my cake disappeared. I forgave the small visitors because their pleasant company more than made up for the loss of the cake. As I watched the pigeons, it occurred to me that’ when I reached home I would encourage our Junior Naturalists to have a few of these tame birds for pets, I wish you would think about this and perhaps you sis Fic. 1.—Pzgeons are interesting play- mates. 380 Junior Naturalist MONTHLY. will be able to have them in the school yard where they will remain from year to year. This will give the children who come to the building from time to time an opportunity to study their ways and become familiar with their lives. I shall tell you how we are planning to do this in one school in New York State. In the city of Ithaca there is a school building situated on a hillside. In this school there are about two hundred young persons whom I have often noticed in the yard at recess time and before the opening of school. It occurred to me that they might like to have some pigeons for playmates and when I consulted them, they were pleased with the prospect. Fic. 2.—Cecropia moth. In preparation for these little neighbors, we are going to ask the girls and boys to make a pigeon house, because it is a good thing for children to learn to use tools and provide comfortable houses for their pets. The pupils in this school have made bird houses, so I do not think they will find it difficult to make a pigeon house. We shall have the floor space eighteen inches square, the height fifteen inches, and the door- way six inches high. For pigeons there must be a platform in front of the door. The pigeon house may be painted, for these birds do not mind the paint which wild birds frequently object to. The house should be placed on a building, if possible. Boys and girls may find it somewhat difficult to keep the surround- ings of the pigeon house clean, but I am sure they will willingly do it for the privilege of having these pets. During this month I wish you would try to get the house made and put in the school yard. Next month we shall tell you how to feed your pigeons and how to take care of them, giving some suggestions for observation which will interest boys and girls, New Series, FEBRUARY, 1906. 381 MOTEL UN TEE. SCHOOL ROOM Last year I received a letter from a Junior Naturalist stating that a butterfly had come out of a cocoon in the schoolroom. He made a draw- ing of the cocoon and | knew that he had not seen a butterfly come out of it but a large, handsome silk-worm moth. In order that young natura- lists may not make the mistake of calling a moth a butterfly, I have shown .you a picture of the cocoon in Fig. 3 and of the moth which comes out of it in Fig. 2. These large cocoons are frequently found by girls and boys and taken to the schoolroom. They are the winter quarters of the Cecropia moth. This is a long name but the moth has no common name. I think our boys and girls will be able to remember the word Ce-cro- pi-a (pronounced Ce-cré-pe-a). The caterpillar from which this moth develops is fre- quently found on apple trees and shade trees in summer time. It is a large, stout green caterpillar with conspicuous tubercles on its back. The caterpillar spins its cocoon and _ then has a period of rest until B\ spring. If you take one of the Be; cocoons into the schoolroom, keeping it cool and moist, you may be-able to see the large andhandsome moth that comes from it. If you are likely to confuse moths and butterflies, remember that moths usually come out of cocoons, that they have straight or feathered antennae or feelers without any knobs on the ends, and that when they are resting they spread their wings. The butterflies have knobs on the ends of the antennae and rest with the wings folded together. Notice whether the antennae or feelers of the Ce-cro-pi-a are straight or feathered. Fic. 3.—Cocoon of cecropia. FOOD OF BIRDS IN LATE WINTER “What do little birds eat at this time of the year?” The children often ask. If, as yott go home from school, you will notice the old plant stalks bearing seeds that are sticking up above the snow, you will see food 382 Junior Naturatisr Monruety. that some birds eat. Not long ago I saw a number of old cattails on which some birds had been feeding. You know that earlier in the year the seeds of the cattail are in a compact head or pressed closely together. When a little bird comes along and wants something to eat, he pecks at this part of the old cattail stalk. In this way he loosens the seeds which gives them an opportunity to blow away; so the little bird is doing two things: he is getting something to eat, and at the same time is helping the seeds to get away from the parent plant. I wish you would notice how many stalks of plants with seeds you can find. Take some of them into the school- room: a teasel head, some of the golden-rod stalk, an aster, a little branch of bittersweet with the red berries on it, and you will have something attractive to put on the teacher’s desk, a winter bouquet. Look closely at the part of the plant that you think the birds might care to eat. When you find one out-of-doors observe closely the seeds of the cat- 4 4 tail head which the birds have loosened. Do they look as if they might be in good condition to grow? Of what value is it to a farmer to have birds eat the seeds of weeds? ANSWER TO WEED PUZZLE IN OCTOBER LEAFLET Fig. 2. No. Fox tail grass. Lambs quarter. Plantain (broad leaved). Ragweed. Spanish Needle. Wild Buckwheat. Hedge Mustard. Pig Weed. Burdock. 1o. Wild Carrot or Birds Nest Weed. SONI AnRwWN ro) Fig. 3. No. 1. Burdock. 2. Wild Carrot. 3. Fox tail: 4. Hedge Mustard. 5. Pig Weed. 6. Lambs Quarter. if 7. Plantain. . 8. Ragweed. 9. Spanish Needle. Junior WMaturalist Monthly Published by the College ct Agriculture of Cornell University, from October to May, and entered at Ithaca as second-class matter. L.H. Bailey, Director ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Editor New Series. Vol.2. ITHACA, N. Y., MARCH, 1906. No. 6 “Oh, every year hath its winter, And every year hath its rain — But a day is always coming When the birds go North again.” PING EASR SOE CORN JoHN W. GILMORE A good ear of corn — but what do you mean by a good ear of corn? Do you mean that some ears of corn are bitter and not good to eat? No, but I mean an ear of corn that is good-looking. Show you a good looking ear of corn? Well, here vis ones see. 1t has good shape ; that 7s. - * Fic, 5.——-What can you see in this picture? What can you see from the windows of your home or school ? 390 Junior NaturaAvist MONTHLY. LEAFLESS TREES Sometimes as you look across the fields you see leafless trees that you cannot name. Perhaps you would know them if the leaves were out. It would be interesting to take a few twigs about a foot long from these trees and place them in water in the schoolroom. As you watch the buds swell, you will observe many things about the twigs that you never saw before and another year you will be more interested in the tree when the leaves are gone. A student whom I know can tell a great many trees by looking at the twigs in winter. I hope our naturalists will become familiar with a few leafless trees this month. THE WINNER OF THE PRIZE FOR THE BROOK BOOK Last year there was published in the Junior NAturAtist MontTHLY a lesson on the brook. We asked the Junior Naturalists to study a brook and to write Uncle John all that they had learned about it. A prize was offered for the one who would send the best letter showing the naturalist had really studied the brook. We received hundreds of letters and it was difficult to decide which one was the best. After much consideration we decided that the prize should go to Grover Goodman, Seneca Falls, N. Y. Iam sorry that there is not space to publish Grover’s letter. From it we learned that he really visited a brook and was interested in all the plant and animal life about it. *Tis the sweetest thing to remember If courage be on the wane, When the cold dark days are over — Why the birds go North again? — ELLA HIcGINSoN. Sunior WMaturalist Monthly Published by the College of Agriculture of Cornell University, from October to May, and entered at Ithaca as second-class matter. L.H. Bailey, Director ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Editor mer tsaics, Vol 2 A ITHACA, N.Y. APRIL, 1006. GARE OF _NESTLINGS No longer now the wine’d habitants, That in the woods their sweet lives sing away, Flee from the form of man; but gather round, And prune their sunny feathers on the hands Which little children stretch in friendly sport Toward these dreadless partners of their play. — SHELLEY. In the last JuNior NaturALIst MONTHLy we spoke of the care of young birds. Do not forget this. The old birds have to fight so many enemies that boys and girls will, I know, be glad to help them. Probably the one most to be feared is the household cat. Keep her indoors at night during the nesting season. Tie a bell on her neck when she is out in the daytime and watch her; this will be helpful to the old birds. If any boy or girl is ambitious to raise five or six kittens, he must remember that if he would have song birds in_ his neighborhood, there must not be too many cats. Think of the harm that one cat in every household would make in the bird world! Photographed by Verne Morton. Have you tried placing the Cats and birds are not so friendly as they seem to be here. tin shelf around the trees to keep the cats from climbing up to ate nests ? 391 392 Junior Naturalist MONTHLY. TERY BLUE aN How many of our boys and girls have ever heard the Blue Jay called a rascal, a thief, and other harsh names? I am sure that I have and I have often wondered how much truth there is in these remarks about our handsome Blue Jay. Sometimes, you know, a bird may be caught in one unworthy act and the story of his misdeeds will be in- creased and passed on for many years. Sometimes a bird may merely resemble another bird that does harm, and in this way lose his reputation, as is the case with the Downy Woodpecker. Because he is a woodpecker, many farmers and their boys have abused him; while, in fact, he is most industrious and helpful in the farm work. One woodpecker has been harmful to trees, the sapsucker, and many of the useful woodpeckers have been abused because of one member of the family that has not a good reputation. And so it is that I am going to ask our Junior Naturalists to investigate the true character of the Blue Jay. Make up your mind that during one year you will study the ways of the merry fellow and find out for yourself how much that has been said of him is true. In studying the ways of the Blue Jay, perhaps you would like sug- gestions that will help you in your observation. Doubtless the following will be useful: 1. During what months of the year have you seen the Blue Jay? 2. How many different notes have you heard him give?) What other birds have you heard him imitate? 3. What evidence have you that Blue Jays lay up a supply of food for hard times? 4. What insects have you seen him eating? What fruits? What grains? 5. Have you ever known them to take the eggs or young of other birds? Do not tell me what you have heard other people say about this. Let me know whether you have ever seen them commit this theft your- self. 6. Do Blue Jays stay in the forest or do they visit orchards and meadows, farmyards and gardens? 7. This bird has been accused of eating fruits; but does he take fruits that are found in the wild, or the fruits of orchard and vineyard? 8. What harmful insects have you ever seen the Blue Jay eat? A BUSY. LITTLE, PARM (aie ea Every Junior Naturalist will, of course, have a garden this year. It will be very disappointing, indeed, to Uncle John to learn that any one New Sertts, ApriL, 1906, 303 Courtesy of Houghton, Mifflin & Co. From ‘“‘True Bird Stories’ by Olive Thorne Miller. The Blue Jay.—One of the bright and lively spring visitors. who. has a piece of ground has failed to grow vegetables or flowers. I am sure when you get your garden started, you will find there is quite a bit of work to do keeping out the weeds and preventing bugs from eating your plants. It seems to me that you ought to have some one to help you in one way or another, 304 Junior NaturaList MoNnvTHLY. But, you say, I cannot afford to hire any help. Perhaps this is true. Boys do not have a great deal of money and it is rather a difficult thing ~ to get help unless you can pay them well. Now I can tell you about a little farm hand that will save you a great deal of work. He is quiet, makes no trouble, is gndustrious, and never asks for a dollar when Satur- day night comes. Perhaps you will laugh when | tell you that this industrious and accommodating farm hand is a hop toad,—a quiet, plain little creature that some of you have treated carelessly and some of you, I fear, have abused. But you would never have abused him, nor would you have passed him by without notice, if you had but realized how much good this one little fellow does in helping the farmer and the gardener. In fact, I would not be surprised if you boys would feel like taking off your hat to him. Did you say the hop toad is ugly? I do not know about that. It seems to me he looks just the way he ought to for his purpose in life. If he did not look like a clod of earth, many enemies would be able to see him readily and take his life. Then, too, he cares only for live food. Insects frequently alight on this bit of earth, as he seems to be, and in that way he can get his dinner without much effort. It is indeed a good thing for the toad that he looks so much like the soil on which he lives. You should have seen a nice old hop toad that was in a school that I visited during the past year. This toad was a great pet. At first, some of the girls would not handle him because they had been told that he would give them warts, but they soon learned that this was an untrue statement. The children were warned that if handled carelessly a poison- ous substance might come from the toad, but they did not pay much attention to it, and no one was poisoned by it. The young folks all paid the toad a great deal of attention. They would take turns holding him up to the windows where he would catch flies as fast as they appeared. But our little farm helper will eat other things besides flies. He will eat ants, cut-worms, thousand-legged worms, tent caterpillars, ground beetles, May beetles, wire-worm beetles, weevils, many kinds of cater- pillars, grasshoppers, sow bugs, potato beetles, snails, and many other things ; and he has a very good appetite. Now you can see why he could be very helpful to you among your garden plants. In order that you may have some toads in your garden, I am going to make a suggestion. It is not an easy thing to go into your neighbor's yard and take a toad over into yours, because these little creatures seem to have a homing instinct, and when once accustomed to a place, they are likely to return. I would suggest, therefore, that every young person New Series, APRIL, 1906, 398 who has a garden should raise his own toads. You should have some sort of an artificial pond in which you can keep watered plants and into which you may put a few eggs of the toad or a few tadpoles. A water- tight tub would be a good thing for this purpose. I have found that tadpoles will feed on fish food and fresh meat. I always fasten the meat to a bit of cork so that I can easily remove what the tadpoles do not eat. In this way the water does not become foul. You will be interested to watch the tadpoles hatch from the string of toad eggs with which Junior Naturalists are now familiar, the long strings of gelatine- like substance with the little, black, bead-like eggs in them. You can find toad’s eggs in almost any pool in the spring time. Sunior Maturalist Monthly Published by the College of Agriculture of Cornell University, from October to May, and entered at Ithaca as second-class matter. L.H. Bailey, Director ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Editor New Series. Vol. 2. PH ACAS N75. MIA Yo 1906: No. 8 SUGGESTIONS FOR SUMMER WORK Prizes for Jumor Naturalists This will be the last issue of the Junior NATuRALIsT MonTHLY during the present school year. We have been very much pleased with the work done by the members of the club and hope that Junior Natural- ists have enjoyed writing their letters as much as Uncle John has enjoyed A country road is interesting for study. receiving them. We are sorry that we cannot send lessons to our boys and girls during the summer months, for there are so many different things to study in summer. Since we cannot send monthly lessons we are planning to give some all Junior Naturalists special work to do during the coming season and we shall offer a number of prizes for patient outdoor study. Even though 397 398 Junior Naruratist MonTuty. we do not send lessons, there will be many opportunities for you to con- tinue your observational work. We shall suggest several subjects for study and each young naturalist may select one from among them. He must send the results of his observation to us by October 15th. We do not care for any information in these compositions that you have found in books or that some older person has told you. The prizes will be books on outdoor subjects and will be given to those whose compositions show actual outdoor study by the naturalist who writes the paper. Some children enjoy one line of outdoor study and some another. Make your selection from the following: 1. The study of plant and animal life along a country roadside. 2. The study of a brook and the brookside. All life in and along a brook. - 3. What you have learned about bird life. We shall be particularly interested in information obtained on the value of birds to the farmer. 4. What you can learn from personal observation of the animals of field and forest. In this line of observation, it would be well for you to consider the field mice, muskrats, squirrels, moles, woodchucks, and any other life that you find. Observe snakes, toads, and salamanders. These creatures are often useful. Can you find out in what ways? Try to get over your fear of small snakes. Study their habits. 5. The history of one tree from May 2oth to October 1st. The kind of tree; where it stands; when it blossoms; the kind of fruit it bears; the insect and bird life in connection with the tree; whether or no it makes a good shade tree; how long it has stood in the place where you found it; whether the tree has been abused in any way and if so, how; whether the tree has marked characteristics by which you can tell it when it has no leaves. 6. The story of your garden. Where it is located; when you planted it; how you planted; what you planted. Write about the care of the garden; the pests that annoyed you most; the weeds that annoyed you most; the birds, butterflies, and other forms of life that came to your garden. 7. The history of some plant colony either in woods, along the way- side, or in a corner of your garden. Give the size of the region you studied; what plants you found growing there; which plant seemed most thrifty; why you think this combination of plants associated with each other. 8. The study of some insect pest such as potato beetle, peach borer, tent caterpillar, mosquito. In this line of work we would like to have the young naturalist secure specimens of the insect and find out as much as possible of its life history. New Series, May, 1906. 399 g. As much of the life history of a moth or butterfly as you can study during the summer. I would suggest the Monarch butterfly as being available. You will find the larva or caterpillar on milkweed. If you take the caterpillar home and feed it fresh leaves of the milkweed, it will become a chrysalis and a butterfly will emerge from this chrysalis so that you will be able to give us a very interesting account of it. The caterpillar which afterward becomes a Monarch butterfly has a white body with narrow black and yellow cross stripes. 10. What you have done to improve your school grounds, 11. What farm crop has been most interesting to you? What can you learn about this crop? How was the ground prepared for it? How - was it handled? How harvested? We shall give one prize for the best results in each of the subjects mentioned above. Write your description to Uncle John, who will be very much interested in them all. For the purpose of separating these letters from the large numbers that will come on other subjects, address them to Alice G. McCloskey, Ithaca, N. Y. We shall file every letter written on these subjects. All compositions must reach us by Octo- ber 15th, A LITTLE CHICK’S. HAMMOCK James E. Rice Whoever heard of such a thing? A little chick swinging in a ham- mock! Not many persons have heard about it, that is true, but it is because the little chick’s hammock is out of sight most of the time and in such an unexpected place. Where do you think? Out in the chicken coop? Under mother hen’s wing? Beneath a berry bush? No, indeed! You could never guess it; not in a hundred years, because the little chickens that we usually see running about are too big to swing in this hammock. They have outgrown it. So I must tell you the secret, must I? Well, the little chick and his hammock are inside of an egg. You never saw one? You are not the only one who never saw a hammock inside of an egg. I shall try to tell you right away how you can see the hammock, and some day I will show you how to see the little chick actually swinging in the hammock. _ Of course you would not expect to find a rope hammock that looks like a fish net, nor a canvas hammock with bright colors swinging inside of an egg, would you? We could not eat eggs if they had such things inside them. The chick’s hammock is so clear and transparent that you - can scarcely see it, except the ropes on the ends. The ropes are white in color, twisted and very strong. Get a saucer and carefully break into 400 Junior NaturAtist MONTHLY. it an egg. If you break the yolk, you may be unable to see the ham- mock strings. The transparent part of the hammock surrounds the yolk, and if it is broken, the yellow fluid will run out. With a splinter of wood you can stretch out the hammock cords and swing the yolk around. Now boil an egg without breaking the shell, and see whether you can find the little white ropes. You may have to search a long time, but they are there imbedded in the white of the egg, near the yolk, toward the large and the small end of the egg. You can find them if you try real hard. To do this, break open the egg carefully by chipping away the shell and then see whether you can peel off the white in layers, There should be three layers. Some of the layers are thick and some of them are thin, The» thin layer next to the yolk is the chick hammock, Why do we call it a chick hammock when there is no chick in it? Look again at the egg Looking for the chick hammock. which you left in the saucer, and see whether you can find a little white spot on the yolk of the egg. This white spot is where the little chick will grow. I know you are wondering why an egg should contain a hammock. If you will hold a fresh egg up to a bright light in a dark room, you may be able to see for yourself the yolk floating inside. Hold the egg in the position in which it would naturally lie. Closely envelop it with your hands. You will notice that whichever way you turn the egg, the yolk will always float toward the upper side, and will not float readily toward either end of the egg. This is because the hammock ropes keep it in position. They do so in order that the little white spot on the yolk where the baby chick grows, will always be up close to the top surface of the egg. In this position, the egg comes in contact with the warm body of New SerigEs, May, 1906. 40! the mother hen when the eggs lie snugly in the nest while they are being “hatched. The hammock ropes also prevent the little white spot from becoming injured by coming in contact with the shell when the eggs are roughly handled. I wonder how many of you know why eggs which are kept for hatch- ing should be turned every few days. It is to prevent the yolk from floating up so close to the shell that it becomes attached to it, How do I know that a little chick will grow on the white spot? I think I shall have to ask you to take my word for it for a while. It is too long a story. I shall try to show you how to find out for yourself some other time. 26 Supplement to Junior Waturalist Monthly Published by the College of Agriculture of Cornell University, from October to May, and entered at Ithaca as second-class matter. L.H. Bailey, Director ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Editor New Series. Vol. 2 ITHACA, N. Y., NOVEMBER, 1o0s. CHILDREN’S PLANTS, AND HOW THEY GROW By Joun W. SPENCER “Do you know where the first crocus blows? Under the snows; Wide-eyed and winsome and daintily fair As waxen exotic, close tended and rare; Every child knows Where the first crocus blows.” — SHERWOOD. PEDDY.-AND-EUS BVEES BED This is Teddy. He is not so tall as he looks in the picture. In two years he hopes to go to the High School. He likes best to learn by doing. He would much rather study the things themselves than study about them in books, He will learn all he can about flowers by raising them. Some people say that they will not plant flowers until they know all about raising them. One can learn to swim only by going into the water. plants grow without first them. that he cannot pronounce. of them. 403 Neither can one know how to make growing Teddy is much bewildered when he turns the pages of a bulb catalogue and sees the hundreds of long names He is as much lost as though he were put in the midst of a thousand people whom he had never seen before and tried to learn the name of each one and become acquainted with all 404 Junior Naturatist MonrHty. But he decides to ask some one who knows about bulbs to help him in choosing. Teddy is now cleaning up the ground where he will plant his bulbs. He will begin with crocuses and tulips. Those will give him an abund- ance of flowers next spring with the least work. With this introduction into the bulb family his acquaintance will extend to other members and he will soon know how to make his friends comfortable. Have you ever thought how one acquaintance among boys and girls leads to other acquaintances? The same is true in making acquaintances with plants. Teddy is driving the center stake of his circular bed for tulips. Teddy is raking off the small stones and some weeds before beginning to make his tulip bed. Some people say that this kind of soil and that kind of soil is proper in which to grow this kind or that kind of plants. Teddy takes the only soil he can get and will prepare it the best he knows how. Many boys and girls are in the same circumstances. Learn this with your flower grow- ing: If you cannot have what you want most, learn to want what you can get. Once upon a time a farmer cor- rected his son for planting corn in crooked rows. The son replied that he did not care. The corn would grow straight if the rows were crooked. When that boy became a man, he did business in a_higgledy-piggledy New Series, SUPPLEMENT TO NOVEMBER, 1905. 405 way and took ten steps where others take one to do the same thing. Teddy has tied a rope to the center stake. With a sharp stick fastened to the other end of the rope, he is mark- ing out the circular size of the bed. Teddy takes pride in the accuracy of his work. Teddy now proceeds to dig a pit about two feet deep. He sets the spading fork erect and with his foot drives it into the soil to the hilt. Then he bends the handle toward him and breaks out a lump. He will put the top fertile soil on one side of the bed, and the bottom in- fertile soil will be placed on the other side. The latter he will not put back into the bed because it has no fertility. Spading big forkfuls of earth is bringing beads of sweat on Teddy’s forehead and a drop stands on the end oi his freckled nose. But he does not mind it any more than though he were playing ball. Why doesn’t he? Because he is thinking that some Sunday afternoon next May he will take a walk out on the Avenue where the banker and other rich people live. Perhaps he will find that his tulips have as gorgeous colors as those of the most wealthy man in town. Then so far as tulips go, Teddy may feel as rich as any of them. Teddy is now resting by changing work and wheeling stone, which is harder work than digging. But a boy does not like to do the same thing all the time. The soil is clay and during the spring and fall storms the water does not Junior Naruratist Monty. drain away but stands in puddles for days. That gives bulbs wet feet and they do not grow well. When Teddy has finished digging the pit, he will put several loads of stone in the bottom so that water may drain away. If the soil were sand or gravel or loam, there would be no need for put- ting stone in the bottom of the pit. The pit has been dug and the stones put in the bottom and some rotted leaves spaded into the fertile clay soil, to make it more porous. The bed has been mounded up so that the surface water will drain off. Teddy is now raking the soil fine before planting his tulips. After the bulbs are properly put in the ground, the planting need not be done over again for three or four years. Even then no new bulbs need be bought. In the end, most flowering bulbs are the cheapest flowers that we can have. Now Teddy is planting tulips and_ thinking what gorgeous flowers he will have the next spring and how little work he will have to do. But few weeds will grow after he plants in October and none next spring when the tulips bloom in May. He is planting them about four inches deep and five inches apart. About Thanksgiving time or a little later, when the frosts make a frozen crust of earth, he will cover the bed, with a thick blanket of stable fertilizer. If instead he uses dead leaves, he will put sticks or boards over them so they will not blow away. New Series, SUPPLEMENT TO NOVEMBER, 1905, 407 ‘The time to take off the blanket in the spring is when he has heard the bluebird and robin two weeks. Some people wait until they have heard the frogs peep. Teddy wants to plant some crocuses that blossom so early in the spring that sometimes a late snow covers them. But the crocus belongs to the cold- blooded class of plants and the white mantle does them no harm. You now see him driving some pegs showing the circle where he will plant the crocus bulbs. Teddy takes the spade and cuts the circle in the sod. Then he will take the spading fork and loosen the soil and make it fine with the garden rake. ~ Next he will push the crocus bulbs into the mellow soil about three inches deep. _ About the time that small ponds of water have ice thick enough to bear the weight of a dog, he will cover the circular bed with a blanket of stable fertilizer or dead leaves. He will take the blanket from the crocuses a little earlier in the spring than from his tulip bed, for they areso eager to blossom that they will not wait for the warm May days as the tulips do. TEDDY AND HIS FLOWER GARDEN Teddy has a bed of Sweet Alyssum. It has given him a lot of blos- soms since July. Other flowers in the mean time have become tired and ceased blooming. He is so fond of it that he will try potting a plant for indoor flowers this winter. Teddy says that some day he will be a doctor. He takes care of a doc- tor’s horse and uses a doctor’s language. When he takes a plant from the 408 junior Naturatist MonrHty., open ground and prepares it for life indoors he calls it plant surgery. His first step is to give the plant a thorough drenching with water. He says that he has found in his practice that drenching lessens the shock. (Perhaps your teacher will be able to tell you what surgical shock is.) When cutting about the plant with his spade he cuts hundreds of roots which he fancies to be as hard for the plant to bear as cutting that many nerves. The plant surgeon says to the Sweet Alyssum: “Grin and bear it like a Major. It won’t last long.” That is what the dentist once said to Teddy when he had a tooth pulled. Here you see Doctor Teddy with his patient on the operating table. The pot in which he will put the plant is six inches in diameter. There is a hole in the bottom for drainage. The doctor says that his experience as a plant physician has led him to know the absolute necessity of drain- ae - : Sa rE TTY Sa pee eG Se age for the comfort of all dry land plants. A tin tomato can with good drain- age is better than a hand-painted terra cotta vase with none. Drainage is making it possible for water that does not stick to the grains of soil may leak away. The plant of Sweet Alyssum is carefully lifted from the table into the pot. The reason for so much care is to save the very small roots from in- jury. They are sometimes called the working roots. Whatever new earth the doctor uses is mellow potting earth. It contains an unusually large percentage of de- New Series, SUPPLEMENT TO NOVEMBER, 1905. caying vegetable matter, and does not harden by frequent watering. Sand mixed with garden soil helps to pre- vent “ caking,” The soil is pressed firmly about the small roots. Remember the difference between gently pressing the earth and “jamming” the earth about the roots. Now comes the part of the opera- tion that tries the nerves of the be- ginner. The growth of more roots in the soil makes more branches in the air and more branches make more roots. Before the plant of Sweet Alyssum was taken from the garden—the roots found plant-food and moisture from half a bushel of soil. Now there will be less than two quarts of soil from which food and moisture may be taken. The last thing before removing the patient from the operating table is to give another watering. Teddy says it is like dressing a wound. Our surgeon Teddy speaks in three languages — English, medical and base ball. He says that cold water prevents the patient getting fever. I do not think he is right in saying that plants have fever. However, plants are often sick. it is a good medicine. When just enough water is given, Plants sometimes stand for days in scil from which the sun has drawn all the moisture and their drooping leaves show what they “ suffer.” Do any of my boys and girls know of plants that they can rescue by giving them water? The operation is now over and Doctor ,Teddy is putting the patient into a hospital. 410 Junior NaturaAtist Monrtruty. A cool and shady shed or the bottom of a cellar is one of the best places for a plant to recover. In what Teddy calls the hospital the conditions are such that the parts of the plant that are in the air will not grow and will make but little demand on the roots for water. This will give the wounded roots a chance to recover and to get a fresh hold on the soil. After about ten days the plant may be given light, a big part of which may be shade and a little part sunshine, so that the growth of the working roots may keep ahead of the growth of the leaves. It should not be given the warmth of a living room for some time after this. If you have a patient, telephone Doctor Teddy to send his ambulance > to your home. PEPPERPOD AND PEPPERGRASS This is Little Miss Pepperpod. She is called that because she has a bit of a temper, enough so. that she does not give up easily when she has hard things to do. Last term at school she raised some peppergrass in an egg-shell farm. 4 ver ~ ERT Supplement to Junior WMaturalist Monthly Published by the College of Agriculture of Cornell University, from October to May, and entered at Ithaca as second-class matter. L.H. Bailey, Director ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Editor eee - Vell 2. ITHACA, No Y.. FEBRUARY. io0d. No. 5 A CONTEST BETWEEN BEANS AND POTATOES To My dear Nieces and Nephews: This is what I heard one day: “ You heedless boy! If you do not take more care in what you do, you will never amount to a hill of beans.” A vexed mother was speaking to a careless son. “T don’t want to be a hill of beans; I’d rather be a hill of potatoes,” replied the boy. Beans or potatoes Which would you prefer to have, a hill of beans or a hill of potatoes? Both beans and potatoes are valuable as food, and also for profit. If you ever go camping or tramping you had better take baked beans. Lum- bermen whose work in the woods is very hard, eat great quantities of beans. There are a number of plants in cultivation that are relatives of the potato. The family name is So-lan-um. I fancy but few of my nieces and nephews know many members of the family, but a potato-bug knows them with his eyes shut. It is surprising how much some -bugs know about a few things. When I see him chewing away at a tomato plant or an egg-plant, I know that the plant is a Solanum or very closely related come The best way to determine which is the more profitable is to plant the same area of each, or a certain number of hills, and when the crop is harvested, find which is worth the more per hill. Conditions of the contest The reports may be made next September, at the beginning of the new school year. Perhaps you can have an exhibition or show at the schoolhouse. It is necessary that every boy and girl who enters the contest shou!d know the number of hills of beans or potatoes that he or she plants, and also the yield of each that is harvested. When you return to school next September, you will have some good problems in arithmetic, in finding the rate of production per hill, the value at market prices, and other bits of information that will be worth your while to know. 429 430 Junior Natruratist MonTHLY. The contest is to be decided on which crop will bring the most money from a square rod of soil — beans or potatoes. How to make conditions favorable for both sides in the contest That each side may get the most out of its choice of crop, it is neces- sary to give the chosen plant the most favorable conditions for growth. The potato and the bean each has its own peculiar requirements as to what makes it comfortable. They differ as much in this respect as do boys and girls in what they think good to eat. For example, the bean is a warm weather plant, and must not be put in the ground until all danger of frost is past, or, if I may say, until settled barefoot and swimming time has come. But potatoes may be planted from the twentieth of April up to the time when the first strawberries ripen, which in most parts of the State is about June fifteenth. THE BEANS There are pole beans and there are bush beans. In some places poles are difficult to obtain. In this contest only bush beans would better be planted. Among the bush beans there is the field bean, sold after the seed is ripe. It is from this class that our baked beans come. Another type of bush bean is what are sometimes called “ string beans,” or “snap beans,” or “wax podded beans.” They are to be picked when the pod is tender and meaty, and when cooked like green peas, some people pre- fer them as a substitute. They make excellent pickles and match well with the sandwiches at a picnic. Enemies and disease of the bean While the beans are growing, look sharp for robbers—I mean weeds. Boys and girls who will let a lot of weeds get the better of them cannot be good for much, but it often happens, nevertheless. I] have seen grown men give up to a parcel of weeds. The best time to kill weeds is when they are babies—I mean when they are just peeping through the ground, before they are big enough to steal much of the fertility and moisture from the soil. The most serious bean trouble is a visit from other plants that come and live on the bean plants, causing what we know as a “* plant disease.” These plants that sponge their living are fungi (or fungus when we speak of only one). They are “ parasites ” because they live and grow on other plants. There is a fungus that causes “rust ’’ on beans, and another kind that causes a disease called “ an-thrac-nose.” The fungi that cause these troubles are so small that they can scarcely be seen by the naked eye. When any fungous disease is well established — started I should say » New. SERIES, SUPPLEMENT To FEBRUARY, 1906. 431 — it cannot be cured any more than whooping-cough can. Protection lies in covering the foliage by Bordeaux mixture, applied before the dead- beat plants can get a start. The most effective Bordeaux mixture is in a liquid form and is sprayed on the plants. THE POTATOES In planting potatoes, we use pieces of potato for seed with one or more “eyes” or buds on them. When a shoot springs from the eye it is sustained by the starch stored in the fleshy part of the potato until it develops feeding roots and leaves, and is able to support itself by its own roots and starch factories. Some people think that the potatoes grow on the same roots that take Underground part of potato plant in mellow soz. water to the leaves, but that is a mistake; they grow on underground branches. I wish you would see what goes on in the soil in a hill of potatoes. Look at the stem where it comes through the surface and follow it down into the soil until you come to its end. There you find the seed pieces that were planted. They were once fresh and plump. The pieces are now practically dead, but before giving up their lives they started a prosperous family. Observe, if you will, the fine thread-like roots spreading out in all directions. They seem to grow in sets, and each set starts from about the same point in the stem, and from the center of these clusters or sets of roots there grows an underground branch. At the end of the underground branch you will find the potato. The fine roots are what supply the leaves or starch factories with moisture and such raw material as is needed from the soil. These roots show great energy in reaching out after moisture and food, and sometimes get into the pasture belonging to the potatoes in the next hill, 432 Junior NaturaAtist MoNnrTHLy, Potatoes call the plant doctor more often than the bean Diseases and pests of the potato are more common than those of the bean. Of insect enemies it has two, the flea-beetle and the potato-bug. The flea-beetles eat tiny holes about the size of a pinhead on the leaves,— not clear through, but on the surface. These holes destroy many starch factories and the wounds are places for the spores of fungi to enter and grow, which causes leaves and stems to die as if they had ripened, and before the potatoes are half grown. This produces the trouble commonly called the “early blight,” because it comes in early summer and mid- summer. There is another blight that causes the potato to rot. It is also due to a fungus that first attacks the leaves and later works down to the potatoes themselves. Bordeaux mixture is the best remedy for blight or rot troubles. Be The potato bug is the com- monest foe. The blight is not certain to come every year, but the potato-bug never fails to spend a part of the summer with you. I recommend that the bugs be brushed off into a pan having kerosene oil in it. This soon brings death, and | fancy a pain- less one; but for field culture, the farmer sprays poison on the vines by means of machinery. The results When school begins NEXT SEPTEMBER I am wondering how the contest will come out. I want to hear from every one of you who has planted either on the bean side or the potato side. You Digging the potato crop. must tell me all about the yield and its value. If any of you are able to send photographs showing anything of interest in your work, I shall be glad indeed to get them. I hope that you will have the show at your schoolhouse, when school opens. You can make the beans and the potatoes the main part of the show, but you can also bring other vegetables and flowers and fruits. I will write you again about the contest. UNcLE JOHN. Supplement to Sunior WMaturalist Monthly Published by the College of Agriculture of Cornell University, from October to May, and entered at Ithaca as second-class matter. L.H. Bailey, Director ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Editor New Series. Vol. 2. TERACA, N« Y¥; NEARCH, 1606: No. 6 BIPLY RO AND, EWS -GARDEN Joun W, SPENCER Tell me, Billy Boy, what you intend doing with that box? Oh! yes, now I understand. You say that you mean to have a gar- den this summer and you will first sow the seed in shallow boxes and keep the boxes in the house away from cold spring storms. You can attend to them there while they are little, very much as a baby is cared for when in the cradle. But it seems to me that the box is much larger than you will Fic. 1.— Just the thing to saw into flats. need for a crib for infant plants. I am pleased to see you set about it so early. ‘They say that it is the early bird that catches the worm, and I think that it is the early gardener who catches the good prices for his produce. To be tardy and unwatchful of opportunities causes damage and loss to men of all trades, but to none quite so much as to the farmer. He must be “on hand” every time. Mother Nature when left to herself never waits nor hastens in her round-the-year work, but men have learned that with a little skill she can be so managed as to perform wonders for their profit and pleasure: like fresh lettuce in April and fine thrifty tomato plants ready for transplant- ing in late May. 433 434 Junior Naturalist MONTHLY. Billy says that he intends to make sev- eral boxes of that big one. Heisnow meas- uring the sides and plans to divide the box into three shallow “flats”? of about the same height. I am glad to see that he is trying to do the work very accu- rately and well. He means to be a very skillful workman when he is a man. But I am sorry to say that he is not as care- ¢ a) re 2 ay “deh ane Fic. 2.—Measuring carefully. : : : . sh his father’s tools. He is nailing on the bottoms of his flats with a clumsy blacksmith’s hammer because he has mislaid the good carpenter’s hammer which would do the work so much better. His father says that whenever he misses a tool he does not hunt for it, but immediately looks up Billy instead and sees that he returns it to its place. DEL : : eS Fic. 3.—Good work with a poor tool. ful as he should be of | New Series, SUPPLEMENT To MARCH, 1906. 435 Fic. 4.— Making holes for drainage. Oh, hold the bit vertical, Billy! I mean straight up and down, It will bite its way through the board much more smoothly. Put in plenty of holes so that all the surplus water may drain away. It is even worse for seedlings to have wet feet, than for plants of older growth. Then put a carpet of moss on the bottom of the flat to keep the fine soil from sifting through, and it will also retain moist- ure and keep the shal- low earth from drying out too rapidly. It means a good deal to a plant as well as toa boy, to be started out in life with a sturdy constitution. And for that, plants must not be kept either too wet -or too dry, nor in too warm a place for then Fic. 5.—Putting moss in bottom to keep soil from siting through. 436 Juntor NaturaList MONTHLY. they are apt to grow tall and “ spindling.” That is right. Sift the soil carefully, and if it is clay soil, add a little sand to make it more loose and crumbly. If you are able ‘to get ;somme woods earth to mix with the clay, . the plant will like it very much. That kind of soil is mostly made of decaying leaves and wood, and the little fuzzy working roots can find plant food in it to send up to the starch factories in the green leaves. If you Fic. 6.—Freeing the soil from lumps and stones. cannot get wood earth, perhaps [Father will let you buy a few cents worth of florists’ soil which is prepared with food for hungry plants. Right again! Firm the earth well, so that the working roots may not find their way into little open spaces where they will dry up. They need some air, but enough will creep through the firmed soil. Roots seem to like to push their way. I am glad you are making such straight Fic. 7.—Making the soil firm. a ate New SERIES, rows. It is much bet- ter than scattering the seed. For one thing, it is so much easier to distinguish the weeds. If your plants are standing like soldiers on parade, in a per- fectly straight line, you will know that the unwelcome intruders that come up between must be weeds, and pick them out before they become big enough to rob the rightful owners of food and moisture. Be careful not to sow the seeds too thickly. If they are very, very fine, it is a Fic. 9.—Sowing the seeds. SUPPLEMENT To MARCH, 1906. 437 Fic. 8.—Making rows for the seeds. good plan to mix them with about the same amount of sand, and -take: smal pinches, for they slip away through the fin- gers faster than you think. Seeds of good size, as tomatoes, would better be sown one at a time, about a half inch apart. Crowding is a very bad thing for plants and children. They both need room to grow and do _ their best. Plants cannot grow well when shad- ing each other, and 438 Juntor Naturatist Montuty. Fic. 10.—Covering the seeds. and about four times as thick as the seeds it covers. Then firm the soil down again. This does not make the surface hard, but only snugs the soil about the seeds so that they feel the warmth and moisture and immedi- ately begin to swell, and shoot from their protecting shells. It is well to have only one kind of seed in a row, for some sprout much quicker than others. Pepper- grass is above ground children do not thrive in crowded city tene- ments. That is a good way to cover the seeds. It does not disturb them in the rows. Sand is the best covering, for it never packs, and the ~ tiniest and weakest seedling can push its way easily through. If you cannot get sand, then sift a little pile of soil several times to make it very fine and light, and keep that for the final soft blanket to help warm the seeds into growth. But make the blanket of an even thickness, Fic. 11.—Firming the soil about the seeds, New SERIES, SUPPLEMENT To MarcH, 1900. 439 in a week, but parsley takes a month before showing itself. Label the row with the name of the seed. _ | think that you must have been taking les- sons in gardening, Billy, for you are do- ing it all so well. That gunny sacking on the surface will keep the seed from being washed out of place, and also, the darkness keeps the seed-leaf from pushing through before the tiny root- lets are big enough to Fic. 12-—Covering with sacking to prevent washing. Fic. 13.—Drenching well. gather plant food for the starch factories. When you water, do it thoroughly. Some people just sprinkle a little on the top, and the working roots in the bottom of the flat get so thirsty they are likely to die. They feel that they are liv- ing in a desert. Keep raining till the water runs out through the drainage holes and then let all the sur- plus flow away. Now you are ready for the long wait. Be careful that neither drouth nor frost shall touch your seedlings when once they are through the ground, and I think success will be yours. UNcLE JOHN. 440 Junior Naturatisr Monty. GARDEN SONG ApbA E. GEoRGIA Tune: Marching Through Georgia. Now for all the boys and girls to gather with a will, And show the learned grown-ups they haven't all the skill. For we propose to waken you to admiration’s thrill, While we are working in our gardens. CHORUS. Hurrah! Hurrah! for spade and rake and hoe! Hurrah! Hurrah! for helping things to grow! So we'll sing in chorus as the seasons come and go, While we are working in our gardens. Break the stubborn clods of earth and crumble them to bits, Tiny seeds must have a soil that for their purpose fits. Here’s a school where every one has need of all his wits, While we are working in our gardens. CHORUS. Thin the rows and pull the weeds that choke the tender shoots. Stir the soil that moisture holds for thirsty working roots, We must try for everything to give 'the care that suits, While we are working in our gardens. CHORUS. By-and-bye the harvest comes and brings to us return, Unto each and every one the just rewards we earn. We are glad from growing things of Nature’s ways to learn, While we are working in our gardens. CHORUS. Hurrah! Hurrah! for spade and rake and hoe! Hurrah! Hurrah! for helping things to grow! So we'll sing in chorus as the seasons come and go, While we are working in our gardens. Supplement to Junior Waturalist Monthly Published by the College of Agriculture of Cornell University, from October to May, and entered at Ithaca as second-class matter. L.H. Bailey, Director ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Editor New Series. Vol. 2. ITHACA, N. Y., APRIL, 1906. Nosy PEPPERPOD'S BERRY-BOX GARDEN This is Little Miss Pepperpod. Some of you have met her before. She is called so because her hot temper flashes out so often. However, it helps her to carry through whatever she undertakes. Last term at school she raised some peppergrass in an egg-shell farm. The taste of the one small sandwich that she made from her crop then, has made her wish for more. So she has found a quart berry-box and means to have a larger peppergrass farm. The other name of peppergrass is Curled-Cress. It is of the same family as water-cress, and tastes just like it, but grows willingly in garden soil while its relative insists on having its roots in running water. But the berry-box is full of holes. If she does not in some way stop them up, the soil will leak away when she waters her farm. At the kindergarten she learned to cut and fold paper very neatly. So now she borrows her mamma’s big shears and cuts and fits a lining of thick paper for her berry-box. In the garden she has found some fine crumbly soil which she thinks will be good for her box-garden. Her teacher says that soil in boxes and pots must be of a kind that will not “cake” or harden when it is dry. To make sure that it will not, she will add a little sand or woods earth. She is filling the berry-box much too full, as you see in the picture. Pots and boxes should not be quite full of earth when ready for seeds or plants. It washes off at watering and makes an untidy mess. She sows the seed about a half inch apart, on the top of the earth and then covers it carefully with a thin layer of sand, about four times as thick as the seed itself, 441 442 Junior Naturatist MonrTHLy., = In a week the tiny shoots will push | up through the sand, and in two weeks more she may thin the plants to about an inch apart. While she was about it, Little- Pep- perpod made three berry-box gardens. In the first she sowed peppergrass. _ “+ But spring is close at hand and she means to have an outdoor garden. Beneath the kitchen window she wants some nasturtiums and “ scarlet runner” beans. Also she wants some tomato plants, started early, for trans- planting to the outdoor bed as soon as the weather becomes warm enough for the needs of the warmth loving tomato, She sows these seeds a little deeper than she did the peppergrass, and far- ther apart, for they are bigger seeds of bigger plants, and need more room. For the nasturtium, she first jarred the berry-box to settle the soil grains well together, and then poked her forefinger into it up to the first joint, and drop- ped a nasturtium seed into the hole thus made. She put them an inch apart, which made four rows of four holes each. Then she covered the seed and pressed the soil closely upon it. When she transplants her nastur- tiums, she will not pull up the plants, but break or cut the berry-box care- fully away from the block of soil within it, and gently separate the roots, allow- ing each plant to keep its tiny clod of earth. By doing so, the fuzzy working roots receive the least injury, and con- tinue their work of gathering food for the starch factories in the green leaves with scarcely any interruption, New SERIES, SUPPLEMENT TO APRIL, 1906. 443 She is having pretty hard work in spading up the soil for her outdoor garden. But she works away, jumping upon the spade to drive it into the soil until she has broken up quite a space of the hard ground which she whacks. and spanks with the back of the spade to make it fine and mellow. She fin- ishes it by raking it over many times, picking out all sticks and stones as they keep working to the top. Her little neighbor thinks that he can do this work as well as she, and begs, “Please let me comb some, too.” Pepperpod takes pride in doing her work very neatly. Plants will grow “iy ce be &, LEDS = FOF | ‘gail Easel well standing in crooked rows, but they will not look so well, nor can they be cared for so easily. With the handle of the rake she makes a shallow groove in the soil, and sows the seed carefully, not too thickly, and then pushing the board aside gently tumbles a thin cov- ering upon it from the soil at the sides of the groove. Then she walks upon the row, “heel and toe.”’ This is very important, for it is necessary that the soil should be well firmed down upon the seeds, for if it were left full of tiny “air holes” the delicate rootlet might wither and the plant would never come above the ground. The young plants will be large enough to show the straight green rows in about a week. In a week after that Pepperpod may stir the soil with a hoe or rake. This will not only kill ‘the weeds, but will prevent the moist- ure in the soil from passing off into the air, 444 Junior Naturatist Monru_y. The film of water upon the soil grains is never still, it is always either trickling down, or climbing back to the clouds. It has no difficulty in its upward climb through well firmed soil, but when it reaches the loose “ earth mulch” which the careful farmer keeps on the surface of the soil in dry weather, it is obliged to stop. The spaces are too wide for it to cross. - Pepperpod has been out in her garden, thinning the rows of pepper- grass, killing the robber weeds, and loosening up the earth between the rows, which the last shower had beaten hard. Now she is tired and wants a rest and a lunch before she puts away her tools. Most of the thinnings she takes to her mamma for a salad at dinner time, but a few she puts between thin slices of bread and but- ter, and sits down on the porch to eat and rest. Her peppergrass bed has given the family so many nice relishes, and she has so greatly enjoyed their pleasure in it, that now she is planning for more things to grow. She has spaded up a place for her tomatoes, which are getting too big for the berry-box ; and she will sow more radishes and lettuce beside. If she has good success with her radishes and lettuce her mamma has promised to buy them by the bunch, paying the market price, and Pepper- pod must learn to put them up neatly for sale. Corn and string beans may be put in after the lettuce and rad- ishes have been pulled. That is, if Pepperpod continues as enthusiastic as she is now. I think she will, es- pecially when she buys Fourth-of-July fireworks with her radish and lettuce money. She means to have a few flowers too, besides the nasturtiums, which are ae now big enough to transplant. She planted sweet peas some time ago, for they do not mind cold weather, and asters, bachelor’s buttons, pinks, phlox and marigolds grow so easily that even a little girl may succeed with them. I wish you might see her garden when it is in bloom. She will gladly pluck you a bouquet, for her greatest pleasure in her garden is in the pleasure it gives to her friends, NEw SERIES, SUPPLEMENT TO APRIL, 1906. 445 My dear Nephews and Nieces: Your Urcte John has asked the printer to put all the illustrations on the first iciz cages of this leaflet. He knows how boys and girls read the pictures first. In fact he often does it himself. If you will read carefully, _yoii wit! find that two ways are shown for raising peppergrass. With the smalier pictures you are told about raising it when the soil 1s in boxes up in the air. The rest of the pictures show how to raise it when the soil is lying where nature has placed it. There are many people living in crowded cities who have no other way of growing plants, except when the soil is in boxes, pots or tubs. Even people who have ample lawns, have window-boxes and veranda-boxes, which, when filled with plants, adapted for such places, look very attractive. You can all succeed with plants in such locations, but they need close attention in watering in hot weather. I shall tell you about that later. When a boy or girl has attained success in raising peppergrass in a berry-box, he has taken an important step toward knowing how to raise beautiful flowers and trailing plants in window-boxes. I have among my nieces and nephews, beginners, some of whom can- not tell a dandelion from a bit of chickweed, up to boys who aspire to become captains of baseball teams, and girls who give parties with refresh- ments. In what I may say, I shall try not to reach too high for the one class, nor stoop too low for the other. It is no fancy or fairy talk when I say that there is such a thing as becoming acquainted and making friends with plants. It is as real as to make friends with a dog or cat. To get such a feeling, in the best way one must begin to care for plants in one’s childhood. Like playing the piano, one should begin the work when young. It is much better to begin with simple things — things easy to raise, and go on step by step, learn- ing how to succeed with more difficult plants. I speak of this for the reason that I know the inclination of children to try to wallx before being able to creep. The first and greatest thing of all is to know how to make plants comfortable. Remember, plant comfort lies at the bottom of your success in gardening and farming. I may speak of plant comfort as often as did my teacher about some of the important rules when I began the study of arithmetic. The class of elementary farming better begin with peppergrass. All things considered, it is about the easiest plant to raise that can be found. If sown under favorable conditions, the seed comes through the ground and that is a faster pace than that of in a week, and sometimes less most weeds. It has no insect enemies worth considering. It 1s good to eat, and big enough to harvest in a month from the time of sowing. That / BAG Junior Naturalist MONTHLY. is quicker than any grown-up farmer can get a crop from his fields of many acres. Water-cress and peppergrass belong to the same family, and in the catalogue are found under the head of cress. The two have different ideas about what is plant comfort. Their ideas differ as much as those of ducks and hens. Water-cress likes to have its feet in water, and is found in running streams. Peppergrass is more comfortable when its feet — | mean its roots —are in moist soil. Please note that I have said moist soil. Can you conceive a condition of soil that is not wet and yet not dry? If so you will understand what I mean by being moist. Peppergrass belongs to the cool loving class of plants, and in its way is as uncomfort- able in the hot, dusty summer as is a St. Bernard dog with all his shaggy hair on his back. It may be sown in the open ground as early as sweet peas. If sown in mid-summer, it quickly goes to seed and does not amount to much. The second sowing may be made in September at about the time school begins, at which time the nights are growing longer and the days shorter. (In the first pages of this lesson you will see among the illustrations, how Little Pepperpod grew her peppergrass. ) WINDOW-BOX GARDENING Some of my nieces and nephews have no out-of-door,— no soil even large enough to have a farm or garden as large as a handkerchief. In such instances the berry-box farm is the best they can have, and much fun and profit may be had from them. The process of nature goes on just the same as though the peppergrass was growing in a field of a thousand acres. Even though you may try hard to make your peppergrass in the berry-boxes comfortable, I feel quite sure that for all of your good in- terntions it will have many hours of discomfort. If peppergrass could think and talk and remember stories, there vould be many times when it might think about the sufferings of travellers across a desert where no water is to be found for miles and miles; or of shipwrecked sailors who when leaving the sinking ship, took only a small keg of water, which was soon gone, and there followed days and days of parched lips and swollen tongues for the want of a drink. Something like this is quite certain to happen while you are making the acquaintance of your plants and learning how to make them comfortable. Yes, I know the thought which is coming up in your minds: “ Why, Uncle John, can’t you tell us how often to water our farms?” No. I cannot. I can no more give you such a rule than I can say how often each of you should be given drink. It is not a question of time but of zwhen you New SERIES, SUPPLEMENT TO APRIL, 1900. 447 need it. You need much more during the hot dry summer than during cold, winter days. If I had the power to make you drink by rule, summer and winter, there would be many hot days when you would suffer for the want of water, and it would be a punishment to be obliged to drink the same amount on zero days in winter. You must learn to tell of your own knowledge when the plants weed water. Mothers know when to feed babies and you must know when to water plants. This knowledge. is much more important when plants are growing in pots, berry-boxes, and window-boxes, anywhere up in the air, than when planted in the soil of the garden. There the roots can reach out for moisture, and the moisture can creep up to the roots from away down deep. The best test that I can give you that you may know how to tell when a plant is feeling like a man lost in a desert, is to take a pinch of the sur- face soil of the box and squeeze it hard between the thumb and finger. If the grains crumble when you let go, the plant is probably thirsty. If the grains of soil hold together, no water is needed. When you water, make it a bath—a souse of water going entirely through the soil. All the water over and above what does not stick to the grains of soil will ‘drain away. It is for such drainage that Billy Boy bored the holes in the bottom of the boxes which you saw in the primer sent you before this one. Plants may be given too much water even when there is ample drain- age. I have seen plants in shady places kept so constantly moist that the surface of the soil was waxy, putty-like, and when in that condition for a long time, tiny mosses would begin to grow. Ferns and swamp plants may be comfortable in such locations, but sun-loving plants are not. Yes, I know that some plants are very fussy about their comfort, and some boys and girls are the same. They expect to find some one who loves them and loves to gratify them in their fussiness and you must be the same good friend to plants. From raising peppergrass in a berry-box, it is but a step to having a window-box with attractive flowers. Plants are not proud or haughty and do not seem to mind the difference when growing in a soap-box or tomato can or when growing in an elaborately ornamented window-box with carved ginger bread work. Either makes a happy home if the plant is given comfort. The window-box should be at least ten inches high and ten inches wide, inside measurements, and as long or as short as you wish. Do not forget the oft repeated instruction to put holes in the bottom for drainage. The soil should be as fertile as good garden soil, but some good garden soil is out of place in a window-box. If the soil is not of a 448 Junior Naturatist Monruey. mealy kind, it will soon bake or become hard because of the frequent watering. Florists use an earth prepared from rotted sods. That is the best for window-boxes as well as pots. The rotted grass roots help to prevent the packing of the soil which I have mentioned. If such soils cannot be obtained, and garden soil is the next best that may be had, add about one-third of woods earth. If not woods earth, add about the same amount of sand. Mix well together and fill the box to within an inch of the top after the soil grains are well jarred. Do not forget the jarring to snuggle the grains of soil close together. In the choice of flowering plants for a beginner in window-box gardening, select such as are capable of enduring the most neglect. With all the good intentions that you may have to make plants comfortable there will be times when the plants will suffer like the cast-away sailor at sea. ‘Tradescantai, more commonly known as the Wandering Jew, is a plant that will stand a great deal of neglect. It does not mind discomfort in its way any more than a clam does in his. It is not practical to raise it from seed but it grows readily from cuttings. As yet we have said nothing about propagation of plants by cuttings and I will mention only those coming from seed. To children just getting their first experience in window-gardening, I shall recommend but few plants, as one team of horses is more easily driven than four, six or eight. Nasturtiums and Sweet Alyssum are easily managed. Petunias are good when once started. The seed is as fine as dust and the young plants re- quire much care. When petunias are once well established they are ex- celient for window-boxes, vases and hanging baskets. Pansies are some- times used, but as they belong to the class of plants that never need an overcoat on cold spring days, they suffer during the hot months of July and August. It is during springs and falls when the days are shortening and the nights lengthening that pansies are most comfortable. SOME VEGETABLES IN THE OPEN GROUND In the State of New York you should plant during the month of April and early May, only cold-loving plants — plants that do not require sn overcoat every time a cold wind blows. In vegetables I will mention for planting in the open ground: Peppergrass, lettuce, radish and spinach. When the hot days of July come, all of these will be harvested and the same ground may be used for plants that enjoy weather when straw hats are worn. It is always best to raise two crops from the same piece of ground during the same season, when the kinds of plants permit. New SeERIES, SUPPLEMENT TO APRIL, 1906. 449 After the harvest of peppergrass and radish, plant tomatoes. Later in the place where lettuce and spinach were sown plant string beans. Where the farm is large enough plant corn. Corn is very comfortable during all the warm season and is a good crop to raise. I know of some youngsters who pick it about the time school begins in September and play Indian by having a green corn roast. If they have potatoes of their own raising they roast them in the hot ashes. : Raising plants make lots of trouble just the same as raising boys and girls, but if you are fond of them you find pleasure in caring for them. UNCLE JOHN. » a 5 f > . 5 * t a _ ua . : Th - “ b » 7 Fn ptt 4 a ste flee {ee Gl ae ‘ . a 4 in] ah ; : kam ¢ Soe AG te (oe Cor ae CORNELL Readsing=Course for Farmers PUBLISHED BY THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY, FROM NOVEMBER TO MARCH, AND ENTERED AT ITHACA AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER UNDER ACT OF CONGRESS OF JULY 16, 1894. L. H. BATLEY, DIRECTOR. SERIES VI. ITHACA, N. Y,, “No. 26. BUILDINGS AND YARDS. NOVEMBER, 1005. TASTEFUL BUILDINGS. TASTEFUL FARM BUILDINGS By L. H. Baitey We are strongly influenced by every constant condition of our lives. All of us live in buildings, and from the first to the last we associate with them. These buildings are silent teachers, always impressing us more deeply than we are aware. Sense of convenience and efficiency, of pleasing proportions, of tasteful shapes and harmonious colors ought to be the lessons that our buildings impress on us; yet how many farm Fic. 270.—A picce of good architecture—simple, direct, of good proportions, and adapted to its purpose. buildings are really convenient and efficient, or of good proportion, or express harmony of form and color? It may be difficult to determine what is cause and what is effect — whether poor taste is the result of poor buildings or poor buildings the result of poor taste; but the influence undoubtedly works both ways. The 451 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS, 452 *SSUIp)ING IY} [JY UL azts IUDs ai S.C % IY] St LOOP IY} JOY} 99110 N Ty NYY Gye Lu metal I) ‘suoisodoad ur Apnjs y—' the “OT 4 — jt BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 453 ‘WUOMOSUDAAD OY] PUD SSuipying oy) Apnjig “pHajsmaD{ YAO K MAN Y—'eLz ‘org 454 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. buildings surely express the man, you know something of his type of mind when you see his house and barns and sheds. Awkward, straggling, unrelated buildings indicate loose and purposeless ways of thinking. Good farming follows only good mental processes ; these processes work them- selves out in the crop-schemes, the market-business, the buildings. Rarely do you see efficient and convenient buildings without seeing also a good Fic. 273.—A city type of farm house. farmer; and efficient and convenient buildings are almost necessarily tasteful buildings. I mean to say that there is no abstract canon of good taste in farm buildings except that they shall be perfectly adapted to the uses for which they are designed and shall bear no meaningless or irrelevant parts or ornament. Theoretically, the cylindrical stave silo is inharmonious in connection with farm barns; but because it serves a direct purpose, we accept it without question. If such a construction were added merely “for looks,” it would be ridiculous. The surroundings —the trees, bushes, yards — may correct many of the faults of untasteful buildings by hiding the faults, or by distracting the attention; but every building ought to be attractive in itself, BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 455 1. The building itself It should be as easy to make a building attractive as to make it unat- tractive: it costs no more. What many persons think of as “ architecture ” is merely the “ style” or “ looks” of a building. Unfortunately, we seem to have it indelibly written into our minds that attractiveness is only a matter of ornament; but ornament is ludicrous on an ugly building. We must come to realize first of all that every building is good architecture or poor architecture, whether it is a chicken coop or a palace. Good architecture, so far as externals are concerned, consists primarily in pro- portions, not in trimmings, excrescences, ornaments and oddities. What constitutes good proportion may not be declared offhand, for what is good proportion for one kind of building may be poor proportion for — ‘itt, * Fic. 274.—Onz of the old-fashioned farm houses. another kind of building. Every man can test the question for himself, and he will soon become expert at it: challenge every building that you see and ask whether it is pleasing in general shape. Is it compact and solid-looking, or awkward and gawky? I sometimes think that the commonest faults with farm houses are that they are high, staring, ill-shaped. I say farm houses advisedly, for farm barns are usually much better in architectural form, and for the simple reason that no effort was expended to make them “ handsome ” or unusual —they are built for what they are and with no pretensions. I once drove an artistic-minded friend along a country road that he might 456 - READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. see a tall ornamented farm house of which the owner was very proud and which was maintained in spotless condition. Near the house stood the barn, a plain simple structure without ornament or paint. I stopped the horse in front of the house. My friend took in the situation, and remarked, ‘‘ That barn is a fine piece of architecture.” Most of the old-fashioned farm buildings are pleasing in form. They are relatively broad on the ground, with ample cornices and eaves, stout chimneys, and big simple porch posts. They seem to be adapted to the place. They look like real farm structures. But now we have copied the millinery architecture of the city. We have run our buildings up Fic. 275.—An abandoned New York farm house. Discuss zis proporiions. where they may be seen, and as if land were worth so much the square foot; and often we have loaded them with tatting. The porch posts have been run through the turning lathe until they are as slender as possible and yet hold the load, thus contradicting the very purposes for which posts are used —the purpose to provide stability and solidity. The turner shows his skill by cutting them almost in two in several places, and by shaping out various inharmonious forms on the same post. I cannot see how a cylindrical or square pillar of good proportions is mace more beautiful or useful by having quirks and undulations run into it, although it may sometimes serve very well as one element in a scheme BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 457 of ornament. The spindle-legged porch usually goes with a lght-con- struction and weak-looking house. The reaction of the town on the country in the matter of architecture is stronger than most of us are aware. One rarely sees a new farm house adopting the old farm house models. Part of the reaction expresses itself in the desire of every person to have a house unlike every other person’s. This is really commendable, only that this individuality should Fic. 276.—A New York farm house. be got by a different fundamental plan rather than by the introducing of mere oddities or accessories. We now are likely to feel that our build- ings must have what we cail “style,” and this results in a showy building with much effort expended on incidental parts,— scroll work, crests on the ridge, turrets, dormers, fantastic windows, spindle work, and the like. If any house should look to be strong and substantial, it should be the farm house. The farm house stands by itself. It is not built to sell, nor to serve a single generation. Land is substantial: the buildings go with the land. I must not be understood as saying that the country is worse than the city in respect of its buildings. In fact, I think that the country is 458 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS, better off because its buildings are less ambitious and showy. New York State abounds in good ancestral farm houses. It is difficult to conceive of a prospect more ugly than many village or city streets, with Fic. 277:—Shiftlessness expressed in a building. their heterogeneous and iormless houses. . I want to set farm people thinking about the “ looks ” of their buildings and to say that there is Fic. 278.—Thriftiness and good management expressed in a building of similar size, although faulty 1m some characteristics. just as much opportunity for the exercise of good taste and for the dis- play of good “ architecture ” in simple farm buildings as in city buildings. Nor do I mean to advise the discarding of all ornament on buildings ; but there is ornament of proper kind and degree and of improper kind BUILDINGS AND YARDS: 459 and degree: just what is proper or improper in any case must be deter- mined for that case alone. A building devoid of all conspicuous orna- ment may be very attractive, if the general form is good and the openings properly proportioned to each other. The cheap ornament that we so commonly see is added to relieve the “ plainness”’ of the building; but plain buildings —that is, simple and direct ones—are themselves the ‘ most satisfying buildings if the mass-effect and construction are good. Let a person erect such a plain building in the midst of showy ones and his friends will very likely compare it to a barn. The comparison may really be a compliment; in time the critics will come to like the simple structure and to tire of the others. The simple structure “ wears.” In the days of hand-work, the trimmings and ornamental features were worked out by the men who built the house, and there was likely to be harmony in the style of workmanship. Now, the ornamental features are largely machine work, and they may have little relation to the ‘ 460 READING-COURSE FOR IF'ARMERS. remainder of the building. Tor these reasons, we need to exercise great care in the treatment of the “ finishings ” of a building. Because a building is in keeping in the city, it does not follow that it would be in keeping in the country. The building should fit the place and the purpose. It should seem to belong just where it stands. It should not seem to be transplanted to the country. The traveller often wonders why the simple and unpretentious peasant cottages in Euroge are so interesting. The reason is just because they are simple and un- pretentious, and therefore individual. They seem to have grown up Fic. 280.—Of no architectural pretension, but attractive because of its picturesqueness and the fact that it is adapted to tis purpose. out of the land and to be a product of it, expressing merely the neces- sities of the builder. They were built slowly right where they stand, not carted in bodily from the mill and then set up. It is too bad that in New York State, a land of stones and rocks, there are not mcre stone buildings. Unfortunately, stone buildings are expensive because of the great cost of masons’ wages and the difficulty of securing masons in the country who can lay a good rough untrimmed wall; yet we ought to be developing a class of young farmers who themselves can utilize the native materials of their region. One finds certain types of houses and barns peculiar to great geo- graphical regions or to people of a certain descent. In parts of New BUILDINGS AND YARDS, 461 Fic. 282.—A remodelled farm house, the long ell being replaced by a compact wing. The old form of the house is shown in Fig. 281. 402 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. England one sees the house, woodshed and barn comprising one con- tinuous building. In New York, a prevailing type of farm house is the “upright and wing” form. In compact villages and cities this form of house has been given up. It is a question whether it always affords the most useful and convenient house for a farm or allows the most economical use of the materials. It lacks compactness ; but it lends itself well to the parlor and the spare-room idea, for these apartments can all be placed in the upright and be out of the way. The family usually lives in the wing. One could write’an essay on the type of mind in our ancestors that developed this particular form of house, relegating the family to one sphere and the company to another sphere. Another in- Fic. 283.—A compact house in the western style. Colorado Springs. teresting discursive type is the “ell,” which ambles off to one side. In marked contrast to all this, one finds beyond the Mississippi and especially in California the compact low-topped square house, in which practically all the activities are under one roof. These houses may grow large by extensions rather than by additions or wings, all the parts being under roofs of equal height. These buildings are often models of concreteness and concentration, and usually they are comely. I often wonder why someone has not adapted them to the East. The old-fashioned box-corniced farm houses were faulty in the small extent of veranda— commonly they had only a “stoop ”’—and also in BUILDINGS AND YARDS, « punossd ay} {o no dn madd, Jv {v sv avaddn 0} 42 sasnv9 ajqvj-4ajpM1. BD fo 2IUWaSQD OY [, ‘QUOJS aLtjoU {Oo q]1NG aBD{ZOI mAdl Y—'Vge oI] i y ad} —'$gz ‘ol *“SSULPUNOLANS S]L YJUM Bird Iq UL ‘pafrusyp ‘oyUnjsqns—awmioy ULaD{ sAYyIDAYD UY 8 a aint \ : Ae MU ‘7 : BE antigen fe Lad es BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 405 the lowness of the upper story. Many of the newer houses have gained in high roomy chambers, but are likely to have lost in width and in too high and narrow gables. These old buildings were painted white. I shall not commit myself on the proper color for a farm house; but the range of colors in mixed paints affords boundless opportunity for the display of “tastes.” I raise the question whether the pleasing effect of the white on the old buildings is not in part its simplicity and plainness and the fact that one cannot make disharmonies with it? Fic. 286.—A Calzfornia fruit-rancher’s residense, built on the eastern, gable-reof plan. It is conceivable that the reader may agree with nearly all that I have said; yet he will ask what good it serves, since the farm buildings in New York are now all built. Some new farmsteads are being erected, however, either cn wholly new sites or to replace old buildings. Yet the case is not hopeless even with existing buildings. Additions are made to old buildings, and too often these additions contradict the spirit of the older part. I frequently drive past a house that has two porches — one porch with fine big square pillars, the other, of later date, with degen- erate turning-lathe posts. Another house is a box-corniced construction with return cornices on the gable ends, built, of course, long ago; a new part, of equal size, has open rafter-work cornices and a different kind of roof. I am always interested, in driving through any country, to see how many buildings show glaring evidence of haying been “ added 4006 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. to.” Sometimes one can correct minor faults by judicious repairing or inexpensive modification. Often a tco slender chimney can be broadened above the roof line. Jig-saw skirting can be sawed off or neatly boarded over. Spindly porch posts can be boxed in and made square. Weak or unsightly foundations can be covered or screened by grading or by planting. Always, the building can be left in a neat and completed con- dition. It is not uncommon to see scaffolding remaining for years, par- ticularly on silos, and lumber and other material lying loose and exposed. Even if one cannot afford to complete a structure at once, there is a knack of making things look ship-shape. The farmer as well as the mechanic should have a pride of workmanship. But I am less interested Fic. 287.—Artistic stables. Agricultural College of Tennessce. in the buildings as buildings than I am in the development of good taste. If our buildings express ourselves, it is essential that we give careful attention to ourselves as well as to the buildings; and if buildings are teachers, it is important what kind of appeal they make to children and to strangers. 2. The arrangement of the buildings. Not only the buildings themselves, but the disposition and arrange- ment of them have relation to their efficiency and tastefulness. It is unquestionably true that there has been a tendency to scatter the build- ings, particularly the barns, far beyond the point of efficiency and con- BuILDINGS AND YARDS. 467 Fics. 288 anp 289.—IWhat a porch will do for a poor farm house. 468 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS, venience. It would be intersting to make a computation as to how much time and labor are wasted each year in Coing chores in separated buildings. It would seem that good executive management would try to concentrate one’s activities. Often the hay is in one barn, the horses in another, the cows in another, the wagons in another, and the corn in an isolated crib. It would, no doubt, be cheaper to build many of these departments together as compartments in a single structure; or, if these departments arise after the main barn is built, it is often possible to join some of them to the main structure rather than to make wholly separate units. The cost of maintenance of buildings is increased with several small separate structures; and the lack of organization of time and effort entails a still greater loss. The mere protection from the weather in doing chores is no inconsiderable advantage of a centralized Fic. 290.—A schoolhouse, on the square western plan. Colorado Springs. lay-out in this climate. An argument against the consolidation of the departments is the greater likelihood that a fire would destroy the entire plant; but, as a matter of fact, it is difficult to save the separate build- ings as they are usually placed. Moreover, the buildings are generally protected by insurance, and one can carry a relatively larger protection on one good building than on several poor ones; and the chance of fire is probably less in the one building than in several. It is surprising what little attention is given to the making of walks about farm buildings. Perhaps no single accessory counts so much for convenience, and for the saving of time and strength; yet it is com- mon to see farmers making their way through muddy yards year after year, and spending more time in picking circuitous trails in order that they may go dry shod than would be required to make good cement or BUILDINGS AND YARDS. ; 409 stone walks. Every farmer should know how to make a cement walk or a concrete foundation. The difficulty of securing good walks is aggra- vated by the common custom of placing the barn across the road from the house. There are reasons, of course, for preferring the barn and resi- dence on opposite sides of the highway —the highway serves as a lane and the roadside as a yard; yet it is strange, after all, that a person is willing to have a public thoroughfare cut through the most private and Fic. 291.— Useful and dignified porch post. personal part of his establishment. It would seem that a man would want to have absolute control of the land lying between a farm house and the barns. Yet whatever the position of the buildings, walks should connect them and make them accessible in all kinds of weather; and these walks should be broad, direct and permanent. I know a farmstead in which the women for years have gone to the pump down and up the 470 READING-COURSE FOR I-ARMERS. sides of a steep hollow ; yet one day’s work with team and scraper would have filled the place. 3. Lhe surroundings The charm of any farmstead lies to a great degree in the neatness of the premises. The farmer is so isclated that he has little occasion to consider the wishes of his neighbor or the passer-by as to the looks of his place. He also has abundance of room and can let things lie where they fall. There is no local board of health to inspect his place. Therefore the importance of keeping things picked up does not appeal to him as it does to the city man, Yet one wonders why the man should not take as much pride in the keesing of his premises as the woman does in the keeping of her house. I once made a note of the things that I saw scattered about a New York farmstead, and which might have been piled up, put in barns cr cellars, or burned. The barn stood near the house, on the same side of the highway. Alongside the barn, in full view from the road, were two old buggy bodies, one of them minus a wheel, bleached by countless rains and snows, with weeds grow- ing through them; about the barn was the frame of a grindstone, a heap of hoops and plow pcints, several barrels in various positions, the remains of a cutter, and scattered staves, blocks and stones. Near the house were boards lying topsy-turvy, stove-wood scattered over the yard, a wagon-box bcttcm side up, and a deserted and dilapidated chicken coop. The house and barn were fairly good in general form, but they showed the effects of wear. It was evident that the place kad seen better days. It showed lack of organization and of definiteness of purpose. Fortu- nately, such places cre not abundant and they are probably becoming less in number ; yet they are common enough to raise the question whether they do not measure the status of farming in some communities. It is usually impossible to reach such farmers by appealing to their sense of tidiness, for the difficulty les deeper. The above picture may appeal to the average good farmer as so un- usual as not to influence him or even to hold his attention; yet there is a general lack of tidiness in farm premises as compared with city premises. It is urged that it takes time to keep things picked up. Yes; but the farmer is likely to lose his odd minutes or hours by not organizing his time. The busy driving business man must organize every minute into an effective system; his odd minutes are directed into odd jobs or to definite recreation. Perhaps it is not important that the farmstead be kept as scrupulously tidy as the city yard; but it is doubtful whether there is any place on a modern farm for mere carelessness and neglect. Certain it is that the most tasteful buildings lose their effectiveness if repairs are neglected and the premises are slattern. BUILDINGS AND YARDS. Avt 4. The lesson Perhaps I have said enough to set the reader thinking or to challenge his attention. The best discussion that can come from this lesson will now be suggested by the farm buildings that you see as you come and go. As examples, I have inserted many pictures; if you co not wish to make remarks about the buildings in the neighborhood, you may be willing to make them about these pictures. In succeeding bulletins in this series, some of the practical constructional details of farm buildings will be considered; but it is always well first to approach the discussion of a building from its mzass-eect rather then from its incidents. All these discussions will be made in a generous spirit for the betterment of the improving country life in which we all are interested. Fic. 292.—An attractive little building. Fruit-house of the late Charles Downing. Such discussions are the more important because the professional architects do not give attention to common farm buildings, since there is little chance for remuneration. It is surprising that farm buildings are not worse than they are, seeing that there has been no instruction. Even the agricultural colleges have not given much attention to the subject until very recently; soon the leading institutions will have well- manned departments of rural architecture. It seems to me that farmers must look to these and other public institutions for much of their advice on farm buildings. Farmers here and there are beginning to give atten- tion to these subjects in a new way, and are doing much good as speakers and writers. I wish that New York farmers might feel that the whole subject of rural architecture is worth discussing in the new spirit of the time. : ‘ ‘ .. "= A , mon PEO or wet i Ake rene * ieee > oe ted Ley Rene: Was meme ef 1 pny nde ane, ee mh ; ‘ ee Supplement to CORNELL Reading=Course for Farmers PUBLISHED BY THE COLLEGH OF AGRICULTURE OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY. FROM NOVEMBER TO MARCH, AND ENTERED AT ITHACA AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER UNDER ACT OF CONGRESS OF JULY 16, 189. L. H. BArLEY, DIRECTOR. SERIES VI. LH ACAV NY: No. 26. BUILDINGS AND YARDS. NOVEMBER, rocs. TASTEFUL BUILDINGS. DISCUSSION-PAPER ON FARMERS’ READING-COURSE BUELETIN: NO:-26 This Discussion-paper is sent out with all Farmers’ Reading-Course Bulletins, for two reasons: (1) We should like to have your own ideas on these subjects. On some of these points you have probably had expe- rience which will be interesting and valuable to us. No matter what the Bulletin says, if you have different opinions on any of these subjects, do not hesitate to state them on this paper and give your reasons. (2) We should like you to use this paper on which to ask us questions. If there are any points which the Bulletin has not made clear, or if there are any problems in your farming, whether on these subjects or others on which you think we may be able to help vou, write to us on this paper. THE NEXT READING-CouRSE BULLETINS WILL BE SENT TO THOSE WHO RETURN TO US THIS DISCUSSION-PAPER, WHICH WILL BE AN ACKNOWLEDG- MENT OF THE RECEIPT OF THE BULLETIN (2c. postage). This paper will not be returned to you, but we shall look it over as carefully as we would a personal letter and write to you if there are any points about which correspondence 1s desiravic. You may consider this Discussion-paper, then, as a personal Ietter to us. It will be treated as such, and under no circumstances wl your remarks be made public. If you are not interested in this Reading-Course Bulletin, we have others on other subjects, and we shall be glad to send any of these to you on request. The titles of the six Series of the Reading-Course Bulictins now available are: 1. THE SOIL AND THE PLANT. 2. STOCK FEEDING. 3. ORCHARDING. 4. PouLtry. 5. Dairyinc. 6. Farm BUILDINGS AND Yarps The Farmers Wives’ Reading-Course, on domestic subjects, is also sent to those who desire tt. THESE BULLETINS CANNOT BE SENT TO PERSONS WHO RESIDE OUTSIDE OF THE STATE oF NEW YoRK, AS BOTH COURSES ARE SUPPORTED BY A STATE APPROPRIATION. For our own benefit we shall be glad to have you answer (on these sheets) any or all of the following questions, if you are interested in these subjects; but we do not wish you to feel under any obligation to do this, 473 474 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. 1. What is the character of the farm residences in your community, —old buildings of a generation or more ago, or “ modern” buildings? 2. What is the general “style” or “looks” of the buildings of recent date? How do they compare in attractiveness and convenience with those made by the past generations ? 3. What general form of farm residence would you prefer, if you were building anew? 4. Give any suggestions that occur to you as to the improvement of farm buildings, or as to the neecs of the farmer in this direction, Are farm buildings as they exist satisfactory? Maes en ae aes _ Burtpincs AND YARDS. | 475 476 READING-COURSE FOR I'ARMERS, .CUNN ge cede ROA ae Re ee, , POStOHICE Ss a a tenghe 2 Sab Gh? BB EP 3 She ‘ 4 SAR =) So as 2 af ae pL ae i £ ’ Laeatt 0317 Fic. 297.—A semi-formal flower garden, in tts 27th year. It is interesting, tf one has time to devoie to it. It formerly contained more beds with narrow earth walks between, but, as years advanced, the woman who made it found the task of keeping weeds in check to be too great, and therefore she turned the walks into lawn. Most persons will prefer simpler flower gardens, with more flowers. Sa they are needed. It is always a help to make a map of the area, drawn to 4 scale, locating on it all existing permanent objects, as trees and buildings. 2. Plan for an open center, in front of the house. This should be sward or lawn. If the area is small, it can be mown with a lawn mower ; if large, the greater part of it, at some distance away from the house, can be mown three or four times a summer with a field mower. 3. Plant part of the sides of the place. The rear, in particular, should be planted. Note how homelike and cosy a farm house looks if there is an orchard behind it ; and how bare and bleak if it stands out alone against the sky. These plantings may be trees or bushes, or both. 482 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. 4. Set at least a part of the plants in groups. Note how attractive an old fence-row is. You may not want a fence-row, but you can get some hints from it. Do not plant the things in severe rows. Plant them ir- regularly, do not shear them year after year, and then let them grow into each other freely and naturally. If you want a few special and showy plants, as hydrangeas, plant them near a group of other plants, not drop them promiscuously over the front yard where they bear no relation to anything else and have no particular meaning. I always feel sorry for the isolated bushes and dejected little trees that are set down here and there without any use or reason, and which are forced to make a con- stant struggle with the grass. 5. Be careful not to overcrowd the residence with trees, especially with evergreens. It is always advisable to provide shade, but it is easy to make the place gloomy and depressing. It is seldom that a residence looks well in a grove,—the » grove is likely to swal- low up and domineer the buildings, and the place lacks in open- ness and free sweep. 6. Plant as freely of bushes as of trees, perhaps even more freely. It is a com- mon mistake to give too little attention to the shrubs. ~ They. comprise the minor furniture of the place, filling it in about the margins, relieving it of bareness and bleak- ness. 7. The main plant- ings of the trees and shrubs and_ herbs should be made of the Fic. 298.—Trees in winter. Trace out the method of branching. The first tree is slippery elm; note the horizontal position of the lower branches. and that you are sure kinds that you know will grow. Many of the native trees and shrubs are very desirable and are reliable. The BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 483 horticultural novelties may then be used to touch up the place; if they are used to excess, the area looks exotic. On both buildings and yards it is easy to place too much mere ornament. 8. Flower-gardens and vegetable-gardens should be at one side or in the rear. Flower-gardens are for the growing of crops of flowers, and they should be in good soil and in a place where they can receive good care; they cannot have good care in little isolated beds in the lawn, and moreover, they have no relation to anything else in that position. Bulbs appear to better advantage when seen as an edging to a group of shrub- bery or as a border, than when standing in a mound in the middle of the yard. Many flowering plants can be grown in the borders, about the foundations of the house, sometimes along or near a walk, but these are for the purpose of heightening the effect of the place as a whole and they are subordinate ; flowers grown for flowers need tillage, manure, training, the same as a good vegetable-garden does. One would not think of grow- ing beets and cabbages in pinched holes in the sod; yet we try to grow geraniums and pansies in such places. You want a flower-garden that will pro- duce you the best crop of flowers, just as you want a vegetable-garden to produce the best crop of vegetables. A selection can be made of the common flowers that will give abundance of bloom throughout the season. If you have strength and time for it, it may be well to have a formally laid out flower- garden, with regular walks and edgings. This will consume much labor for the amount of crop that is produced, but it may yield another kind of satisfaction that is well worth the while; for it is not all of garden-craft merely to grow good flowers. If there are children in the family, an area should be set aside for their use in the making of gardens. Tt is astonishing Fie: 56 Lod. sn wee how little the farm boy in general knows — jy winter. The branch-form about the propagating and growing of = 4S characteristic. plants; yet this should come as a kind of natural knowledge, developed as the child grows. It is astonishing, also, how little affectionate regard he may have for the plants ; yet this should be acquired on a farm, for it is naturally a part of farm life. g. It is advisable in most cases to make low plantings against the foundations of the house, in order to relieve the hard lines and to tie the building to the greensward. This can easily be so managed as to prevent ~ 484 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. darkening of the cellar windows and to obviate any danger of rotting out the woodwork. A free-growing bush may be a good reinforcement at the corner of the house, if it is allowed to take pretty much its natural course, in not being kept sheared. If the eaves drip, it will be impossible to grow anything very satisfactorily near the house; both for the good of the planting and of the foundations, eave-troughs should be provided. A few vines may add much to the looks of snugness and coziness of a house, particularly on porches; and brick or stone houses may well be covered or draped with Boston ivy or Virginia creeper. 10. The yard should have good care. The first necessity in the main- tenance of any place is common neatness,— the same kind of pride in tidiness that the good housekeeper has in her work. The slackness in the keeping of yards can rarely be charged to the lack of time, as is so com- “monly said; it is rather a lack of utilizing the spare minutes, as a thrifty business man or professional man organizes his time. It is often said that the busiest man has the most time. He organizes his efforts, does things quickly, then takes up something else. j The yards show on their face what kind of effort the man puts forth to keep his place in order ; and good housekeeping and good care-taking are as important as good architec- ture or good landscape gardening. It is surprising how little pride country dwellers seem to take in the appearance of their premises and yards. It is probable that half the farm yards that.one will see are de- void of homelike and attractive features; and very many of them are an offense to a sensitive eye. The pride in a good yard is as necessary to a fully successful farm business as pride in serviceable and attractive clothing or in a good turn- out. These things all go together, being an expression of the resource- fulness of the man. Fic. 300.—A common white oak, remnant of a forest alongside a creck. Compare The general plan of the place gugilioe o} branching with Fig. 299. ought to make for cleanliness and tidiness. If the premises are con- venient and direct, and devoid of fussy features, the labor of keeping them in presentable condition will be much reduced. These remarks apply with particular force to barnyards. One would almost think that many barn- yards are arranged for the special purpose of catching water. If buildings BUILDINGS AND YARDS, 485 and yards are well planned, there will be little mud in the yard. Roof water must be carried away, the slopes properly made, the manure and barn drainage taken care of. There is little excuse for a miry barnyard. 4. The winter landscape A good part of the year in New York State is leafless. We are likely to want to close our eyes to the out-of-doors when winter comes. Yet if one is to be content in his time and place, he must be in sympathy with the landscape the year round. It is essential, therefore, that we learn to know the trees and the fields and the woods in winter. The winter aspect of trees is most interesting. The framework is all revealed and the trees seem to be nearer to us than in summer, and they will soon come to mean more to us. Trees differ remarkably in expression when the tops are bare. How they differ is suggested by the photographs that I have put in this Bulletin. Note the silhouette against the sky of a maple as compared with an oak; of an elm as compared with a maple; of a soft maple as compared with a hard maple. Follow out the curves and crooks of the branches ; the method of branching and forking ; the kinds of bark ; the differences in the terminal spray ; the colors in trunk and twig. You will soon begin to observe the trees closely, and this will be the beginning of interest in them. The well trained man fills his moments of leisure with observation and reflection of one kind or another: as he rides to town there is something to challenge his attention. It is well to plant the home grounds with some reference to winter effects. I do not mean merely the planting of evergreens for protection, but the clumping to- gether of red-twigged or yellow- twigged or green-twigged bushes. Even the weed stalks standing above the snow may interest you. We are likely to think of the winter landscape as only black and white, yet it shows a great variety and depth of color. You could not paint it with black and white paint. You would need to mix in much red and other colors. By February the color in twigs and buds may begin to change: this, aside from the lengthening days, is the first indica- tion of spring. Fic. 301.—The brushy part of a wild plum tree. 5. Making the lawn and setting the plants The first thing to be done in the actual making of a good yard is to grade the surface to the desired contour. Then the permanent location of 486 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS, the groups and single plants should be marked out. If the yard is to be attractive, it must have a heavy and dense cover of sward. While grass will grow almost anywhere, nevertheless it is difficult to secure a first- class lawn. A lawn is composed of very many fine spears of grass, and a few straggling clumps, however good they are, may be only a detriment to the lawn if the general run is not in good condition. It is just as neces- sary to prepare the land thoroughly for a lawn as for a crop of wheat or potatoes. This is ordinarily done by deep plowing and then by thorough tillage until the surface of the land comes into a condition of fine tilth. Before the grass seed is sown, all irregularities should be filled up and the earth firmly stamped or settled down. The lawn is to remain indefinitely and cannot be graded over again; therefore every care must be taken to’ shape the contour properly. There should be slopes leading away from all foundations, if possible. The mature trees should be allowed to stand above the level of the sod, showing their brace roots, as they do when growing naturally. If there are any sour or wet spots in the area, they should be drained with permanent tile or stone underdrains. The land should also be rich. It is advisable to plow in a good coat of manure and, if the land is not in good heart, a heavy dressing of commer- cial fertilizer will help. The land should be at least as rich and as well prepared for the growing of a good sward as for the raising of corn or beans. Usually the land is graded and shaped early in the spring Better results are often secured, however, if the rough grading is done in the fell, before the heavy rains set in, particularly if the ground is full of old roots and covered with clumps of heavy sod. The soil can be moved economically at that time. The rains and snows of winter will com- Fic. 302.—A well-formed evergreen. If pact the earth, and the frost will the lower branches were removed, the ee I tree would lose its beauty. disintegrate the harder parts. In the spring the final raking and dressing can be given and the grass seed sown as early as possible. The earlier the seed is in the ground the better the root-hold it will secure be- BUILDINGS AND YARDS, 487 fore the hot dry weather of summer. Many persons like to sow grass seed on a very late snow. It will then be carried into the soil by the melt- ing of the snow. It will need to be raked in, however, if the land cannot be worked soon enough in the spring to allow of such early sowing. The seeding should be very heavy, since it is the object to secure very many fine stalks of grass. Blue-grass or June-grass is ordinarily used, and at the rate of as much as three or four bushels per acre. Some persons like white clover in their lawns. If so, one to three quarts to the acre may be sown. It is usually best to’ sow the grass seed without grain. How- ever, the June-grass is likely to make a rather poor showing the first year and it may be well, therefore, to sow three to five quarts of timothy to the acre. The timothy will come up quickly, make a green cover for the first year, and will be gradually crowded out by the June-grass. In most cases the weeds will be very abundant the first year, particularly if stable manure was worked into the soil. These weeds should not be pulled, for the pull- ing will destroy the young grass. Most of them will be annuals and will die out at the end of the first season. The area should be kept mown all summer and this will keep the weeds down. If strong perennial weeds, as docks, come up here and there, they can be pulled at the end of the first year or the second year. It is best to mow the lawn, if possible, with a good lawn mower, since that keeps the weeds down and tends to even up the growth. It is unusual that a lawn of any extent “catches”’ uniformly the first season. One must re-seed the poor spots year after year. There may be very hard and dry places, or those that are densely shaded, on which one can never secure a “ catch” by mere seeding. In these cases the area may be covered with sod from an ol:l pasture, cut in thin slices and rammed firmly into the soil. In cense shade it will be impossible to secure a good sward, and some other ground cover may be use1. The lawn should be fertilized from year to year. Thoroughly rotted stable manure may be worked into it in the fa!l or early in the spring. The common practice of piling raw manure on the lawn is to be dis- couraged. Some good concentrated fertilizer may also be very effective. The common practice of sprinkling lawns has little to commend it. If the lawn needs water, it should be wet thoroughly. This deep wetting encourages deep rooting and enables the plant to withstand the dry weather, whereas a continued light sprinkling of the lawn probably tends to develop a shallow root system. . The borders of the groups may be marked out on the ground when the grading is done, by the end of a hoe handle. The shrubs should be planted thickly, perhaps not more than two feet apart. They will soon grow together and if the shrubbery becomes too thick, some of the speci- mens may be removed, Until the shrubs begin to cover the land, the earth 488 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS, ms between them should be hoed and perhaps spaded now and then to keep it in good tilth; and a liberal application of fertilizer of some kind is to be advised. When the shrubs and trees are first planted they should be well headed back; but after they are thoroughly established very little pruning will be necessary except to correct a too rampant growth or to check an awkward tendency. In farm yards the practice of shearing bushes should be discouraged. The effect is always best when the place has a free and natural look. FARMERS’ READING-CLUBS When a dozen or more people from the same place are reading the Farmers’ Reading-Course Bulletins it is a good plan to organize a Farm- ers’ Reading Club. Much more of value may be obtained from the Bulletins by discussing them in a Club of this kind after having read them at home. The Club meetings may be made very enjoyable social occa- sions, especially if a Farmers’ Wives’ Reading-Club is organized and carried on in connection with the Farmers’ Reading-Club. Literature on the formation of Clubs and the conducting of Club meetings will be sent upon request. It is a good plan for the Secretary of the Club to send to the various Experiment Stations for the Bulletins recommended as sup ple- mentary reading. A full set of the Series of Bulletins being read will be sent to the Secretary, so that these outside Bulletins may be obtained in time. BOOKS It is hoped that the reading of these Bulletins may lead to the study of a few of the many good books available upon each subject. In many of the bulletins, books are recommended. The Supervisor of the Reading-Course will be glad to send information regarding the purchase of books and may be able in many cases to direct the readers to free ~ literature. Correspondence is solicited on questions which have not been made plain; and if the Supervisor himself cannot answer the questions he will refer them to competent authority in the College of Agriculture. Supplement to CORNELE Reading=Course for Farmers PUBLISHED BY THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY, TROM NOVEMBER TO MARCH, AND ENTERED AT ITHACA AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER UNDER ACT OF CONGRESS OF JULY 16, 1894. L. H. BAILEY, DIRECTOR. SERIES VI. 1 HACAS NY: No, 27. BUILDINGS AND YARDS, DECEMBER, 100s. FARM YARDS. DISCUSSION-PAPER ON FARMERS’ READING-COURSE BULLETIN NO. 27 This Discussion-paper is sent out with all Farmers’ Reading-Course Bulletins, for two reasons: (1) We should like to have your own ideas on these subjects. On some of these points you have probably had expe- rience which will be interesting and valuable to us. No matter what the Bulletin says, if you have different opinions on any of these subjects, do not hesitate to state them on this paper and give your reasons. (2) We should like you to use this paper on which.to ask us questions. If there are any points which the Bulletin has not made clear, or if there are any problems in your farming, whether on these subjects or others on which you think we may be able to help you, write to us on this paper. THE NEXT READING-COURSE BULLETINS WILL BE SENT TO THOSE WHO RETURN TO US THIS DISCUSSION-PAPER, WHICH WILL BE AN ACKNOWLEDG- MENT OF THE RECEIPT OF THE BULLETIN (2c. postage). This paper will not be returned to you, but we shall look it over as carefully as we would a personal letter and write to you tf there are any points about which correspondence is desirable. You may consider this Discussion-paper, then, as a personal letter to us. Jt will be treated as such, and under no circumstances will your remarks be made public. If you are not interested in this Reading-Course Bulletin, we have others on other subjects, and we shall be glad to send any of these to you on request. The titles of the six Series of the Reading-Course Bulletins now available are: 1. THE SOIL AND THE PLANT. 2. STOCK FEEDING. 3. ORCHARDING. 4. PouLTry. 5. DAIRYING. 6. FARM BUILDINGS AND Yarps. The Farmers Wives’ Reading-Course, on domestic subjects, 1s also sent to those who desire it. THESE BULLETINS CANNOT BE SENT TO PERSONS WHO RESIDE OUTSIDE OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK, AS BOTH COURSES ARE SUPPORTED BY A STATE APPROPRIATION. For our own benefit we shall be glad to have you answer (on these sheets) any or all of the following questions, if you are interested in these subjects; but we do not wish you to feel under any obligation to do this. 489 ~ 490 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. 1. How much attention is given to the care and improvement of yards in your community ? 2. Do you know of any farm place that has good border-planting,— that is, heavy irregular planting on one or more sides? 3. How many persons in your neighborhood have lawn mowers? 4. What kind of trees do you prefer for planting on yards? 5. What kind of bushes or shrubs? 6. Is it practicable to have a flower-garden on a farm? BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 491 492 READING-CoURSE FOR FARMERS, 0 DESI 0 fie a Sa > Postotiice: Jc S20 ee tet See Note.—Your name appears on our mailing list as this Bulletin is addressed. Jf incorrect, please write us. Address all correspondence to Farmers’ Reading-Course, Ithaca, N. Y. CORNELL fReading=Course for Farmers PUBLISHED BY THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY, FROM NOVEMBER TO MARCH, AND ENTERED AT ITHACA AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER UNDER ACT OF CONGRESS OF JULY 16, 1894. L. H. BAILEY, DIRECTOR. SERIES VI. EREGACAL NY No. 28. BUILDINGS AND YARDS. JANUARY, 1906. PLAN OF HOUSE. THE PLAN OF THE FARMHOUSE By PRoFessor CLARENCE A. MARTIN In charge of College of Architecture, Cornell University Unfortunately very little thought has yet been given to the problem of the farm house. It is all very well for architects to plan ** farm houses ” oe Fic. 303.—A compact house. This type of house makes a compact and convenient floor-plan possible. The floor-plan and thz general form of the house must corre- late or correspond. for the wealthy “ gentlemen farmers ” and to make them ideally beautiful and convenient ; but such houses are not real farm houses for real farmers. They are only elaborate country houses built more or less regardless of a cost limit, and have little more to do with the real problem of the farm house than does the Fifth Avenue residence of the same “ farmer.’’ The problem of the real farm house,— the dwelling place of the man struggling to wrest a livelihood from the soil and to make a home for his old age 493 494 READING-COURSE FOR’ FARMERS, wherein he may enjoy the fruits of his labor,— has not as yet been carried out to a satisfactory solution. Mr. Robert Spencer, Jr., of Chicago, has written from time to time in both popular and technical magazines on the subject of the farm house, and has made many valuable suggestions and some very clever plans for farm houses under varying conditions; but, after all, if it be fair to criticize one who has done so much more than the rest of us in the solution of a difficult problem, it seems to the writer that there is much yet to be done before the real farmer and the real architect can get together on a satisfactory working basis. Professor Bailey has written pointedly and sensibly relative to the external aspect of the house. What he has to say in this connection is Fic. 304.—Another compact and condensed house. This and Fig. 303 show western styles of houses. Colorado Springs. applicable as well to the plan. Art, expression, and sentiment must have place in the plan as well as in the outer shell. A badly planned and incon- venient house in nowise suited to its purpose cannot be a thing of beauty or a joy to any one obliged to live in it, however thoroughly the exterior may be studied to refine and beautify it. Utility and fitness are absolutely first requisites in a building planned for any useful purpose, and no build- ing can be really beautiful or be good architecturally when these con- siderations are ignored or even given secondary consideration. The proper time to plan a house is, obviously, before it is built. The repetition of this truism might seem absurd were it not for the fact that so BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 495 large a proportion of our farm houses seem either to have been planned while in process of building or not to have been planned at all. The fact that every house should be planned as a separate and independent prob- lem with special reference to the persons who are to occupy and use it, taking into account their habits of life, temperament, and the work to be done in the house, seems to have been entirely overlooked by the average builder of the farm house. He seems to forget that he is an individual, that his family is different in some respects from other families and has different wants, that the house has not been planned to the best advantage unless it is specially and peculiarly adapted to the needs of his family. If a house is a model of convenience it is very likely to be satisfactory in other respects. The elements of convenience are usually directness Fic. 305.—Aun eastern type of farm house, necessitating a floor plan of its own. and simplicity, and if we have these we have the beginnings of an artistic home in the truest sense of the word. A good house, convenient in its appointments, and well arranged, is not necessarily a large house. On the contrary, it is more likely to be a small house, if for a small family where the women of the household do their own work. There may well be a difference of opinion as to the number of rooms required on the first floor; but probably the smallest of houses calling for consideration here would have a family living room, a dining room, a kitchen, anda pantry. The other rooms to be added in amplification might be a reception room (or parlor), a laundry or wash room, perhaps a separate library or study, and, in some cases, a bed room; the order of 496 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. importance of these various additional rooms being a matter to be de- termined in each case by the people for whom the house is being planned. There is at the present time a decided tendency to condemn the re- ception room or parlor as an altogether useless adjunct to the ordinary small house, those who take this attitude contending for the large informal family living room where “company” and family may gather on equal terms at all times. While there may be difference of opinion relative to the reception room, there can hardly be any with reference to the necessity of separate dining room, kitchen and pantry. All of these should be care- fully defined in any modern house that is to be used for anything but temporary purposes. There must, of course, be stairs leading to the second floor, and the stairs would very naturally go up from an open hall, although some mod- Fic. 306.—A rambling, indirect and usually inefficient form of house. Try to con- struct a convenient floor plan for this house. ern houses combine the hall and living room and run an open stair up from one side or end of the common room, which now becomes a living hall rather than a mere hall or living room. Where the main stairs are so arranged it is necessary also to have a back stair so that those who are doing the work of the house may be able to go to the second story without passing through the living room. On the whole, this arrangement of com- bined hall and living room in a house to be occupied the year around is not one to be commended except with considerable reservation. It is of fundamental importance in any house arranged with regard to convenience and privacy that every room in the house should be accessible from some sort of hall or thoroughfare without going through any other room ; the only exception to this rule, under ordinary circumstances, being BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 497 the dining room in small houses where economy of space or cost of build- ing often makes it wiser to curtail hall space and to open the dining room directly from the living room. In this case it is well to have good gen- erous doors or openings to give an air of hospitality that might otherwise be lacking. Another thing that has much to do with the general comfort and the artistic atmosphere of the house is the height of ceilings. A house with comparatively low ceilings is much more easily heated in winter and is much more easily furnished and made homelike than a house with very high ceilings. Of course high ceilings and high windows give much better ‘light and air than low ceilings, and in southern climates the high ceiling Fic. 307.—The house shown in Fig. 306, improved by a porch, but the house is fundamentally erroneous. becomes, on that account, almost a necessity; but here in the North the low ceiling is the more expressive of comfort. In an attempt to analyze the house and its plan it will perhaps be best to start at the principal entrance. This should be generous, dignified, and inviting, without an excess of richness that will lead to disappointment when the visitor passes through and sees the inside of the house. Whether or not there should be a vestibule depends very largely upon the climate and the exposure. With the rather severe cold and snow of New York State winters, the vestibule with doors inside and out.adds much to the comfort of the house by giving a place in which one may shake off the worst of a snowstorm instead of taking it into the house with him. 32 498 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. If the reception room is to be included as a part of the plan it should be at the front near the main entrance. It is naturally the most formal room in the house, the room where casual callers are received when one may not care to introduce them into the informalities of the family living room; but it must also be a room for family use as well, and not the cold and forbidding “‘ best room” of our Puritan ancestors. The living room should need no description further than the name; but there is room for no end of thought in the design of it. First of all, it should have the best view of any room in the house; then it should have good broad windows with plenty of sunlight and yet should not be too fully exposed to the uncomfortable glare of the hot summer sun; it should have wall space for books and furniture; it ought to have a generous open fireplace with a plain simple mantel; in fact it ought to be the one place above all others where every member of the family may feel Fic. 308.—Thez simplest form of house, but of good propor- tions. In sucha house the floor plan is also elementary. at home and thoroughly comfortable. It should be in location and interest the central room of the house and ought to open broadly into either the dining room or the parlor, or, if feasible, into both. The dining room, though its primary function is implied in its name, should be something more than a mere “eating box.” - It should be expressive of good cheer and thus conducive to pleasant thought and good digestion. It should have plenty of the early morning sunlight, which at all times of the year is welcome; and because the late afternoon sun in summer is likely to be hot and oppressive, this room of comfort should be sheltered from the low western sun. A south-east corner is the ideal place to get morning sun and afternoon shade, and such an exposure will give an abundance of light and warmth for the few green or flowering plants that the good housewife likes to have in the room, BUILDINGS AND YARDS, 499 | The size of the room is important. An ordinary dining table is, three and a half feet wide at least, and dining tables run from that up to four and a half feet. The table occupies the middle of the room and there must be space enough around it for chairs, and back of the chairs space for service, all of which means that even in a very small house a dining room less than ten feet wide is nearly useless for its purpose. Then too in every dining room pro- vision should be made for seating such guests as every Let iT ie WALK PANTRY ice lL | AAS oe @ RED OAR N a Ui, ion woe Stan ae, Neaeint Seme KITCHEN householder expects to enter- af? S — : Z go tno fain from time to time.’ A #eail a> a y without any side furniture in & it, would seat about eight peo- ple by crowding; and a room | twelve by sixteen, not a large room by any means, might seat ten or twelve people on occasion, but twelve would crowd it and leave no place for buffet or china closets, etc. lf buffet, sideboard, or other pieces of furniture desirable n such a room are to be used, space should be provided for them. The dining room and kitchen should not open di- rectly into each other, but should be separated by the pantry through which the meals are served. In this way odors and sounds from the kitchen may be shut out as completely as possible. The antry, besides, serves as a ARBORED TERRACE o ~ Zenunt icon” simple room ten by twelve, el i The first story is intended to be built of small field- stones, and the exterior, as designed by Mr. Spencer, is very attractive. SECOND FLOOR. Fic. 309.—A small cottage, very compact and home-like. learing ground between kitchen and dining room where things may be ut into proper condition for serving. The serving pantry should be Atted up with shelves and cupboards where the table service of china, utlery, silver, etc., may be kept. FOR FARMERS, 4 7) READING-COURSI tf) yapp amb 2q pynom 42 nq ‘aouatuaauog fo aajjoum v sv paznr0] Aypopr pun jong utoa L49a sv Avmawjs Sty “Mood Susy ay, fo sausoa auo mosl dn sur0s Aomawmys yum yng ‘yoy ayvavd as ynoyjum Unig padunsdy Jjom Y—'ork “oy ‘ASNOH WUVd NYAHLNOS V AO SNV1d a g,\ , “ AEG fi. NW wdaa Of Se o2 Ole ey Piste doolgr x a3 OO! teeters % “soe poer ee e e e e - WOOY HSV , t 4 i] ' ! 1 SNUVG ol JAY -NO!LOSas Id S!IHL “Ni adv SNYVa BuILDINGS AND YARDS. 501 Cupboards for either pantry or kitchen may best be in two divisions, upper and lower. The lower part of the cupboard, or dresser, as it is sometimes called,.should be about 2 ft. and 8 in. or 3 ft. high and from 20 to 14 inches wide, fitted up underneath the top counter shelf with doors, shelves and drawers arranged as the housekeeper may desire. The upper part of the cupboard should be fitted with shelves and doors; and there should be an open space not less than 12 to 15 inches high between PLAN . LAUNDRY PAWS RMI pa WASH RIMS 84" 3 VERANDA ; : ‘gx x\4° ates 14 «14 > DINING. ROOM AND KITCHEN Io *22'8* 43 RANGE. é BOILER? UPBOARDS*~ COUNTER I ae y bel RECEPTION / HALL” == RM & OFFIC Hel Gere Kaas SA entry = | peel FIRST FLOOR PLAN. ARRIA step JJ Fic. 311.—I} dining room and kitchen are to be combined inio one it could hardly be managed better than here, with the good light, cross ventilation, and the separation o} range, sink, etc., from the main room. the upper and lower cupboards, so that the top of the lower cupboard - may be used as a table or counter shelf upon which to place the dishes in serving, clearing up, etc. The shelves of the upper cupboard should be about 12 inches wide and spaced from 10 to 14 inches apart. It is nearly always best to carry cupboards up to the ceiling of the room so that the top will not form an open shelf to catch dust and rubbish. The high or to READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. R wood} COAL will TERRACE Se ee Oe area a Se eee oe PLAN OF FARM HOUSE. Fic. 312.—This house is planned to front on a lake, with approach and entrance at the back with all principal rooms ranged on the lake front; a good illustration of planning with reference to loca- tion and outlook, BuILDINGS AND YARDS. 503 shelves inside may be used for the storage of things used only at long intervals, such as empty fruit jars, etc. The kitchen is in many respects really the most important room in the farm house. Instead, however, of being a model of convenience, as a little thought might make it, it is all too commonly mean and inconvenient in the extreme. Mere size has little to do with convenience, and a kitchen may be bad simply from being too large, so that too much energy is used in going from one thing to another in doing the _work. % & . x ‘ = sy > as < he \ : es * * a - . : ro P| = Fs rs + =? * . a 3 wee + ~ rs } oo ; bh wae! ro “a 5; j ve gy ; * - 4 : ¢ Wes “8, . oon eS “ is és ¥ tC, Seas a 3 Ce * - 3 e =, J ’ ‘ = cscs Mame: icf 53ss ion etches ooh eg ae : : i o a. / SHORES Se rcste oe ops ake J Py Site ee Oe ee ee Biteereriiy.# f.0'.; 4 Js. cine. aes, POstOmees, seetne an ueeeees oe ia - Note—Your name appears on our mailing list as this Bulletin | addressed. If incorrect, please write us. ‘ Address allvcorrespondence io Farmers reading-Cosrs se, Ithaca, = Ve , > ae 2. CORNELL Reading=Course for Farmers PUBLISHED BY THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY, FROM NOVEMBER TO MARCH, AND ENTERED AT ITHACA AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER UNDER ACT OF CONGRESS OF JULY 16, 1894. L. H. BAILEY, DIRECTOR, BUILDINGS AND YARDS. FEBRUARY, 1906. WATER SUPPLIES. SERIES VI. anEVA GAS. ING aye: No. 29, WATER SUPPLIES FOR FARM RESIDENCES The first thing, I would now do for the farm home is to put in sanitary water- works, for the care and comfort of the person. Nothing would so soon elevate the home ideals. L. H. BarLey, in The Outlook to Nature. Fic. 314.—An old-time water supply, now becoming rare. In time every good farm home will have running water in the house, with good kitchen sinks, water-closets and a bath room. The drinking water may or may not be brought in pipes. These water supplies can come by gravity from high springs or creeks; the water may be elevated by pumps of some kind; or the supply may be secured from the roof. In one or another of these ways all farm residences may have a complete water system, to lessen labor, to minister to comfort and health, to pro- vide protection from fire, to supply water for garden and lawn. 33 #3 514 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. I, ADVICE FROM THE ENGINEER By Henry N. OGDEN Assistant Professor Sanitary Engineering, Cornell University Tt has been a sad reproach to farmers that they have paid so little attention to the needs of the house in the matter of a water supply. For the needs of the stable, or in order to economize in the regular farm work, every effort has been made to keep up with the times,—to have all the labor-saving machinery of the latest pattern, and to have the stables meet all the requirements of modern hygiene. On the other hand, after a well has been dug somewhere in the yard from which, though at a great ex- pense of toil and exposure, water may be had, the house has been assumed — — ____ to be fully provided for. TYY Y= i |] AA? MS On some farms the well 4 WY 1 SSN y Hy Hy iy may be found on the back- ik /} Wy} 2 isnt porch or in the woodshed, i, N'A . HM A MMW Which lessens the exposure HA | IRAN) but still invol Hy Ke | ANY) but still involves pumping Ve Nie WH, and carrying all the water NY IAW that is used. Happily, thi Hi Hy Mi (BWW) that is used. Happily, this ait iN AVS condition of things is pass- ne HH AN ing away and on the farm, Wp DAS < ° . . vet \y as in the city house, it is CRA ') Vy Wi) aM WM Wy mow understood that run- Wee a : : : eee tt ning water in the kitchen 5 = :\\ are aA AY sink as well as at the barn, MA Nis only reasonable ; and not HFT] ah; hoy, \ Rt) a few houses have water yi ty NY also up stairs in a bath- Ooi AN | room provided with all Hy)" Ny modern fixtures. It is the purpose of this article to Fic. 315.—Fixtures in a farm cottage contained in consider the question of a shed addition to the main building. ‘Parca s Weakest under five heads; (1) the quantity of water needed in the average house ; (2) the quality of various sorts of water and their relative value; (3) methods and cost of installation; (4) plumbing; (5) methods of disposal of the fouled water. 1. Quantity It has been said that the civilization of a community can be estimated by the quantity of soap that it consumes ; and it is almost the same thing to say that the refinement of a household is measured by the amount of water it uses. The poorer and more degraded a household, the less the BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 515 water used; and the more luxurious it is, the greater the demands for an unlimited amount of water in the kitchen, laundry, bath-room, and around the yard. It is therefore not easy to say exactly how much water is needed in any house, even if the number of persons living in it is known, unless the standards of living are also known. Records of water con- sumption in Boston and Worcester show that the amount of water use1 Fic. 316.—The shed lean-to containing the bath, closet and lavatory shown in Fig. 315. per head per day varies from seven gallons, when there is only one faucet in the house, to fifty-nine gallons in the most fashionable of high-cost city homes. Probably with the ordinary amount of plumbing, viz.— hot and cold water in the kitchen, hot and cold water in the laundry, together with a bath-room completely furnished,— the average consumption of an 516 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS, ordinary family may fairly be taken at twenty gallons per head per day. In city waterworks, one of the greatest causes of excessive consumption is the waste and leakage of the main pipes and house fixtures. The amounts given above presuppose no leakage, and if the entire system is not kept tight this amount may be doubled. It is further to be noted that this amount is the average quantity used through the twenty-four hours, this being a convenient way of de- scribing the amount. Practically, it is all used in twelve hours, and it is a common practice to assume that the rate at which the water is used during the day is twice that of the daily average. This is important, for instance, if water has to be pumped and the size of the pump or the size of the piping is being determined, as will be seen later. There is still another factor which affects the amount of water, viz.— the daily and seasonal variations. Through the summer months, more water is used than in winter, and on some days in the week,— for ex- ample, on wash day,— more water is used than on other days, so that it will be wise to provide for a possible rate of flow of fifty per cent in excess of the twelve-hour average. The computation for quantity would then be as follows, assuming ten persons in the house: 1O“persons»at 20 gallons pereday.. -6.-.-scny See eee 200 gallons. 200 gallons in 12 hours means in 24 dgours...............5. 400 “ And fifty per cent for excess on certain days and hours... .200 Lotal Gmaxtimiuny rates pemidayeeee en ene ae ee 600 Lotaljmaximum amount per Gay. sess cat ene 300 This is about ten barrels, and would require a tank about four feet square and three feet deep for the day’s supply. This doubtless seems large, and, of course, it is more water than would be used when it all has to be pumped and carried by hand, but with faucets and other fixtures it 1s not excessive and arrangements should be made to provide at least this quantity. 2. Quality of water The quality of a water is, of course, only definitely known by chemi- cal or other analysis, and yet common sense will be of great service in aiding one to select a proper source of water supply. No water is per- fectly pure, and nature does not intend man to use chemically pure water, for certain salts and metals in solution are necessary for the human body. On the other hand, there are some kinds of pollution which are unde- sirable and even dangerous. The most common forms in which this pollution comes are in the form of lime or magnesia, which makes the water hard. There is no great danger in drinking hard water, so far as medical knowledge goes, although a person accustomed to soft water will probably suffer temporary discomfort on changing to the other. The chief objection to hard waters is in the large amount of soap needed with BUILDINGS AND YARDS, 517 them, the disagreeable effect of those waters on the skin, and the deposits formed by precipitation in cooking or in the laundry. Other things being equal, therefore, a soft water not affected by lime or magnesia is to be pre- ferred. Unfortunately, there are other things which cause pollution of a worse sort,—things which, in general, are of an animal nature. Such pollution usually will be associated with human habitations and are the results, in one form or another, of human life. Surface waters, such as brocks or ponds, are most likely to be contaminated in this way, and, fortunately, the contamination can usually be recognized by even the most casual observation. If the brook flows through bottom lands, where cattle are pastured or where cultivated lands are manured, or if the brook receives the drainage from houses and barns, the quality of the water inevitably suffers. Mere contamination by animal wastes, however repulsive zsthetically, is probably not in itself dangerous; but if the drainage comes from diseased men or animals, the water may become a carrier of the disease and so cause severe epidemics. On‘ this account, it is altogether wisest to avoid surface water which may at any time be exposed to animal or human contamination. It is not easy to pronounce on the probable pollution of wells, and they are therefore the most dangerous sources of water supply. If deep, they may furnish water which is merely hard. If shallow, drainage from privies or barn- yards may make them certain sources of disease or death. Nor is it possible to pronounce by inspection of the surroundings only, on the probable purity of the water. If they are dug through a bed of clay with all chance for water to wash in over the top avoided, they are prob- ably good. But if they are entirely in gravel, not far from a privy or drain, the water would be very suspicious. It is further to be noted that exemption from a scrious disease for a period of years does not mean that a certain well water is pure, because the specific cause of a disease may not have been in the water; but if the conditions are such that a disease may be passed on from,a privy through the water supply back to the household, sooner or later it will be done. 3. Methods and cost of installation The simplest and best method of supplying a house with water, is to pipe the water from a spring or brook at a point high enough to cause the water to flow freely from the house faucets. If from a spring the quantity must be examined. This can be done by measuring, in pailfuls, the overflow of the spring. Not counting the water needed for the barn, it has been shown that a flow at the rate of 600 gallons in twenty-four hours is needed for a family of ten,—a flow at the rate of about two quarts per minute, or five minutes to fill a ten-quart pail. If this is just the rate of flow of the spring, there is enough water, but it may be thought that the 518 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. flow is too slow. Then a tank may be. built in the barn or attic of the house into which water may run regularly to be drawn out, irregularly, at greater rates. If the flow at the time when the spring is lowest is found to be as large or larger than necessary, it need only be dug out, walled up, and covered. Wood will answer for this, but brick, stone or concrete are more permanent. The relative elevation of the spring and house must be carefully determined in order to make sure that the water will flow at the highest point desired. It requires a certain force to keep the water moving through a smal! pipe, and the following table shows the number of feet necessary for this purpose alone. The spring would Fic. 317.—The reservoir, 2500 feet away, that supplies, by gravity, the equipment shown in Figs. 315 and 316. have to be as much higher than the highest fixture is as shown in the table: One-half inch pipe Rlowsint callonsiipereminiite! pe seewte accent e ee ieee ee O05 “1.0 420 40: (27.0 aa Head in feet lost by friction in each 100 feet of length, 4 7 17 54 ‘140 124 One-inch pipe Hlowsin: callons sper Animuteicsteciaseen Geo ee trleeinla nieces 1.0 Head in feet lost by friction in each 100 feet of length...... - 01354057, LOiah a ees This table shows that it is important to proportion the size of the pipe used to the head available. For example, suppose the spring is BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 519 fifty feet above the highest faucet, and that the flow is sufficient so that a bath-tub of water can be drawn at the rate of four gallons a minute. Then if the pipe line is 1,000 feet long, the one-half inch pipe would be _ out of the question, since it would take over 500 feet elevation to get that amount of water through the pipe and the pipe would not stand that pressure even if it were available. The inch pipe, on the other hand, needs but 16 feet to make the water flow at the rate given. If the source of supply is to be a brook, whose purity has been es- tablished, it will be sufficient to lay a pipe into the brook, protect the end by a strainer (being careful to tamp the dirt back well in the trench in which the pipe is laid). It may be that the brook runs dry in the summer time and storage of the spring floods is necessary. This can readily be done, under certain conditions, as follows: Suppose the length of time during which the stream may be dry is fixed at 100 days, then the storage supply must be 300 times 100 or 30,000 gallons. In order that the water shall not become stagnant and offensive, the pond or reser- voir in which the water is stored must be at least ten feet deep after this amount has been drawn off. This requires, for economy, a narrow gorge or gully in which to construct the reservoir. If a suitable site can be found, its fitness may be tested as follows: Take the average width of the gully, suppose it to be twenty feet, and multiply that by the length of the pond to be formed, suppose that to be 200 feet. The area of the pond then, with a ten-foot dam, would be 4,000 square feet, or 4,000 cubic feet for one foot depth. The storage of 30,000 gal- lons, or 4,000 cubic feet, will then require one foot extra depth for actual consumption. But evaporation from this water surface will take place rapidly during the summer months and it will be necessary to have about eighteen inches additional for this purpose, or two and one-half feet (above the ten feet) in all. Such a computation as the above may enable one to use a brook, even if quite dry in the summer, as a source of supply throughout the year. The method of constructing a dam for the reservoir described above will depend on the soil, the money available, on the permanence desired and on the opportunity for overflow. If the bottom and sides of the gully are rock, then a rough stone or concrete dam, about twelve feet high, designed to allow the water to pour over the top, would be suitable. It should be at least six feet thick at the bottom, two feet thick at the top and, if logs or ice are likely to be brought down in the spring freshets, an oak timber should be bolted into the top to prevent injury to the masonry. If the banks are firm gravel or sandy loam, an earthen dam, six feet wide on the top and sloping two horizontal for each foot vertical both up and down stream, will be suitable. 520 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS, Or, the ordinary field stone picked up on the farm may be dumped year after year into the brook at the point where it is decided to form the dam and the result will be a solid structure, which, if not tight at first, will soon become so from the accumulation of fine silt which will wash into the pile of stones. It may be made tight at once by planking the up stream side. The earth dam is best made with a core wall,—a thin stone or con- crete wall, eighteen inches thick, running in a trench well down into the foundation and extending along the center of the dam well into the banks on each side. If the core wall is not built, special care must be taken to tamp the dirt well and to avoid any possibility of erosion by water flowing over the top. The question of overflow is very important, for if a flood comes over the top of such a dam it is almost sure gradually to eat it all away. If possible, then, the overflow of such a dam ought to be taken around the dam in a new channel cut through the solid bank sileways, either back into the same stream or even into another valley. Otherwise a special provision for the waterfall must be provided. This may consist, if it is a.core wall, of paving with cobble stones up and down both slopes a sluice-way for the running water. This paving must be weli laid, the stones well set into the bank and the sides as carefully protected as the bottom. The size of this opening left for the flood water may be roughly calculated from the old rule to make the opening two feet deep and three feet long for every 100 acres of the area draining to the reservoir. Timber also may be used for the dam and to form the sluice-way. However, unless the timber is to be always under water, it will decay in a few years so that unless both labor and time are very cheap, it is more economical in the long run to use either masonry or earth. The pipe line from the spring or reservoir to the house may be of iron pipe, lead pipe, or wood pipe or sewer pipe. If the height of the spring is 100 feet above the highest fixture, then a three-fourth inch pipe would be sufficient, and this is the smallest size that should be used in any case. If, however, there is only ten feet above the fixture, the pipe ought to be larger and it may be that a sewer pipe four inches in diameter can be used to advantage. Wood pipe made of bored logs was used in years gone by, but now it costs more than iron pipe. If the ground slopes gradually from the spring at the start, then the sewer pipe is particularly well suited, and it can be bought for about six cents per running foot, the same price as three-fourth inch wrought pipe. If the joints of the sewer pipe are carefully made with good cement and the dirt is well tamped back around the pipes, it will stand an internal pressure of about twenty- five pounds per square inch, and, with care, it might be used for an entire_ line; but it is always safer to have the lower end, where the pressure is BuILpINGs AND YARDS, 521 highest, of iron. Lead pipe three-fourth inch in diameter costs about ten cents per running foot and is rarely used in these days. Wells may be artesian, deep or shallow. (1) Artesian wells are those which reach a porous stratum, passing through an impervious stratum, the water being held under such pressure that it raises to the surface in the well pipes, often with force enough to flow into the second story. Such wells are either bored or driven. (2) Deep wells are similar except that the water does not reach the surface and has to be pumped, sometimes from extreme depths. (3) Shallow wells are driven, or merely dug, into an underground stream, the water from which is pumped by simple pumps. Fic. 318.—Small hydraulic ram, pumping water brought down from a small spring. When all conditions are perfect, the ram ts satisfactory. It is safe to say that pumping is to be resorted to only when there 1s no chance of getting a gravity supply of approved purity at a reasonable cost. This is true for two reasons: (1) Daily charges for maintenance are very likely to represent a large amount of capital invested. Tor ex- ample,— if the cost of pumping were only ten cents per day for fuel, not counting the labor, it would amount to $36.50 a year, which, at five per cent, is the interest on $730. It would be $200 cheaper, therefore, to borrow $500 at five per cent to pay for a gravity supply than to pay $30 522 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS, for a pump which costs ten cents a day to run. (2) Another reason for preferring a gravity supply aside from the cost is its greater reliability. The best machinery may break down even under expert care, and the probability is, that there would be many days in the year when, with pumps, the house would be without water on account of accidents. Rams.— lf a fall -of water is available, its power may be used to work a hydraulic ram and this gives as cheap a supply as by gravity, since the occasional care required is very little, and the fall of the water does all the work. The two disadvantages are,— (1) that the fall is not always available at the right place, and (2) from accumulation of air in summer and from the formation of ice in the winter, the ram is subject to interruptions. In winter the ram may be kept from freezing by housing it and providing a small coal fire for the coldest weather. The following table gives data as to size, cost, etc., of hydraulic rams: Size. Flow of spring. Drive. Discharge. Water pumped. Cost of ram. ING}; © Bs I gal. per min. 4 % 1/7 gal. min. $ 6.00 INONBsAos See Soe = 14 y, Tine ie - 8.00 HSKO! We Oren ye2O) eee = 24 I ety peas 15.00 INO} = TOs. 50 a 4 2 etd ge 35.00 This table is based on the assumption that the length of discharge pipe is not over too feet and that the head against which the ram works is not over five times as great as the fall of the stream. The drive pipe should be made always as short as possible. Windmills— Another cheap but unreliable source of power for water pumping is a windmill, which, while of great service in windy weather, is useless at other times. The frequency of winds of sufficient force to turn a mill varies in different localities, but it is probable that in any part of the eastern states five or six days might pass without a wind of any value. Therefore, the tank into which the water is pumped ought to be large enough to hold about a week’s supply, or 300 x 7 feet; or 2,100 gallons besides the water needed for the stock (say 4,000 gallons or 500 cubic feet). This means a tank eight feet cube, or ten feet diameter and six feet deep. Then, since the wind, when it does blow, may not be strong or may last only a short time during which the tank should be filled, the mill and pump ought to be of good size. A twelve-foot mill ought to fill such a tank in about two hours, the pump working at the rate of eighteen gallons per minute. It would be foolish indeed to install a windmill, pump and tank only to find that in hot weather, when an abundant supply of water is particularly necessary, no water could be had from lack of wind. BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 523 Power pumps— Perhaps the simplest kind of a pump worked mechanically is the Rider-Ericsson hot air engine, which is made to go by the expansive force of hot air. The fuel used may be wood, coal, kerosene oil or gas. Such a pump needs almost no attention after starting and occupies very little floor space, so that it may be placed in the corner of the cellar. If electric current is available, either by purchase or by employment of the force in a water fall somewhere on the place, it is a convenient and | satisfactory method to buy a pump and motor and run the combination by the current. It is not possible to give any estimate of the cost by this method since the conditions would all have to be assumed, and the value of the estimate would be almost useless for any particular installation. Finally, the most elaborate method of pumping is to install in con- nection with a steam boiler, presumably used for other purposes on the farm, a regular steam pump, a small Worthington Duplex, for instance, which can be operated as needed whenever the boiler is fired up. 4. Plumbing (See, also, Farmets’ Reading-Course Bulletin No. 28.) Supplying water to a house inevitably brings with it added desires for conveniences before impossible. Once running water is established in the kitchen, the old-fashioned privy seems sadly out of date and a modern bath-room is found to be almost a necessity. It must be frankly understood, however, that such an innovation requires a better source of heat through the winter than stoves; in fact, it almost presupposes a furnace. A kitchen in winter may be kept warm all night so that the_ water pipes do not freeze, and few cellars are so built that the water pipes may not safely be carried through them; but in an ordinary farm house, an attempt to have running water in any room but the kitchen, and often there also, would mean frozen pipes the first cold night ot winter. A bath-room may be arranged in a room off the kitchen and kept warm thereby, or it may be in a room over the kitchen or sitting- room and kept warm by a register or a drum around the smoke-pipe, but such an arrangement will require constant care and vigilance in cold weather. It is far better to defer the bath-room until the furnace is in- stalled. Then the full list of fixtures and piping will be as follows: t. A tank in the attic to store water from a small pipe, providing the pipe flow or pump capacity is small; not needed, of course, if the direct supply from the source is adequate. 524 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS, 2. A main supply pipe from tank or from outside supply feeding the kitchen sink, the hot water boiler through the kitchen stove, the laundry- tub, the bath-tub and the water-closet tank. 3. A hot water pipe leading out of the hot water boiler to the kitchen sink, the laundry-tubs and the bath-tub. 4. The necessary fixtures, such as faucets, sinks, tubs, kitchen boiler, water-closet tank and fixtures. A fair estimate of the cost of all this except the tank in the attic, including the plumber’s bill for labor, is $150, although this can be re- duced somewhat by using cheap fixtures and by helping in the labor. 5. Disposal of waste In one of the bulletins of the Farmers Wives’ Reading-Course, questions were asked as to the advisability of water supplies in farm residences. One of the respondents said that she did not want water piped into the house again, because it made the kitchen so wet and untidy. Apparently there had been no adequate provision for caring for the waste. The problem of properly disposing of the polluted water grows more serious the more water is used in the house. When this amount is brought in pailfuls from a well, the dirty water can be thrown out the back door on the ground without being very objectionable. But when the water runs in streams from kitchen, laundry and bath-room, some better method must be devised. The simplest outlet is into a running stream, provided the water is not afterward used by some neighbor for drinking or watering stock, and provided its volume of flow in the driest months is at least forty times the flow of the sewage turned into it. It is quite possible that a farm may have a large brook running through or alongside its territory, while the water supply comes from springs. Then the natural order would be from springs to house and from house to brooks. Cesspools.— If the above arrangement is not feasible and the ground is sandy or gravelly, then a cesspool may be made. This should be about six feet inside diameter and eight to ten feet deep, walled up inside with stones without cement. Such a cesspool will allow the liquids to leach away, and the solids remaining will gradually be liquified so that a cesspool of this sort will probably last indefinitely, or at any rate, for many years. It is only permissible, however, when there is not the slight- est danger of polluting well or other drinking water supplies. If the soil is heavy clay or clay loam, then a cesspool is not feasible and some sort of surface application must be resorted to. BUILDINGS AND YARDS, 525 The “complete method” of sewage disposal— The theory on which the method of complete destruction of injurious sewage depends, is that organic matter,— that part of the sewage which decomposes and becomes offensive,— is in course of time converted into mineral salts through the agency of bacteria. Of these bacteria there are two kinds concerned. One, working in the dark, liquifies all the solid matter, such as paper, banana skins, etc., making the sewage simply a dirty looking liquid; the other kind acts in the presence of light and air to clarify and oxidize the liquid, making it clear and bright. Both kinds of bacteria are always in the sewage and require only proper surroundings to go at once to work. With this principle in mind, a properly designed treatment will include a closed dark tank of a capacity about equal to the day’s flow of sewage, in which tank the required liquifaction may take place. This tank is usually built under ground to keep it warm and the sewage flows con- tinuously in and out. The rest of the process may take place either by allowing the effluent from this tank to flow slowly through artificially prepared beds of sand three feet deep and of sufficient extent so that there is a square yard for every fifty gallons per day, or for 300 gallons a bed of eight feet square. Since the bed would need to have the surface raked off occasionally, it would have to be made in duplicate so that one bed could be always working. The two beds should be underdrained and the outflow led away into any natural drainage. It would be better in a northern climate to build a light wooden roof over these beds, which would themselves be below ground, but this is not necessary, as such an arrangement is often run all winter, as far north as Albany, by running fur- rows through the beds to concentrate the sewage instead of letting it run over the bed in a thin sheet. Instead of building artificial beds, a piece of lower ground 200 to 300 feet from the house, may be used to receive the effluent of the tank. Over this the sewage would run between the beds in furrows about four feet wide, or even slowly in a thin sheet over the surface of grass land. If the appearance of the sewage is con- sidered objectionable, the flow may be taken into small agricultural drains, laid twenty feet apart on a grade of about four inches to Ioo feet, in which case the sewage will leach out between the pipes and be purified in the soil. The bacteria concerned are chiefly in the top soil, so that surface furrows or surface overflows are best; but if the drains are not more than twelve inches below the surface good results will follow, even in the coldest weather. 526 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. In all these cases in which the preliminary tank is used it must be observed that while not necessary, it secures much better results to in- troduce directly below the tank a receiving tank which operates at certain intervals so that the sewage may be discharged onto the beds or ground intermittently instead of in a more or less continuous small stream. The reason for this is that if the sewage trickles out on a bed it is absorbed immediately by that part of the bed nearest the inlet and the other parts of the bed do not work. On the other hand, if the flow comes out on the bed once a day, with a rush, the whole bed is covered, every part does its share and no part is overburdened. This reasoning holds true equally with furrows or with grass or with subsoil pipes. If the first tank holds about one day’s supply, 300 gallons, it should be about five feet long, three feet wide and five feet deep, the extra depth being given to allow deposits to take place. The intermediate tank might be circuiar, four feet in diameter and four feet deep. This tank can be provided with an auto- matic discharging siphon so_that the tank will discharge itself whenever it gets full, or it may have a simple flat valve which can be lifted by hand every morning as a regular duty of the farm. The area needed for the artificial beds has been already mentioned. The area for natural beds depends entirely on the quality of the soil. The hardest clays with only three to four inches of top soil ought to have an area roo feet,square for every ten persons in the house. If the soil is porous and the discharge takes place once a day, twenty-five feet square for each ten persons would be enough. It is not possible to get too much land ready, and, on the other hand, it is not difficult to add to the area prepared if the sewage remains on the land in pools. The fundamental princisle is to bring the sewage in small infrequent quantities in contact with the surface part of the soil, letting the bacteria act and so destroying the organic matter. It should not be difficult with this in mind to arrange tanks and land areas to bring about the desired result, viz., the disposal of the fouled water in an efficient and wholesome fashion. BUILDINGS AND YARDS, 527 ll. WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS NOW IN OPERATION ON NEW YORK FARMS House water supplies are now frequent in New York State. Ac- counts of a very few of these will acquaint the reader with some of the ways in which these practical problems may be met. T. B. Witson, HALLs Corners (Fig..319). In the attic is a tank which is supplied from the rain water off the roof. In addition, the house has a large cistern in the basement from which an extra supply may be pumped in case the rain water is insuff- Fic. 319.—Fixtures in the farm residence of T. B. Wilson. cient to fill the tank in the attic. In the bath-room is a hand pump con- necting the cistern in the basement or cellar with the tank in the attic. This system of water supply seems to be general in that section. The attic tank is nine feet long, three feet wide and four feet deep. The framework is made of 2x4 hemlock (planed). It is lead-lined. The tank is situated in the attic of one of the wings of the house. It receives the roof water from the main building of the house, but not from 528 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. the wings. The area of this main building, however, is only about one- quarter of the entire roof system. The cistern beneath the house is large, having a capacity of I10 barrels. This receives the roof water from the wings and also the excess of roof water, if there should be any, from the overflow from the tank in the attic. It often happens that during certain portions of the year the rainfall is insufficient to supply the tank in the attic. In order to meet this deficiency, a good hand pump has been put in the bath-room, by means of which water is pumped from the cistern below up to the tank in the attic. In the dry summer months, considerable water has to be pumped up. The water is heated in a common cylindrical heater which stands back of the kitchen stove and is connected with it. ‘here has been no difficulty in having warm water. The sewage is emptied into’a cesspool situated twelve or fifteen rods north of the house. The cesspool is a com- Fic. 320.—Circular storage tank on the Winters farm. It supplies the barn and residence in the distance. paratively large one, being fully ten feet deep and about six feet in diameter, and lined with stone. The system works to perfection, no repairs being necessary and no trouble experienced since it was installed. WINTERS FARM, SMitTHBoro (Fig. 320). “There are four springs supplying the larger reservoir (Fig. 320) and one spring supplying a small reservoir. One-inch lead pipes bring the water from the springs to the reservoirs and a two-inch galvanized pipe brings the water from these reservoirs to the various buildings. These systems are connected and arranged so that water can be used from both, or any one of the reservoirs in all the buildings. “There are three fire hydrants and about two hundred feet of hose and an average pressure of about fifty pounds. I am somewhat in favor of getting water from drilled wells instead of springs. Anyone putting in BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 529 a water supply will be surprised at the amount used. It was supposed one spring and small reservoir would be all that would possibly be re- quired. We are now using the water from five good springs. Should more be required, I imagine we will drill a well near one of these reser- voirs and put up a windmill. Our system is giving splendid satisfaction. “We now supply water: to our own home which contains four bath-rooms, and I think all up to date modern equipments, to the cow barn, accommodating over a hundred head of cattle, to the milk room and boiler house, using large quanti- ties of water in our certified milk work, to the horse barn and a small cottage near by.” “A drilled well near by with a pressure tank in the ground, and some practical power to keep it filled would save considerable money in digging and laying pipe lines and building reservoirs, and I imagine would give excellent satisfaction.” Joun T. McDona.p, DELHI. Mr. McDonald lives in the hill country in which there are abundant springs of good water on the hillsides. Springs on one of the hillsides are run into a thousand-barrel tank and from this reservoir water is carried to the buildings through a four-inch cast iron pipe with a head of about 200 feet. This supplies two bath-rooms and water-closets in the residence, and also bath-rooms and plumbing complete in three tenant houses that have been built to accommodate the farm help. The general planning and supervision of this work was done by Mr. McDonald himself. When the system is once installed it works automatically and to perfection and becomes an indispensable part of his farm equipment. Five springs are run into the reservoir on the hill, these springs being from ten to twenty rods distant. The reservoir is built in the ground, of stone, twenty feet square and about ten feet deep. It stands nearly full of water the year around. The water as it leaves the springs has a temperature of about forty-two degrees Fahr. In warm weather it some- times reaches as high as fifty in the reservoir and in the buildings as high as fifty-five to fifty-seven degrees. The reservoir is 100 rods from the residence. Pressure at the house is about ninety-five pounds per square inch. The supply pipe from the reservoir is laid five feet deep. The reservoir supplies the residence, creamery, stables, boiler room and three cottages. The sewerage system leads to a creek through eight-inch stone pipes. The cost of the entire plant has been about $1,000. 530 READING-COURSE FOR [}ARMERS. GrEorRGE ALLEN, ITHACA. Mr. Allen secures water from the roof. He has a tank in the second story of his house made of 2x 4s laid up and spiked together. This is lined with sheet lead. The lead is much better than copper be- cause it will stretch somewhat if the walls of the tank spring. The copper is likely to split or seam, resulting in leakage. On the other hand, the lead lining is not safe when the water is to be used for drinking purposes. Water from the roof is caught in troughs and stored in this tank (See O, Fig. 321), which is about five feet deep and five feet square, inside measurement. The water from the parts of the roof too low to run into the tank is conducted into a cistern in the cellar of the house (B B, ~ Fig. 21). A pump in the kitchen is so arranged that it may be used to pump water from the cistern below or from the well in front of the Y Fic. 321.—A roof water supply. The conductor supplying the tank enters at O. The weiter supplying the celler tank follows the course B B. George Allen, R. F. D., Ithaca. house into the tank above. Mr. Allen has seldom needed to use the pump for this purpose, but the pump is in constant use to pump the drinking water from the well to the kitchen. “The tank on the second floor sup- plies water to a hot water tank attached to the kitchen stove, to a sink in the kitchen, and to a water-closet and bath, all on the first floor. The pipes have never bothered about freezing because the house is heated with a furnace. The waste water is conducted into a cesspool at the rear of the house about eight feet deep and four feet across. While the cesspool is not more than twenty feet from the house, the ground slopes abruptly from the house on this side so that the top of it is below the level of the cellar bottom. It is covered so that no odors escape. It is on the opposite BUILDINGS AND YARDS, 531 side of the house from the well and enough lower than the well to pre- vent contamination of the drinking water. AN AtIR-PRESSURE SYSTEM G. W. Hosford, one of my friends, has a system of waterworks in his house which depends on air-pressure to force the air through the building. A galvanized steel tank of 200 gallons capacity is located in the cellar of the house. This is air tight and has a discharge pipe from its lowest point. A special pump is provided to pump the water from the well into the tank. By simply opening an air cock provided for that pur- pose the same pump may be used to force air into the tank. First, air is pumped in until the gauge registers about 10 pounds pressure. This amount of pressure is sufficient if the water does not have to be forced higher than 22 feet. The water may be carried as high as necessary merely by increasing the air-pressure. Then water is pumped into the tank until the pressure gauge registers 25 pounds. It requires 10 to 15 minutes pumping each morning to provide enough water for the family (six people). On wash days it is necessary, of course, to pump to a higher pressure or to pump more than once. If the plumbing is good and care is exercised to prevent escape of air, it is not necessary to pump air into the tank very often. This system has proved very satisfactory. The water is kept in good condition by the action of the air upon it; being in the cellar it keeps cool in summer and is not in danger of freezing during the winter. It is ‘much easier to support a tank in the cellar than in the top of the house and there is not as much danger of trouble from its springing a leak. The system is patented. The installation of the system in Mr. Crosby’s house cost about $200, including all plumbing. A hot water tank attached to the kitchen stove provides hot water for laundry-tubs in the basement, sink in the kitchen, and the bath-room on the second story. In the bath-room there is a wash bowl, closet and bath-tub. VARIOUS SUGGESTIONS Following are practical suggestions by George Wallenbeck, Willow Creek, Tompkins Co., who makes a business of putting in farm water supplies: Laying and protecting pipes In laying pipes under ground a uniform grade should be secured, if possible. When the pipe follows the contour of the surface of the ground, air from the water is likely to collect at the higher points in the pipe and prevent the flow. When this happens we say that the pipe is “air bound.’ When it is absolutely necessary to change the grade in 532 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. going over rocks and inequalities in the ground, this trouble may be avoided to a certain extent by placing at the highest point a T and stand- pipe about one foot high with pit-cock at top. If the pipe becomes air bound, open the cock in stand-pipe and allow the air to escape. As soon as water begins to come, close the cock. The stand-pipe should be pro- tected from freezing by a covering of soil. It may be made more accesst- ble by placing around it a piece of tile reaching nearly to the surface of the ground. If pipe is deep in the ground, a long iron wrench may be used with which to turn the cock. In a long underground pipe it is always well to put Ts every three hundred or four hundred feet with short stand-pipe and cock. In case the pipe becomes clogged, you may begin from the upper end and force water up through one section at a time with a force pump and thus open the pipe without having to tear it all up. Dirt collects ia largest quantity at the joints of pipes where the couping does not bring the pipes close together and where the galvanizing is not perfect. Water forced through the pipe in the opposite direction from the usual flow will often remove the obstruction. When pipe is used to siphon water over a point higher than the source of supply, the pipe is likely to become air-bound at the highest point. Here a stand-pipe two feet high, if possible, should be provided. Valves should be placed at both ends of the pipe and a cock at top of stand-pipe. By closing valves at the ends so that the water will not escape, you can open the cock and pour water into the stand-pipe where the air has collected. Never attempt to siphon more than twenty feet higher than source. Pipes in exposed places in buildings may be protected from freezing by wrapping with asbestos paper and then covering with plaster of paris one or two inches thick. This is more economical than a large quantity of asbestos. A wooden trough or form may be made to hold the plaster of paris around the pipes while it is hardening. The cost may be still further reduced without lessening the protection by mixing the plaster of paris with equal quantities of sawdust. Reservoirs Reservoirs fer storage of water may be made by sinking wooden tanks of desired capacity in the soil, leaving about one foot of space around them on all sides. Fill this space with cement and leave to harden. After the cement has set, the wooden tank may be removed or it may be left until it decays. Wooden tanks may be made of clear pine, cedar or cypress. The cypress is cheapest and in most cases will last as long as the others. The average life of a wooden tank is twelve years. The ~ BuILDINGs AND YARDS. 533 sides of the reservoir should slope outward so that if the water freezes it will not crack the cement. An arch of cement or stonework makes the best kind of cover for such a reservoir. Tanks out-doors in exposed places may be protected from freezing by covering with a double cover and providing a dead-air space. If the heat is not allowed to escape from the surface of the water, freezing is much less likely to occur. If the covering is not sufficient protection, a box may be built around the tank large enough to allow a packing of saw- dust six to eight inches thick on all sides. Galvanized iron tanks should always be protected in this way if they are in places where freezing is likely to occur. Another way to protect outside tanks is by a small heater, which may be purchased for about $2.50. This is put in a safe place below the tank and is so arranged that the heat from a large lamp keeps the water circulating all the time. When the surroundings are such that the water would not be contaminated, protection is often secured by allowing the overflow from the tank to go back into the well from which it is pumped and keeping the water flowing continuously. Windmills In order to be practicable, windmills should stand at least ten feet above all obstructions that are within a distance of three hundred feet. The black or ungalvanized towers give best satisfaction because they can be painted. Paint will not stick to the galvanized iron and in a short time some of the galvanizing is likely to come off and leave unprotected places. A windmill with an eight-foot wheel will lift water twenty-five to fifty feet and supply water through the average wind, providing a tank capacity of one barrel per animal is allowed per cow or horse, or one barrel for eight sheep. If used for house, an amount equivalent to that used by the barn should be provided. Taking care of the waste Waste water should be conducted to a cesspool situated at least one hundred feet from buildings. A hole eight to ten feet square and six to seven feet deep may be dug in the ground and filled with cobble stones. If possible it should be located on a gravel knoll. If hard-pan is nearer surface of ground than eight feet, stop before reaching it, inasmuch as a hole dug in this will only form a basin to catch the sewage. Dry wells may be made by digging a hole and stoning up like a well, providing soil is open enough so that water will drain away as fast as it will need to run into the well. A trap should be provided in the pipe leading from each sink and closet, to prevent the escape of odors from cesspool or well, and especially from pipe leading from house to cesspool. 4 i oF a a> Z Lae ¥ md) rsa a he eipo= if > eas Swed titers atone ‘Meld re ear sets: c Rtas: igedete nteeet ae EN e SRE Ls ‘ ert £ it rich ae | tof Ya a ite £ ee oe, rae Speiteh ys shi es rE Sea + Ayo - ate Pusher: datiieade : rit a 4 Bea Ueganet ie oe nee ech ea ei< pases , aes Ae as v4 war : i m + Sac nie le ar iil tees me start vs Ere oe Hy 4S OTS Latap : . - tes at Dat eae idee? . "pots ee § “pi se ates 62 Abe eT any? i PES Tew hate ig ; gh patie le ie re. oe ays Le ages Weise atayyt ey 2 en kee ga | ae Fe : By a cee Sans cae Stee Geen sins eeu pa Zhe ta ay ~e% Eee ik Irighh hig : 7 5 nes ug git ; : Supplement to CORNELE Reading=Course for Farmers PUBLISHED BY THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE OF CORNEI.L UNIVERSITY, FROM NOVEMBER TO MARCH, AND ENTERED AT ITHACA AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER UNDER ACT OF CONGRESS OF JULY 16, 1894. L. H. BAILEY, DIRECTOR. SERIES VI. ITHACA, N.Y. “No. 29. BUILDINGS AND YARDS. FEBRUARY, 1906. WATER SUPPLIES. DISCUSSION-PAPER ON FARMERS’ READING-COURSE BULLETIN No. 29 This Discussion-paper is sent out with all Farmers’ Reading-Course Bulletins, for two reasons: (1) We should like to have your own ideas on these subjects. On some of these points you have probably had expe- rience which will be interesting and valuable to us. No matter what the Bulletin says, if you have different opinions on any of these subjects, do not hesitate to state them on this paper and give your reasons. (2) We should like you to use this paper on which to ask us questions. If there are any points which the Bulletin has not made clear or if there are any problems in your farming, whether on these subjects or others on which you think we may be able to help you, write to us on this paper. THE NEXT READING-COURSE BULLETINS WILL BE SENT TO THOSE WHO RETURN TO US THIS DISCUSSION-PAPER, WHICH WILL BE AN ACKNOWLEDG- MENT OF THE RECEIPT OF THE BULLETIN (2c. postage). This paper will not be returned to you, but we shall look it over as carefully as we would a personal letter and write to vou if there are any points about which correspondence is desirable. You may consider this Discussion-paper, then, as a personal letter to us. It will be treated as such, and under no circumstances will your remarks be made public. If you are not interested in this Reading-Course Bulletin, we have others on other subjects, and we shall be glad to send any of these to you on request. The titles of the six Series of the Reading-Course Bulletins now available are: 1. THE SOIL AND THE PLANT. 2. STOCK FEEDING. 3. ORCHARDING. 4. Pouttry. 5. Dairyinc. 6. Farm BUILDINGS AND Yarps. The Farmers Wives’ Reading-Course, on domestic subjects, 1s also sent to those who desire tt. THESE BULLETINS CANNOT BE SENT TO PERSONS WHO RESIDE OUTSIDE OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK, AS BOTH COURSES ARE SUPPORTED BY A STATE APPROPRIATION. For our own benefit we shall be glad to have you answer (on these sheets) any or all of the following questions, if you are interested in these subjects; but we do not wish you to feel under any obligation to do this. 535 536 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. 1. Are any farm buildings in your vicinity fitted with water supplies ; and are these supplies in (a) barns, (b) dairies, (c) residences? 2. Discuss the nature of these supplies: (a) where the water comes from, (b) what is it used for, (c) what sewerage system is provided. 3. How far is it practicable and desirable to install water supplies in farm residences ? 4. If you have water supply problems of your own that we can help you to solve, please state them. 538 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS, PRINTER. ok Sees ud oft SA ee eee ae , POStOHICE@. cis: oi exis eae ae Note.—Vour name appears on our mailing list as this Bulletin ts addressed. If incorrect, please write us. Address all correspondence to Farmers’ Reading-Course, Ithaca, N.Y. CO: RNELE Reading=Course for Farmers PUBLISHED BY THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY, FROM NOVEMBER TO MARCH, AND ENTERED AT ITHACA AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER UNDER ACT OF CONGRESS OF JULY 16, 1894. L. H. BAILEY, DIRECTOR. SERIES VI. ITHACA, N. Y., No.30. BUILDINGS AND YARDS. MARCH, 1906. BARNS, BARNS AND OUTBUILDINGS—A DISCUSSION OF. THE PRINCIPLES INVOLVED By Tuomas F. Hunt The old barns and outbuildings on New York farms must soon be “rebuilt, or new ones erected in their places, for they are coming to that age when they are beginning to tumble down. Many of the old barns are not efficient or economical, as measured by present standards. It is im- portant, therefore, that some of the underlying principles be discussed. Some of the objects to be secured in the construction of barns and other outbuildings may be stated as follows To keep animals and other objects dry. To maintain a proper temperature. To secure pure air, with a proper degree of humidity. To secure light. secure cleanliness. To prevent the breeding of vermin (rats, mice, insects). To preserve the manure. To secure health, comfort of the animals, freedom from injury, and to prevent the spread of contagious diseases. COR ON OR ars Cae NOR rt par fe} 9. To secure economy in feeding and watering. 10. To secure economy of space. Ir. To secure economy of labor. 12. To secure economy of construction. 13. To secure strength and durability. 14. To secure good appearance. It is proposed to discuss each of the above categories, in order. Obviously the plan of a barn for a given individual will depend on the relative importance to his conditions of these and perhaps other factors. What would be a good plan for one man’s conditions might be a very poor plan for another’s. An attempt is made to state some of the principles involved and to show a few pictures illustrating these principles. Because a plan here submitted shows a good principle or a bad one does not imply that the plan as a whole is either commended or condemned. Corollary discussions on barns may be found in Farmers’ READING- CoursE Bulletins Nos. 23 and 26. 539 540 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. I. To keep animals and other objects dry With respect to inanimate objects, the first purpose of barns is to keep them dry. For this reason, barns and other outbuildings are com- paratively limited in regions of small rainfalls. The writer recently saw more than a thousand bushels of shelled corn lying in a pile on the ground, wholly unprotected. The fall of rain or snow was so small during the winter at this place as to cause the corn no material injury. Certain farm products require more protection than others. Indian corn in the ear requires less protection than wheat orbarley. This made possible the growth of maize by the Indians in the humid climate of America, while wheat and barley were developed in arid and semi-arid regions where they could be stored in the open without injury. On account of their covering, domestic animals are able to resist a considerable amount of dry cold. When the animal becomes wet, his coat is not only no longer such a good non-conductor, but the evaporation of water from the body extracts an excessive amount of heat. It requires six times as much heat to evaporate a given amount of water as it does to raise the temperature from the freezing point to the boiling point. In the high plains area of the United States between 98° and 104° West latitude, although the temperature is frequently severe, there is scarcely any fall of rain or snow during the winter. Thousands of head of cattle are fattened in the open and many practical feeders maintain that they do better entirely in the open, with perhaps a tight board fence to break the wind, than they do when given sheds in and out of which they can pass at will. The explanation seems to be that the cattle crowd into these sheds and become overheated. the steam from their bodies moistens their coats and when they go out into the open to feed, they suffer greater injury than if they had not had the protection of the shed. The natural habitat of the horse being a cold country, he is able to stand without injury considerable amounts of cold but is particularly sensitive to dampness. Care should be taken to have the horse stables dry. It is, of course, well understood that care should be taken to pro- tect the horse from exposure after his coat has become wet from exercise or rain. It is not merely to protect animals from storms that barns are built. Many practical stockmen have been driven to building barns or sheds for their stock because of mud in the feed-yard. It is important that an animal have a dry bed on which to sleep. The practical feeder recognizes that a well-bedded ox fattens better than one that does not have this essential comfort. Armsby has shown by exact experiment that a standing ox expended 24 per cent of the energy in his food in the effort of standing, which was saved when he was lying down, BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 541 A wet place, as a manure pile, is recognized to be a bad place for hogs -to sleep, although it may be warm and to the hogs apparently comfortable. II. To maintain a proper temperature The importance of barns as a protection against heat and cold depends on the climate in which the farm is located and the character of the animals to be housed. The climate involves more than mere temper- ature as shown by the thermometer ; it includes the movement of the air (wind), and humidity. Horses will probably withstand more cold than mules. Mules will certainly withstand heat better than horses. Sheep will withstand cold better than hogs. Fattening cattle endure cold much better than cows in milk. Mature animals will endure more cold than young animals. The amount and character of food is a factor. - Every animal expends a certain amount of the energy of the food in - masticating and digesting it. This energy manifests itself in heat, which helps to keep the animal warm. The more an animal eats the more heat is produced in this way. A much greater portion of the energy or value of hay is used in masticating and digesting it than in the case of grains. The point to get clear is that, in so far as the heat used in warming the body comes from the energy of digesting the food, it is merely incidental to the life processes and cannot be protected from waste by placing an animal in a warm barn. Armsby, at the Pennsylvania Experiment Sta- tion, has shown that a steer fed on timothy hay and a small quantity of linseed meal, developed more heat from digesting the food than was necessary to maintain the temperature of the steer in a room at 60° F. This suggests that the steer would have been more comfortable at a lower temperature without in any way interfering with the fattening process. This further suggests the danger of keeping animals too warm while being fattened. Waters, of Missouri, has made feeding tests with steers in barns, in open sheds, and in feed yards without protection, during three winters and has found in every instance that the steers in open sheds did best, in feed yard without protection second best, while those in barns did poorest. It is not at all improbable that the cattle in the open shed did better than those in feed yards because of the protec- tion from rain and snow rather than on account of any difference in the temperature of the surrounding air. While cattle and sheep are successfully fattened entirely in the open by the thousands, especially in those regions where the fall of rain and snow is small, cows in milk do better when protected in winter, par- ticularly in New York State with its humid climate. 542 : READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. In order to understand the construction of a barn for the purpose of maintaining a proper temperature, it is necessary to get certain concep- tions concerning heat and cold. Every one is familiar with the process of cold storage by refrigeration and understands that for successful cold storage either by ice or other artificial means, it is necessary to insulate thoroughly the room which is to be kept cold. It is important to under- stand that if a room and its contents are cooled say to 20° F., and it were possible to insulate the room that there would be no exchange of tem- perature with its surroundings, the temperature would remain constant forever. The only way that the room can rise in temperature is by pene- tration of heat from the exterior. In the same way, if a room and its contents are heated to a temperature of 80° F., it can cool off only by the heat of the room escaping into the surrounding spaces. Further, if the outside temperature is at 50° F., the units of heat involved in lower- ing the temperature to 20° F., or raising it to 80° F., would be the same. The importance of thorough insulation in maintaining the temperature of the room is therefore obvious and cannot be too thoroughly insisted on for this purpose, although, as will be shown directly, the necessity of pure dry air makes complete insulation impossible even were it mechan- ically possible. The exchange of temperatures between the rooms of a building and the surrounding air may be brought about in two general ways: (1) By the conduction of the heat through the surrounding walls, and (2) by an actual exchange of air between the exterior and the interior. Walls should be made of such materials and so constructed that they will both prevent the conduction of heat and also the free ingress and egress of air. Glass is a good illustration of a substance which will conduct heat rather rapidly but will entirely prevent the passage of air. Therefore, an excess of glass is objectionable because it allows the too rapid cooling of the room at night. Since still air is a poor conductor of heat, dead air spaces are ex- tremely desirable. This is illustrated on railway trains when double windows do not frost over as single windows do in cold weather. It is important, in order to secure the proper result, that these air spaces should be perfectly tight, so that there is no exchange of air between the spaces and the surroundings. This is perhaps the greatest fault in the construction of dead air spaces. In Farmers’ Reading-Course Bulletin No. 23, Mr. Cook discussed a method of securing insulation which he has found satisfactory. Perhaps in all structures, but particularly in barns, the exchange of air, rather than conduction, is the most important reason for the change of temperature. Even when no regular system of ventilation exists, the air sifts in around doors and window casings and through cracks and crevices often BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 543 little noticed except when extremely cold weather causes the incoming air to condense the moisture of the stable into frost where it enters. Every one has noticed the beneficial influence of a heavy snowfall in main- taining the temperature of house or barn, because it fills the cracks and crevices on window sills and about doors. Since the exchange of air is concerned with the subject of ventilation, its effect in maintaining temperature will be discussed in connection with the next topic. III. To secure pure air, with proper degree of humidity While the composition of air is not constant, it may be stated ap- proximately as follows: nitrogen, 78.49 per cent; oxygen, 20.63 per cent; water, 0.84 per cent; carbonic acid gas, 0.04 per cent. Usually there are also present slight traces of ammonia and other substances. If the weight of a given volume of air at freezing point under one atmosphere of press- ure is one pound, an equal volume of nitrogen will weigh 0.9714 lb.; of oxy- gen, 1.1057 lb.; watery vapor, 0.6225 Ib.; and carbonic acid gas, 1.5291 Ib. It may be asked why these gases do not settle with the heaviest gas at the bottom and the lightest at the top. The reply is that it is the nature of gases when brought together to mix rapidly into a homogeneous mass. Fic. 322.—Why has the upper light It is said that a horse draws into er Mia aH) will eo ed ae his lungs 45 cubic feet of air per hour and exhales 6.5 cubic feet of carbonic acid. It does not follow from this fact that 45 feet of air per hour is sufficient for a horse, because the large amount of carbonic acid in the exhaled air vitiates a considerable amount of the surrounding air. Air containing an excess of carbonic acid gas, is considered unfit to breathe, not so much because of any injury done by the carbonic acid gas, as because the carbonic acid gas is considered a measure of injurious impurities of an organic nature, and because it may replace (or take the place of) some of the life-giving oxygen. In fact, except in so far as the carbonic acid gas serves to dilute the oxygen, it is believed to be en- tirely harmless. Animals not only exhale carbonic acid gas but they also excrete through the lungs and skin a considerable amount of water in the form of vapor. Two well known facts are pertinent in this connection: (1) as 544 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. any body of air becomes colder its ability to hold water is decreased, It comes nearer the point of saturation. In popular language, we say the air has become damper ; in more technical but not more scientific language, we Say its relative humidity is higher. (2) An atmosphere whose relative humidity is high is more difficult to withstand in winter and less healthful in summer. A damp building is not a healthful building. The writer was re- cently informed by a feeder of wide experience that he had fed cattle both in humid and semi-arid sections of the United States under similar conditions of temperature and that he secured better results from food consumed in the semi-arid sections. Fic. 323.—Method of admitting air into stable. One on right shows method for basement. Which one of other three ts best? When animals expel from their lungs and skin the warm vapor into the colder room, if the warm vapor is not allowed to escape it is only a qquestion of time until the colder air will cause the vapor to condense into water. This will begin at the coldest places, which are usually the sides of the building, and thus in rooms that are improperly ventilated in cold weather the sides will be seen to be dripping with moisture. The more the vapor which comes from the animals is cooled before it is allowed to escape, the greater the condensation of moisture. Incidentally, it may be pointed out that the more the room is cooled by conduction, the more will be the condensation of moisture; and the more it is cooled by an actual exchange of air with the outside (which amounts to ventilation ) the less the moisture in the room. BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 545 The warm vapor and the expelled air being warmer, rise at once to the top of the room. If an opening is made in or near the ceiling, the vitiated air and the vapor will escape. Assuming a still atmosphere on the outside, the rapidity will depend, among other things, on the size of the opening, the readiness with which other air can enter to take its place, and the difference in temperatures between the inside air and the outside air. The greater the rapidity with which the exchange of air takes place, the drier and purer the air will be; but when colder outside, the greater the exchange of air the colder the room will become. id Since in barns without artificial heat the only method of warming the room is from the heat of the animal bodies, it becomes a matter of balance between too much moisture and bad air on the one hand and too much cold on the other. The heat will be retained the longest and hence the temperature maintained the best by taking in the cold air near the top and taking out the less warm air near the bottom. This gives the cold air opportunity to become mixed with the warm- est air and takes out the warmer after it kas given up the largest practical amount of heat to the incoming cold air. This, however, is the least effective method so far as obtaining pure dry air is concerned. Indeed, frequently with this method, especially when the opening for the entrance and escape of air is inadequate, serious difficulty on account of dampness is encountered. If the driest and purest air is desired, allow the warm air and vapor to escape at the ceiling. The best method of securing fresh air in any case is to allow it to enter at the sides above the heads of the animals in such a way as not to cause draft on the animals and in order that it may absorb as much heat as practicable from the warmer air before descending into the room. There remains one factor in ventilation yet to be mentioned. The wind is in many respects the most important factor in determining the purity of the air of a building or, in many cases, of a whole city or state. In the heating and ventilation of public buildings, it is not uncommon to force a given amount of tempered air per second or hour into the room, in which case a similar amount must escape; or, in other cases, a given amount of air is exhausted from the room, when an equal amount must enter. It is much like putting a rope through a knot hole. It may be pushed through or it may be pulled through. The result is the same. The point to note is that this exchange of air takes place without any reference to the relative temperature or density of the air. It takes place because it is forced to do so. A wind passing through an opening two feet square at the rate of ten miles an hour will fill a stable 30x5oxro feet with fresh air in less 546 READING-CouRSE FOR FARMERS. than five minutes. It would doubtless be necessary for the wind to blow more than ten miles an hour for it to enter an opening at that rate, but the principle is not different from air forced into the room by means of an electric fan. Under these conditions the air passes out because it is forced to do so. The resistance will be slightly greater if the air is taken out nearer the bottom of the room than at the ceiling, assuming that there is no other force acting on the outlet. | With a pressure equal to wind blowing ten miles an hour, the difference in resistance due to the position of the open- ing would probably not materially affect the results. The wind, however, may also be made use of in exhausting the air from the building. If an outlet flue extends above the roof so that the air may blow freely across the top of it, the wind will act as an aspirator and pull the air up the flue. A familiar example of the aspirator is the hand sprayer used in spraying insecticides and fungicides. It is important that the wind blow freely directly across the top of the flue. Care should be taken so to construct the cover to the flue that the wind may cross freely from every direction. The outlet flues should not empty into the old-fashioned slatted cupola because the cupola offers an obstruction to the free passage of air across the top of the flue. It may be possible, however, to bring the outlet of the flues into a group and combine them into a cupola which will be effective. The important thing is to allow the wind to blow freely from all directions across the top of the flues. Since in the temperate cil- mates all conditions of weather must be dealt with, it is a matter of prudence to be able to modify the rate at which the exchange of air may take place. To those who contemplate putting in the so-called King system of ventila- tion (too well known to need to be described here), the writer Fic. 324. —Outlet for air. This tube may jae be let down on cold nights and hooked up would suggest provision for an during daytime and during warm weather. ample exchange of air, the amount of which may be modified at will and also that an outlet be placed both near the floor and also near the ceiling in order that the rate of BuILpINGs AND YARDS. 547 ventilation may be modified to suit different conditions of weather. When dampers are used to cover these openings, allowance should be made therefor. In many barns the openings are so reduced by the metal of the dampers as to make them entirely inadequate. There is a popular fallacy that the opening for the outlet of vitiated air should be at the bottom, on the theory that the carbonic acid gas is heavier than the air and sinks to the floor. While it is true that “cold carbonic’ acid gas ima perfectly still atmosphere will fall on account of its greater specific gravity as compared with air of the same tem- perature, it is likewise true that the carbonic acid gas ex- haled from animals or pro- duced by a lighted candle : : promptly goes 1e Fic. 325.—Windows arranged to allow air to en- I pily “goes to the t0p-o8 ter with least amount of draft. Drawings on the room. ‘Einis< 1s easily the left represent old windows modificd by a eee ] c - nailing on the 2x6 as indicated. demonstrated, but any one who has occupied the gallery of an audience room hardly needs to be told where the vitiated air is to - be found. It is obvious from what has been said that the effectiveness of any system of ventilation when applied to a cow stable will depend largely on the rate at which the wind is blowing and on the exposure of the building to the wind. It is desirable that the intakes for-air should have a vertical rather than a horizontal direction in order that advantage may be taken of the force of the wind; and since the wind may blow from all directions it is desirable to have intakes on all sides of the building. In general, it may be said that a number of small intakes and few large outlets will give the best results. The most that can be hoped to accomplish in ventilating a stable is to take the air out rapidly enough to maintain a dry atmosphere and not so fast as to lower the temperature unduly. When the wind is blowing _and the weather cold, the best results will be secured by taking the air out near the bottom of the room; but when the atmosphere is warm and -COURSE FOR FARMERS. ADING RE "Le& *3tiT OS)D 99S "quUaMma? {0 IPDUL ]]D St 400) J ‘21QDIS M09 D Lol JUIMASUDAAD JUIIMcAUOI W——'9zE “OT . — = Zl n@5 CHI BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 549 still, better results will be secured by taking the air out at the ceiling, which can be done through the same flues by having two openings. When animals are stabled in mild weather, probably no better results can be secured than by allowing the wind to pass freely through the stable Fic. 327.—A convenient and sanitary arrangement for ‘cow stables. Position of floor in feed alley not inconvenient and saves one foot in height of outside walls. All woodwork has been planed and treated with two coats of boiled linseed oil. See also Fig. 326. above the animals by means of open windows adjusted as shown in Fig. 325. The passage of the air through the top of the room drives out the most vitiated air directly and aspirates out that from below in the way ‘ 550 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. already explained. When the wind blows too violently, the windows on the windward side may be closed, and those on the leeward side left open. There is always a suction on the leeward side of the building, tending to draw the air out of the room. - The attentive reader will have observed that there are objections to all plans of ventilation under certain conditions. Therefore, it is a matter of prudence to have different means of ventilation at hand. It is very easy to become visionary on this matter of ventilation. Thus far, faulty construction of buildings has saved both man and beast from much injury due to advocacy of theories of ventilation. IV. To secure light Sunlight is recognized to be one of the best as well as the cheapest agents for the destruction of most forms of bacterial life. It may be well to caution the reader that intense sunlight may be injurious to higher forms of life as well as to lower forms, and that there may be times when an animal is best protected from the direct rays of the sun, entirely aside from heat produced. Four square feet of glass for each cow or horse has been suggested as a practical guide in stable construction. Within rea- sonable iimits, the greater the horizontal extent of glass and the less the vertical extent the better. In horse and cow stables the window sill may be six feet from the floor. The exact location, however, will depend on the interior arrangement. The object should be to have the sunlight reach the largest possible part of the room at some period of the day, and especially those parts where animals stand. It is well for anyone plan- ning a barn to determine by experiment the area that will be covered by sunlight passing through a given opening in a given position, The larger the amount of glass in a building the warmer it will be on_ days when the sun shines, but the colder it will be at night on account of the greater radiation of heat from the glass than from the remainder of the wall. Ina recently constructed stable in this State provision has been made for double windows. In cold climates this is a great protection from cold, for reasons already explained. V. To secure cleanliness There can probably be no argument as to the desirability of clean- —liness in barns of all sorts, and particularly when a product as delicate as milk is produced and which enters more or less directly into human con- BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 551 sumption. There are, however, all degrees of cleanliness. Some ex- periments on this subject were given by Professor Pearson in Farmers Wives’ Reading-Course Bulletin No. 19. There are three things in the construction of a building which con- duce to cleanliness: (1) Have as few interior fittings as possible; (2) have all surfaces as smooth as possible; (3) have as few horizontal surfaces as possible. When lumber is used it should be planed. If boards are used for in- terior finish, they should be vertical instead of horizontal. They should never be beaded. Two coats of boiled linseed oil will cost about one- half as much as paint and will stand a large amount of washing. There is at present a tendency to use cement plaster made from one part of cement to two of sharp sand, in finishing side walls of stables. In this case boards of poorer quality are first put on and these are furred, lathed and plastered. The advantage urged for this method is that it gives an additional dead-air space and hence additional warmth, and gives a smooth surface that can be easily covered with whitewash. Whenever projections are necessary, such as window sills, they should be as slight as may be and, when possible, they should be round- ing. Quarter-round can often be used to advantage in stable construction. Cement floors and mangers are also conducive to cleanliness. It has been demonstrated that in stables properly constructed and with a reason- able quantity of bedding, satisfactory results will be secured with all classes of domestic animals. The writer has used both wood and cement platform for milch cows and, while he believes the wooden platforms might be better, if bedding was limited, cement platforms do not require more bedding than cows should receive for sanitary reasons. The writer has used a perfectly level platform of cement with satis- factory results. The remainder of a cement floor should have a slant of one inch in every five feet, for convenience of cleaning. The same slant in the gutter gives good results. VI. To avoid the presence of vermin If there is no place where rats and mice can hide, there will be no difficulty from them. Unfortunately this cannot be fully accomplished because they may hide among ear-corn, corn-fodder, hay or straw. How- ever, if pains are taken to prevent hiding places in the structure of the 552 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. building or under the ground floor, comparatively little trouble will be experienced. If the ground flocr is made of plank, rats can be entirely pre- vented from working underneath by laying the floor on twelve inches of cinders. If cinders are not available, doubtless twelve inches of crushed stone would answer. Cement floors, however, will entirely prevent them. When dead-air spaces are construc- ted in the walls, the greatest care should be taken to see that there is no possible opening into these spaces nor any place where rats and mice can hide while making an opening into the space. The writer very much prefers exposed joists to ceilings between which and the floor above rats and mice may find Fic. 328.—Pieces of lodgment. Grain bins should never have hollow muslin tacked on h=lf walls where rats or mice can find hiding place. If circle to keep harness : ; . out of the dist. grain bins are built so that there is open space all around them, and partitions are made of single boards, rats and mice will never molest them. This remark does not apply to corn-cribs, since the ears of corn offer opportunity for hiding places. Corn-cribs should be built so that dogs and cats can have free access beneath the floor. Fic. 329.—In the chest on the left rats and mice pass readily from one drawer to thz other. In the one on the right this zs im possiol2 on account of solid partition between drawers. In case it is necessary to have a chest of drawers in any part of the barn, and particularly if the chests are to be used for seeds of any sort, the chest should be so constructed that should a rat or mouse gain access to any single drawer, he could not escape to other drawers in the same Ghest., ‘sce Bigs 320, BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 553 Fic. 330.—Covered barnyard recemtly built.- by Clayton Taylor, Lawton Station, N. Y. Looking from the main barn. Fic. 331.—Covered barnyard recently built by Clayton Taylor, Lawton Station, N. Y. Looking toward main barn. 554 READING-COURSE FOR I*ARMERS. VII. To preserve manure Probably the least waste in manure is experienced when the manure is spread on the field as rapidly as a wagon load or sleigh load accumu- lates. This in many places is good farm practice and is to be advised when practicable, but, unfortunately, for climatic and other reasons, this practice cannot always be followed. The next best arrangement is a shed to protect the manure pile from the leaching of the rains. If horse manure is placed alone in such a shed the fermentation will be sufficient to cause considerable waste of the nitrogen, unless the manure is watered. his, may be prevented, however, by mixing with cow manure. The writer has had some years’ experience with such a shed. When the manure from” Fic. 332.—Covered barnyard recently built by Clayton Taylor, Lawton Station, N. Y. Twelve-joot post on one side and eight-joot post on the other side. about a dozen horses and 50 head of cattle was mixed together, while bedding was used rather frecly, the tendency was for the pile to be too wet rather than too dry, and artificial watering was never necessary. Some- thing will depend, of course, on the amount of liquid manure collected on the one hand, and the extent of the use of straw or other absorbent on the other hand. A shed open to the east or south may answer for shelter for animals during the day, The more the manure is tramped the better it will keep. Burtpincs AND Yarns. 7 555 Hogs may be permitted to work it over to its ultimate advantage. A shed 30 x 8o feet has been found to answer for the storage of the manure from winter season, 50 head of cattle and 12 head of horses during the Fic. 333.—Stable recently built by J. Pierrepont Morgan, Highland Falls, N. Y. Floor, mangers, walls and ceiling all of cement. Sce also Figs. 334 and 335. Fic. 334.—Cement stable recently built by J. Pierrepont Morgan, Highland Falls, N. Y. Stable has King system of ventilation and also windows arranged as shown in Fig. 325. See also Figs. 333 and 335. Sometimes a space in the basement of a barn is enclosed and used both for the storage of manure and as a place for the cattle to remain during the day and sometimes even at night. Such an arrangement is 550 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. excellent so far as preserving the manure is concerned, but is not the most sanitary for the cattle. It may be stated that Cornell University has such a covered barnyard, which is 40x60 feet, and it accommodates about thirty head of cattle. Into this covered area the manure from eight to ten horses is dropped from above and the manure from the cattle is also placed with a minimum amount of bedding, so that the conditions are by no means ideal. Professor Pearson, however, found by appropriate test less bacteria in this room than in a milk-cooling room especially con- structed for the purpose of keeping the bacteria out of the milk. This test, of course, did not show the influence from the dirt which might cling to the animals, but did $how that the atmosphere was comparatively pure so far as the bacteria were concerned. The explanation probably is that the mass of manure being moist tended to keep down the dust in the covered barnyard, while the swinging doors to the milk room tended to keep the dust in motion. In some instances, animals are given single box stalls and the void- ings remain there until convenient to remove, which may be several months. The experimental data which has been collected shows clearly that the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, as well as the total organic matter preserved, is as great if not greater than by any other method. This is not so unsanitary as may seem at first sight. If bedding is used with reasonable freedom, better results can be secured than is frequently done in ordinary stalls. ‘ne greatest perfection i sanitary conditions will not be secured, however. An objection to the use of box stalls is that more space per animal is required and more labor is needed in feeding, and, if milch cows, in milking. More bedding will also be required, which on many eastern farms is at present a matter of prime importance. VIII. To secure the health and comfort of animals There has been much controversy over the effect of keeping animals tied in stalls throughout the winter season. Some have preferred to turn the cows out of doors during the day rather than have them constantly confined, while others have used the covered barnyard. Still others have had no evil results from keeping animals constantly tied throughout the winter season. It may be taken as a general rule that when any animal is about to become a mother, she should have opportunity to get a reasonable amount of exercise and freedom of movement. The difference of opinion on the 557 BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 43h] "pEE pun CLE ‘sd Os]v 29g “aio {0 JayNo pup your [Oo POYjoU aJQuop BUIMOYsS a]qQv]S SUPBAO PY * I *[ lo }wpgq—' Ste NOMINYASNOD MOHS SANIT G31100 ONISOONd YSIVM GUONETS) ANI 2 lsaoy % ig AAVIOSL ves WOVYL ‘Oy 558 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. subject of the winter housing of cattle may, therefore, be_ frequently traced to difference in practice or management. When cows calve in the fall, they may be kept confined during the winter with comparatively little danger, while animals that are bred to calve in the spring would be better off with greater freedom of movement. The consensus of opinion among men who keep animals especially for breeding purposes, is in favor of the largest practical freedom of movement; while among those who keep cattle merely for milk or for fattening think this of less importance. In the case of cattle, the great plague in Northern United States is tuberculosis. While this disease is the result of a specific germ, confine- ment in buildings is a prime factor in its spread. Cattle reared entirely out of doors rarely contract this disease. It has frequently been noticed that when an animal having the disease is brought into a herd the animals standing on each side are the next to contract the disease. These facts suggest that in addition to the elimination of all diseased animals, care should be taken to secure, as far as may be, pure air and plenty of sun- light, the least possible place for the lodgment of germs, and means of ready disinfection. In the case of swine, hog cholera is the plague, which, in many parts of the United States, makes the single or duplicate hog pen, which can be moved to new ground when necessary, the best arrangement for housing swine. Isolation of the well from the sick hogs, placing the well ones on fresh ground, is the best known means of combatting the disease, although even this is frequently, perhaps usually, unsuccessful. When permanent hog pens are constructed they should be made of brick or concrete walls and partitions, and with concrete or cement floors and troughs, so that they may be thoroughly disinfected when necessary. Such a hog pen is shown in Farmers’ Reading-Course Bulletin No. 23. IX. To secure economy in feeding and watering One of the reasons for tying animals, and especially horses and milch cows, is to provide varying amounts of feed for the needs of the different individuals. In the case of cattle, individual compartments are not neces- sary in order to secure this result in a practical manner, although it may be necessary for experimental purposes. The continuous trough in which hay, silage, roots and grain may be fed answers every. purpose for cows tied by stanchions or similar methods. This trough may be wood or cement. The writer has found the plan shown in Fig. 326 to work well for dairy cows. This plan practically does away with one foot in the BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 559 height of the wall, and the extra height of floor is no inconvenience in feeding. In general the freshest air in a stable is toward the outer walls. By standing animals toward the walls, they have opportunity to breathe the freshest air and do not breathe into the faces of the row opposite. This enables the cleaning out of the gutters on both sides at one time. The sunlight strikes the feed troughs and thus helps to disinfect them. On the other hand, the sunlight shines in the eyes of the animals, which may not be desirable; while if they face toward the center the sunlight bathes the backs of the animals and helps to disinfect the gutters. The feeding is done rather more conveniently when animals face the center. It must be remembered that the weight of manure removed is greater than the weight of food consumed. Economy in handling manure is probably more important than that of handling the food. It must, how- ever, be admitted that the reasons for standing the animals either way are so evenly balanced as to permit one to follow his personal preference. Practice, and to some extent experiment, have demonstrated that watering cattle, sheep and swine twice, and horses three times a day is sufheient. Experiments have clearly shown that water at 50° to 60° F. is as desirable as at any higher temperature. The idea sometimes expressed that, since it is necessary to raise the water to the temperature of the animal body it is cheaper to do it with coal than by the corn the animal eats, is erroneous, because, when an animal drinks the cool water, some of the heat which otherwise would have passed fron: the body will be used in raising the temperature of the water to the body temperature. It is this delicacy of mechanism which enables the animal in health to main- tain an almost constant temperature. When water is placed in a room it will absorb the gases from the at- mosphere. In addition to this, it is extremely difficult to prevent forage and dust and dirt from finding jodgment in watering devices. Any water- ing device to be used in the stable should be such that it may be com- pletely emptied and readily cleaned after cattle have been watered. When cattle are turned into the feed lot, open shed or covered barnyard, a water tank is to be preferred to most watering devices found in stables. When it is necessary to have a watering trough at a temperature below freezing the best results will be secured when the trough or tank is relatively large and only a small part is exposed when cattle are drinking. All watering troughs should be provided with a waste pipe. The opening to this waste should be closed with a hollow plug, the height of which is less than the height of the trough. This will prevent the trough from overflowing, an extremely unpleasant procedure in the water. 860 READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. X. To secure economy of space The usual question asked by persons seeking advice about a barn is something like this: “I intend to build a barn 30x 50 with a basement .and eighteen-foot posts above. In this I intend to provide for twenty cows and four horses, ten head of young cattle, hay, grain and tools for 1oo-acre farm. How can I best divide up the space?” The question should rather be as follows: I have twenty cows, four horses, ten head of young cattle, hay, grain and tools for 100-acre farm, for which I must provide. What size, shape of building and manner of construction would you suggest? In other words, the proper method is to determine one’s require- ments and then seek to build the most economical structure which will provide them, Architects sometimes cut up pieces of cardboard of proper scale, say one-fourth inch to the foot, representing each of the rooms required in a building, and these they shift about until the best arrangement of space has been determined. The amount of space to be allotted to animals should be such as is required for the bodily comfort of the animals and for the convenience and safety of the attendants. Theoretically the ventilation depends rather more on the cubic feet of air furnished than on the cubic feet of space. Large space presents drafts, gives greater opportunity for exchange of air (which always takes place in barns), and gives more opportunity for wind ventilation. With good insulation and proper provision for the intake and outgo of air greater regularity will be secured by small cubic space, because it is easier for the animals to warm the stable and thus keep a greater difference between the inside and outside air. The floor space allotted to each horse may vary from go to 120 square feet. For horses the standard length of stall from rear of manger to the drop is six feet six inches. The width of manger from outside to outside may be three feet. In nature, horses eat from the ground. Mangers should not be too high nor too large. Three feet high next the stall is sufficient, and, if stall faces an alley, four feet high on the side next this alley. The width of stalls may vary from five to six feet. Cattle may be housed with about one-half the space allotted to horses, or from forty-five to sixty square feet. The standard length of platform for cows is five feet which may be varied slightly, depending on the method of tying and the size of the animals. The tendency is to get the platform too long. The width of cow stall or space may vary from three to four feet. The gutter should not be more than eight inches deep at its deepest point, and may be twelve to sixteen inches wide. It is desirable to have it of suitable width for a flat stable shovel. The writer prefers the runway behind the cattle to be of same height as plat- ——————— BUILDINGS AND YARDS. 561 form in order that the cattle do not have to step up or down in passing over the gutter. When animals stand with heads toward the wall the driveway between gutters should be nine feet, although eight feet will answer, in case of cattle and from twelve to fifteen feet in case of horses. The space between the feed manger and the wall should be from five to six feet. When cattle face toward the center the distance from gutter to wall should be six feet ; with horses eight feet. Like the amount of cubic space, the height will depend somewhat on climatic conditions. The higher the stable the more readily the air may pass through above the animals without causing draft. On the other hand, since the warm air passes to the top of the room, the position occupied by the animal in a Fic. 336.—A simple, cheap and satisfactory partition for horse stalls. high room is relatively colder than in a low room. The height of stables in temperate climates may properly vary from eight to twelve feet in the clear; probably in most cases from nine to ten feet will give the best average results. Box stalls for horses may vary from twelve by twelve to eight by twelve. ib i 2 : A po es 7 “ad f | i - ee Bree) | REP Sree ae oe S72». ReApING-Course FOR F ARMERS, y ei Me e i. i c \ = 7 reg : "e Z « re he Prt. ‘ . od 4 * Se