rae * ASEM ART YE CTS PEF G03 Re ment 4X sth ny aude Wat eck aise: SyES ¥ . \ a e : : eas: Bie vine i eae Gi aoe a] Sean m (¢ 0 ’) ) =. 1 Ae | Aca a. ont be eereoe mb | ee 7} State of New York—Department of Agriculture THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT OF THE New York Agricultural Experiment Station (GENEVA, ONTARIO COUNTY) FOR THE YEAR 1914 With Reports of Director and Other Officers TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE JANUARY 15, 1915 ALBANY J. B. LYON COMPANY, PRINTERS 1915 OT TAT wear A ad be 4 a ; Fa FP ’ J ae ‘ (VARIES >: : LR. VAD MOTs ae hase a5 | 7 STATE OF NEw YORK No 212 IN SENATE JANUARY 15, 1915. THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF CONTROL OF THE NEW YORK AGRI- CULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION STATE OF NEW YORK: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Aupany, January 15, 1915. To the Legislature of the State of New York: I have the honor to submit herewith the Thirty-third Annual Report of the Director and Board of Control of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva, N. Y., in pursuance of the provisions of the Agricultural Law. I am, respectfully yours, CALVIN J. HUSON, Commissioner of Agriculture. NEW YORK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, W. H. Jorpan, Director. Geneva, N. Y., January 12, 1915. Hon. Carvin J. Huson, Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany, Ne ae Dear Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith the report of the Director of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station for the year 1914. Yours respectfully, BURT E. SMALLEY, President Board of Control. BOARD OF CONTROL. GoveRNoR Martin H. Giynn, Albany. CommMISSsIONER CALVIN J. Huson, Albany. Tuomas B. Witson, Hall. Burt E. SMat.ey, Interlaken. 1G. HypE CLARKE, Cooperstown. Henry C. Harpenpina, Dundee. Evucenre M. AnpreEws, Union. C. WILLARD Rice, Geneva. ADRIAN TuTTtLe, Watkins. OFFICERS OF THE BOARD. Burt E. SMALLEY, President. Wiu1AM O’ HANLON, Secretary and Treasurer. STATION STAFF. WuiTMan H. Jorpan, Sc.D., LL.D., Director. GrorGE W. CHURCHILL, Agriculturist and Superin- tendent of Labor. JosEPH F. Barxer, M.S5., Agronomist. Recinatp C. Couuison, M.S., Associate Agronomist. RIcHARD F’. Kee er, A.B., Assistant Chemist (Soils). 2Eiverett P. Reep, B.S.A., Assistant Agronomist. WILu1AM P. WHEELER, First Assistant (Animal Industry). Rosert 8. Breep, Px.D., Bacteriologist. Haro.ip J. Conn, Pu.D., Associate Bacteriologist. Goprrey L. A. RuEHLE, M.S., James D. Brew, B.S., Assistant Bacteriologists. Frep C. Stewart, M.S., Wa ter O. Guoyer, A.M., + Forrest M. Biopcert, Pu.D., Associate Botanists. Manceu T. Munn, B.S., Assistant Botanist. Lucius L. Van Styxe, Pu.D., Chemist. ALFRED W. Bosworts, A.M., 4ERnestT L. Baxknr, B.S., RupoupH J. ANDERSON, B.S., Associate Chemists. ArTHUR W. Crark, B.S., Moraan P. Sweeney, A.M., Orro McCreary, B.S., 5 ALLEN K. Burks, B.S., 6CLARENCE D. Parker, B.S., 7 FREDERICK N. CRAWFORD, B.S., Assistant Chemists. Botanist. GEORGE A. SMITH, Frank H. Hatt, B.S., Vice-Director; Editor and Librarian. Prercivau J. Parrott, M.A., Entomologist. Hueu Guascow, Pu.D., 8 FreD Z. Harrzevyi, M.A. (Fredonia), Associate Entomologists. Harovp E. Hopexiss, B.S., Bentley B. Futon, B.A., Assistant Entomologists. Utyssss P. Heprick, Sc.D., Horticulturist. Roy D. Antnony, M.S.A., 8 FrepD E. Guapwin, B.S. (Fredonia), Associate Horticulturists. Grorce H. Howse, B.S.A., CHARLES B. TusBERGEN, B.S., JosepH W. WELLINGTON, B.S., Assistant Horticulturists. 9 Cart C. CarsTEns, B.S., Student Assistant. Dairy Expert. Orrin M. Taytor, Foreman in Horticulture. 10, ATWOOD SIRRINE, M.S., Special Agent. Jessie A. SPERRY, Director’s Secretary. FrANK E. NeEwron, WILuarD F. Patcuin, Lena G. Curtis, Aaenes E. RYAN, Estuer F. HAWKINS, Clerks and Stenographers. Apin H. Horton, Computer and Mailing Clerk. Address all correspondence, not to individual members of the staff, but to the New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, GENEVA, N. Y. : The Bulletins published by the Station will be sent free to any farmer applying for them. 1 Deceased. 2 Appointed July 17. “ 3 Connected with Hop Culture Investiga- ions. 4 Resigned March 26. 5 Resigned December 5. 6 Appointed February 7; resigned Novem- ber 15. 7 Appointed May 1. : 8 Connected with Grape Culture Investiga- tions. 9 From June 1. 10 Riverhead, N. Y. ae ra sietet peasy, vy ret ee Tian? ke tf ‘ex ok nesecyak ds ADEE ey anew MTrys weraah, “QA AOM, BT ca) Pa an Va” AT ee Oe ia SUE ee Ne ee ‘ hms ne ha : WEN VRE wh AG a eh Ra insane a ae 4 ih bai ain 4 ALL aera sk RE Ne Re ra a on att iyi? { Oe ter a i tps" auth my ye oo 4 ae rh : % 4 ‘ a dibnwaisban’ . { thy Sead aT ; \ ¥ Lt > i j i yaa \ a a 4a ACLS vine : £ oe i t 4 bak : ‘ mane } ey t i as { y J f , ; i ae Ss y ; ; Hse ram AtY ot Pit fa¥ wtiei = 34 : | ‘ ’ } i y ; Me t ie | eh yee ; pie? iat . - ’ ! o t om As . if Mi) eta Desa y a Pi : ey Pat at ih <3 ad 1 af rt yo 8 ei ¥) g \ ¥ nn ' Pai ri ; 0 i ‘4 , ci j ae hit f i « Vesey ; V Vr 4 } é wy ; J t ay é i one Ya “an 7 } Lite a Fhe \ ¥\ PRE pores ‘ ia } , \ VP ¥r a} ‘id ‘ 1) ¥ : 4 ' 7 mt: 4 tired ae were ot a rh > : r ¥ if ; arth) ‘ fis Y ee oth hah 4 yore v! 5 at } Pee a °° y as eh ee , y 4 i yield ‘ Ae ¥ ; 8 | TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE RERUASVET GS IMCPOTG. «5c & 96 1,0. sis ces SRS LEIS daar e SIU os 1 Wirector’s; Reporte ls.q5 <1 < Ah eta ane AUR EEL SPP AARLEI 1). MPTIS or aP oes 9 Report of the Department of Agronomy: Thenuselot commercial fertilizerss ai eer ite eee ede ns 43 Ground limestone for soil improvement................00. 00 eee eee 63 Report of Department of Bacteriology: A comparison of the microscopical method and the plate method of cCounbineybactexiaymemallcy 5s eying veer ee Set TSE ho. sn oe 79 Cells an.mille derived from the udderiinih.oue We. fos ieee eionios. 117 iBacteniavobirozenisoili.. 225.52. cs scence Ge MARE aC aot tSiane 179 Culture media for use in the plate method of counting soil bacteria... .. 197 Report of the Botanical Department: Does Cronartium ribicola over-winter on the currant?................ 231 Potato spraying experiments at Rush in 1913....................... 244 Mesd=anmyCiscaselOmeTAaweSs, esti sce ae oierslela ei seleusAdiche cede: evel sista evoxeo 251 Report of the Chemical Department: Preparation, composition and property of caseinates of magnesium ... 281 Why sodium citrate prevents curdling of milk by rennin............. 286 The use of sodium citrate for the determination of reverted phos- PPUIOT AG ACIS ere eet edn ieee ate NI ey clits asa sesh chace Rear ah a ats 293 Studies relating to the chemistry of milk and casein...............-.. . 296 @ondition/of casein and saltsiinamuillks og) 26.04 se eile oon eee Smee 305 A contribution to the chemistry of phytin...................-...+.- 320 Organic phosphoric acids of wheat bram.................02secseeeees 362 Report of the Entomological Department: ihe -crambertye toads OUg or. 5 26.5.5 AF NGS cicdtas. = <1 cub tale Oaoials. «Bacar: 383 The cabbage maggot in relation to the growing of early cabbage........ 405 Susceptibility to spraying mixtures of hibernating pear-psylla adults AEG EMOTES st ey ke ee, seit os Rebate el atNS a Shes «Shar ieee RVR Rg Led es 422 Tree crickets injurious to orchard and garden fruit.................. 452 Mheicabbaceraphiss sencns ace cee: FS a lated eae och oneheyres miedas eater agbramontite 497 Report of the Horticultural Department: Tillage and sod mulch in the Hitchings orchard.................... 503 A comparison of tillage and sod mulch in an apple orchard........... 529 Ten years prokts irom anyapple orchard. 00s. os ee ee a eee als 562 A test of commercial fertilizers for grapes.............-0 000 eee eee ee 572 Miewmem MOLEWORDNY, TUL we oc chor) Saris cen ee oes, saree) aun a oa ess Game 602 (EpE EG HEE VIAL ECE Sree teeta ete armen ome apm nele cared e «inl Set sie slat eevee aualel alae 613 Distributiontol stationiapplessr news aac eis ae lec ory © a es aie ele na 623 CultureroMswce ti COLI meters eset iterate ret arses ecahore ls anol sc edevare ye 626 IS Ere WD Chiles ee wre atm eet pene R Ure tcl ear Noss Hayeve on ata, oratisyiy yay oven aun Corer Soi 629 \ OTTER Pe ale eae? EN Seth Ni get emeienieke a) © cree 639 Report on Inspection Work: Some facts about commercial fertilizers in New York State........... 649 Seed tests made at the Station during 1913......................-.. 690 Analyses of materials sold as insecticides and fungicides. ............. as Mespectien wr TECOUNS—OhUNIS | wcke sc che ceed fee we Se a 5 9 ola erro ereia wim seine 735 Report of analyses of samples of commercial fertilizers collected by the Commissioner of Agriculture during 1914.............0eee ese eeee 806 [vil] Vill TABLE OF CONTENTS. Appendix: Popular Editions of Station bulletins: A new method of determining milk quality..................... 893 Do dormant currant plants carry pine rust?.................... 906 Sodvmulch Sometimes'a SUCCESS.):.2s 66 ai2 22-3. oo eee 909 Purity of farm: seeds in Ot jae! hina ue ee 915 Thoroughness pays mm potato spraying: 34.4) 22. sea asses sere oc 918 some, fertilizer tests, 10) VIMEYATGS: -s)sccaeulse on 21 a RENE Se erToe 920 Control of cabbage maggot on early cabbage................... 926 How sod affected an apple orchard.) H.4..< dasculanncth al. be ae 933 The pear psylla; and itsicontrol... .2eiasi tee tee arene oe eee 938 Mreeicricketsof garden and orchard). seal eee eee 946 “Dead arm’’ of grape vines. |... )Sbaloieat). Us Peer ieee ee 953 Ringing an unsafe stimulus to fruit-bearing..................... 956 Bertilizer facts for: farmers.: : 22%. so: sae eee eile - 959 Periodicals received by, the Station sst401.eu fanless (eae? eer eee 966 Meteorologicalirecords fors19145) =... 0 oe cee eee eee ere 974 IRAE 5.45. ROH NaRouins aie. len, hone ech eee heed eer tepeece 985 Tuirty-THIRD ANNUAL Report OF THE Board of Control of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station TREASURER’S REPORT Geneva, N. Y., October 1, 1914. To the Board of Control of the New York Agricultural Experi- ment Station: As Treasurer of the Board of Control, I respectfully submit the following report for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1914: MaintTENANCE Funp — Necrssary EXPENSES. APPROPRIATION 1913-1914. 1913, Receipts. Dr. Octet so halanes on hand) ::. 8s BY. eeus $5,004 26 To amount received from Comptroller. . 24,000 00 $29,004 26 Gr 1913. Oct. Report oF THE TREASURER OF THE Expenditures. By, building and repams «2.2.2 -e. py ‘enemical supplied sae. se: = =e ean By «contingent expenses ........--- 40. By teedin, StUiigs jemi er tore oe By. crertilanersr ees wie tesserae ro Ciena cates Byetrereht, atid @xpress ..<..e cl «eee ol By furniture! and fixtures .21.). 220/202. iby heat, light-and Syater en tee a -F By premtiet, land oF. gs = sees coer es eoeke 15) yg: O17 i ga ara Pai g erick fos io 2o-ti ic Eye oLUMEMSUOGK: «<< wis © 2/0 mp aeoker tence ee iby postage and stationery <2... --15.6. By publications....... ye SCleNntiiG appaArabUs, «- . eeu ctor By seeds, plants and sundry supplies... By tools, implements and machinery... se) oe Eta lie Sex eTISGs manu. = methine eras fay: pallanee, sa)s'-: fh eu en eles lene era ae Cr. $231 1,576 3,311 2,307 760 1,219 681 1,058 84 1,652 8 2,926 1,186 2,978 5,436 627 2,874 89 $29,004 NERAL Expense — Heat, Licht, WaTreR, APPARATUS, Repairs, Evc. Receipts. alo balancevon. hand: 5... sisecarec acre To amount received from Comptroller. . Dr. 54 21 50 00 39 25 38 33 00 (al 00 41 O1 iB. 45 (el GE 80 26 $11 29 5,500 00 $5,511 29 New York AqGricutTuraAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Hxpenditures. By Voualdime ands repaise.:. <<... -s By heat, light and water............. By tools, implements and machinery... By jal meest-6. bret. arspsete cada s5s. 6s eae ns SALARIES. recetpts. is Loshalance om Wand 25.6 = 20.2 eels oe % To amount received from Comptroller. . Hapenditures. Bye salaries 20) SATE AS eA ses ks HS ge WO LAING Os: ay ouatins . 50's, aoe een ore bapee ae $1,499 96 Baye pallance .. 145 BPele Wah, eee nate 04 $1,500 00 Rina Memoriat Funp. Receipts. Dr. us Guifegs Sah 5 US )5 Seat aa ae een as PUR PE eee SIP $1,000 00 1914. Cr. Ocwio By “balance :28. 0:50. Guence egs Rien ae $1,000 00 I have received and remitted to the State Treasurer for the fiscal year ending October 1, 1914, for ROGUE “Soles meer hae rcs tater eee senate ae en Dl Spon al All expenditures are supported by vouchers approved by the Auditing Committee of the Board of Control and have been forwarded to the Comptroller of the State of New York. Witiiam O’Hantoy, Treasurer. DIRECTOR’S REPORT FOR 1o14.* To the Honorable Board of Control of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station: Gentlemen.— I respectfully submit herewith the report of the operations of this institution for the calendar year 1914, together with a statement of our needs for maintenance and for additional equipment. The past year has not been marked by any unusual development in the work of the Station. The work of the various departments has proceeded along the usual lines. Doubtless our constituency has already learned that the development of knowledge and of its application to practical affairs is accomplished with great slowness if the conclusions reached are to be sound and calculated to stand the test of experience. It is fair to say, however, that the institution has made progress both in its equipment and in its studies in matters important to agriculture. ADMINISTRATION. STATION STAFF. The usual number of changes have occurred in the Station Staff. Mr. E. L. Baker, Associate Chemist, who had been with the institu- tion since May 8, 1905, resigned in April to accept a commercial position. This change was greatly to his financial advantage and the situation could not reasonably be met by the institution. Mr. Baker had had immediate charge for some time of the inspection of fertilizers and feeding stuffs and had occupied that position with satisfaction both to the institution and to the constituency which he served. Mr. A. K. Burke, B.S., a graduate of the University of Maine, who had had previous experience in experiment station work, served the institution during a portion of 1913, and after an absence * Reprint of Bulletin No. 393, December, 1914. [9] 10 Director’s Report OF THE was reinstated in March. He resigned this position in December to accept a commercial opportunity, much to my regret, as he had shown himself to be an efficient analytical chemist. Mr. F. N. Crawford, A.B., was appointed Assistant Chemist on May first. Mr. Crawford is a graduate of Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., and had had previous experience in experiment station work at the Pennsylvania State College. Mr. C. D. Parker, B.S., graduate of Cornell University, accepted a position of Assistant Chemist in February, and in November received an appointment in the United States Geological Survey. Mr. Everett P. Reed, B.S.A., a graduate of Ohio State University, entered upon the duties of Assistant Agronomist in July. METHOD OF APPOINTING MEMBERS OF SCIENTIFIC STAFF. With the exception of the Associate and Assistant Chemists, the members of the scientific staff of the Station are classified in the non-competitive civil service list and are subject to appointment under the regulations applying to non-competitive positions. This is a very fortunate arrangement for the imstitution. Moreover, appointments are not restricted to residents of the State of New York. This is not only a fortunate regulation but one essential to the greatest efficiency in investigation. A scientific institution should not have placed upon it any limitations that prevent the securing of men of the highest possible grade. In view of the fact that similar institutions outside of New York State draw freely upon the staff of this institution for appointments to more advanced positions, the New York Station should have the privilege of selection from men of the whole country. Indeed, the number of men who have been efficiently trained for scientific investigation along agricultural lines is so limited that any restrictions whatever on the opportunity to secure well-trained men would be a serious handicap. Besides all this, no civil service scheme has yet been devised whereby men may be wisely selected by competitive ex- amination for scientific positions. The management of the Station appreciates very highly the wisdom of the Civil Service Commission in authorizing the arrangement that exists. It is to be hoped that the time will come when the Associate and Assistant Chemists will also be placed in the non-competitive list. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT SraTION. ital MAINTENANCE FUND. The legislative appropriations for the maintenance of the Station during the fiscal year ending September 30, 1914, were as follows: Salaries. . BONO PICA Cs Oty 5.0 OO OOO EER DI Oe Sn oo ee eee $52,000 Labor . SUE or 16,000 For meeting the general expense ‘of the Station departments. the ke 24,000 General expenses including heat, light, water, ECD aNTS: etc. mss Se evans 5,500 For special grape investigations... .... SE baie Rene eure 7,500 For field, orchard and sanitary milk investigations. TE. aaa eee stsis 2 15,500 For special Mvestization im hoprculburese eae asec cen essere aoe es 5,000 SRO tal ere rs sees ee. Sens NS 1, Es a teies $125,500 For the analyses of samples of fertilizers, feeding stuffs, fungicides, in- secticides and agricultural seeds submitted by the State Commissioner of Agriculture, and for the examination of Babcock glassware.......... $16,000 The following are the appropriations available for the current fiscal year: SulmERErOL SCICULING BUMLI sesh enite ce tts vicee corer en ce niet eee cece g SOT OOO Labor . : eee RR CO eT eee 17,000 Necessary expenses of Station departments RENEE ltt eRe REIS RO.O 23,000 General expense including heat, light and water....................4-. 5,500 Investigations in grape culture . Site F 7,500 For field, orchard, truck, garden crops and sanitary milk investigations. 14,500 Repairs, Dairy and Biological Building and forcing houses. pre eee 1,500 GGA tei ae eee seresi el chad do elon ce ba bet eek babe -ernngel2t,000 For the analyses of samples of fertilizers, feeding stuffs, fungicides, in- secticides and agricultural seeds submitted by the State Commissioner of Agriculture, and for the examination of Babcock glassware......... $16,000 The appropriations which your Board has requested from the Legislature for the fiscal year beginning October 1, 1914, are as follows: General salaries of members of scientific and clerical staffs . ph ke | GO0, 000 Necessary expenses of investigations, excluding salaries, ‘but including chemicals, scientific apparatus, machinery, fertilizers, cattle foods, maintenance of working animals, traveling expenses and other necessary expenses, in conducting researches at the institution, and throughout the State in soils, plant nutrition, horticulture, diseases of plants, in- jurious insects, bacteriology, animal nutrition, dairy practice and poultry keeping. . 23,000 Services of laborers, including janitors, ‘poultryman, engineer, herdsman, dairy helper, foreman of orchards, florist and gardener, general mechanic, watchman, teamsters, farm and other common labor...... 18,340 General expenses, including heat, light, water, general equipment ‘and general repairs...... ee Rp Pterer coon a esetarsi sce terctosehal a: suose tore snieyerekeraueveire 5,500 12 Director’s Report oF THE Investigations of the conditions of grape growing in Chautauqua County and other grape-growing sections of the State, including cultivation, methods of management, fungus and insect depredations and varieties: Balaries sch ist ecoeuy sth tele b loEROO Ceara ee teote CTU hae chats orig ceneeanee $3,800 Labor and: generalvexpensesis fiatoei cee an actionte eens ob were creel tee 3,700 yD Hh Re se IRC snare Gee A MRR EMe ALI 2h ova Sr RUE AMI ANE th Meet A $7,500 For conducting field, orchard and truck and garden crop investigations and demonstrations and investigating and demonstrating the means and methods of producing sanitary milk: RAI ATIOS! VE eas eee rere oid a eae wpe arene a aus ote egep OLR tect Ae eee RETR Cae eR EE ee TO liaboryand:eeneralvexpenses:’. 5... taht cseks ace Rees aac be ee nee 4,500 MOtaliGe nt eee EN LS 2 UY Mh UY SOR ae hs Cee ne ae eam IE (G) For the enforcing of the provisions of the law in relation to commercial fertilizers, concentrated feeding stuffs, fungicides and insecticides, agri- cultural seeds and the testing and marking of Babcock glassware, pur- suant to sections two hundred and twenty-four, one hundred and sixty- four and one hundred and forty-three of chapter nine of the laws of nineteen hundred and nine, section thirty-four and section fifteen, chapter two hundred and ninety-seven of the laws of nineteen hundred and twelve: DA AniGde ene ee enstach os Gate 2 Sin. SCR nD “ORS eee ING Snes Sanaa nee $13,570 Horeeneralkexpenses ics ei: /h biaic ate steve © err teleionele een tam New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. ts SERVICES OF LABORERS. For the payment of labor, including janitors, poultryman, engineer, herds- man, dairy helper, foreman of orchards, florist and gardener, general mechanic, watchman, teamsters, farm and other common labor........ $20,000 EXPENSES OF INVESTIGATIONS. For necessary expenses, excluding salaries and labor, but including chemi- cals, scientific apparatus, machinery, fertilizers, cattle foods, traveling expenses, maintenance of farm teams, heat, light, water, general repairs, general equipment, care of grounds and other expenses necessary to maintaining the institution and to conducting researches and experi- ments at the institution and throughout the State in soils, plant nutrition, horticulture, diseases of plants, injurious insects, bacteriology, animal nutrition, dairy practice and poultry keeping, including special investi- gations in the conditions of grape growing, hop growing, the production of orchard, truck and peep core and the means and methods of sani- tary milk production. . LSE nh aie Lh ari to EL Bae 69 be od Geek 36,000 INSPECTION OF FERTILIZERS, FEEDING STUFFS, ET CETERA. For the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station for enforcing the provisions of the law in relation to commercial fertilizers, concen- trated feeding stuffs, fungicides and insecticides, agricultural seeds and the testing and marking of Babcock glassware, pursuant to sections two hundred and twenty-four, one hundred and sixty-four and one hundred and forty-three of chapter nine of the laws of nineteen hundred and nine, section thirty-four and section fifteen, chapter two hundred and ninety- seven of the laws of nineteen hundred and twelve, for the ee of salaries of chemists, botanists and laboratory assistants. . Denote 12,070 For janitor service and other labor. . : j 1,500 For the purchase of scientific apparatus, chemical and laboratory supplies, expressage, traveling expenses and other necessary expenses. ; ks 2,700 Grand! totaliformaintenances-res ioe eae recs oe eee eee ae ee ee | PL 42270 It is especially important that the amount necessary for salaries should be appropriated ina lump sum. Up to the fiscal year 1914-15, during the thirty or more years of existence of the Station, salaries have not been individualized, and there has been no intimation that the lump-sum method of appropriation has been in any way abused. As a matter of fact, a list of salaried positions. with the salaries paid has been for several years annually filed in the Comp- troller’s office and this information has been at all times available to the Legislature. There are some serious objections to the individualizing of salaries under the conditions which prevail at an institution of this char- acter. It is not possible to wisely state the salaried positions and salaries which should be paid in an institution of investigation with our 14 Director’s Report oF THE varied work and shifting problems one year in advance of the time at which the money is to be used. Again, with fixed salaries for fixed positions, we are unable to exercise discretion in retaining a man when he is called to another institution and it is wise to increase his salary to hold him. In fact, the whole system is so fixed and mechanical that it very seriously limits the autonomy of the institution in handling its salary fund in an efficient and adaptable manner. No more money is spent under thé lump sum than under the individualized salary plan. It is simply a question of giving the authorities of the institution the opportunity to exercise judg- ment in the application of these funds to the work of the institution. The labor item includes not only the labor necessary at. this Station but also in various localities outside in the State for carrying on the experimental work in hand and is therefore an increase of about $3,000 over the labor item for 1914-15, which did not include outside labor. In the past our labor appropriations have been more scanty in proportion to the need than any other appropriation. The expense of investigations and maintenance of the institu- tion should be lumped because the general expenses of the institu- tion are related to all our work. The whole purpose of the institution is investigation and it simplifies bookkeeping and renders more elastic and efficient the application of the funds where they may be adjusted from year to year to somewhat varying distribution of funds among the various objects. In general, it may be said because of more or less interchangeability of men between various lines of work, because of the changes neces- sary to adapt the work to the problems which come to us and be- cause of the relation of expense to all of our work, it is simpler and more rational to appropriate to the institution in those lump sums rather than in a mechanical division which is often embarrassing and which greatly adds to the work of administration of funds. NEW EQUIPMENT. The Experiment Station was established in 1882, and since that time it has been growing slowly but continuously. This growth has not been forced but has been the result of demands made by agri- cultural people for the solution of important problems. During the eighteen years in which I have been connected with the institu- tion, the scientific and clerical staff has increased from fourteen New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 15 persons to approximately forty. The building equipment has also increased, but not at all in proportion to the demands made upon the Station. For several years an effort has been made to secure a building which would serve at the same time to accommodate the administrative offices, give space for the visualizing of results which we have reached and provide an auditorium. During this time other needs have become very apparent and by direction of your Board what may seem to many a liberal sum of money is now being asked for additional equipment. The coming Legislature is to be asked for appropriations for three buildings — an administration, demonstration and library building, new forcing houses and a build- ing providing cold storage facilities. The reasons why we ask for the larger building have been stated many times, but are here again summarized: The Station has no audience room where agricultural societies and other bodies of farmers may meet for the discussion of our work. During the summer season, large bodies of farmers come to the Station and in case of rain (which frequently occurs) it is not possible for an audience to assemble. More visitations would be made if we had an audience room. Agricultural societies would meet with us if an audience room was available. No other agri- cultural institution, of which I know is placed in so awkward a situation. At least three existing departments of the Station need more space and the new department for the investigation of soils must be provided with quarters much larger that it now possesses. The new building would relieve space in two other buildings in order to give needed rooms for the department mentioned. The Station is seriously in need of a generous amount of space, not now provided, for setting up objective demonstrations of its work in dairying, plant diseases, injurious insects, horticulture, fertilizers and feeding stuffs in order that the visitors, who come to us by hundreds, may gain an intelligent idea of what the Station has done. Such demonstrations are also needed if agricultural bodies are to meet with us. The Station has now come to possess a valuable library of several thousand volumes, and space in fireproof quarters should be pro- vided for this library. It is now located in the old mansion house bought with the Station farm. 16 Directror’s Reporr or THE The old mansion house, now occupied by the administrative offices and library, is needed as a place where the members of the staff and other employees can get meals, and where living rooms ean be furnished to those persons who should be on the Station grounds. The Station is a mile and a haif from the city where board can be obtained and it is time-consuming and wasteful for members of the Station staff to travel so far in order to get a midday meal. It is important that such accommodations exist as the mansion house would furnish if the administrative offices and library could be moved into another building. In the thirty years’ existence of the Station, there has been appro- priated to it for buildings in all only $155,450. Twenty-seven buildings now exist on the Station property, and it is fair to claim that no other State institution has a better record for economy of expenditure in the way of building equipment. The time has come when in order to carry on its work with the desired efficiency new and greatly enlarged plant houses should be provided. The present plant houses of the Station were erected about twenty-five years ago. They have exceeded the usual life of such structures, and are now neither adequate nor efficient. There is a large amount of work in agricultural investigation which should be carried on in such houses, if carried on at all, and includes plant breeding, plant nutrition and studies of plant diseases and injurious insects, to all of which lines the Station is obliged to give much attention. The small cold-storage house, established chiefly for the storing of fruits, was erected at the Station something more than twenty years ago. The preservation of fruits, of which the Station has several thousand varieties, requires cold storage facilities in order that such materials may be used for study and exhibition purposes. The present cold-storage plant is inadequate in size and construction and if retained will need enlargement and extensive repairs. A new building should be erected. PUBLICATIONS. The publications of the Station during the year 1914 consist of 21 regular bulletins, 8 technical bulletins and 7 circulars. Of the regular or complete bulletins, 14 have been popularized in a brief New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 17 and more condensed form. The number of bulletins issued from each of the departments of the institution has been as follows: Agron- Bacteri- Boteay Chem- Ento- Horti- Inspec- omy. ology. istry. mology. | culture. tion. Complete bulletins.) ...... 2 Sia oe ne 4 6 5 Technical bulletins.} ...... PAG nea eae OP hcctersteiss: hen Circulars. . » ID} Nels beveh eantt Men ae, RRC ER ARES! b. 1 4 These bulletins are issued chiefly to residents of New York. So far no reasonable requests to have bulletins sent to residents of other States have been denied. The number of names of residents of other States now on our mailing list approaches 2,500, and as this insti- tution is supported very largely by State funds it may at no distant date become necessary to consider whether residents of other States should not be required to pay at least the cost of publication of the bulletins they desire from this institution. The number of names now on our mailing list with their distribution is as follows: PopuLar BULLETINS. RESIMCUUESLOMSN OG WEOL ais ie ate eerecenels on eteart sip aimee leamiare eaten sc farses 37,330 Residents of other States. EPL BENE) SECS So ME ae 2,309 Newspapers. . eR Sin See ace dae oa aes 750 Experiment stations and their staffs. eet create ctaee cal claire een eESIN 2,210 Miscellaneous . SS BT DERRINGER 100 PDOUAL tee tae orc ee bene eed RE oe OMe Mote othe tieete eee 42,699 ComPLeTE BULLETINS. Experiment stations and their staffs... .. 2.6... ..02. 6.04000. de ceee eee 2,210 HT DMALICS VSCIONUIBUS, CLCmatsc titer) Ltottaciaetetactetetanftsieteir ieieeioete dace ess 330 HOKE eM ish errs seek eee AL FT Ley A ee eed 344 linea UR yava COa skein ise 3 cil PERO ERE Oe ee Cl ERS DR PNcaaticl OIRO a areas eae ea 3,652 NVINR CGH ATE OUS) so) to iol ester ekarche tect tatclatcrabstotatatercltstohotet sia) cto chal chet opel olatatelectelel ¢ 100 Otel race tet et a lat bohed tates chet oleh otcleteConeh otshateh stakelstelete’cheletslobate cite 6,636 There will be presented to the Legislature for publication the manuscript of a volume to be known as the “ Cherries of New York,” which will constitute Part 2 of the Report of the Station for 1914. This is the fourth fruit monograph. A fifth volume is now under preparation, to be known as the “ Peaches of New York,” which 2 18 Director’s Report oF THE latter will doubtless be presented for publication in the report either for 1915 or 1916. It is quite probable that in time other volumes of similar character will follow. As was stated in the last report, the Legislature of 1913 author- ized the printing of an edition of five thousand copies of the ‘‘ Apples of New York ” to be sold at cost, not only to residents of the State but to anyone making application and paying the required sum. The cost of publication has been set at $2.25 per set of two volumes and already a large number of copies have been sold. Application for the ‘‘ Apples of New York” should now be made to the Com- missioner of Agriculture, Albany, N. Y.; and checks or other means of payment should be drawn in favor of the Treasurer of the State of New York. INSPECTION WORK. The chemical work involved in the analysis of samples of ferti- lizers, feeding stuffs, fungicides and insecticides collected by the Commissioner of Agriculture and forwarded to this institution in accordance with the requirements of law has reached large pro- portions. The examination of the samples of agricultural seeds received from the same source now consumes a large amount of time. Besides this the law requires that all Babcock glassware that is used in New York by creameries and cheese factories which purchase milk on the basis of the fat content shall be tested for accuracy and marked by the Experiment Station. Following is a summary of the work performed by the Station along these lines during the year 1914: Mertilizers i.e jects cites evenaitt cag Se TA Te tetas heir eicunes eal O04 samples Hee dIN GMS UULSE ncn ctor on ten ek toe casi gece: oc eee eee ; 604 samples Nemiculjuralyseeds Olniciala sacs soe kins heiress ae ee 302 samples Aericulturaliseeds, from) farmers .. .-.... 1+ oy) se bdo ose rele oie eee eee LODISEEO ples ANCL i el a a a re eee A eet mr et ko eS Sa) io iyryes Mia ka O GEES ett ely csoecec ccsietcs Segoe ir oxen cur De eI ans eee 23,104 Greamiuboptlessryses Ja ac. See RR eee ee ee Ue a ane 6,591 ICT VEN GEO Che ae et IM ta iis Arias Gir ol acids OSC 452 ROtaL ASSESS N04, DUS. OLE 2 A ee: See ee 30,147 INVESTIGATIONS RELATIVE TO HOP CULTURE. For two years the Experiment Station has been carrying on investi- gations relative to the control of mildew on hops, in the hop-growing New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 19 region in Otsego County and vicinity. The results show that a good degree of control of this hop pest is secured by a thorough dusting with sulphur. It now remains for the hop growers to apply the remedy and it is not felt that it is wise to make further expendi- ture of money along this lime. Practically no work has been done on the culture of the hop and for that reason a new field has been started on the farm of P. R. Bennett, of Milford, where experiments in methods of culture and fertilization will be carried on. It is felt that by starting a new field the results of the experiments will be more significant than if these experiments are carried on in an old field. . INVESTIGATIONS RELATIVE TO GRAPE CULTURE. The studies which are being carried on in Chautauqua County, largely in the vineyard rented of Mr. H. B. Benjamin, which will be continued for at least ten years, have already produced fruitful results. Experiments are also being conducted in the control of insect and fungus pests in various places in Chautauqua County, and the outcome of this work is very encouraging. As intimated in my last report, similar work has been taken up in the Keuka Lake region at Urbana. As the experiments in this locality have only been carried on for one year, nothing of any definite character can be said concerning the outcome. INVESTIGATIONS RELATIVE TO TOBACCO CULTURE. The fertilizer experiments located with the Minier Brothers at Big Flats have been discontinued and the results will be published at the earliest opportunity. Experimental work is being continued at Baldwinsville in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture, Mr. George W. Harris, representing the Department, having the immediate supervision of the work. SOIL INVESTIGATIONS. The equipment of the Department of Agronomy for reliable investigation of soils has been greatly augmented by the construction of a battery of lysimeter tanks by means of which it will be possible to study certain soil problems in a much more exact manner than could be done in field work. Studies with such an apparatus must be continued for a long time before conclusions are reached. 20 Drrector’s Report oF THE It is well to bear in mind that while field experiments for the purpose of studying fertilizer needs, methods of culture and so on are useful, they very seldom and perhaps never answer any funda- mental questions. Such experiments must be regarded as tests of business methods. They do not generally furnish information which is useful for general application, as the results have at the best only a regional applicability. As a matter of fact, each farm is an individual business proposition and the methods of culture and of fertilization should be adapted to it in accordance with con- ditions which may be unlike those of any other farm. What we should seek for are general principles which may be incorporated into farm practice according to prevailing conditions. EXPERIMENTAL WORK CONDUCTED OUTSIDE OF THE STATION LABORATORIES AND GROUNDS. There are many lines of investigation and experimental effort where the conclusions reached are of general application. This is particularly true of conclusions concerning the control of injurious insects and fungus pests. It is fair to conclude that any method which proves efficacious in controlling apple scab in Ontario County will have practically equal value in Niagara County. The same may be said of the use of an insecticide. There do not enter into experi- mental work of this kind, conditions as complex or as indefinite as is the case with cultural or fertilizer experiments. The experimental work which the Station is carrying on in various parts of the State should not be regarded as mere demonstrations. While it partakes of this character in a certain sense, such work is instituted primarily for the purpose of acquiring information. It is fortunate, however, that it may also furnish object lessons to those farmers or others who take the trouble to observe it carefully. During 1914 the Experiment Station has carried on experimental work of various kinds touching 30 problems with 109 cooperators on as many farms in various parts of the State. Below may be seen a statement of the subjects under investigation with the name of the cooperator and the location of the experimental work. Not only the Station but the farmers of the State are under obligation to these cooperators for the opportunity given to the Station for studying important problems. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY. Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils.... L. Gallager (4 acre).. Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils.... C. G. Baker (1 acre)... Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils.... H. G. Skinner, Jr. (4 acre). . Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils.... A.S. Matherny (4 acre).. Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils.... L. W. Rorapaugh (4 acre) . ‘ Alfalfa culture on Voldsia soils.... H. W. Cornell (4 acre)..... Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils.... F. A. Wigsten (4 veep MGS Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils.... F. D. Swezey (4 Ag) Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils.... J. S. Carnes (4 acre).. Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils.... F.C. Gibbs (4 acre)...... Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils.... H. B. Adams (4 acre)... Rate Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils.... General Lyon (4 ate) es Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils.... L. E. Hooker (4 acre).. Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils.... F. D. Rice (4 acre). . Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils... W. P. Mead & Son (4 acres) Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils.... Bolt & Huey (4 acres). . Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils.... B. L. Winters (4 acres)..... A. R. Chappel (2 acres).... W.N. Tarbell (1 acre)...... Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils.... Alfalfa culture on Volusia soils. . Apple orchards: Fertilizer, culti- vation and cover-crop tests... .- Great Bear EpHee Co. a? acres). . Apple orchards: Fertilizer, culti- vation and cover-crop tests... . Apple nursery: Fertilizer and cultivation tests. ; Cherry orchard: Fertilizer, culti- vation and cover-crop tests . Peach orchard: Fertilizer, culti- vation and cover-crop tests..... Pear orchard: Fertilizer and cover-crop tests. L. L. Morrell (4 acres)..... Pear orchard: Cultivation and cover-crop tests. . ; Vineyards: Fertilizer and deep- plowing tests. . Vineyards: Fertilizer and deep- plowing tests...... Vineyard: Tile-drainage ments. R. B. Densmore (8 acres)... P. F. O’Neil (8 acres)...... T. H. King (33 acres)...... Lawrence Howard (3 acres). F. E. Stone (4 acres)....... . D. W. Blood (2 acres)..... ; “experi . D. W. Blood ¢ kee oe 3 Tobacco-culture experiments... oe F. A. Tuerk. Tobacco-culture experiments..... F. J. Patchet. suiasy anh te Hop-culture experiments......... P. R. Bennutit 0. ates: Hop-culture experiments......... Patrick King.............. BoranicaL DEPARTMENT. Potato spraying experiments..... E. B. Keyes.............. Cause of poor potato stands...... F. A. Sirrine.............. Spraying currants for the control of cane blight and anthracnose. J. R. Clarke & Son. Control of hop mildew..... . W. P. King and F. x King Control of hop mildew.... . Charles Lehman. . Control of hop mildew..... . Isaac Russel . Control of hop mildew.... . E. Wilsey.. Sicacterst Control of hop mildew..... 2 «ah Wedderspoon.. Nartioe eee Control of hop mildew..... . L. Utter.. Clematis stem rot......... . Jackson & Perkins Gog: . Oxford. . Chenango Forks. Prattsburg. . Binghamton. Cortland. Elmira. Elmira. . Sherman. .. Great Valley. . Fillmore. Wellsville. Binghamton. . Portville. Homer. Jamestown. . Watkins. Smithboro. Sidney. East Freetown. . Fulton. Albion. W. & T. Smith Co. (2 acres) Geneva. Geneva. Trumansburg. Kinderhook. Kinderhook. Fredonia. Dunkirk. Dunkirk. . Baldwinsville. . Baldwinsville. Milford. Cooperstown. Rush. Riverhead. Milton. Hartwick. . Sharon Springs. .. Milford. . Cooperstown. Cooperstown. . Cherry Valley. . Newark. 21 22 Director’s Report oF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT. Control of cranberry toad-bug.... Cranberry Growers’ Assoc’n. Riverhead. Control of pear thrips........... Ashley and Rockefeller..... Germantown. Control of pear thrips........... A. W. Hover & Bro....... Germantown. Control of pear thrips........... Clarence Snyder........... North Germantown. Control of pear thrips........... Spencer Bros.............. Hudson. Experiments with apple aphides.. John Beckwith............ New Haven. Experiments with apple aphides.. George Simpson........... Carlton. Experiments with apple aphides. . Harris Freeman........... Albion. Experiments with apple aphides.. Albert Wood Estate....... Carlton. Experiments with apple aphides.. Thomas Mack............ Holley. Experiments with apple aphides.. George Smith............. Lyndonville. Experiments with apple aphides.. J. Bayne................. Lyndonville. Experiments with apple aphides.. A. J. Skinner............. Knowlesville. Experiments with apple aphides.. E. J. Kelly............... North Rose. Experiments with apple aphides.. J. A. McAuley............ Lockport. Experiments with apple aphides.. Floyd Cothran............ Lockport. Experiments with apple aphides.. Richard Taylor........... Lockport. Experiments with apple aphides.. W. E. Wiseman........... Lockport. Experiments with apple aphides.. Fred Zimmerman.......... Lockport. Experiments with apple aphides.. Ralph E. Heard........... Lockport. Experiments with apple aphides.. A. A. Fonner. ...... Lockport. Experiments with apple aphides.. H. J. Treichler. . Sale wanborne Experiments with apple aphides.. H. B. Treichler & Son..... Sanborn. Experiments with apple aphides.. A. H. Ernest.............. Lockport. Experiments on pear psylla...... Ke Be Barnum sere. «see Albion: Experiments on pear psylla...... Frank Gibson............. Albion. Experiments on pear psylla...... PEE Hanlon: ene eee avleding: Experiments on pear psylla...... H. E. Wellman............ Kendall. Experiments on pear psylla...... Frank S. Hayden.......... Wyoming. Experiments on pear psylla...... Frank Bacon.........:... Albion. Experiments on pear psylla...... HP azletons peer eee ove Experiments on pear psylla...... S. S. Hopkins............. Youngstown. Experiments on pear psylla...... S. W. McCollum.......... Lockport. Experiments on pear psylla...... E. Moody & Son.......... Lockport. Experiments on pear psylla...... C.G. & R. L. Oaks........ North Rose. Experiments on pear psylla...... A. C. Pease............... Oswego. Experiments on pear psylla...... ira: Pease: = )i5. eee SR. Oswego. Experiments on pear psylla...... 1 US pe Sia aed Lr aep Au DIOns Experiments on pear psylla...... David Smith. . ........ Middleport. Experiments on pear psylla...... F. M. Tenny.. es wae aulton: Experiments on pear psylla...... Albert Wood Estate....... Carlton. Experiments on pear psylla...... F. M. Woolworth.......... Youngstown. Experiments on pear psylla...... Lawrence Wright.......... Hilton. Experiments on pear psylla...... JayPAllisteee ©. 2... yaa nee eainas Experiments on pear psylla...... KrankeBacona- seer eer ee aunion: Experiments on pear psylla...... Spencer Brownell.......... Oswego. Experiments on pear psylla...... John Cramer.............. Middleport. Experiments on pear psylla...... Branik (Curtis. -.:5.-2-0eee Galton: Experiments on pear psylla...... C. E. Ernest. ............. Gasport. Experiments on pear psylla...... Harris Freeman........... Albion. Studies on grape root-worm...... Henry Barnes (5 acres).... Fredonia. Studies on grape root-worm...... F. G. Spoden (6 acres)..... Fredonia. Studies on grape root-worm...... Mrs. C. M. are (3 acres) . . Fredonia. Studies on grape root-worm. -N. G. & G. T. Merritt (4 acres)....... . Sheridan (P.O. Dun- kirk.) New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 23 EnTOMOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT (continued). Studies on grape root-worm...... L. M. Cary (2 acres)...... ei (P. O. Dun- kirk. Studies on grape root-worm...... W. E. Skinner (2 acres).... Portland. Studies on grape root-worm...... E. L. Day (3 acres). . .. Dunkirk. Studies on grape root-worm...... eriment EE: Gee x (2 acres). oe Fredonia. Studies on grape-berry moth..... Mrs. C. M. Benjamin G acres).. . Fredonia. Studies on grape-berry moth..... D. K. Faldey 6 ‘acres) . ag Westfield. Studies on grape-berry moth..... Louis Bourne (4 acres)..... Westfield. Studies on rose chafer........... Louis Bourne (4 acres)..... Westfield. Studies on rose chafer........... O. T. Little (2 acres)....... Ripley. HorticuLturAL DEPARTMENT. Comparison of sod mulch and tillage... James Vick’s Sons. . .. Elmgrove. Comparison ‘of. sod mulch and tillage. . : . Grant Hitchings. . . South Onondaga. Tests of stocks for apples . Ie AOE. 4 F. E. Dawley .. . Fayetteville. Tests of stocks for apples. . . Edward van Alstyne. . . Kinderhook. Fertilizer, culture and pruning experiments with grapes....... H. B. Benjamin........... Fredonia. THE RELATION OF THE STATION TO EXTENSION WORK. Perhaps the most pronounced effort in the interests of agriculture at the present time is directed toward the extension of knowledge. - This effort has more or less overshadowed and to some extent has handicapped efforts for the acquisition of knowledge. While the law establishing this institution explicitly declares that it shall give itself to investigation and experimentation concerning agri- cultural problems, it has been found necessary to give considerable time and effort to the mere extension of knowledge. This has been done through the attendance of members of the staff upon the meetings of the State agricultural organizations, through work at farmers’ institutes, through extensive correspondence in reply to inquiries and through exhibits at the meetings of various societies and at the State Fair. The amount of time that has been required for this work and the extent to which it has interfered with the primary work of the Station has hardly been appreciated outside of the Station staff. Doubtless these extension efforts have been productive of good results. No one who appreciates the relations of an experiment station would desire to have it isolated and fail to have a sympathetic touch with its constituents. On the other hand, scientific investigation, to be successfully carried on, must have the continuous unbroken attention of those who are attempting 24 Drrector’s Report or THE to carry it on. It demands a concentration and momentum of mind which should be applied with unbroken continuity. It is recognized, of course, that through some agencies the knowl- edge acquired through investigation should reach the people in an available form. It is clear, however, that the same body of men in an experiment station cannot be both investigators and extension teachers, and it seems equally clear that the extension work should be carried on through the agricultural teaching agencies of the State. It now appears as if the organization and funds provided through recent federal legislation, namely the Lever-Smith bill, would tend to relieve the experiment stations of some of the extension work which they have felt obliged to do and would allow a fuller concentration upon the work of inquiry. One of the problems which this institution is now called upon to solve is its adjustment to the extension service. Certainly, in some way its conclusions should be freely available to extension teachers. To accomplish this will be greatly in the interest not only of the agricultural public but of the Station itself. It is certain that the growth of the extension effort, made possible by federal legislation, will greatly imcrease the demand not only for the knowledge which we already possess but for the study of. problems which still remain unsolved. For this reason it is essential that the development of the agencies devoted to investigation and teaching shall proceed symmetrically. A proper balance should be maintained between the effort of investigation and the effort of teaching, both that in colleges and schools and through popular demonstrations. In view of the popularity of the extension effort, investigation seems liable to receive less attention than it should, and those who understand the situation should most insistently urge that funds applied to investigation should meet existing demands as fully as those applied to the various forms of teaching. It is for this reason, therefore, that the management of the Station respectfully urges that the Legislature not only maintain the institution on its existing basis but provide also for such progress in equipment as the enlarging demands make necessary. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 25 INVESTIGATION. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. Developing the Station herd of dairy cows.— The Station is now in possession of a herd of Jersey cows, practically all full-blood and registered, that is highly productive and for nine years has not developed a single case of tuberculosis. There have been some cases of contagious abortion, especially with the heifers, but this trouble has grown less and less and is now not much in evidence. The development of a sound herd of this type should be a matter of genera! interest, especially as the foundation stock consisted in part of tuberculous mothers. Two phases of this matter should be considered: (1) The maintenance of the animals in health. (2) The development of highly productive animals. Between December, 1900, and March, 1901, fifteen out of the twenty-eight animals owned by the Station were found to be tuber- culous. At the latter date the herd was separated into sound and unsound animals, these two groups being located in separate stables, each group under the care of its own attendants. This separation continued, with constant supervision of both herds, until May, 1905, when the six remaining unsound animals were killed. In November, 1905, thirty animals in the herd were tested with tuberculin and no reaction found, and since that time no case of tuberculosis has appeared. It should be borne in mind in this con- nection that the nine animals in the Millie Darling family now constituting a part of the Station herd are nearly all descendants of daughters of Millie D., dropped after she reacted and during the time she was with the diseased section of the herd after separation in March, 1901. In brief, part of the Station herd had a diseased mother as foundation stock. The evolution of a sound herd out of one partially diseased and the maintenance of the herd in a condition of health during nine years have been accomplished in a comparatively simple way. The following have been the essential factors in the process: (1) In the beginning, separation at once from their mothers of the calves of diseased cows and feeding them on the milk from sound cows or milk that has been pasteurized. (2) The maintenance of the herd by raising its heifer calves. 26 Drrector’s REPORT OF THE (3) Quarantining the herd against outside dairy wastes and animals coming from infected herds. Pasteurized dairy wastes from outside might have been used safely. It has been intimated that a highly productive herd has been developed. This is shown to be the case by the following statement of averages made up from records of 1906-8 and 1913-14. _ Average Average Number| Number | yield per | Average annual Year. of periods of | cow per | percent- | yield of cows. | lactation. | period of | age of fat.| fat per lactation. lactation. period. Lbs. Per ct. Lbs. 1906-19085. Rig eae 27 63 6,435 5.16 334 OTB = TOU. ne ct as eset eeesnctons 23 23 6,546 5.91 387 Carey family, 1913-1914... 14 14 6,139 6.01 369 Millie family, 1913-1914... 9 9 6,921 5.82 403 The guiding principles in building up this herd have been: (1) A standard of selection that includes size and vigor as well as productiveness. (2) The importation of males from a line of vigorous and pro- ductive ancestry. (3) Avoidance of the forcing system in feeding animals used as breeders. Eight pounds of grain has been the maximum daily ration used in this herd. (4) Retention of the most promising heifers and turning off of the poorest. BACTERIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT. Microscopical investigations of the bacteria and tissue cells in milk.— The use of the microscope as a means of determining milk quality has been advocated for more than three-quarters of a century, but it is only with the recent development of the sanitary control of milk supplies that the microscopical methods of milk examination have become of practical importance to the milk dealer and dairy- man. Because of the great need for a simple method of determining quickly the condition of a given sample of milk relative to bacteria and tissue cells the Station has tested out a new method of making such examinations by means of the microscope and has secured New York AqricutturAL Experiment STATION. oF sufficiently favorable results to justify the publication of two pre- liminary bulletins which are numbered 373 and 380 respectively. Microscopical examination of milk for bacteria.— Bulletin No. 373 discusses the usefulness of the microscope as a means of determining the number and the general character of the bacteria present. This bulletin likewise gives a comparison between the results secured with the new method and those secured with the older, and more generally used, cultural methods. The new method promises to be of great value as it is scarcely more difficult to carry out than the well known Babcock test for butter-fat and apparently gives fully as accurate and as usable information in the case of raw milk as do the cultural methods. It likewise has a practical advantage over any cultural method in that the results are almost instantly available so that, if desired, the bacterial quality of a given sample of milk can be determined before it is used. Cultural metheds of determining milk quality require from several hours to five days before results are available. By the use of the microscope, raw milk can be readily separated into as many as three grades, and the cost of making the test is so small that it should find general use in the hands of milk dealers. They can use it in this way to control the bacterial quality of the milk which they handle as readily as they can control its butter-fat. Cells in milk derived from the udder.— Bulletin No. 380 gives the results of studies on the tissue cells in milk which have been made by the use of the technique discussed above. These results have a bearing upon some of the problems involved in the control of garget and have been useful in determining the normal condition of milk. It has been shown that the number of cells present in the milk of apparently normal cows is much larger than has been generally supposed, an average of 868,000 cells per cubic centimeter having been found in the milk of 122 supposedly normal cows. Only 59 of these cows gave milk containing less than 500,000 cells per cubic centimenter, the number which has been frequently used as the border line between normal and abnormal milk. Wide fluctuations in numbers occurred both in the milk of the same cow from day to day and in the milk of the various quarters of the same udder. The number of cells in the strippings was invariably higher than that in the milk from the major portion of the milking. A study of the number of cells in the milk and of the bacteria in the udder 28 Drrector’s Report OF THE of 43 Guernsey cows failed to show the close relationship between infections of the udder with streptococci and the discharge of large numbers of cells which has been claimed by some previous investi- gators. The contradictory nature of the results obtained make it increasingly probable that the discharge of these cells is not due to a simple cause. This bulletin likewise reports the results of the studies which are made to determine whether increasing the vacuum used in operating mechanical milkers would have an effect upon the number of cells discharged in the milk. The investigation was made because it has been frequently thought that increased vacuums drew blood from the interior of the udder, or at least caused an increased dis- charge of cells. A six weeks’ test where the vacuum was increased from the normal of 14.5 inches to 19.5 inches failed to show any effect on the cell content of the milk. A comparison between the number of cells in the milk of machine-milked and hand-milked cows in the Station herd showed somewhat fewer cells in the milk of the machine-milked cows. Bacteria of frozen soil— Observations made at the Cornell Uni- versity Experiment Station a few years ago by one of the present members of this Department have been confirmed and extended by work at this Station. The original observation that the number of bacteria in frozen soil is generally larger than in unfrozen soil has been confirmed, and also it has been shown that this increase is not due to the increase in soil moisture in the frozen soil nor to a migration of bacteria to the surface layers from lower depths. This makes it probable that the increase in number is due to an actual growth of bacteria in frozen soil. Further studies on the effect of seasonal changes on bacterial life are needed to explain this fact and to determine its practical value, if any. The work has been reported in Technical Bulletin No. 35. Cultural media for soil bacteriological work.— One of the most serious handicaps in agricultural bacteriology is lack of precise methods of work. Much of the present technique in soil bacteriology consists of the crude methods characteristic of the earliest stages of the development of a science or of technique taken from other fields of bacteriology and applied to soil work without any careful study of its efficiency in the new field. For these reasons it has been necessary to make an extended study of the cultural methods New York Aaricurturat ExprertMent Station. 29 in use for determining the number of bacteria present in soils, which has been reported in Technical ‘Bulletin No. 38. The chief immediate value of the work will be to other workers in agricultural bacteriology, but ultimately the use of the new media suggested in this bulletin should give us facts of practical importance in develop- ing or controlling the fertility of the soil. Other bacteriological studies— No publications have been made during the year on the study of the barn conditions in relation to the germ content of milk, but a bulletin is im manuscript form and should go to the printer within a month. ‘A bulletin on the lack of relationship between bacterial count and barn scores is in about the same stage. Field studies on the practical application of the microscopical technique have been made during the year both in connection with the Sheffield Farms—Slawson—Decker Co., at Hobart, and locally, but these are not completed as yet. BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT. Currant felt-rust and whitepine blister-rust— These two diseases are caused by the same fungus, Cronartiwm ribicola, in different stages of its life cycle. On account of repeated outbreaks of felt- rust on currants at Geneva unaccompanied, apparently, by the occurrence of blister-rust on pines in the vicinity, it was suspected that, contrary to accepted belief, the fungus may over-winter on currants. Experiments have been made which, it is believed, clear up this matter. Rusted currant plants were transplanted (after the leaves had fallen) into greenhouses and forced into growth during the winter. Since no trace of felt-rust appeared on the new leaves of any of the 500 plants in the experiments, the con- clusion has been reached that C. ribicola rarely, if ever, over-winters on the currant. The subsequent discovery of two white pine trees affected with blister-rust makes it possible, now, to account for the outbreaks of currant felt-rust at Geneva without assuming that the fungus over-winters on currants. Details of the experiments have been published in Bulletin No. 374. Seed testing.— During the year 1913, 292 official samples of seed were analyzed. Of these, 51, or 17.5 per ct., were violations of the law; that is, although containing over three per ct. of foreign seeds by count they were not so labeled when exposed for sale. The percentage of violations was somewhat smaller than in 1912 when it 30 Directror’s REPORT OF THE was 20.8 per ct. Analyses were made, also, of 975 unofficial samples sent in by farmers and seed dealers. The analyses were reported in Bulletin No. 378. Potato-spraying experiments at Rush.— Bulletin No. 379 contains an account of an extensive series of potato-spraying experiments con- ducted in the vicinity of Rush during the summer of 1913. In each of 66 fields a portion of one row 290.5 feet long was very thoroughly sprayed by hand every two weeks. At digging time the yield of this row was compared with that of an adjacent row which had not re- ceived the special spraying. In 47 fields no spraying was done by the owner. In these fields the test was a comparison between very thorough spraying and no spraying. In the other 19 fields more or less spraying was done by the owner. In these, the test was a com- parison between very thorough spraying and the kind of spraying done by the owner. In the 46 unsprayed fields the spraying done by the Station in- creased the average yield by 17.76 bushels per acre and in the 19 sprayed fields by 15.04 bushels per acre. The season was a very dry one and there was no potato blight. CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT. Inspection work.— There have been published analyses of 480 com- mercial feeding stuffs and 1004 commercial fertilizers. A study of the data relating to fertilizers shows that the number of samples falling seriously below guaranty is small, the average of all analyses showing an excess of plant-food constituents over guaranty. High-grade fertilizers are shown to furnish plant-food constituents at less cost than low-grade fertilizers. Some defects are pointed out in the pres- ent fertilizer law, working against the interests of the purchasers of fertilizers, especially in case of unmixed materials containing a high percentage of plant-food. Studies relating to the chemistry of milk.— During the entire history of this Station, special attention has been given to some phase of dairy chemistry. The recent work has had for its purpose the clearing up of certain points in the chemistry of milk, some of which have a special relation to the use of milk in human nutrition and some of which are intimately connected with the fundamental processes of cheese-making. In the near future a bulletin will be issued bringing together all the chemical facts which have been worked out here and New Yorxk Acricutturat Exeprrtment Srarton. Sal showing their relation to the chemistry of the process of cheese- making. The publications of the past year treat of the following points: (a) Sodium citrate is often added with favorable results to milk used in feeding infants and invalids in certain diseased condi- tions, but no satisfactory explanation of the action has been known; it has been known only that sodium citrate delays the curdling action of milk when it is treated with rennet extract (rennin) and forms a curd of softer than normal consistency, the softness increas- ing with the amount of sodium citrate added until finally no curdling takes place when the citrate is added at the rate of 0.400 gram per 100 cubic centimeters of milk (equal to 1.7 grains of citrate per ounce of milk). Our work shows that at the point at which rennet extract fails to curdle milk we have a chemical change in the casein of the milk, the normal calcium caseinate of the milk being changed into a double salt, calcium-sodium caseinate, a compound which is changed by rennet extract into calcium-sodium paracaseinate and this latter compound, owing to the presence of sodium, is not curdled. (b) The cause of acidity in fresh milk has been attributed to both the casein and phosphates in milk. Our work shows that casein does not have any relation to the acidity of fresh milk but that the acidity is caused chiefly or solely by acid phosphates in solution. In determining the acidity of milk by titration with alkali, the presence of the soluble calcium salts interferes with the accuracy of the work. We find that this difficulty can be overcome by treating the milk with a saturated solution of neutral potassium oxalate (2 cubic centimeters per 100 cubic centimeters of milk) and thus removing the soluble calcium before determining acid with alkali. The acidity as determined by this method is found to be about half that previously reported by other investigators. (ce) The phosphorus content of casein has been previously found to be 0.85 per ct., but our work shows former methods to be inaccurate; the true percentage is about 0.71. (d) The action of rennet extract (rennin) in curdling casein to form paracasein is shown to be a process of hydrolysis, one molecule of casein splitting into two molecules of paracasein. (e) There has been controversy over the composition of milk as to what constituents are in true solution. Investigation made here by improved methods shows that (1) sugar, citric acid or citrates, compounds containing chlorine, potassium and sodium are entirely in solution; (2) albumin, inorganic phosphates and compounds of calcium and magnesium are in part 32 Drrecror’s Report OF THE in solution and in part in suspension or colloidal solution; and (3) fat and casein are wholly in suspension or colloidal solution. ENTOMOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT. The cranberry toad-bug.— Bulletin No. 377 contains an account of an investigation to determine the cause of a peculiar dying of the pew growth of cranberry vines. Previous to this study the trouble was commonly ascribed to diseases known as “ cranberry scald” and “cranberry rot.’’ At the initiation of the work it was soon discovered that the causal agent was not a fungus but an insect (Phylloscelis atra Germ.) of the family of Fulgoridae. The cranberry appears to be its sole host plant. If the insect attacks the new growth both branch and fruit are killed, but if it feeds on the old wood the berries and branches beyond the feeding point are shriveled and dwarfed. As a result of this injury the yield from certain varieties has been reduced to one-half or one-fourth of a normal crop. There is but one brood of the insects during the year. The egg is elongate-oval in shape, with a short stalk at one end. The egg- laying period extends from September 1 to the middle of October. Hatching begins on June 25 to 30 of the following summer, and a few may not hatch until early in August. Nymphs usually group to- gether to feed, and may live a long time on the same branch if not disturbed. The insect has five nymphel instars. The first adults appear about the first of August, the males maturing first. The habits of the insect suggest two methods for the prevention of injuries: Flooding and spraying, which are discussed with con- siderable detail on the concluding pages of the bulletin. The cabbage maggot.— The third contribution by this Station to the knowledge of this destructive pest is made in Bulletin No. 382, and deals especially with the activities of the maggot in relatien to the growing of early cabbage. Of the insecticides that are employed to destroy maggots about the roots of the plants, carbolic-acid emulsion has generally been regarded as the most efficient. Tests with the emulsion at recom- mended strengths have demonstrated that it will prevent the hatching of the eggs and is fatal to the younger stages of the larve. It may, however, cause injury to young seedlings and is not a safe remedy for the treatment of plants recently set in the field. New Yorx AcricutturaL Experiment STATION. 33 The value of tar pads, or hexagonal tar-paper collars, for the purpose of preventing the adult of the cabbage maggot from placing eggs about the stems of the plants has been previously demonstrated, but, in spite of its effectiveness, this method of protecting cabbage has not been generally adopted by truck growers. The tests herein described show that tar pads will protect early cabbage from the pest at a cost of about $1.40 per thousand plants. Truck growers who are subject to losses by the cabbage maggot are urged to test the tar pads experimentally as a basis for more extensive operations against this pest. Susceptibility to spraying mixtures of hibernating pear psylla adults and their eggs.— Bulletin No. 387 deals with investigations on the pear psylla to ascertain the susceptibilities of the hibernating adults and their eggs to spray mixtures. Studies of the seasonal history and habits of the insect showed that this pest passes the winter as an adult, or “fly ’, and that the creature deposits its eggs in the spring within a short period after its emergence from hibernating quarters. The practice of clean culture and the removal and destruction of rough bark left the flies with few opportunities of escape from appli- cations of contact mixtures. The best means of killing the flies is spraying during a period of warm weather, preferably in November or December, or during March or early in April. The most satis- factory mixture, from the standpoints of safety to fruit and leaf buds and effectiveness against the insect is three-fourths of a pint of to- bacco extract (40 per ct. nicotine) in 100 gallons of water to which are added from three to five pounds of dissolved soap. Eggs about to hatch and newly emerged nymphs proved also very vulnerable to an application of the lime-sulphur solution. By post- poning the dormant treatment for the San Jose scale until the blossom cluster-buds are beginning to separate at the tips, very effective work can be done against the eggs. The lime-sulphur should be used in the proportion of one gallon of the concentrate, 32° B., to eight gallons of water. Tree crickets injurious to orchard and garden fruits — Bulletin No. 388 is a report of studies on various tree crickets, in which attention is directed especially to the more common and injurious species in plantings of garden and tree fruits in the State of New York. One of the most important forms is the snowy tree cricket ((canthus 3 34 Directror’s Report oF THE niveus De Geer), which oviposits in a great variety of plants. In the region about Geneva eggs are most abundant in apple, plum and cherry, and they are somewhat common in raspberry and walnut. The eggs occur singly in soft, fleshy bark. On raspberry, oviposition takes place in the fleshy area at the side of the bud in the axils of the leaves, and usually there is not more than one egg on each side of a bud. This species subsists on a rather wide assortment of foods of animal and vegetable origin. In addition to other species of insects, microscopical examinations of crop contents have shown that the San Jose scale may, under certain conditions, form a large part of the diet of this cricket. It has also been observed to eat holes in rasp- berry and apple leaves, and is reputed to attack ripening fruits. This species derives its reputation as an orchard pest chiefly from the occurrence of diseased areas about oviposition wounds in the bark of apple trees. The areas of infection in their external appearances and effects resemble superficially certain stages of the common apple cankers. Cultural and microscopical studies indicate that during 1918 a fungus, Leptosphaeria coniothyrium (Fckl.) Sacc., was, mm the majority of cases, the infecting organism. The narrow-winged tree cricket (GH. angustipennis Fitch.) has feeding habits quite similar to the foregoing species, and while com- mon in apple orchards it has also been observed in considerable numbers on alders and scrub and burr oaks. Unlike the preceding species, the striped tree cricket (CH. nigricornis Walker) prefers for the reception of its eggs plants which have a central pith surrounded by a woody outer layer. Among the plants preferred for oviposition are raspberries, which are sometimes seriously damaged. The in- juries are due to slitting of the canes as a result of excessive deposi- tion of eggs, which weakens a stalk so that it dies or breaks at the point of the wounded area from the weight of the foliage or as a result of a strong wind. Tree crickets are amenable to standard orchard operations. Cul- tivation to destroy foreign vegetation, as weeds and brush in and about plantings of fruit, and to keep the ground about trees and vines clean is an efficient measure for the prevention of damages. While the susceptibility of these insects to arsenicals has not been conclusively demonstrated, it is believed that the numbers of the tree crickets are reduced by summer applications of these poisons. Raspberry canes showing extensive oviposition should be removed New York AGricutturaAL Exprriment Station. 35 in the course of winter or spring pruning and burned to destroy eggs contained in them. Cabbage aphis.— This species of aphis, regarded as one of the prin- cipal enemies of cabbage, is the subject of Circular No. 30. This is a popular treatise, illustrated with two plates and two text figures, in which the different stages are described and figured and the seasonal history is discussed. The cireular closes with a brief dis- cussion of the merits of spraying mixtures and on the selection of a spraying machine for effective work against the pest. HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT. Tillage and sod mulch in the Hitchings orchard.—For ten years this Station has been comparing sod mulch and tillage in apple orchards. Bulletin No. 375 is a brief account of the experience in the Hitchings orchard, the most notable exception which proves the rule that tillage is the most profitable method for orchard culture under general con- ditions. From the work in this orchard the following conclusions were reached: While unquestionably tillage is the best method of caring for the majority of the apple orchards in New York, yet there are particular places, soils and economic conditions under which the Hitchings method of sod-mulching apple trees may be used advantageously: Ist. Orchards on steep hillsides where land would wash badly under tillage may often well be kept in sod. 2nd. On land covered with rocks, trees may best stand in sod. 3rd. The Hitchings method is adapted only to soils having suit- able depth. On shallow soils it will usually prove a failure. 4th. Soils must be retentive of moisture. On land that annually suffers from summer droughts the sod-mulch treatment will almost certainly prove less beneficial to trees than tillage. 5th. Economic conditions may decide the choice between tillage and some mulching treatment, since the cost of caring for an orchard is so much less under the Hitchings mode of mulching than by tillage. Thus a larger acreage in sod may be made to counter-balance a greater productiveness under tillage, thereby bringing the net in- come to the same level. A comparison of tillage and sod mulch in an apple orchard.— Bulletin No. 383 is the third account of studies by the New York Agricultural Experiment Station to determine whether the apple thrives better 36 Drrectror’s Report oF THE under tillage or in sod. The experiment of which this bulletin is a report was begun in 1903 in the orchard of W. D. Auchter near Rochester, New York. This orchard is far more typical than the Hitchings orchard of the apple-growing regions of New York, in both soil and climate, and the results obtained have much wider adapta- bility than those set forth in Bulletin No. 375. The conclusions reached were that not only should apples not be grown in sod but that for the best good of the trees there should be no sod near them. Grass militates against apple-growing in sod in several ways which act together, as: (1) Lowering the water supply. (2) Decreasing some elements in the food supply. (3) Reducing the amount of humus. (4) Lowering the temperature of the soil. (5) Diminishing the supply of air. (6) Affecting deleteriously the beneficial micro-flora. (7) Forming a toxic compound that affects the trees. Ten years’ profits from an apple orchard.— Bulletin No. 376 shows the outgo and the income from an apple orchard for a period of ten years. The orchard was one of Baldwin apples, ten acres in area, situated a few miles west of Rochester, known to many as the Auchter orchard, in which the Geneva Experiment Station has carried on a comparative test of sod mulch and tillage during the last ten years. The average yield of the orchard for the ten years was 79.2 barrels of barrelled stock per acre and 37.6 barrels of evapo- rator and cider stock. The cost sheet for a barrel of apples was as follows: Interest. on investments es. a0h% Akshar ee ten es Se tere $0.21 lB CAR ge a a RE EA NR Se Oe Soe .012 Spraying. . bec Bee oe she aslo SUSE Me CAE RATERS CI Ses IOLA OUT Ue ETO .096 Cover crop.. ESERIES RG ee .023 Superintending orchard. . sind Licks otek Hai Saeticiny sow apcinena tt ee ee pene 25 ae sorting and hauling.. Ad na LEHMIN, Liat rea eS on e's .244 Barrel. . Ree, wee ee A hte Ee ras ane ere .36 New York AGRicuLTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 37 The average price received for the apples for the ten years was $2.60 per barrel for all the barrelled stock sold and 72 cents per barrel for the evaporator and cider stock. The balance sheet is as follows: Subtracting $1.29, the cost of a barrel of apples, from $2.60, the amount received, a net profit of $1.31 per barrel remains for firsts and seconds. Multiplying by 79, the number of barrels per acre, gives $103.49 as the profit per acre for firsts and seconds. Subtracting 72 cents from 93 cents, gives 21 cents as the difference between average cost of production and average selling price of culls. Multiplying 37.6, the number of bar- rels of culls per acre, by 21, gives a loss of $7.89 per acre on the culls, leaving the average net profit per acre in this orchard for the past ten years $95.60; add to this the $25 interest on the investment and we have $120.60 net, or 24.12 per ct. on $500, as the annua! ten-year return from this orchard and the money invested in it. New or noteworthy fruits.— The New York Agricultural Experiment Station attempts to test all the new varieties of fruit which will grow in New York. The results of this work are published from time to time in the fruit books issued by the Station and in a series of bulletins entitled “‘ New or Noteworthy Fruits.’ Bulletin No. 385 is the second of the serial reports on these fruit tests. Beside giving an account of several meritorious fruits it contains suggestions to buyers of fruit trees. The following fruits are recommended to fruit growers as worthy of test either for home use or for commercial purposes: King David apple, Edgemont peach, Abbesse D’Oignies cherry, French plum, Hicks grape, Chautauqua gooseberry, Chautauqua currant and the Indiana and Barrymore strawberries. Distribution of Station apples.— Circular No. 28 describes twelve new varieties of apples for distribution in 1914. These varieties are the outcome of experimental work in plant breeding. They have been grown and compared with practically all of the standard sorts of their kind and are equal or superior in one or more respects to apples of their season, as grown on the Station grounds. The dis- tribution of these varieties is undertaken that their value and adapt- ability in the different fruit regions of New York may be ascer- tained. A fuller description of most of the varieties listed has been published in Bulletin No. 350 from this Station. Culture of sweet corn.— A brief treatise on the culture of sweet corn is given in Circular No. 29, in which the needs of the plant as 38 Directror’s Report oF THE to climate, soil and fertilizer are discussed, together with cultural operations and the selection and care of seeds. Strawberries.— Circular No. 31 discusses the culture of the straw- berry. In it may be found a consideration of the following topics having reference to this fruit: Location and soil; preparation of the soil; manures and fertilizers; sex of plants; selection of plants; time of planting; systems of planting; setting the plants; management of the plantation; pests and their control; harvesting and marketing; and a description of the best varieties for New York. Currants.— The culture of the currant, covering essentially the same topics as those discussed in the circular on the strawberry, is presented in Circular No. 32. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED DURING 1914. BULLETINS. No. 373. February. A comparison of the microscopical method aud the plate method of counting bacteria in milk. James D. Brew. Pages 38, colored plates 2, figures 2. Popular edition (with No. 380), pages 15, colored plates, 2. No. 374. February. Does Cronartium ribicola over-winter on the currant? F.C. Stewart and W. H. Rankin. Pages 15, plates 3, map 1. Popular edition, pages 4. No. 375. March. Tillage and sod mulch in the Hitchings orchard. U.P. Hedrick. Pages 28, plates 7. Popular edition, pages 8. No. 376. March. Ten years’ profits from an apple orchard. U. P. Hedrick. Pages 12, plate 1. No popular edition issued. No. 377. March. The cranberry toad-bug. F. A. Sirrine and B. B. Fulton. Pages 24, plates 8, figures 4. No popular edition issued. No. 378. March. Seed tests made at the Station during 1913. M. T. Munn. Pages 27. Popular edition, pages 4. No. 379. March. Potato-spraying experiments at Rush in 1913. IF. C. Stewart. Pages 9. Popular edition, pages 4. No. 380. March. Cells in milk derived from the udder. Robert S. Breed. Pages 64. Popular edition (with No. 373), pages 15, colored plates 2. No. 381. March. A test of commercial fertilizers for grapes. U. P. Hedrick and F. E. Gladwin. Pages 32, plate 1. Popular edition, pages 8. No. 382. April. The cabbage maggot in relation to the growing of early cabbage. W.J.Schoene. Pages 19, plates 6, figures 5. Popular edition, pages 12, plates 2, figures 5. No. 383. April. A comparison of tillage and sod mulch in an apple orchard. U. P. Hedrick. Pages 35, plates 6, diagram 1. Popular edition, pages 7. No. 384. April. Analyses of materials sold as insecticides and fungicides. Page 22. No popular edition issued. Nrw York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 39 No. 385. April. New or noteworthy fruits, If. U. P. Hedrick. Pages 12, colored plates 4. No popular edition issued. No. 386. May. Inspection of feeding-stuffs. Pages 72. No popular edition issued. No. 387. May. Susceptibility to spraying mixtures of hibernating pear-psylla adults and their eggs. H. H. Hodgkiss. Pages 32, plates 3, figures 2. Popular edition, pages 10, plates 1, figures 4. No. 388. May. ‘Tree crickets injurious to orchard and garden fruiis. P. J. Parrott and B. B. Fulton. Pages 47, plates 10, figures 9. Popular edition, pages 8, pilates 4, figures 2. No. 389. July. Dead-arm disease of grapes. Donald Reddick. Pages 30, plates 6, figures 8. Popular edition, pages 4, plates 2. No. 390. October. Report of analyses of samples of commercial fertilizers collected by the Commissioner of Agriculture during 1914. Pages 96. No popular edition issued. No. 391. December. Ringing fruit trees. G. H. Howe. Pages 12, plate 1. Popular edition, pages 4. No. 392. December. Some facts about commercial fertilizers in New York State. L. L. Van Slyke. Pages 43. Popular edition, pages &. No. 393. December. Director’s report for 1914. W. H. Jordan. Pages 33. No popular edition issued. TECHNICAL BULLETINS. No. 32. January. A contribution to the chemistry of phytin. R. J. Anderson. Pages 44. No. 33. February. Preparation, composition and property of caseinates of mag- nesium. Lucius L. Van Slyke and Orrin B. Winter. Pages 7. No. 34. May. I. Why sodium citrate prevents curdling of milk by rennin. Alfred W. Bosworth and Lucius L. Van Slyke. II. The use of sodium citrate for the deter- mination of reverted phosphoric acid. Alfred W. Bosworth. Pages 12. No. 35. July. Bacteria of frozen soil. H. Joel Conn. Pages 20. No. 36. July. Organic phosphoric acids of wheat bran. R. J. Anderson. No. 37. December. Studies relating to the chemistry of milk and casein. Lucius L. Van Slyke and Alfred W. Bosworth. Pages 11. No. 38. November. Culture media for use in the plate method of counting soil bacteria. H. Joel Conn. Pages 34. No. 39. December. Condition of casein and saltsin milk. Lucius L. Van Slyke and Alfred W. Bosworth. Pages 16. CIRCULARS. No. 26. January 12. The use of commercial fertilizers. J. F. Barker. Pages 20. No. 27. January 20. Ground limestone for soil improvement. J. F. Barker. No. 28. March 9. Distribution of Station apples. U. P. Hedrick. Pages 3. No. 29. May 10. Culture of sweet corn. J. W. Wellington. Pages 3. No. 30. June 15. The cabbage aphis. P. J. Parrott and B. B. Fulton. Pages 4, plates 2, figures 2. No. 31. November 15. Strawberries. O. M. Taylor. Pages 10. No. 32. November 20. Currants. O. M. Taylor. Pages 7. Geneva, N. Y., December 31, 1914. Respectfully submitted, W. H. Jorpan, Director. ak Bap Het REPORT OF THE Department of Agronomy. J. F. Barker, Agronomist. R. C. Coiuison, Associate Agronomist. R. F. Keerer, Assistant Chemist. TABLE OF CONTENTS. I. The use of commercial fertilizers. IL. Ground limestone for soil improvement. [41] Ey. nA tot Taeunedy Hey ce a ny ni: ' bitin ied ? ert tt REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY. THE USE OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.* J. F. BARKER. Observations on the popular methods of using commercial fertil- izers in this State leave no doubt but that, even at the present time, fertilizing practice is influenced more by the advertising agencies of the various fertilizer concerns than by the results of work at the agricultural experiment stations throughout the country. The fertilizer companies are in close and frequent touch with the farmer by means of elaborate advertisements in farm papers and through their numerous agents, and in this way the farmer has been influenced more than by all the information that has reached him regarding carefully conducted experiments and correct principles of soil management. In this time of many conflicting theories and much unsound teaching on the subject of soil fertility, well grounded facts are refreshing. In these few pages the reader is asked to con- sider some important facts and their bearing on the practical use of commercial fertilizers. ELEMENTS REQUIRED FOR PLANT GROWTH. Ten chemical elements are essential to the growth of all plants. They are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron and sulphur. If any one of these elements is entirely lacking plants cannot be grown. In addition, lime carbonate and decaying organic matter are materials necessary to a fertile soil. Of these ten elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are freely furnished by air and water. Iron is supplied in abundance by all soils, and sulphur has scarcely been found to limit crop yields. But the other five elements, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium, together with lime carbonate and decaying organic matter, are all of vital importance in the practical problem of soil fertility. Certainly every landowner should be on such familiar terms with these materials that he can call them by name and understand fully their relation to his business of farming. * Reprint of Circular No. 26, January 12. [43] 44. Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY OF THE The following table shows the approximate amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium removed per acre annually by good yields of some common farm crops. Tasie I.— ApproximaTrE AMOUNTS OF CHEMICAL HLEMENTS REMOVED FROM Sort By Crops. Nitrogen. | Phosphorus. | Potassium.} Calcium. | Magnesium. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Corn, grain 75 bu... 75 13 15 1 4 Corn, stover 23 tons. 40 5 42 17 8 GOrnCTOD!. s o's5. 4553.3 115 18 57 18 12 Oats, grain 75 bu.... 50 8 12 2 3 Oats, straw 2 tons... 25 4 43 12 6 Oaticrop. assess 2s 4: 75 12 55 14 9 Wheat, grain 40 bu.. 56 10 10 1 3 Wheat, straw 2 tons. 20 3 36 8 3 Wheat crop......... 76 13 46 9 6 Timothy hay 3 tons. 72 9 71 42 16 Clover hay 3 tons... 120 15 90 87 23 Alfalfa hay 6 tons... 300 27 145 216 23 Potatoes 300 bu..... 63 13 90 4 6 Cabbage 10 tons....; _ 48 12 96 40 8 Apples 600 bu...... 47 5 57 3 4 IGEAVEBS cc. ae Osc «2 59 7 CY (al areca Magen cies (xc Wood growth....... 6 2 Bret LAA CRRA Rae ABAD SDE ae Appleicrop.)... eae 112 14 109 3 4 While these crops are larger than are commonly grown they are not larger than a farmer would wish to raise, nor are they larger than it is possible and profitable to produce under good systems of soil management. And so it is for such crops we must provide in the future if we are to solve satisfactorily the problem of soil fertility. Nors. - The term phosphoric acid as used in fertilizer parlance refers to an oxide of phosphorus (P.0;) and not phosphoric acid (H:PO,). But it is more rational and explicit and will avoid confusion of terms if when dealing with the subject of phosphorus we speak in terms of the element phosphorus (P) instead of its numerous compounds. This is in accord with the practice of speaking of the element nitrogen (N) instead of ammonia (NH:) as was formerly the case. One pound of P.O; contains .4366 pound of phosphorus, P, and so to convert weights or percentages of P2Os into P multiply by .4366, or for practical purposes .44 is sufficient. Thus 15 per ct. P.O; is equivalent to 6.6 per ct. P (15 x .44—6.6). Similarly instead of potash (K:O) we should say potassium (K). One pound K:0 contains .83 pound of potassium (K). To convert weights or percentages of K,O in K multiply by .83. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 45 SOIL COMPOSITION. The most extensive soil types in New York State contain in the plowed soil of an acre (to a depth of 7 ins.) approximately 4,000 pounds of nitrogen 1,200 pounds of phosphorus 30,000 pounds of potassium 8,000 pounds of calcium 10,000 pounds of magnesium No pounds of lime carbonate. By means of these figures and those in the preceding table we can obtain some idea of the relation between the amount of plant food in the soil and the needs of crops. If the entire stock of plant food could be drawn upon as fast as needed by crops of the size mentioned above there would seem to be enough to last for a comparatively long time. However, viewed even in this way, the supply of scme of these constituents is by no means inexhaustible. If the stock of phosphorus had been drawn upon at this rate during the entire lifetime of men now living, an amount equal to that contained in the surface seven inches of soil would have been removed. Available plant food.— But the entire stock of plant food in the soil exists in a comparatively insoluble (unavailable) state. If this were not so it would not have remained after many centuries of weathering to which the soil has been exposed. Only a trifling amount of plant food becomes soluble (available) each year. Factors which make plant food available are: favorable physical condition of the soil as modified by texture, cultivation, drainage, etc.; moisture supply; decaying organic matter; amount of lime carbonate; action of plant roots; and many chemical and biological influences, all of which are modified by the above conditions. In any soil the amount that does become available during a given season depends upon the intensity of the factors which make it available and upon thetotal amountinthe soil,somewhat as a banker’s income is the product of his rate of interest and the amount of capital he has invested. With radical variation in the soil type, especially as to method of formation, differences may occur as to the form in which a part of the total plant food exists; and this may properly be regarded as another factor in determining the amount of available plant food. In considering the amount of plant food in a soil the question is not so much how many years it would last if it could all be drawn upon as fast as needed, but, rather, is the total stock large enough so that with other conditions as favorable as it is practicable to make them there will be enough plant food liberated for good- sized crops. 46 Report or tur DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY OF THE Calcium and magnesium for the purpose of plant food are abun- dantly supplied if these elements are present in the form of carbonates (limestone) in sufficient quantities for neutralizing acidity and for good physical condition of the soil. For many crops enough calcium and magnesium as plant food may be furnished with little or no carbonate present; but some, especially legumes, seem to require the easily available carbonate to furnish all these elements they need. At any rate the question of supplying calcium and magnesium as plant food is entirely taken care of if limestone is applied as needed for neutralizing acidity, etc. The problem is now narrowed down to the familiar one of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. With soils such as we are considering and under ordinary conditions of management the addition of small quantities of either nitrogen, phosphorus or potassium in easily soluble compounds usually produces an increase in general farm crops. But whether or not by the most practical efforts enough of these elements already in the soil can each year be made available or whether their addition as fertilizers is profitable are questions which can be decided only by carefully conducted field experiments. However, a few general considerations first deserve attention. General considerations.— Potassium is contained in the soil in 25 to 30 times the amount of phosphorus, and as much as 10 times the amount of nitrogen. If potassium could be made available as fast as needed the supply would last indefinitely. Considering also that a good part of the potassium of most crops is again returned to the soil in crop residues or farm manure, it would seem entirely practicable by good management to do away with the purchasing of potassium for a fertilizer. The potassium problem then is appar- ently one of liberation rather than supply. In proportion to the amounts used by crops, nitrogen is contained in the soil in smaller quantities than phosphorus; also there is much loss of nitrogen by leaching. The total supply in the soil would not last more than 20 or 25 years if it could be drawn upon as fast as needed. Of course it is impossible to draw upon it in this way and so it is evident that even at the outset some special provision must be made for supplementing the amount of nitrogen in the soil. The addition of decaying organic matter in the form of crop residues, green-manure crops and all available farm manure not only supplies nitrogen butis also necessary as means of liberating mineral plant food and maintaining good physical condition of the soil. We can determine by field experiments only, to what extent it pays to sub- stitute for these materials or supplement them by the use of high- priced commercial nitrogen. Phosphorus is contained in the soil in relatively small quantities, and clearly its supply must be renewed at an early date if large crop yields are to be maintained. To what extent it is now profitable to supplement this supply must be determined by experiments. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. AT FIELD EXPERIMENTS. The results of carefully conducted field experiments are the most reliable guide we have for fertilizing practice. It is idle to base recommendations in this regard upon theory, hearsay, or personal experience and leave the results of such experiments out of con- sideration. It is important to obtain as complete data as possible regarding the action of fertilizers on the soils within our own state. At the present time we are in need of much more data on this subject; and it is always well to supplement what we have by results from reliable work outside the state. Many important principles brought out in experiments on soils outside the state have extensive appli- cation. Ohio experiments.—— The following tabulated results taken from publications of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station are of the greatest significance. Taste JJ.— Errect or FeErtTILizER ELEMENTS AND COMBINATIONS IN OHIO EXPERIMENTS. Fertilizing materials and their cost, and total and net value of increase produced for 17 years (1894-1911), all calculated for one rotation of 5 years (Corn, oats, wheat, clover, timothy). Fertilizers divided between corn, oats and wheat. Cost of |Average value of total/Net gain or loss (—) Fertilizing materials in| fertilizer increase for each 5-| from fertilizers for pounds per acre for) per acre year rotation. each rotation. ion. f liter pee cea Pea: SEES 2 SMe eke ed Saehpieon an eee Wooster, | Strongs- | Wooster, | Strongs- O. ville, O. O. ville, O. Acid phosphate...... 320 $2 60 $16 52 $17 28 $13 92 $14 68 Muriate of potash... .260 6 50 6 22 06 —0 28 —6 44 Nitrate of soda... .440 at fen Dried blood........ 3D} a ee ee ae mate Acid phosphate. . . .320 Nitrate of soda... .440 17 00 31 21 21 46 14 21 4 46 Dried blood........ 50 Muriste cf potash 260}| 910] 2419| 1869) 1509} 9.9 Nitrate of soda... .440 20 90 10 95 4 47 —9 95 —16 33 Dried blood... .-....-. 5 0 Acid phosphate. . . .360 Muriate of potash. .260 Nitrate of soda... .440 Dried blood........ 50 Muriate of potash. ‘4 ) 2350! 3913| 2332! 1563/ —018 48 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY OF THE The figures for the vaiue of increase in the table are obtained by computing corn at 40 cents per bushel, wheat at 80 cents, stover at $3 per ton, straw at $2 and hay at $8. These figures are, of course, much below the market price of these crops, but they are as high as can safely be used in computing net gain from the use of fertil- izers; for it is necessary to make ample allowance for the cost of harvesting and handling the increased crop and for applying the fertilizers. The results of these extensive experiments on two widely different soil types in Ohio show that phosphorus when used by itself has been productive of very great increase. But nitrogen and potassium, although they have produced decided increases at Wooster and some increase at Strongsville, have in no case either singly or in any com- bination produced enough increase to make their use profitable. A combination of phosphorus and nitrogen, or phosphorus and potas- sium, or the three together, have at Wooster produced a greater net increase than phosphorus alone; but at Strongsville the opposite is true. The greatest net increase at Wooster has been from the three elements combined. The cost per acre was $23.50 and the net gain $15.63. But when $2.60 invested in phosphorus alone produces a net increase of $13.92 it is hardly profitable to increase the cost to $23.50 for the sake of a net gain of $15.63. A safer investment than this has been $9.10 for phosphorus and potassium in combination. Here the net profit has been $15.09, but the same amount of money invested in phosphorus alone would have been far more profitable. Of course if nitrogen and potassium had been used in somewhat smaller amounts the net profit from their use would have been greater. But phosphorus could no doubt be used in much larger amounts and still give a greater net increase than much smaller amounts of nitrogen and potassium. While these experiments show that commercial nitrogen and potas- sium have not been profitable, yet they also show that these soils under the conditions which they have been managed do not furnish enough nitrogen and potassium for good sized crops. They emphasize the importance of supplying nitrogen by the use of farm manures and legumes, and in this way also supply some available potassium and help to make a large amount available from the supply already in the soil. Pennsylvania experiment.— Extensive fertilizer experiments have been conducted by the Pennsylvania Experiment Station since 1882. They have been carried out on different fields with four different crops each year; corn, oats, wheat and hay (clover and timothy) being grown in each rotation. Results covering 25 years’ work are published in Bulletin 90 of the Pennsylvania Station. The following table is derived from data in that bulletin. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 49 TarLe I1].— Errecr or FrerrinizeR KLEMENTS AND COMBINATIONS IN PENNSYLVANIA EXPERIMENTS. | Value of Nitrogen, PHosPHORUS increase |Net gain AND PoTAssIUM PER | Cost | per acre | per acre FertiuizinG MATERIALS Acre Eacu 4 Years. __ | of fertil- | for each | for the Usp. izer. |rotation| four of 4 crops. N 12 K. years Lbs. Lbs. Lbs DWricdabloodves. aie ner LAS dL ovilh aoe talc ape aie $8 64 |—$1 61 |—$10 25 Dissolved bone-black......| ...... | POL oats 480 | 11 34 6 54 Muriatetof potassiumies <5) Je. 6... |) eyo: 166 | 10 00 | —0 29 | —10 29 DriedsplOod yaar x Dissolved bone-black.... } 48 42 | ...... 13 44) 19 95 6 51 ee ee Pewee eee 166 | 1864] 386] —14 78 Muriate of potassium... . 42 166 | 14 80} 24 06 9 26 Dissolved bone-black.... Muriate of potassium.... Dried blood............ Dissolved bone-black.... 48 42 Muriate of potassium... . 166 | 23 44 | 30 66 7 22 Here in another state on a widely different soil type we have in general the same story as is revealed in the Ohio experiments. Phosphorus is the first limiting element of plant food. Nitrogen or potassium without phosphorus does not materially increase the yields and is used at an entire loss. In combination with phos- phorus they decidedly increase the yields, though at heavy expense. The most profitable combination has at a cost of $14.80 given a net profit of $9.26. But $4.80 invested in phosphorus alone has given a net profit of $6.54. These experiments have been conducted on a clay loam soil and no effort, other than the use of the clover and timothy sod, has been made to supply the organic matter so much needed for good physical condition and to aid in making plant food available. If organic matter had been supplied in fair amounts more nitrogen would have been furnished in this way and more potassium made available, thus rendering it still less profitable to purchase them. And in the light of other experiments we know that under such con- ditions phosphorus would give greater returns. These Ohio and Pennsylvania experiments are the most extensive long-time fertilizer tests that have been conducted in this country. Attention is again called to the fact that they have been conducted’ on three widely different soil types. In Pennsylvania the experi- ments have been on a residual clay-loam soil of limestone origin. At Wooster, Ohio, it is a silt-loam hill-land soil of glacial origin, + 50 Report OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY OF THE but derived principally from sandy clays and shales, and resembling very closely the hill-land soils of southern New York. At Strongs- ville, Ohio, the experiments are located on a level clay loam soil very similar in formation and general characteristics to the lake front lands of New York State. At both places in Ohio the entire experiments are carried out each year on each of five different fields, and in Pennsylvania on four different fields. Results in accord with these Ohio and Pennsylvania experiments as to the comparative value of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium on general farm crops have been obtained at a number of other state experiment stations in eastern United States. No important experi- ments conducted on extensive soil types in our eastern states and with general farm crops have brought out any radically different results. The term “ general farm crops” as used above will include many others not included in the Ohio and Pennsylvania experiments. It will include probably all grain and forage crops, and even alfalfa and potatoes. Fertilizing potatoes.—A study of all available data will show that potatoes, which are commonly supposed to require a fertilizer high in potassium, will, on the contrary, give greater returns from a phos- phorus fertilizer than from either nitrogen or potassium. In fact, potassium is more often used on potatoes at a dead loss. As evidence on this point we have the results of fertilizer tests with potato- growing on Long Island, conducted by this Station on four different farms for three years each. A comparison was made between four different fertilizer mixtures all containing the same amount of nitro- gen and phosphorus, but varying in potassium from nothing to 8.3 per ct. (10 per ct. K2O). All four were used at the rate of 1000 pounds per acre. They varied in composition as follows: We. ouks da, ake N. P.O; K.0. No. 1... AdnaShs 00 4 8 0 Woe 2.4 AD EON Ico) aoe 4 Sihuwd.5 No. 3... 4 sc5itoe8al 4 Bea oi No. 4... An iSkin BES.) 4 8, 10 The results of this test are given in the following table: Tapie IV.— Comparison oF Varyinc Amounts OF PoTassIUM IN FERTILIZING Porators on Lona Isianv (1898-1899-1900). Fertilizer mixture Average yield per acre for 3 years NuMBER oF PLats AVERAGED. Ra nega peepee. (1898-1900) on four , PP ‘| different farms. fo) ASE Se ee ee ERS AAG OO RS BS Ed Bs Ree 3 tec Nowmertilizer,, sac 89 bushels CoE VE fe Ae gree a See pe ie cmos 2 me at 3 Joe | ie Maes eel ord 2 123 bushels Qtr Pear ih Be. Bless ic geet Ne a Aa Ree AON cee ee 127 bushels Pisa’ | allied Mag Ahr ah AS i coran tip me mreriie Sir QRS (See ee ete 129 bushels Rehan! MITT IELDI A GRR Eph e eaten: A810 RT ORE 128 bushels New York AcricuntturaL ExprrRiIMENT STATION. 5A The potassium in 1000 pounds of 4-8-3.5 cost about $1.65 and has only about returned its cost in the increased yield produced, while the larger amounts of potassium in the two other mixtures have been used at an entire loss. These results are the more significant in that they have been obtained on the sandy soils of Long Island, soils which are commonly supposed to be in special need of potassium. Fertilizing meadow lands.— In view of some recent experiments it seems probable that better returns would have been realized from the nitrogen and potassium used in the Ohio and Pennsylvania experiments if a part had been applied as a top dressing for the hay crop. Timothy meadows, at least on poor land, are very responsive to applications of easily soluble plant food, especially nitrogen and potassium. The lesser benefit of phosphorus fertilizers under these conditions may be partly due to relatively smaller demands of timothy for phosphorus and partly to the fact that, applied as a top dressing, it does not leach down into the soil fast enough to be most profitably utilized by the crop. The following table shows certain results from an experiment as to the top dressing of meadow land carried on by the Cornell Experiment Station. There were in all 14 different fertilizer treat- ments. The treatment of plat 713 gave the highest percentage of profit on the cost of fertilizer, while that of 725 gave the greatest net profit of any treatment. Plat 731 receiving 10 tons barnyard manure per acre once in 3 years is not considered in the comparison of profits. TasBLE V.— AVERAGE OF THREE YEARS RESULTS IN FERTILIZING TIMOTHY Meapows (1905-07). | Cost of | Increase|Value off Net’ Plat Pounds of fertilizers used fertilizers| of hay | 2nnual gain No. per acre annually. per acre | per acre | Increase per annually. jannually.| 4° $10 acre. per ton. Lbs. 712; | ..320:acid phosphate « 5: cs.0)4 cis.) $2 24 682 | $3 41 $1 17 713 80 muriate of potassium.......... 1 84 988 4 94 3 10 5a ee loOlmitratey ofjsodare pen ane sei 448] 1,211 6 05 Th Lies BZ20Facide phosphatenmn nose ate 716 160 mitrate/of/soda,. . 3.5.2... -.. 6 72 fa 8 07 N35 320 acid phosphate............. 718 80 muriate of potassium....... BLS ae BME Suk Hod GO mntrateyoigsod set ee Aerie ‘ 719 80 muriate of potassium....... 632) 2,111 10 55 4 28 320 nitrate of soda............. 725 | 320 acid phosphate............. 13 04 4,192 | 20 96 7 92 80 muriate of potassium....... 731 10 tons of manure once in three VERT Sh cine es Mee Rae Sn, ? 2,975 14 87 ? ~ 52 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY OF THE — ti Acre of Wheat: >| toe ; - An Acre of Wheat. land treated | se fe ; ie » Land treated with With Farm Manure feo a aise : Manure,L imestone & re Phosphate 113 bushels per acre. 05% bushels per acre. INFLUENCE OF LIMESTONE AND Naturat Rock PHosPHATE on Sort Propuctiviry. This grain was grown in southern Illinois, on land practically abandoned ten years before, and then purchased by present owner for $15 per acre. During the past ten years the land has received only one application of manure, of 8 or 10 tons per acre, and limestone and natural rock phosphate averaging $1.75 worth per acre per year. (At present New York State prices for these materials the cost would be about $2.70 per acre.) The soil on this farm is as light-colored and as deficient in organic matter as the hill-land soils of southern New York. It is altogether probable that similar treatment with limestone and phosphorus would give as satisfactory results on New York soils. (See Circular 168, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana, II1.) New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 53 This gives some idea of what may be expected in the way of immediate returns from the fertilizing of timothy meadows. Nitrogen and potassium have been more profitably utilized here than when applied to other crops in other experiments described, and yet the profit from their use is largely absorbed in their cost. But the heavier sod resulting from the fertilizing of the hay crop has its effect upon succeeding crops as do also some fertilizer residues; so that the average of several rotations should be considered to give a fair estimate of this method of fertilizmg. The results on a succeeding crop of corn as published in Cornell Bulletin 273 are suggestive of the effect on other crops in the rotation. It seems probable that at the outset of building up run-down land nitrogen and potassium can be used profitably as a top dressing for timothy meadows, thus producing a good crop and at the same time improving the ’soil for following crops. For this purpose, though, barnyard manure is better and should be used instead as far as itis available. There is no evidence, however, that this method of fertilizing will in the long run alter general results as to the com- parative value of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers brought out in the long time field experiments. The direct effect of commercial nitrogen is almost all spent the first year, and the same is largely true of potassium; while phosphorus benefits succeeding crops as long as any is left. The question of manure.— The effect of farm manure is to supply readily available nitrogen and potassium and to increase the organic matter content of the soil. This tendency is decidedly to lessen the effects of the application of commercial nitrogen and potassium. The amount of phosphorus carried in manure is slight and the actual effect of an application of manure or decaying vegetable matter of any kind is to increase the benefits from an application of phos- phorus fertilizer. Evidence on this point is found in the Ohio experiments on the reenforcement of manure. The manure is applied at the rate of 8 tons per acre once in three years, to the corn crop, in a rotation of corn, wheat and hay. The experiment was carried out on three different fields each year, and the results here mentioned cover 15 years. The average value per acre of the increase in the three crops for each rotation due to the treatment of 8 tons of manure was $23.52. When the eight tons was reenforced with 320 lbs. of acid phosphate the increase was $38.59. Thus the increase due to the acid phosphate was $15.07. On the same farm the increase due to 320 lbs. of acid phosphate per acre each five years in a 5-year rotation covering nearly the same period of time was $16.52 for the five crops instead of three. Other data given later in these pages also illustrate this fact. Phosphorus and limestone.— In view of such evidence as has been presented, and until any radically different evidence is obtained, the conclusion seems justified that when growing general farm crops 54 Reporr oF Tur DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY OF THE the farmer who cannot spend more than about $2 per acre per year for fertilizers would best spend all of this for phosphorus and limestone; or if his land does not need lime spend the greater part of it for phosphorus. He should also in every way practicable supply liberal amounts of organic matter by the use of all available farm manure, crop residues and occasional green-manure crops, making use to a large extent of legume crops, which have the ability of - securing nitrogen from the air. The statement is ventured that the majority of New York State farmers have not money to spend for fertilizers beyond $2.50 per acre per year for their entire land in crops. But at this cost phosphorus and lime carbonate can be supplied in larger quantities than they are reduced by cropping and thus the soil be positively enriched in these materials. There is good evidence to show that by this method the soil can be brought up to a high state of fertility and good crop yields indefinitely maintained. The following specific examples are illuminating: A practical farmer has bought run-out land in southern [Illinois at $15 per acre and at an annual expense of $1.75 per acre for limestone and phosphorus for the last ten years has gradually increased the yields to 353 bushels of wheat per acre in 1913. Check strips not so treated produced 113 bushels per acre for the same ear. Another Illinois farmer on more productive land by the expendi- ture for the previous five years of $1 per acre per year for phosphorus alone (his land not being in need of additional lime carbonate) has increased the yield of corn from 54 bushels per acre to 70 bushels; oats from 47 bushels to 70 bushels, and clover hay from 1% tons to 23 tons; these yields being 5-year averages. At the Illinois State Experiment Station wheat has yielded 34.2 bushels per acre on land treated with cover crops and farm manure. On land similarly treated except for the addition of phosphorus at the rate of $1.90 worth per acre annually for the past four years the yield at the same time has been 51.8 bushels of wheat. It is important to note that results brought out by field experiments as to the needs of soils for phosphorus, lime carbonate and organic matter, and the unprofitableness in most cases of supplying nitrogen and potassium in commercial forms are in accord with the logical inferences to be made from the data revealed by chemical analyses. The two together form a safe foundation upon which to base a rational system of soil management. Carriers of phosphorus.— The principal fertilizing materials that can profitably be used for supplying phosphorus are the following: Per ct. P. Per ct. P.O; Acid phosphate, containing ..................--..006: 6- 7 ) 14-16 iBonemeall contaminge.25. "ha. one ott ene 9-12 20-27 Basic slag phosphate, containing...................... 7-8 oF 16-18 Natural rock containing anit) acu aes ele iii 12-14 | 28-32 ‘aI9Y 9SBO BY} JOU SBA YOIYM :1044VUI OIUBSIO JO SJUNOUIG [BIOqI] YIIM Jopun pamoyd oq prnoys ayeqd -soyd Yo01 sq[Nser ysoq OY} andes 0} ‘IOAVMOFT 99849 STZ JO Syed OUIOS UI [IOS Jo s¥oie aBIE] Jo [voIdAy ore splay OM}, 9Y} pu “yUBySIP soTTUr Mo} & play Joyjoue uo poureyqo aJeM Sz[NSer IBIS “STG ‘OT ABI UO Jopun pemoyd ueYyM YoY 4ysIVM UvYy o1OUI SEM 41 4Bq} OS ‘ayeydsoyd yooI [Bin}VU JO BSN PoMOT[OJ OAT JO YYMOIS YUBI Y “pUNOIZ oY} I9AOD 0} BAI YsNOUS MOIS YOU P[NOM [IOs sty} qusUT}BeI} [BIOeds yNOYII "KON “OO VoOdAVLAVHD ‘ISa], UAZIILUGY NI SLVIG LNEOVfdy NO NMOUD FAY ‘910% Jod oyeydsoyd yool jeinyeu u0y 9uGQ *quoUI}va1} ON ‘auoye snioydsoyd jo asn 19A0 s}yyoid pasverout AT YSYs AtoA ATUO ynq spjerA pssvedoul usAIs sey ‘snaoydsoyd 03 uorippe ut ‘umnisseyod puv usso1z1U [vIoOLoUTUIOD JO asN 9} YUsUITIEdxe sIy} UI szeld Jey}O UO ‘sjeysnq 9°1Z ‘Z Ye[q UO pue soe sod ~I bo e aN ~] Lae) Or MDWNIND NAWOORORONWNRODENNOSDODNINHONWROBROANE RUD — BEE ONO ORI ROP EON E NOE EEE RN WWWENN PRE RNOH RW RW RE OOPRNWOM WHOOHOMONINDOPWHONORONONMWWWHAUNHOMNRBUANNE * Each clump and each isolated bacterium counted as one; individual bacteria in §/These abbreviations refer, res- clumps not counted. {Plates contaminated. pectively, to ‘‘ Agar plate counts,” ‘‘ Total bacteria” and “ Bacteria and clumps.” 88 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE Tasie I. BAactpriAL Counts or Mornina MiLK rrom Farm A.—continued. Darter. May Numbers computed for a cubic centimeter. Agar plate counts. 20,000 29,000 fogs 189, 000 99 000 88,000 230, 000 800 , 000 278,000 363,000 717,000 3,430,000 312,000 810,000 368 , 000 325 ,000 125,000 87 , 000 272,000 303 , 000 237 ,000 100,000 672,000 338 ,000 = \ <== Bacteria Total bacteria. and ss Osea clumps. 228 , 000 88 , 000 24,000 148 , 000 80,000 16,000 1,780,000 320,000 220 ,000 684 , 000 124,000 68 , 000 1,340,060 280 , 000 170,000 308 , 000 96 , 000 44 000 512,000 144,000 56,000 304, 000 104,000 36,000 4,460,000] 1,440,000 420,000 11,600,000} 5,520,000 480 , 000 268 , 000 64,000 36,000 576,000 169,000 88 ,000 11,040,000) 3,400,000) 1,120,000 15,160,000) 3,480,000) 1,100,000 2,780,000] 1,000,000 380 , 000 4,550,000 590 , 000 380 , 000 1,690,000 490 , 000 250 ,000 3, 280,000 376,000 272,000 632 , 000 104,000 56,000 664 , 000 144,000 56,000 712,000 184,000 96 , 000 1,624,000 368 , 000 224, 000 9,840,000 420 , 000 260 , 000 1,640 , 000 540,000 280 , 000: 10,000,000} 1,280,000 520,000 9,640,000) 1,760,000 840 , 000 Counts Unprer MIcROSCOPE. Fields counted. Ratios Bg- TWEEN Counts. /aNe 05 A |) ra —ae — et et ee ee ee ee ee — _ on — Orbs NOVO & O10 Orr © Orr Ordo TI coor COO > CW ARMOM MAW WRENS 241. AWHOHO Op KF OF OF Ore HOF OF KF OWwWF rRoOO one NORNNAOROHEWNHNONRD DBROOR NW * Rach clump and each isolated bacterium counted as one; individual bacteria in clumps not counted. } Plates contaminated. individuals. as clumps. Table II contains the results obtained from a similar study of fifty-eight samples of night milk from Farm A. { Dilution too great. Groups consisting of two individuals were not counted A general discussion of the results in these tables and in the follow- ing tables is given on page 97, Where there is such a wide range between the minimum and maximum counts as is found in the individual columns of the above tables, general averages are misleading. It was therefore thought DATE. Mar. April New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Numbers computed for a cubic centimeter. Agar plate counts. 1,327,000 120,000 2,855,000 1,575,000 865 ,000 546,000 6,725,000 926 ,000 1,025,000 2,282,000 1,800,000 1,500,000 938,000 9,012,000 6,787 ,000 16,962,000 10,125,000 6,272,000 3,543,000 9,650,000 12,200,000 a 5d, 000 36,650,000 2,525,000 2,600,000 9,825,000 4,850,000 41,550,000 25 ,000 148,750,000 Bra 000 625 ,000 2,165,000 4,703,000 1, 667 ,000, Counts UNDER Microscope. Total Bacteria bacteria. and clumps.* 11,560,000} 510,000 10,160,000} 600,000 10,620,000) 1,430,000 11,940,000} 1,280,000 3,810,000} 490,000 6,280,000} 360,060 31,650,000} 6,100,000 7,850,000} 970,000 13,130,000} 750,000 50,800 ,000}11 , 400 ,000 16,780,000} 1,300,000 11,920,000) 1,090,000 10,600,000 800 , 000 29,640,000) 7,040,000 32,160,000} 6,720 ;000 57 ,650 ,000} 13 , 600 , 000 68, 450 000 13. 950, , 000 119,900, 000 re 700, , 000 16,530,000 1,860,000 22,420,000) 7,600,000 53, 100 ,000'12 , 900 ,000 Milk sour 5,000,000] 2,660,000 870 , 000 230 , 000 29 , 220,000) 4,260,000 7,320 ,000 580 , 000 129 , 400 ,000/31 , 600 ,000 10,920,000) 1,420,000 5,340,000} 1,000,000 23,600,000) 5,850,000 18,120,000) 4,400,000 120 , 200 ,000/32 , 800 ,000 4,170,000 340 ,000 5,680,000} 1,140,000 6,240,000} 1,320,000 31,800,000! 5,640,000 Milk sour 14,160,000} 2,800,000 1,080,000 124,000 5,350,000 410,000 9,440,000] 1,740,000 22,080,000 5,480,000 3,420,000) 380,000 Clumps. 340,000 380 , 000 680,000 720,000 330,000 240,000 4,100,000 640,000, 540,000 4,950,000 800 , 000 640,000 520,000 3,060,000 3,040 , 000 5,375,000 5,400,000 8, 100,000 830,000 4,040,000 6, 600,000 260 ,000 80,000 1,700,000 370,000 15,200,000 940,000 560,000 2,900,000 2,640, 000 11,800,000 250,000 580, 000 680 , 000 2,640 , 000 1,040 ,000 76,000 220 , 000 800 , 000 1,760,000 300 , 000 Fields counted. TaBLE II.—BactertaAL Counts or Nicgut Mitk From Farm A. 89 Ratios Br- TWEEN CouNTS ‘Aj p: I. b: te Sins 1:84.6: letras g BR (Acie g heey. URE Pog bye Iyer Ly Ve Su Ate (ZS Ue22226 INE 8) (0) IDE Merete Pod ih ahs ie ay as eae ig Bjakhe tse Gf 1:19.1: e476 iheneaie iS sabe Lar SEO! Ie 9B) Se Eres eZee iuoeyesie toe Ly hie iyo Bahere een Oe Pls bora (ve ono i ee Be ts) S53 fe “boaje 1: 4.6: 1h 20% B. & c. SOOonreCGoocoooncorqoccococoeusc ONWMOWMOONNANONOOMDMOMNSO Ww oroe i=) SVK (SS (SM r=) oO mr 00 oo Dd wr NO O10) SD OO ~I * Each clump and each isolated bacterium counted as one; individual bacteria i in clumps not counted. { Plates contaminated. t Dilution too great. 90 REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT oF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE Taste II.—Bacteriat Counts or Nicur MitkK From Farm A.—continued. Numbers computed for a cubic centimeter. Counts UnpeR Microscoper. Ratios Br- Agar plate TWEEN Counts. Date. counts. T Bacteria : —_———— otal Fields bacteria cue ean counted.|A. p. T.b. 2: . clumps.* e . . p. . . & Cc. 1913 April 30 | 1,450,000} 2,990,000; 300,000} 190,000 40\"818 2.0: O22 May 11] 1,081,000) 14,920,000} 3,520,000} 1,600,000 1D) $1213.82 3.2 2 | 10,275,000) 24,320,000] 9,040,000} 1,680,000 Wick l: 2.325 0.8 3 | 15,640,000} 36,200,000/10,440,000) 3,400,000 10) 1k 2.32 0.6 6 | 10,675,000) 30,440,000) 7,800,000} 3,840,000 1OiAK1: -2.8¢ O37 7 | 5,628,000) 28,720,000) 5,920,000} 2,440,000 1012 Sle 10 12 267,000} 4,480,000} 320,000} 240,000 20°) 1216.52 44 13 80,000} 1,408,000} 200,000} 120,000 SOL: 17.6: Qy4 14} 1,090,000} 5,520,000; 720,000; 400,000 201: 5.0: 0:6 16 343,000} 5,320,000) 440,000} 300,000 20) 70012 15.152 2 17 397,000; 7,540,000} 640,000} 520,000 2OOr LE 202s Oh 19 650,000} 10,000,000} 680,000} 360,000 LOM ALES 2S: ett 20 490,000} 10,440,000} 1,200,000} 680,000 LOMO 1: 22 24 23 460,000} 6,800,000} 1,720,000} 880,000 IO. OE 14 eo Bee 24 | 2,270,000) 22,160,000} 2,920,000} 1,800,000 LOAVEs O76 2 * Each clump and each isolated bacterium counted as one; individual bacteria in clumps not counted. better to average plate counts of the same number of digits and to compare the averages of the corresponding microscopic counts with these, as is shown in Table III. The ratios were then computed between these averages using the plate count as a basis because it is generally used at the present time as the standard for quantitative bacterial analysis. Comparisons were thus made between the plate counts and the microscopic counts when the total number of indi- vidual bacteria were counted, and between the plate counts and the microscopic counts when the isolated bacteria and clumps were each counted as individual objects. The figures given in the columns which show the clump counts alone were not considered in the ratios because it was felt that there could be no constant relationship between the number of clumps and the plate count, or between the number of clumps and the total number of individual bacteria. The milk from Farm A had a comparatively high bacterial content while that from Farms B, C and D contained few bacteria. In fact, New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 91 Taste II].— Summary or BactersaAL Counts oF MILK FROM Farm A. Numbers computed for a cubic centimeter. Counts UNDER Ratios Bs- Average of Microscope. TWEEN Counts. Rance or Acar Puate| No. bacteria by Counts. samples. | agar plate ? count. Total a iy A.p T.b B. bacteria. dlumps.* & c. Mornine Mitr: 10,000— 100,000. 39 63,000} 1,053,000 187 ,000 LEGA O40 100,000— 1,000,009. 27; 299,000) 3,965,000) 768,000 1 MSeo: 2D 1,000,000-10,000,000. 1} 3,480,000)15,160,000) 3,480,000 1am 2 See oo ea Nieut MILE: 10,000— 100,000. 1 80,000} 1,408,000} 200,000 Lee Ge 225 100,060- 1,000,000. 12) 549,000} 7,886,000) 719,000 Meo lees 1,000,000—10,000,000. 31) 3,950 ,000/20, 566,000) 3,672,000 ie seOsy) 10,000,090- up 8/19, 260 ,000/64 ,970 ,000 16,517,000 1: 3.4:0.8 some of the microscopic counts from the milk of the latter farms were too low to show anything except that there were but few organisms present. Tables IV, V and VI show the counts obtained from samples taken from Farms B, C and D respectively. TaBLeE IV.— BactreriAL Counts oF MiLkK From Farm B. Numbers computed for a cubie centimeter. Counts UnpER Microscope. Ratios Br- Diet Agar plate TWEEN Counts. counts. Bacteria : Total elt Glues Fields B. bacteria. chimps.” PS- | counted.|A- P- T.b. gg. 1913 Mornine MILK. Jan. 30 9,000} 568,000) 184,000 48 ,000 100} 1:63.1:20.4 31 7,300} 276,000) 112,000 20,000 100) 1:37.8:15.3 Feb. 3 6,000} 304,000) 108,000 44 ,000 100} 1:50.6:18.0 4 2,750} 176,000) 116,000 28 ,000 100} 1:64.0:42.1 5 7,000} 180,000 84,000 20 ,000 100} 1:25.7:12.0 6 3,000} 120,000} 108,0001.......... 100! 1:40.0:36.0 * Each clump and each isolated bacterium counted as one; individual bacteria in clumps not counted. ‘ Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE Taste IV—BactrerIAL Counts or MiLk rrom Farm B.—continued. Counts Unprr Microscope. Clumps. 8,000 24,000 16 ,000 56,000 8,000 12,000 40,000 24 000 44,000 12,000 32,000 16,000 32,000 24,000 20,000 12,000 12,000 16,000 24,000 12,000 44,000 56,000 28,000 16,000 28,000 24,000 20 , 000 24 000 12,000 12,000 16,000 16,000 | Fields counted. 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 92 Numbers computed for a cubic centimeter. Agar plate Ss counts. Total Bacteria bacteria. ra ee 1913 Mornine Mix. Feb 7 12,000 92,000 48 ,000 10 6,000) 180,000; 100,000 11 9,250} 192,000 96 , 000 13 4,000) 472,000) 108,000 14 2,750) 104,000 56 ,000 15 4,250} 108,000 60,000 17 6,870) 260,000 84,000 18 3,250) 168,000 68 , 000 19 2,700} 364,000 96 ,000 20 3,980) 208,000 92,000 24 2,630} 288,000) 108,000 25 5,100) 128,000 32,000 26 750) 228,000 56 , 000 28 2,400) 336,000 64,000 Mar. 1 3,210} 156,000 68 , 000 3 2,350 96 ,000 50,000 4 1,560) 152,000 52,000 5 3,300) 128,000 44 000 7 9,050) 168,000 72,000 8 2,500} 148,000 32,000 11 2,560! 420,000 80,000 Nigut Mik. Feb. 19 E250 TRS Cena ern 20 5,250, 580,000} 152,000 24 7,250) 264,000 84,000 25 10,500) 240,000 52,000 26 3,250} 212,000 72,000 28 14,000) 224,000 96 , 000 Mar. 1 3,500} 184,000 64,000 3 16,000} 260,000 76,000 4 6,300} 116,000 64,000 5 15,000) 140,000 36,000 U 260,000) 100,000 32,000 8 6,250} 104,000 40 ,000 11 2,250) 192,000 72,000 32,000 Ratios Br- TWEEN CouNTSs. 184s Ape. eo IO eh 0) 1: 30.0:16.6 WS Ae 7/ al 33 1:118.0:27.0 1: 37.8:20.4 lo AS bore E TL Ike Gi7/ alee ioe onl e7/ 3 40)) 1185-0800) 0 ep Qe 2iore 1:109.0:41.0 Ibs WAS MOO 1:304.0:74.6 1:140.0:26.6 1} 48.6221 1: 40.8:23.8 We Oy 4be38i 3 Le BO 7/ sls ils akssabye 7/28 ibs Ge) be aS 1:164.0:31.2 1:110.4:28.9 Io Bay gebou tile a e228 rear Ob EZe22eu 11620) GES Lo Gy) 2 eh 7 ISP GYR 2h rF VS 4enOr 1 ORS e2nee 1) 16265) 6.4 1s) ei eaiasy4 (0) Nors.—In the sample of night milk taken on Feb. 19th, no bacteria could be found under the microscope. * Each clump and each isolated bacterium counted as one; individual bacteria in clumps not counted. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 93 TaBLe V.— BacrertaAL Counts or MILK From Farm C. Numbers computed for a cubic centimeter. Agar plate Dare. counts. 1913 Mar. 24 25 344 ,000 27 21,000 28 38 ,000 31 34,000 April 1 10,000 3 13 ,000 4 6,000 7 i 8 10 14,000 11 6 , 420 14 12,000 15 17 ,000 U7 9,130 18 5,000 19 6,900 Mar. 24 34,000 25 t PH 80,000 28 6,000 31 12,000 April 1 40 ,000 3 9,750 4 5,500 7 t 8 10 9,500 11 if 14 12,000 15 10,000 17 7,330 18 7,250 19 142 ,000 Counts UnprrR Microscope. Total Bacteria bacteria. and Chea clumps.* Mornine MiLx. 544,000) 152,000 76,000 428,000) 116,000 56 , 000 500,000} 156,000 52,000 156, 000 48 ,000 32,000 710,000) 190,000 80,000 420,000) 140,000 50,000 388,000; 104,000 56 ,000 560,000} 280,000 50,000 112,000 48 ,000 16,000 48 ,000 32,000 4,000 260 , 000 68 , O00 20,000 2,960,000) 960,000} 400,000 104,000 56 , 000 8,000 288,000} 101,000 43 ,000 325 , 000 91,000 27 ,000 283,000} 123,000 32,000 164,000 52,000 24,000 Nieut MILK. 524,000! 144,000 36,000 3,220,000} 600,000) 320,000 880,000} 170,000 60 , 000 296 , 000 56 , 000 40 , 000 630,000} 160,000 80, 000 428 , 000 75 ,000 28 , 000 600,000) 120,000 52,000 310,000} 160,000 30,000 304,000 88 , 000 36 ,000 240 ,000 88 , 000 16,000 235,000} 101,000 27 ,000 240,000} 112,000 32,000 880,000} 120,000 48 ,000 840,000} 170,000 80,000 368,006) 112,000 32,000 970,000); 270,000) 140,000 5,290,000) 190,000} 130,000 Fields counted. Ratios Br- TWEEN Counts. iw) (=) Se ee — fon) NI O10 bo Or es on bo on — One won * Bach clump and each isolated bacterium counted as one; individual bacteria in zlumps not counted. + Plates contaminated. 94 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE TaBLe VI.— BactTeriAL Counts oF MILK FRoM Farm D. Numbers computed for a cubic centimeter. Counts UNpER MICROSCOPE. Ratios Br- Dien Agar platel|S) os ee de ou ad ER EN COUNTS: u ts. 5 : hare Total Bacteria Cl Fields snaiad Siena 3? bacteria. and SEEDS.) | counteddpAnpa lt ubpaoe clumps.* | & 1913. Mornina MILK. April 22 | 11,000 112,000 48 ,000 16,000 HON, ORO Aes 23 2,000 144,000 48 ,000 16,000 SOW elesieeOR2anO 24 7 144 ,000 48 ,000 16,000 ESOL ees See eae cee 25 T 740,000} 210,000 80 , 000 40: .. eee 26 8,700 192,000 124,000 4,000 LOO!) ule 2280EN Ay? 29 15,000 48 ,000 24,000 8,000 HO abe soe Mle 30 15,000 40 ,000 AQ O00 | BA aed... HO) Leo. Geno May 1 5,500 192,000 56,000 24,000 50| 1:384.9:10.1 3 5,400 384 , 000 124 ,000 36,000 TOO) Tevilele12229 6 21,000 568 , 000 128 ,000 64,000 HO) WER OS G0 7 4,700 96 ,000 40 ,000 16,000 50) 1320.4: 8-5 8 6, 200 128 ,000 56 , 000 8,000 DO e202 6c 920 9 2,900 80,000 5OROUO | Saar eree. 50) 1:27.5:19.0 10 2, 56,000 SAU eis doccaae D0\) le Zonolare 12 12,000 160,000 48 ,000 24,000 OP sakes} aie: 24.0 13 8,400 56,000 AU OU0| Ra Aeon EO) ret RO (a) 7/8 7/ 14 13,000 48 ,000 32 O00| Aa eeeohie: SON lion Osmeee 16 16,000 360 , 000 104,000 32,000 OUls Lleeeoe4 GES 17 2,880 128 ,000 56,000 24,000 50) 1:44.3:19.4 19 2,850 144 ,000 64,000 16,000 Os aos 0) Bye) 55 20 4,950 168 ,000 120 ,000 16,000 NO Web C)s eh 23 15,000 208 , 000 56 , 000 24,000 50) 5s lilaeoseonO 24 34,000 256 ,000 128 ,000 32,000 PA voy sae Az Nicut MILxK. April 22 67 ,000 176,000 76,000 28 ,000 OO el 22 Gralla 23 31,000 112,000 48 ,000 8,000 Oe elcaoeOseles 24 7 232 ,000 72,000 16,000 HOw ceeobes Soe 25 20 ,000 276 ,000 84,000 20,000 100) ell Seo sees 26 21 ,000 276 ,000 116,000 20 ,000 100) Lelsat=sbeo 29 17,000 88 , 000 24 ,000 16,000 MO ale aS be ku! 30 16,000 176,000 48 ,000 16,000 FO}, eshte Bi.0) May 1 11,000 144 ,000 56 , 000 24 ,000 0), © Weiss 0)8 55.5) 3 10,000 296 ,000 112,000 32,000 100 | els 2ORG = Tileaz 6 51,000 352,000 120,000 48 ,000 HOW eee eas 1 8,500 48 , 000 AQ 000) 2 syne eeu 50} 1: 5.6: 4.9 8 7,500 104,000 72,000 8,000 50} 1:13.6: 9.6 9 4,130 48 ,000 O2ROOO Rete cere EO) YAU Atay 77 a7 10 5,880 56,000 ASH O00 eee 0 | malas Oe acer 12 18,000 136,000 96 ,000 8,000 HO be) 7/ eH). 8} 13 3,000 112,000 SOMO0O Eamon ae HO Pe lssiieo 320.0 14 5,380 64,000 DOROOO meres 5Ole Tlie -10)-4 16 18,000 624,000 120,000 32,000 50) 1:34.6: 6.6 17 2,100 48 ,000 AS O00 csevace nes 30) W32258322.8 19 4,100 264 ,000 96 ,000 40 ,000 HOW 6423-2304 20 3,200 80,000 AS 000) e ere aees 25\) 0 250k 5e0 23 15,000 160,000 128,000 8,000 HOW SL 1ON6e Seo 24 3,100 64,000 ASS (MOON ca emiateet 25 1 20n6s15.4 * Each clump and each isolated bacterium counted as one; individual bacteria in clumps not counted. 7 Plates contaminated. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 95 Since the milk from Farms B, C and D all had a low bacterial content, the counts are combined in a general summary (‘Table VIT) which has been drawn up inthe same way that the summary for Farm A was drawn up in Table III. TaBLeE VII.— ComBinep SumMaryY OF BactTEeriAL Counts oF MILK FROM Farms B, C anv D. Numbers computed for a cubic centimeter. Counts UNDER Ratios Br- Average MIcrOscopn. TWEEN COUNTS. Rance or Acar Prats} Number | bacteria; Counis. samples. plate T Bacteria count. otal : nd = bacteria. clumps.* |A-p- T.b. & e. Mornine Mix: Q- 10,000........ 43 5,000 215,000 84,000} 1:43.0:16.8 10, 000-100 ,000....... 18 18,000 262 , 000 84,000) 1:14.5: 4.6 Nieut MILK: O= 10), 000... 225-6 23 5,500 231 ,000 62,000} 1:42.0:11.3 10,000-100,000....... 22 25 ,000 357 , 000 97 , 000 [Po Tab ae 7S! fo Taste VIII. Comprnep Summary oF BactertaL Counts oF Mitk From Farms A, B, C ann D. Numbers computed for a cubic centimeter. | Counts UNDER Ratios Br- Average Microscope. TWEEN COUNTS. Rance or Acar Puate| Number| bacteria;_ |-—-—-—AAA_ Counts. samples. plate Bacteria count. Total and B. bacteria. | glumps.* |A. p. T.b. & e. 0- 10,000 65 5,000) 221,000 84,000) 1:44.2:16.8 10,000- 100,000 79 43,000| 697,000} 141,000} 1:16.2: 3.3 100 ,000- 1,000,000 41] 369,000) 4,734,000) 723,000) 1:12.8: 2.0 1,000 ,000-10 , 000 ,000 32| 3,934,000|20,397 ,000| 3,698,000} 1: 5.2: 0.9 10,000 ,000-— up 8/19 ,260,000/64,970,000)16,517,000) 1: 3.4: 0.8 *Each clump and each isolated bacterium counted as one; individual bacteria in clumps not counted. If a comparison is made between Table III and Table VII, it will be seen that the ratios are markedly similar. The chief dif- ference occurs where the plate count is between 10,000 and 100,000 in which case the ratios in Table III are somewhat higher than the same ratios in Table VII. This is apparently due to the fact 96 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BacTERIOLOGY OF THE that the average of the plate counts in this group from Farm A is higher, 63,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter, than from Farms B, C and D, 22,000 per cubic centimeter. Table VIII shows a combined summary of all the counts from Farms A, B, C and D. Because of the selection of counts in Table VIII the range between the maximum and minimum counts according ta the plate method is limited, while no idea is given as to the maximum and minimum counts according to the microscopic method. Yet, in averaging any series of figures, this point must be considered. or this reason, the extent of the differences between the maximum and minimum microscopic counts given in Table VIII are tabulated in Table IX. TaBLE [X.— Minimum AND Maximum Counts INCLUDED IN THE AVERAGES IN THE Fourts Couumn oF TABLE VIII. Numbers computed for a cubic centimeter. Average total Minimum Maximum No. SAMPLES. bacteria. count. count. OA st REE oa oe Bik Oa 221 ,000 48 ,000 970 ,000 UO CAGES ORSAY. eo MEMEO DoS o OOF 697 ,000 40 ,000 2,850 ,000 ANI Gee ecco ie SNe iccs 5 > Cicer be 4,734,000 268 ,000 11,820 ,000 SOK acl SRE Se, ORS 68 SERIES 6 oe oan ete 20 ,397 ,000 2,990 ,000 119,900 , 000 Be eer. oe ae: Ra nad eet ene 64,970,000 24 , 320,000 129 , 400 , 000 COMBINED SUMMARY OF ALL SAMPLES STUDIED. The averages obtained from the less detailed examination of sam- ples of milk from thirty-three additional farms are combined in Table X with those from Farms A, B, C and D to show the com- parative averages and the ratios between counts made by both methods on all samples studied in this investigation. This summary of the results secured from the examination of 390 samples of milk shows practically the same ratios as those given in Table VIII, except in one instance. Where the plate count is between 10,000 and 100,000 the ratio given in Table X is noticeably larger than the similar ratio in Table VIII. In this case the total number of bacteria according to the microscopic count is about twenty-five instead of sixteen times as great. As previously stated, the microscopic counts included in this table, covering the work done on the thirty-three farms, were made more rapidly than those New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 97 on the samples from Farms A, B, C and D and this fact may possibly be responsible for the change in the ratios. No milk found among. these thirty-three dairies had a plate count of less than 10,000. The important point to be noted in Table X, as in Table ITI, is the TaBLe X.— CoMBINED SUMMARY OF BacTEeRIAL Counts oF ALL SAMPLES OF MILk SrupieEp BY AGAR PLatE anp Microscoric MeEruops. Numbers computed for a cubic centimeter. ee Counts UNDER Ratios Bre- Average Microscope. TWEEN CouNnNTSs. Ranae or AGAR Pxate| Number | bacteria; ene Counts. samples. Plate Average | bacteria B. oaLEE total and AC pee bay acc: bacteria. | clumps.* 0- 10,000 65 5,000) 221,000 84,000) | 1:44.2:16.8 10 ,000- 100,000, 108 43,000] 1,087,000} 412,000) 1:25.83: 9.6 100 , 000- 1,000,000, 122} 331,000} 4,064,000} 849,000) 1:12.38: 2.6 1,000 ,000-10 , 000 ,000 81} 3,420,000]17 ,889,000) 3,142,000} 1: 5.2: 0.9 10,000 ,000- up 14/19 ,891 ,000|53 ,061,000)11,924,000; 1: 2.7: 0.6 it aalat oc ioe eee’ Die ee ee nN * Each clump and each isolated bacterium counted as one; individual bacteria in clumps not counted. fact that a wide difference exists between the plate and microscopic counts when the bacteria are few in number and the fact that the relative difference between the counts rapidly decreases as the number of bacteria increases. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. A study of the individual tables of bacterial counts reveals the existence of a certain relationship between the counts obtained by the plate method and the total number of individual bacteria per cubic centimeter according to the microscopic method, when series of counts are averaged together. Reference to Table IV shows a series of low plate counts with a correspondingly low total indi- vidual bacterial content per cubic centimeter. Successively higher counts showing similar parallels are seen on Tables V, I and II respectively. The existing parallels are, however, more striking in a long series of counts than in a short one, owing to marked irregu- larities in individual cases. A more instructive comparison is shown in Tables VIII and X where the bacterial counts have been arranged and summarized 7 98 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE as previously described. Here it is plainly evident that a much wider discrepancy exists between the two counts where the bacterial content of the milk islow. Thus the ratios show that when the plate count averages less than 10,000 colonies per cubic centimeter the total number of individual bacteria seen with the microscope is approxi- mately 44 times as great. The relative difference between the two counts constantly becomes less as the numbers of bacteria increase. So great is the decrease in the difference that, when the number of colonies growing on the agar plates approaches 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter, the total number of individual bacteria by the micro- scopic count is only approximately 5 times as great. The relative difference between the two counts appears to grow less as the counts grow still higher but too few samples of this sort were examined to warrant a positive statement. The ratios which exist between the plate count and the micro- scopic count when each isolated bacterium and each clump are counted as individual objects are similar to those noted above, except that the differences between the two counts are much less. When the microscopic count is made in this way the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter is only about 16.8 times as great as the plate count when this averages less than 10,000 per cubic centi- meter. The relative difference between the two counts likewise rapidly diminishes as the number of bacteria increases so that the plate count is slightly larger when milk containing approximately 1,000,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter is examined. This con- dition is probably explained by the fact that the colonies on solid nutrient media originate either from single bacteria or from clumps. The mechanical breaking up of the clumps in diluting the milk to prepare the petri plates causes the plate count to be slightly greater than the microscopic count under these circumstances. See Table X. The two striking points which should be emphasized are (1) that as the numbers of bacteria in raw market milk increase the relative differences between the counts by the two methods decrease, and (2) that after the bacteria in raw market milk have increased to a certain number practically all of them grow on nutrient media when incubated at ordinary temperatures. In those cases where all of the bacteria grow, there can be no dead bacteria present. The wide discrepancy between the two methods of counting when the numbers of bacteria are low is probably explained as follows: New York AGriIcuLTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 99 Thirty-six of the sixty-five samples which showed a plate count of less than 10,000 per cubic centimeter were morning milk and pre- sumably many of the bacterta present were derived from the udder. The temperature requirements of these organisms tend to prevent their growth on agar when incubated at 21° C. Consequently many of these udder organisms would fail to reveal themselves on the plates, while they would be seen and counted with the microscope. The remaining twenty-four samples where the plate counts were less than 10,000 per cubic centimeter were night milk, but had been kept at temperatures below 10° C. (50° F.), thereby retard- ing all bacterial development. Therefore, the greater part of their bacterial flora was probably of udder origin and the same explana- tion of the discrepancy in the count would apply. The closer agreement between results secured by the two methods when the number of bacteria is high is probably explained in a similar way. Freshly-drawn milk contains bacteria adapted to udder conditions. But as the temperature is lowered and the milk grows older and other organisms gain access, the bacteria from the udder gradually die out or are overgrown by bacteria which thrive better at lower temperatures. Thus in such cases if the agar plates are incubated at a temperature fairly comparable to that under which market milk is usually kept, it is reasonable to expect that practically all of the bacteria will grow, and it is not surprising to find that tlis actually happens. It has also been observed that as the milk approaches the sourihg point there are proportionately more isolated bacteria and smaller clumps. This being true, then, since a colony on a plate develops from a single source, there would naturally be a closer agreement between the two counts. Even though some of the udder organisms do not grow on agar plates at 21° C. they are ordinarily so few in number as to have no appreciable effect upon the counts, except when the counts are low. As stated, there is a general relationship between the counts made by the two methods, yet occasional very wide variations from the normal differences between the two counts are found. For example, a sample taken on February 19 (Table II) showed a plate count of 120,000 colonies per cubic centimeter while the microscopic count showed the total number of individual bacteria to be 10,160,000 per cubic centimeter. On the following day a sample was taken 100 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE which showed a plate count of 2,855,000, while the total microscopic count was 10,620,000. In other words these two samples gave widely different plate counts, while approximately the same number of individual bacteria were seen with the microscope in each sample. In the second sample referred to there were nearly twice as many clumps as in the first. This indicates that for some reason the clumps were broken apart to a greater extent in the latter case than in the former, which of course would not change the total bacterial count by the microscopic method but would result in an increased number of sources from which colonies would grow on agar. The same difference in count occurred in samples taken on February 18 and 19. In this case however the total number of clumps, and the number of isolated bacteria and clumps together, are approxi- mately the same. ‘The difference between the plate and microscopic counts here may also be due to the greater dissociation of the indi- viduals of the clumps by shaking during the process of dilution in the one instance (February 18) than in the other (February 19), but a more probable explanation lies in the possibility that a certain species which did not grow well on agar was present in the sample taken February 19. Samples were likewise found which gave approximately the same plate count but differed widely in the total number of individual bacteria present. Such an instance occurred on March 28 when a sample was taken which showed a plate count of 2,525,000 per cubic centimeter with a total individual bacterial count of 10,920,000 per cubic centimeter by the microscopic method. A sample taken March 31 gave a plate count of 2,600,000 per cubic centimeter, while the total individual microscopic count was 5,340,000. In this case, more than twice as many individual bacteria were seen by the microscope on March 28 as on March 31, but approximately the same number of colonies developed on the plates. This may be explained by the fact that species occasionally appear which tend to grow in more compact or larger clumps than others. These resist separation when shaken. Such a condition increases the total number of bacteria seen in the microscope but does not increase the number of individual objects from which colonies develop on plates. In all of the samples studied (450) there were only three which gave a plate count higher than the total number of individual bacteria seen in the microscope. Although such counts are rare, they must New York AGRICULTURAL EXpPrRIMENT Station. 101 be recognized and explained. The first instance occurred among the samples reported upon in Table I, April 29, where a plate count of 278,000 and a total microscopic count of 268,000 per cubic centi- meter was obtained. The second case of this kind is found in Table IV in a sample of night milk taken March 7, where a plate count of 260,000 and a microscopic count of 100,000 per cubic centi- meter was obtained. The third occurred among the samples which were taken during the summer and which are summarized in Table X but not given in detail. In this case the plate count was 2,150,000 per cubic centimeter while the total number of individual bacteria by the microscope was 960,000 per cubic centimeter. In each of these three cases the duplicate plate counts agreed well and there was no evidence of contamination in any of them. Outside of error in technique there remains another possibie explanation. Organisms may have been present which were so small that they were overlooked in the stained casein. If such a condition is the true explanation it is so uncommon as to be negligible, since there were only three samples in which it occurred. In the work done on the thirty-three dairies which was summarized in Table X, sixty samples out of the two hundred and twenty-five were passed as having too few bacteria to count under the micro- scope. The corresponding plate counts of these sixty samples showed forty-two to have less than 50,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter while eight were between 50,000 and 100,000, eight between 100,000 and 200,000 and two higher than this. One of the latter was prob- ably contaminated in the plating, as the duplicates were very irreg- ular and gave an average count of 883,000 per cubic centimeter. Of the one hundred and twenty samples given in Tables IV, V and VI, one hundred and one showed so few bacteria that none would have been found if only a few fields of the microscope had been examined. Of the one hundred and one samples, sixty-five gave a plate count under 10,000 per cubic centimeter, thirty-four were between 10,000 and 100,000 and two above this. The average of these one hundred and sixty-one plate counts where no bacteria could be found in a few fields of the microscope was 29,000 per cubic centimeter. In other words it seems safe to assume that practically all samples passed by the microscope as having too few bacteria to count when five fields are counted would yield a plate count of less than 100,000 per cubic centimeter. 102 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE A question which naturally follows is: How many samples giving plate counts below 100,000 per cubic centimeter show microscopic fields in which bacteria can be easily and quickly seen? Out of the four hundred and fifty samples examined there were two hundred and forty-six which gave plate counts below 100,000 per cubic centi- meter and sixty-seven of these gave microscopic smears in which bacteria could be readily found. In other words the plate method passed sixty-seven of the two hundred and forty-six samples as having less than 100,000 per cubic centimeter while the microscopic examination showed that they had many more bacteria than this. Thus the microscopic method is the more severe test and probably the more accurate. It is more difficult to estimate the value of the microscopic method when applied to milk with very low counts. Many of the samples in Tables IV, V and VI are equivalent to the bacterial requirements of certified milk, averaging about 5,000 per cubic centimeter by the plate method, while the total number of individual bacteria by the microscopic count averages about 221,000 per cubic centimeter. This shows that the plate method does not reveal all the bacteria and that the extremely low counts secured by means of the agar plate count for certified milk are often misleading. The results indicate the possibility of the application of the microscopic method to counting the bacteria in certified milk, but a careful detailed count would be required. Those who have not tried it may think this a laborious operation but it is not a difficult nor a tedious task to examine as many as one hundred fields of the microscope in which only a very few bacteria can be found. Inequality in size of clumps and varying degrees of tenacity with which different species resist separation by shaking were undoubtedly some of the unmeasurable factors which were largely responsible for the irregularities in results secured by the two methods of counting. The average-sized clump found contained from four to sixteen or twenty bacteria and clumps were frequently seen which contained as high as seventy or eighty individuals. Ordinarily little difficulty was experienced in counting all the bacteria in clumps no larger than these. Clumps were occasionally found which contained more than one hundred individuals and these frequently could not be accurately counted, especially if they were very compact. In one instance a dense clump covering more than one-half of the whole . New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 103 microscopic field was seen. Since these large, compact, uncountable clumps do not appear to be common in milk they are, practically, negligible. In spite of the uncertainty in the plate counts intro- duced by the clumps it is interesting to note that there appears to be afair degree of relationship between the two counts in a great number of samples, sufficiently close at least to establish a relationship between the two methods when long series of counts are compared. In discussing the irregularities which occur between the two counts the question of dead bacteria must be considered. There is little reason for believing that there are many dead organisms present in fresh, unpasteurized milk excepting possibly some udder species which die off at low temperatures. These are so few in number as to be of no consequence. This fact is substantiated by the results obtained. Moreover, it is well understood that normal fresh milk is such a favorable medium for bacterial life that practically all bacteria thrive in it, or at least exist in an inactive state until so many are present that overcrowding occurs. Then, of course, many are killed. As previously stated, none of the samples taken were more than fifteen hours old and therefore all may be regarded as fresh milk. Where market milk is produced under variable conditions and is continually subjected to contamination, it might occasionally become inoculated with bacteria which do not grow well in milk. In such cases there might be enough dead bacteria to cause appreciable variations between the counts obtained by the two methods, but this would be rare. This might be what actually happened in the sample taken on February 19 (Table II). There is no proof, however, that this is the explanation of this particular discrepancy between the two counts. This much can be said, that the microscopic method shows more accurately the total number of living and dead bacteria present in all samples. The number of bacteria, whether dead or alive, is indicative of the past history of a given sample of milk and of the danger of contamination to which milk has been exposed. It is known that dead bacteria do not stain as well as living ones and that they soon disappear as stainable objects. The exact effect which the dead bacteria in pasteurized milk would have upon the microscopic count, or how efficiently the microscopic method would determine the bacterial quality of pasteurized milk, is as yet unknown. 104 Report or Tur DepartMEeNT or BACTERIOLOGY OF THE A DISCUSSION OF THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVAN- TAGES OF THE MICROSCOPIC AND PLATE COUNTS. The advantages and disadvantages of these two methods have been tabulated in Table XI and a brief discussion of the more important points follows. TasLe XI.— Tur ApVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE Direct Microscopic Metuop as CoMPARED WITH THE PLATE METHOD. DISADVANTAGES. Direct microscopic method. . Difficult to measure so small a quan- tity of milk accurately. . The sample measured is too small to be representative. . Dead bacteria may be counted. . Error of count is great where bacteria are very few or many. . Cannot be used for quantitative work when the bacteria are few in number. . Many fields must be counted, because of the uneven distribution, if an accu- rate count is required. . Large, compact clumps cannot be counted. . Bacteria may be lost in process of pre- paring slides. Plate method. 1. All bacteria do not grow on the plates because of changes in food, tem- perature relations, or other con- ditions of environment. 2. The difficulty of breaking up the clumps in the milk affects the accu- racy of the count. 3. Requires from 2 to 5 days’ incubation period. 4, Different species require different in- cubation temperatures. 5. Gives no idea of the morphology of the organisms present. 6. More apparatus required, therefore more expensive. Technique com- plicated and difficult for trained bacteriologists to use in such a way as to secure consistent results. ADVANTAGES. . Less apparatus required, therefore less expensive. Technique simple. . The results on a given sample can be reported within a few minutes. . Shows the cell content, the presence or absence of streptococci and other important things necessary in esti- mating the sanitary quality of milk. . Gives a better idea of the actual num- ber of germs present. 1. Is necessary for isolation of pure cultures. 2. Gelatin shows the liquefiers and, if litmus is used, the acid-producing bacteria. 3. Shows character of growth. 4. Shows living organisms only. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 105 Form of pipette.— Three differ- ent forms of pipettes * were tried but the one which gave the most satisfactory results was the straight-bored, square-tipped pipette shown in Fig. 2. This pipette is slightly different from the one originally figured by Breed, which was similar to Fig. 1. The objection to the latter pipette is that the beveled tip causes the milk to run back on the outside of the pipette in such a way as to make it difficult to deposit the whole drop. This does not happen if the tip is squared as in Figs. 2 and 3. Fig. 3 shows another form in which the bore is slightly widened near the graduation mark. This feature saves time because it is difficult to stop the meniscus in a straight bore at the desired point. This form of pipette has one. objection, however, in that the wider the bore the greater the chance of error in measure- ment, but, on the whole, this pipette is almost if not quite as 5 satisfactory as the one shown in Fig. 2 Error in measurement of sample.—It is difficult to measure quantities as small as 0.01 of Cama Pear ae ae ne Bacteria rn Mix. with capillary pipettes. The *Since the above was written a new form of pipette has been devised by Dr. Breed which is more satisfactory than any of those figured. It can be obtained of Bausch and Lomb Optical Co. 5 106 Report or THE DeparTMENT oF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE weighing of a few samples from different pipettes demonstrates, however, that the error is ordinarily due more to faulty graduation and form of tip than to the inability to measure successively quan- tities which weigh approximately the same. This is shown in Table XII which gives the weights of several samples of milk obtained from different pipettes, together with the percentage error. The computation of this error is based upon the specific gravity of milk as 1.032. The percentage error of the same pipettes as determined by calibration with mercury is also given. Pipettes A, B and C were straight-bored with square tips (See Fig. 2). Pipettes D and E were straight-bored with beveled or rounded tips (See Fig. 1). The tip of pipette D was, however, so slightly rounded that no difficulty was experienced in depositing the whole drop of milk. Pipette F was the one shown in Fig. 3. Evaporation of milk during weighing may have caused some of the irregularities in the weights given, but this error must have been practically the same in all cases. One thing shown by these figures is that it is unwise to trust to the calibration of such pipettes by commercial firms. The tests indicate that capillary pipettes such as these should be so calibrated with mercury as to have an error of approximately plus 5 per ct. in order to deliver the correct amount of milk (.0103 grams). Pipette C was the one chosen for use in the present investigation. Small samples not representative— Objection has been raised to the studying of so small a sample of milk because of the possibility that it will not be representative of the whole. Table XIII shows counts made on three samples of milk, from each of which four dupli- cate smears were prepared and counted, which indicate that this is not a serious error. ‘These three samples are typical of a large series of duplicate microscopic counts which have been made. The irregu- larities are no greater than those found in duplicate counts made by the plate method. Few or many bacteria.— The error of count is greater where there are only a few organisms present, because it is easily possible to over- look some. The finding of one organism or the failure to find one organism means a difference of several thousand in the final count, the exact amount depending upon the number of fields counted. If an accurate count must be made on such samples then it is neces- sary to count a large number of fields. Under ordinary circumstances it is not necessary to do this, for it is soon seen that the sample con- 107 NT STATION, 4 New York AGricutturAL HxpPEeRIME 8+ Lt “AUNOYUAN HLIM GHLVUREITVO NOHM SHLLAdId JO YOUR BOVINGIYAA Lea CaGSam 0 Sc— Sheltie. ; Nee SRS UaES Ge Re RR cic oh F 0900 hho es : cba oats Sees cate tee. oc 9¢° SF 9c00 €9° CI 0600 cr is 0S00° LL OV T1900 0S OT 9800 cr 1g 0S00° 08 6§ 6900 G3 TF 8600 Lv LS FOO" 98° LE F900 €8° SS OSO0 cr I¢ 0S00° G6 GSE 9900 €2°8 4600 €€° S¢ 9700 98 LE F900 29 lag “SUDA 19 lad “SUDA 19 lad “SUDLD “IOII *soydures *IOLIG, ‘sojdures *IOLI, ‘soydues T4519 FYSIOM qqSIO MA “q WLLadI g ‘Yq GLa g ‘q Giiadig 16 GOTO €Z8 ¥600 16 6G OOTO C87 8600 L6 GOTO 99 lag "SULDAD) ‘lo1lIq, «| ‘sojdures VS19 MA ‘+ TLLadIg C37 8600 16 cOLO 16 GOTO 16 GOTO L6 GOTO 26 FOTO L6 GOO 16'G OOTO 90 lad “SUD ‘I011q | ‘sojdures 14319 MA ‘q TLLadIg ¢9+ 26° COLO" 16'G 0010" 16° GOTO” 16 FOTO 16° GO10" 09° OT 6600" 16° GOTO” L6° GOTO" 0 ag | “SwDLD “IolIgq, |*sojdures VYSTOM ‘yY WLLadig ‘HTIW JO SHIdWVS UALAWILNGD O14NO [0') JO SLHDIGM AAILVUVANOO ‘HII 1O SHIANVG TIVNG ONINV], YO SALLAUIG INGUAIMIGG AO AOVUROOW FAILVIGY —][X Wavy, NT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE = 2) Report oF THE DEPARTMI 108 ‘S[SNPIAIpU! 91oUI 10 ¢ Jo SduINy{d Jo JoquINu 94} 9}¥OIPUI SisoqzueIed Ul saInsIy¥— ALON, ee ——————EeE————EE———————— ed) 000‘09T‘OI—"2 “2 red Biiez0eq Jo Jequinu osBIDAY (pa 000‘ 00% ‘8 000‘ OFF ‘FT 000‘0F0‘9 000‘092‘TT (9) 012 (2) 198 (ST) IST (ST) F6z 0 0 (1) OT Om (Z) L&T 0 (1) 22 (1) 9 (I) SI (1) t I (1) 8 0 (T) ¢2 0 (T) ¢¢ I (Z) (Z) ST (2) 8 0 (1) 82% (Z) 06 0 (Z) ST (+E (Z) IT (Z) 8 0 G (Z) ST 0 Z (1) (I) #1 (Z) SOT (I) 2 0 (Z) 2 (Z) 0¢ ‘IB9UIS YOR UO pazUNod sppey uay, “Ee ‘ON s{duIeg 000‘0F2Z‘0I—2 *9 dod et1oj0¥%q Jo Joquinu esvi0Ay eh 000‘ 099 ‘ST 000‘0¢9‘ST 000‘098‘¢ 000‘008‘9 (LT) 628 (LT) #88 (02) #8 (ST) OLT (Z) SI (Z) OT (T) LT (1) F (Z) ZLT (1) 2 (¢) LT (¢) g¢ (T) 21 (Z) 96 (Z) OT (¢) Ze (Z) ST (Hse (¢) ¢g (1) F (1) FT (Z) 99 (2) 8 (1) 6 (1) ¢ (T) 61 (Gi) (1) OT (1) ZI (¢) GF (Z) ZI (1) F (1) 9 (I) $21 (1) OT (1) F Alar alt rd 9 (T) ST (F) 22 (Z) If (g) GI St 54 Teoulg ‘e Ivoulg 6 Ieoulg al Ivaulg S| *IBaUIS YORE UO pajuNod sppey ay, “7% ‘ON e[dueg 000‘S8F'T—'2 °9 red eiiezO¥eq JO JequIN=2 osBIBAY — 000‘068‘T 000‘ 282 ‘T (OT) ¢8 (6) 22 0 Z G (1) t (1) F I 0 z 0 0 q 0 (1)¢ (1) F (1) F (I) 22 (1) 8 0 (1) 9 0 0 0 C (T) IT Zz g 0 0 (1) 2 0 (1) 8 (1) 9 0 (1) F 0 (1) 8 0 0 (1) F (1) 9 0 0 (1) OT 0 (1) 8 if 0 0 0 (1) F 'f AIBvgulg te Ivaulg Ivouls Yove UO pazyUNod spjey eAy-A}UOM TF, 000‘0zT‘Z 000‘S8T9‘T (1) LOT (FI) SOT (1) 9 0 (1) 8 (1) g (Z) 61 (1) F (I) F 0 0 (Z) ST (Z) OT 0 (1) 9 0 0 0 it (1) 9 0 0 Z 0 0 (Z) OT (Z) 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 (1) 8 (1) 6 (1) 8 (I) ST 0 0 (g) ¢8 0 0 I I 0 if (1) F (1) 9 0 (1) ¥ 0 I r G IBIUIg - Ivoulg ‘T ‘ON edu, “MII, JO SUIMNVS ATNH], WOU SUVANG AO SATAY OIAOOSOUOIP NI GNNOW SdWNTD ANV VINGLOVG TVOGIAIGNT FO YAAWNN ONIMOHS SLNNOD TVOIdAT, —TI[X PIAvVyE; New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Srarion. 109 tains very few bacteria and the precise count makes little difference. If there are many bacteria present in the smear it is often impossible to count the whole field of the microscope, owing to confusion caused by lack of guide lines. An eye-piece micrometer, ruled in squares, overcomes this difficulty. Here, too, it is not necessary to count a large number of fields, for it is soon seen that the milk is of poor quality. Uneven distribution.— A more real source of error than the agree- ment or lack of agreement between duplicate counts is the uneven distribution of bacteria in the smear. It is evident that for accu- Yas on fi LY Benton Hanp Tatty REGISTER, rate quantitative work several fields must be counted to overcome this error. This is a laborious operation if large numbers of bac- teria are present. Fortunately practical experience has shown that accurate counts are not necessary in order to form a satisfactory idea of the amount of bacterial growth which has taken place in a given sample of milk. Counting is much more easily done if a hand tally register is used. Thiscan be procured from hardware dealers. Counting of the whole field— Another error which becomes important in some cases lies in attempting to count the whole microscopic field. The margin of the microscopic field is invariably so hazy as to obscure the bacteria lying in this region. This error is not serious, however, where few organisms are present, but becomes 110 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE serious in the case of fields containing large numbers of bacteria. The use of the micrometer referred to above obviates this difficulty. Dead bacteria.— Dead bacteria may be counted. In normal fresh milk however, there is every indication that they are a negli- gible factor, as previously explained. Large clumps.— Even though all bacteria in compact clumps cannot be counted, such clumps occur so infrequently that they may be regarded as unimportant. Cells and streptococci Thus far the sanitary significance of tissue cells and streptococci is still a matter of discussion. They are both readily seen and counted. This point is discussed in detail in Bulletin No. 380 of this Station. Loss of bacteria.— The question whether bacteria are lost in the preparation of the slides is discussed on page 111. TWO OTHER DIRECT MICROSCOPIC METHODS OF MILK EXAMINATION. Skar’s method.— This method of making milk smears differs from that used in these investigations in that the stain is put directly into the milk as described on page 82 and the smear is dried and studied without washing, or dissolving out the fat. This procedure was planned in order to avoid all washing of the smears which, it was feared, would remove some of the bacteria. The principal aim in making a study of this method was to determine whether this possibility was a real one, because at first thought it appears to be perfectly reasonable. Comparisons were made between various smears prepared from milk having a high bacterial content. The resulting counts are given in Table XIV, and show the total number of single bacteria per cubic centimeter, the clumps having been disregarded. An examination of these results shows that while there is some irregularity in the counts, there is ordinarily a markedly lower count obtained from Skar’s smears than from Breed’s smears made from the same sample of milk. Unquestionably, this is due to the fact that the fat globules in the Skar smear are so numerous as to completely hide many bacteria from view. This does not prove, however, that Skar’s fear that the bacteria are carried away in the removal of the fat is groundless. Nevertheless, a study of the two right hand columns of figures, secured from counts made on smears where Breed’s method was so modified that 0.02 of a cubic New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 111 centimeter of milk was taken and spread over an area of 24x 20 millimeters and compared to Skar’s smear from which the fat was removed, indicates that this contention is not true. To further determine whether the bacteria were lost in the washing process, a drop of milk stained by Skar’s method was dried in one concavity of a clean, double, hollow-ground slide and treated for some time with xylol. Then the xylol was carefully allowed to run over into the second concavity and evaporated. Examination under the microscope failed to reveal any bacteria. This operation was repeated with ether, but no bacteria could be found. This, together with the counts made, shows that if any bacteria are removed in the process of preparing the slides the number is so few as to be of little or no importance. TasBLE XIV.— Comparative Counts OBTAINED BY THE SKAR AND BrEED MernHops Breed smear, Skar smear, Breed smear, 0.01 cc. milk | 0.02c.c. milk | 0.02¢.c. milk | Skar smear, Sampie No. spread over spread over spread over fat removed 1 sq.cm. 4.8 sq. cm. 4.8 sq. cm. by xylol. oie A ere 601 , 400 ,000 288 , 960 , 000 660 , 960 ,000 879 ,840 ,000 2, ALL ROOM, oa 1,842,000 ,000 | 1,656,000,000 | 2,054,000 ,000 1,666 ,000 , 000 Cs ANTI 421 ,000 ,000 182,000,000 397 ,000 , 000 362 ,500 ,000 CO SR EE 496 , 000 209 , 000 289 ,000 544 ,000 Dispeyeatet > 3,725,000 1,974,000 2,472,000 3,371,000 GM, TAMAS. 3 2,077 ,000 1,349,000 1,746,000 1,862,000 TORERIS, SEE 863 ,000 762,000 2,167 ,000 1,425 ,000 Bi cashar sasurrudegs 9,869 ,000 13 ,650 ,000 12) COOL O0OR ests ee. se Ueda ae RS 2,810,000 3, 150,000 A OOK OOO mi. Ae viet eats TOR esse 448 , 800 ,000 174,720,000 6495920 OOOH. Byes errs vis sere Diy ache, contra 372,400 ,000 458 , 880 ,000 589440 (OOO ie cere cee k's DD emote aye che a 106 , 200 ,000 BL 275000 i cae aeons he ue ee eet ISTP none NODES 5” KNW. Miva rsbeoen gore 60 ,000 Rosam’s method.— A description of the technique of this method is given on page 82. parative counts. Table XV gives the results of a few com- TaBLE XV.— Comparative Counts OBTAINED BY THE ROSAM AND BREED MetHobs. Rosam method. Breed method. 137 , 480 ,000 601 , 400 ,000 none 863 ,000 60,000 ,000 172,000 ,000 149 ,000 ,000 412,000 ,000 165 ,000 ,000 564,000,000 112 Report or THE DEepartTMENT oF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE It should also be stated that several samples which showed only a few bacteria according to the Breed method showed no bacteria at all by the Rosam method. Thechief difficulty with this technique is due to evaporation at the edge of the cover glass, which causes diffusion currents. These currents oftentimes move so rapidly as to sweep the bacteria completely out of the microscopic field while they are being counted. The bacteria in many preparations could not be counted for this reason. Another difficulty came from heating the mixed milk and stain to steaming. This caused the formation of a film on the surface of the milk, which had to be removed. It was impossible to determine how many bacteria were removed at the same time. Another objection to the method which cannot be overloooked is that there is a wide variation in the weight of the loopfuls taken. The technique calls for a platinum loop of such a size that it will transfer an average of 0.004 gram of milk and stain mixture. Even for rough work the percentage variation between loopfuls ought not to be great, but when series of weighings were made a very wide variation was found even when all possible precautions were taken to make the weights uniform. The following were the weights secured from different loopfuls of milk measured by the same loop. First Trrat — Mink STAINED WITH Seconp TrIAL — MILK STAINED WITH LOEFFLER’S MrtTHYLENE BLUE. METHYLENE BLUE AND PyYRIDIN. 0.0070 grams. 0.0026 grams. 0.0044 & OF0032 Fee 0.0052 « OROO 24 ae 0.0064 € 0.0046 =“ 0.0068 € 0.0050 “ 0.0043 % 0.0045 * 0.0055 0200234 0.0053 e 0.0025 “ 0.0061 0.0029). 0.0053 ve OL0027i) ss 0.0065 3 OF0039ea 0.0052 ee It is difficult to say how much these variations in weight were due to evaporation which occurred during the: process of weighing. The rate of evaporation is obviously high in thin films of warm milk. An attempt was made to keep the interval of time of each weighing the same, and as small as possible, in order to keep the error from this source constant. In spite of this there is a percentage variation New York AaricutturaL ExprrRIMENT Station. 113 of about 50 per ct. Such variations in the amount of milk taken make a serious error in the final computation. In addition to these objections, the Brownian movement of stained particles in the milk occasionally makes it difficult to distinguish them from the smaller bacteria. Rosam’s preparations must be examined at once as they are not permanent. This is also an objection in practical work where it is often impossible to count the bacteria at once, particularly if many samples are being inspected. The value of a similar method of making milk preparations as a means of counting tissue cells has been known since 1905, when Doane and Buckley ™ suggested a method of staining and making slides, preferable in both respects to the method suggested by Rosam. PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF MICROSCOPIC METHOD OF EXAMINING DRIED MILK SMEARS. It is impossible to say definitely how much practical use can be made of the microscopical examination of dried and_ stained milk smears. Further investigations must be made to show whether the results here obtained agree with those found by other investi- gators working under different conditions. Thousands of counts must be made before the usefulness of the method can be fully established. Other questions of great importance which remain unsolved in any satisfactory way are: How rapidly do dead bacteria undergo dissolution in milk? Can they be distinguished from living ones by means of stains or other technique? These questions must be answered before the technique can be used in a practical way for the examination of pasteurized milk, or for milks where so large a number of bacteria have developed that many have died from one cause or another. All that can be said is, that this technique is one which shows much promise under the conditions where it has been tried. It is a means whereby milk dealers, butter-makers and cheese-makers can quickly determine the exact bacterial condition of a given sample of milk. In all of these cases it is hoped that it will serve a double purpose: First, to enable a farmer who really produces “Doane, Charles F. Leucocytes in miJk and their significance. Md. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 102, 1905. 8 114 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE a clean, high-grade milk to secure the highest price, and, second, to enable milk dealers, butter-makers and cheese-makers to select their high-grade milk and separate it from that of inferior quality. Apparently the method has a greater usefulness in this way than it has where samples are to be examined the history of which may be unknown. Until the value of this method for the examination of pasteurized milk is determined it will be uncertain as to how much use can be made of it in the examination of samples of this sort where some are pasteurized and others not. The improvement of market milk supplies is primarily an econ- omic question which involves the grading of milk and the paying of a better price for that of high grade.!° The microscopic method of milk examination will aid in bringing this about because it per- mits the establishment of grades involving a bacterial standard more readily than the plate method. There are two grades into which milk can be divided naturally by this method, each being separated from the other by a fairly distinct border line. One includes those samples of milk in which bacteria cannot be seen readily after searching through a few fields of the microscope and which usually give a plate count below 100,000 per cubic centimeter. The other includes those samples in which bacteria can be seen readily in a few fields of the microscope and which ordinarily give a plate count above 100,600 per cubic centimeter. There are no other natural points by which more grades can be established and any such grades must be arbitrarily fixed by more extensive investigation and by practical experience. The basis for these statements is found in the results discussed on pages 97 to 104. CONCLUSIONS. There appears to be a thoroughly well defined relationship existing between the direct microscopic count and the plate count. This is more apparent in long series of examinations than in short series because of wide variations between results secured by the twa methods on single samples. The relation between the two counts is so variable in individual samples that it is impossible to establish 16 Harding, H. A. Publicity and payment based on quality as factors in improv- ing a city milk supply. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 337, 1911: Harding, H. A., and Brew, J. D. The financial stimulus in city milk production. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 363, 1913. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 115 a definite ratio whereby the results obtained by the one method can be interpreted on the basis of the other method. This makes it impossible to determine with a reasonable degree of certainty just what dilution to use in making plates, if it is desired to sup- plement the microscopic work with a cultural study. A much wider relative difference exists between the two counts where the bacteria are few in number than where they are are numerous, with a rapidly decreasing difference as the numbers of bacteria increase. This is not only true in a comparative series of counts but it holds true for many individual samples. When the plate count averages less than 10,000 per cubic centimeter the total num- ber of individual bacteria as seen by the microscope is about 44 times as great, but when the plate count approximates 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter the total number of individual bacteria is only about 5 times as great. The difference, however, between the plate count and the microscopic count where each isolated bacterium and clump is regarded as an individual object is much less, being only about 17 times as great as the plate count when this averages less than 10,000 per cubic centimeter. The two counts are practically the same when the plate count approximates the 1,000,000 mark. This clearly indicates that the bacteria found in unpasteurized market milk containing 1,000,000 or more bacteria per cubic centimeter practically all grow on nutrient agar media if incubated at ordinary temperatures. These facts demonstrate that the bacterial count obtained in milk by the direct microscopic method is equally as good if not a better criterion of its bacterial content than the count obtained by the plate method. Whatever may have been the cause of such vari- ations as those cited on page 100, it is unquestionably true that the microscope reveals the actual germ content of such samples as the one taken on February 19 (Table II) more accurately than does the plate count. Since the number of bacteria present in a given sample of milk is indicative of the care and of the contaminating influences to which the milk has been subjected, the plate method failed in this particular case to reveal what it is generally supposed to reveal. In other words the plate count gives the idea that this particular sample of milk was of a much better quality than those taken on February 18, 20 and 24 from the same farm, while the microscope shows that this was not true. 116 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BacTERIOLOGY. In spite of the limitations of the microscopic method it possesses these advantages: In some samples it shows the presence of bacteria not adapted to growth on gelatin or agar; the results can be obtained within a few minutes from the time the sample is taken; the initial expense for apparatus and equipment is less than that required for the plate technique and the depreciation very slight; a technically trained man is not essential as is the case where the plate method is used. The microscopic method of milk examination has its limitations as well as the plate method, and the limitations of the two methods are such that the one supplements the other. For commercial work with unpasteurized market milk the microscopic method for determining bacterial quality shows promise of greater usefulness than the plate method. CELLS IN MILK DERIVED FROM THE UDDER* ROBERT §8. BREED. SUMMARY. 1. Cells of two entirely different kinds are discharged in the milk of all cows throughout the entire lactation period. The larger number of the cells are leucocytes (white blood corpuscles) while a smaller number are epithelial celis, nuclei or other fragments of such cells. The epithelial celis here referred to are apparently the same as the colostral corpuscles of the majority of earlier writers. 2. The evidence thus far obtained indicates that the largest average number of cells occurs in colostral milk but equally large numbers of cells occasionally occur in milk drawn at any time during the lactation period. Several very high cell counts have been obtained from the milk of animals nearing the end of the lactation period, and the evidence here given indicates that such high counts are more common during the latter part of the period than during the height of lactation, but the average cell counts for the latter part of the period do not seem to be markedly higher than the average cell counts for the earlier part of the period. 3. There are marked daily variations in the number of cells dis- charged, the cause or causes of which have not yet been discovered. No constant relationship holds between the number of cells dis- charged in the foremilk and the number discharged later in the milking process. There is a constant increase in the number of cells discharged in the strippings, the cause of which is not yet clear. The four quarters of the udder do not act as a unit in the discharge of the cells but show as wide variations in number and character of the cells discharged as do separate udders. 4. Of 122 cows whose milk has been examined, 59 gave cell counts under 500,000 per cubic centimeter, 36 gave counts between 500,000 and 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter, and 27 gave counts over 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter. The average cell count was 868,000 per cubic centimeter. 5. The investigations here carried out have not demonstrated what relationship exists, if any does exist, between the number of * Reprint of Bulletin No. 380, March; for Popular Edition see p. 900. [117] 118 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE cells discharged and specific bacterial infections of the udder. Such being the case, it is impossible to decide whether or not the discharge of large numbers of cells or of specific kinds of cells in connection with streptococci or other bacteria has any sanitary significance. 6. Considerable changes in the amount of vacuum used to operate cow milkers were found to be entirely without effect on the cell content of the milk. Several things seem to indicate that the number of cells present in milk drawn by a machine operated by the use of a vacuum is somewhat less than the number present in hand- drawn milk. The results obtained show that there is no reason for thinking that changes in the vacuum or that high vacuums may in themselves cause the discharge of excessive numbers of cells or that high vacuums may draw blood from the interior of the udder. 7. The method of preparing dried milk smears here used has been found to give excellent results. It is a comparatively simple method to use and has the added advantage that the smears so prepared can be used for counting the bacteria present as well as the cells. The conclusion formulated in earlier papers, that none of the results obtained by previous investigators who have determined the number of cells by counting them in centrifuge sediments are accurate enough to be of value other than to show general conditions, has been entirely substantiated in the present investigation. INTRODUCTION. Normal milk is a secretion which shows large numbers of small fat drops in it when viewed under the microscope. Among these fat drops there may be seen certain cells derived from the udder of the cow. The exact nature of these cells is still disputed by some but there can be little doubt that the majority of them are leuco- cytes (white blood corpuscles) which have made their way into the milk from the lymph or blood of the cow. Others of these cells, less in number, are epithelial in nature; that is, they are worn-out secreting cells of the udder itself. The number of these cells in milk is discussed at length in a paper by Breed and Stidger! where the following conclusion is reached: 1 Breed, R. S., and Stidger, I. R. The number of cellular elementsin milk. Jour. Inf. Dis., 8 : 361-385, 1911. New York AGrRicuLTuRAL ExprrRIMENT Station. 119 “ The number of cellular elements in cows’ milk varies from numbers so few as to be almost negligible (less than 5,000 per cubic centi- meter) to 20,000,000 and more per cubic centimeter in milk which we have good reason for calling normal.” The hygienic significance of the cells has been much discussed because of the fact that many men have felt that the presence of large numbers of leucocytes is an abnormal thing and therefore undesirable. It has also been generally believed that there is a close relationship between the presence of pathogenic streptococci of the kind that cause mastitis, and large numbers of body cells. Milk containing large numbers of cells has therefore been frequently condemned as unhealthful food. Moreover, because of the fact that milk clarifiers remove these cells from the milk in large numbers, the question has been raised whether this removal may not be an advantage. It therefore becomes an important question to the dairy farmer to know whether there is any justification in fact for these beliefs and statements. This bulletin gives the results of some investigations which have been made in order to secure more information concern- ing the nature and significance of the cells. All of the determinations of the number of cells in milk have been made by means of a comparatively new method of milk examination which is discussed in detail in Bulletin 373 of this Sta- tion. The latter bulletin likewise discusses the usefulness of this microscopical method of counting objects in dried, stained films of milk as applied to bacteria, while the present bulletin shows the usefulness of the method as a means of determining the cellular content of the milk. ! ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The writer is under special obligations to Dr. H. A. Harding, former head of the Bacteriological Department at this Station, for his courtesy in having placed the facilities of the laboratory at the writer’s disposal during February and March, 1911, at which time he was on leave of absence from Allegheny College. The work reported here was largely accomplished during this time. Through- out the study, Dr. Harding maintained a lively interest in it and aided materially in planning some of the experimental work. Special acknowledgment of help rendered is also due Mr. G. A. Smith, 120 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE Dairy Expert at the Station, who has courteously placed the records of the Station herd at the author’s disposal. The completeness of these records adds greatly to the value of the work. Mr. J. K. Wilson, former Assistant Bacteriologist at the Station, Mr. G. L. Ruehle, Assistant Bacteriologist at the Station, and Mr. [. R. Stidger and Mr. F. C. First, former Assistants in Biology at Allegheny College, have all helped in the work. Credit is given to them for this help in the body of the paper. PRESENT STATUS OF THE QUESTION OF THE HYGIENIC SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BODY CELLS IN MILK. It has long been known that many of the secretions of the human body contain cells discharged from the tissues of the body, and that these cells are in general of two kinds: (a) Epithelial cells discharged either from the secreting portions of the glands or from the lining of ducts or general epithelial surfaces, and (b) leucocytes which make their way through the walls of the capillaries and the lymphatics into the epithelial layers which form the secretion of the gland and thus, finally, into the secretion itself. Under certain pathological conditions the discharge of these cells may increase greatly above the normal amount. Under normal conditions, the secretion of the sebaceous glands, which lie at the roots of the hairs of mammals, is entirely composed of disorganized cells which in this case are of an epithelial nature. The saliva in the mouth commonly contains leucocytes together with numerous cells discharged from the epithelial lining of the mouth and the salivary glands. Cellular debris from a variety of sources occurs in urine under normal conditions. It has likewise been known since 1837? that colostral milk con- tains certain cellular bodies called colostral corpuscles. These corpuscles have usually been regarded as detached epithelial cells, although some have claimed them to be leucocytic in nature. It is ordinarily stated that these colostral corpuscles disappear from the milk within a few days. During the period from 1837 to 1900 and later, numerous investi- gators studied the histology of the mammary gland and the processes of milk secretion. Many of these investigators found that cells 2Donné, A. Du lait et en particulier de celui des nourrices. Paris, 1837. New Yorx AcricutturaL EXprriIMENT Station. 121 or cell fragments were present in the secretion of the gland as it was first formed in the alveoli but few of them studied milk itself to see whether the cells were discharged or not. Recent workers among these histologists have nearly all recognized the dual nature of the cells, the best statement of the modern view in regard to them which has come to the attention of the author being found in a new book by Ernst 2" received while the present paper was in press. No particular attention had been attracted to the presence of cells in milk itself until Stokes and Wegefarth* called attention to the presence of leucocytes in market milk. They distinguished these from the epithelial cells in the milk by the form of their nuclei. The method which they used for obtaining the cells for examination was to centrifuge a given quantity of milk from individual cows. A practically constant amount of the slime thus secured was removed by the use of a platinum loop and smeared on a slide, dried, stained, and examined under an oil-immersion lens. When more than five leucocytes per field were found, they considered the milk unfit for use. Throughout their earlier papers, they speak of leucocytes as “pus ” cells, an unfortunate use of the word which has been kept up by many writers. Leucocytes occur normally not only in blood vessels and in lymphatic tissues and vessels, but also make their way out of these into almost all of the other tissues of the body. Thus their mere presence in milk, even in large numbers, does not justify the use of the term “‘ pus ”’ cell except where they are shown to have the significance of pus cells. Attention was immediately directed to the presence of the cells thus interpreted as ‘‘pus’’ cells and other investigators took up the work of devising better methods of counting them and of establishing definite numerical standards by means of which normal milk could be distinguished from abnormal milk. Both the method of counting the cells and the numerical standard suggested by Stokes and Wegefarth have been shown to have little value, but their work was of great importance because it directed attention to the universal presence of cells in milk and raised the question of their sanitary significance. 2a Ernst Wilhelm. Grundriss der Milchhygiene fiir Tierarzte. Stuttgart, 1913. 3 Stokes, W. R., and Wegefarth, A. The microscopic examination of milk. Med. News, 71 : 45-48, 1897. Idem, Jour. State Med., 5: 439, 1897. Idem. Ann. Rpt. Health Dept. Baltimore for 1897, pp. 105-111. 122 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE This method of milk examination was later improved by Bergey,‘ Stewart ® and Slack.* The final improved form of the Stokes method is commonly spoken of as the ‘‘ smeared-sediment ”’ method of milk examination. It has been generally used in a number of American laboratories for routine examinations, and is recommended by the Committee on Standard Methods of Bacterial Milk Analysis 7 appointed by the American Public Health Association. About the same time Doane and Buckley ® devised a modifica- tion of the ordinary method used in counting the number of red and white blood cells which they used for counting the cells in milk. In this so-called ‘ volumetric ’’ method, 10 cubic centimeters of milk was centrifuged and a suspension prepared from the sediment obtained. This suspension was examined in the counting chamber of a Thoma-Zeiss haemocytometer and the cells counted. The cell counts thus obtained proved to be higher than those obtained by the use of the smeared-sediment method. This ‘‘ volumetric’ method was later modified by Russell and Hoffmann? who found that a preliminary heating of the milk to 70 degrees C. enabled them to secure higher and more consistent counts. This modified form of the “‘ volumetric’ method is recom- mended by the Committee on Standard Methods already referred to as being more accurate but less convenient to use for routine work than the smeared-sediment method. A number of American investigators have used one or both of these methods to determine the number of cells present in milk and an extended discussion of their sanitary significance has been carried on. Some of the papers which have been written have already been referred to. Other papers are those of Ward, Henderson and 4Bergey, D. H. The cellular and bacterial content of cows’ milk at different periods of lactation. Univ. of Penn. Med. Bul., 17: 181-182, 1904. Idem. Source and nature of bacteria in milk. Dept. Agri. Commonwealth Penn., Bul. 125: 1-40, 1904. 5 Stewart, A. H. Methods employed in the examination of milk by city health authorities. Amer. Med., 9 : 486-488, 1905. 6 Slack, F. H. Methods of bacteriological examination of milk. Jour. Inf. Dis., Supple. 2:214-222, 1906. 7 Amer. Jour. Pub. Hyg,.20 (N.S. 6) : 315-345, 1910. 8 Doane, C. F. Leucocytes in milk ard their significance. Md. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 102 : 205-223, 1905. ® Russell, H. L. and Hoffmann, C. Effect of heating upon the determination of leucocytes in milk. Amer. Jour. Pub. Hyg., 18 (N.S. 4) : 285-291, 1908. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 123 Haring,!° Harris," Russell and Hoffmann,” Bergey,® Kendall," Pennington and Roberts,! Miller,!® Stone and Sprague,!”? Campbell,!® Hastings, Hammer and Hoffmann,’ Jordan,?? Heinemann, Luck- hardt and Hicks,” Lewis,” Ross,?* Scannell * and others. In 1910, Prescott and Breed ® suggested a method of counting these body cells in milk directly without the use of the centrifuge. In this method, stained smears of a small drop of milk (0.01 cubic centimeter) were made on an area of one square centimeter and the cells counted by means of an oil-immersion lens. By the use of this ‘ direct”? method they showed that the number of body cells in milk was much greater than had been supposed. They found that, in centrifuged samples such as had been used by previous investigators, a large and variable number of cells rose with the cream and so did not appear in the sediment. They also found 10 Ward, A. R., Henderson, M., and Haring, C. M. The numerical determination of leucocytes in milk. State Bd. Health Calif., 19 Biennial Rpt., 142-156, 1905. 1 Harris, N. Mach. The relative importance of streptococci and leucocytes in milk. Jour. Inf. Dis., Supple. 3, 50-62, 1907. ? Russell, H. L., and Hoffmann, C. Leucocyte standards and the leucocyte content of milks from apparently healthy cows. Jour. Inf. Dis., Supple 3 : 63-75, 1907. Idem. Distribution of cell elements in milk and their relation to sanitary stand- ards. Wis. Agr Exp. Sta., 24 Ann. Rpt., 231-253, 1997. 18 Bergey, D. H. The leucoctye and streptococcus content of cows’ milk. Univ. Penn. Med. Bul., 20 : 105-109, 1907. M4 Kendall, A. I. The significance and microscopical determination of the cellular contents of milk. Coll. Stud. Res. Lab. Dept. Health N. Y. City, 3 : 169-181, 1907. 4 Pennington, M. E.,and Roberts, E L. The significance of leucocytes and streptoc- occi in the production ef a high-grade milk. Jour. Inf. Dis., 5 : 72-84, 1908. 16 Miller, W. W. The significance of leucocytes and streptococci in milk. U. S. Pub. Health and Mar. Hos. Serv., Bul. 56 : 491-498, 1912 (Reprint from Bul. 41, 1908). 17 Stone, B. H., and Sprague, L. P. Some studies of the physiological leucocyte content of cows’ milk. Jour. Med. Res., 20 (N.S. 15) : 235-243, 1909. 18 Campbell, H. C. lLeucocytes in milk. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. An. Ind., Bul. 117: 1-19, 1909. 19 Hastings, E. G., Hammer, B W., and Hoffmann, C. Studies on the bacterial and leucocyte content of milk. Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta., Res. Bul. 6 : 189-218, 1909. 20 Jordan, J. O. Protection of public milk supplies from specimens contaminated with pus organisms. Amer. Jour. Pub. Hyg., 19 (N.S. 5) : 126-134, 1909; 20 (N.S. 6):601-604, 1910. 21 Heinemann, P. G., Luckhardt, A. B., and Hicks, A. C. On the production of sanitary milk. Jour. Inf. Dis., 7 : 47-66, 1910. * Lewis, D. M. Practical municipal milk examinations. Jour. Amer. Pub. Health Assn., 1 : 778-782, 1911. *3 Ross, H. E. The cell content of milk. Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 303 : 775- 793, 1911. Idem. Jour. Inf. Dis., 10 : 7-16, 1912. *4 Scannell, J. J. Some practical considerations on the presence of leucocytes and streptococci in milk. Amer. Jour. Pub. Health, 2 : 962-970, 1912. * Prescott, S. C., and Breed, R. S. The determination of the number of body cells in milk by a direct method. Jour. Inf. Dis., 7 : 632-640, 1911. 124 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE that the ratio of variation between the counts obtained by the smeared sediment and the direct methods varied from 1:2 to 1:41. Later Breed 2 showed that the precipitation of the cells in centrifuges and separators depended on the speed of revolution and that in gravity-raised cream practically all of the cells rise with the cream. Other uncontrollable factors make it impossible to obtain any constant proportion of the cells in centrifuge sediments. Later studies of whole milk smears by Breed and Stidger *” showed that only the general conclusions which had been obtained by the use of the methods of counting where the cells had been counted in the sediments obtained by centrifuging were of value. By the use of the new technique it was demonstrated that many more cells were present in normal milk than had previously been thought to occur. Moreover it was shown that the previous work which had claimed to demonstrate that a relationship exists between the discharge of large numbers of these cells and streptococci was inconclusive. The real reason or reasons for the discharge of the cells was not dis- covered. English sanitarians have also been interested in the problems which have arisen concerning the number and significance of these cells. The first paper found which refers to them is one by Eastes ”* in which he discusses their sanitary significance. In 1906, Savage ?° devised a method of counting the cells which was practically identical with the one devised independently by Doane and Buckley *° already referred to. His method has been somewhat modified by Hewlett, Villar and Revis*! who have made extensive studies concerning the number and nature of the cells in milk. So far as known, no investigator from continental Europe has become interested in determining the number of body cells present %* Breed, R.S. Die Wirkung der Zentrifuge und des Separators auf die Verteilung der Zellelemente in der Milch, nebst einer Kritik der zur Bestimmung der Zellenzahl in der Milch verwendeten neuen Methoden. Arch. Hyg., 75 :383- 392, 1911. 27 See footnote 1. 28 Wastes, G. L. The pathology of milk. Brit. Med. Jour. for Nov. 11, 1899, 1341- 1342. 29 Savage, W. G. Streptococci and leucocytes in milk. Jour. Hyg., 6: 123-138, 1906. 30 See footnote 8. 31 Hewlett, R. T., Villar, S., and Revis, C. On the nature of the cellular elements present in milk. Jour Hyg., 9 : 271-278, 1909. 10 : 56-92, 1910. 11:97- 104, 1911; 13: 87-92, 1913. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 125 in milk, although many investigators have taken up the study of the nature of these cells either because of their sanitary significance or because of their connection with the processes of secretion. The most important of the recent papers examined are those of Michaelis, Lenfers,®* Winkler,*4 and Ernst.* These papers deal largely with the histology of the udder and the physiology of milk secretion and give extensive bibliographies by means of which other papers dealing with these questions can be found. A recent paper by Skar * discusses the relation of these cells to the presence of reductase. The results of these investigations may be summarized as follows: 1. Normal milk contains a variable number of tissue cells which are probably of two kinds: (a) Leucocytes (white blood corpuscles) which have passed through the epithelial lining of the alveolus. Under normal conditions these are not pus cells any more than leucocytes in the lymph and blood, saliva and other secretions are pus cells. (b) Cell debris derived from the epithelial lining of the alveoli and ducts of the udder consisting of nuclei and other frag- ments of cells, and entire cells.*” 2. These tissue cells are practically absent in the milk of some cows but are normally present in the milk of the majority of cows in numbers which may reach into the hundreds of thousands or millions per cubic centimeter. 3. Free epithelial nuclei and single epithelial cells are apparently found frequently. Rarely groups of epithelial cells may be found just as they were discharged from the lining of the alveolus. 82 Michaelis, L. Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Milchsecretion. Arch. Mikr. Anat. u. Entwickl., 55 : 711-747, 1898. %Lenfers, P. Zur Histologie der Milchdriise des Rindes. Ztschr.Fleisch- u. Milchhyg., 17 : 340-350, 383-390, 424-429, 1907. 4 Winkler, W. Die Milchbildung und die mikroskopische Milchpriifung. Zischr. f. Landwirtsch. Versuchsw. Oesterreich, 11 : 562-630, 1908. 35 Ernst, W. Ueber Milchstreptokokken und Streptokokkenmastitis. Monatsh. f. prakt. Tierheilk., 20 : 414-435, 498-518, 1909, 21 : 55-89, 1909. 3% Skar, O. Verhalten der Leukozyten der Milch bei der Methylenblau- Reductase- probe. Ztschr. Fleisch- u. Milchhyg., 23 : 442-447, 1913. 37 The strongest opponents of the idea that some of these cells are leucocytes are Winkler and Hewlett, Villar and Revis, all of whom believe that the cells in milk are of epithelial origin. The evidence which they produce to support their views is far from convincing when carefully analyzed. Their interpretation of the nature of the polynuclear cells as epithelial is so unusual that it needs much more conclusive evidence before it can be accepted. 126 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE 4. When cream is allowed to rise by gravity, practically all of the cells adhere to the fat drops and are carried up into the cream layer. Separators and centrifuges precipitate a variable propor- tion of these cells and under some conditions may precipitate nearly all of them. 5. On account of this variable action of centrifuges, no method of determining the number of the cells based on the examination of sediments obtained in this way can give accurate quantitative results. Such a method as the ‘ smeared-sediment ”’? method is convenient to use for obtaining material for qualitative examination but is of little value as a means of determining the number of cells present. High cell counts obtained by this method indicate the presence of large number of cells in the milk but low counts may be due either to the failure of the centrifuge to precipitate or to a low cell content of the milk. 6. Strippings contain a larger number of cells than milk from the earlier part of the milking. The variation in the number of cells in the milk discharged from the four quarters of the udder is almost as great as the variation in the number of cells discharged in the milk of different cows. Individual cows show considerable variation in the number of the cells from day to day. The cause or causes and significance of these fluctuations are as yet unknown. A great deal of the confusion which has arisen in the discussion over the nature of these cells and their hygienic significance has been due to the assumption made by many investigators that the presence of the cells under any conditions is a pathological phenomenon and therefore undesirable. Many other contradictions have come about because of the use of inaccurate methods of counting the cells and in careless interpretation of results. The chief reason why histologists are so far apart in their interpretation of the nature of the cells is because they have not fully realized the extent of individual variations and the consequent need of obtaining material from a variety of animals whose previous history was known so far as cell content of their milk was concerned. Histological material from normal udders secured when they are secreting their maximum quantity of milk is also very difficult to obtain, and few men have ever studied such material. Moreover the interpretation of the minute histological differences in the structure of the cells requires careful technique and great care to avoid misinterpretations. New Yorx AacricutturaL ExperrmMrent Station. 127 PLAN AND PURPOSE OF THIS INVESTIGATION. It has been the purpose of this investigation: (1) To make a number of examinations of the milk of individual animals in order to determine the normal number cf cells present in the milk. These studies are supplementary to those made by Breed and Stidger.*® (2) To make detailed examinations of the milk of individual cows in the hope that some reason could be discovered for the known variations. (3) To study the influence of the milking machine on the number of the cells present in the milk. The animals whose milk was examined were largely from the Station herd. This herd is of especial interest because the records of the animals have been well kept so that their history is known. Moreover, part of the herd was milked by machine and part by hand. This gave an excellent chance to do experimental work to determine the influence of machine milking on the cell content of the milk. The Station herd consisted of 25 full blood and nearly full blood Jerseys at the time these examinations were made. The herd was free from tuberculosis but, in spite of careful management, was not free from troubles due to abortion and sterility. The stabling of the cows was excellent and the herd as a whole free from udder troubles. No three-teated cows were in the herd and only three whose record shows a history of udder troubles of any kind. [Chloe B. (No. 7), Hammond F. 2 (No. 16), and Millie of Geneva (No. 19).] During the six weeks in which a majority of these tests were made, the author of this paper was present at all but a few milkings and kept a care- ful watch for gargety milk but discovered none. Records of the animals studied are given in Table I so far as they are pertinent to this investigation. Other records of some of these cows are given in Bulletin 322 of the Station. The animals whose names are printed in the table in bold face type are registered full blood Jerseys. The ‘“‘ Hammonds” are also believed to be full blood Jerseys, but are not registered. The others are grade Jerseys. Gerty F. 2 (No. 12), Millie D. of the Station (No. 18) and Ruth F. (No. 24) were the animals used in the experiment with the increased vacuum and Gerty F. 1 (No. 10), Hammond F. 1 (No. 15), and 38 See footnote 1. 128 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE Mabel 8. F. (No. 17) were the controls used in this experiment. Their cases are discussed in detail in pages 156-159 and 171-2. Carey Fairy (No. 5) has the habit of sucking herself, thus causing her poor records. Carey F. B. B. (No. 6) did not calve in 1911. Her milk after October 29, 1911, and before her next lactation period is not included in the total given for 1912. TasLe I.— Recorps or Station Herp. Bold face type indicates full blood Jerseys. MILK YIELD IN re o Last COMPLETE = Date oF CaLvING IN YEAR Lactation Preriop No. | NAME OF COW. Born. q PREVIOUS TO % Feb. 1,|Feb. 1,|Feb. 1, < 1910-1911. 1911-1912. | 1911. | 1912. | 1913. Yrs. Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. a Anna Giyee clave Apr., 1904 7| Sept. 8,1910 |Sept. 7, 1911] 6,920] 6,808] 4,093 2 | Carey of the Sta- tion ee Barr tho: Feb., 1903 8} June 1,1910 |July 7, 1911] 3,502] 7,194] 2,836 3 | Carey of S. B. B. .|May, 1908 3] Oct. 12,1910 |Oct. 16,1911]...... 5,464] 6,206 4 | Carey of S.F..... Mar., 1907 4) Dec. 12,1910 |Feb. 14, 1912] 6,369] 6,589] 7,513 5 | Carey Fairy...... May, 1906 5} Aug. 7,1910 jAug. 29,1911] 3,694] 7,112] 5,183 6 | Carey F.B. B....|July, 1908 3| Oct 295 1910) Wane. 14. 1012| hoa 4,756) 4,479 3 «Chloe Bitasie. Aug., 1906 5| Feb. 11,1910 |Mar. 3, 1911] 6,778] Sold]...... 8 | Dolly F. B. B....|/May, 1908 So 7 TO) Ne Tile ial fig eee 6,318] 4,785 9 | Dotshome Carey..|Dec., 1900} 11) July 8,1910 |July 6, 1911] 4,657) 8,001] 4,065 LOD iGerty Wis, Tes a). April, 1905} 6) July 19,1910 |Aug. 14, 1911] 7,382] 5,666] 6,832 11 | Gerty F. 1. B. B..|April, 1908 Si) Oct. 2051 910m s|Novae4. LON pean 5,232) 6,779 Zale Gerty ete a eee. May, 1906 5} Aug. 4,1910 |Aug. 27, 1911] 7,518] 5,570] 9,854 Sa RGertyaleiss..eee July, 1907 4) July 7,1910 |Aug. 4, 1911] 5,106] 8,027} 4,300 14°) Hammond! 2/45... ——, 1899] 12) Sept. 16, 1910 Sold 6,746) 9,446) Sold 15 | Hammond F.1...|May, 1906 5| Aug. 27,1910 |Sept. 25, 1911] 6,895] 5,587] 8,070 16 | Hammond F, 2...|May, 1907 4) Dec. 12,1910 |Dec. 27,1911] 7,174] 8,021] 7,018 C 17 | Mabel S. F...... Nov., 1905] 6 { Oux° 96’ to1o} | See notes | 4,400] Sold |...... 18 | Millie D. of the = Station@-£...25 Mar., 1902} 10} May 31,1910 |Oct. 16, 1911] 7,595) 5,666] 7,828 19 | Millie of Geneva|/May, 1903 9| Sept.18,1910 |Twin calves, Sept. 6, 1911] 2,719) 5,704] 5,559 ZO oI MUR ccc) sere July, 1904 7| Nov. 23,1910 |Dec. 3, 1911] 8,175] 2,348] 9.371 21 | Millie F. B. B....|/Aug., 1906 5} Jan. 12,1910 |Jan. 14, 1911) 5,344] 5,347| 7,421 2 INorayDEo5. ste tee May, 1903 8| Jan. 17,1911 Sold 8,492] 6,961} Sold 23) |\Noravla BBs. Oct., 1908 Sl) Jas lwo SOlda oak See Olean DAD RG hb Hye ete. cote) <4 Mar., 1906 5) May 26,1910 |June 26, 1911) 7,217) 6,683] 7,934 Dy | Tverd IMs 18h 83558 be April, 1909 2 ene ee Mar. 12, 1911)...... Sold woe. Se ee Chloe B (No. 7) at the end of her 1910 lactation period developed an abscess between the quarters of her udder, which healed leaving a hard lump. This lump was still plainly evident at the time of her calving in 1911 but had entirely disappeared before she was sold in November, 1911. See pp. 144-152. Dolly F. B. B. (No. 8) aborted her first calf on July 7, 1910, but her second and all later calvings have been normal. New Yorx Aaricurturat Experiment Sration. 129 Gerty F. 3 (No. 13) aborted her first calf on May 5, 1909. Other calvings have been normal. Hammond F. 2 (No. 16) had an attack of so-called “ spider in the teat” in her right hind quarter during her 1912-13 lactation period. Mabel S. F. (No. 17) aborted’ her first calf on September 10, 1907. This was followed by two normal calvings, after which sho aborted again (October 28, 1910). This accounts for the two calvings reported for 1910. She continued to give a small amount of milk until the end of May when she was dried off and sold. Millie of Geneva (No. 19) suffered from so-called “‘ spider in the teat’ in her left hind quarter in her 1910 lactation period, thereby causing her poor record for that year. The teat healed but was thereafter difficult to milk because of a partial obstruction of the duct. See pp. 157-160. Millie F. (No. 20) met with an accident during her 1910 lactation period, which caused her to abort at eight months (November 23, 1910). She was seriously sick at the time but recovered and is now one of the best cows in the herd. Ruth F. (No. 24) suffered from milk fever in June, 1911. Ruth F. B. B. (No. 25) aborted her first calf at eight months in 1911 and was sold soon after. See pp. 152-153. In addition to the studies made of the animals in the Station herd, a single examination was made of the milk of each of the animals in a herd of 53 registered Guernseys owned by Mr. A. G. Lewis of Geneva. Records of this herd are given on pages 134-5. Table XII in Technical Bulletin No. 27 of the Station gives a record of the kinds of bacteria present in the udders of the same cows. METHOD USED IN THE EXAMINATION OF THE MILK. The method used in counting the cells was the direct microscopical method first suggested for this purpose by Prescott and Breed *° and later used by Breed *° for counting bacteria in milk. The tech- nique of this method as carried out in this work has been practically the same as that used in the earlier investigations. 89 See footnote 25. “’ Breed, R. S. The determination of the number of bacteria in milk by direct microscopical examination. Centbl. Bakt., Abt. 11, 30 : 337-346, 1911. 9 130 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE The counting of the cells was done under an oil-immersion lens where the area of the field was 0.0002 of a square centimeter.” This is obtained by adjusting the tube length of the microscope until the diameter of the field as measured by a stage micrometer is 0.16 millimeters. The need of making this adjustment carefully should be emphasized because of the careless way in which several previons investigators have referred to the field of an oil-immersion lens as if it had a standard size. With all oil-immersion lenses it is easily possible to secure fields much larger or much smaller than the one designated by using different tube lengths and different oculars. The distinctness with which the cells show makes it possible to use the whole field of the microscope even though the edge of the field is hazy and indistinct. In all except a few of the counts here given, one hundred fields of the microscope were counted on each of the duplicate smears and the results so obtained averaged together. The number thus obtained multiplied by 5,000 gave the number of cells per cubic centimeter. All of the smears were made and counted by the author himself unless otherwise noted. Samples were ordinarily taken from the pail of milk just as the milking was completed, after careful stirring. The samples were then taken to the laboratory at once and the smears made before the cream began to form. All samples were thoroughly shaken at the time the smears were made in order to prevent a concentration of the cells at the top. I. CELL CONTENT OF NORMAL MILK. A. CELL CONTENT OF THE MILK OF THE ANIMALS IN THE STATION HERD. When the study of the cell content of the milk of the animals in the Station herd was started, a preliminary examination was made of samples taken as described above on the evenings of February 10, 13 and 14, 1911. The results of these tests are given in the column of Table II which bears the caption “ Count No. 1.” After this 41 An unfortunate error crept into the first paper giving an account of this method by Prescott and Breed (see footnote 25) where we state (page 634, 1. 14) that the area of the field covers approximately 0.005 sq. cm. This should read 0.0002 or 1/5000 sq. em. Fortunately the remaining portion of the calculation is printed cor- rectly so that the error is readily detectable. New Yorx AGricutturaL ExprERIMENT Station. 131 preliminary survey, detailed studies of individual cows were under- taken. These are given in later tables. The remaining cell counts given in Table II were secured from smears made from samples of milk taken monthly for the deter- mination of the butter fat in the milk of individual cows. These butter fat samples were taken by the regular milkers in the follow- ing way: Half pint bottles were half filled at the evening milking and allowed to stand in the milk house over night; the next morning these bottles were filled from the morning milking and the samples taken to the laboratory. The smears for the cell counts were made from these samples by the author on February 27 and March 23, 1911. After that time, it became necessary to entrust the making of the remaining smears to Mr. Wilson. The results obtained from counting these smears are unsatisfactory in some respects because of the fact that it was difficult to break up the cream clots which formed in the samples in standing over night. It is probable that some of the high counts obtained were due to this fault in the handling of the samples. How- ever, since the chief purpose of this table is to compare the cell content of hand-drawn and machine-drawn milk, and inasmuch as this error of technique is not correlated in any way with this comparison, the counts made from these smears have been included. All of the counting of the smears reported upon in Table II after Count No. 1 was done by Mr. First. Table III gives the average cell count of the milk of each of the cows in the herd together with the grand average for the herd. Eighteen of the 25 cows gave average cell counts of less than 500,000 cells per cubic centimeter, six gave counts averaging between 500,000 and 1,000,000 cells per cubic centimeter and one gave a cell count higher than 1,000,060 per cubic centimeter. The seven cows giving cell counts higher than 500,000 per cubic centimeter were Gerty F. 1, Hammond 2, Mabel 8. F., Millie D., Millie G., Millie F., and Nora D. This list includes one cow which had suffered from udder troubles (Millie G.), two cows which had aborted recently (Mabel S. F. and Millie F.), and two old cows (Millie D. aged ten and Hammond 2 aged twelve). So far as the records show, Gerty I. 1 possessed no characteristic which has ever been thought to have an influence in producing high counts. 132 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE *Aip AjreeNnN t “4s0[ epg 1 “uexe} 40uU a[dulug y GL ABI |6'°8 |GET 9°8 {ST €° OL/09¢ £° O1|0G8 Z OLOL 9°6 |S9 | sig, 41g 10 a nen ad ‘dad A Way | cz 9¢ eunft |¢ 9T/0G G S8LISTS SAT joy Arq |°** "| 4Iq = |0'F j|0sr i6 G |OLY O'S |O9T 8 G 6 ee ee a, A WY | FZ ct ig 8°¢ |0FG €°¢ |OL €°¢ {009 L°9 |SOO‘T |€°6 |00Z (6 TL|086 iG €LiSP I € Spe ae Oa ei edONT eG 0°6 |O9E‘T | IT|O8z TL ST\09L G PLS 9 9T|GLZ°T 16 9L\SP ¢ 81/S8E G 9L\OSE I 8 nA ey Oe “""Cd BION | ZS ¥°9 jOL 6°9 |¢L¢ ¢’6 \SPr¢ 9°8 |OLI‘T |€ IT\OL 2L°O1T\OS 8 €T/¢s8 8° SLjOL I ee |. ea "a a A OMIM | 1a C3 CLO SESS IRS Cc Ue aie 2S Cg ca He Aiq |9°% |o¢9 GF \OOF GG |S82 v9 |SPL GL |066‘T |Z Lee! | Sie | Ree ee ee A TMA | 06 9 ‘ydeg |°***|A1q |9°2 |$06 & F |06L Gh 4 18 |0€8 €°8 |sc6 T'6 |S9S © 8 |Sts ¢ (RS | agin on BAouox) JO ONT | 6E ee a ATGIR || ese | PATOR Aiq |" ")4iq |@'¢ |Aid |0°F |00E'T [$F |S9e‘T |8'F lO9E‘T |8 OL | aoryeg eq} Jo “C ONT | ST SSN, 1 mel AS a LeCat t 83 |06 O'€ |0Z8 TF |S08 ZS \00G‘T |€ Ore ee Se a 4S 4? | Zt 8°L |0L 8°6 |Ss¢ 9° GL\0zz € €1/S0E ¢ ST/ST O'ST/SZ 2° 91\06 O° FL/0c G Ved loge ‘6 ‘\q puomuimey | OL | STCea iene PATCH Sees &'¢ |098 9°9 |S6¢ TZ |O1P 89 |O0F €°L \0GP G el nai Hersh (OURS AE | SEL GEL|O9L ¢ |O TL\0cs T ITjs2z2 PF PLiSEr'L |8 F1\S66 6 FL/OSt i9 FL\S9S O FL\Sé ¢ ai Pa ed EG JOO E IGE S| FL y “sny |F SI 4 PSG SG G8 j0ct ¥'6 |OVE 16 |06€ G8 |SZE £6 |OLL Z ¥ on ee ee ae ow AgTOD), 18e T 1% “3nV |\€°ST\0z 7" ;SIq@ 10°F |0St O'F |08€ O'F |OSE 8°¢ |SES 0'°9 |ScPr O'F |O€T 9 eee ree ae. 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Number Cells per No. Name oF Cow. of tests cubic in average. | centimeter. 1h ie AM aboe Wh Gris Lee i Ei tee a ee ee ee ee Tf 162,000 2 elM@ sreveok thei batlonacvep. nese scrn os oleae maeioere 8 484 ,000 ori @arey Ofte beable. Seer Lied. arate Ste o fed.. eeeye 8 184,000 AS FCarey Oli bi een cist ts Se hh SE Ea 8 236 ,000 De LC ACV REAL eps s fea rsicre cnc austin e Sere se 6 222,000 Gal R@arey RE HB MBE: AES OS tel. Cemyte?., This eee, ce ae 8 479 ,000 i LG ER Ra ect M d ta le oie A RS AAD 6 201,000 SEB Woliy Mia Mstetreamegia Mans. sco ma Aen ee ee G 240 ,000 OF SDotshomelCareya ies ies: .. Reale oS ee 8 241 ,000 OR Grentv shim e ers er oe hh, 4s ee EM, | 65 516 ,000 LG EG ertyg@ieple bie sattrsocc cs. acne cece core ote ene 8 86 ,000 Pa NGentival Noe ei. eae OSLE FL). BA esa es a 284 ,000 RSE AG eM VUES act eko se ake oe ee a Sa hy | 6 223 ,000 45 Mammon 2) a wastes. a ce sac Aes is carte e BR oe 8 834 , 000 54 | PtarimMond sy elet Ae, 2. Assen. Like lle we. 64 277 ,000 Ga PElammmond tHe Oe paces ot asset ane Anes SA | 8 169 ,000 Ae PNLADCIIS Whaat. ence oath ee me he tee este 62 706 ,000 18h PME wD ofsthe Stations ase Tose lacie be GA? 3 | 1,408,000 LOR OMallievoi Geneva: s joc tase wor eire: ae bese pees ey | 68 41,000 “Alp Jou INAS ed) tig ap Peat eames ala Ratatat er 3 8 0F yn | 5 914,000 Diy ROME eR ME elie MEY, foes oo 8 307 ,000 2ROAb ANCHE, WD gto a Se cee tre > ON HELD NRCS es oie Tee 8 592 ,000 DOM NOTA PES eOIF sts ccc cs cra oh one ae eae 8 298 ,000 Po Na GORA BEN 01 18) ibe 20 Biles USER See ye ENC oo A oma ee 5 263 ,000 Pay MLRAMMN MESES apy 2 OS Soe craheca Salas. big one ns A ABA Ls 6 217 ,000 (Grandtaveray eyes.y. ccs crus ees clot ee ee eee 439 ,000 The above evidence, if it stood alone, might be regarded as indicating the truth of the statements which have been made con- cerning the influence of the various factors mentioned. But when the group of cows which gave low cell counts is examined, it is seen that this includes one cow which had had udder troubles recently and still had a hard lump in her udder (Chloe B.), one cow which had aborted recently (Ruth F. B. B.), and one cow eleven years old (Dotshome Carey). Moreover all but two cows in the herd gave individual tests higher than 500,000 cells per cubic centimeter, and it is probable that these two animals would have given higher counts also if more tests of their milk had been made. Thirteen of the 25 cows gave individual tests higher than 1,000,000 cells per cubic centimeter. This makes it highly probable that 134 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE all cows give high cell counts, i. e. higher than a half million or more cells per cubic centimeter, at some time during their lactation period. The grand average for the Station herd is only 439,000 cells per cubie centimeter, a number much lower than that found in the case of the other herds examined (See page 142). B. CELL CONTENT OF THE MILK OF-A HERD OF GUERNSEY CATTLE, Table IV gives a record of the cell counts which were made on March 2, 1911, of a herd of registered Guernseys owned by Mr. A. G. Lewis of Geneva. All of these animals were tuberculin- tested and free from tuberculosis and many of them were imported animals, some having been imported within six months. The stabling and care of the animals were excellent. The samples were taken and the smears made by the author, but the cell counts were made by Mr. Stidger. The grand average for the cells counts of these fifty-three animals is 895,000 cells per cubic centimeter. Twenty-seven animals gave counts of less than 500,000 cells per cubic centimeter, sixteen animals gave counts between 500,000 and 1,000,000 cells per cubic centimeter, while ten gave counts above 1,000,000 cells per cubic centimeter. There is nothing peculiar in the record of the animals which give the high counts so far as can be seen from the data which were secured concerning them. Tasie [V— Ceiu Content or tHe MILK or 53 Guernsey Cows. Test Maps Marcu 2, 1911. | Number | of cells nS Pounds pon ; No NAME oF Cow. per Be, of = gubie, jf eye] Mill eae centimeter. sist W| deroneerssbusyebee.. ee 7 eee ee 6,950,000 8 ? ? Sel kudymonds Maid sero peels. (eine: 1,915,000 4 1.3 158 92 | Blanchflower of Lewisson............. 165,000 4 10.2 665 254 | ShitlhysorlestEiaras pn ene ee ane 1,330,000 4 8.2 662 240 | Blossom II of the Ponchez............ 500 , 000 4 4.7 399 242 | Bessie of Mt..Plaisant VI............): 3,440,000 4 8.6 614 ZHon\ hlorarot thesbreclelie mar ae ian a temo 235 ,000 4 2.1 239 285 | Rosie of Baisseres Place.............. 265,000 4 2.83 288 255n|, Rayamond’s Primroses: ance saree eee 390 , 000 4 9.6 698 292 | Bijou VII of Beaulieu................ 370,000 4 14.8 ? Taste IV.—Criu Content or tHe Mik oF 53 GuERNsEY Cows. No. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Marcu 2, 1911——(Concluded). NAME oF Cow. Doris lvotthembertrest se. ac aes Hadyotthe Juewlssons cs apes: Aude ae France XVIII...... tices Che) armies te EAR Tafel oekey sel Gorge PA cee Amateiae teas Seat Grany Vi olethe Choppiusy.. +... 40050: Nellie IV of the Baisseres............. JBI (eC yo, Os UW vate intend Nacht | cE tee nan Dolly of the Hougnette.......-...... Tortevaliol Vanlerasc.a.ceters + 4. 4 ak IMI ze tbe malta sia, cereus satan en eee ae France XVIII’s Daughter.........:.. Ouida ofthesisle 3 5 He siete nc pt ce PH) gSH 2 oh Co C2NET BVPetee Manca A ee Raymond'st Desire wharineatelee «oo ates hoe Raymond’s Daisy of Mt. Plaisant. Riavimoncrsistellaaeercieatuarne dela Raymond’s Poundstock.............. Roserot therbrequetis. «+ schicken Raymond’s Miss Freda............... SequelissBountyancs err cccttacioone hes ADRs) Shae Rea Feay Ree as Ons OemRiNe Coa rae Snow White Queen.................. enemies) aisyy Dis srs.) pals oh eae Pollyalot the: Cloture: = i. te oe IB ilies Se tik. ee eeenireve oct. «cere oie ote Beauty or Vda Cottage; «0.46 + ee sais BISSeL Loe NiG Vilieceromen ty. cutemterscaeaa ee a Buttercup of the Poidevins........... Raymond’s Bijou VI of Beaulieu...... Miriamenii- of, thepisleasans. . sc... ste Mise rer Ore HOulonmr te. -. ciara oe se ola oe lisdyy OL sNessurlerstp me tecnd sc a5 pic aeter Trewiddem-Ransy..uee 4 4ecr. sheers Wadye lahonblllicw Mex roid ee ac obeltoe IBYUUt ave big) Ch Voie ee Fl apt a | ete 2 Oe Raymond’s Lady Poundstock......... Woadye Gree lhl ges la asta sors oobi store's Primrose\of; (ue) Gree LILe aoc. eee Moulouser Vaid Vise seacinaan soe een Poilysofvthe Russell bah. cutek ae July ehose ol, the Ialliee ea ssey. on hie etn Primrose of the Gree IV.../.......... Mignonne of the Hall................ Grand average for 53cows......... Number of cells per cubic centimer. 130,000 240 ,000 395,000 3,810,000 815,000 690,000 65,000 130,000 470,000 550,000 145,000 345,000 640,000 895 ,000 410,000 555 ,000 560,000 205 ,000 135,000 1,210,000 250,000 305 , 000 895 , 000 , years. | | | DI OIW WWONCIWWWOWNEOE RP RWNOP EEN EE EE ENWW EERO ONDLor Pounds milk. — _ -~ NN PODNWRONON OOS NO OOF ot = Ore © eed ell er H>» O> O1 © CO COrc1O Ooo > OONInI1ontomoowonsood NON oO bo ROPE Ne —_ — ~~. 4 — oe ere Sears: 1 engis aaa, Chee me ATR bob © 00 O Orr bo 155 Tust Mapr Pounds milk in Feb. eee e eee 1386 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE -| a4 Eo 8| & Sales . n S| 8 QA First count.* —_ aw) Come HOO aoon OwWonrrROoornw ~I _ w >} Bor oonOW OF OOF —" Taste V.— BactTerIA PRESENT IN THE Uppers oF 43 OF NumsBer or BAcTERIA PER CUBIC CENTIMETER OF STRIPPINGS. RIGHT FRONT QUARTER. Second count.* Notes.t All—M. 211.2323032 ... All—M. 211.2223033.... All—M. 211.2233033 ... 23—M. 212.2223533.... ise) T = bo — we bo bo Le) ~) or wo oo 24— Bact. 211.3332513... AJI—M. 221.2223532 ... © @ 6.000 0 0 0 60 0 0 0 6 6 616 e)ejele RIGHT HIND QUARTER. First count. * Second count.* 1,123] 1,123 1 7 2 7 oS) He OO Ss SIRO cosoncou — bo NT CO Sunynxaeo ) 1) 00 — LS) nS CcoOoOorRRWOH — bo Wwonre bo i bt Notes.t All—Str. 211.2223033 . All—M. 212 22230338 .. Bie ela «|= = 9je\ se =e ee)sie «leseru Ce CHORC AOR OPCHOND CHOSE CCC. Gijel ahh acd ae te Lae 208} 510) 400—M. 211.2323033...... 2 tL ly Re ENERNE Cts Speed Pastas Fale s Sethe 34| 34) AII—M. 211.2323932 ..... 1 OND nf be Te eee AML: SEER 1 6) AII—M. 222.2293533 ..... COU S OO Ges Sas eat wise certo « e 18} 78) 25—M. 212.2223033....... 30—M. 212.33335383....... AAA GA hg SERS ote Bal Pea ia eid 1 QUE st eRe Scat tie Sle OU Rite... VENT Aes tak ety ol 3} 89] 39—Bact. 212.2332633.... 5 I MonM cate mer Tae oe 8} 53) 1—M. 212.2333533....... 21—M. 211.2323033....... 2 8—M. 212.3333033....... Lt LEFT HIND QUARTER. : z ae ‘ a is) g : Notes.+ e 2 3 otes. 7 A=} 3 ram ee 3 46) AII—M. 212.2222533 ..... 7 0 | AAS * alas oA EA Ae 37 2) 220) AII—M. 212.3332033 ..... 240 2/5,280) 5278—M. 211.2223533....| 242 0 5} All—Bact. 212.38332033 ...} 253 0 DOW crak choke ca hee RGB cae os 285 1 bel Tepe Meads Pisce Koni Wp Mikeiewl Mitte 292 0 LL posite ns tan cocaine irre Scie: 307 0 Ol tccnmeren ohne crate SUE a Pee 328 1 7d bb Reis Die hd win tad it tcath hs 329 (OB nt 0 etre Lacie halal techie oa! omaha 407 14 34) 14—M. 212.3332033...... 408 1—Bact. 211.3332513.... 11} 125} 114—M. 211.2233033..... 414 0 80) AlI—M. 211.2233033 ..... 421 18 BAN nS Cb ohare getter Ge eee 429 143} 175) 28—M. 211.2323033..... 489 147—M. 211.2223083..... 1 URE ES ee RAL OLDE STAA RIEL Dads 507 G2 MO lets, ; te. ray lereepans cf ae 510 0 All seton ys a be nese 0 ct Neate IRR 511 6 VG oF PR ee AEN GE Set 8 523 2 TA) ever Ae... se Pes Ab eget, 608 21 Gar ee oer eer ontn Mat 609 2 aS eee. oan al vauec ane peaeicte 610 10 1 Us ele et Le Bk eh A Ls 616 8 Co] PEA RAOUL te EER ON ee a Ue 682 230} 490} All—Bact. 222.2222032 ...| 723 0 GURY SARE Mins LIRR N eS SS ALE Oe 726 4 LOM eh au Byay Upepnco.ents ec eye 727 (RUA eal liao atest aire ren kar, yar ng ea 729 1] 350) 348—Bact. 212.2223023...} 733 1 Veastns.. hott, 14 oe ret SNA Ae tenes care 755 ? 13,440) AII—M. 211.2223633 ..... 781 0 Oi te hh ah. eek eemedse 786 2 eee lieemysheeriten toch he eae 788 15 25| 15—Yeast 212.2332018....}) 791 2 1A bhocatescrres sua echc ahs Ueeen ARR Me 800 0 OU Apia c thdietaieraetas 801 138 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE TasBLE V.— BacTERIA PRESENT IN THE UDDERS OF 43 OF NumBeEr oF BAcTERIA PER Cubic CENTIMETER OF STRIPPINGS. RIGHT FRONT QUARTER. ' RIGHT HIND QUARTER. No. of cow Days in milk. Notes. f Notes. f First count.* Second count.* First count.* Second count.* 802/200 | 27 0 803/200+ | 0 LU) Vecetecnsebeees aubeas mi cel kn Abana fa 6 6 0 1 804; ? 0 | 480} AlI—M. 211.2233533 ... 806/200 | 3 | eas aaa en Rg ek cs NE an : tad Marsha REI RR NONE MAS cre SOM AOOS leeches sterols yeast twas saat 3 5) HOE e BABS is iodciny Gio OGY SPA aS tear een aes a bene a el fe 12 AG Hea ee xe aire neen te * The agar plates were first incubated for five days at 20-23 degrees C. and colo- nies counted; then again incubated for two days at 37 degrees C, for second count. + The first number given under “‘ Notes’’ shows how many colonies on the agar plates had the same general appearance as the colony from which a culture was isolated. The group number following was determined in each case from this single isolated colony. At the same milking that furnished the samples for study of the cell content, samples of strippings were collected in sterile test tubes, from each quarter of the udder of forty-three of these cows by Mr. Wilson and Mr. Ruehle. With the help of Dr. Harding, these samples were plated in duplicate in lactose agar using one-half cubic centimeter of undiluted milk for each plate. Mr. Wilson studied the udder ‘flora as follows: The plates were incubated for five days at 20-23 degrees C. and counted; then again incubated at 37 degrees C. for two days and recounted. Sixty-one cultures were isolated and studied as described in Technical Bulletin No. 27. The results of the tests made to determine the group numbers of these cultures are given in Tables IX and XII of the bulletin referred to. The details of the counts obtained and the cultures isolated from each quarter are given in Table V of the present bulletin. Since the meaning of the group number as here used is not familiar to everyone, the tabular statement opposite, taken from the standard card recommended by the Society of American Bacteriologists, is given: New Yorx Agqricutturat Experiment Station. 139 THE 53 Cows Wuose Crit Counts ARE GIVEN IN TABLE IV — Continued. NuMBER oF BACTERIA PER Cusic CENTIMETER OF STRIPPINGS. LEFT FRONT QUARTER. LEFT HIND QUARTER. *, Zh *, ce S ge] 3 g| 3 ‘S 2 i) 2 ) : 3 5 Notes. f 3 © Notes. f } ~ ne} 5 as a nm q n a =| ie) 5 ie) = 3 ~s D a) MD 2 13} 11—M. 221.22226382....... 9 Ch aaere lire Mirae eRe the Aa 802 NG ate ESR ee oS ORT. ARE BS 2 5 CANA Pee Seer a CTA ed a 803 0 Ci SRR ae ken Oe are Ne Beer 4 SO) ine oe er Seah a ante ets 804 3 38] 35—Bact. 212.3333033 | 97| 740) 370—M. 211.22280338..... 806 370—M. 212.2222532..... 3 East Renny Te a Hew One McaiEeas Ae 1 E59 EE aL eee ee SN Ure ree a 807 4 1D [este ots Ate caine care oiccrAS 4 23| 15—M.. 222.2223538 . 808 | eae A NUMERICAL SYSTEM OF RECORDING THE SALIENT CHARACTERS OF AN ORGANISM. (GROUP NUMBER) 100. Endospores produced 200. Endospores not produced 1C Aerobic (Strict) 20 Facultative anaerobic 30. Anaerobic (Strict) Ve Gelatin liquefied Dis 0 0 0 0 Gelatin not liquefied 1 Acid and gas from dextrose 12 Acid without gas from dextrose 13 No acid from dextrose 4 No growth with dextrose .O1 Acid and gas from lactose .02 Acid without gas from lactose .03 No acid from lactose 04 No growth with lactose C01 Acid and gas from saccharose .002 Acid without gas from saceharose .003 No acid from saccharose . 004 No growth with saccharose .0001 Nitrates reduced with evolution of gas . 0002 Nitrates not reduced .0003 Nitrates reduced without gas formation .O0001 Fluorescent . 00002 Violet chromogens .00003 Blue « .00004 Green 5 00005 Yellow - . 00006 Orange - .00007 Red ty . 00008 Brown « .00009 Pink - . 00000 Non-chromogenic 000061 Diastasic action on potato starch, strong .0CGO0002 Diastasic action on potato starch, feeble . 000003 Diastasic action on potato starch, absent 0000001 Acid and gas from glycerine .0000002 Acid without gas from glycerine .0009003 No acid from glycerine . 0000004 No growth with glycerine The genus according to the system ‘of Migula is given its proper symbol whick precedes the number thus: Bacriuus cout (Esch.) Mig. becomes B. 222 .111102 BaciILuus ALCALIGENES Petr. $ B. 212 .333102 PskUDOMONAS CAMPESTRIS (Pam.) Sm. 2 Ps. 211.333251 BacreriuM guicipa Mig. tS Bact. 222,232203 140 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE A comparative study of the results obtained from the bacterial and the cell counts is very interesting. Some of the facts which have been noted are as follows: a. In the case of nine cows whose udder flora was studied and whose cell count was higher than 1,000,000 cells per cubic centi- meter, six showed a bacterial count higher than 500 per cubic centi- meter in one or more quarters (i. e. Cows Nos. 7, 37, 242, 329, 616, 781). b. Of the eleven cows which showed 500 or more bacteria per cubic centimeter in one or more quarters of their udder (i. e. Cows Nos. 7, 37, 242, 329, 407, 507, 510, 616, 729, 781, 806), the lowest cell count was 640,000 cells per cubic centimeter (Cow No. 507, a three-teated cow). Five of these cell counts were lower than 1,000,000 and six were higher than 1,000,000. c. However, three cows with high cell counts showed low bacterial counts; i. e., Cow 608 with a cell count of 1,210,000 and bacterial counts of 37, 28, 34 and 14 respectively in each quarter, Cow 733 with a cell count of 1,370,000 and bacterial counts of 0, 3, 78 and 350 respectively, and Cow 803 with a cell count of 3,870,000 and bacterial counts of 0, 6, 20 and 7 respectively. The last cow had next to the highest cell count of any animal in the herd. d. In the nine cows with cell counts under 200,000 per cubic centimeter whose udder flora was determined (Cows Nos. 307, 414, 421, 429, 610, 682, 800, 801 and 804), twenty-six out of the thirty- six quarters gave bacterial counts under ten bacteria per cubic centi- meter, and only two quarters showed bacterial counts higher than eighty per cubic centimeter, i. e., 125 in the left hind quarter of Cow 414, and 480 in the right front of Cow 804. The total count for all four quarters was less than 450 in every one of the nine cows. It is clear from the above data that a high cell count is not always caused by a rich bacterial infection of the udder. There is, however, some indication that a rich bacterial infection causes a high cell count, but the records are inconclusive. Further records bearing on this point are given on pages 150-3. The interpretation of the data from the qualitative standpoint is almost impossible because of the confusion which exists in the classification of the Coccaceae, to which a majority of the udder bacteria belong. It should be noted that the udders of almost all of the cows were infected with micrococci very similar to New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 141 micrococci found generally on the skin of man and animals. Many bacteriologists believe these to be indistinguishable from the pus- forming cocci generally spoken of as Micrococcus (Staphylococcus) pyogenes. The two strains of streptococci isolated from udders as given by Harding and Wilson in Technical Bulletin No. 27 were both isolated from this herd at this time. One of these with the group number Str. 222.2223033 appeared as an apparently pure culture in the right hind quarter of Cow 242. This quarter gave a_ bacterial count of 16,610 per cubic centimeter which was the highest obtained from any quarter of any cow in the herd. The left hind quarter of the same cow gave a bacterial count of 5280 per cubic centimeter but this was due to an apparently pure culture of a yellow chromo- genic micrococcus which, when isolated, gave the group number M. 211.2223533. The interesting fact to note was that the cell count of this cow was high, namely 3,440,000 per cubic centimeter. The second streptococcus, which had the group number Str. 211.2223033, was apparently present in pure culture in both the right hind and the left front quarters of Cow 329. The bacterial counts for these two quarters were 3600 and 1340 per cubic centi- meter respectively. The cell count for this cow was likewise high, namely, 3,810,000 per cubic centimeter. The characteristics of the colonies which grew on the plates inoculated with milk from the right hind quarter of Cow 7 (bacterial count of 1123) were such that there is good reason for thinking that the form present in this case was a streptococcus. The culture isolated was lost because of failure to grow well on ordinary media, a further characteristic of the streptococci. The cell count for this cow was 6,950,000 per cubic centimeter which was the highest found for any cow in this herd. The fact that the three cows known or suspected to have had a streptococcic infection of the udder gave three of the highest cell counts in the herd is suggestive especially when combined with what other investigators have reported. Nevertheless the fact that there were two other cows (Nos. 616, 803) which gave equally high counts while there is little or no reason for suspecting that a streptococcic infection existed compels caution in the interpretation of this result. More data of this sort must be secured before the real condition of affairs will become evident. 142 Report or true DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE There was one three-teated cow in the herd (No. 507) which had presumably lost her quarter (left front) because of some bacterial infection. This cow gave a cell count of 640,000 per cubic centi- meter and bacterial counts of 2 for the right front quarter, 2230 for the right hind quarter, and 1 for the left hind quarter. The cell count is the lowest given for any cow having a bacterial infection in any quarter greater than 500 per cubic centimeter, a number which is likewise smaller than the average for the herd. The bacteria present in the case of the right hind quarter apparently belonged to a single species which gave the group number M. 212.2222033. The culture produced small pin point colonies on agar similar in all respects to the colonies produced under like circumstances by the streptococcus isolated from Cow 242 but no tendency to chain formation was noted so that it was classified as a micrococcus. C. AVERAGE CELL CONTENT OF THE MILK OF NORMAL COWS. Table VI has been drawn up in order to summarize all our known data giving the cell content of the milk of individual cows. All of the 122 cows referred to were supposed by their owners to be giving normal milk, although the list includes several animals that had had udder troubles of one kind or another at earlier periods in their TasBLeE VI.— Summary or Data SHOWING CELL Content or NormMau MILK Average | Number of cows giving cell aa nue counts between er 0 of cells cows in Herd from per cubic io) ran Shae eer keene ney ae of herd. centi- 0-500.000 500,000— | 1,000,000 set meter. *~~"11,000,000.| and up. 41 |*Meadville, Penn-|1,089 ,000 13 18 15) Jersey and sylvania. mixed grades, 3 |*Germany....... 932 ,000 1 1 1; Harz and Glaner. 25 | Exper Station,) 439,000 18 6 1| Jersey and Geneva. Grade Jersey. 53 | Geneva, N. Y...| 895,000 27 16 10} Guernsey. Totalee ss: Meee act ta tesare sens 59 36 27 Grand av. for 122 cows...) 868,000 Se ———————————E———— ee aaa * Quoted from Breed and Stidger. See footnote 1. > New York AGRICULTURAL HXPERIMENT STATION. 143 history. Nearly all of the animals had been tuberculin tested, though the list is thought to include a few animals from the Mead- ville herd which reacted to the tuberculin test soon after these tests were made. The total number of these reacting animals could not have been more than six. It will be seen that there is considerable difference between the various herds so far as the cell content of their milk is concerned. The Station herd gives an average cell count of less than half the cell count of any of the other herds. The most noticeable difference in the management of these herds which might have caused this difference was that the animals in the Station herd had been milked by machine during alternate lactation periods for four years previous to the time when this test was made while the other herds had all been milked by hand. The possibility that this difference in the method of milking may have had an influence is supported by the evidence given on pages 173-175. Of the 122 cows, 59 gave cell counts under 500,000 cells per cubic centimeter, 36 gave cell counts between 500,000 and 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter, while 27 gave cell counts higher than 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter. There is no evident difference between the three groups of animals. Of the three cows which are known to have suffered from udder troubles previous to the time of the test, one gave a cell count under 500,000 and the other two gave cell counts between 500,000 and 1,000,000. The general average for the 122 cows was 868,000 cells per cubic centimeter. More than half of the cows | had cell counts higher than 500,000 per cubic centimeter. D. CELL CONTENT OF GOAT-MILK. During the course of present investigations, an examination was made of the milk of nine of the goats kept at the Experiment Station. The results of the examinations are given in Table VII. For com- parison, the figures given by Breed and Stidger for two goats from Gottingen, Germany, have also been included. The numbers of cells found were uniformly high and in one case in particular (No. 8) the milk was filled with enormous numbers of cell fragments which made it impossible to determine the number of cells accurately. The figure given represents merely an approximation. The average cell content of the milk of the 11 goats was 7,465,000 per cubic 144 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE centimeter, a figure which is much higher than that given for cow- milk. The cell counts were made by Mr. Stidger. TasBLE VII.— Creut Content or Goat-MILxK. No. | Cells per cubic] ,,, | Daysin | win* | Milk.t | Breed of goat. goat. centimeter. ; milk. Lbs. Lbs. 1 1,410,000 4 21 2.9 7.5 | Schwarzwald 2 1,870,000 4 27 2.6 7.1 | Toggenburg 3 2,840, 000 8 20 2.0 5.9 | Toggenburg 4 1,125,000 5 337 2.8 {2.8 | Toggenburg 5 30, 250,000 5 24 2.1 6.7 | Toggenburg 6 17,050,000 2 29 2.3 6.4 | Toggenburg 7 2,775,000 4 28 3.6 10.8 | Saanen 8 14,450,000 6 31 1.2 3.9 | Guggesburg 9 8,675,000 5 19 2.0 4.5 | Saanen §10 425 ,000 3 215 ? ? ? §11 2, 245,000 5 215 ? ? ? Ave. 7,465 ,000 | * Pounds of milk given at the milking from which test was made. {+ Pounds milk given in 24 hours. { Milked once a day. § Quoted from Breed and Stidger (p. 381). See footnote 1. Il. CELL CONTENT OF MILK IN RELATION TO THE PERIOD OF LACTATION. The only satisfactory kind of data to show the relationship which may exist between the period of lactation and the number of cells discharged during different portions of the lactation period would be daily records of the number and kinds of cells discharged during the complete lactation periods of a sufficiently large number of normal animals to eliminate chance variations. Unfortunately the present investigations have been carried out under such circumstances that it has been impossible to keep such records. During the investigations the milk of several animals has been examined daily for several weeks or for longer periods at occasional intervals. These show some of the conditions which prevail and so are given in the following pages. A. CELL CONTENT OF THE MILK OF FRESH COWS. The milk of two fresh cows was studied, both of whom were more or less abnormal and might therefore be expected to give high cell New YorkK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 145 counts. No cells of a type different from those found in later stages of lactation were found in the colostral milk. Chloe B. (No. 7).— The first cow studied was Chloe B. She was a grade Jersey, five years old and had always calved normally. At the end of the lactation period just previous to the one studied, she developed an abscess between the forward quarters of her udder which healed and formed a bunch between these quarters several inches long. This was gradually absorbed but was still two or three inches in diameter at the time she calved in March, 1911. Her calf was born during the night of March 2, was a normal calf, and soon began to take his share of the milk. Samples of mixed milk were taken from the pail at each milking, but inasmuch as the calf took part of the milk until the evening of March 7, the samples taken before this date do not represent a sample of the entire milking. Samples of milk were taken from single streams of each quarter of the udder beginning with the evening of March 4. As shown in Table VIII, these samples were taken either from the first stream drawn, or when the milking was approximately half done, or from the strippings. Samples of the foremilk, middlemilk and strippings were taken from the evening milkings only. TasLe VIII.— Cexizi Conrent or THE MILK or Cutoz B. (No.7). Numbers given in thousands per cubic centimeter. Win Number of cells in the milk of ee each quarter. Date,| cells in |-—H—_—_—_—_—_—___ Milk Notes. 1911) whole | Right | Right | Left | Left ‘ front. hind. | front. | hind. Sample drawn thirty hours Mar. before calving. Milk 1 | 4,300 thin and watery. Blood in left hind quarter. Lbs. 3 | 7,940 Hand milked. - 5,400 7.5+| Milk decidedly bloody. 4 | 6,970 7.3+ : ; * m Milk from R. F. quarter 2,080 |M.*4,405} 4,150 | 1,550 | 2,825 | 3.0+ very bloody with trace 5 415 7 8-+ of Plog In ve lal, quar- 755 IM. 570| 385 | 290! 470!) 4.5+ ec *In the third column, the letter F=foremilk, M=middle milk, and S=strippings. 10 146 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE Taste VIII.—Caxriu Content or tHe MILK or Cuton B. (No. 7) — (Continued) Numbers given in thousands per cubic centimeter. Number of cells in the milk of Num- each quarter. Dat pernotiy Unwa Lar oe ties hah en ae 1911. cells in Milk. Notes. whore | Right | Right | Left | Left ; front. hind. | front. | hind. Mar. Lbs. 6 295 6.8+] Still trace of blood in R. F. 230 |M.* 130 50 30 230 | 1.8+ quarter. 7 95 7.5+| Calf sold. 140 |M. 105 105 50 Sale (UL sal No blood to be seen. 8 140 14.2 90 |M 30 25 10 225 |11.4 9 35 14.5 | Milk entirely normal in AQ 10.8 appearance 10 | 2,755 14.1 4,050 |F 10 10 40 |15,135 M 30 30 25 115,080 |12.7 8 35 55 70 |54,300 Lilo) ave ences 522) 690 |M 10 20 375 | 15305 |14.2 iS) 45 35 | 1,300 |18,215 12 425 15.8 395 |M 25 20 345 | 1,080 |12.8 Ss 50 25 515 | 4,060 13 275 16.4 880 |M 30 10 | 3,060 260 |13.4 S 70 35 | 4,420 | 1,920 14 | 1,530 16.2 ,300 |M 10 10 | 1,170 | 9,640 |138.2 S 150 70 | 5,160 |42,000 15 | 1,100 115) 33 1,225 |M 5 10 | 1,060 | 2,600 |14.4 Ss 20 25 | 2,880 | 8,000 16 660 15.8 495 |M 15 10 800 | 1,020 |13.1 Ss 45 25 | 3,900 | 2,520 17 155 375 |M 20 15 770 140 |15.2 | Ss 25 25 | 3,495 | 1,650 |14.5 *In the third column, the letter F=foremilk, M=middle milk, and S=strippings. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 147 Tasie VIII.— Ceut Content or THE MILK or Cutoz B. (No. 7) — (Concluded). Numbers given in thousands per cubic centimeter. Number of cells in the milk of Num- each quarter. Date ber of | 1911 | cells in Milk. Notes. er? Right | Right | Left | Left me front. hind. | front. | hind. Mar. Lbs 18 760 1,050 |M* 20 50 610 | 3,320 |15.7 S) 110 60 | 2,940 |12,690 |14.6 19 320 480 |M 20 5 930 450 {15.3 S 70 10 | 1,860 | 2,880 {14.3 20 275 15.0 | Began milking with ma- 115 15.6 chine at evening milking 21 110 15.1 170 eb 22 440 15.0 225 13.8 23 215 16.0 200 15.4 24 330 14.8 245 14.6 *In the third column, the letter F = foremilk, M = middle milk, and S= strippings. Some milk was drawn from each quarter of the udder on the evening of March 1 about thirty hours before calving. This colostral milk was thin and watery and contained more or less blood, especially from the left hind quarter. The milk drawn on March 3 and the morning of March 4 was decidedly bloody, that is to say, the whole quantity of milk had a deep pink color and a clot of blood formed on the top of the samples of milk in the test tubes after standing. On the evening of March 4, samples were drawn from each quarter separately, when it was found that it was the right front quarter which was giving the very bloody milk, while the milk from the right hind quarter showed blood also, but in small quantity. 148 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BacTERIOLOGY OF THE The amount of blood in the milk from the right front quarter was less on the next morning (March 5) but again appeared in quantity at the evening milking. No blood showed in the milk from the other quarters at this milking. The milk from the right front quarter was still slightly bloody on March 6 but no blood was noticeable after this date. The udder was distended and inflamed for several days but was not noticeably indurated. In other words, the changes in the udder and milk were not especially unusual except in the fact that the right front quarter discharged rather more blood than normally occurs. A study of the cell content of the milk of this animal as given in Graph I (continuous line) shows that the greatest number of cells occurred in the first milk drawn after calving and that there was a very rapid diminution in number the following seven days until the low figure of 35,000 cells per cubic centimeter was found. On the following day there was a sudden return to a maximum of 4,050,000 cells per cubic centimeter, a figure which approaches those of the first two days. This was followed by a falling off in numbers during the following three days with another return to a maximum of 4,350,000 cells per cubic centimeter on March 14. - The cell counts were low through the remainder of the period during which Chloe B was under observation, and none of the counts obtained later from her as given in Table II (p. 132) are excessively high. A study of the counts from the individual quarters explains the details of some of these fluctuations. The right front quarter which gave the bloody milk on March 4 to 6 shows higher counts than the other quarters on March 4 and 5 but not on March 6 and at no time are the cell counts as much higher as would have been expected from the appearance of the milk. The count of 130,000 cells per cubic centimeter for the right front quarter on the eve of March 6, when the milk from this quarter was still noticeably bloody, is a low count and shows at once the impossibility of detecting bloody milk when mixed with herd milk by means of the cell count alone. After the first few days the number of cells in the milk of this quarter was very low and continued low as long as the milk was tested. In none of the smears prepared from bloody milk were the red blood cells counted as they do not show clearly when the smears are stained with methylene blue as was done in this case. New York AarRIcuULTURAL ExprRIMENT Station. 149 8,000,000 | | oe eee Pp con th eo I 6,000,000 CHLOE B. RUTH F. B.------- - 5,000,000 | 4,000,000 |} H+ 1500000 on MAR.3 8 13 \7 YSLIWILNSD DIGND Yad $1139 1000,000 MILKED BY MACHINE AFTER THIS DATE 500,000 20 GrarpH I.—Criu Content or Mix or Two FresH Cows. Milked by hand until evening of March 20. 150 Report or tHE DepARTMENT oF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE After the third day the left hind quarter discharged a greater number of cells than any of the other quarters. This was one of the quarters which was distant from the lump in the udder above mentioned. The count on March 10 is especially interesting, for the strippings of the left hind quarter on this date gave the highest cell count of any apparently normal milk thus far examined. When viewed under the microscope, the milk was found to be simply filled with cells. Yet the macroscopic appearance of the milk was such that three trained laboratory men failed to detect which was the cell-rich milk when a sample in a test tube was placed beside three similar samples containing small numbers of cells. The milk from this animal was used with that of the other cows. The taste of the milk was entirely normal and caused the person who used it no evil after-effects. A bacteriological examination of the milk of this cow was made by Mr. Ruehle from March 11 to March 19. The principal purpose of this work was to discover whether a relation exists between the number of cells discharged and the total bacterial infection as indicated by the number of bacteria discharged, and to discover whether any streptococcic infection existed. The technique used was the same as that used by Harding and Wilson in their studies on the udder flora (Technical Bulletin No. 27). Samples of strippings from each quarter were drawn into sterile test tubes at each milking, plated on lactose agar and incu- bated for 5 to 6 days at room temperature (23 to 25 degrees C.) and the colonies counted. The plates were then incubated for two days longer at 37 degrees C. and recounted. The averages of the numbers of bacteria per cubic centimeter for the sixteen tests when incubated at the lower temperature were as follows: right front, 4; right hind, 75; left front, 2; left hind, 11; average of the four quarters, 23. When the plates were incubated at 37 degrees C. for two days longer, the counts rose to the following averages: right front, 9; right hind, 191; left front, 340; left hind, 260; average of four quarters, 175. The averages in all of these cases are low as compared to those found for the udder by other investigators, so that it is evident there was no excessive number of bacteria present. Table IX shows the details in regard to the cell and bacterial counts so far as they were made under comparable circumstances. This New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 151 TasBite I1X.— Ceiu anp BacreriAL Counts or Cuuioz B. (No.7). Cell counts made from single streams of milk drawn about the middle of the milking. Bacterial counts from the strippings. Numbers given per cubic centimeter. Nf Right front Right hind Left front Left hind quarter. quarter. quarter. quarter. Date. Bac- Bac- Bac- Bac- vere terial sein terial aces terial a terial “| count. * | count. : count count March 111 eS Se a ae 10,000 19} 20,000 119} 375,000 624|1, 305,000 266 ROR RRO ke 25 ,000 2} 20,000 9} 345,000 68) 1,080,000 21 AYR ger. 515) egy 30,000 12} 10,000 230/3 , 060 , 000 404| 260,000 150 TA OS i eRe 10,000 24) 10,000) 1,795)1,170,000 679/9 ,640 , 000 746 1S) ae 5,000 5} 10,000 190}1 ,060 , 000 532/2 , 600 , 000 76 NG Rays scet ey: 15,000 1; 10,000 10} 800,000 87/1 ,020 , 000 13 UA eee Se 20,000 19} 15,000 348} 770,000 75; 140,000 227 Stee ae 20 ,000 21} 50,000 93} 610,000 70)3 , 320,000 138 Averages. ..| 17,000 13} 18,000 349)1 ,024 ,000 317)2,421 ,000 205 | table shows that there is no close relationship between the number of bacteria and the cell counts even where these are taken under the most favorable circumstances for detecting such a relationship. Of the two right quarters which discharged very few cells, one had a very low bacterial content but the other gave the highest average bacterial content of all four quarters. The highest bacterial count obtained was found in this quarter (right hind on March 14) at a time when the number of cells discharged was only 10,000 per cubic centimeter. The two left quarters which were discharging cells by the hundreds of thousands per cubic centimeter had average bacterial counts of 317 and 205. In this case the quarter with the lower count discharged more than twice as many cells as the quarter with the higher count. No streptococci could be demonstrated by microscopic examina- tion of the colonies which grew on the agar plates. The increase in count at 37 degrees C. in both of the left quarters was largely due to a single species of micrococcus which was by far the most abundant organism present. This organism was identified by Wilson as being one of the common udder micrococci and probably the same as the one which Harding and Wilson have 152 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE described with the group number M. 211.2233033 which would place it as Micrococcus lactis albidus. After the samples of strippings had been used for plating, they were then placed in a 37 degrees C. incubator and allowed to stand for three days after which they were examined microscopically for streptococci. Only one sample from the right side curdled under this treatment while almost all of the 16 samples from the left quarters curdled. This curdling was probably due to the micro- coccus mentioned above. No streptococci could be demonstrated by this technique, making it doubly certain that none were present. Ruth F. B. B. (No. 25).— The case of Ruth F. B. B. was quite different from that of Chloe B. Ruth F. B. B. aborted her first calf during the night of March 12, 1911, when she was 23 months old. The udder did not fill with milk as rapidly as normal and was never distended and swollen as is frequently the case. Table X gives the record of the examination of the milk of this animal for cell content. The dotted line in Graph I (p. 149) shows more clearly how rapidly the number of cells in the milk fell off after the first two days. It never returned to high figures during the twelve days during which she was under observation. The number of cells in the colostral milk is not excessively high in this case. Many tests of milk from animals in later stages of lactation have been made where the counts were higher than any of these. A great number of fragments of cells were noticed in the milk of the first few days and the cell counts for those days are only approximately correct. The larger fragments were counted as individual cells and the smaller ones disregarded. Similar conditions have been noted in other colostral milk and occasionally in milk from later periods of lactation. A bacteriological examination of the milk of this animal was made by Mr. Ruehle in the same way that he made the examination for Chloe B. (No. 7). Samples were collected from each milking from _ March 13 to the evening milking of March 16. The average numbers of bacteria per cubic centimeter for the seven tests when the plates were incubated at room temperature were as follows: right front, 108; right hind, 9; left front, 9; left hind, 3; average of the four quarters, 32. When the plates were incubated for two days longer at 37 degrees C., the counts rose to the following averages: right New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 153 Taste X — Cruy Content or THE MILK or Rutu F. B. B. (No 285). (A Grade Jersey heifer which freshened March 18, 1911.) | Dafeee reece rant Notes. cells per c.c. 1911. Lbs. March 13 1,145,000 3.0 | Due to freshen April 18. Aborted during the 1,295,000 3.6 night of March 12. Calf dead. Udder not caked or inflamed. Milk normal colostral milk. No blood evident. March 14 1,320,000 5.5 | Innumerable cell fragments in milk. ? 5.9 | Impossible to count because of fragmentary con- dition of cells. March 15 375,000 (fl 360 , 000 6.1 | Samples taken from each quarter gave the fol- lowing counts. R. I. 320,000, R. H. 120,000, L. F. 230,000, L. H. 160,000. Middle milk. March 16 150,000 8.0 | Milk of normal appearance. Cell fragments 170,000 6.6 still abundant in the milk. March 17 95,000 8.3 65 , 000 8.0 March 18 75,000 9.0 125 ,000 8.2 March 19 105,000 9.6 110,000 7.9 March 20 95,000 9.2 | Milked by hand until the evening milking of 45,000 7.8 March 20. After that by machine. March 21 65 ,000 10.3 50,000 8.4 March 22 65,000 10.5 85,000 8.6 March 23 45 ,000 10.6 75 ,000 8.5 March 24 35,000 10.5 25,000 8.0 front, 218; right hind, 14; left front, 16; left hind, 5; average of the four quarters, 62. These figures are all low when compared with those found by other investigators. An examination of the colonies on the agar plates showed a micrococcus to be present in the right front quarter of this cow which was apparently the same as that present in the left quarters of Chloe B. (No. 7), but this form was not present in large numbers. There were no streptococci which grew on the plates. The samples of milk from which the plates were made were incubated as before for 3 days at 37 degrees C. and then examined microscopically. No streptococci were found. 154 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE B. CELL CONTENT OF THE MILK OF INDIVIDUAL ANIMALS IN LATER PERIODS OF LACTATION. The milk of four cows was studied in detail during a period of five weeks from Feb. 17 to March 22, 1911. Two of these were as normal animals as could be selected from the herd and two were abnormal in some respect. Table XI gives the detailed record of these examinations and the fluctuations are shown graphically in Graph II. The cell counts of the smears made for Millie of Geneva (No. 19) were made by Mr. Stidger. All of the rest of the work of testing these animals was done by the author of the paper. TasLe XI.— Numser or Ceiis Per Cusic CENTIMETER Found IN THE MILK oF Four Cows Durine A PErRiop oF Five WEEKS. Numbers given in thousands per cubic centimeter. Hammond F. 1 Gerty F. 1 Mabel 8. F. |Millie of Geneva (No. 15) (No. 10) (No. 17) (No. 19) machine milked.|/machine milked.|machine milked.| hand milked. Date Number : Number | ,,: Number : Number ; of cells. Milk. of cells. Milk. of cells. Mille. of cells. Milk. 1911. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs Lbs 6.8 Yih 4.4 February 17..... We raacs et SHO Sa D:, Bal eceseen 4.8 745 8.3 (have 4.4 3.6 HebruanyalSe-n calles sel fats) | Wee aera Soe es aoe 4.8| 1,445 S.2 8.0 5.0 4.1 Hebrusnyalone a. .\les vine Pep AG LY hairs fur ALSTON, et Sea 4.4 1,345 8.3 6.0 4.4 3.8 Hebruary) 2033202) bade. AO Oa ies ta (ORT fas OP ne Dee 1,205 8.5 6.0 4.9 3.4 February 21..... B25 OeS 600 | 5.2 875 | 5.0} 1,440 8.0 380 6.3 515 3.6 640 4.4 755 10.8 February 22..... 400 8.2 325 ae 905 4.3 1,065 7.4 160 Lz, 785 5.0 690 | 4.4 795 10.0 February 23..... 285 8.0 880 | 5.5 1,045 4.2 1,070 teks) 195 tee 670 | 4.7 545 Biel 765 10.0 February 24..... 185 6.3 225 5.0 660 5.0 705 8.0 180 6.3 405 Dee 010) | shee) 960 10.3 February 25..... 165 7.8 540 | 5.0 795 4.3 900 8.5 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 155 Taste XI — Numper or Creuits Per Cusic CENTIMETER FouND IN THE MILK oF Four Cows Durine A Prriop or Five WEEKs —(Continued). Numbers given in thousands per cubic centimeter Hammond F. 1 Gerty F. 1 Mabel 8S. F. | Millie of Geneva (No 15) (No 10) (No 17) (No 19) machine milked.|machine milked.|machine milked.| hand milked. Date. Number -, | Number E Number c Number : of cells. Milk. of cells. Milk. of cells. Milk. of cells. Milk. 1911. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 1S Mame 440 } 5.3 695 | 3.7 615 LOR? February 26..... 220 | 6.9 280 | 4.6 850 | 4.3 630 8.3 325 6.6 365 5.0 625 3.8 1,020 9.9 February 27..... 3825 | 6.9 385 | 4.3 1,030 |} 4.0 970 8.3 200 | 6.5 POM ee Aes 635 | 3.4 695 9.3 February 28..... PBS) || Vf afi 345 | 5.7 U(Osbe + 760 8.0 260iier Geb 455 | 3.6 495)| 3.2 710 9.8 Maren ties, - 200 ne 345 6.3 775 4.3 885 8.0 2a LOLs 490 30-10) 4451 3.3 995 9.4 IWiarch 2.07....5 2 - 260 6.5 805 Lepy 975 42 1,650 8.1 185 6.6 850 33) 290 3.0 1,140 9.8 March oacts.. : 250 6.5 505 6.5 900 4.2 1,000 8.1 205 en Oro TeOSOR eh ant 870 | 3.4 865 9.4 “March 4)" )..... PAGS) A\e (ayete} 530 | 5.8 T1000 S27 850 8.1 15OU v2.5 700°} 5.5 790 } 4.1 745 9.6 Miarchibiters: 1500 6.3 570 | 4.4 AT5 | 3.4 835 eal 205 6.2 400 4.9 860 3.8 830 9.6 March 6........ 260 (Th 305 3.4 880 2.8 1,005 WA5 2850" 7.0 380 | 4.8 605 | 4.0 | 705 9.5 INUEREC 0, Ces peaereeneee ZOO |PONT 380 | 5.6 AO Dea Teeoeves 1,055 ne 250, 6.30 s675.\ 4.01) aan | 3.3 900 | 9.0 March 8........ 2A |= a8 565-1555 G2 alemowe 610 1.5 (ets lone 730 | 4.0 725 | 4.0 g25 | 9.3 WMarch9. o.oo 145 Om 445 6.1 665 3.4 805 UP 200. | 6.5 One Bo) 0710s es 710 9.6 March 10....... | 640 | 8.3 445 | 4.9 IROSS lho 6 470 7.0 Pee SRo LS mais 410 | 4.4] 1,060] 3.7 900 | 9.7 March 1°... S| 435 | 6.2 310 | 5.5 1.0857) 7324 1,085 atl 160 | 7.0 SPA Ph Bia8 5000] a5 875 8.3 Miareh 12... . 290 |: 6.3 310 ' 4.3 540 | 3.4 1,020 7.4 156 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE TasBLe XI.— NumsBer or Cetus Per Cusic CEntIMETER FOUND IN THE MILK oF Four Cows Durine A Prriop oF Five Werks — (Concluded). Numbers given in thousands per cubic centimeter. Millie of Geneva 19) hand milked. Hammond F. 1 Gerty F.1 Mabel S. F. (No. 15) (No. 10) (No. 17) (No. machine milked.!machine milked.)/machine milked. Date. Number ; Number c Number : Number of cella. Jes | oF calla en | of cella, | | of cells 1911. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. ZOO MeO 410 | 5.0 575 | 3.4 1,060 Wiarch Was... - 390 | 6.7 615 5.0 1,415 3.6 1,130 350 | 6.3 520 | 4.0 1;010 )) «3.1 1S March 14....... 305 6.6 SHOR PEOES OS alae IN 535 15) 185 6.5 S40 40 765 320 1,010 Wind 1G, aaee 240 | 6.4 470 | 5.8 AKO) | Be 1,005 285 Dele 715 4.2 420, 2.8 880 March 16....... 235 ae) 700 5) al 630 | 3.9 1,015 175 6.4 690 | 4.6 715 Qo 950 Warch liom ee 2O0G| Ore 490 | 4.3 690 | 4.1 985 165 6.5 500 3.0 625 Ba) 1,060 March 1827)... - 160 | 6.9 490 6.5 375 Sul 1,000 175 6.6 820 3.8 S310) |) 0 960 March 19....... 180 6.6 1,030] 3.9 135 BnS 1,000 285 5.6 800 Oa 190 Bail 930 March 20....... 230 atl AS 4.8 600 3.6 1,090 255 6.8 10005)" 5.4 680 | 2.6 1,225 March 210054. 5: 325 6.1 1,215 3.8 | SHO): || ate 1,180 March 2254. 24. 225 6.0 845 4.7 345 Bi 980 Averages.... 253 497 705 958 Milk. The records of the four animals are given in Table I cn page 150. As will be seen from this table, Hammond F. 1 was a cow in her prime (5 years old) and had always had normal calvings and had never had any trouble with her udder previous to this time. last calf was born on August 27, 1910. The same statements are true of Gerty F. 1, except that she was 6 years instead of 5 years old. She calved on July 19, 1910. Her New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTiIon. 157 Mabel S. F. (No. 17) on the other hand, had aborted two calves, the last of these abortions having taken place on October 28, 1910. She was very nearly dry. She gave only a small quantity of milk and at times the smears which were made from her milk were found to be more or less soluble in alcohol so that it was difficult to make good preparations. This indicated some condition of her milk which was different from normal. The abnormality was not correlated in any way with fluctuations in the cell count. Millie of Geneva (No. 19) had suffered from “ spider in the teat ”’ during the lactation period previous to the one in which these tests were made. The left hind quarter was seriously affected but finally returned to its normal condition except that the duct of this teat was more or less obstructed. She calved normally on September 18, 1910. Graph II shows the fluctuations in cell counts of these cows much more clearly than the figures in the table. The upper part of this Graph shows the record of the two normal cows and the lower part the record of the two abnormal cows. The striking daily varia- tions shown in these curves are seen to occur in all cases. The two normal cows maintain a lower average cell count than the two abnormal cows when the whole period is taken into consideration; but, if the last week of the period is considered by itself, this would not be the case, for Mabel S. F. shows a decidedly lower count than she had shown previously although she was approaching the end of her lactation period. At the same time, the cell count for Gerty F. 1 shows a decided increase in the cell content of her milk so that she had as high a cell count as any of the four cows during the last few days of the test. All of the cows show counts higher than 500,000 cells per cubic centimeter at some time during the period, although Hammond F. 1 usually shows counts of less than 250,000 cells per cubic centimeter. There is a certain constancy in the number of cells discharged, which is maintained for days or weeks at a time but the indica- tions are that more extended records would show that great fluctua- tions occur even in the case of the normal cows. There is no evidence of the cyclic variations noted by Breed and Stidger in the case of two of the cows which they studied nor do the curves show any common characteristics so far as has been noted. The fact that the one hand-milked cow had a _ higher 158 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE "gMOO [BUIIOUG’ Sse] 10 a1OUL WoL; WOTI0d JaMOT UI fsMoo [euIOU AYUoredde wo1y UOIOd sJeddn ut soAIND ‘NOLLVLOV']T dO SHOVLIG SQOIYVA NI SMOD ANOW AO WUT dO LNALNOD TIED — I] Hdvury ct ot Ss IuWW 82 ¢2 Ql alas n2-=---- 4S 139VW —— WAIN39 40 JIT 000'00S'T 000'00S T 4 ALYI9 —14 QNOWWH 000'000T 29 Yad STN9D ‘D°D Yad $1139 New York Acricutturat Exprriment Srarion. 159 average number of cells in her milk than the machine-milked cows is probably of no significance. It is difficult to see how the abnormality noted in the case of Mabel S. F. could cause an increase in the number of cells dis- charged and it is probable that the two things were not related to each other in any way. Since the average number of cells dis- charged (705,000 per cubic centimeter) is not as high as the average number of cells given for all of the cows examined (868,000° per cubic centimeter) and is not decidedly higher than the average number found in the case of other apparently normal cows in the same herd (see Table III), there is little reason for regarding the discharge of this number of cells as abnormal. Moreover Wilson did not note anything especially interesting in the bacterial flora of the udder of this cow in several examinations which he made during the previous summer. (See Technical Bulletin 27, Table X.) The predominant organism was the same as the one which has already been mentioned in connection with Chloe B. (page 151) and Ruth F. B. B. (page 153) which had the group number M. 211.2233033. None of the tests made in March, April or May, 1910, showed bac- terial counts higher than 176 per cubic centimeter. Among the July, 1910, tests, one showed an average of 1100 per cubic centimeter for the left front quarter of this cow. The other quarters all gave low counts. In the case of Millie G. there is reason for believing that there was a relation between the relatively high cell count (958,000 per cubic centimeter) and her previous udder trouble. No tests were made at this time to determine whether the high cell count was caused by an excessive discharge of cells from the quarter which had been most seriously affected (left hind), but it is quite possible that this was the case. Table X in Technical Bulletin No. 27 shows the organisms which Wilson isolated from this cow’s udder. None of these were streptococci but a study of his notes shows that he failed to isolate the predominating organism present in all but the left hind quarter. This organism was present in large numbers, that is the bacterial counts frequently exceeded 1,000 per cubic centimeter, and sometimes showed such large numbers of colonies on the plate that they could not be counted. The colonies were small, gave a sour smell to the plates and appeared in practically pure culture. A culture isolated from the right hind 160 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE quarter on February 7, 1911, was lost because of its failure to grow. A culture of similar appearance isolated in May, 1911, from the right. front quarter, which may or may not have been the same, gave the group number M. 211.2223032 but showed no tendency to form chains. The organism present in the left hind quarter was a yeast with the group number 212.2332033 and occurred in practically pure- culture in all of the plates made from this quarter. A search for this organism made in December, 19138, by technique similar to that used by Wilson, failed to show this organism present in the left hind quarter though scattered colonies of a similar yeast made their appearance on plates made from other quarters of the udder. None of these cows show as extreme conditions as those noted by Breed and Stidger*’ in their similar studies. They examined samples of milk from three apparently normal cows selected at random from a herd in Gottingen, Germany, daily for a period of four weeks. One cow (No. 54) gave an average count of 535,000 cells per cubic centimeter while another (No. 55) gave an average count of 2,070,000 cells per cubic centimeter. This latter cow showed marked fluctuations in the number of cells present in her milk, the numbers varying from 885,000 to 5,975,000 cells per cubic centimeter. In marked contrast to this, Cow No. 56 showed very few cells present in the milk of three quarters of her udder while the milk of the fourth quarter showed a cell content fluctuating between 230,000 and 1,110,000 cells per cubic centimeter. The contrast between the milk of these two cows was so great that “ if the whole number of cells discharged by the right hind quarter of Cow 56 in the 36 milkings tested had been discharged at a single milking and that in a liter of milk instead of in the 1? liters actually secreted, the number of cells would have been approximately 2,000,000 per cubic centimeter, that is a number which was the average number of cells found in the milk of Cow 55. In the extreme case, one quadrant of Cow 55 liberated almost as many cells at a single milking as the hind quarter of Cow 56 would have done in the half of an entire lactation period if the same low rate found in the period tested prevailed.”” No bacteriological examinations of the udder were made for any of these cows. “ See footnote 1. New York AcricuLTurRAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 161 Cc. CELL CONTENT OF THE MILK OF ANIMALS AT THE END OF THE LACTATION PERIOD. Several investigators have reported that the number of cells dis- charged is greatly increased at the end of the lactation period. These statements are based on very incomplete and unsatisfactory data, as pointed out by Breed and Stidger.# Some further tests bear- ing on this point have been made which are summarized in Table XII. These tests, even combined with previous tests reported by other investigators, are still insufficient to show what the real con- Taste XI[—Crtu Content or MILK oF ANIMALS NEAR THE END OF THEIR LACTATION PERIOD. Milked once Date of | Number | = Milked once on No. NAME. tI a a day on test. of cells. s these dates. these dates. 1911. Lbs. 1911 1911 fA Ge fe’. ace ote 7-26/27 15,000/10.8)13 8-24— 9-7 |9-9 2 | Carey of Station..... 6-25/26 50,000) 5.6) O 6— 7— 6-17/6-19, 20, 22, 24, 26 5 | Carey Fairy.........| 6-25/26 170,000) 5.3/35 7-— 6— 7-21|7-23 SoleDolly RB. Bis} 823 6-25/26 2,500) 3.1) 2 6-15— 6-26|/6-28, 7-1 9 | Dotshome Carey... .| 6—25/26 515,000} 5.1] 0 6— 6— 6-16/6-19, 21, 23, 26 10) |2Gerty Pd. 038.06 3.0% 6-25/26 505,000} 4.1] 2 6-15— 6-26/6-28, 7-1 mOmiGerty: HAD. -2o88 re 6-25/26 450,000) 4.0} 2 6-19— 6-26|/6-28, 7-1 Tee Gerty By'd!.)5 WM). 62 6-25/26 2,500) 9.8} 5 6-20— 6-30|7-2, 4 14 | Hammond 2........ 8-30/31| 2,160,000)11.1/10+) 8-26— 9- 9/9-11, 138, 16, 19, 22, 25, etc. oie Mabel Sam. sk... ee 5- 7/ 8 90,000} 2.8)/40 5-21— 5-27|5-29, 30 19 | Millie of Geneva..... 7-26/27 905,000) 7.6)13 7-24— 8-— 8/8-10 Ore Millie WAM. oaG. 2: 6- 1/ 2 650,000} 2.6/21 6-10— 6-13 Zenie Nora eb Bits. 95/08 8-30/31 2,500} 1.5)12 9- 5— 9- 6 1913 1913 1913 16 | Hammond F. 2...... 11-12 1,225,000) 2.0) 9 |11— 6—11-—19|11-22 19 | Millie of Geneva..... 10-18 16,950,000) 1.0} 0 |10-10—10-15)10-18 26 | Carey Fairy Queen...|11—12 1,710,000) 0.0; O |10-31—11— 7|Stripped 11-12 27 | Oxford Millie F. B. B.|11—12 1,160,000) 0.0) 0 |11— 3—11-— 8|Stripped 11-12 28 | Mabel S. F. B. B....|12-— 3 6,740,000) 0.0) O |11-23—11—28/Stripped 12-3 * Number of times milked after test was made. ditions are. There are several of the records given in Tavle XII which are very high and above the normal for the cows in question, but in eleven out of the eighteen tests given the number of cells found was less than the average number found during the height of the lactation period and in three cases so few cells were present that it was difficult to find any at all. Yet, on the other hand, the record given for Millie G. on November 18, 1913, of 16,950,000 cells per cubic centimeter is the highest re- ported in this bulletin for mixed milk. It should be noted that this was taken from the very last milking and that this cow was 8 See footnote 1. tt 162 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE one which had had udder trouble three years previous to this test and had always given relatively high cell counts even during the height of her lactation period. Several of the highest counts given for the other animals were obtained from milk drawn four or five days after milking had really been discontinued. D. SUMMARY OF CELL COUNTS ACCORDING TO MONTH OF LACTATION. All of the cell counts of the mixed milk of individual animals which have been made in this or previous investigations have been Tapas XIII — Ceti Counts Arranaep Accorpine To Monts or Lactation. Numbers given represent thousands of cells per cubic centimeter. Monta oF Lactation. VE SM Bi oss lf Ural i Oe a RS AIDA oer OC ih Outs Tecate 1..../9,105] 370)6,950) 240 65)1,330) 705) 410) 815/1,915} 500) 265 815 50 2..../2,485} 130/3,440) 395) 145} 390/2,040) 975)1,210; 550) 130 15 940; 1,050 3....{1,535] 470) 165) 555) 135) 640) 195)1,370) 160) 895)2,720) 430 Poca 4..../3,925) 345) 235) 205) 615 95 65 50} 500) 725/1,040) 440 ONO! |S teeters 5....} 900] 560/3,810) 250) 445) 840 90} 530) 720) 760 2} 890 BODIE Rie 6....|3,300)3,860] 690/1,190) 455) 400) 735/2,125) 410) 495) 145) 390 2h cm errs 7....|.....1 '165} 850] 405} 930] 500 15} 180) 580} 500 60) 450) 2,160)...... 8. 625} 305) 165) 135] 650 30 85) 715; 910} 170) 120 ASO} 2 -8t. Oe ce ose alee aeOl feOnlL, to0 70} 105) 350 2} 305) 490) 620) 820)16,950)...... WV 5c Aalleeonal tell, 10} 805) 240/1,025) 265) 680/1,100) 585 2|: “850/ See |S. hee. eee. Go 35 65) 430) 195) 400 90/5,340/1,600} 325)1,225)......)...... Ache Blears ora |p) WU 20 45) 460 0} 240| 165)/1,305)1,340} 105) 905)......)...... NG nal beep 20 85) 450 20 50} 220/1,005) 475/3,500 21h CAO] S epee | every ove DA, oa] = ee 2OT Ros 30) 425) 420] 305) 295) 865) 370) 380)1,160)......]...... LO eer eee 10 45 90) 75 15} 565 2 10 10} 350/6,740)......]...... NOG So alleerac 350} 280/1,990| 745} 515)1,095} 130 30 Z5ly. DLO SEs. At ete eia| eee Mii aes 80) 215 50 10] 785) 545) 425) 115 bo 0 7 | irre Py Pe Oe Iye5 5 al hip. 5.0 dows 10} 425/1,275)1,170) 160) 190/1,475| 355) 860).....)......J]...... M9655 | eon 2/8) fad. 34.5) (oS 200} 260 5} 600) 410 20 151, DOO |e 4:2] serene ec oe YAU o dallbeaaellonoea| jouocc PANGS aor 1,005 LO 255) 5125) 40 a7 90 ee elem a2 ae eee er enetel| eroee rete || ainte corel evaveretes| O20 |keretele = 15} 135) 555]. -.240) 520] 450) ore bere ocoel|ltyotere 77) % 3 vo|laac tollsooocljeagoolloasaslooondllsegnallades- 925 12) PLE ko (ois ee Saia adie ametee| | stom St 2230. eal Soomallpouda| lomos|lOcncog|lodoan|loaoe-| loa Sa OYA) Mes O BUOY) EE Ge. cllSioab ollanldcmolloucen- 4A tallocseolacsan| eo oe la pos alloooeo|lo dio oollaosoe AOO), 4851" OSH] oo. ral or5) anche |iaieleyeseuni|aieeuenene Pte iano lag oalliols dd) lb.o ea allo clo dalicto aay )\|ane vio o|[Sd do 575} 430 7h Were Stal lomtegreiol Satve oan da 5 lee 7AVixs 5 ol|ABSS|loowon hace d|ls0 Jo8|loorad||Saviee|lo ones 780 TMRBQO SS aloul|sooolleboa8 sllycocec Pla ica||ae peal nae orl \o0es lonah cllodeiag|looods|a5 bola 240) SLOT GASH Ere olsen ellereeiae « PASE 6\4| |Riate 3s) fae [aA Soacollacooalas dudes éeslloas ballaooat 2ST) OVO) le soto. nell loose ietel| etsteke oie] easier TS BSI 28 bolas dic| (ohad col loo Gais||boc pale cap anilasouallo cose LUO SCS] S% Fe falls sunarei| lle ete eel Ceketems 3Ongeu| | srenga lint S| BGNeal epee llediawallb to calle'seaa||ai0'3 44 SY GINS eee logen dllsedootl|Nsies - Se Bis | |e bleep [eto seal (' poe lecasol irra aicig|(a3619 0|1o Duo 5) PC UE onlloco saloon uss ollec aacc SV455' Sloe Wilkes Poa faees ol bee s| (Sao cs| ako en| (Sean al adios’ (Ue asses odee||>eeeesllousa> CEI a ae oh ci rami cou ad occ olbocoslbsecanilyenca|ladcs0 SSO leo. Sealers esevsl iste teye S| esoalededel| Magee Bie eres ree ha Sel fata Ae aeiaallooidc a|(aaecto|[Soueal ls oltios Naas Skala a cleat Sia gallos oalfsdticae S15). stty| [eicibia'e| laced EAealal Ic aoplitanics|lagnsalloe dovclls ac o¢ 650) |. fyerl-cleter |e ertetal nen ketal eeeeaye Bole e aaifase oto oul ca alacas ol osoidgl|{oo oo alee baoltoomnoy LCP eras eins All See aial|'s Hias.6||s'6 oo 6c Odes lec erel een le actos lek eves ae pidalloodaciibaatoalscase L, S60 les 2k ASCE cilieieere em eael emai Aes cles Sila sa ol ladies] |s'5 S65 Hass estes |B a bal Micitle PAE las DINOS | Ae as ao lEa oe oc Aver. .|3,542} 617/1,016} 454) 360) 483) 417) 511) 618) 763) 508/1,061) 2,492 550 $667 $655} {685 SS SS SSS SSS SSS SSS a SS SS * Counts given in this column were obtained from cows during the first three days of lactation. + Counts given in this column were obtained from cows during the first month of lactation after the first three days of lactation. t{ These averages do not include the highest count of the column above. New York AcricutturaAL ExpERIMENT StTaTIon. 163 arranged in Table XIII according to the month of lactation. This gives a total of 246 tests made on 126 different cows of different breeds and from widely different regions. All of these cell counts except those in Column Ia and a few in Columns XI and XII were made from milk sufficiently normal in appearance to have been used. Three or more of the cows tested had had udder troubles at some time or other and as many as six possibly tubercular animals are included. It is seen at once from the averages that even this number of tests is insufficient to show what the real conditions are. The dif- ferences between the numbers averaged are so great that a few large counts very materially affect the averages. It seems clear that the cell counts of the first three days of lactation average much higher than those of later periods although equally high cell counts are seen in almost all of the later periods. When the counts are separated into two groups at the 500,000 per cubic centimeter mark, it is found that the ratio between the number of counts under this mark to the number of counts over this mark during the first six months of lactation (exclusive of counts obtained from colostral milk) is 100:52. The similar ratio for the counts obtained during the second six months is 100:82. That is, the majority of the high cell counts here given occurred during the latter part of the lacta- tion period. The lowest average cell counts given in Table XIII occur during the months when the greatest amount of milk is secreted (third to seventh month). Inasmuch as the cell counts are all given on the cubic centimeter basis and inasmuch as the numbers of cells found during the latter portion of the lactation period when the total amount of milk secreted is small are not decidedly different from those found during the earlier portion, it is evident that the total number of cells discharged from the udder at a single milking averages less during the latter portion of the lactation period. III]. EFFECT OF THE VACUUM COW MILKER ON THE . CELL, COUNT, Because of the fact that vacuum milking machines have frequently been accused of causing so-called “‘ leucocytosis ’’ and also because the question is frequently asked whether high vacuums do not suck blood out of the interior of the udder, three series of observations were 164 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE made bearing on this point. These observations are of greater importance because of the fact that all of the machine milkers now being actively pushed on the American market are operated either entirely or partially by means of a vacuum. Experiments with the Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy cow milker have been in progress at the station since 1907 so that the opera- tion of these machines during the time of the experiments here described involved no unaccustomed duties for the employees in the dairy and the animals experimented upon were accustomed to being milked in this manner. The machines milked the cows thor- oughly and no trouble in operating them occurred during the course of the experiments. The makers of this machine recommend that it be operated with a vacuum of approximately one half an atmos- phere (15 inches as indicated by a mercury column). This recom- mendation is based on a large amount of careful observation and experimentation by the makers and users of these machines. Three lines of evidence were obtained which had a bearing on the problem whether or not this type of cow milker influences the cellular content of the milk. First, an experiment was carried out during a period of six weeks on three animals, using three other animals as controls, in which the effect of gradually increasing the vacuum from 14.5 inches to 19.5 inches was studied. Second, two cows were milked for five days by hand and then for five days by machine and the milk from each milking was examined to see whether any change in the cellular content of the milk occurred which could be attributed to this change in the method of milking. Third, the cellular content of the milk of all of the machine-milked cows in the herd was compared with the cellular content of the milk of the hand-milked cows. A. EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE INFLUENCE OF INCREASING THE VACUUM ON THE CELL CONTENT OF THE MILK OF MACHINE- MILKED COWS. The three cows chosen for the experiment were Gerty F. 2 (No. 12), Millie D. (No. 18), and Ruth F. (No. 24), while Gerty F. 1 (No. 10), Hammond F. 1 (No. 15), and Mabel S. F. (No. 17) were used as controls. The three experimental animals represented as varied conditions in regard to the cellular content of their milk as could New York AGRricutturAL ExprerRIMEnT Station. 165 be found in the herd. Gerty F. 2 (No. 12) gave milk which con- tained relatively few cells. Ruth F. (No. 24) gave milk which con- tained a medium number of cells and Millie D. (No. 18) gave milk containing large numbers of cells, the number being usually higher than 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter. The control animals were chosen to duplicate these conditions so far as possible. Of these, Hammond F. 1 (No. 15) gave the lowest cell counts, Gerty F. 1 (No. 10) medium counts and Mabel 8. F. (No. 17) the highest counts. The duplication in conditions was not exact but proved satisfactory for the purposes of the experiment. Samples of milk from the animals which were to be used in the experiment were examined during the week previous to Feb. 23, 1911, in order to determine the number of cells present under usual conditions. At the evening milking of February 23, the vacuum was increased from the usual amount (14.5 inches) to 15.5 inches. At the evening milking of March 3 it was again increased to 16.5 inches and so to 17.5 inches at the evening milking of March 10. The vacuum was placed at 18.5 inches at the evening milking of March 16 and kept there till the evening of March 19 when it was raised to 19.5 inches for this one milking only. It then became necessary to discontinue the experiment and the vacuum was lowered one inch at each milking during the four succeeding milkings and so returned to 14.5 inches. This change in the vacuum and its rela- tion to the milk flow is shown in Graph III taken from Bulletin 353. The control animals were milked continuously at 14.5 inches vacuum. Samples of milk were taken from the pail at every milking from each of the six animals and the cell content determined. The vacuum gauge was tested out during the experiment to make sure that it was working properly and a careful watch was kept on the animals to see whether the increased vacuum caused udder troubles of any sort. ‘‘ Not only was there no demonstrable effect of the change of vacuum upon the flow of milk but also there were no objectionable local effects upon the cows. It is true that at the close of the milking process with the higher vacuum there was some difference of opinion as to the presence of a slight congestion at the extremity of the teats of Ruth F. Whatever abnormality may have been present passed away within a few minutes leaving no objectionable after-effects.” 166 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE (a Ws some ede Lae ee ;} ff} —_- —_} a i STE 10 \ GERTIE F. N92 / Ne we ge: LA RUTH F MAR.4 Grapu III.—Rewuation or Vacuum To MiiK Fiow. all ie —_- SSHINI NI WANIWA Witw 40 SONNOd 23 FEB.16 , 1911 New York AGricutturaAL ExpERIMENT STATION. 167 The records of the cell counts made on these six cows are given in Table XIV and they are shown graphically in Graph IV. Taste XIV.— Errect or INCREASING THE VACUUM ON THE CELLULAR CONTENT oF THE MILK or THREE Cows. Number of cells given in thousands per cubic centimeter ——————_ Se EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS. Controut ANIMALS. Ber Me fam | hee eI Num- Num- Num-| vg Num- Num-[ . |Num-! , ber of = ber of = ber of S ber of = ber of = ber of me cells ~ | cells. = | cells >} cells. | & | cells. = | cells. | & Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.| 1911. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. VacuuM USED = 14.5 IN. Vacuum vusEeD = 14.5 IN. 160) 5.0 TO, 4.0le 4.2% AS Mebe* tO abet ule eee bisa, 6 (she ene | eae atone aoe Ae Ae lp aS erSGUh Aus MeD:. Letina tiepalloon ellos otebell ovens alts eect tallbenet ars 220) 5.0 135] 5.5| 1,005} 4.3/Feb. 14 420| 7.3 295} 6.0} 1,200} 5.2 305) 6.2 1450 5.50 To 2oor 4.3 Beb. 15) 1. eae owe outa ae aiken ees. « 335| 4.6 165) 5.8 SROs Ol eb: Gs waa she Oslo Peewee me heb al re sce 415} 5.3 230) 6.3 FCN feo We d5 U0 SIE open £7 /|| tee TPR | PB Hi oor | eee Store ete EDI eemeel Oral lasoO eA 5| Helos PMS ite sx.siibe.2 sllypancvec|ierss alles sees (e ane 460) 3.2 1O5L Aol ek opto: of Beps, LOW. 25 oho 4. ahs ee alee gh edaa leas - 500} 5.7 LOOSE O20 428 | ela! 220i s.ar cre [lorepotalll epee erese (io steve oleyeremegeiltot rer 395) 5.3 140} 5.4 690) 4.3)/Feb. 21 325| 9.8 600) 5.2 875] 5.0 360) 5.5 170} 7.0 780) 4.3|/Feb. 22 380} 6.3 515) 3.6 640) 4.4 265] 5.3 155.5. S|) le 200) 4.4 ieee: 400} 8.2 S20) O.2 905} 4.3 465! 5.4 215) 5.7| 1,350! 5.0/Feb. 23 160] 7.2 785!) 5.0 690| 4.4 * VAcuuUM USED — 15.5 IN. Vacuum vUsED = 14.5 IN. 335| 5.8 26555 .d|h 2p LOD|bO0Ol 2» «2 0-2 285| 8.0 880] 5.5] 1,045] 4.2 320) 5.9 115) 4.8} 1,365) 4.4\Feb. 24 195) 7.3 670} 4.7 45) 3.1 285) 5.4 185| 7.6] 1,365] 3.8]........ 185) 6.3 225) 5.0 660) 5.0 205| 5.7 200) 4.0} 1,130) 4.4|/Feb. 25 180) 6.3 405) 5.2 500| 3.3 435) 5.0 DE Celta lei OO | tes O| ere sianeyrcecre 165) 7.8 540) 5.0 795| 4.3 315) 6.0 185} 5.0] 1,160) 5.0/Feb. 26 155) 7.0 440) 5.3 695| 3.7 335! 5.0 150). 5.9]. 1,035) 3.8!........ 220! 6.9 280) 4.6 850) 4.3 345) 5.4 215) 6.2} 1,165) 4.7|Feb. 27 325| 6.6 365| 5.0 625) 3.8 370| 4.8 330 GU CU ped een ae 325] 6.9 385| 4.3} 1,030) 4.0 360) 5.5 105} 5.2 875| 4.1/Feb. 28 200) 6.5 210| 4.8 635| 3.4 460) 5.1 PES 5\ (ol Tacs) |e W855) jets) le oe a 7335) aw aes) 345) 5.7 775), 4.1 320) 5.4 130) 4.4 990) 4.2;Mar. 1 260) 6.5 455) 3.6 495) 3.2 435) 5.5 2H (Ol WeOU5| Palen see 180} 8.3 345) 6.3 775| 4.3 425) 5.8 190) 4.8] 1,380} 4.0;Mar. 2 200) 6.8 490) 5.0 445) 3.3 405| 6.0 Aifes |e Oh le edo: Olu eee 240) 6.5 805) 5.2 975| 4.2 350| 4.7 125! 5.0] 1,420] 4.0iMar. 3 185! 6.6 850] 3.3 290| 3.0 *Test made from evening milking where only one test is given per day. 168 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE TasBLe XIV — (Continued). EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS. ContTrRoL ANIMALS. RUTH F. a MILLIE D. | Dato, Num- ; |Num-|] ¢ | Num-] |; ber of = ber of = ber of fa cells & | cells | & | cells. | G Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.| 1911. VacuuM USED — 16.5 IN. VACUUM USED= 14.5 In. 390! 4.9 PANT tell WeeS 0 SG, sano aoe 250{ 6.5 505) 6.5 900] 4.2 265| 5.7 195) 5.1] 1,500) 4.3)/Mar. 4 205} 6.5} 1,090) 3.1 870] 3.4 480) 5.0 NAF foe's | oles fs lade vo eee ene ee 275) 6.8 530} 5.8] 1,100) 3.7 375| 4.8 130) 6.0} 1,790) 4.6)Mar. 5 L5O 7e5 700) 5.5 790] 4.1 290) 4.8 PANN aa IES CtNO)) GPA aos 5 Soe 150) 6.3 570) 4.4 475) 3.4 295| 5.4 150) 5.4] 1,695) 3.9)Mar. 6 205) 6.2 400) 4.9 860] 3.8 1,705) 4.3 AN) yeah peel) Sieh 3 35 ao se 260 otal. 305} 3.4 880] 2.8 575) 5.6 230) 4.2) 1,395) 4.38)Mar. 7 285} 7.0 380) 4.8 605} 4.0 580) 3.7 IGS Pail WOH] 24h. oe kee 290! 6.7 380) 5.8 705| 3.7 310) 5.1 185) 5.6) 1,335) 3.8}/Mar. 8 250) 6.3 675| 4.1] 1,365) 3.3 415] 4.8 HO) Gell! Ws Sa. 6 aad oe 220) 7.8 565) 5.5 925) 3.3 520) 5.7 155) 5.9) 1,325) 3.8|\Mar. 9 1S Pare 730) 4.0 725) 4.0 475) 3.9 22520) N| al S40) too ees eee 145) 6.1 445) 6.1 665) 3.4 445) 5.5 160| 5.3' 1,745! 4.2\Mar. 10 200' 6.5 570' 3.9 940' 3.3 VACUUM USED — 17.5 IN. Vacuum usEep = 14.5 In. 355) 3.4 Tp G Alp de 403) alle. eee 640 8.3 445) 4.9] 1,085| 3.6 295) 5.6 210} 5.4) 1,305) 4.5)Mar. 11 635! 7.0 410) 4.4) 1,060) 3.7 260) 4.3 2201, 6. 9]s Ie 345] 3.23] 02... oa: 435] 6.2 370) 5.5) 1,085} 3.4 295) 4.5 210) 8.3} 1,235} 4.5/Mar. 12 160) 7.0 320) 3.6 500) 3.5 265) 4.0 140 GsS|ets0ol online ate 290) 6.3 310) 4.3 540) 3.4 400) 5.0 155 GS eee 4.0\/Mar. 13 250) 7.0 410} 5.0 575) 3.4 390) 4.4 140) 6.6} 1,090) 3.9)........ 390) 6.7 615) 5.0) 1,415) 3.6 445) 4.3 95| 5.6] 2,465) 4.0)Mar. 14 350) 6.3 520) 4.0) 1,010} 3.1 450) 4.5 ZOMG: Olen Go| Moro bee tae ae 305) 6.6 370} 5.3 580) 3.7 320) 4.2 55] 5.2) 2,150) 4.4;Mar. 15 185) 6.5 340) 4.0 765| 3.6 605) 4.0 LZOMGeGll 2 O80) Porta ee nee 240) 6.4 470) 5.8 710) 3.6 845] 4.4 120} 4.8} 1,510} 4.1)/Mar. 16 285) 5.7 (Als) ee 420) 2.8 ' VAcuUM USED = 18.5 IN. VACUUM USED = 14.5 In. 595| 4.1 (Dl eels A0b Won Olmert esse 235) 7.5 700] 5.4 630) 3.9 Zap\ 4.0, 110} 6.2) 1,065) 4.0)/Mar. 17 175] 6.4 690) 4.6 CS PAR} 425] 4.1 250 |G) Ola le 2Spiio All. pele svete 260) 6.3 490} 4.3 690) 4.1 290) 4.2 85) 5.3] 1,125) 4.1)Mar. 18 165} 6.5 500} 3.0 625] 3.0 625) 4.1 140} 6.6 ODD |Ro. cOlie, Hee oie 160} 6.9 490} 6.5 375), 3.1 625] 4.8 115} 4.3) 1,380) 4.2)Mar. 19 175) 6.6 820} 3.8 330) 3.0 495) 3.5 ON 7624 [rl SRS 0) Byes] | o aiaie ss 180} 6.6] 1,030} 3.9 135); 3i3 540) 4.4 150 6.8 965) 3.8/Mar. 20 285) 5.6 800} 5.7 190} 3.1 425| 4.4 PANS) ele CAL ASI Ia) GiaC NEE. Gatton 230| 7.7| 1,175) 4.8 600} 3.6 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 169 Taste XIV — (Concluded). EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS. Controt ANIMALS. GERTY HAMMOND GERTY MABEL ee F. 2. EE a Date: 1 wal Is F. 1. Ss. F. Num- Num- Num- Num-| .; | Num- Num-| ,; ber of = ber of = ber of = ber of = ber of = ber of = cells & | cells. | & | cells. cells. | & | cells. | & | cells. | & Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.| 1911. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. VACcCUM USED — 18.5 IN. VACCUM USED = 14.5 IN. 465| 4.2 125] 5.3] 1,710| 4.3|Mar. 21 255| 6.8] 1,000] 5.4 680| 2.6 305} 3.5 125) 6.6} 2,440) 3.4)........ S2p| Gall) L205) 328 S(O} 3:2 255 4.4 160} 6.0} 1,575| 4.1j)Mar. 22 225| 6.0 845] 4.7 345| 3.5 Vacuum usED — 19.5 IN. AO lpeicd mabe oo |herdie Ole 2559] Ae [jee Rie ers lsdeerers leseelteescesed leserhostez: | aoe VACUUM. USED = 17.5 IN. 820| 4.4] 185 4.6 1,230] 4.0|Mar 23]...... ee taallosatorns RED ae SAA (es VacuUM USED — 16.5 IN. 645] 4.6) 190] 7.0| 1,015] 4.0]........ | aeacacs’ ice eralberoccer laters! os, see | See VACUUM USED — 15.5 IN. 540| 3.9| 135] 6.0] 1,385) 3.1)Mar 24]...... lees eR AR Re same | ae VacuuM USED = 14.5 In. 270| 3.5| 125] 6.8] 2,400/ 4.8]........ (eee ees ieee Pca lesa {Pe . AVERAGES FoR HACH oF THE ABOVE PERIODS. 7350'5 .6 170|6.2 | 1,080)4.5 {Feb. ar et 555|4.75| 780] 4.5 Feb. 23 to 3605.4 195|5.6 | 1,280)4.1 |Mar. 3 220°6.9 480/49 700} 3.8 365/49 180|5.7 | 1,560)3.9 |Mar. 3-10) 2156.7 560/4.85} 840] 3.6 410)4.4 155|6.2 | 1,770)4.2 |Mar. 10-16} 3506.6 440|4..7 810} 3.4 440/4 .2 145|6.2 | 1,360/3.8 |Mar. 16-22) 2206.6 805/4.7 470} 3.2 370)3.5 135!7.0 | 1,255)4.1 |Mar. DPA\ ee fa |pxeeie Wil a ea | net lates Weta |) ies {Vacuum increased 1 in. with each tVacuum used = 14.5 in, period beginning at 14.5. in. and in- creasing to 19.5 in. 170 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE ‘s[eullue [or}U0D 07 Ajddv you Op pez¥voIpul WNNovA UI sesueyD *‘SIVNINY (SANIT ye IOULNOD HAUH], ONV IVINGNIYEIXY PAU], dO WII JO INGLNOD TIEQ—A] Havay 2° £2 22 A al col : Wee ins : TuvW £2 Yad $1135 Wi Ooo00sT “> 5 0000002 SéI SSHINI NIWONSWA New York AGriIcuLTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 171 The comparison of the experimental animals with their controls may be started with a discussion of Gerty F. 2 (experimental animal) with Hammond F. 1 (control). These two animals were the most satisfactory in that they both gave milk having a fairly constant cell content and were not so near the end of their period of lactation as the other animals. Gerty F. 2 was in the seventh and eighth month of her period of lactation at the time and gave an almost constant amount of milk. The cell content of her milk showed a slight average decrease after the first week with no marked fluctuations (see Table XIV and Graph IV, upper portion). Ham- mond F. 1, her control, had calved three weeks later than Gerty F. 2, and gave a gradually decreasing amount of milk. The cell content of her milk was constantly somewhat higher and more fluctuating than that of Gerty F. 2. A comparison between Ruth F. (experimental animal) with Gerty F. 1 (control) shows that Ruth F. gave a gradually decreasing amount of milk while Gerty F. 1 maintained a practically constant amount to the end of the experiment (see Table XIV and Graph IV, lower portion). This was to have been expected as Ruth F. was within one month of the end of her period of lactation while Gerty IF. 1 was milked for two and one-half months longer. Ruth F. gave milk which contained a gradually increasing number of cells but the per- centage of increase was not great nor were the fluctuations as many nor as great as in her control animal. Gerty F. 1, the control, showed a marked increase in the number of cells in her milk toward the end of the experiment and in several instances gave milk containing over 1,000,000 cells per cubic centimeter. None of these four animals showed any abnormal condition of milk or of health at any time during the experiment nor for months thereafter. Ruth F. suffered from milk fever at her next calving period and Gerty F. 1 had a skin disease during the following summer, but these conditions cannot be connected in any way with the experi- ments here outlined. Millie D. (experimental animal) and Mabel S. F. (control) both proved to be animals which were not entirely normal in every respect and, therefore, in one way, not so satisfactory for the purposes of this experiment but on account of their abnormality, more interest- ing for study than the other animals. Millie D. was in the ninth and tenth month of her period of lactation but had only just become 172 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE pregnant at the time this experiment began although she had been served a number of times previously. She was giving a small amount of milk which decreased slightly during the experiment. She was dried off six or seven weeks after the end of the experiment. Her next calf was dropped in October, 1911. Millie D.’s milk contained large numbers of cells at all times and showed some marked fluctua- tions (see Table XIV and Graph IV, upper portion). At times it was decidedly salty to the taste and did not stick well to the slide when the smears were made for counting the cells. It can scarcely be claimed, however, that these conditions were due to the experi- ment as they are common conditions in the milk of cows which are near the end of their period of lactation. Moreover, the conditions in the control animal were somewhat similar. Mabel S. F. (control) had aborted her calf on October 28th of the fall previous and was giving only a small quantity of milk, the amount of which showed a gradual decrease during the experiment. She, like Millie D., was milked but seven or eight weeks after the experiment closed. The cell content of her milk was never as great as that of Millie D.’s milk and showed a marked decrease toward the end. The same difficulty in making smears of her milk was met with as in the case of Millie D., but no salty taste was noted. If the records of the experimental animals are compared among themselves, it is seen that they present equally contradictory con- ditions. Thus the record of Ruth F. shows a gradual increase in the number of the cells in her milk during the period when the vacuum was being increased 1 inch per week. However the record of Gerty F. 2 shows that the number of cells in her milk gradually decreased during the same period, while Millie D.’s record shows an increase in the number of cells in her milk up to the last week of the experiment when a sharp decrease occurs just at the time when the vacuum used was greatest in amount. It is especially noteworthy that exactly contradictory conditions were found in the three experimental animals during the last few days, when the vacuum was being decreased one inch at each successive milking. Graph IV shows, that during these days, the curve for Ruth F. reaches a maximum, the curve for Millie D. a minimum while that for Gerty F. 2 maintains a practically straight course. It is thus clearly seen that these changes in the vacuum did not influence the number of the cells discharged and there is no indi- cation that more extensive experimentation would have done so. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 173 F. EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THE EFFECT ON THE CELL CONTENT OF THE MILK WHEN THE ANIMALS WERE MILKED FIRST BY HAND AND LATER BY MACHINE. Two animals freshened during the period in which these studies were made and the opportunity was taken to make a detailed study of the changes in cell content of their milk during the first few days of lactation. These observations are reported on pages 166-175. After milking one of the cows, Chloe B. (No. 7), for seventeen and one-half days and the other, Ruth F. B. B. (No. 25), for seven and one-half days by hand, both were put on the machine. Records are here given for the period just before and just after the change during which time both cows were apparently discharging cells at a normal rate. Taste XV.— Crit Counts or Two Cows Mi.txkep First By HAnp AND LATER BY MAcHINE. Numbers given per cubic centimeter. CuuoE B. (No. 7). ae 2 Date. Number Milk Number Milk cells cells Lbs 4 Lbs HAND MILKED. INL eael al INGE eer, Oa ee Bele seca ei na *660 ,000 I Sts at | OPE Cae | ONES ecl 495 ,000 DORAN RS. SPS SAU SS NPS SRE a WHEW) 11) terre GL OMe Mee el LLche Eee 155 ,000 15.2 195,000 8.3 395 ,000 14.5 65,000 8.0 MiemchalS .20ht Seer Set wiedn eehatrs 760 , 000 15.7 75,000 9.0 1,050,000 14.6 125 ,000 8.2 Milano Qe eet bc a ots EE a omar 320,000 1523 105 ,000 9.6 480 ,000 14.3 110,000 7.9 Vilar chy 2 Occ. 8 $8. ci SER Le ca antes 275,000 15.0 95,000 9.2 MACHINE MILKED AT A VACUUM OF 14.5 INCHES. 115,000 15.6 45 ,000 7.8 Mia CHS. arcs Aebuc, och te eto tee SI 110,000 15.1 65 , 000 10.3 170,000 12.5 50,000 8.4 BVT CRA reac 8 hays ha ats Ry Oe eres HONE 440 ,000 INS ye 65,000 10.5 225,000 13.8 85,000 8.6 Wilegtclay OS eet he 2) Gs eo ae Sl Reet 215,000 16.0 45,000 10.6 200 , 000 15.4 75,000 8.5 VStar Ink 2 Arena a testi renown arin 330 , 000 14.8 35,000 10.5 245 ,000 14.6 25,000 8.0 Average of hand-milked samples... .. SLOFOOOR 2 ees 95, OOOK eras Average of machine-milked samples. . 2503000 aetna SOKOOOR eerren: | SE * Twenty-seventh milking. { Ninth milking, 174 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE The number of cells in the milk of each cow showed a decided decrease at the first milking after the machine was used. The com- parative averages of the cell content of the hand- and machine-drawn milk likewise show fewer cells in the machine-drawn milk. If these observations stood alone they would have little significance for it is impossible to tell whether these differences were due to the change in the method of milking or to the fact that they were fresh cows. However, the data given on page 1438 and in the following section indicate that they are significant and that the smaller number of cells was discharged because of the change in the method of milking. C. COMPARISON BETWEEN THE CELL CONTENT OF MACHINE-DRAWN AND HAND-DRAWN MILK. Table XVI gives the averages of the counts in Table II in such a way as to show the differences between hand-milked and machine- TaBLE XVI — CompaRATIVE CELL Counts or MACHINE-DRAWN AND HAND-DRAWN Mixx: Station Herp. RANGE OF Counts. Number of cells ; es ee per c.c S ss = e S |3s|sy Tolwot Se S aj Count No. 1—Average of 15 machine-drawn samples.| 429,000 12 0 3 Average of 8 hand-drawn samples... .| 122,000 a 1 0 Count No. 2—Average of 15 machine-drawn samples:| 448 ,000 12 1 2 Average of 8 hand-drawn samples... .| 225,000 7 1 0 Count No. 3—Average of 17 machine-drawn samples.| 419,000 13 2 2 Average of 8 hand-drawn samples... .| 292,000 7 1 0 Count No. 4—Average of 15 machine-drawn samples.} 516,000 8 3 4 Average of 8 hand-drawn samples... .| 426,000 5 3 0 Count No. 5—Average of 14 machine-drawn samples.} 518,000 8 4 2 Average of 7 hand-drawn samples... .} 691,000 3 2 2 Count No. 6—Average of 13 machine-drawn samples | 274,000 10 3 0 Average of 8 hand-drawn samples. ....} 316,000 5) 3 0 Count No. 7—Average of 12 machine-drawn samples.} 306,000 9 3 0 Average of 4 hand-drawn samples... .} 574,000 1 3 0 Count No. 8—Average of 12 machine-drawn samples.} 203 ,000 10 1 1 Average of 5 hand-drawn samples... .} 691,000 3 0 2 Grand average of 113 machine-drawn samples....... 309 ,000 82 17 14 Grand average of 56 hand-drawn samples.......... 381,000 38 14 4 ooo EEE New York Acricutturat ExpertmMent Station. 175 milked cows. The average of 56 samples of milk drawn by hand is 381,000 cells per cubic centimeter while the average of 113 samples of machine-drawn milk is 309,000 cells per cubic centimeter. Of the 56 hand-drawn samples, 38 gave counts under 500,000 per cubic centimeter, 14 gave counts between 500,000 and 1,000,000 cells per cubic centimeter, and 4 gave counts over 1,000,000 per cubic centi- meter while 82 of the cell counts from the machine-drawn milk were under 500,000 per cubic centimeter, 17 were between 500,000 and 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter and 14 were higher than 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter. These results show a somewhat lower cell count for machine-drawn milk than hand-drawn milk which, with the other evidence given which bears on this point, makes it probable that the lower cell count of the machine-drawn milk was due to the method of milking used. CONCLUSIONS. The results obtained in these investigations confirm the conclu- sions formulated by Breed and Stidger “ in their earlier paper. More definite statements in regard to some points can be made. Apparently the largest average number of the cells present in milk occurs in colostral milk but equally large numbers of cells occasionally occur in milk drawn at any portion of the lactation period. Several very high cell counts have been obtained from milk of animals nearing the end of their lactation periods and the evidence here given indicates that such high counts are more common during the latter part of the lactation period than during the height of lactation, but the average cell counts for the latter part of the lacta- tion period do not seem to be markedly higher than the average cell counts of earlier parts of the lactation period. This indicates that the average total number of cells discharged per milking is less during the latter part of the lactation period than during the height of lactation. There are marked daily variations in the number of cells dis- charged which do not show a close correlation with any of the sug- gested causes for such variations. No constant relation between the number of cells discharged in the foremilk and the number discharged later in the milking process 44 See footnote 1, 176 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE has been found. It is clear that there is an increase in the number of cells in the strippings which may possibly be due to manipulation of the udder as suggested by other investigators. However, it is equally possible that this increase may be due to other factors. The four quarters of the udder are practically independent of each other, so far as the discharge of the cells is concerned, indi- cating that the principal cause of the discharge of the cells is some- thing which affects the quarters separately rather than the udder as a whole. Out of the 122 individual cows whose milk has been examined, 59 have been found to give cell counts under 500,000 per cubic centimeter, 36 gave counts between 500,000 and 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter, and 27 gave counts over 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter. The average cell counts for all of these cows was 868,000 cells per cubic centimeter. The milk of all of these cows was normal in appearance and was sold or used by their owners, who had every reason to suppose that the milk was normal milk. Changes of a considerable amount in the vacuum used to operate cow milkers were found to be entirely without effect on the cell content of the milk. Several things seem to indicate that the number of cells present in milk drawn by the type of machines here used is somewhat less than that of hand-drawn milk. The fact that all of the cows in the Station herd have been milked by machine during part, at least, of their lifetime is the only apparent explanation of the fact that the milk of this herd showed a much lower average cell content than the milk of other herds. The results obtained in the course of the experiments show clearly that there is no reason for any fear that high vacuums or changes in the vacuum may of them- selves cause the excessive discharge of cells or draw blood from the interior of the udder. The reasons for the discharge of the two kinds of cellular elements are undoubtedly entirely different. The epithelial cells are presum- ably discharged because they are worn out in the process of the secretion of the milk. Pathological changes in the udder tissues may also cause their discharge from the udder, but under normal conditions, their presence in the milk is probably correlated solely with the processes of secretion. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 177 The reason or reasons for the presence of the leucocytes are not so clear. Many men feel that they are attracted into the milk by the presence of bacteria in the udder, especially by the par- ticular kind of bacteria known as the pus-forming streptococci. This belief has arisen because of a large body of evidence which indicates that the milk of cows suffering from mastitis caused by a streptococcic infection, ordinarily, if not invariably, contains large numbers of cells. But this is not the whole story. It has also been shown that streptococcic infections of the udder occur where there are no pathological symptoms. Are the _ streptococci present in these cases pathogenic? Does this type of infection like- wise cause an increased cell count? How many cows are infected in this way? It is likewise known that the commonest bacteria present in the udder are micrococci which are so closely related to the pus-forming micrococci (staphylococci) that there are no known cultural tests by which the two can be distinguished. Yet no one has ever attempted to discover whether there is a relationship between the presence of these bacteria and the number of cells discharged. Since such bacteria are present in practically all cows’ udders, it is evident that if such a relationship does hold it would be without sanitary significance. No comprehensive study of the relationship between the number and kinds of cells discharged and the bacterial content of the udder has ever been made which takes these facts into considera- tion and so it is impossible to make even a reasonabie guess as to the probable correctness or incorrectness of the commonly current statement that it is possible to detect infection of the udder by patho- genic streptococci by means of high cell counts. No conclusive results bearing on this point have been secured in the course of the present investigation, although a considerable amount of work was done in an attempt to secure such results. Enough data were secured however to make it probable that there are other reasons for the discharge of leucocytes in the milk than the presence of bacteria in the udder. These other reasons undoubtedly have to do with the physiological conditions surrounding the process of milk secretion. No differential counting of these cells has ever been attempted where a satisfactory technique has been used. It is therefore not 12 178 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY. surprising that the real reasons for the discharge of the two kinds of cells are so obscure. It is not at all probable that the ratio between the numbers of the two kinds of cells remains constant during the entire lactation period. It remains for future investigation to show what these fluctuations are and to find the cause or causes of them, BACTERIA OF FROZEN SOIL.* H. JOEL CONN. SUMMARY. 1. The number of bacteria in frozen soil is generally larger than in unfrozen soil. This fact was first noticed by the writer in 1910-11 when connected with the Cornell University Agricultural Experi- ment Station. Recently it has been observed at a different locality and in two other soils, one very different from the first. It is true not only of cropped soil, as shown in the previous work, but also of sod and fallow soil. 2. The increase in number of bacteria after freezing is not due to the increase in soil moisture which usually occurs in winter. 3. The same increase in germ content may take place in potted soil, where there is no possibility that the bacteria are carried up mechanically from lower depths during the process of freezing. 4. The facts noted under the headings 2 and 3 make it very probable that the phenomenon is due to an actual growth of bacteria after the soil is frozen. Its influence on fertility is still an unknown factor. 5. The results given in this bulletin were obtained in a different laboratory and under quite different conditions from those previously reported, thus partly eliminating errors which might have crept in because of peculiarities of technique. INTRODUCTION. Until recently considerable attention was given to variations in numbers of bacteria in soil at different seasons and under various conditions; but it is now realized that quantitative work alone is of small significance, and this line of investigation has been largely abandoned. As a result we know very little about the seasonal variation in either kinds or numbers of the bacteria in soil. A study of qualitative seasonal variations has never been undertaken. Samples for quantitative study have often been secured from green- house soil; or, if from the field, they have not been taken frequently enough or for a sufficiently long period to yield complete data. The flora of winter soil, in particular, has scarcely been studied. It was assumed, for a long time, that bacterial activity was almost, if not completely, absent while soil was frozen. This assumption was supported by both theoretical and experimental evidence. * Reprint of Technical Bulletin No. 35, July. [179] 180 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE Theoretically, it had been reasoned that bacteria could not make use of congealed water in their physiological activities. Experi- mentally, freezing had been shown to prevent the growth and even- tually to kill some types of bacteria (as for example B. typhosus). Probably these reasons have been largely responsible for the small attention given to the bacterial flora of winter soil. HISTORICAL. Remy! was among the first to furnish information as to the seasonal variation in numbers of bacteria in field soil. His attention, how- ever, was directed mainly toward the physiological functions of the bacteria, and he did not try to perfect his methods of quantitative study. It is perhaps for this reason that he found no great variation in the numbers, and that his highest count was not over 4,000,000 per gram. None of Remy’s samples were taken during the winter. Hiltner and Stérmer,? in the course of some experiments designed to show the effects of CS,-treatment and of fallowing, took samples throughout more than one year. A few of their samples were taken during the winter, but none of them were from soil that had been long frozen. Their highest count was made from soil that had been frozen only a few days before the sample was taken. Fabricius and von Feilitzen* carried out quantitative studies on five soils throughout one vegetative season. They found that the germ content showed a close relationship to soil temperature, so far as they tested the matter; but they examined no winter samples. Kruger and Heinze,‘ in the course of an investigation of fallow soil, took several samples for bacteriological study during one year, omitting the winter. Engberding® took numerous samples during two seasons of plant growth from fallow and cropped plats, manured and unmanured plats. During most of the year the samples were taken at short intervals; but between October and March only two samples were taken, both of which were from the same plat. These two samples gave moderately high counts, although not so high as some of the others. 1Remy, Th. Bodenbakteriologische Studien. Centbl. Bakt. Abt. II, 8:657-662, 699-705, 728-735, 761-769. 1902. 2 Hiltner, L., and Stormer, K. Studien iiber die Bakterienflora des Ackerbodens, mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung ihres Verhaltens nach einer Behandlung mit Schwefelkohlenstoff und nach Brache. Kaiserliches Gesundheitsamt, Biol. Abt. Land- u. Forstw. 3:445-545. 1903. 3 Fabricius, O., and von Feilitzen, H. Ueber den Gehalt an Bakterien in jungfrau- lichem und kultiviertem Hochmoorboden auf dem Versuchsfelde des Schwedischen Moorkulturvereins bei Flahult. Centbl. Bakt. Abt. II, 14:161-168. 1905. 4 Kruger, W., and Heinze, B. Untersuchungen iiber das Wesen der Brache. Landw. Jahrb. 36: 383-423. 1907. 5 Engberding, D. Vergleichende Untersuchungen iiber die Bakterienzahl im Ackerboden in ihrer Abhangigkeit von dusseren Hinflussen. Centbl. Bakt. Abt. II, 23:569-642. 1909. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 181 In 1910, while associated with the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station at Ithaca, N. Y., the writer first called atten- tion to the fact that the number of bacteria. in frozen soil is greater The following winter more data were col- lected and all were published in a second article? appearing in 1911. For the sake of comparison with the results obtained at Geneva during 1912-14, the Ithaca work must be summarized here. than in unfrozen soil.® TasLe I.— BacreriaL Counts oF FIELD SoIrL. Samples taken at Ithaca, N. Y. DATE. April 17, 1909 May 25, 1909 July 16, 1909 Sept. 16, 1909 Oct. 8, 1909 Nov. 23, 1909 Jan. 21, 1910 Feb. 7, 1910 Feb. 26, 1910 Mar. 25, 1910 April 15, 1910 May 28, 1910 June 15, 1910 July 2, 1910 Aug. 20, 1910 Sept. 14, 1910 Oct. Nov. Noy. Dec. Jan. Jan. Feb. Feb. Mar. Mar. 29, 1911 April 12, 1911 Bacterta Per Gram Dry Soin, In — PLAT 4B Center. ee DC ONC I it a oe) o) fo! ia.) "9; 08 North end. PLAT 1B Center. 60 S16 eve) 6.8 oxe, North end. ~ ~ . ~ -_ ~ _ TINIAN - ~ - Ss SSSSSSSSSSSS SSSSSSSSSSSsS - eI) SNOe ~ ~ Le) - *This count is probably too high, as little but surface soil was included in the sample. } These counts are inexact, because of the extremely rapid liquefaction of the plates. 6 Conn, H. J. Bacteria in Frozen Soil. Centbl. Bakt. Abt. II, 28:422-434. 1910. 7Conn,H.J. Bacteria of Frozen Soil. II. Centbl. Bakt. Abt. II, 32:70-97. 1911. 182 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE Two field plats, in Dunkirk clay loam,*® about twenty feet apart, and both cropped to millet, were sampled nearly thirty times during the two years. The counts are listed in Table I, taken from the second of the two articles already mentioned. ‘These results are also plotted in Graph V. In this graph the relations between the bacterial count, the moisture content of the samples, and the average weekly temperature are shown. The following points were brought out by these analyses: (a) The highest counts were all made while the soil was frozen. Out of seventeen counts made from frozen soil or from soil recently thawed, all were over 10,000,000 and only four under 15,000,000 per gram; while of the forty other samples only fourteen were over 10,000,000 and but five over 15,000,000. The highest count in unfrozen soil (22,000,000) was exceeded by seven of the winter counts. (b) During the winter the numbers of bacteria increased while the soil was well frozen, but tended to decrease when it thawed. (c) In general, increases and decreases in the numbers of bacteria accompanied rises and falls, respectively, in the moisture content. In January and February, 1911, however, a series of fluctuations occurred which seemed to be closely associated with the freezing and thawing of the soil, but which were plainly independent of changes in moisture content. This relationship between the number of bacteria and the soil- moisture suggested that the increase in germ content during the winter might be due to the greater moisture content rather than to the difference in temperature. There are two ways in which this may be possible: the added water, even though frozen, may furnish better conditions for bacterial growth; or, provided this increase in moisture is due to a capillary rise of water from lower depths during freezing, it may carry bacteria up with it, thus increas- ing their numbers in the surface soil without actual multiplication. To test out this point a pot of soil was kept frozen with a constant moisture content of 40 per ct. The experiment was not carried on under the most satisfactory conditions, because warm weather made it necessary to employ a freezing mixture of snow and salt, which resulted in a much lower temperature than that usually found in the field. A further difference from field conditions was caused by the aeration which necessarily results from the ordinary method of filling a pot with soil. The results of this pot experiment are summarized in Table II. They are inconclusive. An increase in germ content is shown while the soil is frozen; but it is a much smaller increase than that observed under field conditions, and is not followed by a decrease after thawing. 8 The soil nomenclature of the Bureau of Soils has been used throughout this work. The soils mentioned are described in the Soil Surveys of Ontario and of Tompkins Counties, New York, published by this Bureau. They are all glacial lake-bottom soils; see Fairchild, New York State Museum Bul. 127, pp. 66. 1909. 1909, 1910 MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPTOCT. NOV. DEC.JJAN. FEB. MAR. APR, MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC.|JAN. F EB. (AR. APA. | Se Se eo. eee ole aie ee aes Fk New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 183 The experiment was discontinued on April 11, too soon to make it certain that the numbers of bacteria would not, eventually, have returned to their original level. Bas bob he [ane ANEE A/T leah =P ol ages ele Es [pales BAN Peles eee | ed ele is BS Pte Lele oS Nee Grappa V.—Bactertat Counts or Fietp Sor, Mane at Irnaca, N. Y. Numbers of bacteria expressed in millions per gram; moisture content in percentage, dry basis; temperature in P| al > are ee BD aS he Bes ee LA | ea es aE eee eee a SSO ones, Sl ie a sl ie eal Z\ pe ese | 2 is ai Ks i a ia | aes 60 50 40 10 0) e e 5 5 1 wu The ee 0 of bacteria in frozen soil, indicated by the analyses made at Ithaca, was so unexpected that some question has degrees Centigrade, average per week. 184 Report oF THE DRPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE TaBLe II].— BactrertaL Counts oF Potten Solu. Samples taken at Ithaca, N. Y. Bacteria Darter. | per gram Remarks. dry soil. Jan. 41] 5,000,000 | Soil standing indoors, moisture 8 per ct. Jan. 11 |} 10,000,000 | Soil indoors, moisture 40 per ct. since Jan. 4. Jan. 16 |} 12,000,000 | Soil indoors, moisture 40 per ct. since Jan. 4. Jan. 25 | 7,800,000 | Soil frozen since Jan. 16; except on Jan. 21. Feb. 11 | 10,700,000 | Soil thawed Jan. 26-28; frozen since Jan. 29. Mar. 20 | 16,000,000 | Frozen artificially since thaw on Feb. 20. Mar. 27 | 19,000,000 | Still frozen, but not very stiff simce Mar. 22. April 4 | 21,000,000 | Soil thawed since Mar. 27; kept indoors. April 11 | 19,000,000 | Still thawed; moisture 40 per ct. been raised as to the correctness of the results. As yet, however, not much work has been done by others to test out the matter. Some unpublished work, carried on under the direction of W. M. Ksten, of the Connecticut Agricultural College, has shown the germ content of soils to increase after freezing. Brown and Smith? recently made a study of bacteria in frozen soil, obtaining quanti- tative data from eight samples of soil. All of their counts are lower than those which were found in the present work, a fact which can be at least partially explained by their use of a different culture medium and of a shorter period (three days) of incubation. Although some of their counts from frozen soil were lower than others made before freezing, the highest count of all was from soil that had been the longest frozen. This fact is particularly interesting when we consider that the bacteria which show the most striking increase in numbers after freezing grow very slowly on the plates and are largely overlooked when a short period of incubation is used. PRESENT WORK. PLAN. This work was planned to throw light upon the same two ques- tions which it had been hoped to answer by the pot experiment in the earlier work (see page 182). The first question is whether the increase in numbers of bacteria may not be due merely to a rise of the organisms from lower depths, brought about by ascending cur- rents of soil-water. The second is whether it is the low temperature or the high moisture content of winter soil that favors the bacteria. To answer these questions, soil was allowed to freeze in pots, so that its moisture content could be controlled and no water could rise 9 Brown, P.E., and Smith, R.E. Bacterial Activities in Frozen Soils. Iowa Agr. Exp. Station, Research Bul. 4:158-184. 1912. New Yorxk AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 185 from below. Both aerated and unaerated soil were used in these pots, the unaerated soil having been obtained by digging a block from the field and transferring it directly to a pot. It was hoped by this means to see whether the failure of the previous pot experi- ment to show an appreciable increase in germ content could have been due to the unnatural aerated condition of the soil. Parallel to these pot experiments, tests were made of the same soil (Dunkirk silty clay loam) in the field. In these tests, also, both aerated and unaerated soils were used. The unaerated soil was merely an undisturbed field plat that had been kept fallow since 1911, the upper two or three inches having been cultivated after every rain to preserve a dust mulch. There were two portions of aerated soil, one aerated in November, 1911, the other in November, 1913. The former portion, after aeration, was replaced within a large tile such as is used for sewer pipe, two feet in diameter and two feet long, buried in the field with only its flange above ground, and the soil so placed within it that the subsoil was below and the surface soil above in a layer of the same depth as occurs naturally in the field. This soil, like that of the unaerated plat, had been kept fallow since 1911. The second portion, aerated in 1913, consisted of surface soil alone and was replaced within a smaller cylinder, six inches deep and six inches in diameter, likewise sunk in the field. A third series of tests was made in an entirely different soil, Dun- kirk fine sand. Two spots were chosen, about fifty feet apart. One was in sod; the other at the edge of a strawberry field, in a spot that was practically free from any vegetation, either because it had been frequently cultivated or because of the poor quality of the soil. These tests were made to see whether the bacteria increase in num- bers in a frozen sand as well as in a clay loam. The samples exam- ined were unfortunately few in number. METHODS. The methods employed have been kept as nearly as possible the same as those used in the earlier work. Soil samples were regularly taken by boring to about six inches, although some of the winter samples were taken to a slightly less depth because of the difficulty in boring through frozen soil. The soil thus obtained was thoroughly mixed, by sifting, if dry enough, or by stirring, if muddy. A 0.5- gram portion of this sample was finally selected and shaken for two minutes with 100 cubic centimeters of sterile water in a stoppered flask. After this shaking, the suspension was further diluted, care being taken to keep the contents of the flask in motion when any of the suspension was withdrawn. One cubic centimeter of the proper dilution was finally added to each plate. The dilutions used were 1: 100,000 and 1: 200,000 or 1: 200,000 and 1: 500,000. Three or four plates of each dilution were always made. 186 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BacTERIOLOGY Or THE Various media were tried in this work; but none ordinarily gave higher counts than the soil-extract gelatin described in the earlier articles. As a result, the figures chosen for publication are the counts obtained upon that medium and are comparable with those of the previous work. The composition of the medium is: ELF 5 CRN OD RSH NS PEN lin Cote Sept gs 12 per ct. SOUsOxGT ACH ja sctinks \euthaiers. o5 BO teh owas aie Oe 0.5 POEM REIS Lil SPREE. ce —4 Decembersc l= Ser 5 ashes as oe 4 March Itoh a ange cies, Pree! emanate fe —6 OF a as eee eae —l1 QE HERE hel Mii Yeeae 6.5 16-23: OI Ae 0 1Gs23Re Spite nearer 5 24-31 eas Dh te 1 DA Olesen sc tact te: thew A 5.5 1914. April Tg ose te es te 6 dire yy Evens Role eee Gn Soren L 1 (Opa od ae inet ete ie 9 DTA ea A aR it ey 2.5 (G3 18 Ai 688 See ae 10 IGS Or eee AA hgh Ue re ee 4 DAS OMT. pa PR iN ee ese: 14.5 ZARB BIRT, Mea ies Wee May 1S eee ares wap Sygate 18 Rebmuany d= Pasa. Sik. peek —1 OES anes aoe ats 9.5 Sala he ok es —13 MGe2o Te ee 14.5 1 aI a eseenapre secu ha Oe —10.5 DAES IMs, « Sette ett: Ae 13.5 DI Doman te. MEE AAO Mee —7 June 1 ORO HEET 6 AGIGIESA ce 17 March 1 cOaraer, okey, - ROR T: —3 (OTe ee Sieh Rear ae 18 os [GI Be re Ene —3.5 CEP B ia eee ae Ce oe 19.5 iE en Seb oe —1 F222 caehiens pI ISRREIE e 23.5 DAR OMe cm patton: here 6 July TEES RAIS Ber. SES 24 April Perak, Sau Ge bins phe MEL I Ae ees UUs a ct ae bain gine A 19.5 Qe ehys pe et ee 4 UGH 2S evar nmia ste wee 21.5 GDB ray 3) Rhcalie,. Mapes 10 CANES i ec a ee Oe 24 PEE Re eens ees eae 9.5 May i SR Stat art tah tare acta 1B) 35) QALY RNG 2 Sean: 12 Another explanation, offered by Russell," is quite similar to this, but assumes that the hostile organisms suppressed by the low tem- peratures are not bacteria, but larger organisms, probably Protozoa. Russell, indeed, thinks it probable that the bacteria in soil are normally held in check by these protozoa; and that only after soil has been heated, frozen, dried, or treated with antiseptics, can the bacteria multiply to the greatest possible numbers. ‘This theory is 13 Russell, E. J. The Effect of Partial Sterilization of Soil on the Production of Plant Food. Jour. Agr. Sci. 5:152-221. 1918. 196 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY. likewise unsupported by any direct evidence. It is a particularly hard theory either to prove or to disprove because of the difficulty in determining whether protozoa, live in the soil in their active state. If Russell’s theory is correct, the increase in germ content which takes place in frozen soil is closely related to that which has been shown to occur in partially sterilized soil. Until recently the best supported explanation of the latter phenomenon was that the treat- ment necessary to effect partial sterilization disturbed the equilibrium of the soil bacteria and as a result allowed certain kinds to multiply abnormally. Now that Russell has proposed his protozoan theory, opinion is divided. Whichever explanation is the more probable, it is possible that the rapid increase in numbers of bacteria in partially sterilized soil and their multiplication in frozen soil may be due to similar causes. The improved crop-yields in the former case raise the question as to whether the increased germ content in the latter case has any practical importance. If the bacteria that multiply during the winter are favorable to plant growth, a cold winter may have a more beneficial effect on following crops than a warm one. This question leads into the unsolved problem of seasonal variation among soil bacteria. It shows the necessity of knowing what kinds of bacteria predominate at different seasons, and what influence each kind has upon plants. CULTURE MEDIA FOR USE IN THE PLATE METHOD OF COUNTING SOIL BACTERIA.* H. JOEL CONN. SUMMARY. 1. Two new culture media have been tested to determine their merits when employed in the plate method of counting soil bacteria. One is a soil-extract gelatin, the other an agar medium containing no organic matter except the agar, dextrose and sodium asparaginate. 2. The soil-extract gelatin is recommended primarily for use when the plate method is employed as a preliminary procedure in a qualitative study of soil bacteria. Its advantages are that the colonies produced upon it by different types of bacteria are fairly distinct in appearance, and rather more of the soil bacteria produce colonies upon it than upon any other medium investigated. Its dis- advantages are such that they do not render it less satisfactory for qualitative purposes although they might make its use inadvisable in quantitative work. 3. The chief advantage of the asparaginate agar is that it con- tains no substance of indefinite composition except the agar itself. This ought to allow comparable results to be obtained by its use, even though the work be done by different men and in different laboratories. It is therefore especially adapted to quantitative work. 4. Four other media have been compared with these. They are those recommended for use in soil bacteriological studies by Fischer, by Lipman and Brown, by Temple, and by Brown. For qualitative purposes they are all distinctly inferior to gelatin. For quantitative work they are undesirable because they contain substances of indefinite chemical composition. It has been found that no one of the five agar media has a distinct advantage over any of the others in the matter of the total counts cbtained by their use. INTRODUCTION. Ever since the bacteriology of soil was first studied, one of the most common lines of investigation has been to determine the number of bacteria living in different soils. It was thought at first that the number of bacteria present was proportional to the pro- ductivity of the soil. Investigation, however, soon proved that the rule held only in a very general way, and that exceptions were * Reprint of Technical Bulletin No. 38, November. [197] 198 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE extremely numerous. Quantitative work, therefore, fell more and more into disfavor until in 1902 Remy! stated that mere deter- minations of the number of bacteria were of no use. Remy realized the importance of knowing not only the numbers of bacteria, but also the kinds present and their functions. He considered a complete study of this sort, however, too colossal a task to be undertaken. As a practical substitute for a complete qualitative study, Remy suggested a method of obtaming a qualitative knowledge of soil bacteria without counting them or separating the different kinds from each other. This was accomplished by measuring the chemical changes which the total flora of any soil was capable of producing when inoculated into special liquid media. Bacteriological methods, today, have improved to such an extent that it may soon be possible to make a more complete study of soil bacteria, including determinations of the number of each kind of bacteria present as well as the total number, and also of the functions of the various bacteria. Quantitative as well as qualitative methods, however, must be perfected before a complete study of this sort becomes possible. The usual method employed in quantitative work has been to count the colonies developmg upon a plate of nutrient gelatin or agar inoculated with a small amount of soil infusion of definitely known dilution. It is known that the composition of the nutrient gelatin or agar has considerable influence upon the results, but the best possible composition has not yet been determined. The present investigation is a study of the relative merits of various culture media for this purpose. The results are to be considered as merely preliminary; but they are published as an aid to others who are striving after satisfactory media for soil bacteriological work. USES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE PLATE METHOD. The weaknesses of the plate method of counting bacteria are too well known to need much discussion. It is an indirect method, for by its use the bacteria are counted only by means of the colonies they produce on the plates. In interpreting the colony count as though it were a count of the bacteria themselves, it has to be assumed that every bacterium mixed with the culture medium develops into a macroscopic colony, an assumption that is not justified unless the composition of the medium, the temperature of incubation, and the length of time allowed to elapse before counting are such as to permit the growth of every kind of organism present, and unless the bacteria are so well separated from each other that no colony represents more than a single individual. These conditions have never been fully met, and probably never can be. Th. Bodenbakteriologische Studien. Centbl. Bakt., Abt. II, 8:657-662, pie "598-735, 761-769. 1902. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 199 A still greater weakness results from the fact that the culture media in general use are such that there is no means of being sure in any case to what extent these conditions have been met. The fault of the ordinary culture media is that they contain materials of indefinite composition, different lots of which undoubtedly vary sufficiently in composition so that conditions are at times more favorable for bacterial growth than at others. The result is that the counts obtained by different workers, or by the same worker when using different batches of media, may vary greatly, even though there be no variation in the actual number of bacteria present. The fact that the plate method gives incomplete counts when applied to soil has been illustrated by comparing it with the only other method that has been proposed for counting soil bacteria. Hiltner and Stérmer? suggested that liquid instead of solid media be used for making quantitative determinations. They recom- mended the use of four different liquid media in making each test, each medium adapted to the growth of some particular group of soil bacteria. Their method was to inoculate each medium with small portions of soil infusion of many different dilutions, some of them so dilute as to cause no reaction to take place in the medium into which they were introduced. Having determined how great a dilution was necessary in inoculating each medium before tubes could be obtained in which bacteria adapted to that medium were lacking, a simple calculation sufficed to show the approximate number of each of these groups present in the soil investigated. This dilution method, according to Loéhnis,’ gives higher counts than the plate method, a fact which suggests that many bacteria are overlooked when the latter method is used. In spite of this well-known weakness of the plate method, it is in common use today, while Hiltner and Stérmer’s method is rarely employed. This is partially to be explained by the relative convenience of the two methods. Hiltner and Stérmer’s method is cumbersome, while poured plates furnish a simple and convenient means of testing several samples in a comparatively short time. A second advantage of the plate method is that it is possible to isolate pure cultures of the various bacteria from the colonies that develop on the plates. The study of these pure cultures gives a more thorough qualitative knowledge of the soil flora than can be obtained by Hiltner and Stoérmer’s method. This second advantage of the plate method must be made even greater before the procedure becomes of the greatest possible value 2 Hiltner, L., and Stormer, K. Studien tiber die Bakterienflora des Ackerbodens, mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung ihres Verhaltens nach einer Behandlung mit Schwefel- kohlenstoff und nach Brache. Kaiserliches Gesundheitsamt. Biol. Abt. Land. u. Forstw., 3:445-545, 1903. ° 3 Léhnis, F. Zur. Methodik der bakteriologischen Bodenuntersuchung II. Centbl. Bakt. Abt. Il, 14:1-9, 1905. 200 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE in qualitative work. Qualitative bacteriological analysis depends upon the ease with which the colonies of different types of bacteria can be distinguished from each other. The differences in appearance of the colonies result from certain peculiarities possessed by the bacteria themselves, such as their nutritive requirements or methods of growth. The extent to which these peculiarities are impressed upon the colonies depends upon the conditions of growth furnished by the medium. Unfortunately many of the media in use for the plate method are not favorable to the development of these differ- ences In appearance. CHARACTERISTICS OF A SATISFACTORY CULTURE MEDIUM FOR THE PLATE METHOD These limitations of the plate method cannot be entirely over- come; but the technique may be made more serviceable by using a more satisfactory medium. There are at least three important requirements that must be met by any medium before it can be considered perfectly satisfactory for soil work: (1) It must allow the growth of the greatest possible number of soil bacteria. (2) The colonies produced upon it by different types of bacteria must be as distinct as possible in appearance. This requirement, however, need not be met if mere quantitative results are desired. (3) It must be what bacteriologists often term a ‘“‘synthetic’’ medium; 1. e., of definite chemical composition. This requirement applies especially to quantitative work. As the plate method serves at least two distinctly different pur- poses, it may be possible to use two different media, neither of which meets all three requirements. One medium, designed primarily for qualitative work, should fulfill the first and second requirements; the other, intended for quantitative purposes only, should fulfill the first and third. In the present investigation an agar medium and a gelatin medium have been studied. Both have been tested as to their ability to meet the first of these three requirements. The former has been tested because, like all other gelatin media, it allows good distinc- tions between. the colonies of many kinds of bacteria, and thus fulfills, in part at least, the second requirement. The latter was tested because it contains no material of indefinite chemical com- position except the agar itself, and thus nearly fulfills the third requirement. REVIEW OF LITERATURE. Previous work along this Iine has had but one main object in view — that of obtaining a medium allowing the greatest possible number of soil bacteria to produce colonies. The other two require- ments just mentioned have been largely overlooked. Some investi- gators have used the ordinary media of general bacteriologica]l work, New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT StTaTIon. 201 such as beef-extract-peptone gelatin, as used by Hiltner and Stormer,’ or Heyden agar as used by Engberding.6 None of these were very satisfactory and it was soon concluded that special media must be used in soil work. The simplest modification (e. g. that of Hoffman‘) differed from the ordinary beef-extract-peptone formule only in the substitution of soil-extract for pure water. A slight improvement was claimed for this modified formula, but it has not been generally regarded as sufficient to warrant its continued use. The recent modifications have all been of a different sort. The best results have been obtained on media low in organic matter. The low organic content of these media undoubtedly holds in check certain rapidly growing organisms that would otherwise prevent the growth of the more numerous but more slowly growing bacteria. Fisher? in 1909 described several media of this nature. Early in the following year® Fischer recommended another medium, still simpler in composition, which allowed even more soil bacteria to produce colonies. This last medium was an agar to which nothing was added but soil-extract (prepared by extracting with a 0.1 per ct. solution of Na,CO;) and potassium phosphate. The advantage of reducing the amount of organic matter was discovered contemporaneously by Lipman and Brown’ who recommended an agar which contained no nitrogen beyond that furnished in 0.05 gram of peptone per litre. In 1911 Temple! recommended a culture medium for soil work which was also low in organic content, although it contained one gram of peptone per litre. Temple states that he could obtain better results with this medium than with Lipman and Brown’s formula. In 1913 Brown" published a modification of Lipman and Brown’s formula, replacing the .05 gram of peptone with one gram of albumin. (For the complete formule of the last four media see Table I.) Brown gives the results of six comparative tests that 4 See footnote 2. ’ Engberding, D. Vergleichende Untersuchungen iiber die Bakterienzahl im Ackerboden in ihrer Abhingigkeit von dusseren Einflussen. Centbl. Bakt. Abt. Il, 23: 569-642, 1909. 6 Hoffman, C. Relation of Soil Bacteria to Nitrogenous Decomposition. Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta., 23 Ann. Rpt., pp. 120-134, 1906. 7 Fischer, H. Bakteriologisch-chemische Untersuchungen. Bakteriologischer Teil. Landw. Jahrb. 38:355-364, 1909. 8 Fischer, H. Zur. Methodik der Bakterienzihlung. Cenbtl. Bakt., Abt. II, 25:457—- 459,1910. Although similar soil-extract media have been used by other bacteriologists, the directions given by Fischer for preparing this medium are so explicit that it is denoted in the present publication as Fischer’s soil-extract agar. ° Lipman, J.G.,and Brown, P. E. Media for the Quantitative Estimation of Soil Bacteria. Centbl. Bakt., Abt. II, 25: 447-454, 1910. 10 Temple, J.C. The Influence of Stall Manure upon the Bacterial Flora of Soil. Centbl. Bakt., Abt. If, 34:206-223, 1911. Also Ga. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 95:1-64, 1911. (See p. 9 of the latter reference.) 1 Brown, P. E. Media for the Quantitative Determination of Bacteria in Soils. Centbl. Bakt. Abt. II, 38:497-506, 1913. Also Ia. Agr. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 11:396-407, 1913. bo 02 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE show a slight superiority of this albumin agar both over Lipman and Brown’s earlier medium and over Temple’s agar.’ Each of these media has been recommended by a different investigator, and, beyond the tests made by Brown, no comparison between them seems to have been published. The little weight which the authors of these media have attached to the matter of distinctions in appearance between different kinds of colonies is shown by the fact that they have scarcely ever recom- mended the use of gelatin media. A few investigators, it is true, such as Hiltner and Stérmer!® used the ordinary beef-extract-peptone gelatin. Hoffman similarly used a beef-extract-peptone gelatin with soil-extract. Fischer!® mentioned rather casually the use of a gelatin medium containing nothing but gelatin, soil-extract, and 1 per ct. of dextrose, but does not recommend its use on account of the low and irregular counts obtained upon it. A modification of Fischer’s formula (containing 0.1 per ct. instead of 1 per ct. dex- trose) has been used by the writer with very good results. The use of this last mentioned formula has been referred to already in several publications;!® but no counts have yet been given to show how this medium compares with others. It is the gelatin medium to which particular attention is to be given in the present paper. The use of soil-extract, peptone or some other substance of unknown chemical formula in all of these media shows how little stress has been laid upon the importance of having culture media of definite chemical composition. Lipman and Brown’s medium alone is fairly satisfactory in this respect. Its authors, indeed, speak of it as a “synthetic” agar, in spite of the fact that it con- 13 The following is a summary of the six tests, taken from Brown’s tables (loc. cit.): Lipman Brown’s Temple’s TEST and Brown’s albumin peptone agar. agar. agar. eee resis chit, eenens eee aEN eye 5,478 , 000 6,735,000 5,791,000 ORR NR a 8 oc in Sica enn li ees Ope 5,200, 000 7,775,000 5, 225 ,000 OR eeNe Ron Pehs letn erated gare anterior s 4,866 ,000 7,113,000 5,066 , COO sek AIT NOE RST RC a SR Ae 4,688 , 000 6,466 , 000 4,710,000 AAR pode Nea rock chlc its ab tsuien Beak 4,560,000 2 O99 OO et ae) pees GER better, sabe ie, cumin pak de 3,086 , 000 4 HOSS OOO Nec tettarnys kere 13 See footnote 2. 14 See footnote 6. 15 See footnote 7. 16 Conn, H.J. Bacteria in Frozen Soil. Centbl. Bakt., Abt. II, 28:422-434, 1910. Bacteria of Frozen Soil, II. Centbl. Bakt., Abt. Il, 32:70-97, 1911. A Classification of the Bacteria in Two Soil Plats of Unequal Productivity. Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 338:65-115, 1913. Bacteria of Frozen Soil. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Tech. Bul. 35: 1-20, 1914. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 203 d tains agar and peptone. The term “ synthetic ”’ is justified only on the assumption that variations in these materials do not affect the growth of bacteria; but Brown states!” that the form of nitrogen, even when used in such minute quantities, is of great importance in determining the value of the medium. The agar medium tested out in the present work, concerning which a preliminary note has already been published!$, is furnished no organic nitrogen except that contained in sodium asparaginate, and is apparently the first medium ever used for making poured plates from soil that does not contain nitrogen in the form of some indefinite chemical compound. Table I gives the formule of the media preferred respectively by Fischer, by Lipman and Brown, by Temple, and by Brown in the publications already mentioned. It also gives the formule of the soil-extract gelatin and asparaginate agar recommended by the writer. The present work is an investigation of these six media. Tasty I.— Composition oF Various CuLttureE Mepra ror Sort BACTERIOLOGICAL Work Lipman Fischer’s | _ and ,. | Brown’s | Temple’s| _ Soil- Aspar- CoNSTITUENTS. soil- Br own's | albumin | peptone | extract | aginate extract Syn- agar. agar. gelatin. agar agar. thetie agar. Distilled! waterz--racel) 23-05 0: 1,000 TOUR ays tte 900 “1,000 ap=wa tere. gun ASE OEE S ARABI BIN ED ESS § PS OOO eats ag UAT ely he Be Soil-extract........ SL AOOOR ete. MO Pe Sa Fae Te OOH Es, Jase Agar eas ae 2c ; Ip 20 15 DoE Ay. Perce 12 GElatinIERA ieee ese, Fe RE Lenith ae: Nea aE babes Lak pm, 2 T20 es same tcaee. Pepioneres ter coal, sess ORO SEs are; al use te rl | PN Voiiaauta tery Mes SPS AMMA CARE Ls 1 bd he tee ted Goan Ae Omega (TAPAS Ba aat OGUIMPASPAFAPINA LE 455 ce Ser MN eimai: Got ngldhia 4 co cheeall otoeeshasects oul MR eee 1 Dexrosem iyi. gel Sates a: 10 LOPS ietest.< 1 1 NCIS Oe 4a bi © hm AR eS 0.2 (OR (Ce Se ane ea a ek ae 0.2 KE HGP O ie ae 5 2 0.5 OPE) pceexe eee | PRR cone || PE tee NIST Et iE Or perserr set. t leek eet salle Rak 2 ABT el dale. NN eels Elite Colt italy, COOLEST Pease unset RES, See lc CRATER EL eee eae cy: 0.1 VEC oie captions EV cg thea lees =o cE eal | EG RR lary cl eR es | ee Ut 0.1 REG ae Ree eee MAE Nek MABE AD cha ALE ied cha ieee LIME aed (ay Trace Wes(S@asres de wetter 1h steers tele ceys | tae racer (Meek: eee d= ees, col eet Se * Prepared by heatiag soii for half an hour at 15 pounds pressure with an equal weight of a 0.1 per ct. solution of NazCOs. p. 17 See footnote 11. in Soil. Ta. Bul. p. 397. Centbl. p. 498. 18 Conn, H. J. A New Medium for the Quantitative Determination of Bacteria Science, N. 8., 39:764, 1914. ai by boiling soil half an hour with an equa! weight of distilled water (see 204 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE GENERAL TECHNIQUE The technique used by various soil bacteriologists has differed not only in the kinds of culture media used but also in the length of incubation and the temperature employed. The two latter factors are fully as important as the composition of the medium in determining the final count. Fischer incubated his plates at 16-20°C. and counted during the second week. Temple used a temperature of 25° C. for six days. Lipman and Brown held their plates three days at “‘ about 25° C.” This last method is open to criticism, for it has been found in the studies reported upon in this bulletin that so many new colonies continue to appear on Lipman’s and Brown’s media after three days that the count may be as much as three times as high on the tenth day as on the third. The counts pub- lished by Lipman and by Brown, indeed, are considerably lower than those obtained upon their media in the course of the present investi- gation, in which the longer incubation time has been used. In the present work gelatin plates have been incubated for seven days, agar plates for fourteen. It would undoubtedly have been more satisfactory to hold gelatin plates a few days longer; but as liquefaction often prevents a count under these circumstances, seven days has been chosen for the routine incubation time. In the case of agar plates, on the other hand, very few new colonies develop after the tenth day, and the longer period of incubation seems to be unnecessary. The use of the fourteen-day period was begun before this fact was known, and it was continued throughout the work in order to make all the results comparable. The temperature used for incubation has been 18° C. The incu- bator employed!® is one that can be kept at a very constant tem- perature; and it has never reached a temperature as high as 19° except on the hottest summer days. In the case of gelatin, the use of this low temperature is very important, because it prevents rapid liquefaction. The soils chosen for making these tests have been of as great a variety as could be obtained in this locality. They vary in texture from muck to sand. They are of the following various origins: glacial lake deposit (Dunkirk series), glacial till of the New York drumlin area (Ontario series), glacial till from Devonian shales and sandstones (Volusia silt loam), alluvial (Genesee soils) and a limestone residual soil mixed somewhat with glacial materials (Honeoye stony loam). The nomenclature used is that adopted Me the Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agri- culture.” 19Conn, H. J., and Harding, H. A. An Efficient Electrical Incubator. N.Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Tech. Bul. 29: 1-16, 1918. *0U. 8S. Dept. Agr. Bureau of Soils, Bul. 96, pp. 1-791, 1913. See also Soil Survey of Ontario County, New York, published by this Bureau, 1912; pp. 1-55. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 205 Each sample of soil has been plated in two different dilutions. These dilutions have varied somewhat with the different soils used; but in each test listed in this bulletin, the figures for the different media have invariably been obtained from plates of the same dilu- tion. The dilution chosen for counting has usually permitted about one hundred colonies to develop per plate. Plates have always been made in triplicate. The counts given in the tables represent the average of the three plates, except in cases where one of the three has been lost by liquefaction or otherwise. In any case where only one of the three triplicate plates has given a reliable count, the results have been discarded or else the figures in the table have been marked doubtful. THE SOIL-EXTRACT GELATIN. DESCRIPTION OF THE MEDIUM. The soil-extract gelatin has been used in routine work by the writer for five years. When first used, it was thought to be merely a makeshift that would quickly be superseded by other media upon which soil bacteria could grow more readily, but it has proved so satisfactory that it has been kept in routine use in this laboratory up to the present time, and has been included in such a large majority of the tests reported in this bulletin that it serves as a basis of com- parison between the media that are not compared together directly.! As already mentioned it is to be recommended for qualitative work because it meets the requirement of showing distinctions in appear- ance between the colonies of different kinds of bacteria. The data published in this bulletin will show whether it is also adapted to the growth of as large a number of soil bacteria as are the other culture media that have been proposed for soil work. The preparation of this gelatin is as follows: Soil, heated in an autoclave for an hour at 20 to 25 pounds pressure, is extracted by mixing with an equal weight of distilled water, allowing the mixture to stand cold for twelve hours and then boiling half an hour, re- storing the water lost by evaporation, and filtermg. In making up each batch of the medium, the soil-extract is diluted with distilled water to one-tenth its natural strength and used for dissolving the gelatin. (Gold Labe! Gelatin has always been used.) It is probably unnecessary to carry out in detail the whole of this procedure for obtaining soil-extract, but it was followed carefully throughout the present work in the hope that the composition of the soil-extract might be more nearly constant than it would be if the method of preparation were allowed to vary. After dissolving the gelatin in the diluted soil-extract, the medium is clarified by the use of the white "1 The only caution necessary in employing this gelatin is the use of an incubation temperature as low as 18° C. See p. 28. 206 Rerorr.oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE of egg, as generally recommended for ordinary bacteriological media. Dextrose is added just before tubing. The reaction is adjusted to 0.5 per ct. normal acid to phenolphthalein. The formula is given in the fifth column of Table I (p. 203). VARIATIONS BETWEEN DIFFERENT BATCHES OF THE MEDIUM. A strong objection to this gelatin is its indefinite chemical com- position. Variations in the composition might easily cause irregu- larities in the counts. As a matter of fact, however, there has seldom been any evidence of such variation; but in Table II is given one instance where it was noticeable. This table shows the counts obtained in a series of nine platings upon three batches of soil-extract gelatin all made up from the same lot of soil-extract, although from different packages of gelatin. Batch I was two and a half months old at the time of use; batches II and III were made up fresh, but batch IL had been left in a warm room over night before sterilization and a famtly noticeable decomposition had taken place. It will be seen that the counts on batch II are considerably lower than those on batch |. Batch III was used only six times. Generally it gave a count intermediate between batches I and II. In this particular case the cause of the poor results from batch II was undoubtedly its decomposition; but the decomposition was so very slight that if it had not happened to be accompanied by gas formation, it might have been overlooked. A similar accident might easily occur in making up any batch without being noticed. There are many other opportunities for such variation in composition of the media. Agar is as liable to these variations as gelatin; again and again some batch of agar under investigation, apparently made up in exactly the same manner as the others, has proved unusually satisfactory or else unusually unsatisfactory. These irregularities, indeed, are great enough to make the result of any comparison between two media unreliable unless more than one batch of each medium has been used. This fact does not seem to have been fully realized by some investigators. The six comparative tests given by Brown” were presumably made with a single batch of each medium investigated, although the author makes no statement to that effect. A glance at his figures makes it plain that the variations between the counts he obtained upon the different media are less than those shown in Table II as occurring between two different batches of gelatin, and likewise less than those known to occur between different lots of agar media. 22 See footnote 12. New Yorsx AgGricuLTuRAL ExprrRImMEentT Sratton. 207 Taste II.— Tests Compartna Dirrerent Batcues or Sorm-Extract GE.atin. Bacterté Per Gram Dry Soi, as DETERMINED WITH — ee! Date Soil type No. ; ype. Batch I — { Batch II — (Batch III — 23 months fresh, but fresh; old. decomposed. good. 1914. 1 | Sept. 1 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .| 24,000,000 | 10,000,000 | .......... 2 | Sept. 2 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .| 14,000,000 | 9,000,000 | .......... 3 | Sept. 2 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .| 12,000,000 | 8,500,000} .......... 4 | Sept. 5 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .| 35,000,000 | 23,000,000 | .......... 5 | Sept. 5 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .| 24,000,000 | 13,000,000 | 19,000,000 6 | Sept. 10 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .| 21,500,000 | 13,500,000 |*20,000 ,000 7 | Sept. 10 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .| 39,000,000 | 25,000,000 | 32,000,000 8 | Sept. 10 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .| 20,000,000 | 14,500,000 | 16,500,000 9 | Sept. 11 | Ontario fine sandy loam..] .......... 9,500,000 | *9,500,000 10 | Sept. 11 | Ontario fine sandy loam..| .......... 9,500,090 | 11,500,000 * These counts are inexact because of rapid liquefaction. SIMPLIFICATION OF THE FORMULA OF THE SOIL-EXTRACT GELATIN. The opportunity for such variations in composition seems, a priori, to be greater in the case of this gelatin than with any of the agar media discussed in.this paper. Soil-extract is unquestionably of variable composition. Gelatin itself also may be the cause of con- siderable irregularity. It is more complex in chemical composition than agar and presumably more variable. It may perhaps contain fewer impurities; but it is used in ten times as large quantities as agar, which must result in the introduction of large amounts of whatever impurities it does contain. Lastly, gelatin is a food for many bacteria, and for that reason variations in its composition must have more influence upon bacterial growth than those in agar, which is not ordinarily of nutrient value for bacteria. In the hope of eliminating some of these causes of variation, an attempt was made, toward the close of the present investigation, to simplify the formula of the gelatin. If any way of purifymg the gelatin itself had been known, that would have been undertaken. In the lack of such knowledge, attention was turned to the soil- extract. Eliminating the soil-extract could not prevent the sort of variations shown in Table II, but it might prevent others equally great. The soil-extract was first replaced by tap-water. The results were so surprisingly successful that both the tap-water and the dextrose were finally eliminated, leaving only a solution of gelatin in distilled water, clarified with white of egg. The results are given in Table III. It will be seen, first, that the tap-water gelatin with EPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE Report or THE 208 eee eeeerese eereeeerese eee eereeenee sere eeenee eee ee eee eee were eee wees er *(payraejoun) I0}zBM pey[asip mr cya) a>”: SeeSeeeeSESFSeSSSeeeeeSeSSeSSSSSSsSSsSsssssssssse 000‘ 002‘ 2 000‘002‘9 000‘000‘ OT 000‘ 008 ‘OT 000‘000‘ZT ,000' 008 °ZI “000° 000° ce 000‘000‘6 000‘000‘8z 000‘ 000 ‘7Z 000 ‘00s ‘zg 000‘ 600‘0O “IOVBAM PST Sp “aIyR9D 000‘00¢ ‘ze 000‘000‘¢¢ “9S01}xap ‘IOV@M Petitsip aIqRJaxy 000‘008‘8 000‘000‘8 000‘ 000‘ ZT 000 ‘009 ‘OT 000‘ 002‘ T 000 ‘000‘OI 000 ' 000‘ &¢ 000‘ 000‘9T *I0yeM-dey ‘uIyeION 000‘ 000 ‘OT 000‘000‘9¢ 000‘000‘ST 000‘000‘61 000° 000° sz 000‘000‘'6 000‘000‘S 000‘000‘Z¢ 000 ‘000 ‘08 000000‘ SI 000‘ 000‘9z 000‘00S ‘ IIx “asO1}xop ‘ToyeM-dey ‘aryepany — HIM GININUGLE Sv “og AUq WUD ugg VIUTLOVG 000‘ 000‘ ST4 000‘ 008 ‘8 000‘ 00 ‘ZI 000‘ 00¢‘6 000‘ 00¢‘9 000‘ 000‘Z 000‘000‘6 000‘000‘¢g 000‘ 000‘0z 000‘000‘9T 000‘000‘ZT 000‘000‘ Tg 000‘ 000‘ TT 000‘ 000‘ ST 000‘ 000‘ 9T 000‘ 000‘ 1z 000‘ 000‘ OT 000‘ 000‘ OT 000‘ 000‘zE 000‘ 00S‘ 1z 000 ‘000 ‘Se 000‘ 000‘ TS 000‘ 000‘FT 000 ‘000 ‘9z 000‘000‘8 *eSO1]xop *19B1]X0-]10S “TIYE]aXy) see ween ry cee eee eee ee ar ** UIBO] IIS BISN]OA ** UIBO] IIIS BISNTO A ** UIBO] JIS BISNTOA ** UWIBOT IIS BISN]O A eg “(joe ‘ON UWLOI] [IOS VW) erro: PUBS HOJION ** (OpBI0[OD urI0J] [LOS W) ** (Opei0[oD wrod] [IOs W) “wBo] Avo AIS YaTyUNG ***-ureoy Au03s efoouoTT urvoy, Auojs afoauofy] weo] Avo AQIS yaryung “ureoy Avo AIS yITyUNG wieo] Avo AqIs yaryung weo] Avo AIS yaryung UWIO] FIIS BISNTO A " UIBOT 4IIS BISN]O A " WIBOT YIS BISNTOA weo] Avo Aqyis yaTyUNG wieo] Avo AqIs weo, Avo AqyIs wo] Aepo Aqis pues ony MONG oes pues ouy ‘Ed J, T10g yaryuN yanyung yeie ie WO] IIS BISNTO A yapyung yaryung SH OSH 1D 19 19. 19. OO 66 mA OD Hid Or CO ‘AVIOWUOT NILVIG4) CAIMIIdNIg JO SISHT, —]]] Fav, 209 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. ‘apeul oq }OU p[Nod sasvI0AB AIOJVISIVeS Ye} Soye[d jo][e1ed oy} UOdN sarluofOd Jo JaquINU 94} UdIMyoq APIV[NFeIII YONS SvAr day} SasBo asoyy uy ft ‘uoryovjanbiy pidei jo esnvoeqd yovxXeUl 918 S}uNod oseyy, | dA} pooej-pjoq Ul pozUlId 918 UlYB[ES 4ORIZXO-]IOS UO S}uUNOD Suipuodse110) 94} ULY} JoYySiy ore yey} IVpNUIIOT payidiurs oy} WO s}uNOD ssoyy, , fs okie (ew) saeco Ml celieuele sMer.egene etm ut/titu: 0) sive elelelvie) is) |||" jv eheike wils\sl (ess) 000‘000‘ 61 000 ‘000‘9T se eee “ULEO] Aejo Aqjis yappun qd 9 “AON, 0S see wees eee oe ee eres er erene eee eens 099 ‘000 ‘0zt 000 ‘00052% see *“UIGO] Aejo AyyIs yaryunq 9 “AON 6P eee ewes oe ee ee we ene eeee . eoeee 000 ‘000 ‘02 000‘ 000‘2Z sane ee UWIBO] Aejo AQIS yapyyunq;, G “AON OP oe eee Ce cc ener er eee ee eee 000‘008 ‘LT 000 ‘000‘ST see eee WROT Ayo Ajjis yaryUuNd G “AON LP eee eee ese reese ere eer eee eee 000‘008'9 000‘ 00z‘9 see wee WOT Ajo Ayyis yaryunqd QZ 490 OF eee ewww ne eee eer eee | eee we . enews 000‘000‘ZE 009‘ 000‘ 6z CP Cecaecer tack WROT Aeyo Ayts saLyUuN eG n1Y@) CP were weer eee | see eeee . =) ee cilevie, ‘a ene een wwe 000000 ‘oe 000‘ 000 ‘08 ee eee UWIBOT Avyo Ayyis yanqung®§ &Z "490 aa oe eee . . 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O10 Oo ee | oso CNC 000‘ 000‘ Sz seer eee 009‘ 000‘ Sz 000 ‘000‘' SE else wie WIBO] Ato AjyIs yaryunq; G “ydag ge a el oe ye | C00: O08 8 Bl et 000'000'€1 | 000'000%2T |" "** wivoy Avjo Apis yapung | Z “deg | Le ke 6 sr eleynesteu> ie. ||) afene. wees! susie’ .s: 000 ‘003 ‘OT ee) 000 ‘0900 ‘ Il 000‘000 ‘FI see eee WO] eyo AyIs yauyundg Fé “ydag 9g faire: a) Ore! ee) 6) (o/s (6m | ome) 6) ce ehaneateirs) 6 000‘000‘ST si euene' epee eile) e 000‘000‘'9T 000‘ 000 ‘FZ a WBOT Ae Aqs yaryun qq T “qdag Ge i 000‘000‘8zt oo Go O56 Gras 000‘000‘z% Bhs si @ ele ee « 000‘000‘6z oe “UIBO] eyo Ajyis yanyunqg 61 “ONY te ce ae 000‘ 000° €z a > 000'000'Zé+} "°°" """"* | 000'00S" es |" *** “wueOy Avpo AyTs yaryUNG | GT “BnV | &s 000 ‘002 ‘2 eee eens 000‘009‘6 cee eer eee . 000‘ 00 ‘ET . FDO OFC TI DIETS) qs BISNTO A Il ‘Sny ce eer eee . 000‘000‘8 eee ee eee . 000‘002 ‘2 et 000‘ 00 ‘OT eee "oo" UTBOT IIS BISNTO A. TE ‘SnYy Tg cere . 000‘000‘ 2 ed . 000‘008‘S eee eee eeee 000‘ 00¢‘8 eee ULE OT qyIs BISNTO A OL ‘ONY og eee eee ee . 000‘009‘¢ seee 000‘00¢ ‘F eee eee eens 000‘ o0¢‘¢l ere eee eee W180} ys BISNO A OL ‘Sny 6G ee 000 ‘008 ‘Zz ee 000‘ 00S‘ ZZ eee eet ene 000‘ 000‘ Sz Le wiwile) ee se: ee) WeO] o1zeyUuC, 8 “SNY 9G sete eee ENON 000‘ 000‘ Iz eae oe 000‘ 000‘ 6T4 eee ee eee 000‘ 000‘ zat see nr IE Oy 8 GELS) | O1IBqUG, 8 ‘sny 1Z COCO 000‘098‘9 oy 000‘ 000‘9 cd 000‘003‘6 . sss sss * "= UTBOT IIIS BISNTOA 9 ‘Sny 92 14 210 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE dextrose has given a higher count than the soil-extract gelatin quite often in the earlier tests but only four times in the last sixteen. As different batches of the media were used in the earlier and later tests, it is quite possible that the variation in the counts may have arisen from this cause alone. Secondly it will be seen that the tap-water gelatin without dextrose has rarely given a count as high as that on soil-extract gelatin; but that all the differences are too slight to show an actual advantage for either formula. Thirdly, it will be noticed that the counts on distilled water gelatin with or without dextrose are still more rarely equal to those on the soil- extract gelatin. In this case also the differences are so slight that their significance is doubtful. These tests cannot be construed as showing any reason for using soil-extract rather than tap-water or even distilled water. If further tests show similar results one of the simpler formule will unquestionably be considered superior for routine work. These tests show that either the gelatin, itself, or the white of egg used in clarification has furnished the bacteria with sufficient nutrient matter to cause large numbers of them to develop into colonies. ‘To determine which of these sources was the more impor- tant a solution of gelatin was made in distilled water and then used without clarification. The counts obtained on it are given in the last column of Table III. Only four tests of this medium were made; but in two of them the count was higher and in one other almost as high as on the clarified soil-extract gelatin. In spite of the small number of tests made, it seems safe to conclude that gelatin is in itself a very satisfactory culture medium for soil-bacteria. The use of the soil-extract gelatin was continued, however, throughout the present investigation even though one of the simpler formule might have given as good results. Its employment in the earlier work made its continued use valuable as a basis of com- parison, and it is plain that the simpler formule do not give any better results. A further discussion of the merits of this gelatin follows (pp. 219 to 226) in connection with the discussion of the tables in which it is compared with various agar media. THE ASPARAGINATE AGAR. DESCRIPTION OF THE MEDIUM. The asparaginate agar is intended primarily for quantitative work, as it contains no substance of indefinite chemical composition except the agar itself; but it does not allow such great differences _ in the appearance of the different colonies as does gelatin. The comparative tests which follow (pp. 219 to 226) will show whether it meets the other important requirement of a medium for quantita- tive work, that of allowing the growth of the greatest possible number of soil bacteria. New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTion. 211 The sole form of organic nitrogen in this agar medium is sodium asparaginate. ‘The formula is given in Table I (p. 203). It is much like the formulzs recommended by Lipman and by Brown, its principal differences being that nitrogen is furnished im the form of definite chemical compounds only (sodium asparaginate and ammonia phosphate), that it contains only 0.1 per ct. instead of 1 per ct. dextrose, and that it contains the ions Ca and Cl which Lipman and Brown do not use. In the preparation of the asparaginate agar, the dextrose and sodium asparaginate have been added just before sterilization, so as to avoid any possible effects of the preliminary heating on these substances. ‘The reaction has always been carefully adjusted; because if the acidity is as high as 1.5 per ct. normal (using phenolphthalein as an indicator) the count is appreciably lowered (see Table VIII, p. 219). If it is as low as 0.5 per ct. normal, there is danger of decomposing the ammoniun phosphate and losing the ammonia. The reaction should be between 0.8 per ct. and 1.0 per ct. normal acid to phenolphthalein.” Considerable difficulty has been experienced in clarifying this medium by the ordinary procedure, using the white of egg. Suffi- cient clarification can be accomplished, however, by heating the medium half an hour at 15 pounds steam pressure in such a way as not to disturb the sediment, and then decanting through a cotton filter. This method of clarification is simpler and is really prefer- able to the use of white of egg, as it does not introduce into the medium any material of indefinite composition. TESTS TO DETERMINE THE MOST SATISFACTORY FORMULA. The exact formula given for this agar in Table I is not to be con- sidered as the only satisfactory combination possible. Tables IV to VIII show the results of a few tests bearing on this point. The conclusions that may be drawn from these tables are somewhat limited by the small number of tests made. The same irregularity between different batches of the medium already mentioned for gelatin probably also occurs with the agar. The differences shown in these tables between the counts obtained upon the different media are undoubtedly less than those that might be obtained with different batches of the same medium. The small number of tests made, therefore, can furnish only indications. To establish any actual difference between the various media would require a long series of tests, for which time was lacking in the present investigation. Lack of time has also made it impossible to test out any but the most significant points. The first point tested was to determine the most satisfactory amount of asparaginate to use. It was found possible to vary this considerably without affecting the results. This is shown by the first four columns of Table IV. The usual formula containing 0.1 . 22 This ordinarily requires just 10 c.c. of normal sodium hydroxide per litre. Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE 2 21 nA ‘ ‘ ‘ ~ ~ ~ ~ SESSSSSSSSSS85 SSESESESEREESES ANWMOONR eS Zee Si) S a ~ ess ess ST nS “UlYRIOS qOBI}X9-]10G eS uw N a Z4 1000 ‘ 000‘ TZ I |000‘00S‘6 ‘9yeU -1seiedse SN ‘9}eU -1seredse "yo sod Z0'0 000'000' 98 000‘ 000‘ ST 000‘000‘ST 000‘000‘ZI 060‘ 000‘91 000‘ 000‘ F% 000‘ 000‘ 2 000‘ 000‘0Z 000‘ 000‘ OT 000‘ 000‘ ZZ 000 ‘ 060‘ 0Z 000‘00S‘ ZI 000‘000‘Z1 000‘00S ‘91 ‘a}eU -Inviedsv “30 aod ¢0'0 000‘000‘9 {000‘000‘6 000‘000‘6 000‘ 000‘ 6z 000‘ 000‘ 22 000‘ 000‘ 8z 000‘ 000‘ 22 000‘ 00 ‘OT 000‘ 000‘ 9T 000‘ 000‘ ST 000‘ 000‘ TT 000‘ 000‘ ET 000‘ 000‘ 22 000‘ 000 ‘Fz 000‘ 000‘68 000‘ 0002 000‘ 00¢ ‘FT 000‘ 000‘ ST 000‘ 000‘ZT 000‘ 00S‘ 000‘ 000'S 000‘ 000° 2 "* “1000000 1 a) ease 000‘ 0G0‘ LT "*** "1000" 00S "81 ‘9y8U -1sviedse ‘40 rod [9 000‘ 00¢ ‘ET 000‘ 000° ST -9]0U -15bIVdse ‘40 ged 70 000‘ 0009 ‘938U -iseredse ‘yo rod GQ a Saas 3 WEO] IIS BISN[OA “meo] Apues ouy O17eyUG_ ‘weo] Apues ouy Clie,UuG ‘weo] Avo Aqis yaLyUNG ‘wivoy Avo Aqyis yaryuNG eek Bs pues oug yirjung we es ae UOT IIS BISN]OA Ree UIBOT IIIS BISN]OA UIBOT FS BISNTOAY “weoy Avpo AQIS YaLyUNG ‘ureoy Avpo AQIS YILyUNG “weo] Avo AQIS YUNG “weo] Avo AIS yaryuNG “wBo] Avo Aqis yaryUNG *-wreo] Apues ouy O11ejUC *-tiRo] Apues ouy O11ezUC “-ureo] Avyo AQIS YITYUNG “-ureo] Avo AQIS YaLyUNC, ure] Avpo AQIS yaLyUNG wo] YLyUNG ““WIBO] AT[OABIS yATyUNG abe ac UIVOT PIS BISN]O A. wito] Apues ouy yaryung — DNINIVINOO ‘IA NANTOO ‘I ATAVL NI SY VIGGW UVOV —HLIM GUNINUGLAG SV “Il0g AUq WVUt) Yad VINALOVE ‘HdA J, T10g 9% ABTA ST ARI ST Av FL Avy FL Avy 6 API Po (Udy be [dy ‘aqeq mNOH WOOD 4saL, ‘UVOYW GLVNIOVUVESW NI ALVNIDVUVdSY WAIGCG ZO LNNOWY DHL ONIAUVA JO LOGHIG GHL GNINUGLAG OL SLsSa],— A] FAV, 218 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. ‘moioejonby, pider jo esnvoeq yOVKOUT are S}UNOD osoq J, } ‘ad A} poovy-pjoq ut pszad ore oyeurseredse 40 sad [9 Y}IM UINIpauT oq} UodN szuN09 Burpuodseri09 94} UBY} JoYysIYy ore yey} SB[NULIO} poyrpour oy} uodn syuno, , 000° 000' OC eo 000°000°9T | °° = OOOKOUSIETL SS Se ee eS “meol Avo AzIs yayuNG | 6% AV | 1@ 000° 000° 1Z mi etietie! ee eke Ls 6.19: 900 ‘000‘ ZT dene ene én) .0 m= 000‘000‘8T slate) che) pyage eee Nets ein won wae Tyo “WBOT Apues ouy OL1vJUGQ 8G ACTIN 9% 000 000 &% ep ovet ee 6 0 /e1.e, wie 000‘ 000 ‘61 see ee eee eee 009 ‘000 ‘0z Giievie Ps /t,ca.ee' eva sits) aeeke) m. o> 0Lere loan: “WIEO] Apues ouy o1reyugQ 82 ACT GZ SEO A-0 Clow [ewer dS lange: tt 000‘ 000‘ £1 1000‘ 000‘ TT FTN, inh 2h= aie NE al” Siang) See Saak “TEOY T PS MaLS ENT ONNe 9g ABIN 0 914 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE per ct. asparaginate (see column three) was first compared with two modified formule containing 0.2 per ct. and 0.5 per ct. of asparaginate respectively (see columns one and two). As each of these formule was used in only two tests no definite conclusions can be drawn; but it is evident that there is no distinct advantage to be gained by using these larger quantities of asparaginate. A much longer series of tests was made of a medium containing only 0.05 per ct. asparaginate (see the fourth column). In ten of the sixteen cases the counts obtained with 0.05 per ct. asparaginate are higher than those obtained with 0.1 per ct.; while 0.1 per ct. of asparaginate has allowed better counts only in five cases. The slight superiority of the medium with the smaller amount of asparaginate may have been merely accidental; but it is quite plain that as good results can be obtained with 0.05 per ct. as with larger amounts. As the asparaginate is the most expensive constituent of the medium, perhaps it would be well in routine work to use 0.05 per ct. instead of 0.01 per ct. (as given in Table J). The results are less satisfactory, however, when the asparaginate has been lowered beneath this point. In the fifth column five counts on a medium containing only 0.02 per ct. sodium asparaginate are given, and in the sixth column four counts on a medium with the asparaginate omitted entirely. All these counts except one (test No. 24 with 0.02 per ct. asparagi- nate) were lower than the corresponding counts when 0.1 per ct. of asparaginate was used, but the differences were never very great. The greatest disadvantage of these two media cannot be shown by figures. Colonies developed very slowly upon them and remained small and undifferentiated in appearance. Although it is not absolutely necessary for a medium intended for quantitative work to show differences in appearance between the colonies of different kinds of bacteria, it is, nevertheless, a desirable feature if it can be obtained without sacrificing either of the other two more necessary qualifications. For this reason it is not advisable to use less than 0.05 per ct. of sodium asparaginate, even though it may be entirely omitted without greatly affecting. the count. A second series of tests, showing the effect of varying the dex- trose content, is given in Table V. The six counts given in the first two columns indicate an inferiority when as much as 0.5 per ct. of dextrose is used, but the tests are too few in number to establish the fact. More work on this point is to be desired. It would be advantageous to use larger amounts of dextrose if it could be done without lowering the count, because this sugar is of considerable value in bringing out distinctions between the colonies of different kinds of bacteria. The counts given in the fourth column of this table would seem to show that reducing the dextrose content to 0.05 per ct. has lessened the number of colonies which develop; but 215 New Yorx AcricuLtTurRAL EXPERIMENT STATION. ‘aypuiseredse "40 Jad 7'Q poure}uod YUNOd SIq} SUTyvUT Ut posn uINIpsuT omy, | ‘a1qe} Sty} UE pasn st od paovj-pjoq ou souey ‘peAojdure SBM a80i}xap “40 Jed ['Q UIyYM Syn) Barpuodsers0d og} Ue} JaMo] SKBMlB aJOM BlNULIO; Ide palfrpour ssoy} YPM sjuNod oy], , 000‘ 000‘ ZT 000‘ 000‘ IT 000‘000‘9T 000‘000‘2T 000‘ 000‘ 2a 000‘ 000‘ 22 000003‘ 2 000‘ 000‘ 9T 000‘ 000‘ ZT ulyejas 40B1}X9-[10G che ert © © e..eteve «a: 000‘000‘ LT ee eee . 000‘ 00¢ 6 Pr Yea ec su Tt tet Sak Sa 000‘ 000‘ 9T sta eee @kel» 000‘ 00¢ ‘ 2 eevee ee SI OOO TL see eeeee 000‘090‘S 000000‘ TT 009‘ 000‘ 81 Wie! bo e.e: Fe. eg Wii ic ils “seme a ede Je,» 000003 ‘ZI 000‘ 008 ‘ZT . Pet) Ceara [ec "QmC eh Ob Ceca 990‘000‘9T 000‘ 000‘ 1z a, Ue bret! 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Ote Ue UIBOT Ae AqyIs yanyung oc CMT POnl eG ere MORCERT care uI¥O| AY[aABId yaryunq¢§ renal Hs at wo Avp Arps YaEpIN Thee 6 « /emalionalie/ Wee (etieke, Re sitalients, elit’ tells: caine 1eke40) | O11ByU() © (ove. 0: 01 Oetre cette Me oun coke ints. enie ores UIBOT Apes yao und ede: erencrs ie cqeheucohems: aie! otecahcmees te WIBOT 4{IS BISN]O A Sui chara qatin ventas: at's cee ente es WIBO] Apuvs oay yaryung¢§ ‘HUA, Mo0g 0& “PO 0€ PO 16 “PO vI6I g “ydag Or Aine $e oune fF oun g sun 9% API E161 ‘seq | SSS eS eee i) 8 L mA OD SHLD SO ‘ON 4S9J, ‘UVOY GDLVNISVUVdSY NI GSOULKa dT gO LNOOWY GHL DNIAUVA dO LOGY AHL GNINYELAG OL SLSa],—A SIsvy 216 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE some further tests are given in Table VI in which the use of 0.05 per ct. of dextrose has had no appreciable influence. This latter table contains thirteen comparative counts between the formula given in Table I (with 0.1 per ct. dextrose and 0.1 per ct. asparagi- nate) and a modified formula in which the asparaginate content is Taste VI.— Tests to DETERMINE THE Errect oF Usina Onty .05 Per Cr. DEXTROSE IN ASPARAGINATE AGAR. Bacteria PER Gram Dry Soli, As DETERMINED WITH — ASPARAGINATE AGAR ies Date. So1t Type. CONTAINING — ee —| Soil-extract gelatin 0.1 per ct. | 0.05 per ct. dextrose dextrose* 1913. 1 SiSeptelon|eMunkarkaloam: comecin aes 7,000,000 |79,500,000 | 8,000,000 PA AEST 3} 01 95222 el NY Ye) eae e5 -t Seeeeee gt opet Sencar eat 23,000,000 |24,000,600 | 29,000,000 3 | Oct. 4 | Ontario fine sandy loam.....} 4,500,000 | 7,000,000 7,000 ,000 4} Oct. 8 | Volusia silt loam........... 4,500,000 | 9,500,000 9 , 800 , 000 OeOcts avs: |e Volusia siltvloameme ce ones 4,000,000 | 7,500,000 9,800 , 000 GulsOcts222 |mGeneseesloam™= ja. hee ee 19,000,000 |22,500,000 | 27,000,000 aalis OCG? 821i eC Ketan ne eet rornrestnitter: 74,000,000 |70,000,000 |118,000,000 8 | Nov. 18 | Dunkirk fine sand.......... 6,500 ,000 | 7,800,900 | 8,000,000 9 | Nov. 18 | Dunkirk fine sand.......... 6,000,000 | 7,500,000 9 ,000 , 000 10 | Nov. 25 | Dunkirk silty clay loam..... 9,500,000 |10,500,000 | 16,000,000 11 | Dec. 5 | Ontario fine sandy loam..... 18,000,000 |£17,000,000) 19,000,000 12 | Dee. 5] Ontario fine sandy loam..... 18,000,000 | 17,000,000} 24,000,000 13 | Dee. 15 | Dunkirk silty clay loam..... 12,500,000 | 10,500,000} 12,000,000 * This medium contained 0.2 per ct. asparaginate. { Counts on the asparaginate agar with 0.05 per ct. dextrose that are higher than the corresponding counts upon the medium with 0.1 per ct. dextrose are printed in bold-faced type. {In this case there was such irregularity between the number of colonies upon the parallel plates that a satisfactory average could not be taken. doubled but only half the usual amount of dextrose is used. The count has proved higher on the modified formula than on the ordinary asparaginate agar in all but four cases, and equal to it in one of those four; but the counts on the two media are always so nearly the same that no weight can be attached to the differences between them. It is plain that, if reducing the amount of dextrose has had any influence upon the count, that influence has been neutralized by increasing the amount of asparaginate, a result which is not to be expected in view of the data given in Table IV, New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 217 showing that variations in the amount of asparaginate have no appreciable effect upon the number of colonies that develop. For quantitative purposes, 0.05 per ct. dextrose seems to be as good as 0.1 per ct. Possibly the dextrose could be entirely omitted without causing a lower count. In fact a single test in which a formula was used differing from that of Table I only in the absence of dex- trose, resulted m exactly the same count as obtained with the use of 0.1 per ct. dextrose." No further tests were made with this formula as the colonies developing on it were all very small and alike in appearance. A further series of tests was made to see if the formula of this medium could be simplified. In Table VII the counts obtained by the use of three agar media of more simple composition are compared with those made on the ordinary formula. One of the simpler media is a mixture of agar, tap-water, 0.1 per ct. of sodium asparagi- nate and 0.1 per ct. of dextrose; the second the same with the dextrose omitted; and the third a mixture of agar and tap-water alone. This comparison was made in the hope that tap-water might supply all the necessary mineral salts. Only two tests were made of tap- water and agar alone, because, although this medium allowed a fairly high count, the colonies were all small and of the same appearance. When sodium asparaginate was added to this tap-water agar, how- ever, the results were fairly satisfactory, and with the further addition of dextrose more satisfactory still, but the colonies were not even then as large as when the formula given in Table I was used, and the count was usually lower. This attempt at simplification cannot be considered a success. It has already been mentioned that a most important point in the composition of the asparaginate agar is its reaction. There is very little data available to prove this point by direct comparison, although it has been well established in the course of the present work. The fact was learned largely by noticing that whenever the medium was made up by accident with a reaction as high as 1.5 per ct. normal acid, the counts obtained were always much lower than expected. This was so very evident that a few additional direct tests were considered enough to settle the matter. They are given in Table VIII. The four tests all agree in showing that the count is about twice as high when the reaction is 0.8 per ct. as when it is 1.5 per ct. Additional weight is given to these figures by the fact that tests Nos. 1 and 2 were made with different batches of media from those used in Nos. 3 and 4, the media used in the last two tests having a slightly different formula from usual (0.05 per ct. dextrose and 0.2 per ct. asparaginate). No media were tested out with a reaction more alkaline than 0.8 per ct. acid, because of the danger of losing the ammonia of ammonium phosphate unless the medium was 3 This test is not included in any of the tables. 218 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE ieSe oyeurSeiedse 10} vmMuTIOy [NJ 9G} odn szunoo Surpuodsariod ayy UeYyy JOYySIYy sv VY} L[NuIo} poeylyduns oy} wo syunoy , 000 000° *% 000‘ 000‘¢¢ 000‘000‘ZT 000‘ 000‘ FT 000000 ‘FZ 000‘000‘¢e! 000‘000‘6T4 000‘ 000 ‘0z4 000‘ 000‘zEl 000‘ 000‘ z+ 000‘000‘ OTL 000‘ 000‘ 274 000‘ 000‘ ooTtt 000‘ 000‘ TT 000‘ 000‘ OT “UIYe]93 40Bi}X9-] 10g 000‘000‘ OT 000‘ 000‘ TT. *I9}e@M-dey pus iesy 000‘ 000‘ ZT 000‘ 000 ‘FZ 000‘000‘6 000‘00¢‘ TT 000‘000‘¢T 000‘000‘ ss 000‘ 000‘ ST 000000‘ 6T. 000‘ 00¢ ‘ST 000‘ 000‘ 2 000‘ 002 ‘6 000‘ 000‘ LT 000‘ 000‘ FS 000‘ 002 ‘6 000‘ 000‘ ST 000‘ 000‘ 9T ‘gso1jxep pure -oqeulseiedse | ayvulsvaedse uINIpos puv ‘1070M-dB ‘wesy umMIpos ‘TayeM-dey ‘TesV — PNINIVINOO ‘AVINWHOd GEIAIIANIS 000‘ 000‘ Tz 000‘ 000‘ 0¢ 000‘ 000‘ ST 000‘ 000‘ ST 000‘ 000‘ Zz 000‘ 000‘ 98 000‘ 000‘ 0z 000 ‘000 ‘Sz 000‘ 000‘ ZF 000‘000‘ Ss 000‘ 000‘ 9T URES UR UDATS SB ‘IESE ayeulseiedsy — HIM GaNIWUaLag sv “I10g AUG WVU AG vIaaLOVg ‘uoovjenbi] pidei jo asnvoeq yoevxeul aie syunod aseyy, f “UIYVjES 40B1IYXA-]I0S JO pvaysuT ‘UIYe[eS 10yeM-de} YIIM apvuUI szUNOD | ‘adAy paoej-pjoq ut pojutid ere Raise, © ahisita¥iel | se) alee qeapie .- “WBOT Avo Ayis yarn q oMstievehs wksuamaner> canes eheishs: “UIBOT eyo AyIS yanqung¢d$ sis; (auie, Te) [6)elvelre){s.pi.e(elleleiielie ane! s WIeOT Key Ayyis yabpyun qd i eealoliel-siiake tele” siiecene 6:0) eM ey 0/0 UIBOT Aeyo AyIs yabyun see ee oR a EE 9 0710) ec) Ays yaLyung s/ /oum; 8: amp cpereke! eee eve)» iekare! a UWIBOT Awyo Ags yaryyun nylond’o. aliselie'elele. ellene’e eles ete UIBOT Aeyo Aqjis yapyun qd aceece 0) ese !.0) 6! e:eherie olelensts “UL BO] Aeyo Aqis yabyun qd si eiehe, sie. set shevpie \ehepelesetete, sirius weyana, ans? .c ULBOT O1184U GC) aueXnl.@ #8 0B Oe@ B10 One 0) SLG48. © Sle. 6 ie es) 6.6 es « WIBOT Oley) setae eces ashe) site evel etalers UWIGOT Arya Agyis ysLyyUN sew e meee eee ese ee eeee UIGO] Aeyo Ayis yaryyun¢, nitaWe) in| ovlej'e ele! Site eneleleieeP@Lele pcalks tee) elie he us tdusl(a) ie econ yon CeCHO eC arid Hey oreo, Apues) yon G see Deke a ae SUE Ol PA WES py Cy UNG bere eeeeeeeseees +++ pues aug yaTyUNG gener Deeee sees esse esses pues ou yuryuNG ‘HdAJ, 1109 “aVDY GLVNIOVUVdSY YOR AVINWACY GAIIIdWIg JO SL8a], 3 AN LING ¢ “ydag g “ydag Z “ydag Z4dag T ‘4dag T “ydeg Ig “Sny ‘Hed mA OD SHLD) CO be CO OD ‘ON 4a, New York AqgricuLTuRAL EXPERIMENT Station. 219 distinctly acid in reaction. These tests bear out the generally admitted fact that media for soil work should have a reaction between 0.5 per ct. and 1.0 per ct. normal acid to phenolphthalein. TaBLE VIIIL.— Tests To DETERMINE THE EFFECT OF VARYING THE REACTION OF ASPARAGINATE AGAR. BacteriA Prr Gram Dry Soin, AS DETERMINED ON ASPARAGI- NATE AGAR WITH A REACTION OF No. Date. Sor Typs. 0.8 per ct. acid. | 1.5 per ct. acid. 1913 1 | Dec. 5 | Ontario fine sandy loam........ 18,600 ,000 8,500 ,000 2| Dec. 5 | Ontario fine sandy loam........ 18,000 ,000 7,500 , 000 3*| Dec. 5 | Ontario fine sandy loam........ 17,000 ,000 : 7,000,000 4*| Dec. 5 | Ontario fine sandy loam........ 17,000 , GOO 9 ,000 , 000 * Tests Nos. 3 and 4 were made with different batches of media from the first two tests. 'The media used in Nos. 3 and 4 contained 0.05 per ct. dextrose and 0.2 per ct. asparaginate, instead of the usual amounts. TESTS COMPARING THE VARIOUS MEDIA. A series of tests was made comparing the soil extract gelatin and the asparaginate agar with the other solid media that have been recom- mended for soil bacteria. Table LX is a comparison between the counts obtained upon the asparaginate agar and parallel counts upon the soil-extract gelatin. In Tables X to XIII the counts upon these two media are compared with those upon the media recommended by Fischer, by Lipman and Brown, by Temple and by Brown. In fifty-nine of the ninety-six comparative tests given in Table IX, the soil-extract gelatin gave higher counts than the asparaginate agar. In thirty-four cases the counts upon the agar were higher, and in three cases both media gave the same count. These tests show that the gelatin medium is rather better than the agar medium if we judge by the number of soil bacteria that grow upon it. In the matter of distinctions in appearance between colonies of different bacteria, it has already been stated that the gelatin is the more satisfactory; but the requirement of definite chemical com- position is more nearly met by the agar. From these facts it may be concluded that the gelatin is best for qualitative work, the agar best for quantitative work. One other disadvantage of the gelatin, its rapid liquefaction by certain organisms, constitutes a further 220 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE 000 ‘000‘zI 900 ‘00S ‘IT 000‘00¢ ‘2 000‘000‘8 000‘ 00¢ ‘ 6T 000‘ 000‘8T 000‘ 000 ‘0z 000 ‘000 ‘26 000 ‘ 000‘ 09T 000 ‘00¢* 2 000‘000‘9 000 ‘000 ‘6z 090‘ 000‘ 2z 000 ‘000 ‘8z 000‘ 000‘ 2z 000 ‘00S ‘OT 000 ‘000 ‘9T 000‘ 000‘ ST 000‘ 000‘ TT 000‘ 000‘ 6T 000‘ 000‘ §T 000‘ 000‘ §T 000‘ 000‘ 2z 000‘ 000‘ #z 000 ‘00S ‘ST 000‘ 00¢ ‘ez 000 ‘00¢ ‘ZI 000‘ 000‘¢9 000‘ 000‘ FS 000 000‘ 26 000‘ 000 ‘06 000‘ 000‘ z¢ 000‘ 600‘ FF 000‘000‘Sz 000 ‘00S ‘¢9 “ede eyeulsvivdsy 000‘000‘OT 000‘008 ‘8 000 ‘00 ‘ZI 000 ‘00S ‘6 000 ‘000 ‘0z+ 000‘ 000‘ 1z 000 ‘000 ‘ez 000 ‘000 ‘oot! 000 ‘000 ‘08T 000‘000‘64 000 ‘000 ‘F 000‘000‘¢z+ 000‘000‘0z 000‘000‘9z 000‘000‘0z+ 000‘ 000‘ OT 000 ‘00¢ ‘FT 000 ‘000‘2T 000 ‘000 ‘OT 000 ‘000‘zE 000 ‘000 ‘ez 000‘ 00 ‘Iz 000‘000‘ 1 000 ‘000 ‘0¢ 000‘ 000‘ FT 000 ‘000‘9z 000‘000‘8 000‘000‘Tz 000‘ 000‘zF 000‘000‘S6 000‘000‘2¢ 000 ‘000 ‘6S 000‘000‘8s 000‘000‘8F 000‘000‘S¢ “UIPelODS 40B14X9-[10G — HIM AaNINNTLAC sv ‘110g Aud WV" agg VIUaLovg * “WIBOT IS BISNIOA ** “UIBOT 4IIS BISNTOA “UIBOT 4IS BISN]TO A “UIBOT 4IIS BISNTOA “urBo] Avo ATs YaryuNG “uo, Apues sug o1eyUuGO *-uleo, Apues ouy OUeyUGO sreleieheticks ise ieteh ternal yon *-yonT BpOuS wo] Apuvs yunjunqg “***sureo, Apues yiryanqg *"ureo] Apues ouy OLIeJUG *urBo, Apues ouyg O1eyUGQ ‘ureoy Avo AqyIs yrDyUNG “ureoy Avo AqyIs yarpyuNG ae ES puss sug yirjung * “UIBOT 4IS BISN[OA “UIBOT JIS BISNTOA * UIBOT 4IIS BISN[OA *urBoy Avo AVIS YaryuUNG “uBo] Avo AqyIs YaDpuNG *-wrBoy Avo AQTIS yaryuNndG *-ureo[ Avpo AUIS YDpUNG *ureoy] Avo AqIs YDpUNG 2 ae a UWIBOT IIS BISNTOA “eres = pues sug yITyUNndg "ce" ** "pues oug yITyung “ureoy Avpo AQIS YaDjunG **ureoy Avo AqyIs ysryuNG ae pues ouy yaryunq cag es pues oug yurjung *-ureoy Avpo Aqyis YuLyuNnG “uleoy Avo Aqyis YaDpunG “ureo] Avo Ag[Is YaDpunqg “urBo] Avo AqIs ysTyuNG “Gadi J, 110g aed cs oe qseL 000‘000‘stt 000‘000‘91 000 ‘000‘8T 000 ‘000 ‘ST 000 ‘00S ‘2 000‘008‘8 000 ‘000‘OT 000‘000‘8Tt 000 ‘000 ‘Oat 000‘000‘9 000‘00¢ ‘9 000‘ 000‘ #2 000 ‘000‘6T 000‘ 00¢ ‘ST 000 ‘000 ‘# 000‘000‘¢ 000 ‘00¢ ‘F 000‘000‘¢ 000 ‘00¢ ‘F 000 ‘000‘§z 000‘ 000‘ 2 000 ‘000 ‘€T 000 ‘00¢ ‘9z 000 ‘00¢ ‘ZT 000 ‘009‘9T 000‘000‘2 000‘000‘ 21 000 ‘00S ‘EI 000 ‘900 ‘6z 000 ‘00S ‘Fz 000 ‘000 ‘6z 000‘ 000‘ 2* 000 ‘000‘¢z 000 ‘000‘9z 090‘000‘2z “IV5B oYVUulsvivdsy — HIIM GaNINUaLaAG Sv ‘I1lI0g Aud WVUD Adg VINaLOVg 090 ‘000 ‘zz 000 ‘000 ‘91 000‘ 000‘ 000 ‘000 ‘61 000‘00S‘2 000‘908‘8 000‘000‘9T 000 ‘000‘1z 000 ‘00S ‘zz 000‘000‘6 000‘000‘8 000 ‘000 ‘SIT 000 ‘00s ‘€z 000 ‘000 ‘0¢ 089 ‘008 ‘6 000 ‘900‘'6 000 ‘908 ‘6 000‘002‘8 006 ‘000‘2 000 ‘000 ‘6c 000‘000‘8 000 ‘000‘ZT 000 ‘0900 ‘SE 000 ‘000‘zz 000 ‘000‘¢ 000 ‘00S ‘2 000‘ 000‘ 9T 000 ‘600‘2T 000 ‘000‘8z 000 ‘000‘sz 000 ‘000 ‘ee 000 ‘000‘8P 000 ‘000 ‘8z 000 ‘000 ‘ 6T 009 ‘000 ‘27 “ulyelea 40814X9-[10g “umeo] Avy Aqyis yaryunq “ureo, Avjo Ayis YaDpunG ****uIBo] Aputs ouy oejUG **ueo, Apues ouy OLIeIUG_) Se ees puts sug yanjunqg "ts" "pues sug yIDpUNCG *-ureo, Avo AqIs YaDjyuNnG “urvo] Apues ouy O1eqUGO “ureo, Apues sug ae ‘yony eons atete ices Aone UW1BOT vaseTary UILO] aasaues) *** “UIBOT JIS BISNO A ices are UIBOT IIS BISNO A ** + UTROT 4TIS BISNO A Spares oe UIBOT IIS BISN[O A "** "+" UTBOT OLIRIUO moron ae ocane sors yon ‘+++ -ureoT yarpanqg “****urIBoy ATJeAGIS YIDpUNG yon “meo] Avpo Ags yaryunqg ee Pager WO] JIS BISNTIA espe ois urvo, Apues yaryunq oo genes WO] HIS BISN[O A “UIeOT Aputs sug yiryunqg “ueoy, Auoys sAOouO FT ‘uo, Apues sug olejUu~Q “urBo] Avo Apis yaryuNnG **ureo] Avpo Agyis yaryuNG **ureo] Avpo AVIS YaDpuNG een ee UIGOT IIS BISN[OA ‘ureoy Avo Apis Yappang “Gada T, TOS TAN OD HID Or OOD “UVOY GLVNIOVEVdSY AHL HLIM NILVIGY) LO VULXA-TIOG AHL ONIYUVdNO) SLSa] —X] FIavy; SRIMENT STATION. GRICULTURAL EXPE a se w Yori 7 4 NE *9SO01}XOP FNOTPIM UYV[Id JoJeM-dez SEM 4UNOD SIY} SULYSUI UI posn wINIpem oy, § ‘ayeutseiedss uinrpos ‘40 10d Z'0 put os01}xep “40 Jed GQ’) pourezUoD sjuN0d asey} BZuIyeUT UT pasn umripeut ogy, t ‘uoroejonby pidvs Jo asnvoaq Jowxout ore syuNod osoy J, | ‘ody pooej-ploq ur pazuud st 480} YoRe ur yuNod soYySIY OUT, y. 95955555595 8 000‘ 000‘ Iz 000'000' FZ = | * “UABoT Apo Ays yTYaNC | ¢ “3dag | 96 || 000‘000‘ST | 000‘000'FE |° °° UIVOT Avo AqIIs ysTYUNG | Og ‘UEP | BF 000 ‘000 ‘08 000'000'Se | * “Wo Avjo AyIs yIDjaNg | g “3dag | G6 || 000‘00S‘'zz | 000‘000‘ee | °°‘ ureO] Avp Aafis yrEFUNG | OF ‘ueL | 7p 000‘ 000‘ SI 000'000'ZT |* “Weof Avjo Ags yrnpanq | Z “deg | $6 || 000‘000'9E | 000‘000‘9g |° °°‘ ureo] Avpo Aq[Is yYUNG | gz ‘usr | OF 000‘ 000‘ST 000'000' FT |* “Ureo] Avpo Aqis yIEpang | Z ‘3deg | 6 || 000‘000'02 | 000‘000‘09! | °° *ureo, Avjo Aqfis ysryUnG | gc ‘uve | oF 00000023 =; 000° 000° Fe = | * UOT Avjo AqpIs HIEJUNG | T “3deg | Z6 || 000‘000‘6E | 009‘000‘8F |° °° “WOT Avjo AypIs ysryung | pz ‘uee | FF 000‘ 000'9 000‘ 00 '0E “** ureol HIS VISNOA | TT “SNV | T6 || 000‘000‘ce | 000‘000‘Sz | °°‘ UreoT Av[o AqyIs yrryung | Fz ‘ue | EF 000/000‘ 4 900 ‘909 '8 *** “ureoy afIS BIsnfoOA | OT “SNV | 06 || 000‘00S‘FI | 000‘000‘Zz |° °°‘ ureo] Apues ouy oueyuQ | BL ‘uee | ZF 000003 's 600‘ 000‘¢ ** * UrBOT HIS BISNJOA | OT “SnV | 68 || 000‘000‘ST | 000‘900‘2z {°° *‘ure0oT Apuvs oug ouequG | BT ‘uee | TF 000000‘ 9T 000'Go0'se |" **"* “7 **"urBol owed | 8 “BsnV | 88 || 000‘000'ZI | 000‘000‘SE |° °°‘ ureO] Avo Ayps yaryUNG | 91 ‘ue | OF 000 ‘000 ‘6 000'000'IZ |" "" “"**"urBol omeyaQ | 8 “sny | 28 |} 000‘'00¢‘¢ 000‘000'8I |° °°‘ weo] Avjo Aqts yITYUNG | OT ‘ue | GE 000‘000‘ IT 000‘000‘OT = |* “weo] Avo Ags yuyuUNng | 4 “2nVy | 98 || 000‘000‘¢ 000‘000'6E |° °°‘ UreoT Avjo Apts ysryung | 9f ‘uer | ge 000‘ 00S‘ FT 000‘000'6§ | ° ‘weof Avjo Aqts yrryunq | 2 “3ny | ¢g || 000‘00S‘OT | 000‘000'FE |°***UIeOT Avpo Ayps yIryUNG er “ood Lg 000‘002*9 000‘00S‘6 ere ae wzo] 4jIs visnjfoA | 9 “sny | $8 |] 000‘00S ‘ZI 000‘000°ZT |°** Uvoy Avpo AqpIs yaryung | gt ‘ooq | 9¢e 292 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE objection to its use in quantitative work. Although the liquefac- tion is slower than on beef-extract-peptone gelatin, still at times it proceeds so rapidly as to prevent any count. The most efficient method found to inhibit the growth of the liquefiers without stopping the growth of other bacteria is to use an incubation temperature that does not exceed 18° C. It seems possible, indeed, that the rapid liquefaction which has so often led soil bacteriologists to regard gelatin with disfavor may have resulted from their use of a temperature of 20-21° C. for incubation. With the use of a suf- ficiently low temperature there has seldom been any great trouble in keeping the gelatin plates seven days before counting. Low tem- peratures are advisable whether the medium is to be used for quali- tative or quantitative purposes, although more necessary in the latter case than in the former.” ‘The asparaginate agar, on the other hand, can be used even when low temperatures are unavailable. TaBLeE X.— Tzsts or IiscHEer’s CutturE Mrpium. Bacteria Per Gram Dry Soln, As DETERMINED WITH — Tet Date Sor Tyrez. —— 0. Asparaginate] Fischer’s Soil-extract agar. agar. gelatin. ee | | een 1913. 1 | Apr. 21 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .| 29,000,000 | 42,000,000 | 33,000,000 2 | Oct. 4 | Ontario fine sandy loam..| 4,560,000 | 11,500,000 7,000,000 3 | Oct. 8 | Volusia silt loam........ 5,000,000 | 16,600,000 8,700,000 4 | Nov. 24 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .|f14,000,000 | 17,000,000 | 21,000,000 5 | Nov. 25 | Dunkirk silty clay loam..| 9,500,000 | 13,000,000 16,000, 000 6 | Dec. 26 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .|*26,000,900 | 25,000,000 | Liquefied 7 | Dec. 26 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .| 37,000,000 | 32,000,000 | Liquefied * Counts upon the asparaginate agar and upon soil-extract gelatin that are higher than the corresponding counts upon Fischer’s agar are printed in bold-faced type. { The medium used in making this count contained 0.2 per ct. asparaginate and only 0.05 per ct. dextrose. A comparison between the counts obtained on the gelatin and on the other soil media may be obtained from the figures given in Tables X to XIII. Fischer’s agar, in the series of tests listed in Table X, gave a higher count than the gelatin three times out of five, in those listed in Table XIII only four times out of twelve. Lipman and Brown’s agar gave a higher count than the gelatin in 26 Liquefaction may also be checked by using 20 per ct. instead of 12 per ct. gelatin. This does not seem to lower the number of colonies. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 223 only two of the twenty-two tests listed in Tables XI and XIII. Brown’s agar gave as high a count as the gelatin only once in the nine tests given in Table XII, and four times in the twelve tests of Table XIII. Temple’s agar gave a higher count than the gelatin in just three of the twelve tests listed in Table XIII. ‘These counts show that these four agar media, like the asparaginate agar, permit the growth of fewer soil bacteria than does the gelatin. None of them allow as good distinction in appearance between the different Taste XI.— Tests or LipMAN AND Brown’s CuLturE MeEpIuM. | BacrertA Per Gram Dry Sol, as DETERMINED WITH — No. Date Sort Type. Asparaginate| Lipman and | Soil-extract agar. Brown’s agar.| gelatin. 1913 1 | Apr. 21 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .|*29,000,000 | 20,000,000 | 33,000,000 2 | Jan. 16 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .|7!6,500,000 | 7,500,000 19,000,000 3 | Jan. 16 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .|{12,000,000 | 6,500,000 18,000,000 4 | Jan. 16 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .|{17,00 ,000 8,800,000 | 35,000,600 1914. 5 | Jan. 19 | Ontario fine sandy loam. .| 15,000,000 | 15,800,000 | 27,006,660 6 | Jan. 19 | Ontario fine sandy loam. .| 14,500,000 | 15,000,000 | 22,000,600 7 | Jan. 24 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. . 22,000, 000 | 13,000,000 | 25,000,060 8 | Jan. 24 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .| 39,000,000 | 16,500,000 | 48,606,060 9 | Jan. 28 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. . 70,000, 000 35,000,000 | {60,000,050 10 | Jan. 28 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .} 36,000,000 | 18,000,000 | 56,008,000 ! * Counts upon asparaginate agar and upon soil-extract gelatin that are higher than the corresponding counts upon Lipman and Brown’s agar are printed in bold-faced type. {| The medium used in making these counts contained only 0.05 per ct. asparaginate. { This count is inexact because of rapid liquefaction. colonies as does gelatin. With the exception of Lipman and Brown’s agar, none of them have any advantage over the gelatin in the matter of definite chemical composition. The same tables show how the counts obtained upon the aspara- ginate agar compare with those obtained upon the other four agar media. Fischer’s agar gave a higher count than the asparaginate agar in five out of the seven tests listed in Table X, but in only four of the twelve tests included m Table XIII. Lipman and Brown’s agar gave higher counts than the asparaginate agar in only four of the twenty-two tests included in Tables XI and XIII, and then always by a very narrow margin; while in several of the tests in which it has given a lower count than ‘the asparaginate agar (as in the last 294 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE four tests of Table XI) the difference has been very pronounced. Brown’s agar has given slightly higher counts than the asparaginate agar in three of the nine tests of Table XII, but in the other six tests has given much lower counts than the asparaginate agar; and in Table XIII has given higher counts than on the asparaginate agar in five of the twelve tests. Temple’s agar has given higher counts than the asparaginate agar in six of the twelve tests listed in Table XIII. These counts show that the asparaginate agar is adapted to the growth of at least as large a number of soil bacteria as any of the other agar media; in this respect it is superior to them rather than inferior, and is unquestionably superior to Lipman and Brown’s TaBLeE XII.— Tests or Brown’s Cutture MeEpiIum. Bacteria Per Gram Dry SolL, as DETERMINED WITH — aert Date Sort Type. —. oO. Asparaginate| Brown’s Soil-extract agar. agar. gelatin. 1913. Ieiipeptn24. mii eks eit cacy cuapssnyae *24 000,000 }713,000,000 | 29,000,000 2 | Oct. 4 | Ontario fine sandy loam..| 4,500,000 7,000,000 7,000 , 000 3 | Oct. 8 | Volusia silt loam........ 5,000,000 | +8,000,000 8,700 , 000 4} Oct. 8 | Volusia silt loam........ 5,000,000 | 74,500,000 9 000 ,000 5 | Oct. 8 | Volusia silt loam........ 4,000,000 | 6,000,060 9 800 , 060 6 | Oct. 22 | Genesee loam.....:..... 19,000,000 | 15,500,000 | 27,000,000 7 | Nov. 20 | Ontario fine sandy loam. .|{20,000,000 | 14,000,000 27 ,000 , 000 8 | Nov. 20 | Ontario fine sandy loam. ./{18,000,000 | 10,000,000 21 ,600 , 000 9 | Dee. 15 | Dunkirk silty clay loam. .| 10,500,000 | 5,000,000 14,000 ,000 * Counts upon the asparaginate agar and upon soil-extract gelatin that are higher than the corresponding counts upon Brown’s agar are printed in bold-faced type. } In these cases there was such irregularity between the counts from the parallel plates that a satisfactory average could not be taken. t The medium used in making these counts contained 0.2 per ct. asparaginate and only 0.05 per ct. dextrose. agar. It has been found to allow much greater distinction in appear- ance between different kinds of colonies than Fischer’s agar, slightly greater than Temple’s, while it is certainly not inferior in this matter to Lipman and Brown’s or to Brown’s formula. In respect to definite chemical composition, as already stated, it is superior to all four. Table XIII is of particular interest because all six of these media were included in this series of comparative tests. In these twelve tests there was very little variation between the counts obtained upon the different media. They do not even show the usual superi- 225 New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. ‘ad.Ay paovj-ploq ur poyurid ore u1Ye[93 49BI1}x9-[I0S UO yUNOD Sutpuodsasi09 oy} Ueyy JOySIY o1v yey} SyuNOD IeSy | "1B3e o}vuIBeiedse uO syuNoD Surpuodseliod 9y} UBY} JoYZIY ole YBY} PouoIUdUT BIPIUI INOJ 4Se] oY} WO syuNOD % 000‘000‘2« | 000‘00¢‘9% | 000‘000‘6+ | 000‘008‘6s | 0000009 | 000°00S‘OT | °**° °° WIBO] HIS BISNJOA | TT “Bny | ZT 000‘ 002 ‘9 000‘00z‘¢ | 000‘008‘¢ | 000‘009‘9 | 000‘000'2Z | O00‘00S'S Jt Te WO HIS BISNJOA | OL “Sny | TT 000‘ 000‘¢ 000‘00S‘s | 000‘00r‘S | 000‘00S‘S | 000‘00S‘S | 000‘000°E J WOT IIS BISNJOA | OL “SnVy | OT 000‘000‘0Z | 000‘000‘2T»| 000‘000‘TZx| 000‘000‘9T | 000‘000‘9T | 000'000'ES J ott UIeO] O1IBIUD | § “Bny | 6 000‘000‘9Tx | 000‘000‘F1+| 000‘000‘STx| 000‘000‘ET+} 000‘000‘6 | 000°000'TZ | wo] OLByUQ | g “Sny | g 000‘000‘0T | 000‘008‘8 | 000‘00¢‘8 | 000‘009°6 | 000‘000‘IT | 000‘000‘0T |°°°°*- uvol Avjo Ayis yyUNG | 2 “Bny | ZL 000‘000‘ST+ | 000‘000‘S1.| 000°008‘ IT | 000‘000'FI | 000'00S' FI | 000'000'6 |" * weo Avo AyIs Yaryung | 2 “sny | 9 000‘008‘9» | 000‘008‘8« | 000‘00¢‘8. | 000‘000°9 | 000‘002°9 | 000°00S°6 JU WO] HIS BISNJOA | 9 “snW | G 000‘000‘Z! |! 000‘000‘I1 | 000‘000‘zI | 000‘008‘8 | 000°000‘ZI | 000‘O00‘OT |: UIRO] HIS BIsnfOA |g “Sny | F 000‘00¢'6 | 000‘000‘11 | 000‘00S‘OI | 000‘00S‘ IT | 000°00S‘TT4| O00‘ODE'S Jott UIBO] HIS BIsnjoA |g ~“Sny | ¢ 000‘ 002 ‘2 000‘000‘Z }; 000‘000'S | 000‘00E"S | 000'00S'2 | 00D'O0S'ZT | tt WO] WIS BISNJOA | G “Sny | Z 000‘008‘8» | 000‘000‘8 | 000‘002Z‘9 | 000‘00¢‘E | 000‘000'S | 000‘00S'6 JT WO] WIS BISNJOA | G “Sny | T ‘PIGL “red “1ed8 “1e38 a pe “1838 “Ul}BIas $,o]du9 J, S$, UMOIG §,JOyoshy ‘ meade ayeutseiedsy | 40¥81}xe-[10g e . “ddA T, TIOG eT @ fl Mes, — HIM GUNINUGLAG sv ‘TI0g AUG WVUD wag vIUaLOVE ‘] Gidvy NI adaaraosaqd Vida], TAALTASY) XIig GTHL ONIYVdWO/) SLSay, —]TITX aTav [, 15 226 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE ority of gelatin so far as count is concerned, as in only two tests (Nos. 8 and 9) was the gelatin count appreciably different from the agar counts. Sometimes one medium has given the highest count, sometimes another. None of them has given consistently lower counts than the asparagiate agar, with the possible exception of Lipman and Brown’s medium, which has given a higher count only twice, and has equalled the asparaginate agar in count only three other times. ‘These results, considered together with those listed in Table XJ, give a particularly unfavorable showing to Lipman and Brown’s agar, a fact which is important when it is remembered that this medium is the only one except the asparaginate agar that does not contain an appreciable amount of any substance of indefinite chemical composition. The differences between the various counts in Table XIII, however, are all too small to be of significance; and it must be concluded that under favorable conditions any one of these media (with the possible exception of Lipman and Brown’s) is adapted to the growth of as many soil bacteria as any of the others. In choosing between them, the decision must be based upon other matters rather than upon the number of colonies they allow to develop. Important considerations to be taken into account are these: A great drawback of Fischer’s agar is that the colonies are all mere pin-points and cannot be distinguished from one another. A serious disadvantage of Lipman and Brown’s medium and of Brown’s modification of it is that molds and overgrowths are often so abundant upon them as to interfere with the counting and prevent the isolation of pure cultures from the colonies. A further objection to Brown’s agar arises from the difficulty of obtaining an even distribution of the albumin, which must be added after the medium has cooled enough not to cause coagulation but before it is cold enough to prevent tubing. ‘Temple’s agar proves especially attractive to Bacillus mycoides, which was so abundant and vigorous in some of the soils studied as to overgrow the plates and to render counting difficult. Considering these points in addition to the advantages of the two new media that have already been discussed — the superiority of gelatin in the matter of allowing distinctions in appearance between different colonies, and of the asparaginate agar in the matter of definite composition — it must be concluded that the gelatin is the best medium for qualitative purposes, the asparaginate agar for quantitative work. CONCLUSIONS. Determinations of the number of bacteria present in soil are generally made by counting the colonies that develop on gelatin or agar media. Results depend largely upon the composition of the medium. Three important characteristics are to be looked New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 227 for in a medium for this purpose; it should allow the greatest possible number of soil bacteria to develop upon it, in order that the counts obtained may be as nearly correct as possible; it should allow the different kinds of bacteria to produce colonies as distinct as possible in appearance, in order to facilitate classification; and it should contain, as far as possible, no materials of unknown chemical formula, in order that different batches of the medium may be of the same chemical composition. In the past, these last two require- ments have been almost overlooked. In the course of the present investigation it has not been found possible to obtain a medium fulfilling all three of these require- ments; but two new media have been tested out that are worth recommending. Both of these media fulfill the first requirement as well as any previously proposed medium. One of them, a soil- extract gelatin, fulfills the second requirement better than any of the other media proposed for soil work, and is therefore recom- mended for qualitative work. The other, an agar contaiming sodium asparaginate, fulfills the third requirement (except in so far as the agar itself is of indefinite composition) and is therefore recommended for quantitative work. The soil-extract gelatin consists of gelatin, soil-extract and dextrose alone. This medium not only permits more ready classification of the colonies than any other medium tested, but also allows a larger number of colonies to develop than appear on the media ordinarily recommended for soil work. The soil-extract is not absolutely necessary, as practically as good results may be obtained when it is replaced with tap-water, and only slightly inferior results when distilled water is used in its stead. This gelatin medium is extremely satisfactory for qualitative work; and might also be recommended for quantitative work except for the indefinite composition of the gelatin itself. The asparaginate agar contains no organic matter except the agar, dextrose and sodium asparaginate. Besides these materials, it contains several mineral salts. The formula given in this bulletin is not to be considered the best combination possible, although various proportions of the different chemicals have been tried without better success. Nearly as good quantitative results may be obtained by omitting the mineral salts and using tap-water instead of distilled water; but the colonies then are so small that this simplification is not to be recommended. ‘The colonies developing on asparaginate agar are not so readily classified as those on gelatin, and the count obtained upon it is often lower, but its definite chemical composition makes it seem worth recommending for general use in quantitative work in soil bacteriology. The media that have been compared with these are: Fischer’s soil-extract agar; Temple’s peptone agar; Lipman and Brown’s 298 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY. “synthetic agar’? containing peptone, and Brown’s modification of the latter in which the peptone is replaced by albumin. For qualitative work none of these media is as good as gelatin, but all of them except Fischer’s allow some differences in appearance between the colonies of different kinds of bacteria. For quantitative work all four are about equally satisfactory; none of them give higher counts than the asparaginate agar. Three points are brought out plainly by this investigation: (1) Gelatin media are not only better than agar media for quali- tative work, but allow as many if not more of the soil bacteria to produce colonies. (2) A satisfactory agar medium can be prepared containing nothing of indefinite chemical composition except the agar itself. (3) This agar medium and those agar media especially recommended by Fischer, by Temple, by Lipman, and by Brown all give quantitative results so nearly alike that the counts obtained on any one of them may be compared with those obtained on any other, provided the same technique of incubation be used. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. This work was begun while Dr. H. A. Harding was bacteriologist at this Station, and was completed under the direction of Dr. R. 5. Breed, the present bacteriologist. Acknowledgments are due to them for the assistance they have given. REPORT OF THE Department of Botany. F. C. Srewart, Botanist. “W. O. Guroyer, Associate Botanist. M. T. Munn, Assistant Botanist. F. M. Buoverrr, Associate Botanist. (Connected with Hop Culture Investigations.) TABLE OF CONTENTS. I. Does Cronartium ribicola over-winter on the currant ? II. Potato spraying experiments at Rush in 1913. III. Dead-arm disease of grapes. [229] * ae? ‘ j ia seit: ya “> rae abseil ) é) i marcematiets chanted } * . 7% , ‘ } F “ce \ tae i 5 ‘ , - LB hi i e ¥ \ ‘ M ' , REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY. DOES CRONARTIUM RIBICOLA OVER-WINTER ON THE CURRANT ?* F. C. STEWART anp W. H. RANKIN. SUMMARY. Currant felt-rust and white pine blister-rust are caused by the same fungus, Cronartium ribicola, in different stages of its life cycle. On account of repeated outbreaks of felt-rust on currants at Geneva unaccompanied, apparently, by the occurrence of blister- rust on pines in the vicinity, it was suspected that, contrary to accepted belief, the fungus may over-winter on currants. It is important to know if this be true, because of its bearing on the control of blister-rust. If true, the distribution of affected currant plants must be prohibited; if not true, there is no necessity for such restriction. An attempt was made to solve the problem by transplanting diseased currant plants (after the leaves had fallen) into green- houses and forcing them into growth during the winter. Through the cooperation of four other plant pathologists it has been possible to have such tests made in six greenhouses in as many widely separated localities. In four of the greenhouses there were made, also, attempts at inoculation by means of diseased currant leaves which had been wintered out-of-doors. Although the total number of plants used in these experiments was about 500 and every one of them had been severely attacked by the felt-rust the previous autumn, no trace of Cronartium appeared on the new leaves. This leads to the conclusion that C. ribicola rarely, if ever, over-winters on currants. Hence, it is unnecessary to quarantine currants affected with felt-rust. The recent discovery of two white pine trees affected with blister- rust makes it possible, now, to account for the outbreaks of currant felt-rust at Geneva without assuming that the fungus over-winters on currants. * Reprint of Bulletin No. 374, February; for Popular Edition see p. 906. [231] 232 Report or THE DepartMENT oF BotTaNy OF THE PROBABLE LIFE HISTORY OF THE FUNGUS. Cronartium ribicola is an heteroecious rust fungus, parasitic on Ribes and certain species of Pinus. In its aecial stage, which is known as Peridermium strobi Kleb., it attacks the trunk and branches of pine trees, producing a destructive disease called blister-rust. The species of Pinus attacked are, exclusively, those which bear their leaves in fascicles of five, the principal one being Pinus strobus, the white pine. In its uredinial and telial stages the fungus occurs on the leaves of various species of Ribes (currants and gooseberries), both wild and cultivated. On these hosts it is known as felt-rust and is of small economic importance. The fungus is perennial in the bark of pine trees, but the aecio- spores, produced in spring, are unable to infect other pines. Hence, the fungus cannot spread from pine to pine directly. It must first go to Ribes and then back to pine. The infection of Ribes leaves by aeciospores is followed, in from 10 to 21 days, by the appearance of uredinia and, later, by telia. During the summer and autumn the teliospores germinate in situ, producing promycelia which bear sporidia and these are blown about by the wind and may infect the pine host but not the Ribes. The urediniospores, on the other hand, infect Ribes leaves readily so that the fungus spreads rapidly from Ribes to Ribes during the summer and autumn; but since the leaves are the only part of the Ribes plant affected and the uredinio- spores are short lived, the career of the fungus on Ribes closes with the falling of the leaves in autumn. That is, the fungus cannot over- winter on Ribes. Such, in brief, is the life history of Cronartium ribicola as it is generally understood. However, several European mycologists have noted the occurrence of C. ribicola in localities where the alternate host appeared to be lacking, and Eriksson, at least, has expressed the opinion that it may live from year to year on currants, entirely independent of the aecial stage on Pinus.! PUZZLING OUTBREAKS AT GENEVA. The first outbreak of the fungus in America occurred on the Station grounds at Geneva in the autumn of 1906.2. It was quite 1 Eriksson, Jakob. inige Beobachtungen iiber den stammbewohenden Kiefern- blasenrost, seine Natur und Erscheinungsweise. Centbl. Bakt. [etc.] II., 2:377-394. 1896 2 Stewart, F.C. An outbreak of the European currant rust (Cronartiwm ribicola Dietr.) N.Y. (Geneva) Sta. Tech. Bul. 2. 1906. New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 233 severe. On some of the affected black currant plants nearly every leaf was thickly covered with rust. Outside the Station grounds only a single affected leaf was found. This led to the suspicion that the outbreak originated on the Station grounds. As the few five- leaved pines in the immediate vicinity of the Station appeared healthy, attention was directed to Eriksson’s theory. It was sus- pected that the fungus had been introduced with some Ribes plants imported by the Station from England two years earlier. Accord- ingly, the entire plantation was dug up and burned in an attempt to eradicate the disease. During 1907 and 1908 no trace of Cronartium was seen. In Sep- tember, 1909, after a very thorough search, a single affected leaf of red currant was found in a plantation one-half mile west of the Station. During 1910 none was found. | In August, 1911, a second outbreak occurred on the Station grounds in a currant plantation set out in 1908 and 1909. These were all native plants. A few black currant plants were attacked severely and several varieties of red currants, also, showed some infection. This time the affected plants were not destroyed and no attempt was made to determine if neighboring plantations were affected. In the autumn of 1912 there was an epidemic of the currant rust at Geneva. It occurred on black currants in nine nurseries and ten fruit gardens. In a nursery one-half mile north of the Station almost every leaf on 15,000 black currant plants was affected. One of the affected currant plantations was located about five miles southwest, another five miles northwest and a third about two miles northeast of the Station. These were the outposts of the disease. See Map 1. During the six years intervening between the outbreaks of 1906 and 1912 the senior author had inspected, repeatedly, many pine trees in the vicinity in an attempt to locate the source of infection. Moreover, since 1909 the nursery inspectors located at Geneva had been constantly on the lookout for diseased pines. Nevertheless, none were discovered and the origin of the outbreaks of felt-rust remained a mystery. The failure to find any affected pines becomes more significant when it is stated that the number of five-leaved pines growing in the vicinity of Geneva is small. A few miles north of Geneva there is a large natural grove of white pine, but the fact 234 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY OF THE that black currants in the immediate vicinity of this grove were free from rust is proof that the source of the infection was not to be found there. These recurring outbreaks of felt-rust on currants, seemingly without any relation to the aecial stage on the pine, made it appear highly probable that the fungus over-winters on currants as Eriks- son has suggested. This is a matter of considerable importance. If the fungus over-winters on currants the disease may be spread through the distribution of affected plants by nurserymen. Accord- ingly, the writers undertook to solve the problem. Spaulding® having suggested that the fungus may, perhaps, over- winter by the formation of uredinia on the young shoots we first made a careful examination of the buds and bark of a large number of diseased currant plants. Although every leaf on these plants was yellow with rust no sign of uredinia or telia was found either on the buds or the bark. GREENHOUSE EXPERIMENTS. The next attack on the problem was by means of a series of experi- ments in which affected plants, after being given a short period of rest, were placed in greenhouses, forced into growth, and the new leaves watched for the appearance of Cronartium. The plants used in these experiments were yearling black currant (Ribes nigrum) plants from a nursery near the Experiment Station. They had been under close observation for some time prior to the falling of the leaves and it is known that every plant had been abundantly infested with Cronartium. They were dug November 19,1912. The few leaves still clinging to them were removed. Twelve of the plants were sent to Dr. J. C. Arthur, Lafayette, Ind.; 24 to Dr. G. E. Stone, Amherst, Mass.; 50 to Dr. G. P. Clinton, New Haven, Ct.; 200 to Dr. Perley Spaulding, Washington, D. C.; 100 to the junior author at Ithaca, N. Y.; and the remaining 100 were retained by the senior author for use at Geneva, N. Y. Under date of May 23, 1913, Dr. Arthur reports as follows con- cerning the plants sent him: “The plants were left out-of-doors and subject to the changes of weather until February. They were then 3 Spaulding, Perley. The blister rust of white pine. U.S. D. A. Bur. Pl. Indus. Bul. 206:31. 1911. New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTION. 235 put into large pots in the cool greenhouse. They started up vigor- ously and made most abundant and normal growth. No rust has appeared on the plants up to the present time. They were kept under constant observation and a careful study was made to deter- mine if the plants harbored any viable urediniospores. The work regarding the spores was in charge of Mr. Edward J. Petry, an instruc- tor in the college and an unusually careful worker. He made an examination to ascertain if urediniospores were still harbored on the currant canes. It was assumed that they might be caught in the axils of buds and branches, on the scales or the fascicled bases of the stems. Several plants were carefully washed in order to secure all the spores which were attached. Eighty cubic centi- meters of water was used at each washing and this was centrifuged in eight tubes. One-half cubic centimeter of sediment was taken from the bottom of each tube and placed on several young leaves which were carefully marked. This was repeated twice at different later stages of development of the leaves. No infection has occurred up to the present time. Mr. Petry made an estimate of the number of spores placed on the leaves as follows: ‘From careful quantitative counts under the microscope, 4 ¢.c. at the bottom of each tube con- tained 100 spores, i.e., 1/40c. ce. approximately was used in each count, and ten counts were made for one tube of each washing (which had been thoroughly shaken up before centrifuging). The counts of the spores ran from 2 to 7 spores, i. e., an average of 5 spores per count was found. This would make 5 x 20 (4 c. c= 20/40 of 1 ¢. c.) or 100 spores per}c.c. This3c. c. (containing probably 100 spores or more) was placed on 5 leaves so that each leaf should have received 20 spores and if these spores were at all viable, infection should have taken place. Some leaves were given 3 c. c. in different drops, but neither these nor the others showed infection. In all, about 100 leaves were tried, but none showed signs of infection. From the above data, there must have been upwards of 2,500 spores in all these centrifugings.’ “T saw quite a number of slides from this centrifuge material. The urediniospores were abundant, but I saw none which appeared to me to be certainly viable. I am inclined to think from this work that if urediniospores remain thru the winter in condition to start infection the following spring it must be under exceptional circum- stances. I am inclined to think that such result does happen occa- 236 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY OF THE sionally. I do not believe that the teliospores ever have any part in carrying the infection from currant over winter to the currant again. “While this study, as we have conducted it, has been negative and shows quite clearly that under usual circumstances the rust is not propagated from year to year by the telia or uredinia, yet it does not preclude the possibility of the rust passing by means of the urediniospores from the currant to the currant again in the fol- lowing season under certain favorable conditions. It does show, I think, that the rust, at least most strains of it, are not likely to persist long unless with the intervention of the white pine.” Dr. Spaulding reports as follows: “ The 200 Ribes nigrum bushes were received early in the winter. They were promptly heeled in and held thus until February 1st. On this date they were transferred to the experimental greenhouse. They started off new growth promptly and very vigorously, a very fine growth being obtained. Careful examinations were made of these bushes several different times to determine whether the fungus might be present upon them. ‘The last examination was made about the middle of May. None of the disease was found at any time upon any of these bushes. About April Ist, I separated a few of the plants from the rest and inoculated them with teleutospore material received from you at that time. There were absolutely no results from these inoculations. “In considering the results, it must be remembered that they are entirely negative and are subject to the same limitations as are any negative results. In my opinion, these results show that the disease is not often carried over upon dormant Ribes stock. I do not believe, however, the present series of experiments can be con- sidered to have definitely shown that the fungus may not once in a great while thus be carried over; that is, there is still left the pos- sibility of this occurring once in a large number of cases.” Dr. Clinton makes the following report on his experiments: ‘“* Late in the fall of 1912 I received from Stewart of the Geneva (New York) Station, a number of black currants that had been badly infected with the pine-currant rust. These were heeled in out-of- doors, and left there until the last of February when twenty-nine Puate II].—SuHoor or Buack Currant AFFECTED WITH FELT-RUST. The under surtace of the leaves is thickly covered with the yellow, horn-like processes (telia) of the fungus. (About two-thirds natural size.) Puate III].—Trunk or Wuirr Pint AFFECTED WITH BLISTER-RUST. One of the two diseased trees found at Geneva in May, 1913. The light areas on the bark are partly aecia of the fungus and partly masses of exuded resin. (About one-fourth natural size.) Puate IV.—Wuire Ping Tree (No. 2) Arrecrep witH BLISTER-RU (About one-fourth natural size.) New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 237 were potted and placed in the greenhouse to force their foliage. About the middle of February sixteen plants were received from Stone of Amherst, these having been collected in an infected planta- tion in Massachusetts. These had been dug late in the fall and shipped soon afterwards, but by mistake had been sent to Storrs, so that by the time I received them they were beginning to leaf out. They were immediately placed in the greenhouse. All of these plants received from Stewart and Stone were kept in the green- house until late summer, examined from time to time, and no signs of the rust appeared on any of them. We still have some of them in the greenhouse at this date, January 1, 1914, but we have not seen the rust on any of these. It appears as if the rust did not carry over on this host through infections of the young perennial tissues the previous year. Certainly it does not commonly do so. “T also received from Stewart some infected currant leaves which had been kept out-of-doors over winter, and in April I tried to infect young currant leaves from the III stage showing on these old leaves. This stage was not in good shape, indicating that its time for germination is in the fall rather than in the spring. As expected, I did not get any infection from this stage, as it is supposed to infect only the white pine.” Dr. Stone writes as follows concerning his experiments and observa- tions in Massachusetts: “For four or five years past the pine blister-rust has been found on imported stock in our Massachusetts nurseries, rarely if ever being found on native stock. During September, 1912, a specimen of currant rust was sent into the station from Ipswich, Mass., and this is apparently the first record of the rust in Massachusetts. At that date it was confined entirely to the black currants, variety Black Champion, of which there were four or five hundred bushes. None of the red currants were infected, and there were several acres of these growing with the black currants. One-fourth of a mile distant there was an older block of black currants which did not show the slightest infection. ‘““We received over three dozen infected black currant plants from Ipswich in the fall of 1912, and also two dozen from the Geneva Experiment Station. Some of each lot were transplanted directly into our greenhouse where the temperature maintained was 45° at 238 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY OF THE night. The remaining plants were heeled in out-of-doors until the first of February, when they were all transplanted beside the others. ‘All the infected plants picked up very rapidly, developing good foliage, which remained green until December, 1913, or for more than one year, when most of them were taken out and thrown away. None had showed any indications of rusting during this time, and the few remaining bushes are free from rust at the present time (February, 1914). The plants which were put into the houses first without being heeled in were used in most cases for fumigation experiments. “Careful inspection of the estate in Ipswich in 1913 showed that both the black and red currants were infected, the red currants suffering less than the others. Most of them were interplanted with apple trees and covered about thirty acres in blocks not far distant from one another. During the fall of 1912 inspection was made of the neighboring pines to see whether there was any rust, but none was noted. The past year, however, a number of pines near the infected currants have shown the rust, but this infection did not extend more than 100 yards from the currants. All of this infection is confined to imported white pines, no trace of infection being found on the native white pine. During 1913 six new loca- tions, all in the eastern part of the state, were discovered for the currant rust, and in all thirty new pine infections. The state inspec- tors are doing everything possible to destroy infected material and establish a careful quarantine.”’ The 100 plants sent to Ithaca in the late autumn were heeled in out-of-doors until the second week of January when they were set out in benches in the greenhouse. They soon leafed out and grew vigorously. Careful observations were made for infections but none occurred. No attempt was made to inoculate the plants with wintered leaves. In May, after the finding of the two affected white pines at Geneva, inoculations were made by dusting the aecio- spores from this material onto moistened Ribes leaves. The inocu- lated plants were covered with bell-jars and kept shaded for two days. Abundant infection resulted and the uredinia and telia were developed on almost every leaf of the 100 plants. In the experiment at Geneva, 100 of the yearling black currant plants were placed in the greenhouse on December 2, but they did New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 239 not start into growth until about February 15. Their slowness in starting appears to have been due to their not having had a suffi- ciently long period of rest. However, once started, they made a vigorous, normal growth. They were kept under observation until May 7, but no Cronartium appeared upon them. Neither did any appear on the 12 black currant plants which Dr. Stone sent us from Ipswich, Mass. These latter were two-years-old plants which had been affected with Cronartium in the outbreak at Ipswich in the autumn of 1912.4. They were planted in the greenhouse January 6, began to put out leaves January 28 and were under observation until April 17. INOCULATION EXPERIMENTS AT GENEVA. When it became evident that the Cronartium would not reappear, a series of inoculation experiments was undertaken with affected currant leaves wintered out-of-doors in wire cages. The previous autumn these leaves had been thickly covered with Cronartium which was mostly in the telial stage. They were brought into the laboratory, March 27, and allowed to dry. They were then ground - into fine powder which was made into thin mush by stirring in a quantity of water. Experiment No. 1.— On April 1 a quantity of the currant-leaf mush was applied to the leaves of four of the currant plants by means of a paint brush. The plants were small ones with new shoots 6 to 10 inches long and 20 to 30 leaves each. Every leaf was coated with the inoculating material on the upper surface and some, also, on the lower surface. After inoculation the plants were covered for 48 hours with bell-jars lined with moistened filter paper. During daylight the plants were shaded by covering the bell-jars with burlap. The leaves were damp all the time and during the last 24 hours most of them showea a row of water drops around the margin. Experiment No. 2.— On April 4 four more piants were inoculated as in Experiment No. 1. Experiment No. 3— On April 7 four more plants were inoculated as in the preceding experiments except that the bell-jars were left over the plants for 72 hours. The leaves were still wet when the bell-jars were removed. ‘Stone, G. E. A new rust. Mass. Sta. Rpt. 25:41. 1913. 240 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BoTANY OF THE Experiment No. 4.— On April 10 four more plants were inoculated as in experiments Nos. 1 and 2. Experiment No. 5— On April 10 four potted plants were placed in a large glass inoculation-chamber and their leaves smeared with currant-leaf mush as in previous experiments. The air in the chamber was kept almost constantly at the point of saturation. Drops of water appeared on the margins of the leaves as in the bell-jar experi- ments. On April 16 these plants were reinoculated and kept moist for three days longer. Up to May 7 no sign of Cronartium had appeared on any of the plants in the above experiments. ORIGIN OF THE OUTBREAKS DISCOVERED. All of the experiments having given negative results the origin of the outbreaks of currant rust became more obscure than ever. There seemed now to be but one thing to do, viz., to continue the search for affected pine trees. Early in May, 1913, the State nursery inspectors set out to examine every white pine tree in the vicinity of Geneva. On May 15, one of them, Mr. John Maney, reported that on the day previous he had discovered two white pine trees affected with blister-rust. Subsequently, his identification of the disease was fully verified. The affected trees were 9 or 10 feet high and about 15 years old. They were in a nursery about one mile west and one-half mile north of the Experiment Station. One of the trees (No. 1) was fairly vigorous and appeared not very much injured by the disease. It was attacked only on the trunk near the ground. A portion of the trunk, extending from the surface of the soil to a height of about seven inches, was thickly covered over about two-thirds of its circumference with conspicuous yellow aecia of Peridermium strobi. The trunk at this point was but slightly, if at all, enlarged. Tree No. 2 stood about 120 feet from Tree No.1. It was bushy and much distorted. Over a portion of the tree the needles were much browned. About 16 inches above the ground the trunk divided into three branches. Here was the seat of the trouble. Aecia were abundant on all of the branches and on the main trunk just below the crotch. A crotch canker had formed and borers were working in the diseased wood. New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 241 The two affected trees belonged to a lot of eight culls which had been left standing while the more desirable trees in the block had been dug and sold. Probably, they were imported trees although the owner is unable to furnish definite information on this point. = Ss Q ee) 5) ayeT woeuen Map 1.—Distrisution oF Cronartium ribicola at GENEVA IN 1912 anv 1913. o = Ribes infection in 1912. * —- Pine and Ribes infection in 1913. x = Experiment Station. Seale, one inch = two miles. From the fact that the point of attack was on the trunk near the ground it appears probable that they had been diseased ever since they were quite small. Although diligent search was made no other diseased pines were found, These two trees may have been responsible for all of the 16 242 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF BoTANY OF THE currant rust which has appeared at Geneva. They were cut down and burned on May 17. About 120 feet south of the affected pine trees there was a small currant plantation containing both red and black currants. It was thought that the fungus might not have had a chance to infect these currants. For several days prior to May 15 the weather was dry and unfavorable for infection. The forenoon of May 15 was damp, but in the afternoon it dried off and remained dry until after the trees were destroyed. Thus it appears that the forenoon of May 15 was the only time when there was a chance for the currants to become infected. Nevertheless, infection occurred. A considerable number of uredinia were observed on June 10. Although both red and black currants in this plantation became quite abundantly infested with felt-rust and none were destroyed until about September 10, at which time the black currants were dug out and burned, the fungus did not spread to other currant plantations in the vicinity. Its failure to spread was due, probably, to the dry weather prevailing during the greater part of the summer and autumn. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. The writers agree with Drs. Arthur and Spaulding that the results of these experiments do not prove conclusively that Cronartium ribicola never over-winters on Ribes. Negative results in experi- ments of this kind are never conclusive. Our interpretation of the results is that such over-wintering occurs rarely, if at all, and only under very exceptional conditions. The chances of over-wintering are so small that it is unnecessary to quarantine currants affected with felt-rust. The only precaution which needs to be taken is that affected plants are not shipped until after the leaves have fallen. It may be argued that teliospores carried on or with affected currant plants may become a source of infection for pine trees; and because of this danger the distribution of affected currants should not be permitted. The writers consider that this objection is suffi- ciently answered by pointing out that the countless multitudes of teliospores which have been produced in the vicinity of Geneva during the past seven years have not infected a single pine tree so far as can be determined. However, if it seems that additional evidence is required it may be said that, normally, the teliospores New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 243 germinate only during the summer and autumn of the season in which they are produced; also, owing to the fact that the teliospores are never shed, it is improbable that they are carried, to any extent, on leafless plants. Since the discovery of the two pine trees affected with blister- rust the outbreaks of currant rust at Geneva may be satisfactorily explained without assuming that the fungus over-winters on currants. Observations made during the epidemic of 1912 convince us that, in the uredinial stage, Cronartium ribicola readily spreads from one black currant plantation to another over distances of one-half mile. With this in mind it is easy to understand how, under favorable weather conditions, such an epidemic as that of 1912 may have originated with a single pair of diseased pine trees. POTATO SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS AT RUSH IN. 19134 F. C. STEWART. SUMMARY. During the summer of 1913 an extensive series of potato-spraying experiments was conducted in the vicinity of Rush, N. Y. In each of 66 fields a portion of one row (one-fiftieth acre) was very thoroughly sprayed by hand every two weeks. At digging time the yield of this row was compared with that of an adjacent row which had not received the special spraying. In 47 of the fields no spraying was done by the owner. In these fields the test was a comparison between very thorough spraying and no spraying. In the other 19 fields more or less spraying was done by the owner. In these, the test was a comparison between very thorough spraying and the kind of spraying done by the owner. In the 47 unsprayed fields the spraying done by the Station increased the average yield by 17.76 bushels per acre, or 16.4 per ct.; and in the 19 sprayed fields, by 15.04 bushels per acre, or 11.2 per ct. It is believed that the increase obtained was due to the partial control of tip-burn which was quite plentiful in some fields, the better control of Colorado potato beetles (not well controlled by the owner in a few cases), and stimulation of the plants. Late blight was entirely absent and early blight and flea beetles scarce. Probably, the gain from spraying would have been considerably larger had not the plants been killed prematurely by an early frost. PRESENT PROBLEMS IN POTATO SPRAYING. It pays to spray potatoes in New York. That has been con- clusively proven by the numerous experiments made by this Station. Further experimentation along that line is unnecessary. Never- theless, there is still something to be learned from potato spraying experiments. There is reason to believe that the present methods of spraying may be considerably improved. For one thing, it is probable that potato-growers would find it profitable to spray more thoroughly than they are now doing. Probably, lack of thorough- ness is the chief fault of the present methods. Although some are spraying quite thoroughly, many New York potato-growers are * Reprint of Bulletin No. 379, March; for Popular Edition see p. 918. [244] New Yorx AGRiIcuLTURAL EXPERIMENT StTaTion. 245 doing a very poor job with the spray outfit; and, worse yet, the majority, probably, are not spraying at all. In the ten-year experiment on the Station grounds at Geneva five to seven very thorough sprayings increased the yield at the rate of 97.5 bushels per acre on the average. In the series of farmers’ business experiments conducted during the last nine years of the same period the average increase in yield due to spraying was only 36.1 bushels per acre.* It appears that the better results obtained in the Station experiment were due, chiefly, to the thoroughness of the spraying. If so, it behooves farmers to spray more thoroughly. However, some hold that such spraying as was done in the Station experiments would not have increased the yield so much in farmers’ fields. We think there may be some truth in this. Undoubtedly, the largest returns from spraying are to be obtained in fields in which the cultural conditions are favorable to large yields. By means of the experiments reported in the present bulletin it was sought to obtain information on some of the points above men- tioned. An attempt was made to find out what thorough spraying will accomplish in farmers’ fields. To be more explicit, the objects of the experiments were three: (1) To determine how much the yield in farmers’ fields may be increased by very thorough spraying; (2) To determine how efficient are the spraying methods now employed by farmers; (3) To furnish object lessons for farmers in their own fields. THE EXPERIMENTS. Rush was selected as the location of the experiments chiefly for two reasons: (1) Because potatoes are grown extensively there; and (2) because we were able to secure there a suitable man to do the spraying, viz., Mr. H. F. Keyes, a student in the New York State College of Agriculture, who performed the work during his summer vacation. In June, Mr. Keyes visited potato-growers in the vicinity and secured permission to spray a portion of one row (290.4 feet long) in each of 66 fields. After the potatoes came up a careful selection of rows was made and the portion to be sprayed marked at both ends by means of stakes driven in the ground. In the selection of these rows care was taken to avoid dead-furrows, back- * Bulletin No. 349 of this Station. 246 REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY OF THE furrows and soil inequalities. Spraying was commenced when the plants were six to eight inches high and repeated at intervals of two weeks until frost, which occurred on September 14. At this time the rows in the early-planted fields had received six sprayings and those in the later-planted fields five sprayings. All spraying was done very thoroughly by means of a knapsack sprayer. The first two applications were made with bordeaux mixture containing four pounds of copper sulphate (and sufficient lime to neutralize it, as shown by the potassium ferrocyanide test) to each fifty gallons. Paris green was added at the rate of one pound to fifty gallons. Subsequent applications were made with bordeaux mixture, alone, in which the quantity of copper sulphate was six pounds to fifty gal- lons. The supply of bordeaux for each day’s work was carried in a barrel fastened on the rear of a one-horse buggy which was driven from field to field as needed. In 47 of the fields containing experi- ments the owner used no bordeaux, but applied only such treatment as he considered necessary for the control of bugs. In the remaining 19 fields more or less bordeaux was applied by the owner, the number of applications in different. cases varying from one to eight (see Table II) and there were no unsprayed rows; that is to say, in these fields the spraying done by the Station was in addition to that done by the owner. If the owner sprayed three times and the Station six times the plants on the Station row received a total of nine sprayings. The season was a very dry one and there was no late blight (Phytophthora infestans) in any of the fields, not even on unsprayed plants. Neither was there early blight (Alternaria solani) of any consequence, nor serious damage done by flea beetles. But in nearly all fields there was more or less tip-burn which, in some cases, was quite severe. “‘Bugs’ were moderately plentiful. In a few fields they were not fully controlled by the treatment employed by the owner. A killing frost occurred on the night of September 14. At this time the plants in most of the fields were in nearly full foliage. As 51 of the fields had been planted after June 1, and many of them between June 10 and 17, this untimely frost cut off from two to four weeks of growth and thereby lowered the yield considerably. At digging time the row sprayed by the Station and an adjacent row of equal length were dug by hand and the product sorted and weighed. This work was all done by Mr. Keyes. The yields are shown in Tables I and II. New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 247 Taste I.—REsULTS oF THOROUGH SPRAYING OF SINGLE Rows IN Forty-SEVEN UnsprAYED Potato FIE bs. UNSPRAYED. SPRAYED BY THE STATION. Sa Z Increase YIELD PER ROW.| Yield 'E |YIELD PER ROW.| Yield | per acre Owner’s Name. |———~———| per acre;}_ _3|——~~7—— per acre;| due to Market- market-| 2 6. Market- market-| spray- able (Culls.) able | ¢ able |Culls.| able ing. tubers. tubers.* | tubers. tubers. Lbs. Lbs. Bu. Lbs. Lbs Bu. Bu. MerP erry: eter. 98 10 81.7 5 172 3 143.3 61.6 Be @: todd. ..4:. . 152 0 126.7 5 205 0 170.8 44 1 Wm. Fagan....... 30 12 25 5 80 8 66.7 ANG F. Hinderland..... 151 4 125.8 |) 201 3 167.3 41.5 Roy Dunn........ 134 4 alibi 5 180 3 150 38.3 Mrs. F. Lonthair.. . 92 0 76.7 5 136 0 is} 3? 36.6 John Remelt...... 154 4 1A 68) alles A 194 4 161.7 33.4 RByelderis A; 4.3% 150 0 125 5 189 0 157-5 32.5 Jas. MecNall....... 114 3 95 5 153 5 12885 B2O R. Laidlan........ 177 0 147.5 6 215 0 179.2 olend J. Burmeister..... 90 4 65 5 126 5 105 30 Weeecossa scree ba 100 3 8373) |) 5 135 3 112.5 29.2 JeWagan.:.)eeh.c - 124 7 103.3 | 6 158 18 Ned 7 28 .4 H. E. PRaneaick (1) 218 0 1872 |e 5 250 0 208 .3 26.6 Geo. Bean........ 151 0 125.8 | 5 181 0 150.8 25 F. Howlett........ 130 5 108.3 5 160 5 133.3 25 Frank Stanton.... 132 0 110 5 162 0 135 25 R. A. Keyes....... 118 3 98 .3 6 146 3 121.7 23 .4 iL. Bemis*:..; -3.. 192 0 160 5 216 0 180 20 Jay Green........ 186 0} 155 5 210 0} 175 20 E. G. Darrohn.... 115 0 9528) 8 5 138 0 115 19.2 W. J. Kirkpatrick. . 70 3 Hoole 92 5 76.7 18.4 T. Maloney....... 99 + 82.5] 6 120 41! 100 ie JE: ‘Christe... .)). 180 0 150 5 199 0 165.8 15.8 Mrs. F. Gardner... 78 3 65 5 95 3 79.2 14.2 J. Gutschau...... 160 0 BRS 176 0 146.7 13.4 M. Moran........ 74 3 61.7 5 90 5 TE: IBS & L. Wagner........ 111 0 92.5) 5 127 0 105.8 1338 A. Cummins...... 164 7 137 6 180 3 150 13 John Heech....... 198 0 165 5 PAD, 0 176.7 Wes J. 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The writer was not sue- cessful in his earlier attempts to obtain infections in this way. The failures are readily attributed, however, to the fact that moculations were not made at the most opportune times. Circumstances did not permit trials in the early stages of new growth. Later in the season great difficulty was experienced, both in 1909 and in 1910, m main- taining spore-laden drops of water on the vines for any appreciable length of time. The wind blowing off Lake Eric m the day and towards the lake at night, dried up the moisture before the spores had an opportunity to germinate. The following paragraph copied verbatim from notes written July 10, 1909, gives an idea of the method of making moculations and the results obtained: “An enormous quantity of spores of the dead-arm fungus (8216)* from pure culture were placed in boiled raimwater m an atomizer and sprayed on all the vines (38) of row two in the experimental bloek. There had been a heavy rain and even as the spores were being sprayed on (between 8 and 9 p. m.) the rain was fallmg. So far as I can find no rain fell after ten o’clock. The wind blew while the spores were being applied and presumably all night. The vines are perfectly dry at seven a. m. this morning.” Similar trials were made in 1909 with various strains of the organ- ism, isolated from different places, on June 22d and 23d, and on July 10th, three different trials were made. In 1910 two trials were made on July 12th, one each on August 18th and 31st, and one on Septem- ber 4th. The vines sprayed on August 18th were small and were covered with a bell glass. In one case a sprayed row seemed to show an unusual amount of scattering infections, which is not usual, as well as a greater number of infections than neighboring vines. The number of spots was not sufficient, however, to justify the assumption that the spores sprayed on the vines caused the infections, particularly since the presumed period of incubation was not observed nor recorded and cannot therefore be checked against more definite records. Inoculations with pure cultures of the fungus (No. 3221, original culture made April 16, 1908) were made May 21, 1913, by suspend- ’The figures refer to specimen numbers in the collection of the Department of Plant Pathology, Cornell University. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 273 ing spores in sterile water and spraying them on the young shoots of several small vines. Contemporaneous germination tests of spores in drops of water on glass slides gave 80 to 90 per ct. germination at the end of 20 hours. The plants were entirely covered with bell glasses for 24 hours. Infection was also favored by humid external conditions. Other plants were sprayed with sterile water, but other- wise subjected to the same treatment. They remained healthy. In 30 days (June 20th) lesions became evident on the inoculated plants and when they increased in size some of the stems were completely involved. July 22d some of the infected shoots were sterilized externally by immersing in mercuric chloride solution 1-1000. Thin shavings of epidermis were removed with a sterile scalpel and bits of the under- lymg diseased tissue transferred to sterile grape stems in tubes and to potato agar slants. August 5, 1913, the tubes were examined. The Fusicoccum stage of the fungus had developed and was pro- ducing spores m six of the ten grape-stem tubes. Two tubes were sterile and one was contaminated. A similar growth of mycelium appeared in five of the eight agar slants, and had the appearance of the dead-arm fungus when grown on potato agar, two tubes remaimed sterile and one was contaminated. Two things are of interest in connection with this experiment. (1) The pure culture used for inoculation purposes had been kept alive through successive generations in test tubes for five years. At the end of that time it still retamed its virulence as indicated by the abundant mfection obtained and by the appearance of lesions after the characteristic period of incubation as noted under natural conditions. (2) The susceptible parts of the vine are limited to the tender, more succulent growth. The infected area on the shoots moculated was confined to about two internodes, but stem, leaf petiole, leaf veins, tendrils when present, and apparently leaves within this range bore lesions. Older parts were not affected. In the light of these experiments the failures in the earlier attempts are readily understood. In addition to unfavorable atmospheric conditions it appears that the host had passed the period of suscep- tibility. The trial of July 12, 1910, was made under fairly favorable conditions in that a heavy rain at 12 m. was followed by calm, cloudy weather which permitted drops to cling to the canes. A quantity 18 O74. REporT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY OF THE of such drops were collected in a clean atomizer and inoculated with the spores of the Fusicoccum stage of the fungus (2971) from culture. These spores were sprayed on a large number of shoots of Concord vines. Clinging drops of water were then examined and an abundance of spores found. Contemporaneous germination tests on glass slides showed the spores to be viable. No Jesions developed on any of the shoots, although the tips were relatively tender. INOCULATION WITH THE SAW. First series—In order to determine the effect on the vines as well as to serve as a check on the experiments about to be described, the trunks of six Worden grapes, eighteen years old, were cut half off with a saw, the cut being made near the ground. Twenty-eight other vines in the same row were treated in a similar manner except that the cuts were not all so deep and that in each case the saw was drawn a few times through a diseased stem and then through the cut previously made. In some cases the saw cuts were made near the arms or in the arms. The object of the experiment was to deter- mine if possible what number of infections occur in this manner. All cuts and inoculations were made July 7, 1909. The infected wood used as a source of inoculation was taken from a vineyard at Prospect, N. Y., the previous day, and by examination with the microscope was known to be infected with the dead-arm fungus. An examination was made on July 1, 1910, and notes taken on each vine. The vines used as check showed no ill effects of the treatment. The wood was found somewhat discolored for a short distance each way from the cut, in the vine examined, but otherwise seemed to be perfectly sound. The remaining twenty-eight vines, without exception, showed an exudation of gum about the cut. There was no apparent effect on the vines but three or four were examined and it was found that a dead area extended in each direction a distance of one or two inches. A second examination was made June 27, 1911. No healing of the wounds had occurred on the check vines. They showed no apparent effect of the treatment and none of them showed gum flow. Many of the inoculated vines still showed gum flow. In a number of cases a sunken pit an inch or more in diameter appeared about the cut. In one vine examined, the wood about the cut was found to be blackened and dead a distance of three inches each way New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 275 from the cut. Some cases were found where there was no apparent effect. On the date of the third examination, July 3, 1912, three of the check vines showed evidence of disease, one apparently affected before the cuts were made. The lesions on the other two were well up in the vine and were removed in pruning. Of the inoculated vines fifteen showed no apparent effect of the inoculation. Eleven of the remainder showed symptoms of dead- arm disease, some apparently due to the inoculations. One vine was dead and removed and another very sickly but probably not from inoculation. July 10, 1913, five of the vines serving as checks were in good condition. Of the inoculated vines eleven were recorded as in good condition. Four others seemed in fair condition while the remainder were nearly dead or in very poor condition. The vines were cut off near the ground October 22, 1913, and shipped to Ithaca. October 29th, the inoculated vines were split open and many were found to be decayed. In some cases the discoloration extended over half way through the stem and six inches or more up and down the stem from the original point of inoculation. Attempts were made to remove bits of the discolored tissue under aseptic conditions and transfer them to sterilized grape stems. Of twenty-four such transfers made, nine developed pure cultures of the fungus, ten were con- taminated so that it could not be determined whether Cryptosporella was present or not and five remained sterile. It appears from this set of inoculations that infection may occur from the pruning saw, that the fungus does not spread rapidly in the tissue and that dis- coloration of the woody tissue precedes the advance of the fungus. Examination of the checks failed to reveal the typical discolora- tion of the dead-arm disease. Some showed only a blackening of the wood as from weathering and others showed the lighter brown decay characteristic of the action of the fungus Polystictus versicolor. This only extended a short distance from the original cut. Second series— A series of inoculations was made June 22, 1909, in which spores and mycelium of the fungus from a pure culture (3221 isolated May 9, 1909, from exuding spores on 1-year cane) in its second generation were inserted in the cuts. The record for the thirty vines thus inoculated does not differ materially from that above except that most of the vines showed more striking symptoms 276 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF BoTANY OF THE of the disease from year to year and more vines were dead or nearly so at the conclusion of the work in 1913. July 19, 1910, one of the vines in this row showed a marked sunken area near the saw cut which was covered with pycnidia. When placed in a moist chamber for a few days spores oozed from the pycnidia and a pure culture of Cryptosporella was readily obtained. Third series—Ow July 12, 1909, thirty-five vines (Worden) were inoculated as above, using spores and mycelium of the fungus from pure culture (3229, isolated from a diseased Concord stem July 1, 1909). On July 1, 1910, all the vines showed a copious flow of gum at the point of inoculation but there was no other apparent effect. June 27, 1911, the sunken areas at the point of inoculation were conspicuous. One vine examined showed dead wood nearly to the heart of the trunk. July 3, 1912, a number of the vines showed marked symptoms of the disease and one vine was entirely dead. July 10, 1913, eleven vines were dead or nearly so, five were in fair condition and eighteen were still apparently healthy. July 19, 1910, one vine was cut off and examined. The extent of the infec- tion is shown in Fig. 13. Direct transfers of diseased tissue to sterile grape stems gave pure cultures of the fungus. A similar isolation was made October 29, 1913, from another of these vines with the same result. INOCULATION BY INCISION ON SHOOTS. July 1, 1909, each bearing shoot on thirty vines was inoculated by making a gash with a scalpel near the base and inserting mycelium and spores of the fungus (3216, isolated July 23, 1908, from vine 23 of Table I, and in its fourth generation in culture). July 1, 1910, gumming was observed about the majority of the incisions. One cane examined showed a blackening of the tissue for an inch or more from the point of inoculation. In the case of incisions made as a check a slight blackening may appear later, but does not extend any considerable distance from the original point of incision. July 10, 1910, the fungus was readily recovered from two of the inoculated canes. April 26, 1912, a number of the inoculated canes (now arms) were removed and pure cultures of the fungus obtained by direct transfer of diseased tissue. Later in the season, July 3, practically every vine showed marked symptoms of the disease and three of the arms trimmed and tied up were found to be dead. July 10, 1913, thirty- New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 277 one dead canes were counted on the vines of this row. Although the vines were partially renewed by tyimg up canes back of the point of moculation the row was conspicuous on account of dead canes from the infected arms. The same organism was inoculated into the canes of twenty- three other Worden vines on July 9,1909. The photograph shown in Fig. 14, is one of these inoculated canes after fourteen months. Two dead arms were found in 1912, but in general the symptoms were not nearly so marked as in the set of inoculations on shoots. A culture from a different ‘source (3261) was used for inoculating a number of bearing shoots July 8, 1910. There: was no noticeable effect in 1911, but in 1912 a number of arms showed marked symptoms and on one pycnospores were oozing in abundance. In July, 1913, there were a number of dead stubs and canes on the five vines inoculated. INOCULATION OF ROOTS. July 18, 1910, the soil was dug away from one side of seven Worden _ vines and several roots, both large and small, were inoculated through a scalpel wound near the root crown with mycelium and spores of the fungus (3261). Observations from year to year failed to show any marked effect. In the autumn of 1913, the vines were pulled up and shipped to Ithaca without label. A careful examination was made of all the roots, but the original point of imoculation could not be located with certainty except in one instance. All the roots were examined, but in no case was there any evidence of disease. This bears out frequent observations that the diseased area does not as a rule extend below the surface of the ground, and is a point of consider- able importance in control. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Bubak, Fr., u. Kosaroff, P. Einige interessante Pflanzen-krankheiten aus Bulgaria. Centbl. Bakt. Abt. II, 31:495-502. 1911. Cavara, F. Intorno alla eziologia di alcune malattie di piante coltivate. Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital. 30:487. 1897. Gregory, C. T. A rot of grapes caused by Cryptosporella viticola. Phytopath. 3:20-23. Figs. 1-2. 1913. Reddick, D. Necrosis of the grape vine. Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul, 263: 323-343. Figs. 41-57. 1909. 278 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT oF Botany. Selby, A. D., and Van Hook, J. M. Dying of bearing grape-vines. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ. 64:1-6. Figs. 2. 1907. Shear, C. L. The ascogenous form of the fungus causing dead-arm of the grape. Phytopath. 1:116-119. Figs 1-5. 1911. Slingerland, M. V. Final demonstration of the efficiency of a poison spray for controlling the grape root-worm Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 235: 168- 171. 1906. REPORT OF THE Department of Chemistry. W. H. Jorpan, Director. L. L. Van Styxe, Chemist. Aurrep W. Boswortn, Associate Chemist. Rupoury J. Anperson, Associate Chemist. Artuur W. Crark, Associate Chemist. Morean P. Sweeney, Assistant Chemist. Orro McCreary, Assistant Chemist. Aurrep K, Burke, Assistant Chemist. CrarEence D. Parker, Assistant Chemist. TABLE OF CONTENTS. I. Preparation, composition and properties of caseinates of magnesium. II. Why sodium citrate prevents curdling of milk by rennin. Ill. The use of sodium citrate for the determination of reverted phosphorie acid. v. Studies in the chemistry of milk. Al ene VII. The condition of casein and its salts in milk. VIII. A contribution to the chemistry of phytin. IX. Organic phosphoric acids of wheat bran. [279] = i 7 ‘ARH AL = y be; 7 = \ ; Ay te onan i » Oe ‘ty : : ti mr ert iy) ey teraqgent a 41 vrei srr JHUZ9IPORIE mer . 5 4 *. “? : = ms :. ; * VLEs rf ry riyane-¥ yp = . t c * . 4 j ? re ‘,é = a i é P . q inp wt i k wht” ; : . bi iat v nae | tei iibdietaey kK. . REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY. PREPARATION, COMPOSITION AND PROPER- TIES OF CASEINATES OF MAGNESIUM L. L. VAN SLYKE anp 0. B. WINTER. SUMMARY. 1. Preparation of solution of casein in magnesium hydroxide.— In preparing magnesium caseinates, the solution of casein in magne- sium hydroxide is effected by suspending pure casein in water with an excess of finely-divided magnesium oxide, allowing the mixture to stand several days. with occasional agitation. 2.. Preparation and composition of basic magnesium casernate.— The magnesium hydroxide solution of casein is made neutral to phenolphthalein. with HCl and the solution dialyzed and evaporated to dryness. The preparation contains. 1.06 per ct. Mg (1.76 MgO), the theoretical composition being 1.09. per ct. Mg (1.81 MgO); or I gram of casein combines with 8.7 x 1o-* gram equivalents of Mg (theoretical, 9.0 x 10+). The compound is easily soluble in water and in a 5 per ct. solution of NaCl. 3. Preparation and composition of neutral magnesium caseinate.— The magnesium hydroxide solution is made neutral to litmus with HCI and the solution dialyzed and the caseinate precipitated with alcohol. The preparation contains 0.71 per ct. Mg (1.18 MgO), the theoretical composition being 0.67 per ct. Mg (1.12 MgO); or 1 gram of casein combines with 5.8 x 10-* gram equivalents. of Mg (theo- retical, 5.6 x 10-‘). The compound is easily soluble in water and in a 5 per ct. solution of NaCl. 4. Preparation and composition of mono-magnesium caseinate.— A solution of base-free casein in magnesium hydroxide is. treated with HCl just to the first point of precipitation and then dialyzed. Alternate addition of acid and dialysis are repeated, until finally the dialyzed solution forms a permanent precipitate on the addition of any acid. To this solution is added one-third of the amount of acid required for complete precipitation of the casein, the solution filtered and dialyzed and divided. into two portions. One portion is used for the preparation of mono-magnesium caseinate by incomplete precipitation with HCl. The preparation contains 0.13 per ct. Mg (0.22 MgO), which is the theoretical composition; or 1 gram of casein combines with 1.1 x ro-* gram equivalents of Mg. This compound is insoluble in water but soluble in 5 per ct. solution of NaCl; at 65° C. it tends to form strings when drawn out. * Reprint of Technical Bulletin. No. 33, February. [281] 282 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE 5. Preparation and composition of di-magnesium caseinate.— To the second portion of the solution mentioned in the preceding para- graph acid-free alcohol is added and a precipitate obtained which contained 0.24 per ct. Mg (0.40 MgO), the theoretical composition of di-magnesium caseinate being 0.26 per ct. Mg (0.44 MgO); or 1 gram of casein combines with 2.1 x 10-* gram equivalent of Mg (theoretical 2.25 x 10-). The compound is quite easily soluble in water and ina 5 per ct. solution of NaCl; at 65° C. it is slightly sticky. 6. These four magnesium caseinates correspond to the four calcium caseinates which have been previously prepared, representing octo-, penta-, di- and mono-caseinates of magnesium. INTRODUCTION. In Technical Bulletin No. 26 of this Station, Van Slyke and Bos- worth report astudy of compounds formed by casein with the elements of several alkaline and alkaline-earth bases. In the case of calcium, for illustration, it was found that at least four caseinates could be formed, (1) mono-calcium caseinate, (2) di-calcium caseinate, (3) neutral (or penta-valent) calcium caseinate, neutral to litmus, and (4) basic (or octo-valent) calcium caseinate, neutral to phenolphthalein. It seemed desirable to undertake a similar study to ascertain whether casein forms corresponding compounds with magnesium. The details of this work are given in this bulletin. DETAILS OF LABORATORY WORK. SOLUTION OF CASEIN IN MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE. In the preparation of caseinates of the alkaline-earth elements, the first step in the process is to obtain a solution of casein in the hydroxide. In the case of magnesium, its hydroxide is only slightly soluble in water and the solution is so dilute as to have very little effect in dissolving casein. It was found, however, that when casein is suspended in water with an excess of finely-divided magnesium oxide and allowed to stand several days with occasional agitation, enough casein is taken into solution to furnish material which can be used in the preparation of magnesium caseinates. PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF BASIC MAGNESIUM CASEINATE. Base-free casein (prepared in the manner described in Technical Bulletin No. 26, pp. 8-9) was dissolved in a solution of magnesium hydroxide containing an excess of magnesium oxide in suspension. The mixture was filtered and the filtrate was made neutral to phenol- phthalein with hydrochloric acid; the end point was satisfactorily determined by adding the acid slowly until a faintly pinkish color remains for several minutes. The solution was then dialyzed to New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 283 remove the magnesium chloride formed in neutralization. The dialyzed solution was evaporated to dryness and finally dried at 120° C. Analysis of the material showed it to contain 1.06 per ct. Mg (equal to 1.76 per ct. MgO). Calculated to correspond with basic calcium caseinate (containing 1.78 per ct. Ca or 2.50 per ct. CaO), this compound should contain 1.08 per ct. Mg (equal to 1.80 per ct. MgO). Expressed in another form, our results indicate that 1 gram of casein combines with 8.72 x 10-* gram equivalents of magnesium (theoretical, 9 x 10-*). This compound is basic magnesium caseinate, the casein being octo- valent. The compound is easily soluble in water, its solution being neutral to phenolphthalein. It is also soluble in a 5 per ct. solution of NaCl. PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF NEUTRAL MAGNESIUM CASEINATE. Base-free casein was dissolved in a solution of magnesium hydroxide containing an excess of magnesium oxide in suspension. The mixture was filtered and the filtrate was made nearly neutra! to litmus with N/io HCl. The solution was dialyzed and then made neutral to litmus with N/19 HCl; the end-point was determined by adding the acid slowly, until both red and blue litmus paper could be left in the solution several minutes without change of color in either. The solution was then dialyzed again and the casein precipitated with acid-free alcohol; the mixture was then filtered, and the precipi- tate was washed thoroughly and was finally dried at 120° C. Determination of the magnesium in this preparation gave 0.71 per ct. Mg (equal to 1.18 per ct. MgO). Calculated to correspond with neutral calcium caseinate (containing 1.10 per ct: Ca or 1.55 per ct. CaO), this compound should contain 0.67 per ct. Mg (equal to 1.12 per ct. MgO). Expressed in another form, our results in- dicate that 1 gram of casein combines with 5.84x10- gram equivalents of magnesium (theoretical 5.625 x 10-*). This compound is neutral magnesium caseinate, the casein being penta-valent. The compound is easily soluble in water and in a 5 per ct. solution of NaCl. PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF DI-MAGNESIUM CASEINATE. Solution of base-free casein in magnesium hydroxide containing an excess of magnesium oxide is effected in the manner already described. To the filtered solution, N/s9 HCl is added until near the point of precipitation, as shown by a preliminary test (Technical Bulletin No. 26, pp. 15-17). The solution is then dialyzed. Alternate addition of acid and dialysis are repeated several times, until the addition of a small amount of acid to a test portion causes precipitation. The amount of acid necessary for complete pre- 984 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE cipitation is next determined, and about one-third of this amount is added to the solution. The mixture is then filtered to remove any precipitate that is formed and the filtrate is dialyzed to remove magnesium chloride as completely as possible. This solution, con- taining di-magnesium caseinate, is divided into two portions, one being used for the preparation of di-magnesium caseinate and the other for the preparation of mono-magnesium caseinate. To one portion of the solution acid-free alcohol is added and a precipitate of di-magnesium caseinate obtained. This is thoroughly washed with acid-free alcohol and ether and: dried’ at 120° C. Determination of the magnesium in this preparation showed it to contain 0.24 per ct. Mg (equal to 0.40 per ct. MgO). Calculated to correspond with di-ealcium caseinate (containing 0.44 per ct. Ca or 0.62 per ct. CaO), this caseinate should contain 0.26. per ct. Mg (equal to 0.44 per ct. MgO). Expressed in another form, our results indicate that 1 gram of casein combined with 2.14 x 10-* gram equivalents of magnesium (theoretical, 2.25 x 10-*). Di-magnesium caseinate is slightly soluble in water; it is soluble in a 5 per ct. solution of NaCl at 65° C. and at this temperature is slightly sticky. PREPARATION. AND’ COMPOSITION OF MONO-MAGNESIUM CASEINATE. In preparing mono-magnesium caseinate, the remaining. portion of the solution of di-magnesium caseinate was treated with enough acid to precipitate three-fourths of the casein, the acid being added very slowly and with constant, vigorous agitation. The solution was filtered and the precipitated caseinate washed with water, alcohol and ether, after which it was dried for three days in vacuo over sulphuric acid. Determination of magnesium gave 0.13: per ct. Mg. (equal to 0.22 perct. MgO). Calculated to.correspond with mono-calcium caseinate (0.22 per ct. Ca or 0.31 per ct. CaO), this compound should con- tain 0.13 per ct. Mg (equal to 0:22’ per ct. MgO). Expressed in another form, our results show that: 1 gram of casein combines with 1.125 x 10-' gram “equivalents of magnesium, which agrees with the theoretical value. Mono-magnesium caseinate is insoluble in water, but soluble in 5 per ct. NaCl solution; at 65° C. it shows a tendency to form strings when drawn out. VALENCY OF CASEIN. In Technical Bulletin. No. 26, Van Slyke and Bosworth have shown from. their work with calcium caseinates the combining power of casein in the different compounds prepared and studied by them. It is interesting to compare: their results with those obtained with magnesium. In the following table we arrange the results ex- New York AqricutturaL Exprriment STATION. 285 pressed, for the purpose of more direct comparison, in the form of gram equivalents of element per gram of casein. TaBLE I.— VALENCY oF CASEIN AS SHOWN IN MAGNESIUM CASEINATES. Different caseinates. Di- \ Gram Gram Valencies equivalents of | equivalents of satisfied in Cax10- per | Mg x 10-4 per each caseinate. gram of gram of casein. casein. 1 Ay at L125 2 eA | 2.14 5 5.36 5 84 8 § .00 8.72 ‘The agreement between the analytical results and fourth columns) and those called for (fifth column) by the valencies of casein satisfied in each compound (second column) is marked; also the close agreement between the results obtained with calcium (third column) and those given by magnesium (fourth column) is satisfactory. Gram equivalents of element x 10-+* per gram of casein corresponding ex- actly to valencies given in second column. Oone eoonr SRS SrS Or obtained (third I, WHY SODIUM CITRATE PREVENTS CURDLING OF MILK BY RENNIN.*{ ALFRED W. BOSWORTH anv LUCIUS L. VAN SLYKE. SUMMARY. 1. The addition of sodium citrate to milk in infant feeding is a frequent practice in cases in which the use of normal milk results in the formation of large lumps of tough indigestible curd in the stomach. The favorable results attending such use of sodium citrate have never been explained on the basis of actual investigation. z. Work previously done by the authors suggested a chemical explanation of the observed facts and led them to test the matter by an experimental study of the action of sodium citrate on milk. 3. The addition of sodium citrate to normal milk increases the amount of soluble calcium in the milk, this increase resulting from a reaction between the calcium caseinate of the milk and sodium citrate, by which is formed sodium caseinate (or calcium-sodium caseinate) and calcium citrate. The reaction is reversible. 4. The curdling of milk by rennin is delayed by the presence of sodium citrate; when there is added 0.400 gm. of sodium citrate per 100 c.c. of milk (equal to 1.7 grains per ounce), no curdling takes place. 5. The curd produced by rennin in the presence of small amounts of sodium citrate (0.050 to 0.350 gm. per 100 C.c. or 0.20 to I.5 grains per ounce) increases in softness of consistency as the amount of sodium citrate in the milk increases. 6. The results of our work indicate that at the point at which rennin fails to curdle milk we have in place of the calcium caseinate of normal milk a double salt, calcium-sodium caseinate; this double salt, when rennin is added, is changed to a calcium-sodium paracaseinate which, owing to the presence of the sodium, is not curdled. 7. The practice of adding sodium citrate to milk at the rate of 1 to 2 grains of citrate per ounce of milk appears to have a satisfactory chemical basis in the reaction between the sodium citrate and the calcium caseinate of the milk. The amount added is governed by the object in view, viz., whether it is desired to prevent curdling or only modify the character of the curd in respect to softness. * Published also in the Am. Jour. Diseases of Children, 7 3 298-304. + Reprint of part of Technical Bulletin No. 34, May; see p. 293. [286] New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 227 INTRODUCTION. The practice of adding sodium citrate to milk used as infant food has been common for many years. It has found application espe- cially in the treatment of certain types of “feeding-cases”’ in which untreated milk, after entering the stomach, forms abnormally large chunks of tough curd, shown by Talbot ! to consist of casein. These lumps of curd may pass practically unchanged through the entire intestinal canal, causing mechanical irritation, which often results in serious interference with the process of normal digestion. Empirical practice has shown that this abnormal curdling of milk may, to some extent, be modified or controlled by the addition of sodium citrate at the rate of 1 or 2 grains per ounce of milk. While various suggestions have been offered to explain the results observed, these have been based so little on demonstrated chemical facts as to partake largely of the nature of guesswork. In our work? on the compounds of casein and paracasein we obtained certain results which appeared to suggest a simple and satisfactory explanation of the marked effect produced by the addi- tion of sodium citrate to milk. Work has been done to test the application of the suggested explanation and the results are pre- sented in this paper. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS. In order that the details of our investigation may be more readily understood we will call attention to certain fundamental facts which have been brought out in our former work before we give the details of our present investigation. In the work to which reference is made in the paragraph preceding, the following points may be regarded as being established as far as the data now at hand enable us to reach any conclusions: 1. Casein is a protein showing the characteristic property of an acid in that it combines with metals or bases to form compounds known as caseinates. 2. The molecular weight of casein is 8888, and it can combine with eight equivalents of a monovalent metal or base. For example, the compound of casein containing the largest amount of a mono- valent metal like sodium could be represented by the formula Nag casein (sodium caseinate); the corresponding calcium compound is Ca, casein (calcium caseinate). 1Talbot, F. B. Boston Med. and Surg. Jour., June 11, 1905, p. 205, and Jan. 7; 1909, p. 13. 2Van Slyke and Bosworth. Jour. Biol. Chem., 14: 206, (1913), and Technical Bull. No. 26, N. Y. Agricultural Experiment Station; also Bosworth: Jour. Biol. Chem., 15: 231, (1913), and Technical Bull. No. 31, N. Y. Agricultural Experiment Station. 288 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE 3. Casein is present in milk in combination with calcium as cal- cium caseinate. It has not been definitely settled yet which par- ticular compound is in milk, but it is probably either tetra-calcium or tri-calcium caseinate. 4. When the calcium caseinate of milk is acted on by rennin, it is changed into another compound called calcium paracaseinate. By this action one molecule of calcium caseinate is split into two mole- cules of calcium paracaseinate. Thus, assuming for the sake of our illustration, that the caseinate present in milk is the tetra- calcium compound, we can represent the change from calcium casinate to calcium paracaseinate in the following manner: Ca; caseinate = Caz paracaseinate + Car paracaseinate. 5. Paracasein, like casein, possesses acid properties, but has a molecular weight of 4444, only one-half that of casein. Paracasein, as an acid, has only one-half the combining power of casein; that is, its highest combining power is equal to four equivalents of :a mono- valent metal; for example, Na; paracasein (sodium paracaseinate), Cay paracasein (calcium paracaseinate). 6. Calcium paracaseinate is less soluble than the corresponding calcium caseinate present in milk from which it is formed, and, there- fore, it is precipitated as a solid, or, in ordinary language, the milk curdles. 7. If rennin is added to a solution of sodium caseinate, the case- inate is split into two molecules of sodium paracaseinate (for example, Nag caseinate = Na; paracaseinate + Na, paracaseinate), but no precipitation or curdling takes place. This is explained by the fact that sodium paracaseinate is very soluble. If, however, to this same solution of sodium paracaseinate we add a small amount of some soluble calcium salt (calcium chlorid, for example), curdling occurs at once, the curd being calcium paracaseinate. This pre- cipitation or curdling is the result of a chemical reaction or double decomposition, which can be illustrated in the following manner: Sodium paracaseinate (soluble) + calcium chlorid = calcium paracaseinate (insol- uble) + sodium chlorid. This reaction or equilibrium can be made to proceed in either direction at the will of the experimenter; for example, addition of excess of sodium chlorid changes insoluble calcium paracaseinate back into soluble sodium paracaseinate. These facts appeared to us to furnish an explanation of the action of sodium citrate when added to milk, in that there is formed calcium citrate and sodium caseinate, which latter compound is converted by rennin into sodium paracaseinate, a compound so soluble as not to curdle or form a pre- cipitate. This hypothesis furnished the basis of our present investiga- tion. The facts stated above raise the query whether or not sodium citrate reacts with the calcium caseinate in milk to form sodium New York AGricutturaL Experiment Station. 289 caseinate and calcium citrate? If such a reaction takes place, we should be able to determine the amount of calcium thus transferred from the caseinate to the citrate- How this determination can be made we will indicate briefly. When milk is filtered under pressure through unglazed porous porcelain (in the form of a Chamberland filter), the serum contain- ing the filterable soluble portions passes through the filter, while the insoluble portion, consisting largely of caseinate and insoluble cal- cium phosphate, remains on the filter. If, therefore, milk treated with sodium citrate is filtered through a Chamberland filter, the amount of calcium in the filtered serum should increase with the amount of citrate added up to a certain point, provided that calcium citrate (or perhaps, a double salt of calecium-sodium citrate) is formed. It may be added here that calcium citrate is soluble to the extent of about 0.090 gm. per 100 ¢.c. of water at ordinary room tempera- tures, while the amount of calcium citrate formed by such a reaction in milk containing 3.2 gm. of casein per 100 ¢.c. has been found by us to be not over 0.066 gm. per 100 e.c.; it all, therefore, remains in solution passing through the filter into the serum. If, then, we determine in milk the amount of soluble and insol- uble calcium and then add to the milk sodium citrate, filtering and determining the calcium in the filtrate, there should, on the basis of our hypothesis, be an increased amount of calcium in the filtrate, showing how much calcium is transferred from the form of calcium caseinate to the form of calcium citrate. EXPERIMENTAL WORK. In carrying out our experimental work, we proceeded in the fol- lowing manner: Fresh separator skim-milk was used, in which the amounts of casein, soluble and insoluble calcium, magnesium and phosphorus were determined. To prevent bacterial action, 3 c.c. of 40 per ct. formaldehyde solution was added to each liter of milk. The milk was then divided into nine equal parts and to each part was added, in varying amounts, crystallized sodium citrate (con- taining 27.7 per ct. of water of crystallization), as indicated in the table given below. The milk was then allowed to stand long enough for the reaction to reach equilibrium. Each portion was then filtered through a Chamberland filter and the amounts of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus were determined in the filtered serum. The results are given in Table I. Experiments were also made to test the effect of sodium citrate on the curdling action of rennin, the results of which are given in Table II. Attention is called to the following points in connection with a study of the results contained in Table I. 1. Changes in solubility of calcium.— In the columns headed “ cal- cium ” we give the amounts of soluble and insoluble calcium in the 19 990 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE original untreated milk used in the experiments, and then, following, the amounts of soluble and insoluble calcium in the milk after treat- ment with amounts of sodium citrate varying from 0.130 to 1.040 gm. per 100 c.c. of milk (equivalent to 0.55 to 4.40 grains per ounce of milk). As previously stated, the soluble calcium is the portion appearing in the serum after filtering the milk under pressure through a Chamberland filter, while the insoluble calcium is that which fails to pass through the filter. An examination of the figures in the table shows that the amount of soluble calcium in 100 c.c. of the original milk is 0.045 gm. and this increases quite uniformly after each addi- tion of increasing amounts of sodium citrate, the insoluble decreasing in essentially the same amounts. ‘The only interpretation of these results that we can give is that some of the calcium of the caseinate or phosphate in the milk has been replaced by the sodium of the added citrate in the manner already discussed. 2. Changes in solubility of phosphorus.— The question suggests itself as to whether or not the increase of soluble caletum may come from action of sodium citrate on the insoluble calcium phesphate in the milk, forming sodium phosphate and calcium citrate. An examination of the figures in the columns under “ Phosphorus ” shows that there is no increase of soluble phosphorus until we have added more than 0.520 gm. of sodium citrate per liter of milk (equivalent to 2.20 grains per ounce), an amount sufficient to prevent curdling and even with larger additions the increase of soluble phosphorus is relatively small. The increase of soluble calcium comes, therefore, largely from the calcium that is combined with casein in the milk. 3. Changes in solubility of magnesium.— Owing to the small amount of magnesium in milk, the observed increase of solubility is slight but is in the direction shown by calcium, which would be expected. In Table II we give the results obtained by treating 100 c.c. of milk with 2 c.c. of rennet solution (Shinn’s liquid rennet) at 37° C. (98.8° F.). The rennet test was applied to untreated milk and also to samples of milk containing the varying amounts of crystallized sodium citrate given in the table. Inspection of the results in this table makes it obvious that the presence of sodium citrate in milk, even in small amounts, delays very markedly the time of rennet curdling, while increase of citrate increases the time required for curdling, until we reach a point (0.400 gm. per 100 c.c. of milk or 1.7 grains per ounce), where no curdling takes place under the conditions of our experiments. It should be stated, in addition, that the character of the curdled milk varied in a characteristic way with the amount of sodium citrate added. Sample 1, untreated milk, gives a firm curd; the treated samples give curd of increasing softness with increase of sodium citrate. The experimental results embodied in Tables I and II show that when sodium citrate is added to normal milk, (1) the amount of 291 New York Acricutturat Exprertment Station. T00° G10" 260" 490° 120° G10" ** "peTpno FON | OFF OF0 T 6 100° G10" 660° 690° FL0° 610° "* * *pe[pind Fon | Gg'g OR620: & ae 8 600° 110° 080° 190° 820° 690° = )Pe[PMoFON (0g Ss O82; 20 sie ee teen eS yy} 600° I10° 080° 190° 680° $90" * pepo FON | S27 0¢O° 0: & ee ee 9 600° TIO 280° 990" 180° 690° "** *psTPIN9 FONT | OS'S 02S’ 0 iG €00° O10" 90° ¢¢0" 060° 990° oo. dePR TRANS) ECO) I OBS SO: SS a ee ee ee P £00 O10 980 ¢c0° £60 0 ee P2PND | OL'T 092° a = eo e £00 O10 980 SO) F60 coO wo PPD | ¢¢g’O OT: 0 2 Ss eee ee V6 00 O10 ¢g0" 990° 101 crO “++ -parpang | “9°09 O00. freetteees 7 ‘gqnyosuy | “aqqnjog | -ajqnjosuy | “afqnjog | ‘arqnfosuy | “a[qnjog “yyrUI Jo ‘CA 08'86) “O 28] 90uno s0d “yyrar jo saa = ke ee Be ae ye 978.1410 ‘0°9 QOT tod ‘WOISENDVW *SQUOHdSOHA “WOIDTVO *0°9 OOT 0} uormnyos uinipos 978.1910 *“LNAWINAd XG qouudal Jo 00 Z jo sureid wnipos 40 ‘ON Surppe Jo yooym” | 04 yenbay jo smvry ‘0°0 QOL Yaa SWVUD “MIL NI “OLY ‘WOIOTV AIEATOY ONISVGYONT NI ALVYLIQ WAIGOg 40 Logsay —] ATAVY, 292 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE soluble calcium increases; (2) this increase is largely due to reaction of sodium citrate with the calcium caseinate in the milk, forming sodium caseinate or a double salt (calcitum-sodium caseinate) and calcium citrate; and (3) use of increased amounts of sodium citrate lengthens the time required for the milk to curdle with rennet action or entirely prevents the curdling. Tasie I].—Errect or Soptum CriTrRATE ON THE CuRDLING OF MILK BY RENNIN. Na eA Ok Sadiita Equal to grains Amount of Minutes Breall cates saldadito of sodium citrate | rennet solution required seed 100.6 tofamill in 1 ounce of used per 100 for milk to ; ore : milk. c.c. of milk. curdle. hs ete 0.0 0.0 2 6 Dire sear 0.050 0.20 2 74 st tie ent 0.100 0.40 2 83 7 ae 0.150 0.65 2 11 DMR oree. 0.200 0.85 2 31 \omesaein: 0.250 1.00 2 37 Cone 0.300 1.25 2 47 Sie he. 0.350 1.50 2 62 Oe ree 0.400 1.70 2 Not curdled WO ercaeel ators 0.450 1.90 2 Not curdled 1 aes 0.500 2.10 2 Not curdled CONCLUSION. Without going into full details, it will answer our purpose here to offer, on the basis of the facts developed, the following explanations as to why the presence of sodium citrate in milk delays or prevents curdling by rennin: Knowing the amount of soluble calcium formed by addition of sodium citrate to milk and knowing also the amount of casein present, we are able to ascertain that, at the point at which the rennet solution fails to curdle the milk, we have in place of the calcium caseinate of the normal milk a double salt, calctum-sodium caseinate. This double salt, on addition of rennin, forms a calcium- sodium paracaseinate containing one equivalent of sodium; and this compound, owing to the presence of the sodium, is not curdled by rennin. The increasing softness of the curd, accompanying the addition of increasing amounts of sodium citrate, is due to the presence of increasing amounts of calcium-sodium paracaseinate. A point is finally reached when all the calcium caseinate becomes calcium-sodium paracaseinate and the milk fails to curdle. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 293 Il. THE USE OF SODIUM CITRATE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF REVERTED PHOS. PHORIC ACID.'* ALFRED W. BOSWORTH. In 1871, Fresenius, Neubauer and Luck? published a method for the determination of reverted phosphoric acid in phosphates which involves the use of a solution of neutral ammonium citrate, specific gravity 1.09. This method, with a change in the temperature of the solvent, has been in constant use since that time * with no attempt by any one to give an explanation of the chemical reaction involved. It has been quite generally believed that the neutral ammonium citrate solution possesses a selective power which enables it to separate dicalcic-phosphate from tricalcic-phosphate. This is not true, for it has been found in this laboratory that 100 c.c. of the official ammon- ium citrate solution * is capable of dissolving 1.3 grams of precipitated tricalcic-phosphate in one-half hour at a temperature of 65° C. This dissolving of the tricalcic-phosphate is accompanied by a precipitation of calcium citrate. This separation of calcium citrate led to the belief that the solvent action of the citrate solution was the result of a double decomposition started by the free phosphoric acid always present in an aqueous solution which is in contact with a solid phase composed of a phos- phate.* This double decomposition might be indicated by the following: CaHPO, +2C.H;06(N H,)3 > (NH,)2HPO, + [CeHsO6(N Hy) o}2Ca CagP203 + 6CeHsO6(N H:)s > 2(NH4)3PO4 + 3[CeH506(N Hy)o]2Ca If appreciable amounts of calcium are taken into solution, calcium citrate will separate out. 3[Cs5Hs06(N Hs)2],>Ca— > 4C5Hs06(NH,)3 + (CeH;0¢)2Cas A great deal of work has been done upon methods of making neutral ammonium citrate solutions and several such methods have been published. The fact that neutral ammonium citrate is very unstable and easily loses ammonia has not been sufficiently considered in this connection, however. Why should extreme care be taken to secure an absolutely neutral solution, if this solution is to lose ammonia when heated a few degrees above the room temperature? Most chemists who have used the neutral ammonium citrate solution know that ammonia is constantly given off during the half hour allowed for the solvent action to take place. The final result then, 1 Read before the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Washington, D. C., Nov. 17, 1913, and published in the Jour. Indust. Eng. Chem., 6 : 227. 2 Ztschr. Analyt. Chem., 10 : 133. 3U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Chem., Bull. 107 (revised). *Cameron and Hurst, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 26, 905. * Reprint of part of Technical Bulletin No. 34, May; see p. 286. 294 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE is not the action of neutral citrate but rather the action of an acid citrate. There seemed to be no theoretical reason why a solution of sodium citrate should not be just as effective a solvent and it possesses two distinct advantages. It is a more stable salt and as the base in it is not volatile the solution would remain neutral through- out the whole operation. All trouble in securing a neutral solution would be eliminated, for a solution of citric acid could be neutralized with sodium hydroxide, using phenolphthalein as an indicator, or the neutral crystals of sodium citrate could be dissolved in water, and the solution made up to the required volume. In order to learn what the action of a solution of sodium citrate might be, one was made which was of the same molecular concen- tration as the Official! ammonium citrate solution, 7. e., 314 grams crystallized sodium citrate, (CsH;OsNasz)o°11 H2O, per liter. This solution was used to determine the amounts of insoluble and reverted phosphoric acid in several fertilizers, Thomas slag, ground bone, ground rock phosphate, dicalcic-phosphate, CaHPO,, and tricalcic- phosphate, Ca;P.0s. The results, together with those obtained by the use of the Official citrate solution, are given in the table. In connection with these figures, it is noticeable that the differences between the figures obtained with the two solutions are, in most cases, of the same magnitude as the variations in the figures obtained by different chemists working upon the same sample.’ It is also interesting to know that Samples 5, 10 and 11, which show the largest differences, all contain bone. The duplicate determinations, in all cases, showed closer agreement with sodium citrate solution than with the Official citrate solution. The Official method directs that the flask in which the reaction takes place should be loosely stoppered, during the time it is being maintained at 65° C., in order to prevent evaporation. The use of stoppers often results in the loss of a determination through the breaking of a flask. It is suggested that the flask be closed with a one-hole rubber stopper carrying an empty calcium chloride tube, 300 mm. in length, which will serve as a condenser. The use of such a condenser will not interfere with the shaking and it furnishes a vent which prevents the breaking of the flask. The last column of the table shows the amounts of ammonia given off during the half hour of treatment with ammonium citrate solu- tion prescribed by the Official method. This ammonia was caught in standard acid by means of an air current which was passed through the Erlenmeyer flask in which the solvent action was taking place. These figures seem to bear some relation to the difference given in the preceding column. By noticing the large amounts of ammonia given off by the Thomas slag, rock phosphate and ground bone 1U. 8. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem. Bull. 107 (revised). 2 Jour. Indust. Eng. Chem., 32118 and 5:957. The differences between the extremes in these two cases are 1.23 per ct. and 0.90 per ct. respectively. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 295 when treated with ammonium citrate at 65° C. for one-half hour an indication as to the reason for the liberation of the ammonia may be found. The fertilizing materials, after being extracted with water, leave a residue which, in most cases, contains alkaline material, alkaline phosphates, carbonates of calcium and magnesium and oxides of other elements. These all tend to drive off ammonia from the citrate solution. Taste IIJ].—Comparison OF THE USE oF AMMONIUM CITRATE AND SoviuM CITRATE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF REVERTED PHospHoRIC ACID. By AMMONIUM By Sopium CITRATE. CITRATE. Cc. of ibe fee gee dees eee orp ne A ater- . Poel | soluble Differ- | iiberated 2's P2Os. Insol. |Reverted| Insol. |Reverted nee in } P20s. P203. P20. P20s. hour at 65° C. hes hse archaic Bee 10.63 6.18 1.75 2.76 2.61 1.84 0.91 14.9 VA SOCALO DRE OE TID D 8.73 3.76 1.42 3.55 1.89 3.08 0.47 12.7 Sotaratetereh ate & here aha 9.58 6.50 0.76 2.32 ba | 1.97 0.35 10.9 Ce IC oie REE 12.33 11.90 0.02 0.41 0.00 0.43 0.02 6.5 Peel awn cea a oucve cangeps 14.59 1.21 4.01 9.37 9.07 4.31 5.06 12.5 oder etter pickers 10.92 3.76 0.58 6.58 ap | 6.05 0.53 13.5 CEG ORO ee EE ee 11.18 8.73 0.34 Ziel 0.66 1.79 0.32 16.0 PS Rte Recwsamclehevarihars 9.61 4.24 1.62 3.79 2.80 PHY 1.18 14.2 EN Ps akon Guo itch 7.31 0.95 2.59 3.77 4.58 1.78 1.99 10.5 HF secmtiac sc anateve moog cats 8.79 0.00 5.22 3.57 7.78 1.01 2.56 29.0 GRE oteteicre scatters 19.91 1.84 6.34 ib heer 14.89 3.18 8.55 23.0 D2. ced sy terte trate 13.07 8.42 0.22 4.43 0.77 3.88 0.55 13.5 A SRee ie oeaare sens Slee 11.69 4.33 3.68 3.68 4.15 3.21 0.47 16.2 DBtoveteyer a nes See se Ch ie 20.95 0.00 13.36 7.59 15.82 5.13 2.46 14.6 Ie Buy Soe oes 17.57 0.00 9.40 8.17 15.69 1.88 6.29 65.0 Rock phosphate....| 29.72 0.19 27.57 1.96 28.20 1.33 0.63 20.5 CaHPO, 1 gram taken......| ...... OF 00's Reeras QSOO7 este 0.00 3.5 Cash Onslipram taken. cranes. scr QeOO: |) choses QUOOR taatete ee: 0.00 14.0 Ammonium) citrate heated: to.O5> C). atdciiccetehe |P elope oteterill stone, ofevelel|) Gebevehens cee |p ohsleetes = 2.6 Ammonium: citrate heated Cong oca© . syatecisus Siete call pecacoe con] Wet Pests stelle cebepekegty | Maleperopers 36.0 It is realized that the small amount of evidence presented in this paper does not settle the question as to the desirability of substituting sodium citrate for ammonium citrate in the determination of reverted phosphoric acid. The subject is simply brought forward at this time in order that those chemists who are interested may give it some thought. STUDIES RELATING TO THE CHEMISTRY OF MILK AND CASEIN.* SUMMARY. I. The acidity of fresh milk is due to the presence of acid phos- phates. Titration of phosphoric acid with alkali, in the presence of calcium salts, results in hydrolysis of dicalcium phosphate formed during the titration, whereby free calcium hydroxide and phos- phoric acid are first formed and then calcium hydroxide unites with more dicalcium phosphate to form insoluble tricalcium phos- phate. As a result of these reactions more alkali is required to make a solution, containing calcium and phosphoric acid, neutral to phenolphthalein than is required in the absence of calcium. The calcium must be removed previous to titration by treatment of 100 c.c. of milk with 2 c.c. of saturated solution of neutral potas- sium oxalate. II. The amount of phosphorus in casein has been commonly given as about 0.85 per ct. By treating a solution of casein in dilute NH,OH with ammonium oxalate and an excess of NH,OH and letting stand 12 hours the phosphorus content is reduced to about 0.70 per ct. This lower percentage can not be explained as being due to hydrolysis of casein and splitting off of phosphorus. While some of the casein is hydrolyzed, this portion does not enter into the final preparation and does not affect its composition, because the hydrolyzed portion is not precipitated by acetic acid while the unhydrolyzed part is. The higher figure ordinarily given is due to the presence of inorganic phosphorus (dicalcium phosphate) carried from the milk into the precipitated casein and not entirely removed under the usual conditions of preparation. The lower figure corresponds very closely to two atoms of phosphorus (0.698 per ct.) in the casein molecule. Analyses of various preparations of casein containing varying amounts of ash show a general cor- respondence between the ash and phosphorus content. III. The similarity between the composition of casein and para- casein, and the fact that casein has been shown to have a molecular weight of 8888 + and a valency of 8, while paracasein has been shown to have a molecular weight of 4444 + and a valency of 4,! seems to be evidence enough for concluding that the transformation of casein into paracasein is a process of hydrolytic splitting, one 1 Van Slyke and Bosworth. N. Y. Agrl. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bull. No. 26, and Journ. Biol. Chem., 14:227. * Reprint of Technical Bulletin No. 37, December. [296] New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 297 molecule of casein yielding two molecules of paracasein, and that this splitting of casein is not accompanied by a cleavage of any of the elements contained in the original casein molecule. I. THE CAUSE OF ACIDITY OF FRESH MILK OF COWS AND A METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF ACIDITY. LUCIUS L. VAN SLYKE anp ALFRED W. BOSWORTH. INTRODUCTION. The usual method employed in determining the acidity of milk is to add a few drops of a solution of phenolphthalein as indicator to 100 c.c. of milk and then titrate with #4, NaOH. By the use of this method it is found that 100 c.c. of milk, when strictly fresh, will require the addition of 15 to 20 c.c. of the alkali in order to produce a faint but permanent pink coloration. The acidity of fresh milk has been commonly attributed to the presence of acid phosphates and casein, and we will now consider the relation of these constituents to milk acidity. That the acidity of milk is due to the presence of acid phosphates (MH2PO,) is indicated by the fact that milk is strongly alkaline to methyl orange. Further, it is well known that phosphates can not be titrated with any degree of accuracy in the presence of calcium salts, due to the fact that some of the insoluble dical- cium phosphate (CaHPO,), which is formed during the titration, hydrolyzes, changing into calcium hydroxide and phosphoric acid, and then the calcium hydroxide unites with more dicalcium phos- phate, forming tricalcium phosphate (CasP2Os).2- These facts may be represented by the following equations: (1) CaHPO, + 2 H.O = Ca(OH), + HsPO. (2) 2 CaHPO: + Ca(OH): — Ca:P20; + 2 H:0. That tricalcium phosphate is formed during the titration of any solution containing phosphoric acid and calcium salts is easily demonstrated by an anlysis of the precipitate always appearing; this precipitate is tricalcium phosphate, which is characterized by its appearance, varying from a flocculent to a gelatinous con- dition according to the concentration of the calcium and _ phos- phates in the solution. Dibasic phosphates are neutral to phenolphthalein and mono- phosphates are acid to this indicator; phosphoric acid, therefore, acts as a diabasic acid to phenolphthalein. In the reaction repre- sented above, we have, in place of the original molecule of neutral dicalcium phosphate, one molecule of free phosphoric acid, whereby 2 Cameron and Hurst. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 26:905. 1904. 298 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE the acidity as measured by titration is increased over what it would be if no such reaction occurred. These facts serve to explain some results obtained by us in connection with the study of-certain prob- lems relating to milk. We have found that when we titrate whole milk with alkali, in the usual way and then similarly titrate the serum obtained by filtering the milk through a porous procelain filter, the titration figure given by the whole milk is about double that obtained with , the serum. For example, 100 c.c. of whole milk may show an acidity of 17 c.c. of # alkali, and 100 c.c. of serum, 8c.c. This difference has ordinarily been interpreted as being due to the acidity of milk casein, but in a future paper we shall show that casein is present in fresh milk as a calcium caseinate that is neutral to phenolphthalein. The other constituents removed from the milk by filtermg through porous porcelain are fat and dicalcium phosphate, both of which are also neutral to phenolphthalein. From the illustration given above, the titration figure of the residue on the filter would appear to be 9 (17—8) for 100 ¢.c. of milk, though in reality the reaction is neutral. We believe that the cause of this discrepancy is to be found in the dicalcitum phosphate which is present in the whole milk but which is not present in the serum. Its presence in the milk permits the formation of relatively large amounts of phosphoric acid and tricalcium phosphate, requiring the use of the increased amounts of yy alkali (17 ¢.c.) to neutralize the milk, as compared with the amount (8 c.c.) needed to neutralize the serum. We have been led by such results to believe that the acidity of milk, as usually determined, is about twice what it should be. The disturbing influence of calcium salts in the presence of phos- phates has been studied by Folin * in connection with the deter- mination of acidity in urine; he was able largely to overcome the difficulty by the addition of neutral potassium oxalate, by which the calcium is removed in the form of the insoluble oxalate. He showed that by this preliminary treatment correct titration figures could be obtained for monocalecium phosphate which, without such treatment, gives figures that are remote from the calculated acidity. METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE ACIDITY OF MILK. Making use of Folin’s procedure, and, before titrating with alkali, adding to milk some saturated solution of neutral potas- sium oxalate, we are able to obtain figures which conform more closely to the results indicated as accurate by other considerations. The method, as modified by us for the determination of acidity in milk, whether fresh or otherwise, is as follows: Measure 100 c.c. of milk into a 200 c.c. Erlenmeyer flask, add 50 3 Amer. Journ. of Physiol., 9:265. 1903. New York Acricutturat ExpertMEent Station. 299 c.c. of distilled water and 2 ¢.c. of a saturated solution of neutral potassium oxalate, allow the mixture to stand not less than two minutes and then titrate with #3 NaOH. Since most solid potas- sium oxalate is acid, care must be taken to prepare a solution that is really neutral, which may be done in the following way: A saturated solution of ordinary potassium oxalate is prepared and decanted from the solid residue. To this solution is added 1 c.c. of phenolphthalein solution and then, drop by drop, enough normal NaOH solution to produce a permanent faintly pink coloration. In the following table is given the acidity of 21 samples of milk from individual cows, as determined by the two methods, with and without addition of neutral potassium oxalate. ee AMOUNT OF 7 NaOH REQUIRED TO NEUTRALIZE 100 C.C. OF MILK. NUMBEL OF A SAMPLE. mee Before addition of neutral After addition of neutral potassium oxalate. potassium oxalate. C.c C.c 1 15 6.4 2, Lae2 7.0 3 15.6 6.8 4 16.0 6.8 i 17/90) 8.0 6 17.0 8.0 ff Me? 8.0 8 17.6 9.0 9 17.8 8.8 10 18.0 9.0 11 18.2 9.6 12 18.4 9.6 13 18.4 9.4 14 18.6 9.4 15 18.6 9.4 16 19.0 9.4 17 19.2 10.0 18 19.4 10.4 19 20.0 9.8 20 22.0 12.8 21 23.8 14.0 Potassium oxalate is a poisonous substance. If the method as outlined above is used for the determination of the acidity of milk, extreme care should be taken to see that the potassium oxalate solution is kept in a bottle properly labeled and marked with the word POISON. 300 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE II. THE PHOSPHORUS CONTENT OF CASEIN. ALFRED W. BOSWORTH ann LUCIUS L. VAN SLYKE. INTRODUCTION. In a previous paper? from this laboratory, a method has been described for preparing casein practically ash-free, the last portion of calcium being removed by treating a solution of the casein in dilute NH,OH with ammonium oxalate and excess of NH,OH, and then allowing the mixture to stand about twelve hours. Casein thus prepared contains about 0.71 per ct. of phosphorus. The accuracy of this figure has been questioned,®> because it is considerably lower than that (about 0.85 per ct.) hitherto commonly accepted as correct. The suggestion has been made that the lower figure is due to the splitting off of phosphorus from the casein mole- cule as the result of hydrolysis caused by prolonged contact with NH,OH. It is the purpose of this paper to present the results of an ex- perimental study relating to the effects of partial hydrolysis of casein on the phosphorus content of casein preparations and also to offer an explanation ‘as to why the higher figures that have been usually reported for the percentage of phosphorus in casein are not correct. In connection with investigations recently carried on in this laboratory, the results of which have not yet been published, certain facts have been developed which appear to explain why the high figure usually accepted for the phosphorus content of casein is inevitably obtained in consequence of the method em- ployed in making casein preparations. Two of the constituents of cow’s milk are present in the form of colloidal solution, calcium caseinate and dicalcium phosphate. These two compounds appear to have a strong attraction for each other, as shown by the fact that, when casein is separated from milk by means of either centri- fugal force or precipitation with a dilute acid, the casein always carries with it more or less dicalcium phosphate. It is evident, then, that in preparing casein by the usual method in which care is taken to avoid an excess of both acid and alkali, it is practically impossible to remove this phosphate completely. In order, there- fore, to ascertain the true phosphorus content of casein, it is obviously necessary that the preparation be free from inorganic phosphorus and this can be accomplished only by removing all of the calcium. Several methods have been tried in this laboratory to effect this, and the one finally found to be the most satisfactory is that described in a previous paper, referred to above. ANieaYe “Agri. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bull. No. 26, and Journ. Biol. Chem. 14: 203. 1913. 5 Harden and Macallum. Biochem. Journ. 8:90. New York Acricutturat Exprrtment Sration. 301 Further, a good reason for believing that the lower figure more closely approximates the truth than the higher one hitherto com- monly accepted as correct is the relation of phosphorus to the molecular weight of casein. In a previous paper® it was shown that the molecular weight of casein is approximately 8888. Now, if the casein molecule contains two atoms of phosphorus, the per- centage of phosphorus is 0.698, while the phosphorus content would be 1.046 per ct. if there were three atoms of phosphorus. The figure (0.85 per ct.) heretofore regarded as correct represents, there- fore, on account of the presence of impurities in the preparation, neither two atoms nor three atoms of phosphorus, while the lower figure (0.71 per ct.) represents almost exactly two atoms. Coming now to the criticism made that an excess of NH,OH in contact with casein for twelve hours causes hydrolysis, result- ing in the formation of inorganic phosphorus, there is reason to believe that, whatever hydrolysis takes place, it does not necessarily interfere with the composition of the final preparation, because, as will be shown, the products of hydrolysis are not precipitated by dilute acetic acid and therefore form no part of the completed preparation which is pure, unhydrolyzed casein. EXPERIMENTAL. After giving the ash and phosphorus content of several prep- arations of casein, we will present the results of a study of two special preparations of casein which were subjected to varying conditions in order to ascertain whether hydrolysis affects the phosphorus content of casein preparations. Ash content and phosphorus content of casein.—The percentages of ash and phosphorus in five samples of casein prepared in this laboratory during the past seven or eight years are as follows: SAMPLE. Ash. Phosphorus. Per ct Per ct 1 0.06 0.710 2 0.39 0.732 3 0.61 0.830 4 0.61 0.839 5 3.93 0.941 The results show that increase of ash is accompanied by an in- crease of phosphorus. SN. Y. Agrl. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bull. No. 26, and Journ. Biol. Chem., 14:228. 913. 302 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE Phosphorus content of casein preparations treated in different ways. In order to study the effect of treating casein in different ways upon the content of phosphorus, and especially to ascertain what effect. partial hydrolysis may have upon the phosphorus content of casein preparations, two preparations of casein were made and each of these was treated in the manner described below. Preparation A was made in the usual way, treating alternately with dilute acetic acid and ammonia, avoiding an excess of each reagent. This preparation contained 0.857 per ct. of phosphorus. Preparation B was made according to the method given in a previous paper,’ the distinctive feature of which is treatment of a solution of casein in dilute alkali with ammonium oxalate and excess of alkali. This preparation contained 0.711 per ct. of phos- phorus. (1) Treatment with excess of ammonia. THach of preparations A and B (20 grams) was dissolved in dilute NH,OH and an excess of the same reagent was added; after standing twelve hours at 37° C., the solution was centrifugalized and filtered, the casein in the filtrate being then precipitated with dilute acetic acid. This precipitated casein was washed, redissolved, reprecipitated and finally washed with water, alcohol and ether. In the case of preparation A, the yield was 14 grams, contain- ing 0.841 per ct. of phosphorus; in the case of preparation B, the yield was 15 grams and the phosphorus content 0.713 per ct. The decreased yield in each case was due in part to hydrolysis of casein and in part to mechanical losses. It is evident that partial hydrolysis of casein preparations has no effect on the per- centage of phosphorus in the unhydrolyzed casein that is recovered. (2) Treatment with ammonium oxalate and excess of ammonia. Each of preparations A and B (20 grams) was dissolved in dilute NH:.OH and then ammonium oxalate and an excess of NH,OH added, the mixture being allowed to stand twelve hours at 37° C. The casein was separated as before. In the case of preparation A, the yield was 14 grams, contain- ing 0.723 per ct. of phosphorus; in the case of preparation B, the yield was 14.5 grams, containing 0.71 per ct. of phosphorus. In these two experiments, hydrolysis of casein by alkali has no effect upon the percentage of phosphorus in the casein finally re- covered. In the case of preparation A, the phosphorus content is reduced from 0.857 to 0.723 per ct., as a result of the removal of calcium phosphate from the casein preparation. In the case of preparation B, the phosphorus content remains the same as in the original preparation, because the casein used had already been subjected to treatment with ammonium oxalate and excess of 7 Loe. cit. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 303 NH,OH, the calcium phosphate having been removed as completely as practicable. (3) Treatment as in (2) but prolonged. Preparation B (20 grams) was treated as in the preceding experiment, except that the mixture was allowed to stand seventy-two hours (instead of twelve) at 37° C. The amount of casein recovered was 12.4 grams containing 0.721 per ct. of phosphorus. The prolonged treatment, giving opportunity for increased hydrolysis of casein, did not change the percentage of phosphorus in the casein recovered. III. THE ACTION OF RENNIN ON CASEIN. (Second paper.) ALFRED W. BOSWORTH. INTRODUCTION. In order to determine if the change from casein to paracasein results in the cleavage of any of the elements contained in the casein molecule it is imperative that pure casein” be used as a standard of comparison, and that the rennin activity be positively differ- entiated from any further proteolytic activity of the enzyme under consideration, for it is quite evident that ‘‘ Rennin action is prob- ably a hydrolytic cleavage and may be considered the first step in the proteolysis of casein. It would follow from this that the action now attributed to rennin may be produced by any proteolytic enzyme.”’ § EXPERIMENTAL. Pure casein and paracasein were prepared according to the methods previously published.® Pure paracasein was also prepared by allowing trypsin to act upon fat-free milk after the addition of calcium chloride, and the curd produced was purified according to the method referred to. The use of an excess of ammonia as pre- scribed has been criticised by Harden and Macallum” who claim that preparations made in that way may have a low phosphorus content due to the cleavage of phosphorus from the casein mole- cule by the action of the ammonia. In the preceding paper it has been shown that this criticism does not hold. The analyses of the preparations are given in the table. 8 Bosworth. N. Y. Agrl. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bull. No. 31; also Journ. Biol. Chem. 15: 236. 9Van Slyke and Bosworth. N. Y. Agrl. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bull. No. 26; also Journ. Biol. Chem. 14: 203. 10 Harden and Macallum. Biochem. Journ. 8:90. 304 Report OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY. Paracasein | Paracasein Casein. by rennin. | by trypsin. AVEGISUUIEO® JP.) the ws Se cree es ae 1.09 1.63 127 Carbon in dry substance................ 53.50 53.50 53.47 Hydrogen in dry substance.............. 7.13 7.26 7.19 Oxygen in dry substance................ +22.08 *21.94 *22 .04 Nitrogen in dry substance............... 15.80 15.80 15.78 Phosphorus in dry sybstance............ 0.71 0.71 0.71 Sulphur in dry substance................ 0.72 0.72 0.72 Ash intdry, substances. -t-.0-. acreage 0.06 0.07 0.09 * By difference. These figures show that the composition of paracasein is the same irrespective of the enzyme used to produce it. The figures also show that casein and paracasein have the same percentage com- position, which excludes the possibility that cleavage of any of the elements of casein is a-result of its transformation into paracasein by enzymes. Harden and Macallum, in their paper, conclude that ‘‘ The con- version of caseinogen into casein by enzyme action is accompanied by the cleavage of nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium."” It seems more probable to us that this cleavage follows rather than accom- panies the conversion in question, and is to be attributed to a con- tinuation of proteolytic activity by the enzyme beyond the point where casein has been changed to paracasein. This point was emphasized in my first paper on the action of rennin on casein.” 11 The English caseinogen is equivalent to the American casein. The English casein is equivalent to the American paracasein. Harden and Macallum give the nitrogen-phosphorus ratio of casein as N: P = 100: 5.6. The high phosphorus content of their casein preparations [0.87 to 0.90 per ct.] would seem to indicate the presence of considerable inorganic phosphorus. If our figures are correct for the nitrogen and phosphorus content of casein [15.80 per ct. N, 0.71 per ct. P] the ratio would be N: P = 100: 4.50. In only one of their experiments conducted to show the loss of phosphorus from the casein molecule was the N-P ratio reduced to 4.50. : 12 Bosworth. N. Y. Agrl. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bull. No. 31; also Journ. Biol. Chem. 15: 231. CONDITION OF CASEIN AND SALTS IN MILK? LUCIUS L. VAN SLYKE ann ALFRED W. BOSWORTH. SUMMARY. 1. Milk contains two general classes of compounds, those in true solution and those in suspension, or insoluble. These two portions can be separated for study by filtering the milk through a porous earthenware filter like the Pasteur-Chamberland filtering tube. 2. Serum prepared from fresh milk is yellow with a faint green- ish tinge and slight opalescence. The following constituents of milk are wholly in solution in the milk-serum: Sugar, citric acid, potassium, sodium and chlorine. The following are partly in solu- tion and partly in suspension: Albumin, inorganic phosphates, calcium, magnesium. Albumin in fresh milk appears to be adsorbed to a considerable extent by casein and therefore only a part of it appears in the serum. In serum from sour milk and milk to which formaldehyde has been added, nearly all of the albumin appears in the serum. 3. The insoluble portion of milk separated by filtration through the Pasteur-Chamberland filtering tube is grayish to greenish white in color, of a glistening, slime-like appearance and gelatinous consistency. When shaken with water it goes readily into suspen- sion, forming a mixture having the opaque, white appearance of milk. Such a suspension is neutral to phenolphthalein. When purified, the insoluble portion consists of neutral calcium caseinate (casein Ca,) and neutral di-calcium phosphate (CaHPO,). The casein and di-calcium phosphate are not in combination, as shown by a study of 16 samples of milk from 13 individual cows, and also by a study of the deposit or ‘‘ separator slime ’’ formed by whirling milk in a cream separator. By treating fresh milk with formalde- hyde and whirling in a centrifugal machine under specified con- ditions, it is possible to effect a nearly complete separation of phos- phates from casein. 4. Both fresh milk and the serum from fresh milk show a slight acid reaction to phenolphthalein but are strongly alkaline to methyl orange, indicating that acidity is due, in part at least, to acid phos- phates. In 8 samples of fresh milk, the acidity of the milk and of the milk-serum was determined after treatment with neutral potassium oxalate. The results show that that acidity of the whole milk is the same as that of the serum and that, therefore, the con- * Reprint of Technical Bulletin No. 39, December. 20 [305] 306 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE stituents of the serum are responsible for the acidity of milk. There is every reason to believe that the phosphates of the serum cause the observed acidity. 5. The data presented, with results of other work, furnish a basis for suggesting an arrangement of the individual compounds contained in milk, especially including the salts. INTRODUCTION. The chemistry of milk has been studied by many investigators. Numerous facts have been accumulated relating to the amounts and properties of the more prominent constituents of milk, including various conditions affecting the composition; but much less atten- tion has been given to thorough study of individual constituents, owing largely to the difficulties involved in making such investigations. From the beginning of its existence, this Station has given much attention to study of different phases of the composition of milk. In connection with the study of the relation of the constituents of milk to cheese-making, to fermented beverages made from milk, and to the uses of milk in human nutrition, numerous chemical questions have constantly arisen and continue to come up, to which satisfactory answers can not be given, owing to our lack of knowledge of the chemistry of some of the milk constituents. Until our knowledge in this field becomes more complete, we cannot under- stand fully, for example, the fundamental chemical facts involved in the process of cheese-making and cheese-ripening, the chemical changes taking place in its constituents when milk sours or when it is made into fermented beverages such as kumyss, imitation butter- milks, matzoon, zoolak, bulgarzoon, etc. We have in hand investigations relating to several of the fundamental questions referred to. In the present bulletin, we shall present the results of our work bearing on the following points: (1) Properties and composition of milk serum or constituents in solution. (2) Properties and composition of portion of constituents not in solution. (3) Acidity of milk and milk-serum. (4) The salts of milk. METHOD OF PREPARING MILK-SERUM. Before taking up the detailed results relating to these lines of investigation, we will give a description of the method used in pre- paring milk-serum from milk. That portion of the milk consisting of water and the compounds in solution is known as the milk-serum. In studying the individual constituents of milk, it is necessary to separate the serum. Various methods have been used to separate milk-serum from the other con- New York AcricutTuraAL Experiment Station. 307 © stituents of milk, but the one best adapted for investigational purposes depends upon the fact that when milk is brought into con- tact with a porous earthenware filter, the water passes through, carrying with it the compounds in true solution, while the compounds insoluble in water or in suspension remain on the surface of the filter. In one form or another, this fact has been utilized in studying milk by Lehman, Duclaux, Eugling, Sdldner and others. The form of earthenware filter used by us is much superior to any employed by these investigators. We have made use of the special form of apparatus designed by Briggs! for the purpose of obtaining water- extracts from soils. Briefly stated, the process consists in putting the milk to be examined into a tubular chamber surrounding a Pasteur-Chamberland filtering tube; pressure, amounting to 40 to 45 pounds per square inch, is applied by means of a pump which forces air into the chamber containing the milk and causes the soluble portion of the milk to pass through the walls of the filter from the outside to the inside of the filtering tube, from which it runs out and is caught in a flask standing underneath. The insoluble residue accumulates on the outside surface of the filter tube from which it can easily be removed by light scraping. It has been found by Rupp? that the filter appears to have the power of absorbing some of the soluble constituents of the serum until a volume of 50 to 75 ¢.c. has passed through, after which the filtered serum is constant in composition. In our work, therefore, the first portion of serum filtered is not used. Before being placed in the apparatus for filtration, the milk is treated with some antiseptic to prevent souring during the process of filtration. The composition of the solid portion of milk removed by the filter- ing tube is ascertained by difference; from the figures obtained by an analysis of the original milk we subtract the results of analysis given by the serum. PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF MILK-SERUM. Serum prepared from fresh milk by the method described above has a characteristic appearance, being of a yellow color with a faint greenish tinge and slight opalescence. The serum from fresh milk gives a slight acid reaction to phenol- phthalein and a strongly alkaline reaction to methyl orange. We will later give the results of a special study made of the cause of acidity in milk-serum. In the table below we give the results of the examination of two samples of fresh milk, the serum of which was prepared in the manner already described. These samples of milk were treated with chloro- 1U. S. Dept. Agr. Soils. Bul. 19, p. 31, and Bul. 31, pp. 12-16. 2U.S. Dept. Agr. An. Ind. Bul. 166, p. 9. 308 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE form at the rate of 50 c.c. per 1000 c.c. of milk and the fat removed by means of a centrifugal machine; the removal of fat is necessary since it clogs the pores of the filter. The fat-free milk was then filtered through Pasteur-Chamberland filtering tubes. Analyses were made of the milk and of the serum. We did not determine those constituents present in milk only in traces, such as iron, sulphuric acid, etc. TaBLe I.— ConstTITuENTS OF MiILK-SERUM. SAMPLE No. 1. SAMPLE No. 2. ConstTITUENTS. ain | Deg Original | Milk- | rimming | Original | Milk- | Cen Si? milk serum | rei milk serum | ° mes 100 e.c. | 100 e.c. ite ante 100 c.c. | 100 c.c. tenants in serum. in serum. Grams. | Grams. | Per ct. | Grams. | Grams. | Per ct. SUGAR ae conse Seine fates cnekay/ooks| v5 OREO ete eal ee Do NBD 100.00 @aseint Meenas atte Shee 3.35 0.00 0.00 3.07 0.00 0.00 JAN UMM perches aut be ys - 0.525 | 0.369 | 70.29 0.506 |; 0.188 37.15 Nitrogen in other com- MOUNAS Here Tete ysis = aac ste Remo Peeausrs Sel meek ete eae 0.049 | 0.049 | 100.00 Citrickacid sHaRe ld tte alic oh cee sacl bite jo ogee odo 0.237 | 0.237 100.00 Phosphorus (organic and INOLZANIC) ee ee EOE ORE 5 Fe LOS0GC TA gbSt G08) Vaeacee lectin | eeeeee Phosphorus (inorganic)...| 0.096 | 0.067 | 70.00 | 0.087 | 0.056 64.40 Calcrumierer 24s ee 0.128 | 0.045} 35.16 | 0.144] 0.048 33.33 Mapmesiuin rere cree 0.012 | 0.009 | 75.00 |} 0.013 ee 53 .85 IPOtASSIUEN. yin peek é * 0.120} 0.12 100.60 Wihinmga. pe ei 0.354 | "0.352 | 99.44 4 055 | 0.057 | 100.00 @hlorinee pease ee seeds 0.081 | 0.082 | 100.00 | 0.076 | 0.081 100.00 ANA Teh oka ES Re me reenact oar Seca | ame a bee | (Neate bon 0.725 | 0.400 55.17 * As chlorides A study of the data contained in Table I enables us to show the general relation of the constituents of milk to the constituents of milk-serum. The following form of statement furnishes a clear summary of the facts. 1. Milk constituents in 2. Milk constituents partly 3. Milk constituents entirely true solution in milk in solution and partly in in suspension or colloidal serum: suspension or colloidal solution: solution: (a) Sugar. (a) Albumin. (a) Fat. (b) Citric acid (b) Inorganic phos- _(b) Casein. (c) Potassium. phates. (d) Sodium. (c) Calcium. (e) Chlorine. (d) Magnesium. New York AcricutturaL Experiment Station. 309 The behavior of milk albumin attracts special attention on account of marked lack of regularity in the results obtained. We commonly think of milk albumin as readily and completely soluble in water, and the question is therefore raised as to why a considerable portion of it does not pass through the Pasteur-Chamberland filter. In view of all the facts available, the most probable explanation that has so far suggested itself is that in fresh milk a part of the albumin is held by the adsorbing power of casein. This suggestion is supported by results obtained in the following experiments: Serum was prepared from chloroformed fresh milk treated in different ways. In the first experiment, serum direct from the fresh milk was com- pared with serum obtained from whey which had been obtained from another portion of the same milk by treatment with rennet-extract. In the second experiment, serum direct from fresh milk was compared with (a) serum cbtained from another portion of the same milk after souring, and (b) serum obtained from another portion of the same milk to which some formaldehyde solution had been added. Albumin was determined in each case by boiling after addition of acetic acid, following the details given in the provisional method of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. The results of the experiments are given below. Albumin of Albumin milk recovered per 100 c.c. in serum. First EXPERIMENT. Grams. Per ct. resin te 2 Ol Dacor) ie, Oc SL2y Myos TOR ALOT Am Serum from fresh milk......... 0.143 45.83 Serum from whey............. 0.187 59.94 SEcOND EXPERIMENT. reciente ee avete, ZA er ae, a Ace Serum from fresh milk......... 0.148 55.64 Serum from sour milk......... 0.253 95.11 Serum from milk plus formalde- LT | eR aN RE RNP ae Ta ite 0.245 92.21 In the first experiment it is seen that when casein is precipitated by rennet solution the curd (the precipitated casein or para- casein) carries down part of the albumin with it; the amount thus carried down is approximately equal in this case to that retained along with the casein on the external surface of the Pasteur-Chamberland filtering tube, when whole milk is filtered through such a filter. In the second experiment we see that when the casein is precipitated with acid, as in the case of natural souring, the adsorbing action of 310 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE the casein is practically prevented and little or no albumin is carried down with it. In the case of the addition of formaldehyde to milk, the adsorbing power of casein is greatly diminished, probably due to the chemica! reaction between casein and formaldehyde. PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF PORTION OF MILK IN SUSPENSION OR COLLOIDAL SOLUTION. Some of the constituents of milk are suspended in the form of solid particles in such an extremely fine state of division that they pass through the pores of filter paper and they do not settle as a ~ sediment on standing, but remain permanently afloat. They can not be seen except by ultra-microscopic methods. When substances are in such a condition, they are said to form a colloidal solution. In passing milk through the Pasteur-Chamberland filtering tube, the constituents in suspension as solid particles, and in colloidal solution, are retained in a solid mass on the outside of the tube and can therefore be readily obtained for study. (1) Appearance.— When prepared by the method of filtration previously described, the insoluble portion of milk collecting on the outside of the filtering tube is grayish to greenish white in color, of a glistening, slime-like appearance and gelatinous consistency. When dried without purification by treatment with alcohol, ete., it resembles in appearance dried white of egg. (2) Behavior with water.—The deposit of insoluble milk-constituents on the outside of the filtering tube, when removed and shaken vigor- ously in a flask with distilled water, goes into suspension and the mixture has the opaque, white appearance of the original milk. The deposit is, of course, more or less mixed with adhering soluble con- stituents but can be readily purified by shaking with distilled water and filtering several times. The purified material goes readily into suspension on shaking with water and, if treated with a preservative, will remain indefinitely without change other than the separation of fat-globules. It has been held by some that the citrates of milk perform the function of holding the insoluble phosphates in suspen- sion, but this is not supported by the behavior of the insoluble portion shown in our experiments. (3) Reaction A suspension of the insoluble constituents of milk, prepared in the manner described above, is neutral to phenol- phthalein. We purified the deposit made from 1000 c.c. of milk, made a suspension of it in water, and, after the addition of 10 c.c. of neutral solution of potassium oxalate, it was found to require only 0.5 c.c. of ;, solution of sodium hydroxide to make it neutral to phenol- phthalein. We interpret this to mean that there are no tri-basic (alkaline) phosphates in milk or in the serum, because the serum, New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 311 since it is acid, can contain none, and the insoluble portion, being neutral, can therefore contain none. (4) Relation of inorganic constituents to casein in milk.— Without going into a detailed discussion of the history of the different views held by different investigators, it is sufficient for our purpose to state that three general views have been put forward in regard to the rela- tion of inorganic constituents to casein in milk: (1) That milk- casein is combined with calcium (about 1.07 per ct.) to form a salt, calcium caseinate (which is neutral to litmus and acid to phenol- phthalein) ; (2) that casein is chemically combined directly with cal- clum phosphate; (3) that casein is a double compound consisting of calcium caseinate combined with calcium phosphate. We have attempted to learn what is the true condition of casein in milk in relation to inorganic constituents, whether it is in com- bination with calcium alone or with some other inorganic base in addition and also whether milk-casein is an acid salt or a neutral salt and, further, whether the insoluble phosphates are in combina- tion with casein or not. In studying this problem, we will first give results of work done with 16 samples of fresh milk from 13 individual cows. Determina- tions were made of (a) casein, (b) total phosphorus, (c) soluble phosphorus, (d) insoluble phosphorus (b minus c¢), (e) insoluble organic phosphorus (0.71 per ct. of the casein), (f) insoluble inorganic phosphorus (d minus e), (g) total calcium, (h) soluble calcium, Tas.e II.— Amounts oF Proweins, CASEIN, AND PHOSPHORUS IN MILK. PHOSPHORUS. Ratio of organic | to in- Cow Stage of | Total | Casein. INSOLUBLE. soluble No. lactation | proteins. | in- Total. | Soluble. In- organic Organic | organic | phos- Total. (in (phos- | phorus. : casein). | phates) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) Per ct. Perct. || Per ct. | Per ct. | Per.ct. || Per ct. | Per ct. ae Ae et 3 days 4.35 3.48 | 0.1272 | 0.0818 | 0.0454 | 0.0247 | 0.0207 | 1: 0.838 2s 1 mo.. 3.01 2.73 | 0.1150 | 0.0595 | 0.0555 | 0.0194 | 0.0361 | 1: 1.86 Coen we ay 3.53 2.78 | 0.1010 | 0.0494 | 0.0516 | 0.0197 | 0.0319 | 1: 1.62 S168 aA a 4.91 4.09 | 0.1111 | 0.0536 | 0.0575 | 0.0290 | 0.0285 | 1: 0.98 4s eifust 3.93 3.09 | 0.1278 | 0.0563 | 0.0715 | 0.0219 | 0.0496 | 1: 2.26 Dis BINS) me 3.45 2.88 | 0.0943 | 0.0475 | 0.0468 | 0.0204 | 0.0264 | 1: 1.29 7 es dilierge et 3.45 2.70 | 0.0870 | 0.0334 | 0.0536 | 0.0192 | 0.0344 | 1: 1.79 Gaye aee S 4.05 2.92 | 0.1008 | 0.0356 | 0.0652 | 0.0207 | 0.0445 | 1: 2.15 Mies =) a Ae 4.07 3.40 | 0.1063 | 0.0548 | 0.0515 | 0.0241 | 0.0274 | 1: 1.14 TES Qi)“ 4.80 3.56 | 0.1010 | 0.0340 | 0.0670 | 0.0253 | 0.0417 | 1: 1.65 8.. || ee as 4.39 3.58 | 0.1157 | 0.0550 | 0.0607 | 0.0254 | 0.0353 | 1: 1.39 Ore ales: 4.33 3.47 | 0.1036 | 0.0364 | 0.0672 | 0.0246 | 0.0426 te Lev, 1Oe, ALON 3.65 3.10 | 0.1097 | 0.0610 | 0.0487 | 0.0220 | 0.0267 io22 L133 LOL 4.17 3.36 | 0.1090 |-0.0434 | 0.0656 | 0.0239 | 0.0417 | 1: 1.74 Toe 1h | gig 4.35 3.14 | 0.1060 | 0.0286 | 0.0774 | 0.0223 | 0.0551 | 1: 2.47 Ve Dh 5:71 4.97 | 0.1310 | 0.0442 {| 0.0868 | 0.0353 | 0.0515 | 1: 1.46 312 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE (i) insoluble calcium (g minus h), (j) total magnesium, (k) soluble magnesium, (1) insoluble magnesium (j minus k). The determina- tions of total phosphorus, total calcium and total magnesium were made with the normal or whole milk, while those of soluble phos- phorus, soluble calcium and soluble magnesium were made with the serum obtained by filtering through Pasteur-Chamberland filtering tubes in the manner already described. The amount of organic phosphorus was found* by multiplying the percentage of casein by 0.0071. For convenience of reference, the analytical data are arranged in two tables, II and III. The data in Table II afford a basis for ascertaining the quantita- tive relation between casein and the phosphates. If casein is chemically combined with phosphates in milk, there should be a fairly definite and uniform relation between these constituents in the insoluble portion of milk, or, stated in another way, the organic phosphorus of casein should show a somewhat uniform ratio to the insoluble inorganic or phosphate phosphorus. In column 10 of Table II are given the results of calculations based on our data, which show the amount of insoluble inorganic phosphorus for one part of organic (casein) phosphorus. It is seen that the ratio varies between the wide limits of 1:0.82 and 1:2.47. Even in the case of milk from the same animal at different stages of lactation, the pro- portional amount of inorganic phosphorus varies widely, as from 0.98 to 1.62 with cow No. 3, from 1.29 to 1.79 with cow No. 5, and from 1.14 to 1.65 with cow No. 7. The only conclusion furnished by these results is that there is no evidence of chemical combi- nation between the casein and the phosphates of milk. Additional evidence in confirmation of the foregoing statement will be furnished later in connection with the discussion of another phase of the subject. Another interesting point connected with insoluble phosphates and casein in milk is as to the exact compound of calcium phosphate and of calcium caseinate existing in the milk. Sdéldner’s inferential statement that milk-casein is neutral calcium caseinate (containing about 1.07 per ct. of calcium), has been generally accepted, not so much because of positive proof but because of absence of any proof to the contrary. Regarding the form of the compound in which phosphates exist in milk, all three forms (mono-, di-, and tri-basic phosphates) have been thought to be present. The insoluble phos- phates have been regarded as a mixture of di- and tri-calecium phos- hates. Bearing on this question, we present data embodied in the follow- ing tables, III and IV. * Bosworth and Van Slyke. N. Y. Agrl. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bul. 37. and Jour. Biol. Chem., 19:67. New York AGRICULTUKAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 9 vo 13 Taste IIJ.— Amounts oF CALciIuM AND MAGNESIUM IN INSOLUBLE PORTION OF MILK. CaALcIuM. MaGNneEsIvuM. Gas re No. pe lactation. Total. | Soluble. | Insoluble.| Total. Soluble. | Insoluble. (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) Per ct. | Per ct Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 1 eA A eet 3 days..| 0.1607 | 0.0734 0.0873 0.0156 0.0142 0.0013 Div AP 1 mo...| 0.1381 | 0.0511 0.0870 0.0136 0.0117 0.0019 She eee HO slsG2 |) OnOaa4: 0.0818 0.0180 0.0142 0.0038 Ook iui lS oA OEE) |) Oa! 0.1025 0.0170 0.0156 0.0014 An ee By oles 53 |) OL 8% 8} 0.1140 0.0184 0.0128 0.0056 Bea See OM BOOMmMOrOsor 0.0865 0.0156 0.0124 0.0032 ee ede Tees OF 12568 |PORO454: 0.0802 0.0147 0.0134 0.0013 OSaayenel) yee |i) illest |) Oars 0.1040 0.0160 0.0127 0.0033 Tae 6 “ ...| 0.1464 | 0.0526 0.0938 0.0144 0.0121 0.0023 Cra senate 10M 40) 15237 18070450 0.1073 0.0177 0.0127 0.0050 SU eee 7 “ ...1 0.1506 | 0.0439 0.1062 0.0153 0.0118 0.0035 Orman. : 8 “ ...1 0.1503 | 0.0440 0.1063 0.0171 0.0126 0.0045 LO as eaters: 9 “ ...| 0.1410 | 0.05438 0.0867 0.0168 0.0141 0.0027 TAR er act.“ Oe SPA OTRO POs say/ 0.1022 0.0168 0.0119 0.0049 ISAs = anes ie JI “ ...) 0.1659 | 0.0414 0.1245 0.0191 0.0123 0.0068 13. oan 12 al On2tGn |) Of0669 0.1498 0.0236 0.0163 0.0073 The data in Table IV are derived by calculation from the figures given in Tables II and III for the purpose of reducing them to a uniform basis that permits us to make comparison more easily. Casein as gram equiva- Cow No. CO CONINT DR OV OTH Co GO DO eee whe lents of octavalent acid Insoluble inorganic phos- phates as gram equiva- lents of di-basic id. ONOONWORUINWDOR OEE Sum of gram Insoluble equiva- Insoluble mag- lents calcium | nesium as of as gram gram casein and | equiva- equiva- phos- lents. lents. phates. (4) (5) (6) 44.4x107'|43.6x10- | 1.1x10~* 47.6 SPV A SH5 fg 1.6 a 45.5 «140.9 Ke 3.1 & 54.9 & | jobs? & 1.2 a 59.8 Se laa ¢ 4.6 ad 42.7 432, 7 200 ¢ 46.5 Oa S 1.0 £ 55.0 CO 207 4 AS Oi 2m AGG. TO. PON BSr OT wie Valo. cub t os Ae DA ge nea an ts 2a9! pes BStGnis 5302, 1O8 Sate 44.9 aaa: € POTD 57.2 CS Teal 3 4.1 & 63.8 Ca O2n0 g Zh © 77.6 NEL) é 6.1 ty Sum of the insoluble calcium and mag- nesium as gram equivalents. (7) SONMOWODIMOCRRORA Taste ITV.— Amounts or AciIDS AND BasES EXPRESSED AS GRAM EQUIVALENTS. Excess of insoluble base (+) or acid (—) as gram equivalents. PNONAWNOWWRN WEEE 314 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE In our previous work we have shown that 1 gram of uncombined casein combines with 9x 10+ gram equivalents of calcium to form a salt that is neutral to phenolphthalein.t| In column 2 of Table IV we make use of this fact in calculating the acid equivalents of the casein as found in each sample. In column 3 of the same table, we calculate the acid equivalents of the insoluble inorganic phos- phorus in each sample of milk (regarding phosphoric acid as a di- valent acid and CaHPO, neutral to phenolphthalein). In column 4 are shown the sums obtained by adding the figures in columns 2 and 3 in case of each sample of milk. In columns 5 and 6 are given the combining equivalents of calcium and magnesium and in column 7 their sum for each sample of milk. If now we compare, in case of each milk, the figures contained in column 4 with those contained in column 7, we notice that they are in close agreement, the differences being shown in column 8. This agreement means that the quanti- tative relation between the bases (calcium and magnesium) and the acids (casein and phosphoric acid) is that required, theoreti- cally, to give di-calcium phosphate with a trace of di-magnesium phosphate and calcium caseinate neutral to phenolphthalein, in which casein is combined with 8 equivalents of calcium (casein Ca,). However, the same analytical figures can with equal correct- ness be interpreted to prove that the compounds are present as acid caseinate and tri-calcium phosphate. ; In order to decide which of these sets of compounds is present in milk, we have tried to make a separation of the casein and insoluble phosphates. The above results, it will be remembered, are obtained by difference, the milk and serum being analyzed and the composition of the insoluble portion being determined by subtracting the latter results from the former. It seemed desirable to separate milk in large amounts so as to obtain the insoluble portion in quantity sufficient to purify and analyze. This was done in the following manner, several experiments being made. In the first experiment, 400 pounds of milk was run through a centrifugal cream separator 18 times and the deposit (‘‘ separator slime’’) collecting on the walls of the bowl was removed after the Ist, the 6th, the 12th and the 18th run. Each of these deposits was placed in a mortar and triturated with small amounts of 95 per ct. alcohol with the gradual addition of more alcohol. A point is reached when the whole mass becomes jelly-like, after which the addition of more alcohol causes the formation of a fine flocculent precipitate. (Care must be taken not to add the alcohol too rapidly, because then there is apt to be formed a tough, leathery mass, which can not be handled.) The precipitate is allowed to settle and, after decanting the super- natant liquid, is triturated with several successive portions of 95 per ct. alcohol, 99 per ct. alcohol, and finally ether. It is then dried *N. Y. Agrl. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bul. No. 26, p. 12. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 315 at 60° C. for a few hours, after which the drying is completed in a vacuum over sulphuric acid. The analytical results are given in the table following: TaBLE V.— Composition oF INSOLUBLE PorTIoN (‘‘ SEPARATOR SLIME ’’) oF MILK. Ratio of Sample Total Phos- . Phos- f organic of deposit Casein. Ash. hos- phorus in | phorus as | Calcium. | to insoluble taken. phorus. casein. phosphate. inorganic phosphorus. Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. |Org.P.: In.P. After Ist run...| 86.31 10.43 2.182 0.621 1.561 3.386 Pte Zero After 6th run...| 90.07 9.35 1.950 0.649 1.301 3.246 1: 2300 After 12th run..| 90.84 9.53 2.011 0.645 1.366 3.343 ace slit After 18th run..| 91.98 9.62 2.023 0.662 1.361 3.223 1 = 2.06 The figures in Table V, obtained by direct analysis of the insoluble deposit or ‘‘ separator slime,” show a striking agreement with the results obtained by the indirect method, which is brought out more clearly by expressing the above figures in the form of gram equiva- lents, as follows: TasBLeE VI.— Amounts oF Acips AND Bases EXPRESSED AS GRAM EQUIVALENTS. Phosphates as | Sum of gram Casein as gram gram equivalents of | Gram equiva- Sample of deposit taken. equivalents of equivalents casein and lents of acid. of di-basic phosphates. calcium. acid. =$ “3 =3 3 Af Perm (eG artiy.:ois.lccketiy se: osars, « Uhh XO 100.7 x10 178.4x10 169.3 x10 Atter=6th*ran’. S20 oorer ss SLAs s 62°99" = 164.0 “ 16253) PAN Gterlothis rio cps; ato) vay d+ a1 oes 80.8 “ SSidory 4 168-9) 72 1672s Attery Sthy YUN.) 2. te, eek ote os 82.8 “ 87.8 4! 170.6 e 161.2 ce The high percentage of inorganic phosphorus in the deposit from the first run indicates that the phosphates are heavier than the caseinates and could be separated from them if a certain speed were used in running the separator. This point is further shown by the following experiments: In the first experiment, the bowl of a cream separator was filled with fat-free milk (about 1,000 c.c.) and was whirled for two hours, at a speed of 5,000 revolutions per minute, when the milk was taken out and the “separator slime” which had col- lected on the bowl was removed and treated with alcohol and ether in the manner already described. The same milk was returned to the separator bowl and again whirled for two hours, when the deposit was again removed and treated as before. When removed the second time, that is, after four hours of whirling, the milk was nearly as clear as whey, most of the suspended phosphates and casein having 316 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE been deposited on the walls of the bowl during the whirling. The results of analysis of the “separator slime” deposited after each two hours of whirling are given in the table following: TaBLE VII.— Composition oF INSOLUBLE PorTION oF MiLK DeposiTEeD AT DIFFERENT INTERVALS. “‘ Slime ”’ Ratio of formed by Total Phos- Phos- organic whirling Casein. Ash. phos- phorus in | phorus as | Calcium. | to insoluble two 2-hour phorus. casein. | phosphate. inorganic periods. phosphorus. Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. |Org. P.:In.P. 1st 2 hours..... 90.68 9.32 1.909 0.653 1.256 3.090 1: 1.92 2nd 2 hours....| 91.12 8.88 1.437 0.656 0.781 2.691 Lh SLE 19) These results show that two-thirds of the insoluble inorganic phosphorus was removed during the first two hours of whirling, again indicating that the phosphates are heavier than the casein. The ratio of casein to phosphates is here also shown to be wholly irregular, indicating no definite combination. Expressing the data in Table VII in the form of gram equivalents, we have the figures contained in the following table: TasLe VIII.— Amounts or Acips AND Bases ExpresseD AS Gram EQuivaLENTs. Phosphates as | Sum of gram Casein as gram gram equivalents of Gram 2nd deposit... Sain ebberer Gare 82.0x 10 50.4x 10° 132.4 x10 134.6 x10 equivalents equivalents casein and equivalents of acid. of di-basic phosphates. of calcium. acid. wes, OFS Ve aie comic cee 1 Ph Rees _3 1st deposit. . ae osai Ai ote ates Some 81.6x10_, 81.1x 107, 162. rg 154. 5x107s An examination of these figures shows that there is the same balance between the acids (casein and phosphoric acid) and the bases (cal- cium and magnesium) in the two separate deposits, even when the inorganic phosphorus is as unevenly distributed between them, which furnishes proof for two points: (1st) The inorganic phosphorus must be in the form of neutral calcium phosphate (CaHPO,), for otherwise the balance between bases and acids would be altered, acid calcium phosphate (CaH,P.Os) giving an excess of acid and tri-calcium phosphate (Ca;P.Os) an excess of base in the “ slime ”’ deposited in the first whirling. (2nd) If the phosphates were in combination with the casein, we should expect to find the ratio between the organic phosphorus and the inorganic phosphorus the same in both deposits, but, instead of uniformity, we find the ratio showing so wide a variation as 1:1.92 and 1:1.19 in the two cases. New York AGriIcuLTURAL ExpERIMENT Station. 317 In the second experiment, further evidence is furnished, showing that neutral calcium phosphate (CaHPO,) is a normal constituent of milk. Four 500-c.c. bottles were filled with separator skim-milk to which some formaldehyde had been added, and, after standing at room temperature for 4 days, were whirled in a Bausch and Lomb precision centrifugal machine for 30 minutes at a speed of 1,200 revolutions per minute. A sediment was deposited, which after purification by treatment with alcohol and ether, as previously described, weighed 0.4 gram. Analysis of this gave the following results: Casein, 20.78 per ct.; total phosphorus, 18.38 per ct.; phos- phorus combined with casein, 0.15 per ct.; phosphorus combined as phosphates, 18.23 per ct.; calcium, 22.79 per ct.; ratio of organic phosphorus to inorganic phosphorus, 1:121; casein as gram equiva- lents of acid, 18.7 x 10°; phosphates as gram equivalents of di-basic acid, 1175. x 10°; sum of casein and phosphates as gram equiva- lents of acid, 1194.x 10°; gram equivalents of calcium, 1140. x 10°, In these figures, we again find the same balance between bases and acids, which can mean only that the phosphate compound deposited is di-calcium phosphate (CaHPO,). The degree of centri- fugal force developed was sufficient to throw out a relatively large amount of di-calcium phosphate but not powerful enough to throw out very much casein, thus serving as a means of effecting a nearly complete separation of these two constituents. Babcock ®> whirled skim-milk in a separator for several hours, removing portions from time to time for analysis and finally deter- mining the amounts of casein, calcium and phosphorus in the deposited ‘‘ slime.’ While the experiments were preliminary in character and the results not sufficient to base permanent conclusions on, they tended to show that the casein and phosphates were not in combination. From the analytical results showing the relation of cal- cium to phosphorus, the conclusion was drawn that tri-calcium phos- phate is the compound present in milk. The figures for calcium and phosphorus were based upon the total amounts contained in the deposit and no allowance was made for the calcium in combination with casein and the phosphorus of the casein. This fact accounts for the difference between the results presented by him and the conclusions reached by us. A recalculation of his data, after deducting the amounts of calcium and phosphorus combined with casein, gives figures that correspond to the composition of CaHPO, and not Ca;P2Os, thus confirming the results of our work. ACIDITY OF MILK AND MILK-SERUM. Both fresh milk and the serum from fresh milk show a slight acid reaction to phenolphthalein. This has been believed to be due ‘Wis. Agrl. Expt. Sta. 12th An. Rept., p. 93. 318 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE to casein or acid phosphates in the milk or to both. The fact that fresh milk and its serum are strongly alkaline to methyl orange indicates that the acidity is due to acid phosphates, though it does not necessarily show that acid caseinates are not also responsible for some of the acidity. The results of our work given in the preceding pages furnish aid in determining to what compounds in milk the acid reaction to phenolphthalein is due. A 1,000 c.c. sample of milk was obtained from each of eight cows immediately after milking and chloroform (50 c¢.c.) was added to this at once. The acidity of the milk and of the milk-serum was determined after treatment with neutral potassium oxalate accord- ing to the method of Van Slyke and Bosworth.° The results are given below. TasBLe I[X.— Acripity oF MiLtk anp MILK-SERuUM. NumBeEr oF C.C.or N, ALKALI REQUIRED TO NEUTRALIZE NuMBER OF SAMPLE. 100 C.C. or — Milk. Milk-serum. 1 psc De Rie Se salt ty ead Cail MLAS fel 2 Ail aig he ae arn, 4.8 5.0 Use mape Sate, Nien: Rea ane, AE Glee Me Naa el Sgn ctk aaa Sa A 6.2 6.2 Be RPE AGATE Fate tie be EPS BSD Nae TD, | Rn ires Rea eae 4.2 4.2 ANG MSE) SOU UEEE. PG SMe Eh ERE ON Kode ORG 6.0 5.8 DB iahtaic bts s BERN Cees | LL Oe. aa 6.4 6.4 Oe ee be ots soa keatas Oe es bice SERGE ee Es 4.4 4.4 7 eps, ecorreinap at amceomahits Mea muir tha Sylhet tem RAEI, 05. pee ORL ED he 7.0 6.8 SAM eGR NAS F PES ORAS ILE eee ee ee ee ae ae eae 6.6 6.4 | These figures show that the acidity of fresh milk is the same as that of its serum which means that the constituents of the milk causing acidity are soluble constituents contained in the serum. Since the serum contains phosphates in amounts sufficient to furnish two to four times as much acid phosphates as is required to account for the acidity, and since, moreover, no other acid constituents of the milk-serum are present in more than minute quantities and are wholly insufficient to cause the observed degree of acidity, it appears a reasonable conclusion that the acidity of fresh milk is due to soluble acid phosphates. This conclusion is further strength- ened by the results given in the preceding pages which go to show conclusively that the insoluble constituents of fresh milk are neutral in reaction, consisting largely or wholly of neutral calcium caseinate (casein Cay), neutral di-calctum phosphate (CaHPOs,) and fat. 6N. Y. Agrl. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bul. No. 37, p. 5. New York AGrRIcuLTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 319 COMPOUNDS OF MILK. It is difficult to learn what are the individual forms or compounds in which the salts exist in milk. Attempts have been made to deter- mine this by inferences based on analytical results. In view of the data presented in the preceding pages, taken together with many other analytical data worked out by us, we suggest the following statement as representing in some respects more closely than previous ones, facts corresponding to our present knowledge of the principal constituents of milk. The amounts are based on milk of average composition. Baden .OeReoer NE 8 a PROG Ss) a RUD TRS 3.90 per ct. Milkesiamantos to, Shige PRION OLR BRS: 4.90 * Proteins combined with calcium.............. Sa 20" Pe Di-calcium phosphate (CaHPO,) ............. ONLTSe Calcmmchloride:(CaCh)i® 2 8227, 2242.5 22% . Te Mono-magnesium phosphate (MgH,P2Os)...... OuLOSa44 Sodium citrate (NasCeH;O7)................. OD. 222 ee Potassium citrate (K3;C.H;07) Joe Ae anion Meri ONeMCE 02052.“ Di-potassium phosphate (K2gHPO,)............ 0.280 “ Totallsoladsyon, AAVLOOIPYO, A). SLOT 12.901 per ct. A CONTRIBUTION TO THE CHEMISTRY OF PHYTIN.* SUMMARY. R. J. ANDERSON. This bulletin contains the report of an investigation concerning the composition of the organic phosphoric acids of cottonseed meal, oats and corn in comparison with commercial phytin. - It is shown that from all of these substances identical barium salts are obtained which agree very closely in composition with the following types of salts, viz: Tribarium inosite hexaphosphate, C,H:,O.P,Ba;, obtained as minute bundles or globules of microscopic needles from dilute hydrochloric acid solutions by the addition of alcohol, and hepta- barium inosite hexaphosphate (C,H1:O2;P,)o.Ba7, or Ci2H2204sP1.Baz which separates from dilute hydrochloric acid solutions in the presence of barium chloride in globular masses of needle-shaped crystals. The free acid prepared from the crystalline barium salts agrees more closely in composition with inosite hexaphosphate, CsHisO2:P., than with the usual formula for phytic acid, CsH2sO27P.. Oats apparently contains two different organic phosphoric acids but only one, that corresponding to inosite hexaphosphate, has been isolated in pure form. The spontaneous decomposition products of phytic acid unaer ordinary conditions which are formed within a reasonable length of time appear to be phosphoric acid and substances which contain more carbon and less phosphorus than phytic acid, which sub- stances are probably penta-, tetra-, etc., phosphoric acid esters of inosite. When phytic acid is dried at a temperature of 105° under reduced pressure, it rapidly decomposes with liberation of inorganic phos- phoric acid and the formation of various decomposition products, consisting of inosite and substances varying in composition from inosite tetraphosphate to inosite monophosphate. When the crystalline barium salts are dried at 105° under reduced pressure they suffer but slight hydrolysis. Under ordinary con- ditions the dry salts are comparatively stable but on longer keeping small quantities of inorganic phosphoric acid are liberated. * Reprint of Technical Bulletin No. 32, January. [320] New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 321 From the analytical data reported it appears that the substance known as phytic acid or inosite phosphoric acid is either inosite hexaphosphate, C.H,;O.,P; or else an isomer and that the formulas, C,;H;0,P. or Cs>H2701sP, heretofore used to represent this acid are incorrect. CONCERNING THE ORGANIC PHOSPHORIC ACID OF COTTONSEED MEAL. II. In the last report! from this laboratory we described certain erystalline barium salts of the organic phosphoric acid of cotton- seed meal. We had also prepared and analyzed the free acid itself and described its properties and we also showed that on cleavage with dilute sulphuric acid in a sealed tube the substance gave inosite as one of the products of decomposition. These crystalline barium salts and the free acid prepared from them gave results on analysis which differed slightly from cor- responding compounds calculated on the usual formula for phytic acid, viz: CgeHesOo7Ps. The substance from cottonseed meal appeared to be an acid of the formula C.,.H;OsP2 or CsHisQ0xPs. The barium salts agreed closely with this formula but the percentage of phosphorus in the free acid was found to be about 1 per ct. lower than required. The reactions of the aqueous solution of the free acid, however, were found to be identical in every respect with those given by phytic acid. From the results obtained we concluded that the organic phosphoric acid in cottonseed meal was very similar to phytic acid but we were unable to determine whether it was identical with this acid. Prior to our publication, so far as we are aware, no definite organic phosphoric acid had ever been described as existing in cottonseed meal; no pure salts of this acid had been obtained nor had the free acid been prepared in pure form. However, some earlier work had been published by Rather ? dealing with ‘‘ The forms of phosphorus in cottonseed meal.’’ This author had isolated certain more or less impure substances from cottonseed meal which undoubtedly contained some of the organic phosphoric acid which we later isolated in pure form. He found that these preparations gave reactions similar to those of meta- and pyrophosphoric acids and he concluded that these reactions therefore were not sufficient to prove that either meta- or pyrophos- phoric acid exists in cottonseed meal as had been claimed earlier.* 1 Journ. Biol. Chem. 13:311, 1912, and N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 25, 1912. 2 Texas Agr. Exp. Sta., Bull. 146. 2? Hardin. S. C. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bull. 8, N. S., 1892. 21 322 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE From the acid preparations which he had isolated, he prepared some silver salts for which he proposed the following formulas, viz: Product A, CyHyAgsP305. Product B, CeHioAg7PsO17. Product OF CyHyoAgsP3013. In a more recent publication by the same author? are reported the analyses of a few more amorphous silver salts prepared, by a method similar to the one used before, from cottonseed meal and wheat bran. It is claimed that these compounds are identical, i.e., they are salts of the same acid, as shown by their having the same percentage composition, the same solubility, etc. This time, how- ever, these amorphous compounds are alleged to be salts of an acid of the formula CjzHaP sO. and which formula is proposed as the correct one for the substance known as inosite phosphoric acid or phytic acid. Simce these results did not harmonize with our earlier findings in respect to cottonseed meal Mr. Rather suggests that the care- fully purified and recrystallized barium salts which we had analyzed must have contained “ iron, aluminum, lime and magnesia ’’— this being the more likely since we had presented no analytical data to show that these inorganic substances were absent. Evidently Mr. Rather had not read our publication very carefully, otherwise he might have noticed that we stated, concerning the barium salts, that, “ metals other than barium were absent.” ® In the present paper we wish to refer to the work on cottonseed meal only, reserving for a later communication proofs to show that the results reported by Rather are just as inapplicable to the organic phosphorus compound of wheat bran as they are to the acid existing in cottonseed meal. Since our earlier work had shown that the organic phosphoric acid of cottonseed meal gave barium salts which crystallized readily and which could be easily purified by repeated recrystallizations and since it is generally recognized that crystalline substances are more suitable for the identification of chemical compounds than amorphous bodies we have repeated our former work on cotton- seed meal in the hope of establishing more definitely the composi- tion of the organic phosphoric acid present in this material. From 25 pounds of cottonseed meal we obtained, after recrystal- lizing eleven times, 69 grams of the barium salt. So far as com- position, erystal-form and reactions are concerned this product was identical with the salts previously described. Further recrystal- ‘J. Am. Chem. Soc. 35:890, 1913, and Texas Agr. Exp. Sta., Bull. 156, 1913. 5 Loc. cit, p. 321 and p. 11. (ey) New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 382 lizations did not alter the composition. Heavy metals other than barium were absent and we could not detect any weighable quantity of alkalies in 0.5 gram of the salt. It was completely free from inorganic phosphate and it was free from nitrogen and sulphur. We believe, therefore, that it represents a pure chemical compound. The composition as previously reported® agrees very closely with that required by inosite hexaphosphate, CsHisOuPs. The free acid was prepared and analyzed, which also agreed with the above formula. Silver salts were prepared from the above isolated acid but it would seem that silver salts are not very suitable for the purpose of identifying an acid of the above nature. They are obtained as amorphous precipitates which do not represent homo- geneous salts. They are evidently mixtures of more or less acid silver salts. The silver precipitates which we obtained did not agree in com- position with the compounds analyzed by Rather nor did they agree with any definite silver salts of inosite hexaphosphate. As sug- gested above, they are evidently mixtures of more or less acid silver salts of inosite hexaphosphate —for after deducting the amount of silver found, allowing for a corresponding amount of hydrogen and water and calculating to the free acid, the results agree very closely with the percentage composition calculated for inosite hexaphosphate. In the isolation and purification of the barium salt we made use of our former method in preference to that proposed by Rather for the reason that we consider our method more simple and convenient. The essential difference in these methods of isolation is that we use barium hydroxide throughout, precipitating the substance with this reagent from dilute hydrochloric acid solutions. Rather used a modification of the method of Patten & Hart’— substituting the use of sodium hydroxide with ammonium hydroxide. The use of either sodium or ammonium hydroxide which must be eliminated again is not necessary, for barium hydroxide is equally efficient and by its use the introduction of other basic ions is avoided. Since the present work substantiates our earlier results and since all the analytical data agrees with inosite hexaphosphate, CeHisOuPs, or with salts of this acid, we believe that the organic phosphoric acid in cottonseed meal must be represented by the formula either of inosite hexaphosphate, CsHisO2:P., or else some- formula isomeric with this. It may be noted that the percentage of phosphorus found on analyzing the free acid is somewhat low. In the analyses of the acids previously reported ® the phosphorus was found to be from 8 Loc. cit. 7 Am. Chem., Journ. 31:566, 1904. 8 Loc. cit. 324 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE 1 to 1.8 per ct. lower than required for inosite hexaphosphate. As will be shown later in this bulletin, this is due to the fact that the free acid becomes largely hydrolyzed on drying. EXPERIMENTAL PART. ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION OF THE BARIUM SALT. The cottonseed meal, 25 pounds, was digested over night in 0.2 per ct. hydrochloric acid in porcelain percolators covered on the inside with a double layer of cheesecloth. It was then percolated using 0.2 per ct. hydrochloric acid until about 20 liters of extract were obtained. The extract was of a dirty, dark color and contained some suspended particles from which it was freed as much as possible by centrifugalizing the solution. A concentrated ‘solution of 300 grams of barium chloride was then added and the precipitate allowed to settle. The precipitate was centrifugalized and finally brought upon a Buchner funnel and freed as far as possible from the mother-liquor. It was then digested in several liters of about 5 per ct. hydrochloric acid until no further solution took place. The insoluble residue was removed by centrifugalizing and the still very dirty colored solution precipitated by adding barium hydroxide until the free acid was neutralized. The barium hydroxide was added slowly, with constant shaking, when the precipitate separated in crystalline form. It was then filtered and washed thoroughly in water and again dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid, filtered and reprecipitated with barium hydroxide. These operations were repeated three times. The hydrochloric acid solution was then precipitated by gradually adding an equal volume of alcohol when the substance again separated in crystalline form consisting of globular masses of microscopic needles. It was then precipitated a fourth time with barium hydroxide and after that two more times with alcohol. It was then filtered, washed free of chlorides with dilute alcohol and then in aleohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. The product was then a nearly white, crys- talline powder and it weighed 94 grams. The dry substance was shaken up with about 1.5 liters of cold water, allowed to stand for several hours and then filtered and washed in water. The aqueous solution contained very little sub- stance precipitable with alcohol and it was therefore discarded. The washed precipitate was dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid and precipitated a fifth time by the very gradual addition of barium hydroxide; after filtering and washing, this operation was repeated a sixth time. After again dissolving in dilute hydrochloric acid, nearly neutralizing the free acid with barium hydroxide and filtering, the substance was brought to crystallization by the gradual addition of an equal volume of alcohol. After standing for several hours the substance was filtered and washed in dilute alcohol, New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 325 alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. It was then a voluminous snow-white crystalline powder. The dry substance was again dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid, the free acid nearly neutralized with barium hydroxide and the solution filtered and allowed to stand over night. The substance soon began to crystallize. Under the microscope it appeared perfectly homogeneous and consisted as before of globular masses of microscopic needles. The substance was filtered, washed free of chlorides with water and then in alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. The dry, snow-white, crystalline powder weighed 69 grams. Qualitative analysis failed to reveal any heavy metals other than barium and from 0.5 gram of the salt no weighable residue of alkali was obtained. It gave no reaction with ammonium molybdate in nitric acid solution. It was free from sulphur and nitrogen. It was analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. 0.4641 gram subst. gave 0.0556 gram H,.O and 0.1125 gram COs. 0.1982 gram subst. gave 0.1333 gram BaSO, and 0.1203 gram MegeP207. Bound (:\@ —— 6.61 i —— 134° P= 16,91* Ba — 39.57. per ct: For tribarium inosite hexaphosphate: C.Hy202%P.Bas = 1066. Calculated: C,—— 6.75; —— 112 P= 17 44° Ba 38-65 per ct: A portion of this salt was recrystallized as follows: 5 grams were dissolved in a small quantity of 5-per-ct. hydrochloric acid and the free acid nearly neutralized with barium hydroxide, the solution was then filtered and 2 grams of barium chloride dissolved in a little water added and the solution allowed to stand. The substance separated slowly in the usual crystal form. After two days it was filtered, washed free of chlorides with water, again dissolved in the dilute hydrochloric acid, the solution filtered and alcohol added gradually until a slight cloudiness remained. After standing for 24 hours at room temperature the substance had crystallized in the usual form. It was filtered, washed free of chlorides in dilute alcohol and then in alcohol and ether, and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. The dilute nitric acid solution of the substance gave no reaction with ammonium molybdate. The snow-white crystalline powder was analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phos- phorus pentoxide. 0.3588 gram subst. gave 0.0464 gram H,O and 0.0867 gram CQ). 0.1726 gram subst. gave 0.1138 gram BaSO, and 0.1058 gram Meg2P207. Hound: © — 6:59. — 1.44. P'— 17.08; Ba — 38:79 per ct. 326 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE Another portion of the substance was recrystallized as follows: 2 grams were dissolved in a small amount of the dilute hydrochloric acid, barium hydroxide added, with constant shaking, until a faint permanent precipitate remained, and the solution filtered. The filtrate was then heated to boiling and allowed to stand for a few minutes. As the temperature rose the solution began to turn cloudy and finally a heavy precipitate separated which appeared to be amorphous at first but it soon changed into the same crystal form as previously described. This was filtered and washed free of chlorides in boiling water and then in alcohol and ether and allowed to dry in the air. The dry substance weighed 1.6 grams. The snow-white crystalline powder was free from inorganic phosphate. It was analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. 0.4695 gram subst. lost 0.0443 gram H,O. 0.4252 gram subst. gave 0.0423 gram H.O and 0.0981 gram COs. 0.1238 gram subst. gave 0.0885 gram BaSO, and 0.0735 gram Mg2P207. Found: ©’ 0.29; e114; YP 16.54;. Ba 4206; he 9.43 per ct. For heptabarium inosite hexaphosphate (CsH1:O2Ps)2Ba7 = 2267. Calculated: C = 6.35; H = 0.97; P = 16.40; Ba = 42.39 per ct. For 14 H,O calculated, 10.00 per ct. Still another portion of the substance was recrystallized in the following manner: 2 grams were dissolved in the dilute hydro- chloric acid and then nearly neutralized with barium hydroxide as before. The solution was filtered and 10 c.c. %/, barium chloride added and allowed to stand over night. The substance had then separated as a heavy crystalline powder of the same form as before except that the individual crystals were much larger. The crystals were filtered, washed free of chlorides with water and finally in alcohol and ether and allowed to dry in the air. It was analyzed after drying as above. 0.6430 gram subst. lost 0.0745 gram H,0. 0.5685 gram subst. gave 0.0603 gram H,O and 0.1258 gram COs. 0.2208 gram subst. gave 0.1608 gram BaSO, and 0.1252 gram Mg2P20;. Found: C= 6:03; H = 1.18; pe Ba = 42.85; H,O = 11.58 per ct. For heptabarium inosite hexaphosphate (CsH11O24P.5)2Ba7 = 2267. ° Calculated: C = 6.85; H = 0.97; P = 16.40; Ba = 42.39 per ct. For 16 H,O calculated: 11.27 per ct. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 327 PREPARATION OF THE FREE ACID. The acid was prepared in the usual way from 10 grams of the first crystalline barium salt. The aqueous solution finally obtained was concentrated in vacuum at 40° to 45° to small bulk. It was then divided into three portions — one was dried in vacuum over sul- phuric acid and then analyzed —the others were used for the preparation of the silver salts to be described later. The dry acid was obtained as a practically colorless syrup. Its dilute aqueous solution gave no reaction with ammonium molyb- date showing absence of inorganic phosphoric acid. Its reactions in other respects were identical with those previously described. For analysis it was dried first in vacuum over sulphuric acid at room temperature and finally in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide at 105°, when it turned quite dark in color. 0.3931 gram subst. gave 0.1088 gram H,O and 0.1540 gram COQ). 0.1840 gram subst. gave 0.1826 gram MgpP,07. Found: C — 10.68; H — 3.09; P = 27.66 per ct. For inosite hexaphosphate, CeH1s02,P, = 660. Calculated: C = 10.90; H = 2.72; P = 28.18 per ct. PREPARATION OF THE SILVER SALT FROM THE ABOVE ACID. One portion of the free acid previously mentioned was dissolved in 100 ¢c.c. of water and the solution neutralized to litmus with ammonia. Silver nitrate solution was then added which caused a heavy, perfectly white, amorphous precipitate. This was filtered and carefully washed in water and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid, desiccator being kept in a dark place. After drying, the substance was a faintly cream-colored powder which was very slightly sensitive to light. On moist litmus paper it showed a strong acid reaction. It was free from ammonia. For analysis it was dried at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. On drying as above, not protected from light, the substance darkened somewhat in color. 0.3064 gram subst. gave 0.0150 gram H,O and 0.0446 gram COn. 0.1640 gram subst. gave 0.1387 gram AgCl and 0.0596 gram Mg»P20:. Pound: “C= 3.96 1 10154 7 P= 10.13; Ag = 63.65" per ‘ct: Deducting the above percentage of silver and allowing for an equivalent amount of hydrogen and water we obtain the following results: Calculated: C = 10.74; H = 3.08; P = 27.45 per ct. 328 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE These percentages agree fairly closely with the composition cal- culated for inosite hexaphosphate, viz: C = 10.90; H =2.72; P = 28.18 per ct. To the remaining portion of the acid (about 5 c.c.) 300 e.c. of alcohol was added.* The solution remained perfectly clear. The alcohol was evaporated on the water-bath and the residue taken up in 100 c.c. of water in which it gave a slightly cloudy solution and which had a faint, aromatic odor. The acid had possibly been esterified to a slight extent. It was filtered and neutralized to litmus with ammonia and precipitated with silver nitrate; the precipitate filtered, washed in water and dried as before. The appearance of the precipitate was identical with the first one. On moist litmus paper it also showed a strong acid reaction and it was free from ammonia. For analysis it was dried as above. 0.4008 gram subst. gave 0.0176 gram H.O and 0.0600 gram COs. 0.1481 gram subst. gave 0.1241 gram AgCl and 0.0548 gram MgeP207. Found:. C.— 4°08; 8 — 0.49.) P —= 10:31 Ae — 63,06) per cit Calculated to the free acid as before the following percentages are obtained: C= 10.88; H — 2.84; P — 27.52 per ct. That the silver precipitates obtained under above conditions do not represent homogeneous salts may be seen by comparing the percentages found with the calculated composition of the following silver salts of inosite hexaphosphate: CeH7OuPsAgu = 1836. Calculated: C = 3.92; H =0.38; P= 10.18; Ag — 64.65 per ct. C.H sOosPeAgio p= ee Calculated: C= 4.16; H =0.45; P = 10.75; Ag — 62.40 per ct. Judging by the analytical results the amorphous silver precipitates appear to be mixtures of the above silver salts. *Nore: Mr. Rather found that his acid preparations gave a precipitate on addition of alcohol. This was no doubt due to the fact that inorganic bases had not been completely removed by his method of purification; hence an acid salt of the organic phosphoric acid was precipitated on the addition of alcohol. The acid prepared from our purified and recrystallized barium salts is completely soluble in alcohol. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 329 CONCERNING PHYTIN IN OATS. In continuation of the investigation of the organic phosphoric acids of grains and feeding materials which has been carried out in this laboratory we have examined recently the compound existing in oats. This substance has already been studied by other investi- gators, notably by Hart and Tottingham! who came to the con- clusion that oats contained phytin. The purpose of the present investigation was to determine whether the phytin in oats was identical with other phytin preparations obtained from other grains. We have previously shown that cottonseed meal? contains an organic phosphoric acid which differs slightly in composition from that required for the phytic acid formula of Posternak, viz: C2HsOoP. or according to Neuberg CgHesOe7P¢, although so far as properties and reactions were concerned no differences could be observed. This acid from cottonseed meal had been isolated as a crystalline barium salt and since this salt did not show any change in eomposition on recrystallization we felt reasonably certain that it was a homo- geneous substance. On the other hand we were unable to obtain any crystalline barium salts of the organic phosphoric acid of wheat bran. Only amorphous salts were obtained, which differed entirely in composition from salts of phytic acid. It appeared of interest, therefore, to determine whether other grains contained organic phosphoric acids identical with those previously described or if compounds of different composition were present. In the present investigation the substance was isolated as a barium salt from 0.2 per ct. hydrochloric acid extract of oats by precipi- tating with barium chloride. The substance was then repeatedly precipitated from dilute hydrochloric acid alternately with alcohol and with pure recrystallized barium hydroxide (Kahlbaum) until all bases other than barium were removed and until all the inor- ganic phosphate was eliminated. Several preparations were made from different lots of oats. The substances showed absolutely no tendency to crystallize and they were all obtained as snow-white amorphous powders. On analysis these various preparations gave fairly concordant results but the composition differed considerably from that required for salts of phytic acid. The preparations were reprecipitated and subjected to various other treatments but were always recovered without showing any great variation in composition and it was therefore thought the substance was homogeneous. However, it was found finally that these preparations, obtained by direct precipitation, were mixtures of barium salts; probably 1 Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta., Research Bull. 9, 1910. 2 Journ. Biol. Chem. 13:311, 1912, and N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Tech. Bull. 25, 1912; und preceding article. 3 Journ. Biol. Chem. 12:477, 1912, and N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Tech. Bull. 22, 1912. 330 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE of two different organic phosphoric acids. Only one, however, has been isolated in pure form. By treating the above mentioned amorphous barium salts with small quantities of cold water it was possible to effect a separation into two preparations having entirely different compositions. After the water-soluble portion had been removed the insoluble substance was found to crystallize readily in the same manner and in the same erystal-form as the barium salt obtained from the acid extracted from cottonseed meal, viz: in round or globular masses of microscopic needles. Repeated recrystallizations did not alter the composition except as to the percentage of barium. When allowed to crystallize from dilute hydrochloric acid containing barium chloride a salt is obtained which contains from 40 to 42 per ect. of barium; when it is brought to crystallize from dilute hydrochloric acid solutions by the addition of alcoho! the salt contains about 38 per ct. of barium. So far as one can judge by crystal-form, composition, properties and reactions, the crystalline salts obtained from oats and cottonseed meal are identical. The water-soluble substance referred to above could be obtained only as a snow-white amorphous powder. In composition it differed entirely from the crystalline product but very slightly from the compound isolated from wheat bran. Owing to the amorphous nature of the substance, however, it is impossible to say at present whether it is a homogeneous body or merely a mixture of various compounds. We hope to study this matter more closely, particularly in comparison with the wheat bran products which we propose to investigate further. The composition of the crystalline barium salts obtained from oats and cottonseed meal does not agree with the usually accepted formula for phytic acid, viz: CeHesO27Ps. The analytical results of these preparations would indicate that they are salts of an acid of the formula C,H,OsP2 or a multiple of it; probably CsHisOoPs. Such an acid would be isomeric or identical with inosite hexaphos- phate which was suggested by Suzuki and Yoshimura as the for- mula for phytic acid. We have always found, however, that the phosphorus in the free acid prepared from the above barium salts is always about 1 per ct. lower than this formula requires. It is possible that this low percentage of phosphorus is due to partial hydrolysis in drying — which seems the more likely as the hydrogen is always found somewhat high. When the free acid is dried at a temperature of 100° or higher it turns perfectly black in color; even on drying at 60° or 78° in vacuum the color darkens perceptibly, which would indicate some decomposition. It will be shown later that hydrolysis actually does take place on drying and that a large “Toc. cit. ® Coll. of Agric. Tokyo, Bull. 7:495. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTion. 331 percentage of the phosphorus in the dried preparations is present as inorganic phosphoric acid. The analyses of the barium salts on the other hand agree very closely with the formula C.H,O0sP2,Ba or CesHi2OxPsBa;. It will be shown also that the barium salts suffer but very slight hydrolysis on drying at a temperature of 105°. Evidently, therefore, it is safer to calculate the formula of the free acid from the barium salts rather than from analyses of the free acid itself. EXPERIMENTAL PART. ISOLATION OF THE SUBSTANCE. Whole ground oats, including grain and hull, were digested over night in 0.2 per ct. hydrochloric acid in porcelain percolators covered on the inside with a double layer of cheesecloth. The next day the substance was percolated with the same strength hydrochloric acid until the extract gave no appreciable precipitate with barium chloride. The extract was then filtered through paper and precipi- tated by adding a concentrated solution of barium chloride in liberal excess. The precipitate, after settling, was filtered on a Buchner funnel and washed in 30 per ct. alcohol. It was then dissolved in sufficient dilute hydrochloric acid, about 1 or 2 per ct., filtered and the filtrate precipitated with barium hydroxide solution. After settling, filtering and thoroughly washing with water the precipi- tate was again dissolved in the same strength hydrochloric acid as before, filtered and the filtrate precipitated by adding an equal volume of alcohol. After repeating these operations alternately a second time the substance was twice precipitated from dilute hydrochloric acid, same strength as above, with barium hydroxide (Kahlbaum) which had been recrystallized. It was then further pre- cipitated three times from the same strength hydrochloric acid with alcohol. The final precipitate was filtered and washed free of chlorides with dilute alcohol and then in alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. The crude precipitate obtained by adding barium chloride to the acid extract of oats contains large quantities of impurities, inorganic phosphates, colored substances, etc., which during the above opera- tions are gradually eliminated. The precipitates obtained at first do not dissolve completely in dilute hydrochloric acid. It is there- fore necessary to filter such solutions repeatedly in order to free them from suspended insoluble matter. Finally, however, a prod- uct is obtained which is readily and completely soluble in the dilute hydrochloric acid, in which it gives a perfectly colorless solution. When prepared as mentioned above, the dry substance is a snow-white, amorphous powder. It is very readily soluble in dilute hydrochloric and nitric acid, less so in acetic acid. It is s) e 32 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE soluble to a considerable extent in cold water. On moist litmus paper it shows a strong acid reaction. Heated with hydrochloric acid and phloroglucine, no appreciable color reaction developed. After boiling with dilute sulphuric acid for several minutes, filtering and neutralizing, it did not reduce Fehling’s solution. It contained neither nitrogen nor sulphur and gave no reaction for chlorides. Dissolved in dilute nitric acid it gave no reaction with ammonium molybdate even after being kept at a temperature of 65° for some time and standing at room temperature for several days, showing that inorganic phosphates were absent. Bases, other than barium, could not be detected in 9.5 gram of the substance. Owing to loss in purification the yield is rather unsatisfactory. In one case 13 grams were obtained from 5 kg. of oats; in another case 20 grams were obtained from 10 kg. In all, four preparations were made, which gave a total of about 140 grams of the barium salt. Much time was expended in an endeavor to obtain the substance in crystalline form but as already mentioned it showed no tendency whatever to crystallize. "The amorphous preparations were therefore analyzed after previous drying to constant weight at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. The following results were obtained: Ist preparation: C= 8.84; H—1.67; P=15.88; Ba= 36.72 per ct. 2d preparation: C =8.27; H—1.47; P=16.28; Ba = 37.26 per ct. 3d_ preparation: C —8.37; H—1.60; P=16.48; Ba= 36.79 per ct. 4th preparation: C = 8.44; H=—1.61; P—16.35; Ba=36.61 per ct. These results are fairly concordant but the composition differs considerably from that required for tribarium phytate. Calculated for CgHisO27PsBas: C = 6.42; H 1.60; P—16.60; Ba = 36.78 per ct. FURTHER PURIFICATION OF THE BARIUM SALT. In order to determine whether the composition of the substance would change on further treatment, the following experiment was tried. A portion of the first preparation was used. The barium was precipitated with slight excess of sulphuric acid, the barium sulphate filtered off and the filtrate precipitated with excess of copper acetate. The copper salt was filtered and thoroughly washed in water and then suspended in water and decomposed with hydrogen sulphide. After removing the copper sulphide, the filtrate was boiled to expel hydrogen sulphide and then precipitated with a solution of recrystallized barium hydroxide. Dilute hydrochloric New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 333 acid was then added until the precipitate was just dissolved and the solution precipitated by adding an equal volume of alcohol. The precipitate was filtered, washed in dilute alcohol and then dis- solved in 0.5 per ct. hydrochloric acid and reprecipitated with alcohol. The precipitate was then filtered, washed in dilute alcohol, alechol and ether, and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. It was analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. Found? © ——3.23.. —d-50;.2 — 16.19. Ba — 37.464 per.ct. In another case 6 grams of the second preparation were heated in a sealed tube with 45 c.c. of *°/x sulphuric acid in the steam-bath for twenty-four hours and then allowed to stand for four days at room temperature. After isolating in the same manner as above 3.7 grams were recovered. It was analyzed after drying as above. Found: C = 8.42; H— 1.66; P = 16.17; Ba==37.08) per ct: These treatments apparently caused no change in composition. The free acid was then prepared and analyzed. From the first preparation, the acid was prepared in the usual way —i. e. the barium was precipitated with slight excess of sulphuric acid, filtered, and the filtrate precipitated with copper acetate. The copper salt was filtered, washed and decomposed with hydrogen sulphide, filtered and evaporated in vacuum at a temperature of 40°-45° and finally dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. It was thus obtained as a thick, practically colorless syrup. For analysis it was dried to constant weight over boiling chloroform in vacuum over phos- phorus pentoxide. The color turned very slightly dark on drying in this way. Hounds @:==13:24:) i326 > P = 25:50) peri ct: The acid prepared from the repurified barium salt gave the following result on analysis after drying as above. Found? ©i= 13117; H— 3.39; P= 25.48 per ct. The composition of the acid agrees with that required for the above barium salts and one might suppose from the close agreement of analytical results that the substance was homogeneous. It was found, however, that after the barium salt had been precipitated a great number of times from dilute hydrochloric acid by barium hydroxide and alcohol alternately that the composition did change slightly. ‘The same result was also observed on digesting the barium salt in dilute acetic acid. After treating in the above manner, barium salts of the following composition were obtained: Cl 79 et —— Gas 6) — 16.775 ba —37.89 per ct. Il: C =7.69; H = 1.47; P = 16.75; Ba = 37.72 per ct. Ill: C = 7.26; H = 1.75; P = 16.45; Ba = 36.40 per ct. 334 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE These salts were united and dissolved in the least possible amount of 0.5 per ct. hydrochloric acid and alcohol added to the solution until a faint permanent turbidity remained — which was just cleared up by the addition of a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid. The solution was then allowed to stand at room temperature for about two days. There separated slowly a heavy white crust on the bottom of the flask. Under the microscope this showed no definite crys- talline structure. The substance was filtered off, washed thoroughly in water, alcohol and ether and dried in the air. It was free from chlorides and gave no reaction with ammonium molybdate. For analysis it was dried at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. Found:'C — 6.07 — "135, P16. 77a. — 40,00 bo — leds per ct. The carbon found is undoubtedly somewhat too low, as this heavy compact substance burned with extreme difficulty. The filtrate from the above was precipitated with alcohol, the precipitate filtered, washed and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. The following result was obtained on analysis: Found: C= 7:63; H 1-57; P'= 16:53" Ba = 36:92! per'ct: The heavy crust-like substance was recrystallized as follows: It was dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid, filtered and about an equal volume of alcohol added and the mixture allowed to stand over night. The precipitate which was amorphous at first had then changed into a crystalline form. Under the microscope it appeared as very small globules consisting of microscopic needles. It was filtered, washed free of chlorides in dilute alcohol, alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. It was a light, voluminous, snow-white crystalline powder. It was analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. Found: C 6.60; 4 1.50; P 17.303) ba—(31 Abe O'S per ct. The amorphous preparations which remained were united (total weight 52.5 grams). The substance was rubbed up in a mortar with a small quantity of cold water. A considerable portion of the sub- stance dissolved. The insoluble portion was perfectly white and opaque but it soon changed into a semicrystalline form and appeared translucent. After standing for some time it was filtered and washed in water and finally in alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. When dry it was again treated with water in the same way. ‘These operations were repeated three times. The filtrates and washings from the above were precipitated by the addition of alcohol and these precipitates reserved for exami- nation as will be described later. The water-insoluble substance was dissolved in the least possible quantity of dilute hydrochloric acid (about 5 per ct. strength), the New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 335 free acid was then nearly neutralized with barium hydroxide; the solution filtered and alcohol added until a faint, permanent turbidity remained. A concentrated solution of 20 grams of barium chloride was then added and the whole allowed to stand. The substance soon began to crystallize in the same crystal form as the barium salt from cottonseed meal, viz: in globular masses or bundles of fine microscopic needles. After standing over night the crystals were filtered, washed free of chlorides with water and then in alcohol and ether and allowed to dry in the air. A further crop of the same-shaped crystals was obtained from the mother-liquor by care- fully adding alcohol and allowing to stand. After filtering, washing and drying these were added to the first crop. The substance was recrystallized three times in the same way. It was finally obtained as a light, snow-white crystalline powder. It weighed about 27 grams. This was analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phos- phorus pentoxide. 0.2483 gram subst. lost 0.0308 gram HO. 0.2175 gram subst. gave 0.0295 gram H.O and 0.0507 gram CO. 0.1456 gram subst. gave 0.0987 gram BaSO, and 0.0864 gram Mg,P20:. Found: C = 6.35; H = 1.51; P = 16.54; Ba = 39.89; H2O = 12.40 per ct. It was again recrystallized in the same manner and the following result obtained on analysis after drying as before: Found: C — 6.23; 0 — 1.27: P — 16.17; Ba — 41.48; HO = 12:99 per ct. The substance was again dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid, the solution was filtered and then precipitated by the addition of alcohol. The precipitate was amorphous at first but on standing in the mother-liquor over night, it had changed into the usual crystal- form but the globules and crystals were much smaller. After filtering and washing free of chlorides in dilute alcohol, alcohol and ether the substance was dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. It was analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. 0.2320 gram subst. gave 0.0325 gram H20 and 0.0553 gram COs2. 0.1466 gram subst. gave 0.0947 gram BaSO, and 0.0894 gram MgeP207. Poeand: C— 6:50 "Hl — aes — '17:00* Ba — 38.01) per‘ ct. As will be noticed from the above analytical results the com- position does not change on repeated recrystallizations. We believe therefore that the substance is homogeneous. The variation in the percentage of barium evidently depends upon the formation of more 336 Report OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE or less acid salts. All the preparations described showed a strong acid reaction on moist litmus paper which indicates free hydrogen ions. In the estimation of carbon and hydrogen it was found impossible to obtain a white ash by direct combustion even when heated for a long time — the residue in the boat was invariably dark colored, varying from light gray to quite dark. Plimmer and Page ® also mention the difficulty of completely burning carbon in the presence of phosphoric acid. The crystalline barium salts described in this paper as well as those from cottonseed meal are particularly hard to burn; on the other hand the amorphous salts burn more easily. In the combustions of these salts we have always burned the sub- stance twice; first in the regular manner; the dark-colored ash has then been powdered in an agate mortar and mixed in the boat’ with chromic acid and burned a second time. In this second combustion there has been observed an increase in weight in the carbon dioxide varying from about 1 to 12 milligrams. Under these conditions it is impossible to say whether a complete combustion has been affected and it is not improbable that a small quantity of carbon has escaped oxidation. We are inclined to believe that the percentage of carbon as found is slightly low. Asa check upon the carbon content found in the barium salts we have always prepared and analyzed the free acid in the combustion of which we have never experienced any serious difficulty, the residue in the boat showing no trace of carbon. PREPARATION OF THE FREE ACID FROM THE PURIFIED CRYSTALLINE BARIUM SALT. The acid was prepared from 4 grams of the barium salt in the usual way. After drying in vacuum over sulphuric acid at room temperature it formed a practically colorless, thick syrup. Its reactions were identical with those which we reported for the acid from cottonseed meal.’ For analysis it was dried in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide at 78°. The preparation darkened per- ceptibly in color but did not turn black. 0.4936 gram subst. gave 0.1366 gram H.O and 0.1960 gram COs,. 0.1645 gram subst. gave 0.1601 gram MgoP2O;. Found:.C = 10.82; H = 3.09; P 27.12 per ct. PREPARATION OF INOSITE FROM THE BARIUM SALT. The amorphous barium salt was used. Of the dry salt, 9.3 grams were heated in a sealed tube with 25 c.c. °/y sulphuric acid to 150° 160° for three hours. After cooling, the contents of the tube were 8 Biochem. Journ. 7:167, 1913. 7 Loc. cit. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 337 very dark in color and some carbonaceous substance had separated showing that considerable decomposition had taken place. The sulphuric and phosphoric acids were precipitated with excess of barium hydroxide, filtered and washed and the filtrate freed from excess of barium with carbon dioxide. ‘The filtrate was evaporated to small bulk and decolorized with animal charcoal and then evapo- rated to dryness on the water-bath. The residue was taken up in a little hot water, filtered from traces of barium carbonate and the inosite brought to crystallize by the addition of alcohol and ether. It separated in needles free from water of crystallization. After filtering, washing in alcohol and ether and drying in the air it weighed 1.6 grams which represents a yield of about 75 per ct. of the total carbon. For analysis it was recrystallized seven times in the same manner as above and was finally obtained in beautiful colorless needles free from water of crystallization. It melted at 223° (uncorrected) and gave the reaction of Scherer. It did not lose in weight on drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. 0.1442 gram subst. gave 0.0878 gram H2O and 0.2113 gram COsz. found: C’— 359.96: HO — 6.89 per, ct. For CsHy»O, calculated: C = 40.00; H = 6.66 per ct. HYDROLYSIS OF THE ACID WITH WATER ALONE. The acid which was used had been prepared from the amorphous barium salt. Two grams of the dry preparation were heated with 25 c.c. of water in a sealed tube to 190° for 3} hours. After cooling there was no pressure on opening the tube. The content was of dark brown color and a considerable quantity of a black, carbonized substance had separated. The whole was diluted with water and filtered and the phosphoric acid was precipitated with barium hydroxide in excess. The precipitate was filtered off and examined to see if any unchanged barium phytate could be isolated from it. Apparently the acid had been completely decomposed during the heating as no trace of barium phytate could be found. The filtrate from the barium phosphate was freed from excess of barium by carbon dioxide and the filtrate evaporated to dryness on the water-bath. The residue was a sticky, amber-colored syrup. It was taken up in a small amount of water and washed into an Erlenmeyer flask. On the addition of alcohol the solution turned cloudy but it could not be brought to crystallize by repeated scratch- ing with a glass rod. It was allowed to stand over night when an amber-colored syrupy layer had separated on the bottom. The upper portion of the liquid was poured off and mixed with ether. On standing a further quantity of amber-colored syrup had separated. The liquid was decanted and evaporated on the water-bath until a small syrupy residue remained. On scratching with a glass rod a substance began to crystallize in small prisms. The other syrups 22 338 ReEport oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE were made to crystallize in the same manner. They were then extracted several times with small quantities of alcohol. The residues were then dissolved in hot water and crystallized by the addition of alcohol. After recrystallizing three times it was obtained in small colorless needles. It weighed 0.25 grams. It melted at 222° (uncorrected) and gave the Scherer reaction and was therefore undoubtedly inosite. After recrystallizing it again melted at 222°. The crystals did not contain water of crystallization as there was no loss in weight on drying at 105° in vacuum for one hour. The substance was further identified as inosite by the analysis. 0.1019 gram subst. gave 0.0629 gram H.O and 0.1492 gram CO. Found: C = 39.93; H = 6.90 per ct. For CsH2O¢, calculated: C = 40.00; H — 6.66 per ct. The alcoholic washings from above and the mother-liquor on evap- oration left a dark colored, non-crystallizable syrup. This syrup strongly reduced Fehling’s solution on boiling. It is noteworthy that the amount of inosite obtained by cleavage with water is much less than when dilute sulphuric acid is used. The amount of inosite isolated above represents only about one- half the quantity obtained when the hydrolysis is effected in the presence of acid. It is possible, however, that in this case the inosite had been less completely isolated since the adhering syrupy sub- stance rendered crystallization more difficult. EXAMINATION OF THE WATER-SOLUBLE PORTION OF THE AMORPHOUS BARIUM SALT. As has been already mentioned on page 17 the filtrates contain- ing the water-soluble portion of the amorphous barium salt were precipitated with alcohol. After filtering and washing, the precipi- tate was dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. It was again digested in water three times and filtered from small insoluble matter and the filtrates precipitated with alcohol and dried. It was finally obtained as a snow-white amorphous powder. As it was impossible to obtain any crystalline substance from it, it was analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. 0.3504 gram subst. lost 0.0294 gram H.O on drying. 0.3210 gram subst. gave 0.0616 gram H.O and 0.1342 gram CO. 0.2415 gram subst. gave 0.1465 gram BaSO, and 0.1236 gram Mg2P207. Found: C == 1140" V2 14: P46 ie ae 8.39 per ct. The substance was free from inorganic phosphate and chlorides, and bases other than barium could not be detected. We hope to investigate this substance further. 990 New York AGrRicuLTuRAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 339 CONCERNING PHYTIN IN CORN. The organic phosphoric acid compound occurring in corr uas been particularly studied by Vorbrodt.! In an exhaustive treatise on the subject he reports analytical results obtained from crystalline barium salts which led him to believe that the substance was different from phytin. The barium salt corresponded to the formula Ci2H2. OxPBa7 according to which the formula of the acid would be CyHaoOssPi1. Vorbrodt also showed that the substance gave inosite and phosphoric acid on cleavage either with dilute sulphuric acid or water alone in neutral solution. The same subject has also been investigated by Hart and Tot- tingham.? They report the preparation and analysis of the free acid. The analytical data agrees very closely with that required for phytic acid and they concluded that corn contains phytin. They also showed that the acid yields inosite on hydrolysis in a sealed tube in the presence of dilute sulphuric acid. We have undertaken to reexamine this substance in the hope of identifying it either with phytic acid or the compounds which we have shown to exist in cottonseed meal*® and oats.* At first we were unable to obtain the barium salt in crystalline form but the amorphous salt gave results on analysis which approxi- mately agreed with the corresponding barium phytate. The free acid, prepared from this amorphous compound, gave about one per ct. too high carbon and about 0.8 per ct. too high phosphorus. We finally succeeded, however, in preparing a crystalline barium salt. It was purified by repeated recrystallizations until the com- position remained constant. The product was free from inorganic phosphate and it did not contain a determinable quantity of bases other than barium. Judging by crystal-form, composition and properties the substance is identical with those previously isolated from cottonseed meal * and oats.® The analytical results obtained from these purified crystalline barium salts do not agree with the formula proposed by Vorbrodt.’ We find the phosphorus over 1 per ct. higher and the relation between carbon and phosphorus is as 1:1. The phosphorus content is also considerably higher than that required for a corresponding salt calculated on the usual phytic acid formula. The barium salt analyzed by Vorbrodt had been prepared from the previously isolated acid by partially neutralizing with barium 1 Anzeiger Akad. Wiss. Krakau, 1910, Series A, p. 484. 2 Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta., Research Bull. 9, 1910. 3 Journ. Biol. Chem. 13:311, 1912, and N.Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Tech. Bull. 25, 1912. 4 See preceding article. 5 Loc. cit. 5 Loc. cit. 7 Loc. cit. 340 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE hydroxide and concentrating in vacuum. The crystalline salt which then separated was washed, dried and analyzed. Apparently no attempt had been made to recrystallize it and it is probable that the substance had contained small quantities of impurities which might be sufficient to account for the difference in analytical results between his product and the repeatedly recrystallized salts which we have analyzed. The composition of the purified salts described in this paper agrees more closely with salts of inosite hexaphosphate than with salts calculated on the basis of the usual phytic acid formula. EXPERIMENTAL PART. ISOLATION OF THE SUBSTANCE FROM CORN. The corn used in these experiments was the ordinary corn meal used as cattle feed at this station. Ground corn meal, 3500 grams, was digested in 7 liters of 0.2 per ct. hydrochloric acid over night. It was then strained and filtered and the clear amber-colored filtrate precipitated by adding about 13 volumes of alcohol. After settling, the precipitate was filtered and washed in dilute alcohol. The precipitate was then dissolved in a small amount of 0.5 per ct. hydrochloric acid and filtered from insoluble matter. This acid solution gave only a very slight precipitate on the addition of alcohol. The substance was therefore transformed into a barium salt by precipitating with barium hydroxide to slight alkaline reaction. After heating on the water-bath for some time the precipitate was filtered and washed in water. It was again dissolved in 0.5 per ct. hydrochloric acid, filtered and reprecipitated with barium hydroxide. After standing over night the precipitate was filtered and washed thoroughly in water. The substance was again dissolved in 0.5 per ct. hydrochloric acid, filtered and then precipitated by the addition of an equal volume of alcohol. The precipitate after settling was filtered and washed in dilute alcohol. The substance was then precipitated three times more in the same manner and after finally filtering, washing in dilute alcohol, alcohol and ether, it was dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. A white amorphous powder was obtained which weighed 11.8 grams. The substance gave no reaction for chlorides. The dilute nitric acid solution gave no reaction with ammonium molybdate after warming for some time. The following results were obtained on analysis after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide to constant weight. Found: C=7.25; H 1.51; P = 16.65; Ba — 3711 per ct. The carbon is somewhat high, otherwise the result agrees with the calculated percentages for tribarium phytate, CsHisO27P Bas. Calculated: C = 6.42; H = 1.60; P = 16.60; Ba = 36.78 per ct. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 341 PREPARATION OF THE FREE ACID FROM THE ABOVE AMORPHOUS BARIUM SALT. The acid was prepared from 3 grams of the barium salt in the usual way, i. e. the barium was precipitated with slight excess of sulphuric acid, filtered and the filtrate precipitated with copper acetate. The copper precipitate was filtered and washed thoroughly in water, suspended in water and decomposed with hydrogen sulphide, filtered and the filtrate evaporated in vacuum at a temperature of 40° to 45° to a syrupy consistency and finally dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. ‘The product was a thick, faintly amber-colored syrup. For analysis it was dried at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. It turned very dark in color. Founa: © = 11.09; H 3.04; P = 26.85 per ct: Both carbon and phosphorus are higher than required for phytic acid, CgpHo1027Ps. Calculated: C = 10.08; H = 3.36; P = 26.05 per ct. PREPARATION OF THE SUBSTANCE FROM CORN AS A CRYSTALLINE BARIUM SALT. A larger quantity of corn meal was extracted with 0.2 per ct. hydrochloric acid, the extract filtered and precipitated by adding a concentrated solution of barium chloride. The precipitate was then purified and crystallized in the manner described for cotton- seed meal in the preceding article. After the substance had been separated from dilute hydrochloric acid solutions twelve times (eleven times in crystalline form) it was obtained as a beautitul snow-white, bulky crystalline powder which weighed 49 grams. The crystal form was identical with that of the barium salts from cottonseed meal and oats, i. e. globular masses of microscopic needles. The substance was free from chlorides and inorganic phosphate and we were unable to detect any metals other than barium. For analysis it was dried at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. 0.4101 gram subst. gave 0.0607 gram H.O and 0.0985 gram COkz. 0.1477 gram subst. gave 0.1035 gram BaSO, and 0.0860 gram Meg.P207. Found: C = 6.55; H = 1.65; P = 16.23; Ba — 41.23 per ct. A portion of this salt was recrystallized as follows: 5 grams were dissolved in a small quantity of 3 per ct. hydrochloric acid; barium hydroxide was carefully added until a slight permanent precipitate remained; the solution was filtered and a concentrated solution of 2 grams barium chloride added. The perfectly clear solution was allowed to stand at room temperature for about 2 days when the 342 Rrrort or THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE substance separated slowly in the usual form. It was filtered, washed free of chlorides with water and then in alcohol and ether and dried in the air; yield 4.5 grams. The substance gave no reaction with ammonium molybdate. It was analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. 0.4770 gram subst. lost 0.0561 gram HO. 0.1767 gram subst. lost 0.0209 gram H,0. 0.4209 gram subst. gave 0.0491 gram H.O and 0. 0931 gram COs. 0.3616 gram subst. gave 0.0427 gram H.O and 0.0832 gram COs. 0.1553 gram subst. gave 0.1110 gram BaSO, and 0.0907 gram Mge2P.0;. Found: I. C=6.03; H —1.30; P — 16.28; Ba = 42.06 per ct. aCe 627, El H,O = 11.76 and 11.82 per ct. For heptabarium inosite hexaphosphate (CsH1OuP¢)2Ba7 = 2267. Calculated: C = 6.35; H = 0.97; P = 16.40; Ba = 42.39 per ct For 16 H.O calculated: 11.27 per ct. This recrystallized salt was again recrystallized as follows: it was dissolved in a small quantity of 3 per ct. hydrochloric acid, filtered and diluted with a small quantity of water. Alcohol was then added until a faint permanent cloudiness remained. On standing at room temperature the substance soon began to crystallize in the usual form except that the crystals were much smaller. After standing over night it was filtered, washed in dilute alcohol, alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. The product was a snow-white, fine crystalline powder. It gave no reaction for chlorides and none for inorganic phosphate. It was analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. 0.3719 gram subst. gave 0.0465 gram H,0 and 0.0887 gram COs. 0.1780 gram subst. gave 0.1187 gram BaSO, and 0.1091 gram MgP20;. Found: C = 6.50; H = 1.40; P = 17.08; Ba = 39.14 per ct. For tribarium inosite hexaphosphate, CsHi2024PsBa; = 1066. Calculated: C = 6.75; H =1.12; P =17.44; Ba = 38.65 per ct. PREPARATION OF THE FREE ACID. The acid was prepared in the usual way from about 4 grams of the crystalline barium salt. After drying in vacuum over sulphuric acid it was obtained as a thick, very faintly amber-colored syrup. In appearance and reactions it corresponded exactly with the acids New Yorr AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 343 prepared from the crystalline barium salts which have been described previously. A portion of the above dried acid dissolved in water and acidified with nitric acid gave no precipitate after warming for some time with ammonium molybdate solution. For analysis the preparation was dried first for ten days in vacuum over sulphuric acid at room temperature and then at 78° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide to constant weight. The color did not change by drying in vacuum at room temperature but at 78° the color darkened somewhat. 0.3405 gram subst. gave 0.0919 gram H,O and 0.1356 gram CO). 0.1796 gram subst. gave 0.1754 gram MegsP20;. Pom: ©. — 1h86;, hi —— 3-028 —_ 27.22 perch, For inosite hexaphosphate, CgHisO2Ps == 660. Calculated: C — 10.90; H == 2.72; P = 28.18 per ct. For phytic acid, CsH2sO27P. = 714. Calculated: C = 10.08; H = 3.36; P = 26.05 per ct. 844 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF BARIUM PHYTATE | AND PHYTIC ACID FROM COMMERCIAL PHYTIN AND A STUDY OF THE PROPERTIES OF PHYTIC ACID AND ITS DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS. In previous reports from this laboratory it has been shown that the organic phosphoric acids existing in cottonseed meal,! oats? and corn? yield identical crystalline barium salts which differ in composition from the corresponding, so-called, barium phytates. The free organic phosphoric acids, isolated from these crystalline barium salts, although identical so far as analyses are concerned, differ in composition from phytic acid. These crystalline salts had all been carefully purified by repeated recrystallizations and it appears, therefore, reasonable to believe that they were purer than any previously described barium phytate. In so far as one may judge by crystal form, composition and reactions the above compounds are identical and are salts of an acid of the formula, CoHgOsPs or CeHisOaxPs. If the latter be the correct formula, which appears probable, then it differs from the phytic acid formula of Neuberg,* CsH2sOo7Ps, by three molecules of water, which is also the difference between phytic acid and inosite hexaphosphate. Previously we have reported® numerous salts of phytic acid prepared from commercial phytin. These salts, however, were mostly amorphous and particularly the barium salts, with one exception, were not obtained in crystalline form. These amorphous compounds gave results on analyses which corresponded closely with percentages calculated on the basis of the usual formula for phytic acid, viz: CsHeOe7Ps. In dealing with amorphous sub- stances, however, some doubt may be felt as to their being homo- geneous products. Since the crystalline salts mentioned above differ in composition from compounds calculated on the usual formula for phytic acid we are forced to the conclusion, either that the organic phosphoric acid existing in cottonseed meal, oats and corn is different and dis- tinct from phytic acid or else that the formula of phytic acid itself is wrong, having possibly been based upon analytical data of some- what impure preparations. It seemed of importance to determine whether any real difference exists between the barium salts of phytic acid prepared from com- mercial phytin and the crystalline salts obtained from cottonseed 1 Journ. Biol. Chem. 13:311, 1912, and N.Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Tech. Bull. 25, 1912. and also preceding article. 2 See preceding article. 3 See preceding article. 4 Biochem. Zeitschr. 9:551, 557, 1908. 5 Jour. Biol. Chem. 11:471, 1912, and 12:97, 1912, and N.Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Tech. Bull. 19 and 21, 1912. New York AGRICULTURAL ExprERIMENT STATION. 345 meal, oats and corn. We have, therefore, re-examined the com- mercial phytin using some of the same preparation as before. After carefully purifying the barium salt of the substance we found that it crystallized very readily and no difference could be observed either in crystal form, composition or reactions, of the salts prepared in this way, from the crystalline salts previously referred to. All of these compounds are therefore identical and the analytical data indicate that they are salts of the acid C2H,OsP. or CegH1s0o4Ps. The composition, as determined by analysis, of the free acid prepared from the crystalline barium phytate also agrees more closely with the above formulas than with the usual formula of phytic acid, CsH2s027Ps. The phosphorus was found too low in this case as well as in the acids previously described. This, however, is undoubt- edly due to the fact that the acid is largely hydrolyzed on drying. It appears very probable then that the organic phosphoric acid described above and known as phytic acid is either inosite hexa- phosphate, CsHisOuPs, or else an isomer of the same. We have, however, no direct information concerning the molecular magnitude of the acid. We have endeavored to prepare a neutral ester of the acid with which molecular weight determinations might be made, but so far these attempts have failed. By acting on the silver salt of the acid, suspended in absolute methyl alcohol, with methyl iodide, an ester is formed but it apparently suffers partial decomposition in drying. Moreover we have been unable to prepare a neutral silver salt. Only acid silver salts have been obtained even from solutions of phytic acid neutralized with ammonia. From such salts, naturally, only acid esters could be obtained. As has been pointed out by Starkenstein,® which observation we have confirmed,’ apparently only one-half of the acid hydroxyls of phytic acid are particularly reactive. Some of the acid hydroxyls appear to be very weak. It is no doubt due to this fact that from a neutral solution of ammonium phytate only acid silver salts are precipitated with silver nitrate. Starkenstein * reported that the commercial phytin which he had examined contained relatively large quantities of inorganic phosphate and that it also contained free inosite and he concluded that the substance undergoes spontaneous decomposition. He also found that after drying the preparation at 100° the greater portion of the phosphorus was present as inorganic phosphate. These results, so far as the formation of inosite on mere drying is concerned, we could not confirm? in the phytin preparations 5 Biochem. Zeitschr. 30:65, 1910. 7 Journ. Biol. Chem. 11: 475, 1912, and N.Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 19, 1912. 8 Loc. cit., pp. 59 and 60. *Journ. Biol. Chem. 11:473, 1912, and N.Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 19, 1912. 346 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE which we had on hand. From a sample of commercial phytin which had been in our laboratory for several years we could not isolate a trace of inosite either before or after drying at 115°. At that time we made no effort to determine the increase in inorganic phosphate on drying at 100° or higher. Observations made since then, however, have shown without any doubt that phytin undergoes spontaneous decomposition when kept under ordinary conditions at room temperature. Both the salts and the free acid decompose slowly, with liberation of inorganic phosphate. The free acid decomposes much faster than the salts. We have also found that a very perceptible increase in inorganic phosphate occurs on drying at 105° in vacuum. In this case also the free acid decomposes to a greater extent than the salts. Although notable quantities of inorganic phosphoric acid are liberated from phytic acid and its salts under the above conditions, we have again been unable to demonstrate the presence of inosite as one of the spontaneous decomposition products. In this con- nection we especially examined a specimen of phytic acid which had been kept in the laboratory for about 18 months. The prepara- tion had been kept in a glass-stoppered bottle at ordinary tempera- ture but at no time had it been exposed to direct sunlight. When first prepared the acid was a practically colorless, thick syrup con- taining about 20 per ct. of water and it gave no reaction with ammonium molybdate. It darkened gradually in color and when examined the color was quite black. Analysis showed that about one-eighth of the total phosphorus was present in the form of inor- ganic phosphoric acid. A quantity of this preparation corresponding to 10 grams of the dry acid was examined for inosite but no trace of this substance could be found although the preparation should have contained about 0.3 gram of inosite had the organic radical corresponding to the free inorganic phosphoric acid present separated in the form of inosite. Since the organic part of the phytic acid radical had not separated as inosite under the above conditions of spontaneous decomposition it appeared of interest to determine, if possible, what product or products had been formed and in what manner the decomposition had occurred. While we are unable to answer these questions fully at this time, the results would indicate that, under the above conditions, the phytic acid undergoes only partial decomposition with formation of penta- or tetra-phosphoric acid esters of inosite and free phosphoric acid. The aqueous solution of the above partially decomposed phytic acid was precipitated with barium hydroxide. The barium pre- cipitate was freed from inorganic phosphate in our usual way, 1. e. by precipitating its dilute hydrochloric acid solution with alcohol until the product gave no reaction with the ammonium molybdate New York AGrRicuLtturAL ExprerRIMENT Station. 347 reagent. The final product was a white, amorphous powder. We succeeded in separating this substance into two portions, one a crystalline salt showing all the characteristics and composition of unchanged barium phytate and a second amorphous portion which, judging by analysis, was probably a mixture of the barium salts of inosite penta- and tetra-phosphate. Since no inosite could be isolated from this preparation, although it had been standing for 18 months and had undergone con- siderable decomposition, it would seem that a very long time would be required for complete decomposition, i. e., until free inosite were present. On drying a sample of the same acid at 105° for 48 hours under diminished pressure, however, the decomposition products isolated were found to be quite different. In this case we found that about 75 per ct. of the phosphorus was present as inorganic phosphoric acid and we were unable to isolate any unchanged barium phytate. Apparently all of the phytic acid had been partially decomposed and some of it completely, for we obtained 0.25 gram of inosite from 10 grams of the acid after drying as above. The organic phosphoric acid or acids remaining undecomposed were isolated as barium salts. None of these, how- ever, could be obtained in pure form. But by taking advantage of their varying solubilities in water and mixtures of acidulated water and alcohol we were able to separate it into four fractions. All of these fractions had different composition and it would appear probable that they represent more or less impure mixtures of the barium salts, of tetra-, tri-, di-, and mono-phosphoric acid esters of inosite. When phytic acid has been completely dried at temperatures ranging from 60° to 105° we have noticed that it is not completely soluble in water. Some insoluble substance separates in thin gelatinous plates. We have not been able to obtain a sufficient quantity of this substance for a complete examination. Judging by the analysis of one small sample it is a complex decomposition product of phytic acid, possibly a partially dehydrated tri-phos- phoric acid ester of inosite. EXPERIMENTAL PART. PREPARATION OF THE CRYSTALLIZED BARIUM PHYTATE. A sample of the same commercial phytin as formerly examined was transformed into the barium salt as follows: 50 grams of the substance were suspended in about 1500 cubic centimeters of water and dissolved by the careful addition of dilute hydrochloric acid. Barium hydroxide was then added to slight alkaline reaction and the whole allowed to stand over night. The barium hydroxide used was Kahlbaum C. P. which had been recrystallized. The precipitate 348 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE was filtered and washed thoroughly in water. It was dissolved in the minimum quantity of about 3 per ct. hydrochloric acid, filtered and again precipitated with barium hydroxide. These operations were repeated four times. The substance was then precipitated from the same strength hydrochloric acid with alcohol. After thoroughly washing the precipitate with dilute alcohol it was again dissolved in 3 per ct. hydrochloric acid and _ precipi- tated a fifth time with barium hydroxide. The dilute hydro- chloric acid solution of the substance was then twice precipitated with alcohol. After finally filtering, the precipitate was washed free of chlorides with dilute alcohol and then washed in alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. The substance was then a snow-white amorphous powder. The dry powder was rubbed up in a mortar with a small quantity of cold water. The insoluble portion changed into a semi-crystalline form after a short time. This was filtered and washed thoroughly in water. It was dissolved in the minimum quantity of 3 per ct. hydrochloric acid. A dilute solution of barium hydroxide was then added until a slight permanent precipitate remained which was nearly cleared up by the careful addition of dilute hydrochloric acid. The solution was filtered and allowed to stand over night. The substance soon began to separate in crystalline form. Under the microscope it appeared perfectly homogeneous and the crystal form was identical with that observed with the barium salts from cottonseed meal, oats and corn, 1. e. the substance crystallized in globular masses of microscopic needles. The substance was filtered off and washed free of chlorides with water and then in alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. To the mother-liquor a concentrated solution of 15 grams of barium chloride was added and allowed to stand for another 24 hours. A further quantity of the same-shaped crystals had then separated which were filtered, washed and dried as above. The two crystalline portions were united and recrystallized in the same manner and again dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. It was then dissolved in the same strength hydrochloric acid and precipitated by adding an equal volume of alcohol. The precipitate was amorphous at first but after st: anding a few hours it had changed into the crystalline form — identical with the above but the er ystals were much smaller. After standing over night it was filtered, washed free of chlorides with dilute alcohol and then in alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. The product was a snow-white, light, bulky crystalline powder. It weighed 24 grams. It was free “from chlorides and inorganic phosphate. In0.5 gram of the substance no bases other than barium could be detected. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 349 For analysis it was dried at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. 0.2931 gram subst. gave 0.0365 gram H,O and 0.0714 gram COs,. 0.1743 gram subst. gave 0.1144 gram BaSO, and 0.1073 gram Meg2P20;. Found: C = 6.64; H — 1.39; P — 17.15; Ba = 38.62 per ct. For tribarium inosite hexaphosphate C.Hi20.4P.Baz3 = 1066. Calculated: C == 6.75; H==1.12: P=17.44> Ba = 38.65 per ct. The above salt was recrystallized as follows: 5 grams were dis- solved in the least possible quantity of about 3 per ct. hydrochloric acid and the free acid nearly neutralized by the careful addition of barium hydroxide until a faint permanent precipitate remained. The solution was then allowed to stand over night. The substance had then separated in the same crystal form as before. It was filtered, washed free of chlorides with water and then in alcohol and ether and allowed to dry in the air. The product was a heavy, crystalline, snow-white powder. Its dilute nitric acid solution gave no reaction with ammonium molyb- date. For analysis it was dried in vacuum over Sie ee pentoxide at; 105°: 0.5772 gram subst. gave 0.0642 gram H,O. 0.2124 gram subst. gave 0.0234 gram HO. 0.5130 gram subst. gave 0.0547 gram HO and 0.1180 gram CQ). 0.1887 gram subst. gave 0.1848 gram BaSO, and 0.1098 gram MegeP207. Hound. © —— 0.27 +. ot, — 1 Oe Pe 16:22. ba —— 42/05.. Ho) —— 11.12 and 11.01 per ct. For heptabarium inosite hexaphosphate: (CgH110o4P¢)2Baz or Cy2HeeO1.gP12Ba7 = = Dd GY Calculated: C = 6.35; H —0.97; P = 16.40; Ba = 42.39 per ct. For 16H,O calculated = 11.27 per ct. PREPARATION OF THE FREE ACID. The acid was prepared from 5 grams of the first crystalline barium salt in the usual way, 1. e., the substance was suspended in water and the barium removed by a slight excess of dilute sulphuric acid, filtered and the filtrate precipitated with excess of copper acetate. The copper precipitate was filtered, washed thoroughly in water, suspended in water and the copper removed with hydrogen sulphide. The filtrate was then evaporated to small bulk in vacuum at a tem- perature of 40° to 45° and finally dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. There remained a practically colorless, thick syrup. The 350 Report OF THE DEPARTMENT oF CHEMISTRY OF THE dilute aqueous solution of the acid gave no reaction for inorganic phosphoric acid with ammonium molybdate; the concentrated aqueous solution gave a pure white, crystalline precipitate with ammonium molybdate which, standing at room temperature, remained unchanged for many months but which quickly turned yellowish in color on heating. The reactions of the acid with bases were identical with those previously reported. For analysis it was dried in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide to constant weight at the temperature of boiling alcohol. In drying at this temperature the color darkened somewhat. 0.3830 gram subst. gave 0.1106 gram H.O and 0.1517 gram COy. 0.1889 gram subst. gave 0.1802 gram Mg»P.O;. Found: C — 10:80; H 3.23; P= 27.31 per ct. For inosite hexaphosphate CyHisO0o,P. = 660. Calculated: C = 10.90; H = 2.72; P = 28.18 per ct. For phytic acid according to Neuberg, CgH2sO27Ps = 714. Calculated: C = 10.08; H 3.36; P = 26.05 per ct. CONCERNING SOME CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PHYTIC ACID. SPONTANEOUS LIBERATION OF INORGANIC PHOSPHORIC ACID AT ORDINARY TEMPERATURE AND ON DRYING. Freshly prepared phytic acid is a practically colorless syrup — especially when, in the concentration of its aqueous solution, the temperature is not allowed to rise above 50°. When the acid has been prepared from a pure salt, free from inorganic phosphate, the free acid does not give any reaction with ammonium molybdate for inorganic phosphoric acid. Whenever such colorless specimens of phytic acid are preserved for any length of time the color always darkens. The change in color is more rapid when the concentrated aqueous solution is allowed to stand exposed to the air or preserved in a well stoppered bottle, than when the acid is kept in the desic- cator; but even under the latter condition the color gradually deepens to light yellow, deep yellow, light brown and finally, after several months, to dark brown or black. When the acid is dried for analysis either in vacuum or in an air bath the color darkens very materially ina short time, especially when dried at 100° or higher. When dried at a temperature of 60° or 78° in vacuum the color darkens somewhat, but very slightly in comparison with that produced at higher temperatures. Patten and Hart asserted that the acid turned dark in color on drying at 110° without undergoing any decomposition. As mentioned by Vorbrodt "= the grounds for this statement are not 10 Am. Chem. Journ. 31:570, 1904. " Anzeiger Akad. Wiss. Krakau, 1910, Series A, p. 484. New York AGRICULTURAL ExpreRIMENT Station. 351 quite clear. A striking change in color such as phytic acid suffers in drying or on mere keeping either in the desiccator or under ordinary conditions would very likely indicate a more or less serious decomposition. In order to determine to what extent decomposition occurs it was decided to make a series of inorganic phosphoric acid determina- tions by the usual molybdate method on phytic acid preparations before and after drying. While absolute accuracy could hardly be expected or claimed for this method, at least comparable results would be obtained when the precipitations were done under similar conditions. One portion of the acid was dried at 105° in vacuum over phos- phorus pentoxide to constant weight. It was then dissolved in water, neutralized with ammonia, acidified with nitric acid, ammonium nitrate added and heated to 65°. Ammonium molybdate was then added and kept at above temperature for 1 hour. The precipitate was then determined as magnesium pyrophosphate in the usual way. Another portion was treated in the same manner without drying, the amount of moisture found on drying as above being deducted from the weight taken. The acid analyzed on page 32 was used for the first determinations. The fresh preparation, dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid as described, contained about 15 per ct. of water and it gave no reaction with ammonium molybdate. It was allowed to stand in the labora- tory at summer temperature (about 80° or 90° Fahr.) in a loosely covered dish for three or four weeks. The color had then changed to light brown. On drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide for about 24 hours to constant weight it lost about 22 per ct. of its weight, showing that it had absorbed about 7 per ct. of water during this time. The acid, page 32, contained 27.31 per ct. of phosphorus. The dried preparation gave the following as inor- ganic phosphate: 0.2508 gram dry subst. gave 0.0696 gram Mg:P.0;, equivalent to 7.73 per ct. phosphorus or 28.30 per ct. of the total phosphorus was precipitated as inorganic phosphoric acid. Before drying: 0.1889 gram (dry subst. calculated) gave 0.0039 gram Mg,P.0;, equivalent to 0.57 per ct. of phosphorus or 2.08 per ct. of total phosphorus. As will be noticed from the above figures, 26.2 per ct. of the total phosphorus had been hydrolyzed by drying at 105° for about 24 hours. An old sample of phytic acid which had been kept in the laboratory for about 18 months was examined in the same manner. It was practically black in color. It lost about 22 per ct. of its weight on 352 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE drying as above for about 20 hours. After decomposing by the Neumann method it was found to contain 27.68 per ct. of phosphorus. The dry preparation gave the following: 0.2348 gram dry subst. gave 0.0733 gram Mg:P.0; equivalent to 8.70 per ct. of phosphorus, or 31.43 per ct. of the total phosphorus was present as inorganic phosphoric acid. Before drying: 0.2651 gram (dry subst. calculated) gave 0.0295 gram Mg»P20, equivalent to 3.10 per ct. of phosphorus or 11.19 per ct. of the total phosphorus had been hydrolyzed in about 18 months under ordinary room conditions. In the above case about 20.2 per ct. of the total phosphorus had been hydrolyzed on drying at 105° for about 20 hours. A sample of the pure recrystallized barium phytate was examined for inorganic phosphoric acid in the same way. The fresh preparation gave no reaction with ammonium molybdate. After standing in the laboratory for five or six weeks the following results were obtained: After drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide 0.2108 gram subst. gave 0.0104 gram MgP.0;7 equivalent to 1.37 per ct. of phosphorus. Before drying: 0.2060 gram (dry subst. calculated) gave 0.0030 gram Mg)P2.07 equivalent to 0.40 per ct. of phosphorus. By drying at 105° the inorganic phosphorus increased about 24 times. A portion of the inorganic phosphoric acid found in the above determinations was probably due to cleavage of the phytic acid by the dilute nitric acid. Such cleavage appears to take place slowly and uniformly as shown by the following experiment: Another portion (0.1876 gram subst.) of the same barium phytate without previous drying gave 0.0022 gram Mg»P.O; after heating one hour with the ammonium molybdate, or 0.32 per ct. imorganic phos- phorus; after heating the solution 4 hour more 0.0010 gram Mg»P,0, was obtained; further heating for 1 hour gave 0.0022 gram Mg,P.0,7 and a fourth hour heating gave 0.0040 gram MgyP,O0;. The total inorganic phosphorus obtained after heating 33 hours as above was 1.39 per ct. The results indicate that the cleavage under these conditions is slow and that it proceeds at a very uniform rate. EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE WHETHER INOSITE IS FORMED IN THE SPONTANEOUS DECOMPOSITION OF PHYTIC ACID. The sample of old phytic acid previously referred to was used. As shown by the analysis on page 34, the preparation contained 3.10 per ct. inorganic phosphorus. Of this acid, 12.8 grams (corre- New York AgaricutturaL ExpertmMent Station. 353 sponding to 10 grams of the dry substance) were dissolved in about 500 cubic centimeters of water and barium hydroxide (Kahlbaum, alkali free) added to slight alkaline reaction. The precipitate was filtered and washed several times in water. The barium precipitate was reserved for special examination. The filtrate was examined for inosite as follows: The excess of barium hydroxide was precipitated with carbon dioxide, filtered and evaporated on the water bath nearly to dryness. The residue was taken up in a few cubic centimeters of hot water, filtered from a small amount of barium carbonate and the filtrate mixed with aleohol and ether and allowed to stand for several days in the ice chest. A trace of a white amorphous precipitate had separated but absolutely no inosite crystals appeared. In case the organic part of the phytic acid molecule, corresponding to the inorganic phosphoric acid present, had separated as inosite the above quantity, 10 grams, should have contained about 0.3 gram of inosite and such a quantity could not have escaped detection. Since no inosite could be isolated it seems fair to assume that under the above conditions of spontaneous decomposition phytic acid does not decompose into inosite and phosphoric acid but into phos- phoric acid + some unknown substance. EXAMINATION OF THE ABOVE BARIUM PRECIPITATE. In the hope of throwing some light upon the nature of this un- known substance the barium precipitate obtained on the addition of barium hydroxide was examined as follows: It was rubbed up with about 400 cubic centimeters of 0.5 per et. hydrochloric acid and brought into solution by the careful addition of dilute hydrochloric acid. After filtering, it was precipitated by adding an equal volume of alcohol. The precipitate was filtered, washed in dilute alcohol, dissolved in 0.5 per ct. hydrochloric acid and reprecipitated by barium hydroxide. The substance was then precipitated twice from 0.5 per ct. hydrochloric acid with alcohol, finally filtered, washed in dilute alcohol, alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. A white amorphous powder was obtained which weighed 14 grams. It was free from chlorides and inorganic phosphate. After drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide the following results were obtained. Found: C==7.83; H — 1.46; P= 16.72; Ba = 36.96 per ct. The carbon found is much too high for a pure barium phytate. PREPARATION OF CRYSTALLIZED BARIUM PHYTATE FROM THE ABOVE AMORPHOUS BARIUM SALT. The substance was rubbed up in a mortar with about 150 cubic centimeters of cold water and allowed to stand for several hours. 23 354 Report oF THE DErpARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE The insoluble portion was changed slowly into a semi-crystalline precipitate. It was filtered and washed in water and then recrystal- lized as follows: It was dissolved in a small quantity of about 3 per ct. hydrochloric acid, the free acid nearly neutralized with barium hydroxide; a concentrated solution of 10 grams of barium chloride was added, the solution filtered and alcohol added gradually with constant shaking until a slight permanent cloudiness was produced. On standing the substance crystallized slowly in the usual crystal form, i. e., in globular masses of microscopic needles. After two days the crystals were filtered off, washed free of chlorides in water and then in alcohol and ether and dried in the air. Yield 4.5 grams. The substance gave no reaction with ammonium molybdate. A further quantity of the same-shaped crystals was obtained from the aqueous solution containing the water-soluble portion of the amorphous salt by adding to it 2.5 grams barium chloride and allowing to stand over night. The balance of the water-soluble portion of the substance was recovered by precipitating with an equal volume of alcohol. The resulting precipitate was filtered, washed free of chlorides with dilute alcohol, aleohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. Yield 4.1 grams. These substances were analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. The recrystallized salt gave the following results: Round. © —— 6.29) 28) IP a2 a 4 11.81 per ct. The crystalline salt which separated from the aqueous solution gave C=647;' H = 2.23;'P = 15.95; Ba = 42:77? H,0 = 12:62 per ct! These substances are therefore nearly pure heptabarium salts of inosite hexaphosphate. Calculated for (CgH1OuP.)2Barz === 22Bs. C = 6.35; H — 0.97; P = 16.40; Ba — 42.39 per ct. The water-soluble substance precipitated with alcohol gave the following: Found: C = 8.58; H = 1.62; P= 15.86; Ba = 38.28 per ct: This substance was again treated with about 100 cubic centimeters of cold water, the insoluble portion filtered off and the filtrate, after adding 1 gram of barium chloride, precipitated with alcohol. After washing in dilute alcohol, alcohol and ether and drying in vacuum over sulphuric acid 1.4 grams of a white amorphous substance was New York AGricutTurRAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 355 obtained. For analysis it was dried at 105° in vacuum over phos- phorus pentoxide. Found: © = 8.08; H = 1.68; P — 15:64; Ba — 39.75 per ct. This water-soluble substance apparently represents a mixture of the barium salts of penta- and tetraphosphoric acid esters of inosite. CONCERNING THE DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS OF PHYTIC ACID AFTER DRYING AT 105° UNDER REDUCED PRESSURE. The specimen of old phytic acid previously examined was used; 12.8 grams (corresponding to 10 grams dry acid) was dried at 105° for about 48 hours over sulphuric acid under slightly reduced pres- sure. It was then dissolved in about 200 c.c. of cold water. The solution was practically black in color and contained particles of carbonized material. It was decolorized by shaking with animal charcoal. The clear, colorless solution was then precipitated with barium hydroxide to slight alkaline reaction, the precipitate filtered and washed in water and reserved for examination. The filtrate and washings were freed from barium with carbon dioxide and evaporated on the water bath to dryness. The residue was taken up in a small amount of hot water and filtered. On adding a little alcohol a heavy voluminous white amorphous precipitate was pro- duced. This was removed from the solution by adding about 3 volumes of alcohol. The precipitate settled, leaving a clear super- natant liquid; adding more alcohol produced no further precipitate. It was then filtered and washed in alcohol and the filtrate reserved After drying, the above precipitate was obtained as a heavy, white amorphous powder. It was free from inorganic phosphorus but contained barium and after combustion the ash gave a heavy yellow precipitate with ammonium molybdate. This substance was purified as will be described later. The filtrate from the above precipitate was again evaporated on the water bath nearly to dryness, taken up in hot water, filtered and mixed with alcohol and ether. On scratching with a glass rod a substance began to crystallize in needles. It was allowed to stand in the ice chest over night. The crystals were then filtered, washed in alcohol and ether and dried in the air. Yield 0.25 gram. The substance was recrystallized four times in the same manner and was finally obtained in colorless needles free from water of crystallization. It gave the reaction of Scherer and melted at 222° (uncorrected). It was, therefore, no doubt pure inosite. This was further confirmed by the analysis: 0.1215 gram subst. gave 0.0737 gram H.O and 0.1780 gram COQ,. Found: C = 39.95; H = 6.78 per ct. For C5H120¢ = 180. Calculated: C = 40.00; H = 6.66 per ct. 356 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE PURIFICATION OF THE BARIUM AND PHOSPHORUS CONTAINING PRECIPI- TATE REMOVED FROM THE INOSITE SOLUTION WITH ALCOHOL. The substance mentioned above, precipitated with alcohol, was apparently the barium salt of an organic phosphoric acid but it differed in solubility from any other salt of this nature previously observed. It was very soluble in water and was not precipitated from the aqueous solution by barium hydroxide. The dry sub- stance weighed 1.2 grams. It was dissolved in a small quantity of water, a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid added and 10 cubic centimeters of %/; barium chloride. The solution was heated to boiling and alcohol added until a slight cloudiness was produced. On standing in the cold over night a small amount of a hard crust had separated on the bottom of the flask. This was removed and the solution again heated and more alcohol added when a further quantity separated in the same way. The substance was finally filtered and washed thoroughly in 80 per ct. alcohol, alcohol and ether and dried in the air. Without further purification the sub- stance was analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. Found::\C = 20.03; H —3:58;.P.—8.53.Ba — 25-559 per ch. The small quantity precluded recrystallization and we are there- fore unable to state whether the substance was pure. The analytical result indicates that it was a barium salt of inosite monophosphate and agrees approximately with this formula: CisH3;027P3Bae ==(1,051.; Calculated: C = 20.55; H —3.33; P = 8.84; Ba = 26.16 per ct. Such a salt could be represented by the following formula: CsHn0, — P=09" >Ba C:Hn0;—P=0 9 >Ba CHO; — P=0 4 EXAMINATION OF THE PRECIPITATE PRODUCED WITH BARIUM HYDROXIDE AFTER DRYING THE ABOVE ACID. A portion of the barium precipitate was dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid and then examined for total and inorganic phosphorus in the same way as before: Found: Total phosphorus (by Neumann method) 9.98 per ct. Found: Inorganic phosphorus 7.46 per ct. New Yorxk AcaricutturaL ExprrrMent Station. 357 As will be noticed from these figures 74.76 per ct. of the phos- phorus was present as inorganic phosphoric acid. The substance was freed from inorganic phosphate by precipitating four times with alcohol from 0.5 per ct. hydrochloric acid. After finally drying in vacuum over sulphuric acid 3.2 grams of a snow- white, amorphous powder was obtained. The substance was free from chlorides and inorganic phosphate. It was shaken up with about 75 cubic centimeters of cold water in which the greater portion dissolved; 10 cubic centimeters of %/; barium chloride was added and allowed to stand for several hours; the insoluble portion was then filtered off, washed free of chlorides with water and then in alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. It weighed 0.65 gram. The filtrate from above containing the water-soluble portion of the substance was acidified with a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid, heated to boiling and alcohol added until a slight permanent cloudiness remained. On standing over night, a portion had sepa- rated in the form of a heavy, granular powder. Under the micro- scope no definite crystal form could be observed but it appeared to consist of transparent globules. It was filtered off, washed free of chlorides in 30 per ct. alcohol, alcohol and ether and dried in the air. Yield 0.67 gram. It was free from inorganic phosphate. The mother-liquor from above was precipitated with alcohol. After settling, the precipitate was filtered, washed with dilute alcohol, alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. Yield 1.55 grams. The substance was a snow-white, amorphous powder. It was free from chlorides and inorganic phosphate. These three different portions were analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. The water-insoluble portion gave C = 9.40; H = 1.65; P = 13.76; Ba = 39.56 per ct. Judging by the analysis this substance consists mainly of the barium salt of inosite tetraphosphate. The granular powder which separated from the hot dilute hydro- ae acid solution and alcohol on cooling gave the following result: C=12.70; H=2.40; P=13.84; Ba—32.29; H.O 12.77 per ct. ! This substance appears to be mainly the barium salt of inosite -triphosphate, although not pure. It was mixed probably with some barium salt of inosite diphosphate. The water-soluble portion precipitated with alcohol gave: C = 14.07; H = 2.31; P = 12.92; Ba = 33.04 per ct. 358 -Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE Deducting the barium found, allowing for hydrogen and water, and calculating to the free acid these results became: C= 20.88; B.— 4.11; P= 19,16-per ict. This is approximately the composition of inosite diphosphate, CeHuO12P2 —— 340. Calculated: C = 21.17; H = 4.11; P = 18.28 per ct. That these substances, separated from the partially decomposed phytic acid, are inosite esters of phosphoric acid and not conden- sation or other decomposition products is evident from the fact that on complete cleavage inosite is obtained. Unfortunately the amount of each of the above substances was too small to permit of examination in this direction except the last one, viz., the water- soluble product precipitated by alcohol and which analyzed for inosite diphosphate. The remainder (0.94 grams dry substance) was hydrolyzed with dilute sulphuric acid in a sealed tube at 150°- 160° for about 23 hours and the inosite isolated in the usual way. The amount of inosite obtained was 0.28 gram or about 88 per ct. of the theory. The substance gave the reaction of Scherer and melted at 222° (uncorrected) which leaves no doubt that it was pure inosite. It is evident that all of the barium precipitates described above are mixtures. It could hardly be expected that a complete sepa- ration into pure chemical compounds of the salts of these inosite esters could be effected by the method used. The analytical results, however, show that it is possible to isolate from partially decomposed phytic acid certain substances approximating in composition various phosphoric acid esters of inosite which on complete cleavage yield inosite just as does phytic acid itself. This fact, we believe, supports the view previously expressed that phytic acid suffers a gradual and partial decomposition, i. e., molecules of phosphoric acid are eliminated one by one. We believe also that these facts taken in connection with the formation of inosite from phytic acid on mere drying at 105° must be considered as a strong support of the theory that phytic acid is inosite hexaphosphate and not some complex compound as previously held. ATTEMPT TO PREPARE A METHYL ESTER OF PHYTIC ACID. The silver salt previously described as hepta-silver phytate ” was used. Of this salt, 5.4 grams were suspended in 100 cubic centimeters of absolute methyl alcohol and 4 grams of methy] iodide (a little over | the required amount) were added and the mixture shaken for several hours, the flask being protected from the light. At the end of this time the white silver phytate had changed into the yellow silver iodide. "Journ. Biol. Chem. 12:107, 1912, and N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 21, 1912. New York AacricuttTuraAL ExprriMent Strarion. 359 The precipitate was filtered off and washed several times in absolute methyl alcohol and the filtrate several times evaporated in vacuum to dryness under addition of methyl alcohol for the removal of the excess of methyl iodide. The residue was dissolved in methyl alcohol and evaporated to dryness in vacuum over sulphuric acid. The substance was then obtained as a light-yellow-colored, thick syrup of faint, aromatic odor. It was strongly acid in reaction and of sharp acid taste. For analysis it was dried in vacuum at 105° over phosphorus pentoxide. It then turned very dark in color. 0.1985 gram subst. gave 0.0608 gram H.O and 0.1016 gram COx. Found: C 13.95; H —3.42 per ct. This agrees with a dimethyl ester of phytic acid. For CeH16OuxP6(CHs)2 = 688. Calculated: C = 13.95; H = 3.19 per ct. THE WATER-INSOLUBLE SUBSTANCE WHICH SEPARATES FROM PHYTIC ACID AFTER DRYING. As has been mentioned earlier, phytic acid, which has been dried to constant weight in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide, is not completely soluble in water. We have observed this insoluble substance in many instances after drying phytic acid at 60°, at 78° and at 105°. It always separates, on adding water to the dry sub- stance, in thin gelatinous plates. It appears to be practically insoluble in hot or cold water. Continued boiling in acidulated water is necessary to dissolve it. It is also insoluble in alcohol and ether. In order to obtain some knowledge of the composition of this insoluble substance 2.7 grams of phytic acid, containing about 12 per ct. of moisture, were dried to constant weight at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. After treating with water the insoluble portion was filtered, washed thoroughly in water and finally in alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. It was then obtained as a dirty gray powder which weighed 0.23 gram. It was non-hygroscopic. For analysis it was dried at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide at which no change in color was noticeable. The substance was burned with copper oxide and the phosphorus determined in the ash. 0.2118 gram dry subst. gave 0.0569 gram H.O and 0. 1357 gram CO, and 0.1822 gram Mge2P.0;. Found: C = 17.47; H = 3.00; P = 23.98 per ct. The quantity of the substance obtained was so small that it was only sufficient for one analysis. Of course, we are unable to state 360 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE whether it was homogeneous or not but the analytical results agree approximately with inosite triphosphate minus one molecule of water. The substance may therefore be a partial pyrophosphoric acid ester of inosite or it may represent some complex decomposition product of phytic acid. In conclusion we present a summary of the analytical results of the preceding crystalline barium salts in comparison with the calculated percentages required for the usual phytic acid formula and inosite hexaphosphate. TasBLeE I.— Barium SALtTs CRYSTALLIZED FROM DILUTE HYDROCHLORIC ACID BY THE ADDITION OF ALCOHOL. Found Calculated for Tri- barium Tri- Com- inosite barium Cotte on Oats Corn | mercial | hexaphos-| phytate phytin | phate CeHisOn- | CsHi2Ou- P;Bas. 1 sBas. Per ct. Per ct: | Per ct. || Perict: Per ct. Per ct. Cees ES ae 6.61, 6.59 6.50 6.50 6.64 6.75 6.42 He, eo ae 1.34, 1.44 1.56 1.40 1.39 1.12 1.60 Dish ee tons Bs ya §: 16.91, 17.08 17.00 17.08 17.15 17.44 16.60 Bate... 39.57, 38.79 | 38.01 39.14} 38.62 38 .65 36.78 TaBLeE II.— Barium SATs CrYSTALLIZED FROM DiLuTE HypRocHLoRIc ACID IN THE PRESENCE OF BARIUM CHLORIDE. Found Calculated for Hepta- barium Hepta- Com- inosite barium Corn | mercial | hexaphos-| phytate phytin phate (CsHi7O2;- (Cs-HnOx- Ps)2Baz Cottonseed meal Oats P;) Baz Per ct. Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. [OS een ets a 6.29, 6.03 6.23 6.27 6.27 6.35 6.06 Hels. \EGLE isis “iba 1 327 1232 1.19 0.97 1.43 PENT ee ee ey 16.54, 15.80 16.17 16.28 16.22 16.40 15.66 Dats 2 ee ee 42.06, 42.85 | 41.48 | 42.06 | 42.03 , 42.39 40.46 New York AaricutTuraAL Experiment Station. 361 TasLe III.— Tur Free Acips PREPARED FROM THE CRYSTALLINE Barium SALTS. Found Calculated for Phytic Tnosite acid Com- Cottonseed @ints Corn | mercial hexaphos- | according to meal . phate phytin CsHisOu- | Neuberg : P; C.H2»Oz- Ps. Per ct. Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. CAE Ea 10.68 10.82 10.86 10.80 10.90 10.08 Hegy; dregs i= 2 3.09 3.09 3.02 33,28} Dike 3.36 12s he: peer e Ze OGhl eet lenieieooul eat 28.18 26.05 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The author desires to express his appreciation and thanks to Dr. P. A. Levene of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York, N. Y., and to Dr. Thomas B. Osborne of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Conn., for many suggestions which have been of great value in carrying out this work. ORGANIC PHOSPHORIC ACIDS OF WHEAT BRAN.* R. J. ANDERSON. SUMMARY. I. The results of a more extensive investigation of the organic phosphoric acid compound of wheat bran completely confirm the results previously published in Technical Bulletin 22. Again it has been impossible to isolate any salts of phytic acid or inosite hexaphosphate. The amorphous barium salts obtained agree in composition with those previously reported. It appears probable, however, that these amorphous salts are not homogeneous but that they are mixtures of salts of various organic phosphoric acids. The isolation of definitely homogeneous compounds from this mixture has not succeeded. Attention is called to the rather large content of oxalates in the crude organic phosphoric acid compound and also to the high per- centage of inorganic phosphate contained in wheat bran. II. A previously unknown organic phosphoric acid, inosite monophosphate, C;H,;0,P, has been isolated in beautiful crystal- line form from wheat bran. All the salts of this acid, with the exception of the lead salt, are very soluble in cold water. The alkaline earth salts are not pre- cipitated with ammonia, differing in this respect from other known organic phosphoric acids as well as from ordinary phosphoric acid. I. CONCERNING THE ORGANIC PHOSPHORIC ACID COMPOUND OF WHEAT BRAN. II. (Ninth Paper on Phytin.) INTRODUCTION. It has been shown in a preliminary report! from this laboratory that the composition of the organic phosphoric acid isolated from wheat bran is different from that of phytic acid or inosite phosphoric acid which is present in other grains and seeds. Patten and Hart,? who first investigated this substance from wheat bran, came to the conclusion that it was identical with the “ anhydro-oxymethylene diphosphoric acid” of Posternak. The analysis which they report eiaee Biol. Chem. 12: 447 (1912); and N. Y. Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 22. 2 Amer. Chem. Journ. 31: 566. 1904. * Reprint of Technical Bulletin No. 36, July. [362] New York Acricutturat Exprriment Station. 363 of the acid preparation which they had isolated was in close agree- ment with the calculated composition of the above acid. We suggested in our earlier report® that the acid analyzed by the above authors must have been contaminated with inorganic phos- phorie acid because wheat bran contains appreciable quantities of inorganic phosphate and by their method of isolation both the organic and the inorganic phosphates would be precipitated at the same time. The substances which we prepared from wheat bran and analyzed! were free from inorganic phosphate, i. e., they gave no precipitate with ammonium molybdate solution. In order to obtain prepara- tions free from inorganic phosphate we found it necessary to precipi- tate the substance repeatedly from very dilute hydrochloric acid with about an equal volume of alcohol. By this process inorganic phosphates are removed because they are more soluble in the dilute acid-alcohol mixture than are the salts of the organic phosphoric acid. In this way we obtained a crude preparation of the organic phos- phorus compound which was readily soluble in cold water. Com- bined with it were various bases, calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, ete., and also some substance which contained nitrogen. By treating this crude substance in aqueous solution with barium hydroxide the above mentioned bases as well as the nitrogen- containing compound were eliminated. The resulting insoluble barium salts were amorphous and could not be obtained in crystalline form. These salts did not have the composition of barium phytates but agreed approximately with the formulas Ce;H;;O;,P>Ba; and Coo0H4;019P9Ba;; from both salts an acid was obtained which approxi- mately agreed with the formula CooHssO49P»._All the various prep- arations which were prepared in various ways agreed with the above formulas but since the substances were all amorphous we stated particularly’ that, ‘“‘ The empirical formulas suggested in this paper are of course purely tentative.” Although we begged to reserve the further study of this organic phosphoric acid compound as well as the nitrogen-containing sub- stance, Rather® in a recent paper reports some work on the same subject. This author had isolated some crude acid preparations from cottonseed meal and wheat bran from which silver salts were prepared. It is claimed that these silver precipitates are pure homogeneous compounds and that they are salts of an organic phosphoric acid of the formula CyHiOxwP>s. Since these results did not agree with those of any previous investigator in this field, 8Loe. cit. ‘Loc. cit. 5 Loe. cit. age” Amer. Chem. Soc. 35:890 (1913); and Texas Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 156. 913). 364 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE the author concludes that his results are the only correct ones; owing to his superior method of isolation and purification, ‘‘ purer ”’ products had been obtained and he proposes the formula Ciz2H1O.eP 9 as the correct one for phytic acid or inosite phosphoric acid. We have already shown’ that the above author is in error in respect to the composition of the acid in cottonseed meal. The carefully purified and many times recrystallized barium salts which we pre- pared from the acid from cottonseed meal had the composition of acid barium salts of imosite hexaphosphate, CsHi20uPsBas; and (CeH1,OuPs)2Ba7. The free acid prepared from these salts corre- sponds to inosite hexaphosphate, CeHisOaPs, and not to an acid of the formula CyH1O.P». The silver precipitates which we prepared from the above inosite hexaphosphate were pure white amorphous substances and very slightly sensitive to light. We showed,® however, that these silver precipitates are not homogeneous salts of inosite hexaphosphate but mixtures of more or less acid salts of the above acid. In again taking up the investigation of the organic phosphoric acid compounds of wheat bran we have first of all critically repeated our former work. The results completely confirm those reported in our earlier paper.’ We then repeated the work of Rather follow- ing his method of isolating the crude acid as closely as possible. The acid preparation obtained in this way was divided into two’ parts: One portion was used for the preparation of the silver salt as described by the above author; the other portion was transformed into the barium salt and purified in accordance with our previous method. The barium salts which were obtained in this way were found to agree very closely in composition with those previously reported, viz.: CoopH4;O49P9Ba; and not with salts of the acid CiHaOePs. The silver precipitates which were obtained from the crude acid varied in composition according to the method of preparation but in one case the substance had approximately the composition stated by Rather. A simple examination of these silver precipitates quickly revealed the fact, however, that they were not ‘“ pure homogeneous salts’ of an organic phosphoric acid of the formula CyxH1OwP, as claimed by the above author, but that they were largely contaminated with inorganic silver phosphate — varying from 42 to 90 per ct. In our first report” on this subject we called attention to the fact that wheat bran extracts contain relatively much inorganic phos- 7 Journ. Biol. Chem. 17: 141 (1914); and N. Y. Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 32. 1914). 8Tbid., p. 149. 9 Journ. Biol. Chem. 12:447 (1912); and N. Y. Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 22. (1912). 10 Loc. cit. New York AcricuntturaL Experiment Station. 365 phate. This part of our paper seems to have escaped the attention of Rather. This author, like Patten and Hart, has made no provision for eliminating inorganic phosphate in his method of isolating the organic phosphoric acid. Since inorganic and organic phosphoric acids are both present in the crude acid prepared in accordance with the methods of the above authors naturally the silver precipitates obtained from such an acid neutralized with ammonia must contain both inorganic and organic silver phosphates because both are only slightly soluble in neutral aqueous solution. Although the silver precipitates obtained from cottonseed meal and wheat bran may have approximately the same composition it is surprising that anyone could consider them identical; for so far as the most obvious physical property, viz., appearance, is concerned, they are entirely dissimilar. The silver precipitates from the inosite hexaphosphate from cottonseed meal are, as already mentioned, of pure white color and they are very slightly affected by light. The silver precipitates obtained from the acid from wheat bran, on the other hand, are only white at the moment of precipitation. These substances are either extremely sensitive to light or else the silver becomes reduced for the color rapidly darkens and finally turns quite black. Even when working under careful exclusion of direct light we have been unable to obtain a white silver preparation from the wheat bran compound. While the amorphous barium salts prepared, as will be described later, from the organic phosphorus compound of wheat bran, show a close agreement in composition with those reported previously"! we do not believe that they are homogeneous compounds. We have been able to separate these amorphous precipitates into several fractions some of which were semi-crystalline, but the composition was not constant. In no case, however, have we been able to obtain a trace of a salt having the composition of inosite hexaphosphate. From the results which we have obtained it appears probable that these amorphous barium precipitates are mixtures, probably of various organic phosphoric acids. Some of these are undoubtedly lower phosphoric acid esters of inosite but it is possible that phos- phoric acid esters of other carbohydrates are also present. Neither Patten and Hart nor Rather mention the presence of oxalic acid in the preparations from wheat bran which they examined. It would seem from our results, however, that the crude substance obtained by precipitating a dilute hydrochloric acid extract of wheat bran with alcohol contains rather large quantities of oxalates. The removal of this oxalate presented greater difficulties than the elimination of inorganic phosphate. As a barium salt oxalic acid is precipitated at every stage along with the salts of the organic phos- Loc. cit. 3866 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE phoric acid. It is likewise carried down in the precipitate obtained with copper acetate because copper oxalate is very slightly soluble. The complete removal of the barium oxalate from the other mixture of barium salts was finally secured by allowing it to crystallize out from a very dilute hydrochloric acid solution of the mixed salts. If the name “ phytin”’ is to be applied to certain salts of inosite hexaphosphate then it is evident that wheat bran does not contain phytin for we have been unable to isolate any salt of this acid from this material. It appears more probable that wheat bran contains several different organic phosphoric acids. So far we have been able to identify only one of these acids, viz., inosite monophosphate, a substance which will be described in a succeeding paper. EXPERIMENTAL PART. ISOLATION OF THE CRUDE ORGANIC PHOSPHORUS COMPOUND FROM WHEAT BRAN. A larger quantity of the crude natural organic phosphorus com- pound was prepared by precipitating a 0.2 per ct. hydrochloric acid extract of wheat bran with alcohol exactly as before. From 25 kilograms of wheat bran we obtained 222 grams of the crude compound as a nearly white amorphous powder. This substance had the following composition: C= 20.21; H=3.54; P=138.45; Mg = 8.20; K=5.23; Na=2.56; Ca=trace. Nitrogen was present but it was not determined. The substance was practically free from inorganic phosphate as it gave only a trace of a yellow precipi- tate on warming its nitric acid solution to 65° for a longer time with ammonium molybdate. Of the above substance, 50 grams were suspended in a small amount of water and dissolved by the addition of a little hydro- chloric acid. After diluting with water it was precipitated by adding barium hydroxide in excess. It was then filtered and thoroughly washed in water. PREPARATION OF THE NITROGEN-CONTAINING SUBSTANCE. The filtrate from the above was freed from excess of barium hydroxide with carbon dioxide, filtered and evaporated in vacuum at a temperature of 40°-45° to small bulk and again filtered from a small amount of barium carbonate. The concentrated solution was then poured into about 500 c.c. of aleohol. It separated as a some- what sticky mass which soon hardened. It was filtered, washed in alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. It weighed 7 grams. It was dissolved in a small amount of water and reprecipitated with alcohol, filtered, washed and dried as before. It was obtained as a nearly white amorphous powder. The substance was very New York Acricutturat Expertment Sration. 367 soluble in water and it was free from chlorides and inorganic phos- phate. It was analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. Found: C=39.22; H=5.48; N=14.26; amino N by the Van Slyke method = 0.999; Ba = 10.43; organic phosphorus after decom- posing by the Neumann method = 0.875; it also contained small quantities of magnesium, potash and soda. PREPARATION OF THE CRUDE BARIUM SALT OF THE ORGANIC PHOS- PHORUS COMPOUND. The insoluble precipitate obtained with barium hydroxide from the 50 grams of the crude substance was again precipitated three times with barium hydroxide from 0.5 per ct. hydrochloric acid and then four times with alcohol from the same strength hydro- chloric acid. The product was then a white amorphous powder and it weighed after drying in vacuum over sulphuric acid 22 grams. A preliminary experiment showed that when this substance was dissolved in a little 0.5 per ct. hydrochloric acid and then mixed with a concentrated solution of barium chloride and allowed to stand some crystalline precipitate separated. The whole of the above barium salt was therefore dissolved in the least possible amount of 0.5 per ct. hydrochloric acid; 5 grams of barium chloride dissolved in a little water was added and the whole allowed to stand for 24 hours. A heavy white crystalline powder had then separated. This was filtered and washed several times in water and finally in alcohol and ether and allowed to dry in the air. This crystalline substance was found later to consist principally of barium oxalate. It weighed 2.75 grams which is equal to 12.5 per ct. of the barium salt used. The filtrate, after removing the above crystals, was precipitated with alcohol, filtered, washed in dilute alcohol, alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. It was again dissolved in the minimum quantity of 0.5 per ct. hydrochloric acid, mixed with a solution of barium chloride and allowed to stand for 24 hours. A small amount of a crystalline precipitate had separated which was filtered off. The filtrate was again precipitated with alcohol, filtered, washed and dried as before. The dry substance was again dissolved in 0.5 per et. hydrochloric acid, barium chloride added and allowed to stand for 24 hours. The solution remained perfectly clear and no precipitate had separated. The substance was then precipitated with alcohol, filtered and washed, again dissolved in 0.5 per ct. hydrochloric acid and reprecipitated with alcohol. It was finally filtered, washed in dilute alcohol, alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. The product was a snow- white amorphous powder, free from chlorides and inorganic phos- 368 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE phate and the following results were obtained on analysis: C = 14.98; H = 2.46; P = 11.89; Ba = 31.64 per ct. The substance was quite soluble in cold water. It was therefore rubbed up in a mortar with a small quantity of water in which the greater portion dissolved. After standing over night the insoluble portion was filtered off, washed in water, alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. The water-soluble portion was precipitated with alcohol, filtered, washed in dilute alcohol, alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. After drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide the following results were obtained on analysis: The water-insoluble substance gave: C=12.58; H=2.02; P=10.06; Ba = 40.62 per ct. The water-soluble substance gave: C= 15.54; H =2.95; P = 12.30; Ba = 30.24 per ct. EXAMINATION OF THE CRYSTALLINE BARIUM OXALATE OBTAINED FROM THE DILUTE HYDROCHLORIC ACID SOLUTION OF THE ABOVE BARIUM SALT. The substance was analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide and the following result obtained: C = 6.25; H = 0.81; P= 0.95; Ba = 55.32 per ct. The phosphorus was present in organic combination. The ash was found to consist principally of barium carbonate. When some of the substance was heated with concentrated sulphuric acid a gas was liberated which caused a white precipitate of barium carbonate when led into barium hydroxide solution. Judging by the analysis and reactions the crystalline substance was an impure barium oxalate mixed with some of the barium salt of the organic phosphoric acid. The crude barium salt of the organic phosphoric acid first obtained contained therefore about 12 per ct. of barium oxalate. That the substance was barium oxalate was further confirmed by the following experiments: It was recrystallized several times from hot dilute hydrochloric acid by partially neutralizing with ammonia. It was then transformed into silver salt as follows: the barium oxalate was dissolved in a little hot dilute nitric acid, diluted with water and silver nitrate added which caused a heavy white granular precipitate. This was filtered off, washed in water, alcohol and ether and dried in the air. This substance showed all the properties of silver oxalate, viz: it was very insoluble in dilute nitric acid and on heating the dry substance it exploded. It was, however, not free from phosphorus. It contained 68.41 per ct. of silver while silver oxalate contains 71.05 per ct. of silver. aA The balance of the barium salt was then transformed into calcium oxalate and the latter was recrystallized many times from boiling New York AcricutturaL ExprerIMENT Station. 369 dilute hydrochloric acid by nearly neutralizing with ammonia and acidifying with acetic acid. After purifying in this way 0.0826 gram of the substance was burned to constant weight in a platinum crucible. The calcium oxide remaining weighed 0.0310 grams. Calculated for the above quantity of CaC.0,+H20 = 0.0316 gram CaO. The calcium oxide was dissolved in dilute nitric acid and tested with ammonium molybdate. A faint precipitate separated showing that some phosphorus remained. There appears, however, to be no doubt that the substance was a nearly pure calcium oxalate. PREPARATION OF THE SILVER SALT OF THE ORGANIC PHOSPHORIC ACID. The water-soluble barium salt analyzed on p. 9 was transformed into the silver salt as follows: 5 grams were suspended in water and decomposed with a slight excess of dilute sulphuric acid; the barium sulphate was filtered off and the filtrate neutralized to litmus with ammonia. Silver nitrate was added producing a pure white precipi- tate which however rapidly darkened in color. It was filtered, washed in water and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid under exclusion of light. The substance was then a heavy dark-gray amorphous powder. It was free from all but traces of ammonia. For analysis it was dried at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide under exclusion of light but it turned very dark in color. . Found: C=9.49; H =1.48; P=7.89; Ag = 54.85 per ct. The substance was free from inorganic phosphate. As will be noticed it corresponds very closely in composition to the barium salt from which it was prepared and not to the com- pounds analyzed by Rather. PREPARATION OF THE CRUDE ACID FROM WHEAT BRAN BY THE METHOD OF RATHER. In the preparation of the acid, the directions of the above author were followed as closely as possible. The various operations may be briefly stated as follows: Wheat bran was digested in 0.2 per ct. hydrochloric acid for three hours with frequent stirring. It was then strained through cheesecloth, the residue was washed with water and again strained. The extract was centrifugalized and finally filtered. Copper acetate solution was added in excess and allowed to settle over night. The copper precipitate was freed from the mother-liquor as far as possible by the centrifuge and finally brought on the Buchner funnel and then washed several times in water. It was then suspended in water and decomposed with hydrogen sulphide, filtered and the filtrate evaporated to a thin syrup on the water-bath. This was dissolved in a small quantity of water and rendered strongly alkaline with ammonia and allowed to 24 fog 370 Report OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE stand for 24 hours. The precipitate was filtered off and the filtrate evaporated on the water-bath until the excess of ammonia was driven off. It was then diluted with water and precipitated with barium chloride in excess, filtered and washed and suspended in cold water and decomposed with slight excess of dilute sulphuric acid. After filtering, the filtrate was neutralized with ammonia and again precipitated with barium chloride. These operations were repeated three times and after finally removing the barium the filtrate was precipitated with copper acetate — this was filtered and washed until the filtrate gave no reaction with barium chloride. The copper precipitate was then suspended in water and decom- posed with hydrogen sulphide, filtered and the filtrate evaporated on the water-bath to a syrupy consistency. This syrup was poured into 1,600 c.c. of alcohol and allowed to stand for the precipitate to settle. It was then filtered and again evaporated on the water- bath until the alcohol was removed. The residue was the crude acid which was obtained as a brown-colored syrup. It was diluted with water to 100 c.c. in which it formed aslightly opalescent solution of faint aromatic odor. It was divided into two parts; 75 c.c. was used for the preparation of the barium salt; of the balance, 10 c.c. was used for the preparation of the silver salt. PREPARATION OF THE SILVER SALT FROM THE CRUDE ACID. The 10 c.c. of the above acid solution was diluted to 100 c.c. with water and ammonia added to alkaline reaction. The excess of ammonia was boiled off, the solution cooled and silver nitrate added which caused a voluminous yellow-colored amorphous precipitate. This was filtered, washed in water and dried in vacuum over sul- phurie acid. The substance was very sensitive to light, and although the desiccator was kept in a dark place the dry salt was very dark in color. The filtrate from above was quite acid in reaction. It was neutral- ized with ammonia when a further quantity of a yellowish precipitate came down. More silver nitrate was added and the precipitate filtered, washed and dried as before. This was also a very dark amorphous powder. The precipitates were free from all but traces of ammonia. These silver precipitates were analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. The first precipitate gave: C =2.18; H=0.53; Ag = 71.82; total phosphorus = 7.82; inorganic phosphorus = 5.61 per ct. The inorganic phosphorus was determined as follows: the sub- stance was suspended in cold water and dissolved by the addition of cold dilute nitric acid and the silver precipitated with hydro- chloric acid. The filtrate was neutralized with ammonia, acidified with nitric acid, ammonium nitrate and ammonium molybdate New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 371 added, and the whole kept at a temperature of 65° for one-half hour. The precipitate was then filtered and the phosphorus determined as magnesium pyrophosphate as usual. The composition of the above precipitate is quite different from that reported by Rather. It will be noticed, however, that the inorganic phosphorus is equivalent to 75.64 per ct. of inorganic silver phosphate. The second precipitate gave the following: C=0.98; H=0.37; Ag=74.37; total phosphorus = 7.15; inorganic phosphorus =6.73 per ct. This substance accordingly contained 90.74 per ct. of inorganic silver phosphate. PREPARATION OF THE BARIUM SALT FROM THE CRUDE ACID. The 75 c.c. of the crude acid solution was diluted to 500 c.c. with water and precipitated with barium hydroxide in excess. The resulting barium precipitate was reprecipitated as before alternately with barium hydroxide four times and alcohol five times from 0.5 per ct. hydrochloric acid. After finally filtering, washing in dilute alcohol, alcohol and ether, and drying in vacuum over sulphuric acid, 7 grams of a snow-white amorphous powder was obtained. It was free from chlorides and inorganic phosphate. It was analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. Found: C=12.31; H=2.21; P= 13:99; Ba = 33.45 per ct: It will be noticed that after removing inorganic phosphate the composition of the barium salt does not agree with a compound of the formula CyzHsO«2Ps as proposed by Rather, but that the com- position agrees closely with the compound C2 H4;O1,P,>Ba; which was described in the earlier paper (loc. cit.); calculated for the above: C= (9: A. =2.21: P= 1350; Bai = 33: 76) per’ ct: SECOND PREPARATION OF THE CRUDE ACID FROM WHEAT BRAN BY THE METHOD OF RATHER. A second lot of the acid was prepared from wheat bran by the same method as before except that the various concentrations were done in vacuum at a temperature of 40°-45° and not on the water-bath as the first time. The silver and barium salts were prepared from the crude acid exactly as before. The silver precipitate gave the following results on analysis after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide: C = 4.56; H = 0.77; Ag = 65.88; total phosphorus = 8.03; inorganic phosphorus = 3.15 per ct. This approaches in composition the precipitates analyzed by Rather. However, as shown by the above content of inorganic phosphorus it contained 42.54 per ct. of inorganic silver phosphate. 372 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE The barium precipitate was free from chlorides and inorganic phosphate. It was analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. Found: C=11.66; H=2.11; P=14.14; Ba = 34.36 per ct. This substance is therefore identical in composition with the first preparation reported above and agrees very closely with the com- pounds previously described. It is clearly evident from the results recorded above that an acid, Cir2HO2Ps, such as described by Rather, does not exist, at least not in wheat bran or cottonseed meal. The alleged, “‘ pure, homo- geneous silver salts,” analyzed by the above author must have been largely contaminated with silver phosphate and this simple impurity escaped his observation. FURTHER PREPARATIONS OF THE BARIUM SALTS OF THE ORGANIC PHOSPHORUS COMPOUND OF WHEAT BRAN. The 0.2 per ct. hydrochloric acid extract of wheat bran was precipitated by adding a concentrated solution of barium chloride. After settling, the precipitate was filtered and washed in dilute alcohol, alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. To the mother-liquor from above, barium acetate was added which caused a further precipitate. This was filtered, washed and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. Total and inorganic phosphorus were determined in these precipi- tates as follows: Total phosphorus was determined after decom- posing by the Neumann method. As inorganic phosphorus we consider the amount of phosphorus directly precipitated by ammo- nium molybdate from the nitric acid solution of the substance at a temperature of 65° for one-half hour. Found in the precipitate produced with barium chloride: Total phosphorus = 8.45 per ct. Inorganic phosphorus = 1.55 per ct. The result shows that 18.32 per ct. of the total phosphorus was present as inorganic. Found in the precipitate produced with barium acetate: Total phosphorus = 10.28 per ct. Inorganic phosphorus = 8.63 per ct. In this case 83.96 per ct. of the total phosphorus was present as inorganic. The above barium precipitates were purified separately in the same way as before by repeatedly precipitating with barium hy- droxide and alcohol alternately from 0.5 per ct. hydrochloric acid until pure white amorphous powders were obtained which were free from inorganic phosphate and which contained no bases except barium. After drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide the following results were obtained on analysis: New York AaricutturaAL Experiment Sration. 373 The preparation isolated from the barium chloride precipitate: Found: C=11.53; H=2.10; P = 14.29; Ba = 34.60 per ct. This substance has the same composition as the precipitates obtained from the previously isolated crude acid. These various preparations were therefore mixed and treated as will be described later. The preparation isolated from the barium acetate precipitate: Found: C=15.22; H =2.62; P =12.22; Ba = 29.85 per ct. Several other preparations were made from wheat bran in differ- ent ways. The composition varied considerably, however, as is evident from the figures given below. One preparation gave the following: C=15.:33; He =2.70;'P= 1161" Ba = 32:81 per’ ct. Another gave: C = 14.62; H = 2.65; P = 12.84; Ba = 30.59 per ct. A third preparation gave: C = 13.94; H =2.47; P = 13.10; Ba= 31.41 per ct. A fourth gave: C= 1501) H= 2.67; P = 12.25; Ba'= 30.94 per et: TREATMENT OF THE AMORPHOUS BARIUM SALT WITH COLD WATER. The barium precipitates obtained from the crude acid as well as the substance isolated from the barium chloride precipitate which, as shown above, had the same composition, were mixed together. Total weight 22.5 grams. It was rubbed up in a mortar with 200 ¢.c. of cold water when the greater portion dissolved. The insoluble substance was filtered, washed in water, alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. It was then treated with a second portion of 200 ¢.c. of cold water, again filtered, washed and dried. This insoluble residue weighed 5.75 grams. It had the following composition after drying at 105° as before: Found; © =9.52;.H.= 1.53; P =12.89; Ba=41.79 per ct. The filtrate from the above, containing the water-soluble portion of the barium salt, was heated to boiling. The solution turned first cloudy but gradually a white flocculent precipitate separated which soon assumed a granular form and settled to the bottom of the flask. This was filtered, washed in boiling water, alcohol and ether and dried in the air. Under the microscope the substance showed no definite crystalline structure but consisted of fine trans- parent globules. It weighed 1.6 grams. It was free from inorganic phosphate. It was analyzed after drying at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. Found: C=9.15; H=1.79; P=13.57; Ba = 40.43; HO = 9.53 per ct. C =8.96; H = 1.62. 374 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE The filtrate from the above was just neutralized with barium hydroxide. The white amorphous precipitate was filtered, washed in water, alcohol and ether and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. It weighed 17 grams. It did not contain inorganic phos- phate. It was analyzed after drying at 105° as above: Found: C=9.19; H=1.42; P=11.21; Ba = 47.86 per ct. CRYSTALLIZATION OF THE WATER-INSOLUBLE BARIUM SALT. The water-insoluble barium salt previously analyzed, 5.75 grams, was dissolved in the minimum quantity of 0.5 per et. hydrochloric acid and the solution heated to boiling. The solution remained perfectly clear. Alcohol was then added until the solution turned slightly cloudy. On scratching, the substance began to separate in a crystalline or granular form on the sides of the flask. After standing over night the substance was filtered, washed in water, alcohol and ether and‘dried in the air. The filtrate was precipitated with alcohol, filtered, washed and dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid. It was again dissolved in a small quantity of 0.5 per ct. hydrochloric acid, heated, alcohol added and allowed to stand as before when a further quantity of the same shaped crystalline or granular product was obtained. This was filtered, washed in water, alcohol and ether and dried in the air. This product was a heavy snow-white crystalline or granular powder. Under the microscope it looked homogeneous and consisted of small transparent spherical globules. It was free from chlorides and inorganic phosphate. For analysis it was dried at 105° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. Found: C=9.91;* H=1.83; - P'=14.90; Ba =34.75;' H.O =1248 per ct. This substance was recrystallized in the same manner when it separated in the same form as before. It was again analyzed after drying as above. Found: C =10/06; (pH= 2.02"? —15730; | Ba=33.50;,HsO—0 tare per ct.: Since this substance separated in characteristic crystalline manner and did not show any appreciable change in composition on recrystal- lization one might believe that it was homogeneous. We have, however, been unable to obtain any other preparation having the same composition. Numerous preparations were made which separated in exactly the same manner and form and so far as appear- ance is concerned they looked identical, but on analysis widely varying results were obtained. One product gave the following: C = 10.67; H = 2.00; P = 14.46; Ba =-35.02; H,O = 11.97 per ct. Another was prepared and recrystallized three times when it gave the following: C = 11.60; H = 1.88; P = 12.48; Ba = 34.37; H2O ='11.60 per’ ct. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTIon. 375 Another preparation gave the following: C = 11.26; H = 1.58; P= 10.67; Ba = 37.81; HzO = 12.00 per ct. Judging by these results it is evident that wheat bran contains more than one organic phosphoric acid. It appears probable that several are present and that the solubility of the salts of such acids differs so slightly that their separation is very difficult. Until defi- nitely homogeneous products can be separated from this mixture it seems futile to develop empirical formulas; for such may be calcu- lated for every substance analyzed. The investigation is being continued. The author wishes to express his appreciation and thanks to Dr. P. A. Levene of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York, N. Y., and to Dr. Thomas B. Osborne of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Conn., for many valuable suggestions. II. CONCERNING INOSITE MONOPHOSPHATE, A NEW ORGANIC PHOSPHORIC ACID OCCURRING IN WHEAT BRAN.* (Tenth Paper on Phytin.) INTRODUCTION. In previous reports! we have shown that the crude organic phos- phorus compound of wheat bran? can be separated into two portions by treating it with barium hydroxide. The insoluble precipitate which forms under these conditions contains the barium salts of certain not yet identified organic phosphoric acids and it is free from nitrogen. By evaporating the filtrate from the above insoluble barium salts a substance is obtained which is rich in nitrogen and which also contains phosphorus in organic combination. In the further investigation of this soluble nitrogen-containing substance it was found that its aqueous solution gave an insoluble precipitate with lead acetate. The only other salt which gave any precipitate was copper acetate and then only on warming when a *The work reported in this paper was carried out in the I. Chem. Institut der Universitit zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany. 1Jour. Biol. Chem. 12: 447 (1912); N. Y. Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 22 (1912), and also the preceding article. 2This crude compound had been prepared by precipitating the 0.2 per ct. hydro- chloric acid extract of wheat bran with aleohol. The resulting precipitate was then purified by repeatedly precipitating from 0.2 per ct. hydrochloric acid with alcohol until a nearly white product was obtained which was easily soluble in cold water and which gave no precipitate with ammonium molybdate. Concerning its preparation, see the above publications. 376 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE bluish-white amorphous precipitate was produced, which dissolved completely on cooling.’ The aqueous solution of the substance was therefore treated with lead acetate in excess. The resulting precipitate was filtered, washed, and decomposed with hydrogen sulphide. These operations were repeated several times until a perfectly white lead precipitate was obtained. This was finally decomposed with hydrogen sulphide and the solution concentrated in vacuum until a thick, practically color- less syrup remained. On scratching with a glass rod this immediately crystallized to a white solid mass. The substance was recrystallized from water with addition of alcohol. It was then obtained in beautiful colorless star-shaped aggregates of plates or long prisms. On slowly concentrating its aqueous solution it crystallizes in large colorless prisms with pointed ends, being often arranged in star- shaped bundles. It is, however, so soluble in water that it is more expedient to crystallize it from water with addition of alcohol. The substance was free from bases, also free from nitrogen and sulphur, but it contained phosphorus in organic combination. Analysis showed that it was inosite monophosphate, CsHi309P, vr CsHs(OH);O°PO(OH)2. On cleavage either with dilute sulphuric acid at 120° or higher or with 10 per ct. ammonia at 150° in a sealed tube it decomposes into inosite and phosphoric acid. Inosite monophosphate has not been known previously, so far as we are aware, and we believe that this is the first time that it has been isolated. In connection with the “ phytin ” problem it is interesting to note that a compound like inosite monophosphate exists in nature. Clarke? in a recent paper reports the isolation from wild Indian mustards of certain crystalline strychnine salts of what appears to be inosite tetra- and diphosphate in addition to inosite hexa- phosphate. It appears probable, therefore, that in certain plants the organic phosphoric acids may be present not only as phytic acid or inosite hexaphosphate, CsHisO2uPs, but also as lower phosphoric acid esters of inosite. From wheat bran, for instance, we have been unable to isolate any inosite hexaphosphate. The insoluble barium salts of the organic phosphorus compound obtained from this material are evidently mixtures of various organic phosphoric acids, either lower inosite phosphates or phosphoric acid esters of other carbohydrates. However, we have been unable, so far, to separate any homogeneous substance from this mixture. The isolation of inosite monophosphate only succeeded because its properties are so different from those of the other organic phos- phoric acids which exist in wheat bran — for instance, its easily soluble barium salt permitted its separation from the other acids which give insoluble barium salts. 3 Jour. Chem. Soc. 105: 535. 1914. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 377 At present we have no data as to the quantitative percentage of inosite monophosphate in wheat bran. We hope, however, to make some determinations in this direction later. We wish to reserve the further study of the physiological properties of this substance in connection with the general investigation which is being carried out at this Station. We also beg to reserve the study of the cleavage products obtained under different conditions and other derivatives of inosite monophosphates. EXPERIMENTAL PART. The crude nitrogen-containing substance‘ was dissolved in water and a concentrated solution of lead acetate added in excess. The resulting precipitate was filtered, washed thoroughly in cold water and then suspended in hot water and decomposed with hydrogen sulphide. The lead sulphide was filtered off and the filtrate boiled to expel hydrogen sulphide. The solution was then strongly acid to litmus and it had a sharp acid taste. It was again precipitated as above three times with lead acetate. The pure white colored lead precipitate which was finally obtained was decomposed with hydrogen sulphide. The filtrate was concentrated in vacuum at a temperature of 40°-45° and then dried in vacuum over sulphuric acid until a thick, practically colorless syrup remained. On scratch- ing with a glass rod this immediately began to crystallize, forming a white, solid mass. It was very soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol. It was extracted several times with 95 per ct. alcohol, filtered and washed in absolute alcohol and ether and allowed to dry in the air. For recrystallization it was dissolved in a small quantity of water and absolute alcohol added until the solution turned slightly cloudy. On scratching, the substance began to crystallize. After standing in the ice chest over night it had separated in large colorless plates or prisms arranged in star-shaped aggregates. It was recrystallized a second time in the same manner. The substance was free from bases and also free from nitrogen and sulphur, but it contained organically bound phosphorus. The aqueous solution gave no precipitate with ammonium molybdate on being kept at a temperature of 65° C. for some time but after decomposing by the Neumann method it gave an immediate precipi- tate of ammonium phosphomolybdate with this reagent. The substance has no sharp melting point. When rapidly heated in a capillary tube it softens at 200° C. and decomposes under effervescence at 201°-202°; when slowly heated it begins to soften at 188° and melts under decomposition at 190°-191° (uncorrected). It is optically inactive. A 10 per ct. solution in a 1 dem. tube shows no rotation. ‘From its isolation from wheat bran see Journ. Biol. Chem. 12: 456 (1912); N. Y. Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 22, p. 10 (1912), and also the preceding article. by 378 Report OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY OF THE For analysis it was dried at 100° in vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide but it did not lose in weight. 0.1550 gram subst. gave 0.0749 gm. H2O and 0.1566 gm. CO». 0.0766 gram subst. gave 0.0325 gm. MgeP.07. Found: C= 27.55; H = 5.40; P = 11.82 per ct. For inosite monophosphate, Ce>H130.P = 260. Calculated: C=27.69; H=5.00; P = 11.92 per ct. Titrated against barium hydroxide, using phenolphthalein as indicator, it forms the neutral barium salt, CsH,;O9P Ba. 0.1985 gram subst. required 7.6 c.c. NX Ba(OH).. For CsHnO>P Ba, calculated: 7.6 ¢.c. N Ba(OH)s. PROPERTIES OF INOSITE MONOPHOSPHATE. The acid is very soluble in water. The aqueous solution shows a strong acid reaction to litmus and it has a sharp, somewhat astrin- gent, acid taste. It is insoluble in alcohol, ether and the other usual organic solvents. Its aqueous solution gives no precipitate with barium hydroxide or with calcium or barium chloride; ammonia produces no precipitate in these solutions but the addition of alcohol causes white amorphous precipitates. Silver nitrate produces no precipitate even in a solution neutralized with ammonia. When alcohol is added to the solution containing silver nitrate a white amorphous precipitate is produced which dissolves on warming; on cooling the silver salt separates in small, round crystal aggregates. It gives no precipitate with ferric chloride or mercuric chloride nor with copper sulphate. In the cold no precipitate is produced with copper acetate, but on warming this solution a bluish-white precipitate separates which again dissolves completely on cooling. With excess of lead acetate a white, heavy amorphous precipitate is formed which is but slightly soluble in dilute acetic acid, but readily soluble in dilute hydrochloric or nitric acid. Ammonium molybdate produces no precipitate in either dilute or concentrated aqueous solutions. The acid crystallizes without water of crystallization from either water or dilute alcohol. The aqueous solution of inosite monophosphate does not precipi- tate egg albumen, differing in this respect from phytic acid. CLEAVAGE OF INOSITE MONOPHOSPHATE INTO INOSITE AND PHOS- PHORIC ACID. I. ACID HYDROLYSIS. The acid, 0.35 gram, was heated in a sealed tube with 15 c.c. of 3 per ct. sulphuric acid to 120°-125° for about 33 hours. After cooling, the liquid was of a pale straw color. The sulphuric and phosphoric acids were precipitated with barium hydroxide and the New York AgricutturaL Exprrtment Sration. . 379 excess of barium hydroxide removed with carbon dioxide. The filtrate was evaporated to dryness'on the water-bath. The residue gave no precipitate with ammonium molybdate, but after decom- posing by the Neumann method, a heavy precipitate of ammonium phosphomolybdate was obtained showing that only a portion of the acid had been hydrolyzed under the above conditions. The residue, however, contained some inosite which was isolated as follows: The substance was taken up in a few cubic centimeters of hot water, a little more than an equal volume of alcohol was added which caused a voluminous white amorphous precipitate consisting of the barium salt of the unchanged inosite monophosphate. After filtering, the precipitate was again treated with water, again precipi- tated with alcohol and filtered. The filtrates were evaporated on the water-bath, taken up in a little water and the inosite brought to crystallization by the addition of alcohol and ether. It crystallized in the usual needle-shaped crystals. After standing several hours in the ice chest the crystals were filtered, washed in alcohol and ether and dried in the air. Yield 0.06 gram. It gave the reaction of Scherer and melted at 224° C. (uncorrected). II. ALKALINE HYDROLYSIS. Another portion of the acid, 0.4 gram, was heated in a sealed tube with 10 c.c. of 10 per ct. ammonia for six hours to 120°. The solution then contained some free phosphoric acid as it gave a precipitate with ammonium molybdate but the greater portion of the acid remained unchanged. It was found impossible to isolate any inosite from this reaction mixture. The residue was therefore again heated in a sealed tube with 10 per ct. ammonia for about 43 hours to 150°. In this case complete hydrolysis had taken place, and after isolating the inosite in the usual way 0.15 gram was obtained. This was recrystallized three times from dilute alcohol with addition of ether and was then obtained in colorless needles free from water of crystallization. It then melted at 224° C. (uncorrected), and it gave the reaction of Scherer. The identity of the substance was further confirmed by the analysis. 0.1206 gram subst. gave 0.0755 gm. H.O and 0.1761 gm. COs. Found: C=39.82; H =6.97 per ct. For C5H120¢ = 180. Calculated: C = 40.00; H = 6.66 per ct. The author wishes to express his appreciation and thanks to His Excellency Prof. E. Fischer and to Prof. H. Leuchs for the kind interest which they have shown in the work reported in this paper. 8 pirisa ’ if ui hs fh Rat [~thad A rhe eee A} hy gay Fue tee Rie yer, oho tias prac obo tt We pal ; ~ vi ; Tho’ 8 sf) bil I GS iat oi Hite ai “noe ws OTe Pre ely POAT Ts if ; hie na een aaehin lhl v ry ae ys aa oe ¥ WR: ion ri nc Sao { : ‘Obs ixcitiy: KY Ce - ior f ir a 4 to Botley 8. vii? weds geen idee bye a mt eT? ; , aid Te me irae candatn vee 1M asi f * are | WER PES 7 POLY paral i y . 7 pit ‘ rl ke ae DG. Sea | WAS rani Ltt’ nays ¢ ;. a be, Ph tv : ‘ ; ’ Mi ‘Li A y 7 4 7 mq 5 P pat ige Maa } { au * BS ‘ if s? (iis ae Selde MN Ne Pe Ep et «iyi it: f a ro om Ov Eesayt MVS é : 7ur vba f ati are ‘ : f Featt bogidhaderued i bo Laue lanonls doseidtibbs or i xed ants ' ? « oe aw wire Latuacteyyy sb iv } i be pry “a fe Ate 10s ad, eo wey 4A | { eve col sth t wrlesy r Ty vy Bit 1% he a) ated ; on ta one Ts ehy . pe. in , f in odie git aran t ace 80.0; bod ue ods: ie haiah i ‘ A 7 , : ’ Ga 4 = * ’ hoe wordy VIC re pe ME hs Si PY 1 apes ine ‘ ‘er, tals _— wits ; i i ® 2 at aL '¢ j 104 SP eat i et ud ing ve PID tts “ai ) Pee Hi Momeni “el Gand baciadited pari iy sietdy Sete ‘ait ind atabery ion + a1 mee joint BRA ey Atihoes Cl Skeady mined saeel ibe fa ieddox vite fynioimy! ; ited hos hriasy: wot n we ivi $31 area) ) ee mh hare ne e ii ads) a oe oat nso ean Pid SOR Daa tine {node 101 alaosnars Bia’ LLP? G4 Ae ons b id le a Atle ita tia AY nodes Tank BY ' ncenting SE Ae: Ye eb ‘epertthr eee ie st ety ane dhe REO HOD aoe Padosta' i phitetitivivie Welatat mihib eats bese als shee ust bai hripeectoaiars ‘hl § 7 10) "SSS se bet i Vaphad ay i me Ay ney KA ion ‘MRE a Beles oat iar} diy eae Kr sa Ni Rogtees tet od , ft ef a toatl ») 4 ‘ a | REPORT OF THE Department of Entomology. P. J. Parrort, Entomologist. Hueu Grascow, Associate Entomologist. H. E. Hovexiss, Assistant Entomologist. B. B. Fuiton, Assistant Entomologist. F. Z. Hartzerr, Associate Entomologist. (Connected with grape culture investigations.) TABLE OF CONTENTS. I. The cranberry toad-bug. II. The cabbage maggot in relation to the growing of early cabbage. III. Susceptibility to spraying mixtures of hibernating pear psylla adults and their eggs. IV. Tree crickets injurious to orchard and garden fruits. V. The cabbage aphis. [381] , r fein ere BSLV OS OPIATE SPRAINS | GDA AT ry Pau Egiih My eck dra ‘ ime oithe ect toa Mah, ’ fal hed rae mY) ere < Sai MRO PR ea es, Bis nine] 1 eh i pp iat 1 p ‘ 7 ~ ; ws ry er re ; iv, ‘ i whe 2 * « 5 A AP MEPIS INO TRS SPLOT ETE. af + 7 4 ee avi shave! eek opps sOaF h LELae eT LG a ie te ais ime a Leas Cok ars ‘Viiv Ban Va 2 * ole hate eds Sled 7 rhe & hit ley te Ber : } Cx tL) Fis } y *} : j ’ ay : io suiwors odd “ot welieler.; + spun an oA * ' Wy t Ue ut Yar a i iM Pi rae ' i Bi hi ; . ite ae ” ‘ 4 t « * , Pte y W oy giaod tl tH PUAN BHI CIS Of ¥ iidinga é ety oa fhe ay a ype +f hate 1 oD R a lle abit: ityioe tris Snndoto ' ' ‘' 6 " Sirs ie ’ 7 P "au ia REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY. THE CRANBERRY TOAD-BUG.* F, A. SIRRINE anv B. B. FULTON. SUMMARY. Cranberry growers on Long Island have been troubled by a peculiar dying of the new growth of the vines, caused by the cran- berry toad-bug (Phylloscelis atra Germ.) of the family Fulgoridae. The shape of the insect and its posture when at rest suggested its popular name. The cranberry appears to be the only host plant of this insect. When it feeds on the new growth both branch and fruit are killed, but if it feeds on the old wood the berries and branches beyond the feeding point are shriveled and dwarfed. Many bogs are prac- tically free from the insects, but on one at Riverhead and one at Calverton, the yield from certain varieties has been reduced to one-half or one-fourth of a normal crop. There is but one brood of the insects during the year. The egg is elongate-oval in shape, with a short stalk atoneend. The egg-lay- ing period extends from September 1 to the middle of October. The female runs over the ground, dragging the egg by the stalked end, so that its viscid surface becomes covered with sand and dirt before it is dropped. Hatching begins on June 25 to 30 of the following summer, and a few may not hatch until early in August. Nymphs usually group together to feed, and may live a long time on the same branch if not disturbed. The insect has five nymphal instars. The first adults appear about the first of August, the males maturing first. The nymphs secrete a white, cottony substance which adheres to the branch, and this, with the excrement and molted skins, is more easily detected than the insect. The first symptom of injury is the closing in toward the branch of the leaves on the new growth. Tests were made of two methods of control, flooding and spray- ing. Of these, the former is recommended where it is possible, * Reprint of Bulletin No. 377, March. [383] 384 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE and should be practised between August 1 and 15. All weeds on and near the bog should be cut. A cloudy period should be selected, and a good wind favors efficient control. Bugs on the surface of the water should be sprayed with kerosene. All grass, weeds, and drift on the shore should be burned with a burning torch-spray. Spraying is the only possible remedy on “ dry bogs.”? When the vines contain much old wood they should be mowed at the usual season for cutting and, between August 1 and 15, sprayed with soap solution, 1 pound to 7 gallons, making two applications, using 200 gallons per acre. INTRODUCTORY NOTES. Prior to and during the summer of 1911 a cranberry bog at Cal- verton, L. I., managed by Mr. R. C. Brown, of Riverhead, suffered from a peculiar dying of the new growth of the cranberry vines. This trouble was at first ascribed to “ cranberry scald ”’ and “ cran- berry rot,” but the treatment recommended for the control of these diseases — mowing the vines, resanding, fertilizing with fish scrap and the use of other measures to promote new growth of the vines — did not afford any protection to the plants. Mr. Brown reported the damage as great in 1912, after using the above measures, as in the previous year. The writers had no part in the above diagnosis of the trouble, nor in the recommendations given for treatment; but they assisted Mr. Brown in planning his stationary spraying outfit for pre- venting the supposed fungus troubles. Upon assembling the equip- ment they requested Mr. Brown to notify them the following year as soon as any of the injury was noticeable on the bogs. Early in July Mr. Brown reported that a diseased condition of the vines was again making its appearance. The vines were inspected July 10, 1912, and, after a careful search by the senior author, patches of a white, powdery substance were found on branches and on the ground. By using caution in moving the branches, and with the aid of a hand lens a small nymph of some hemipterous insect was found, which proved a very active jumper. The life history of this insect was followed in the field and in breeding cages until adults were obtained. These were kindly identified by Mr. E. P. Van Duzee as Phylloscelis atra Germ., which belongs to a group of homopterons known as the Fulgoride or Lantern-fly Family. The New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 385 shape of this insect and its posture, when at rest on the vines, remind one of a toad, and for this reason the popular name — “ cranberry toad-bug ’”’— is suggested for this species. However this should not be confused with the name ‘ toad-shaped bug ”’ which has been given to a group of hemipterous insects belongmg to the family Galgulide. NOTES ON THE INSECT. HISTORY OF THE SPECIES IN THE UNITED STATES. This species has in the past attracted but little attention from economic and systematic workers. The earliest published accounts of insects injurious to cranberries, by Dr. A. 8. Packard,' include nothing relating to any of the homopterous bugs. Dr. Saunders? gives a “spittle insect”? (Clastoptera proteus Fitch) as a cranberry pest. In 1884 Dr. J. B. Smith? collected a Fulgorid (Amphiscepa bivittata Say) on cranberry bogs. He says, ‘‘ This little insect, while found on every bog, does little injury.”” Again in 1890 + he mentions three leaf-hoppers as taken on cranberry bogs, of which he says: “These species puncture the vines and live upon the sap, but I have not seen any injury that could be attributed to them.” In the Annual Report of the New Jersey State Museum for 1909, Dr. Smith gives the Fulgorid Phylloscelis pallescens Germ. as taken on cranberry bogs. In the same publication he lists Phylloscelis atra Germ. and Amphiscepa bivittata Say, but does not state that they were taken on cranberry bogs. The Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station has published three bulletins® on cranberry culture, in none of which is mention made of any injury to cranberry vines by either Fulgorids or Jassids. In 1908 the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station pub- lished Bulletin 126 on ‘“‘ How to Fight Cranberry Insects,” by H. J. Franklin, but no reference is made to any of the above insects as attacking the cranberry. 1 Rept. U. 8. Geol. Surv. for 1876., pp. 521-531. Trans. Wis. State Hort. Soc. 10:313-322. 1880. 2Tns. Inj. to Fruits, p. 374. 1883. 3U. S. Dept. Agr., But, Bul. 4, p. 30. ee 4N. J. Agr. Expt. Sta. Spl., Bul. K, p. 42. 5 Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Buls. 35 (i893). 119 anon) and 159 (1908). 25 386 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE Although the cranberry toad-bug was collected on cranberry bogs prior to 1900, and described as early as 1839, the indications from published accounts of cranberry insects are that the descriptions of this pest were made from migrants which were collected on other plants than the cranberry, leading therefore to the conclusion that the species was of no economic importance. In cases where it pro- duced injury the trouble was, as in the foregoing outbreak, laid to other causes. The wilting of new growth shown on Plate VI of Dr. C. L. Shear’s work® on ‘Cranberry Diseases” resembles the characteristic injury of the cranberry toad-bug; though the same condition might result from the drying of the foliage before photographing, or, as indicated, from some disease. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. Unlike most species of the Fulgoride, this bug apparently con- fines its feeding to one plant — the cranberry. The insects do not appear to be widely disseminated, and many bogs are practically free from them; but on two Long Island bogs, one at Riverhead and one at Calverton, the crop of fruit from such varieties as Centennial, Matthews, Howe and Early Black has been greatly reduced, the loss varying from one-half to three-fourths of a normal crop during the past three years. Wherever the insects feed on the new growth both new shoots and fruit are killed outright; while if they happen to feed only on the old wood the berries on all branches beyond the feeding point are shriveled and dwarfed, as shown in Plate XII, fig. 2, d; ec shows normal fruit. Plate XVIII, fig. 1, b also shows an uninjured branch with fruit. The amount of damage these insects do can be expressed roughly by the loss in yield on bogs where the pests have become established. On the Brown bog at Calverton, L. I., the yield on an affected tract of Howes, of about 5 acres, for four years was as follows: 1910, 800 bushel crates; 1911, 500 bushel crates; 1912, 292 bushel crates, and in 1913, after treatment, 1,350 bushel crates. A small section of Early Blacks adjoining the Howes yielded as follows: 1912, 36 bushel crates; 1913, after treatment, 139 bushel crates. Expressed in barrels, after sorting, and in money values these yields would be approximately as follows from five acres of Howes: ®U.S. Dept. Agr. Pl. Ind. Bul. 110 (1907). New York AGRicuLTuRAL EXPERIMENT Strarion. 387 PO HO 200; Dole eee ia. NS. /od er Heyes $1,800 1 li ge ls IM 8 co a eas 1 Os NR 7 RRP A i a Pear Bil Ga ea igi coe Average of 3 years before treatment...... $1,194 1913 350 barrels after treatment........ 3,150 Gainey, tier ty, man pe pices 4 <>. dev ecsens $1,955 Gaur per acrenins etait. botuwinl Ze ds $391.20 On the small tract of Early Blacks adjoining the Howes the yields were as follows: Wee's OIG. oN as ae cde cate $81.00 1913 342 “ (after treatment)....... 312.75 Saving due to treatment............... $231.75 SYNONOMY The generic name, Phylloscelis, was given to this insect in 1839 by Germar‘’ who described two species from a collection of two specimens, both of which had short wing covers and abortive wings. In 1907 Van Duzee * described the alate forms of both species basing the distinction of the two on the venation of the elytra. Osborn ° in 1904 described the alate form of P. atra illustrating the venation of the wings. In our collections of this insect we have obtained specimens that not only accord with the descriptions of atra and pallescens but others also that are intermediate forms between these species. We are not stating positively that only one species exists, but until more marked and constant characters can be found for separating the different forms we see no reason for listing them as separate species or for separating the insects into varieties. Since Mr. Van Duzee has pronounced the specimens sent to him as P. atra, we have retained that name. 7 Ztschr. Ent., 1839, pp. 191-2. £ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1907, pp. 471-472. ®Ohio Naturalist, 4:93-4. 388 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE DESCRIPTION OF LIFE STAGES. Description of egg: (Fig. 15.) The main body of the egg is an elongate oval, about .§ mm. in length and .4 mm. in width. One end is slightly narrower and bears a short, slightly curved stalk or peduncle, which is from .16 to .19 mm. in length. The color is a distinct yellow when the egg is first deposited, but soon becomes a light yellow or straw-color. The surface is minutely roughened so as to appear only semi-glossy, and when first laid is somewhat viscid. When placed in water the eggs sink readily. Description of nymph. First instar: (Fig. 17, a.) Vertex of head elongate; disk de- pressed and bounded by lateral carinae which unite at the apex. Front with a broad groove bounded by parallel carinae which also meet at the apex. Apex with a short median carina. Below, the head is prolonged posteriorly; beak apparently . arises from between the anterior coxae. Thorax broad. Sides of pronotum with anterior edge bent abruptly downward behind the eyes, these parts in later stages an becoming rounded lateral plates. Each Ney segment of thorax with a pair of carinae close Ni Fic. 15.—Eaa@ to median line, and the meso- and meta- Fic. 16.—EaaCovrerrep FROM Bopy thorax have another pair more widely sep- WwirTH SAND AND Dirt or Frmate. arated. Abdomen rounded; with eight (usual condition). complete segments. The last three are strongly bent forward in the middle, the last being shaped like an inverted U, and each bears a small gland at the lateral edge, which develops a brush of white waxy filaments. Color.— Head with pale ground color and brown markings. Thorax dark brown a. b. c. Fic. 17.— Dorsat Virw or NympH oF CRANBERRY ToapD-BuG. a, First instar; b, second instar; c, third instar. above; paler near median line. Abdomen mostly pale. The first five segments may be specked with brown or have white spots on a pale brown ground color. Legs white. Antennae pale brown. : Size— Length about 1 mm.; width about .5 mm. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 389 Second instar: (Fig. 17, b.) Vertex not so much prolonged. Median carina at apex reduced so that the paired carinae of vertex and front meet at nearly the same point. Front with another pair of carinae just in front of eyes, parallel to the inner pair and joining the carinae of the vertex above the eyes. Sides of pronotum bent downward so that the anterior portion appears as a lateral sclerite behind the eyes. Front femora and tibiae laterally compressed. Color— Head white with brown specks. Front with two fuscous lines between inner carinae. Thorax white between the outermost pair of carinae and thinly specked with brown. Outer part plain fuscous with a few white spots near the carinae and outer edge. Abdomen brown and white mottled. Under parts white, thinly specked with pale brown. Legs white with a few pale brown bands. Tips of tarsi dark. Size-— Length 1.8 mm.; width .75 mm. Third instar: (Fig. 17,¢.) Vertex shorter. Front with a small median carina. Sides of meso- and metanotum directed posteriorly forming short wing-pads, the first barely overlapping the second. Fore femora compressed and with a rudimentary foliaceous extension on the upper and lower edge. . Color.— Head and thorax fuscous, with roundish white spots mostly clustered around median area and outer edge. Abdomen mottled; where fuscous predominates, the white takes the form of round spots. Underside mostly pale. Legs spotted and banded with fuscous. Size — Length 1.8-2.3 mm.; width 1.0-1.3 mm. Fourth instar: (Plate X1, fig. 1.) Sides of pronotum form roundish lateral plates back of antennae and above front coxae, and separated from dorsal part of pronotum by two oblique parallel carinae which run about in line with the edge of the meso- thoracie wing-pad. Wing-pads well developed, the first distinctly overlapping the second. Foliaceous extensions of the front femora well developed. Brushes of waxy filaments not as conspicuous as in previous instars. Color.— Upper parts and sides of thorax fuscous marked with roundish white spots. Under side of abdomen pale. Tips of wing pads with large white spots, bases plain fuscous. White predominates on hind portion of abdomen. Legs fuscous, with numerous white spots. Tarsi white at base. Size— Length 2.8-3.2 mm.; width 1.7-2.0 mm. Fifth instar: (Plate XI, fig. 2.) Vertex relatively short. Outer pair of frontal carinae most prominent; median as prominent as inner pair. Front wing-pad laps over the second nearly to its tip. Secretion from abdominal glands inconspicuous. Color — Ground color of different parts varies from pale brown to fuscous or black; everywhere specked with numerous small white spots. Lateral lobe of pronotum with a large black patch covering the upper half and extending along the front edge of pronotum toward the median line. Hind edge of metathorax with a large trans- verse black blotch on each side of median line. Fourth abdominal segment with an ill-defined median black blotch. Fifth segment with a pair of black spots half-way between median line and sides. ; Size.— Length 3.5-3.8 mm.; width 2.3-2.8 mm. General characters of adult.— (Plate XI, fig. 3). The adults are characterized by having a short vertex, prominent eyes and broad leaf-like front femora. The insects normally sit with the tip of the abdomen close to the branch and the head held away so that the long axis of the body makes an angle of about 45 degrees with the branch. The hind legs are doubled up tightly, the tibiae fitting into grooves in the distal part of the femora. The former are armed with a row of 4 to 6 spurs on the outer carina and a crown of eight stout spurs on the tip. These spurs give a firm contact with’ the 390 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE supporting surface, which, with the structure and position of the tibiae and femora, make the hind legs powerful jumping organs. The adults are extremely variable in size, structure, color and habits. (Fig. 18). Our collections and notes show that the first individuals to reach maturity are males with abor- tive wings and short elytra. All the early maturing individ- uals, both males and females are dark colored, occasionally jet black and are sometimes without white markings. Late in the season males and females, es &: ibe hg both short- and Fic. 18 — Cranperry Toap-Bpuc. Diagrammatic draw- Bes ings of elytra, showing variations in size and venation. long-winged forms, a and b, alate forms; c, abortive-winged form. (10 are lighter colored, Use some being even light brown. An occasional male and a larger number of females develop complete wings for migration, and these are the forms which are generally obtained by collectors on various kinds of vegetation. However, the major portion of the insects have abortive wings and remain on the bogs. As far as observed only the dark-colored alate forms were able to fly. The light brown females, with both pairs of wings well developed, but possessed of little or no power of flight, have very indistinct veins on the elytra. The following is a detailed description of the adult: Adult.— Vertex short and broadly rounded; disk depressed but slightly raised in center; side and hind margins elevated; bounded in front by a pair of carinae which meet at the apex in an obtuse angle. Front prominent; sharply separated from the genae by parallel carinae; with distinct median and an obscure inner pair of carinae. Beak extends downward and backward between the front coxae. Eyes prominent, usually brownish, revealing at times whitish markings. Pronotum short; sides extended downward to base of front coxae and expanded into large rounded lobes. Scutellum broadly triangular. Front wings coriaceous. In short-winged forms they are convex or spoon-shaped, but in long-winged forms are more flat. Veins run parallel and branch mostly near the base and with two or three series of cross veins near apex. There is however no constancy in the venation of either long- or short-winged forms. Median portion of space between New York AcricutturaAL Experiment Station. 391 veins slightly elevated, more prominently in abortive-winged forms where it appears like a supernumerary vein. Hind wings thin and delicate. In long-winged forms they reach nearly to tip of fore wings, and in short-winged forms are abortive. Front femora broad and foliaceous. Hind femora grooved on the distal part to receive the tibiae. Tibiae all triangular. Hind tibiae with a row of four to six spurs on the outer carina and a row of eight stout spurs across the apex on the under side. Tarsi three jointed; with two claws or hooks. The front and middle tibiae are covered with stiff hairs. Color.— Dark forms: Ground color fuscous or black. Head, thorax and legs specked with small, round white spots. Face with an oblique white band extending from base of beak up and back across gena and lateral lobe of pronotum. Elytra entirely black and generally with scattered translucent spots along the veins. Early in the fall some of the short-winged males show no white markings except a trace on the face, but the major portion of them have the white face bands and at least one white spot on front femora. Elytra of alate forms have fewer translucent spots. Light forms: Ground color medium to dark brown with numerous whitish spots and face bands as above. Elytra pale to dark brown; trans!ucent spots may be present but are not conspicuous. Size— Length 4.0-5.5 mm. LIFE HISTORY NOTES. Under the conditions of confinement in breeding cages, the females during the period of oviposition were very uneasy, dropping to the ground, running over it to another branch of the same plant, or even to another plant, dragging an egg by the stalked end, so that small particles of sand would adhere to it, often completely covering it. (Fig. 16). Generally the egg was lost on the ground. If not, the female rubbed it from the ovipositor against a branch or a leaf, from which the egg soon fell to the ground. The particles of sand undoubtedly aid in preventing the floating of the eggs when bogs are flooded, which generally covers the period from November 15th to May Ist. Studies conducted by means of breeding cages indicate that the eggs may be deposited over a period beginning with about the first of September and lasting to the middle of October. Under natural conditions the insect baffled all attempts to study its habits during the egg-laying period. As far as observed, none of the eggs hatch until about June 25 to 30. The earliest date on which nymphs have been found was June 29, while the occurrence of nymphs of the first instar after August 1, combined with the fact that the bogs became pretty well infested after flooding as late as July 20, would indicate that a large portion of the eggs hatch after July 15. On sections of bogs where the vines are very heavy and shade the ground the eggs do not hatch as early as in more open spaces; the difference in time 392 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE is from one week to ten days. A few eggs, moreover, do not hatch until early in August.* As soon as hatched, the young nymphs crawl to the cranberry vines, insert their beaks into the bark and commence feeding. Some- times a single nymph will be found on a branch, but usually from two to six are grouped near together to feed. Not infrequently as many as three cast skins have been observed in the immediate vicinity of one insect, which indicates that individuals of the species may remain feeding on one branch for considerable portions of time unless disturbed. The cast skin may be easily mistaken for the bug itself, and when numbers of them are massed together they present the appearance of a colony of the living insects. In 1912 the first winged specimens, all of which were males, were observed on August 1, while in 1913 winged specimens were obtained on August 2. Mating of the insects was first observed during 1913 on September 14 and insects in copula were detected as late as October 15. In the observa- tion cages, the males died a short time after mating, while the females disappeared soon after the conclusion of the period of egg- laying. SOME HABITS OF THE INSECT. As the nymphs feed and grow they secrete a pulverulent, cottony substance, so that the bodies of the insects appear to be covered with small tufts of white hairs. This secretion, stead of forming long tufts as is natural with some species of bugs, breaks away as a powdery substance which adheres to the branch where the insects feed and to surrounding objects, or may even appear on the ground. This substance is secreted from glands on the body and is not the excreta of the insect. The latter looks like fly specks when it occurs on the leaves, even on the old dead leaves. It resembles the peri- thecia of the cranberry-rot fungus and may quite easily be mistaken for them. The molted skins adhere to the branch where they are shed. Usually it is easier to find the cottony secretion and molted skins than to find the nymphs themselves (Plate XII, fig. 1), as the latter have a habit of dodging around to the opposite side of a branch *Bog No. 1 was flooded June 13 and 14, before blossoming, for cranberry worms, and left under water forty-eight hours. No toad-bugs in any stage of develop- ment came ashore at this time. Bog No. 2 was flooded July 23. On August 6, young nymphs were found on it. Puate XI.—Sraces or CRANBERRY TOAD-BUG. 1 (upper), Fourth instar; 2 (center), fifth instar; 3 (lower), adult. “‘Bnq-peo} ayy Aq pemmfur yinay pue youviq ‘p :4ymay pu soqouvsq Adoqueio [euIIOU *d ‘z {quejd jo wioys uo UOTjeIo90s AJopmod puv supys ys¥o ‘q ‘syduAN “8 “T ‘SINVIG NO HHO SLT GNV DAE-AVOT, AUUMANVUD —]TX ALVIg Puate XITi.— Froopine ror ContTrRoL oF CRANBERRY TOAD-BUG. 2, improperly flooded bog. 1, Properly flooded bog; Prats XIV.— ContTroLuing CRANBERRY TOAD-BUG. 1, Burning drift and grass with kerosene-spray torch on margins of bog after flooding; 2, piping and aluminum sprayboom, for use on large bogs. ‘poyjour A1OjOVJsT}yVsuN UB {YyoI0} AvIds-auasOIOy B Y}IAM 19}VA\ JO sdVJINS UO sBnq-{ sliqep Surming ‘ONd-dVOJ, AMYAMNVAD ONITIONLNO) —* AX FLVIG ee ae Cepieiiatiew (3 sane Strep a d}¥[q Ul UMOYS POYyOU UBTy IATZOAHS OIOUI YONUI ‘ssNq-peOo} Y}IM P219A0D Sliqep Sulyeoy puw spss uo ouesoJey SuLAvsdg ‘DNd-dVOJ, AUYMANVUD DNITIOULNOD — [AX GLVIg VII.— Preine (1) AnD Sprayine OutFit on FLoat (2) For Sprayine A LarGcE Boe FROM ONE CANAL. (Used primarily for cranberry diseases.) Puate XVIII.— ConrroLuing CRANBERRY TOAD-BUG. 1, a, Plant injured by soap spray; b, uninjured plant; 2, toad-bugs that have come ashore from the flooded bog; on woodwork of flume. 9° ¥ New York AGricutturaAL EXPERIMENT Sration. 393 when disturbed. After the third and fourth molts the insects are more active and are found more frequently on the new growth of vines. Early in September some of the females reach maturity, when pairmg begins. This function does not, as far as observed, interfere with the feeding of the females. In fact, it appears probable that the females feed until they commence to deposit eggs. In no stage of their development have they been observed, either in breeding cage or in the field, to feed on the leaves or leaf-petioles. Like the nymphs, the adults are shy creatures and when disturbed dodge to the opposite side of the branch on which they have been resting or feeding. When in their characteristic positions the long forelegs of the insects hold the anterior portions of their bodies well away from the branch on which they happen to be sitting, while their prominent eyes apparently enable them to see in all directions. Moreover, the posterior legs, which have spined tibize and _ tarsi, give a good anchorage and serve as powerful springing organs. The adults are able to jump at least a yard, but the distance they pro- ject themselves is not so remarkable as the velocity with which they are able to move under such circumstances. Because of the position in which they rest on a branch, the insects, when in the act of jumping, convey the impression that they are moving backward rather than forward. EFFECT ON VINE AND FRUIT OF FEEDING OF TOAD-BUG. The feeding of this pest on the vines of the cranberry produces apparently the same effect as that of the squash bug on vines and leaves of the squash; that is, the parts attacked wilt; but the ever- green leaves of the cranberry do not show wilting as plainly as the leaves of the squash. The first symptom of injury is the closing in, toward the branch, of the leaves on the new growth, while the leaves on the wood of the previous year’s growth appear normal. (Plate XII, fig. 2, c and d.) The second stage of the injury is the change in color of the new growth, which takes a reddish tinge and finally a brown straw-color. Usually the work of the insects will first attract attention from a distance by a reddish tinge over the bog in July, similar to the fall-ripening effect of frost. Close examination of a plant will show a branch here and there on which all the leaves on the new growth are turning brown. This is followed by the dying of the branch, as if broken from the plant. Where the 394 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE insects feed only on the old wood, a condition that occurs frequently with the nymphs, the berries are dwarfed, as shown in Plate XII, fig. 2,d. Sometimes the berries shrivel or grow one-sided, but as a rule they remain miniature berries and ripen as such; but where bugs feed on the new branches, or a number of them on one old branch, the berries shrivel up and the branch dies. In cases where the insects feed on old wood, or wood of the previous year, all the new branches beyond the feeding point may produce dwarfed berries. It has been observed in the field that where one insect is feeding alone on new growth, this branch will wilt and change color. The plants usually start new buds below the point where the insects are feeding. The amount of injury to the vines is considerable, as can readily be measured by the amount of fruit the affected plants produce. There is always a very characteristic difference between injured and uninjured portions of bogs, which could not be better illustrated than in the Brown bog at Calverton, L. I. In this planting there is a ten-foot drainage ditch which cuts a tract of Early Blacks into two parts. The portion south of the ditch has been infested for several years, while very few of the insects have reached the area north of the ditch. In the fall of 1911 the difference between these two tracts could be distinguished at a distance of a quarter of a mile. The affected side was brown and unhealthy in appearance, while on the opposite side of the ditch the vines were normally green and vigorous. The differences were noticeable in 1912, although, after the flooding operations in July, the affected portion threw out new growth and improved rapidly in appearance by fall. HOST PLANTS. The host plants listed by collectors of this species convey the impression that atra is a general feeder, but so far as observed by the writers this insect finds its subsistence only on the cranberry. Careful observations have failed to detect this species feeding on other marsh plants. After flooding of the bog the insects have been collected from weeds and willows on the sides of the marsh, but at no other season of the year have they been observed on these same plants. ENEMIES. The ladybird beetle (Hippodamia 13-punctata) and the soldier bug (Coriscus inscriptus) occur in abundance in bogs overrun with atra. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 395 While we have not observed these attacking this pest, their presence under infested vines suggests that they prey upon the cranberry toad-bug. The spined soldier-bug, Podisus spinosus, occurs also in similar situations, but usually in much less abundance than the forego- ing species. A number of undetermined ground and jumping spiders are generally quite common on the bogs, and these, we observed, were persistent enemies of the cranberry pest. During 1913 a fungus disease was very conspicuous in the breed- ing cages and destroyed many specimens of the insects which were being used for breeding purposes. Evidences of this same disease were occasionally found in the field. ees WITH METHODS OF CONTROL. TESTS OF FLOODING, 1912. Bog No. 1.— This bog is located at Calverton, Long Island, on the Peconic River, and is owned by R. C. Brown. It contains about 25 acres and is divided by dams into five sections so arranged that they can be flooded separately by beginning at the upper section. As the importance of the cranberry toad-bug was not really understood until late in the season of 1912 it was decided not to attempt any spraying tests, but to try flooding in order to check further injuries by the insect. This experimental effort is of interest since it is contrary to general practice. While many of the cranberry growers flood their bogs before blossoming to combat such pests as the fruit and vine worms, the majority of them avoid flooding after the fruit is set because of the danger of “ scalding ”’ the berries. Selecting a day during a cloudy period, flooding was begun on July 20 over the entire section of the bog and the water allowed to remain for forty-eight hours to determine the effects on both the insects and the vines. It was soon discovered that the bugs would not remain under water or in the water if they could escape. They were driven to the tops of the vines, and as the water rose they would float off and climb the taller plants, generally weeds, or unsubmerged rubbish. A strong wind favored the flooding so that the bugs were all floated to one side of the bog, where they crawled to all available weeds, grass and willows in such numbers as to weigh the plants down. Judging from their activities, the insects were unaffected by this unusual experience. As they were driven ashore Mr. Brown sprayed them with pure kerosene, using a 396 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE compressed-air sprayer. He also tested the use of Vreeland’s insecticide soap, using it at the rate of one part to six parts of water. This strength killed the bugs readily, but it did not pene- trate the drift and rubbish as completely as did the kerosene. Results on the insect.— Forty-eight hours after the water was drawn off an examination was made of the bog. The vines for the most part were free of the insects. In a few spots where the plants had not been completely submerged by the water many insects were observed, and a few specimens of the pest were also noticed along the margins of certain portions of the marsh, which indicated a re-invasion of the vines by bugs which had managed to escape from the treatment with kerosene because of protection by weeds and rubbish. One week later young nymphs were found scattered in spots over the section of the bog that had been infested before treatment. These increased in number so much that by August 19 they were quite plentiful. However, it is of interest to note that one could readily distinguish between the insects on the bog before flooding and those that appeared later, since the older bugs were always larger than those that hatched after the treatment and were for the most part grouped along the margins of the bog or on the un- submerged areas, while the others were scattered about the vines generally. From the better results secured by later flooding in 1913, and from the completed life-history studies, it is evident that this flooding was made too early in the season; so that not over three- quarters of the eggs were hatched when the bog was overflowed. After the flooding, the nymphs from the unhatched eggs, with those that escaped the oil through lack of thorough spraying when they floated ashore, reinfested the bog. The appearance of so many young nymphs after this flooding, joimed with the fact that many egos must have passed through the earlier flooding of June 13 and 14, proves that the eggs of this pest can stand quite an extended immersion in water. Bog No. 2.— This bog, which is owned by S. H. Woodhull & Son, is located near Riverhead, Long Island, on Little River, and contains about 30 acres. It is so situated that the entire bog must be flooded together. Arrangements were made to flood as soon as the fruit was picked, the object being to determine as far as possible how late such a procedure could be carried out with advantage. It was also hoped that the late flooding would facilitate the studies New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 397 on the egg-laying habits of the pest, as the turning on of the water would compel the insects to live on the margins of the bog, where they would be more readily observed. The water was turned on October 2, 1912, and left on for 48 hours. Large numbers of the adults came ashore on drifting leaves and rubbish. The workmen hauled this rubbish up on the banks with rakes and later, asit dried, burned it. Part of the adults were dead as they floated ashore, but enough live ones came with them to blacken the weeds and grass on the margins. (No oil was applied to the rubbish on this marsh at the time of this flooding.) TESTS OF FLOODING, 1913. The experiments conducted during the preceding year demon- strated conclusively that the bugs could be driven from an infested bog by means of flooding. As both of the bogs previously described showed, early in July, 1913, that they were still infested, it was decided to flood both. Aside from the desirability of protecting the cranberries from the insects, it was also felt that more informa- tion was needed as to the most efficient use of the water as a means of control, as well as the most effective methods of disposing of the insects as they floated ashore. Bog No. 2.—Since Bog No. 2 began growth a trifle earlier than No. 1 and was also through blossoming sooner, it was the first to receive attention. After waiting for a cloudy period in order to avoid scalding of the fruit, and a favorable wind, the water was turned on in this bog at 6 p. m. of July 23. At noon the next day part of the vines on one side were not entirely submerged, and many sedges, “three square,”’ and weeds on part of the bog were not covered. (Plate XIII, fig. 2.) Fortunately the direction from which the wind blew was such that the insects from the worst infested sections were not carried to the portions not entirely submerged. The water was left on all day the 24th. Three men with knapsack and compressed- air sprayers worked a good share of the day spraying the weeds, grass and margins of the water with pure kerosene, kerosene emulsion (one part to seven of water), and homemade fish-oil soap (one part to seven parts water). The men also waded out and sprayed the bugs that were found collecting on sedges and weeds not sub- merged. All three substances used killed large numbers of the bugs, but for penetrating the rubbish that floated ashore and for spread- 398 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE ing over the surface of the water, kerosene proved the best. Many millions of the bugs drifted ashore and were killed by the treatment. The water was drained from the bog during the night of July 24, beginning at 8:30 p. m., and by morning was back in the ditches. The men began raking the drift rubbish from the vines on the margin of the bog where the receding waters had left it, after which the rubbish was sprayed again with kerosene. On the next day it was found that afew living bugs were coming from the masses of rubbish and the thick grass and were working back to the bog. A knapsack was rigged with a ten-foot rod and ‘‘ Mistry Jr.” nozzle for spraying kerosene and burning it at same time. (Plate XIV, fig. 1.) With this outfit the bugs contained in the thick grass and wet rubbish were destroyed. The items of expense in disposing of the insects along the margins of this 30-acre bog are as follows: 65 gals. of kerosene, $7.50; labor, 3 men for one day, $5.25. This makes a total cost of $12.75 for the final spraying and burning operations. Results on insects and plants.— On August 6 the bog was carefully examined to note the effects of the different operations on the numbers of the bugs. All portions entirely covered with water were generally completely free of the pest. As in former experiments, varying numbers of the insects could be found near unsubmerged weeds, grass, sedges and vines. Only afew nymphs of the first instar were detected, indicating that but few eggs were not hatched at the time of flood- ing or that small numbers of the insect in the very immature stages may withstand immersion. There were no indications of scalding of fruit as a result of the flooding. Bog No. 1.— Profiting from the experience during the previous year on this bog and from the experimental operations just completed on Bog No. 2, as described above, an effort was made to have all the sections of the bog to be flooded clean at the time of overflowing. Besides removing all weeds and sedges from the beds, the margins of the ditches as well as those of the bog were mowed. The effects of these operations in facilitating the submersion of the marsh is shown in Plate XIII, fig. 1. On August 1, at 5 p. m. during a rain storm, the water was turned on, and by 6 a. m. the next day the flooded sections of the bog were well covered. Unfortunately the wind dropped and proved hardly strong enough to compel the bugs to drift ashore. As the New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 399 prospects were slight that the remainder of the floating insects would be driven to the land, spraying and burning operations were undertaken. The burning torch-spray was used with great advantage on the grasses and weeds, while the oil applied as a spray proved a most efficient treatment for the insects floating on the water. (Plates XV and XVI.) Besides spraying the surface of the water within reach of the shore line, applications of oil were made to cover floating insects and debris of all sorts which passed through a flume as the water was drawn off. (Plate XVI.) In these spraying operations 65 gallons of kerosene were used, while two men were employed for a half day, making a total cost of eight dollars for this operation. Results on insects and plants— An examination of this bog on August 9 showed no trace whatever of the bugs on the flooded sec- tion. It should be noted, however, in the flooding of an upper section some insects may find their way to a lower section, probably by jumping over the intervening dam, and in this experiment a few individuals managed to escape by such means. The submersion of the vines did not produce any scalding of the fruit. TESTS WITH VARIOUS INSECTICIDES, 1913. As Bog No. 2 was flooded very late in the season of 1912, a close watch was kept during the following summer to determine if the insects would appear in injurious numbers. In July there were indications that the bugs were very plentiful and that they might do considerable damage by the time flooding could be safely attempted, with assurance of satisfactory results. It therefore appeared desirable to postpone the turning on of the water, and in the mean- time to resort to other methods to keep the insects under control, until all of their eggs were hatched. Spraying with contact insec- ticides seemed to be the most promising procedure, and, moreover, tests along this line were desirable, since it was important to know if spraying would be, in any way, of more advantage than flooding, and, if so, what substances were best adapted for the treatment of cranberries. There are some bogs wnich are known as “ dry ” bogs where flooding is impracticable, and in the case of such a pest as the cranberry toad-bug spraying would probably have to be relied on as the chief means of defence. To this end the following tests were made. Bog No. 1.— On July 4, Mr. Brown tested spraying with resin- 400 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE potash soap, 1 pound to 6 gallons of water, on plants that were in full bloom, and other vines that were well infested with the insects. Results on insects and plants.—As far as could be determined very little if any of the spray reached the young nymphs and little or ro protection was afforded the vines. An examination on July 27 showed that the set of fruit had been reduced at least 75 per ct. as the result of injury to the blossoms. Bog No. 2.— On this bog the following insecticides were tested: Vreeland’s insecticide soap, Good’s resin potash soap, homemade fish-oil soap *’ and “‘ Black Leaf 40.” The first application was made July 9. The spraying plats were arranged as shown in Chart 1. cana] 5 a Insecticide Soap | Resin PotashScap! Black Leaf 40) B.L.40 rs 4 bb). used 1 to 5 4 to 5 4 to 800 © | twice sprayed] 1 bhi. used 2 bbi. used 1 bbl. used 3rodas 6 reds 6 rods 5 reds We roads Cuart 1. These materials were applied with a cluster of three “ Mistry Jr.’ nozzles at a pressure on pump of 180 lbs., the engine and pump being mounted on a float in the canal. (Plate VII, fig. 2.) By exam- ining the vines as fast as sprayed, it was found that many of the nymphs had been disturbed and were working up towards the tops of the vines. Hence, on the plat where homemade fish-oil soap was used, a test of respraying was made as soon as it had been sprayed over once. Results on insects—— Two hours after spraying, all the plats were examined again, and no dead nymphs of the toad-bug were found except where the double spraying with the fish-oil soap was given. On July 11, a second attempt was made to kill the cranberry toad- bug by spraying. In this effort a different section of the bog was used, which is devoted to the Centennial variety. As the bog is laid with galvanized piping, for spraying all portions from the canal, this equipment was used for the treatment of the experimental plats. (Plate XVII, fig. 1.) N.Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. No. 257, p. 434. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 401 The following chart shows the size and arrangement of the different plats and methods of treatment. 6 rods wide | 6 rods wide 6 rods wide Black Leaf 40 1 gat. to 200 gal. water Twice Sprayed —_ ee ee Se ce oe Insecticide Soap Once sprayed 1 Ibt0 3% gal. water Twice sprayed Homemade Fish-oil] Soap Once sprayed EC eee 1 Ib. to § gal. water Once sprayed Twice sprayed Resin Potash Soap 41 Ibto 3% gal. water Twice sprayed Once sprayed emer re sCncas arc Lulvien. of eae Sv ae ie Maal CuHart 2. (Parallel lines, except those at right, indicate ditches.) Results.— One hour after spraying, arough estimate of the effects of the different treatments was made, which was based on the number of insects moving as compared with those dead on the ground. In general, where the vines were thin and scattered, the soap solutions killed the majority of the nymphs, but on the heavy vines the appli- cations were quite ineffective. The estimated percentages of insects destroyed by the different mixtures are as follows: By two applica- tions of insecticide soap, resin-potash soap and homemade fish- oil soap, 70 per ct. of the insects were killed, and by one application 20 per ct.; by two applications of “‘ Black Leaf 40” 1 per ct. were killed, and by one application, none were killed. Since there was no apparent injury to vine or fruit from the treat- ment of July 11, and as there was still some soap stock on hand and the insects were very numerous, it was thought best to make a third series of tests. Accordingly, on July 15 all that portion of the bog sprayed July 11 was resprayed as follows: 26 402 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE The middle section and the small plat marked ‘‘a’”’ (Chart 2) were sprayed with homemade fish-oil soap, 1 Ib. to 5 gallons of water, while the remainder of the plats and the section marked ‘‘b” were sprayed with insecticide soap, 1 lb. to 34 gallons of water. All plats were twice sprayed as follows: A strip about 12 ft. wide was sprayed across each bed, then resprayed immediately before starting on another strip, and so on until each section was sprayed. From the experiments that were conducted, it was estimated that on an average approximately 200 gallons of mixture would spray one acre twice. On this basis, without including labor, ‘ Black Leaf 40,” used 1 gallon to 200 gallons of water, would cost $12.00; insecticide soap, 1 lb. to 34 gallons water, would cost $5.40; resin-potash soap, 1 lb. to 34 gallons water, would cost $2.00. Results on insects and plants— Without resorting to an actual count of the numbers of dead and living insects, it appeared that this method of spraying did not give as marked results as the one followed on July 11 where a longer interval of time was allowed between each application. The explanation for this marked dif- ference in results is not clear. Apparently the effect of the first application was to force a good many of the insects into the tops of the vines, where they would be more quickly dried by the sun and the air. If sufficient time was allowed, many of the insects would occupy positions which would render them quite exposed to the second treatment. Then, moreover, it proved a difficult matter to do thorough spraying. In some instances it was almost impossible to reach all of the young nymphs feeding on the undersides of the branches, as the heavy growth interfered with the spray, preventing complete wetting of the foliage and wood. Karly in September, it was discovered that wherever the soap solutions were used stronger than 1 lb. to 7 gallons of water, not over one-third of the berries were perfect. Of the affected berries very few were shriveled or showed injury to one side. In most cases they were dwarfed, as shown in Plate XVIII, fig. 1, a; b is normal fruit collected one foot from the sprayed section. Another character- istic of the soap-treated sections appeared later in the plants them- selves. As the vines took on a natural reddish tinge late in the fall, the sprayed sections remained dark green as if recently given an application of nitrate of soda. It appeared that the vines bearing stunted fruit had put all their energy into a new growth of wood instead of fruit. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 403 This injury was more marked where insecticide soap was used, apparently due to the fact that more of it would dissolve in a given amount of water, whereas with homemade soap, used 1 to 5, some of the material always remained undissolved in cold water. CONCLUSIONS AS TO METHODS OF CONTROL. The experiments herein described indicate plainly that of the two methods of control — flooding and spraying — the former is to be preferred if submersion of the bog is possible. Spraying the plants proved in the main less satisfactory as measured by the numbers of the bugs destroyed and the injury to the plants. Damage to cranberries may apparently arise from the use of too strong mixtures of soap, by too liberal applications of the spraying materials or by early treatments when the vines are in blossom. Further experi- ments with contact insecticides are desirable in order to determine conclusively the practicability of combating this pest by the applica- tion of spraying mixtures. DIRECTIONS FOR CONTROLLING THE CRANBERRY TOAD-BUG. From the knowledge of the life history and habits which has been so far ascertained, flooding should be deferred until from the first to the middle of August for sections in the same latitude as New York City. If submersion is practiced earlier than August 1 some nymphs may make their appearance after the water is removed, while if postponed until after August 15 eggs may be deposited in the bog which would permit reinfestation of the vines in the following summer. In selecting a date, some allowance should also be made for seasonal conditions. On the basis of the experiments previously described a cloudy period should be selected for flooding. The water should be turned on in the evening so that the bog will be completely covered by the next morning. Advantage should be taken of a favorable wind in order that the bugs may be floated ashore. Grass and weeds should be removed from the bog before flooding, while similar growth about the margins of the marsh should be mowed. Kerosene oil should be applied as a spray to all insects and debris floating on the surface of the water. Thick grass, weeds and drift on the shore should be burned by means of the burning torch-spray. If these precautions are carefully followed practically all of the insects can 404. Report OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY. be killed. Such complete extermination is not often met with in the control of an insect pest. In flooding a bog to destroy this pest a word of caution is urged. A study of the life cycle of the bug and of its different forms and habits indicates that only the long-winged forms migrate under natural conditions; and it appears more than probable that even this form does not migrate very long distances. Carelessness in flooding during the summer would undoubtedly distribute them faster than any other method. It seems very doubtful if they are ever distributed by the transportation of the vines; because, first, the eggs rarely, if ever, remain on the vines; and second, the vines for transplanting are usually taken before the eggs hatch. On what are known as “ dry ”’ bogs, where no method but spraying can be adopted, the following suggestions are offered: First, in cases where the vines are heavy and contain much old wood, mow the vines off at the usual season for cutting. Second, between August 1 and 15 spray thoroughly with a soap solution made with any of the three soaps — insecticide soap, resin-potash soap, or homemade fish-oil soap — 1 pound to seven gallons of water, applying at least 200 gallons of solution to the acre at each application and making two applications. By this method there would be no fruit to be injured with the soap solution, as cutting eliminates a crop of fruit for one year. In plantings where vines are very thin the cutting might be dispensed with, but would probably be a good cultural method even in such cases. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The senior author wishes to thank Messrs. Brown and Wood- hull for their assistance in furnishing materials, apparatus and men free of charge for carrying out the tests made; for taking all the risk of damage to the crop by treatments tested; and for general assistance which has helped to round out this report. THE CABBAGE MAGGOT IN RELATION TO THE GROWING OF EARLY CABBAGE.* W. J. SCHOENE. SUMMARY. The cabbage maggot is the principal handicap in the production of early cabbage and cauliflower. The insect is present in most communities where early cabbage is grown and occasionally causes extensive damage to this crop. Of the insecticides that are employed to destroy maggots about the roots of the plants, carbolic-acid emuision has generally been regarded as the most efficient. Tests with the emulsion at recom- mended strengths have demonstrated that it will prevent the hatching of the eggs and is fatal to the younger stages of the larvae. It may, however, cause injury to young seedlings and is not a safe remedy for the treatment of plants recentiy set in the field. The value of tar pads, or hexagonal tar-paper collars, for the purpose of preventing the adult of the cabbage maggot from placing eggs about the stems of the plants has been previously demonstrated, but, in spite of its effectiveness, this method of protecting cabbage has not been generally adopted by truck growers. ‘The tests herein described show that tar pads will protect early cabbage from the pest at a cost of about $1.40 per thousand plants. Truck growers who are subject to losses by the cabbage maggot are urged to test the tar pads experimentally as a basis for more extensive operations against this pest. INTRODUCTION. The cabbage maggot (Pegomya brassice Bouché) annually occasions extensive losses to vegetable-gardeners and cabbage- growers. Its importance in the production of late cabbage and methods for preventing its destructiveness in seedbeds have been discussed in two bulletins (301 and 334) of this Station. The purpose of this publication is to discuss its injurious work in relation to the growing of early cabbage, and to point out, on the basis of various experimental operations, the merits and uses of carbolic-acid emulsion and tar pads for the protection of plantings. * Reprint of Bulletin No. 382, April; for Popular Edition see p. 926. [405] 406 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE Cuart 3.— RELATION oF TIME FOR TRANSPLANTING AND GROWING EARLY CABBAGE To Datres or APPEARANCE OF THE CABBAGE MaaGot In ITs VARIOUS STAGES. Time of transplanting and growth Date Time of appearance of cabbage period of early cabbage. : maggot. 9) Time of transplanting early cabbage... . be IN) Cabbage-mazggot flies very numerous. eal Eggs of cabbage flies in greatest E28 | numbers, Growth period of early cabbage...... came |e Maggots full grown and period of Gilt) greatest injury to early cabbage. Time of cutting............ Pee Seas New Yorx AGrRIcuLTuRAL ExprrRIMENT Station. 407 LIFE HISTORY OF CABBAGE MAGGOT WITH REFERENCE TO GROWTH OF EARLY CABBAGE. In the latitude of Geneva the adults of the cabbage maggot appear about May 15 during normal seasons, and the eggs of this species usually occur in large numbers about the roots of cabbage and other cruciferous plants from May 20 to June 5. The work of the maggot is most conspicuous during the last two weeks in June. The time of appearance of the adults and the period of egg laying are hastened by warm weather during April and May. In order to secure the highest prices early cabbage should ordinarily be ready for market in July. For this reason it is necessary to trans- plant the seedlings from the greenhouse or cold frame in the latter part of April or early in May. During the three or four weeks following the planting in the field, cabbages are most susceptible to injury by this insect. The accompanying chart shows clearly the life history of the pest with reference to the growing of early cabbage. It should be noted that the maggots are most numerous when the plants are small, and therefore most vulnerable to attack. STATION EXPERIMENTS IN PROTECTING EARLY CABBAGE. Many methods have been proposed for the protection of early cabbage from the cabbage maggot. In a series of preliminary tests carbolic-acid emulsion and tar pads proved to be the most effective of the various protective and remedial measures commonly recommended for the control of this pest. In order to ascertain their applicability to the needs of market gardeners and truckers in this State, both of these have been tested in the laboratory and in a number of cooperative field experiments which are briefly described under the headings (1) Tests with Carbelic Acid Emulsion and (2) Tests with Tar Pads. TESTS WITH CARBOLIC-ACID EMULSION. References to use of carbolic acid for the control of root maggots.— An emulsion of carbolic acid of 0.1 per ct. strength was used by Cook ! as a remedy for the cabbage maggot in 1881. He reports that frequent applications with this diluted material protected radishes 1Can. Ent. 13: 189. 408 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE from maggot attack, without injury to the plants. Again, in 1886, Cook 2? tested a stronger solution that contained .44 per ct. of the acid. The insecticidal properties of carbolic acid at this dilution were evident, but the plants were injured wherever it was used. In 1887 Fletcher? reports that he successfully protected a crop of radishes from root maggots with the strength of emulsion first used by Cook. Following this experience Fletcher + has recommended this mixture many times in his reports. Slingerland ®> employed an emulsion in his tests that contained 0.32 per ct. of carbolic acid. This gave some protection against maggots and did not SU the plants in any of his tests. He sums up his work by saying ‘we believe it is the most successful and most practical method of treat- ing radishes, turnips or onions yet devised.” The earlier writers regarded the carbolic acid as a preventive and net a remedy. Slingerland believed, on the contrary, that it was a strong larvicide, and gave a full discussion of the action of the material in his tests. Washburn ® records, in 1906, some field tests in which he treated cabbage with an emulsion containing 0.37 per ct. of carbolic acid. There was very little injury to this field by maggots, so there was no opportunity to observe the effect of the material as a larvicide; but the checks were perceptibly better than the plants treated with the emulsion, and Washburn states that the comparatively poor showing of the treated plants suggests that the carbolic acid may have had an unfavorable effect. In connection with another test he says that the material works injury if applied to very young plants. In 1907 Smith 7 mentions carbolic acid as one of the most effective of all the destructive agents for this pest. He says that it is necessary to apply it early and to get the material down to the roots. In 1908 Washburn ® reports another test which is similar to his above-mentioned report, in that the checks were better than the treated plants. Collinge® of England 2 Mich. Bd. Agr. Rpt. 1886, p. ae 3 Can. Exptl. Farms Rept. for 1887, p. 2 4 Central Exptl. Farm (Can.) Bul. U1, pp. “ii and 29. 1891. Can. Exptl. Farms, Rpt. 1898, p. 195. U. 8. Dept. Agr., Ent., Bul. 46, p. 85. 1904. 5N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, p. 529 and 553. 6 Minn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 100, p. 11-12. 1906. ™N. J. Exp. Sta. Bul. 200, p. 22. 1907. 8 Minn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 112, p. 201. 1908. ® Collinge, W. E. Letter Feb. 17, 1913. New Yorx AgcricunturaAL ExprrimMent Station. 409 states that the large growers in that country will not use tarred disks, but the liquid soil insecticides have been used with good results. The above discussion deals only with some of the references to earbolic-acid emulsion that occur in the literature of the cabbage maggot. These references show, however, that the material has been regarded by entomologists as a strong larvicide; that it will injure plant growth when not sufficiently diluted, and that it may have some effect as a repellent. The experiments recorded by Washburn suggest that, even when used at a dilution of 0.37 per ct., the carbolic acid may have a retarding effect upon the growth of the cabbage. Laboratory tests to determine the effects of carbolic-acid emulsion on the eggs of the cabbage maggot: Test No. 1— Three lots of eggs were placed in clay saucers and immersed for five minutes in carbolic-acid emulsion containing 14 per ct., 0.66 per ct. and 0.33 per ct. crude acid, while other eggs were left untreated as a check. Apparently the carbolic acid had no effect on the time of hatching or the percentage of eggs hatched. Test No. 2.— In this experiment eggs were placed between moist filter papers which were then slightly covered with sandy soil, similar to that occurring in fields in which early cabbage is grown. The liquid insecticide was then applied to the soil as if the eggs were about cabbage plants. The results were as follows: 1.33 per ct. acid 15eggs 0 hatched. .66 per ct. acid Il5eggs 5 hatched. 10 not hatched. .33 per ct. acid l5eggs 0 hatched. Check 15 eggs 15 hatched. Test No 3.— This is a repetition of Test No. 2. The results are as follows: 1.35 per ct. acid 10eggs 0 hatched. .66 per ct. acid 10eggs 0 hatched. 44 per ct. acid 10 eggs 3 hatched and these larve died near egg shells. .33 per ct. acid 10eggs 0 hatched. Check 10 eggs 8 hatched. Results.— Attention is called to the results of tests Nos. 2 and 3 in which eggs remained in contact with the soil that had been wet with the liquid insecticide, until the surplus liquid evaporated, as would occur when plants are treated in the field. In these tests the carbolic acid functioned as an ovicide, and mixtures as weak 410 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE as 0.33 per ct. acid were fatal to the eggs. The eggs that failed to hatch in these tests with carbolic acid became pale brown in color, which discoloration occurred about the time the checks hatched. Laboratory tests to determine the effects of carbolic-acid emulsion on larve: Test No. 1.— To ascertain the larvicidal value of car- bolic acid, tests were made as follows: Larvz were immersed for one hour in the emulsion at the strength indicated in the accom- panying table and then placed on moist sand for later examination. The insects used in these tests were classified according to size. The “small” larvee were in the second instar, the ‘‘ medium ”’ sized larvee were recently molted individuals of the third instar, while the “large ”’ larvee were mature individuals of the third instar. The results of this series of tests are shown in Table I: Tasuie I.— Errect or DirrerEnt STRENGTHS oF Carzotic Acip on Maaeors. —————————— ee Number Size of Number alive larve. killed. after treatment. Number of larve Strength of emulsion. in test. | | | medium large 0.17 per ct. carbolic acid small medium large 0.22 per ct. earbolic acid Re) Te) | Src small medium large 0.33 per ct. carbolic acid ewo}| OWF | OO small | medium large 0.33 per ct. carbolic acid C1911 Cv9St1 or Oot t ace es Cpa | Cron Test No. 2.— To determine the effects of carbolic acid on mature larvee of the third instar under field conditions, the following experi- ment was made. The larve were placed in a slight depression in a rather dry soil for treatment, and after the mixture had been applied at strengths indicated in the table they were then slightly covered with earth. The effects of the treatment are shown in Table II. New Yorx AaricutturaAL Experiment Station. 411 Tasie IIl.— Errect or Carsoniic Actip on Maccots UnvEr Sort ConpitTIons. Number Strengths of emulsions in a Number alive carbolic acid. : rs killed. after reel treatment. as | E22 WEEAC UTA cates Aepatryc osteo Sed ome 5 0 5 OR2Gn per Cia Aarons ne yeah tors ae noes alee 5 1 4 ORSSaperictwen steers eee ee etc eto 5 2 3 J Results of tests with carbolic-acid emulsion on larve.— These tests show that immersion in carbolic-acid emulsion containing 0.33 per ct. is fatal to the larve of the second instar, and that the smaller individuals of the third instar are to a large degree susceptible to treatment, while the large maggots of this same stage are immune. Field experiments with carbolic-acid emulsion.— During the spring of 1906 a cabbage seed-bed was treated with carbolic-acid emulsion by Mr. L. A. Page of Seneca Castle, in cooperation with the Station. The soil about the roots was thoroughly saturated by gently pumping the mixture through a spray hose with the nozzle removed. The maggots were numerous about the roots of the plants and had caused serious injury before they were discovered. Apparently the work of the insects was not checked by the emulsion, for the seed-bed was so completely destroyed that no plants were available for transplanting. A similar experiment with this mixture was performed in 1908 on the same farm. The application was made to a seed-bed in anticipation of an attack by the insect. The maggots were few in number, and following the application no differences were observed in the treated and untreated plats. It should be noted that the emulsion was not harmful to the young seedlings which at the time of treatment were from five to seven inches high. In another experiment in an adjoining seed-bed during the same season the emulsion proved very destructive when applied to young seedlings one to two inches high. During 1913 the emulsion was used at a dilution of 0.37 per ct. earbolic acid in two commercial plantings of early cabbage. The soil in one field was a heavy clay while in the other it was a light sand. In both of the tests the emulsion caused serious injury to 412 Report oF THE DeEpARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE seedlings that had recently been transplanted in the field, as approxi- mately 50 per ct. died, and the remaining plants were much retarded as a result of the treatment. Plants that were well established and that had made appreciable growth before the application were not harmed. Injuries as a result of the treatment of carbolic acid appeared to be confined to the outer cortex of the root and were much more extensive with some plants than with others. Plants that were only slightly injured by the emulsion recovered from the effects of the treatment but they failed to produce heads. Conclusions from tests with carbolic acid — Carbolic-acid emulsion, when diluted to contain 0.33 per ct. crude acid prevents the eggs of the cabbage maggot from hatching; also the emulsion at this strength is fatal to the larve of the first and second instars and to some of the recently molted individuals of the third instar. The mature larve of the third instar are not susceptible to this treatment. As shown in these tests, cabbage seedlings that have been recently transplanted from the cold frame to the field are liable to injury by the carbolic acid, even at the dilute strengths usually recommended, while similar plants, when once the root system has become established, have not been affected by the treatment. TESTS WITH TAR PADS. References to use of tar pads for production of early cabbage.— The idea of protecting early cabbage plants by the use of paper collars seems to have originated with W. W. Tracy of Detroit, Mich., who tried manila paper without success. Goff of the Wisconsin Station placed tarred disks on an experimental basis by testing different types of paper for this purpose and devising a tool for cutting the hexagonal disks. He also tried grafting wax to fasten the papers to the stems of the plants. In the preliminary tests the tarred paper disks, without grafting wax, gave efficient protection to the seedlings, so samples of these were sent to gardeners to be tried in commercial plantings. Smith Brothers of Green Bay, Wisconsin, employed the disks for the protection of one or more acres of plants for at least three seasons. The results of this cooperative test, which were very favorable to the paper disk, were reported in detail by Goff. This test was reviewed by Slingerland ** who also pub- 10 Wis. Exp. Sta. 8th Ann. Rept. p. 169-173. 1891. 10th Ann. Rept. p. 259-261. 1893. uN. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, p. 521-527. 1894. Puate XIX.— Lire Staces or Caspspace Maaaor: 1, Eggs; 2, larva; 3, puparia; 4, adult female. (‘¢ oun paqdeiz0j0q4q) “CI6] ‘NUVY UaAHVG NO LINAWINAIXY AVG-AV], —*XX GLVIg % Dieter t 0 ALVA = : ee ou MIND GULVAGL e CHECK - + REATED Puate XXI.— ExpERIMENT witH Tar Paps oN Baker Farm: 1, Row 1 and checks; 2, Row 2 and checks. i ATED = TREAT — Puate XXII.— ExPerRiMENT witH Tar Paps on BAKER Farm: 1, Row 3 and checks; 2, Row 4 and checks. TREATED, erat Puate XXIII.— Experiment witH Tar Paps on BAKER I’aRM: 1, Row 5 and checks; 2, Row 6 and checks. Prats XXIV.—Stuntina Errect oF CaBBAGE-Maaaot Work: 1, a, Plants injured by maggots; 1, b, normal plant of same age; 2, roots showing maggot injury. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 413 lished the results of an experiment that he had conducted on Long Island. He commended this method of protecting cabbage plants, and his recommendations have been copied or abstracted by anumber of entomologists in this country and Europe who have published on this insect. However, this method has not been widely adopted by growers and until recently only a few entomologists have en- deavored to demonstrate its practicability. Schéyen” of Norway gives an account of an unsuccessful test with tar pads in which checks and treated cauliflowers were equally injured. Blair’ of Canada reports in detail the results of an experiment in which only 15 per ct. of the protected cabbage resulted in fair or vigorous plants. As the experimental plat was little better than the check, he attributes the failure to the possiblity that the tar pads were applied too late. In his report for 1907 Smith * says “ tarred- paper disks were distinctly effective. Several hundred were used, all told, and . . . on only two plants were maggots found later.” In a summary of the following seasons’ work he again remarks * “ As a protection to the cauliflower and cabbage plants, the tarred-paper disks proved to be both practical and effective.” Washburn '* describes an experiment in his report for 1907-08 that was decidedly unfavorable to tar pads and states that similar results were secured in 1906. This failure is attributed to the use of tar paper instead of tarred felt for the protective disks. He later secured some tarred felt cards from Smith Brothers of Green Bay, Wisconsin, which were placed about cauliflower seedlings on May 23. Of these plants 77 per ct. of the protected and 67 per ct. of the check plants produced heads. Britton and Walden ‘in a summary of tests covering several years state “these disks have given the best results of any form of treatment.”’ Caesar ‘* of Ontario, Canada, gives the results of a test in which 648 tarred disks were used and 90.6 per ct. of the protected plants lived as compared with 42.6 per ct. of the checks. He states that the pads were a great success; and that the differences in the treated and untreated lots were greater than the figures would indicate. 2 Schéyen, W. M. Beretning Skadeinsekter og Plantesygdomme, p. 23. 1896. 13 Canada Exp. Farms Rept. 1904, p. 362. uN, J. Exp. Sta. Ann. Rept. 1907, p. 439. 16N. J. Exp. Sta. Ann. Rept. 1908, p. 357. 18 Minn. Exp. Sta., Bul. 112, p. 202. 1908. 1 Highth Rept. State Ent. of Conn., p. 835. 1908. 18 Ontario (Canada) Agricultural College. 37th Rept. p. 40. 1911. 414 Report OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EnTromMoLoay OF THE Commercial tests with tar pads during 1912: Test No. 1.—This test was located north of Geneva on the truck farm of Mr. Henry Cook. On May 14 tar pads were placed about four hundred and thirty plants on five alternate rows of a small field of cabbage. The intervening rows were left as checks. There was no injury by maggots, and on July 8 there was no difference in size or appear- ance of the plants in the check and treated rows. Test No. 2.— This test was located east of Geneva in a cabbage field on the truck farm of Mr. Charles Scofield. Four hundred disks were applied to four alternate rows of plants on May 22. The period of oviposition commenced somewhat before this date, and as the plants had been set two days before treatment it was possible for them to become infested with eggs before the papers were applied. The injury by maggots, as evidenced by the wilting and death of some of the plants, was very noticeable on June 21. At this time 10 per ct. of the checks and 1 per ct. of the treated plants were either killed or badly wilted. In addition to this differ- ence in the percentage of plants seriously injured, there was also another perceptible result, namely, the cabbages in the protected rows averaged slightly larger than those of the check rows. The smaller size of the checks was attributed to the work of maggots, which were generally observed about the roots of the untreated plants. It appeared that while the insects were not sufficiently numerous to kill the cabbages, enough of them were present to retard their growth. Test No. 3.— This was located near Geneva in one of the plantings of Mr. Geo. Gasper. Four hundred disks were placed on four alternate rows on May 15, the day following the setting of the plants. The soil was a clay loam and was somewhat lumpy because of the unfavorable conditions at the time of cultivation, and in addition the plants were set low in the ground, which made it difficult to attach the tarred disks. The cards were soon covered by a half inch or more of earth, due to the washing of the soil during a heavy shower. By June 20 many of the plants were wilted and some were dead as a result of the injury by the maggots. Careful counts on this date showed that 53 per ct. of the treated plants and 16 per ct. of the checks were either killed or missing. In addition to this difference the protected plants were slightly larger than the checks. New York AacricutturaAL Exprriment Station. 415 Test No. 4.— This experiment was located about three miles northeast of Geneva in a cabbage field belonging to Mr. William Baker. The field consisted of twelve rows, having about three hundred plants to the row. On May 11 tar pads were attached to the plants in two rows. On June 21 many of the untreated plants showed the effect of maggot work. Eight per ct. of the checks and two-thirds of one per ct. of the treated plants were badly wilted or killed. Here again the protected plants were larger than those in the adjacent rows. Commercial tests with tar pads during 1913: Test No. 1—This experiment was conducted on the farm of Mr. Henry Cook, north of Geneva. Four hundred tar pads were applied to four alternate rows, but maggots were present in such small numbers that there was no difference between the treated and check plants. Attention is called to the fact that for two successive seasons no noticeable injury by maggots occurred on this farm, although on neighboring farms the pest has, during both seasons, done a great amount of damage. Test No 2.— This planting of cabbage belonged to Mr. William Baker and was located a short distance from the field mentioned in Test No. 4 of the previous season. The soil was a light sand and well tilled. The seedlings were of good size, with long straight stems. The cabbages were planted on April 29 and 30. On May 3 about seven hundred tarred disks were placed on six alternate rows. During the following two weeks adults of the cabbage maggot were numerous in this field and eggs were observed in conspicuous num- bers about the stems of the plants. By June 5 there was a very marked difference between the treated and check rows. Many of the cabbages in the untreated rows were wilted or dead and the plants averaged much smaller than those protected by tarred disks. This condition is well shown in Plates XXI, XXII, XXIII. The plants illustrated in Plate XXIV were given the same care in all particulars, and the difference in their comparative size is due to the continued root injury by a few maggots, which was sufficient to check their growth. It was estimated on June 9 that 93 per ct. of the pro- tected plants and 45 per ct. of the checks would make marketable heads. The results in yields and financial returns from the treated and untreated rows in this experiment are shown in detail in Table III. 416 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE Tasie III.— Yretps or CaBBAGE FROM TREATED AND UNTREATED Rows on THE Baker Farm rn 1913. Plants protected by tarred papers. Plants not protected. Com- Com- Number | Number | puted Number | Number | puted Number of of heads yield Number of of heads yield of row. | seedlings sold. per 1000 | of row. | seedlings sold. per 1000 planted. plants set. planted. plants set. ile Aen 119 S10 ey eS 2 127 pi en oe sc Sees 110 S£ al. sens 4 111 ZO eee ere Sys es oes: 108 SZ MIE eaten 6 126 28 5i\ ves esheets ee eet. 121 SA en tala 8 109 Dirigl iraecreee Ae aaa 113 TAU ellen ee 5. 3 10 122 LAS | eee iby. 98 TAR ee 12 93 LS) \hese tei ae 669 484 12M ee hee 688 135 193 From the above table it will be observed that 72 per ct. of the cabbages protected with tar pads were sold on the early market as compared with about 19 per ct. of the plants not treated. By computing the gain per 1,000 plants, on the basis of the above experiment, we secure the following results: 1,000 protected plants yield 723 marketable heads. 1,000 check plants yield 193 marketable heads. Gain due to tar pads 530 heads. The above mentioned cabbage was sold at 84 cents per head. Value of 530 heads at 83 cents........:.....; $44.17 Cost of protecting 1,000 plants with tarred DADCIS AM Ae cite tet Ae Ah, Soe Bee ne 1.40 Net profit per 1,000 protected plants........ $42.77 Conclusions from experiments with tar pads.— The experiments briefly described have shown that the employment of tar pads is an efficient method of reducing losses to early cabbage from maggots. The actual amount of protection secured by this means has varied with different farms according to the severity of the attacks by this pest, but in plantings where the maggots were abundant and very New York AGricuLTuRAL EXPERIMENT Station. 417 destructive to untreated cabbages, a large percentage of the plants protected by card disks have produced marketable heads. This method of protecting early cabbage is simple, and when compared with the losses which some truck growers have sustained in certain trucking sections it is, moreover, quite inexpensive. In addition to actually reducing the number of plants killed by the insects another important result of the experiments should be noted, that tar pads have largely prevented root injury, which though not sufficient to kill the plants may be extensive enough to retard growth and the maturing of the cabbages, so that the crop fails to reach the earliest market when usually the highest prices prevail. This is an impor- tant consideration, which in the past has not been sufficiently emphasized or really appreciated by most truckers. Comparative merits of carbolic-acid emulsion and tar pads.— The chief merit of carbolic acid in controlling the cabbage maggot is that it will kill the eggs and young larve of the insect. The dis- advantages attending the use of the emulsion are that several appl- cations are usually necessary, the liquid must be applied in sufficient quantities to penetrate the soil in order to reach the insects; and, of most importance, that there is danger of injury to the tender roots of the plant. Carbolic acid is a strong poison and our tests as well as those of other workers have shown that even at the dilutions used the roots of cabbages may be injured. A very serious objection to this method of treatments is that in actual practice truckers do not apply the emulsion until the injurious work of the maggots is in an advanced stage and the plants are damaged beyond recovery. The tar pads, on the other hand, can be applied immedi- ately after the plants are set in the field and require no further attention. They are safe, in that there is no possible chance of injury to the plant by their use, and in our tests they have also given efficient protection against the cabbage maggot. It has proven much more easy to apply the tar pads than it is to make a single treatment of the emulsion, for one man can carry to the field enough tar pads to protect one thousand plants, while to treat this number of cabbages with carbolic-acid emulsion would require at least two and one-half barrels of the liquid. Cost of protecting cabbage with tar paper disks.—As to cost, the single-ply tarred felt disks have in the past been offered for sale at about seventy cents per thousand. In our experiments on sandy 27 418 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE soil with plants of desirable size, one man was able, without any previous experience, to adjust the pads carefully at the rate of three hundred of them per hour. On the basis of these items the cost of protecting cabbage by this method will run approximately from $1.35 to $1.50 per thousand plants. In addition to the expense for protectors and Jabor, the actual cost will also vary according to the character and condition of the soil as well as in the manner in which the plants are set in the ground. Plants that are set low in the ground or are wilted are not adapted to this method of pro- tection. Considering the safeness to the plant, the ease of application, cost and protection against the maggot, the use of tar pads seems to be the most practical method yet devised for protecting early cabbage from this insect. DESCRIPTION OF TAR PADS AND THE TOOL FOR MAKING THEM. The cards are cut in the shape of a hexagon (Fig. 19) from roofing paper known as “ single-ply tarred-felt.”” The tool used in cutting these disks can be made by an expert blacksmith by reference to the accompanying figures. The blade or cutting edge is formed from a band of steel bent in the form of a half hexagon, with an additional strip reaching from one end nearly to the center, as shown in Fig. 20. The part making the star-shaped cut is formed from a separate piece of steel bolted to the handle and so attached as to make a close joint with the blade. The edge of the blade is beveled from the outside all around, so that by removing the part making the star-shaped cut the edge may be sharpened. It is important that the angles of the cutting edge be made perfect and that its outline represent a half hexagon. In order to cut the disks the tarred paper should be placed on the end of a section of a log or piece of timber (Fig. 21) and the lower edge notched, as indicated in Fig. 22, using only one angle of the tool; then begin at the left side, placing the cutting edge as shown by the dotted line. One man can cut from 300 to 500 disks per hour and about 6 pounds of single-ply tarred-felt is necessary for a thousand pads. Estimating the paper at 24 cents per pound and the labor at 15 cents per hour, makes the cost of the pads per 1,000 about 15 cents for material and 30 cents to 50 cents for labor. New Yorx AcricutturRaAL ExprrIMEntT Station. 419 Fie. 19.— SHapr anp Size or Tar Pap. Fie. 20.— Toon For Curtine Tar Paps. Fie. 21.— Currine Biock AND PAPER Fig. 22.— First Steps 1n Curtine IN Position For Maxrnc Tar Paps. Tar Paps. 420 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE Truckers who do not care to cut their own disks may purchase them from Hirsch Brothers, Middle Village, L. I., New York, A. B. Cowles, 25 8. Water St., Rochester, N. Y., and Smith Brothers, Green Bay, Wisconsin. In large trucking sections there are doubt- less agencies who keep these protectors in stock. RECOMMENDATIONS. In the employment of tar pads as a means of protecting early cabbage, truckers should arrange to transplant seedlings of good size with rather long stems. Disks cannot be satisfac- torily adjusted about small plants, for in setting such seedlings it is necessary to place them low in the soil so that only the leaves protrude. Moreover, while transplanting it is well to avoid placing the seedling in a depression. This fre- quently occurs when the work of setting is done by hand, for in making a hole for the roots more earth is removed than is necessary, so that after the operation is com- pleted the plant occupies the center of a shallow basin. Tar pads placed about cab- bages that have been set in such situations are liable to become covered with soil during the first shower, which reduces their efficiency. Some growers set their cabbage plants on a slight Fic. 23— Tar Paps Property Apsustep ridge. This practice is an Ascun Sasa advantage where tar pads are used, as the protectors are not liable to become covered with soil. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 421 To secure the greatest benefit the tar papers should be applied immediately after the plants are set in the field. If this work is delayed for several days it gives the flies an opportunity to deposit numerous eggs about the plants. The method of applying the card is to separate the two edges of the slit running to the center, slip the card around the plant after it is set, and see that it fits snugly about the stem. The paper pad should then be pressed down firmly so that the under surface will be in contact with the soil, and the radial opening closed. (Fig. 23.) In the use of tar pads the more important points to keep in mind are to set good-sized plants, place them on a ridge rather than in a trench, and attach the tar papers at the time the seedlings are transplanted. In experimental efforts by truckers to determine the practicability of protecting early cabbage by the above method, we advise that the tar pads be applied to alternate rows, leaving the intervening plants as checks. Under this system the benefit derived from the protectors is likely to be more clearly shown than when the experi- ment is conducted with detached plats. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO SPRAYING MIXTURES OF HIBERNATING PSYLLA ADULTS AND THEIR EGGS.* H. E. HODGKISS. SUMMARY. Investigations of failures to control the psylla in pear orchards led the Station to inquire into the susceptibilities of the hibernating adults and their eggs to spray mixtures. Studies of the seasonal history and habits of the insect showed that the pear psylla passes the winter as an adult or “ fly,” and that it deposits its eggs in the spring within a short period after its emergence from hibernating quarters. The psylla was observed to winter over on various fruit trees such as apple, cherry, plum and peach, but the largest number of the “ flies” sought hiberna- tion in the rough bark of pear trees. The behaviour of the hibernating “ flies”? in the fall was quite different from the movements of the insects in the spring. During a period in late fall or early winter when the weather moderated it was observed that few of the “ flies’? remained in hiding and that they largely clustered in the center of the trees. At such times the adults walked but were sluggish in their movements and rarely attempted to jump or fly. On the contrary, during the spring, as a result of constantly increasing temperatures and the daily effective- ness of sunlight, a few hours of time proved sufficient to induce great activity among the adults. It was not uncommon for them to jump or fly directly after emergence from their winter retreats. If moderate temperatures prevailed eggs were largely deposited within a few days after the emergence of the hibernating adults in the spring. Oviposition continued for several weeks, especially if the weather was variable, but usually most of the eggs were deposited before the last of April. Some ova were laid on foliage, but it appeared that these normally are comparatively few in numbers and result in little or no serious infestation of the foliage. * Reprint of Bulletin No. 387, May; for Popular Edition see p. 938. [422] Puate XXV.— THe Pear PSYLua: 1, Nymphs, stages 1-3; 2, nymphs, stages 4-5; 3, eggs; 4, winter adult. (All figures much enlarged). ne reid ew i New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 423 The practice of clean culture and the removal and destruction of the rough bark left the “ flies’ with few opportunities of escape from applications of contact mixtures. Mliscible oils, nicotine preparations and soapy solutions were effective sprays against the psylla adults. Homemade oil-emulsions were less satisfactory, which may have been owing to varying percentages of oil in the mixtures, caused by imperfectly prepared emulsions. The best means of killing the “ flies? is spraying during a period of warm weather, preferably in November or December, or during March or early in April. The most satisfactory mixture, from the standpoints of safety to fruit and leaf buds and effectiveness against the insect, is three-fourths of a pint of tobacco extract (40 per ct. nicotine) in 100 gallons of water to which are added from three to five pounds of soap. Eggs about to hatch and newly emerged nymphs succumb to an application of the lime-sulphur solution. By postponing the dormant treatment for the San Jose scale until the blossom cluster-buds are beginning to separate at the tips, very effective work can be done against the eggs. The lime-sulphur should be used in the proportion of one gallon of the concentrate, 32° B., to eight gallons of water. In some tests of other contact sprays the miscible oils, oil emulsions, weak dilutions of nicotine, and soapy solutions were of small value for the destruction of the eggs. Ova deposited on the twigs after the wood was thoroughly sprayed with the lime-sulphur solution hatched, and the young nymphs were not harmed through contact with the material on the bark of the trees. On the other hand the wash having considerable amounts of sediment (15-20-50 formula) was less destructive to the eggs but the young psyllas which hatched for the most part failed to reach the opening buds and these suc- cumbed to the action of the sediment which became attached to their bodies after leaving the egg shells. The chief factors which make for efficient work against the hiber- nating “‘ flies’? and their eggs are (1) a knowledge on the part of the grower of the habits of the “‘ flies’? and an acquaintance with the eggs; (2) an understanding of the conditions under which these stages are most vulnerable to sprays; (3) thorough work in spraying. 494 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE INTRODUCTION. Failures to control psylla in pear orchards by summer spraying to destroy the nymphs only, have led the Station to inquire into the susceptibility of the insect to spraying mixtures at other stages of its life. Attention has been given especially to the hibernating adults and to the eggs of this brood, for it has seemed on casual observations that these, under certain conditions, might be quite vulnerable to treatment. This conviction was further strengthened by a study of the literature on the species, which has indicated the possibility of protecting orchards by combating the insects in either of these stages, and has emphasized the desirability of experiments along the proposed lines. HISTORICAL SUMMARY OF SPRAYING FOR ADULTS AND EGGS. In 1896 Dr. J. B. Smith! of the New Jersey Station suggested that “the application of whale-oil soap early in the spring, Just as the buds begin to swell, will generally kill the insects (hibernating flies), which are then ready to emerge from winter quarters. Good practice is to scrape all the loose bark from the trees during the winter, and burn it; wash at that time with a potash or strong kerosene mixture, and in the spring use the whale-oil soap at the rate of one pound in one gallon of water, being careful to confine the spraying to the trunk and larger branches. If this is thoroughly done, it forms a film over the trunk which no insect will voluntarily pierce. A liberal application of whitewash is also advantageous * * *.” Prof. M. V. Slingerland? in 1899 recommended that “as these . hibernating psyllas are the progenitors of all that will appear on the trees during the following season one can readily see how much it means to kill these over-wintering adults before they begin egg laying in the spring. Drenching the bark thoroughly with a strong kerosene emulsion (1 part emulsion to 4 or 5 of water), whale-oil soap (one pound in three to five gallons of water), or kerosene, using about one part of kerosene to nine or ten parts of water, would be a wise investment.” 1Economic Entomology, p. 138. 1896. 2Proc. W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. 44:71. 1899. New Yorx AGRICULTURAL ExPrrRIMENT Station. 425 In 1911 Dr. J. B. Smith* stated ‘‘ experience has shown that a winter spray of miscible oil, diluted not over ten times, and applied with force enough to penetrate to the bottom of all crevices, produces satisfactory results. I usually recommend that the rough bark be first removed; but if that is done, it is essential that the spraying be done immediately thereafter, and that the scrapings be either burnt at once or thoroughly drenched with the spray. The insects become active enough to crawl at a very moderate temperature, and if scrapings are left lying during an entire sunny day, they may leave them and get among the soil rubbish for a new shelter. On the other hand, the sprayings should not be done at a temperature at or below the freezing point as that impairs the efficiency of the oil.” The eggs of the pear psylla have usually been regarded as quite resistant to sprays which are considered “‘ safe to foliage.’”” Experi- ments by Slingerland* in 1892 with various insecticides such as kerosene emulsion used full strength, or diluted in three parts of water heated to 130° F., pure kerosene, turpentine emulsion at a dilution of one part of the emulsion to three parts of water, pure turpentine, crude carbolic acid emulsion diluted with ten parts of water, resin wash used triple strength, and heated to 130° F., whale- oil soap and sulphide of potash wash used at double strengths, concentrated potash in the proportion of one pound to one gallon of water, or benzine in undiluted sprays, led him to conclude that it is inadvisable to attempt to combat the pest by spraying to kill the eggs. Subsequent experiments by Marlatt® in 1894 with various oil-emulsions were more successful, but as a varying percentage of the eggs were unharmed he also laid chief emphasis on the importance of destroying the newly hatched nymphs as the most reliable method of control. With the general use of the lime-sulphur sprays in the East, com- mencing about 1902, there have been indications that applications of these mixtures have proven of more or less value in the prevention of injuries by this pest. In 1904° some experiments by this Station indicated that these washes had afforded considerable protection 3N. J. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rpt. 31:305-6. 1910 (1911). ‘Cornell Univ. Expt. Sta. Bul. 44:179. 1892. 5Insect Life. 7:183-4. 1894. ®N. Y. State Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 262:62-63; 65-6. 1905. 426 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE from the first brood of nymphs. in the spring o1 19057 Mr. Fred Johnson of the U. 8. Bureau of Entomology was led to believe that the spring application of the lime-sulphur wash was quite effective in destroying the eggs of this insect in Niagara county. On the basis of his observations of pear orchards in the Hudson River Valley, Dr. E. P. Felt,® in 1910, expressed a similar opinion. In describing conditions in Connecticut during 1904 Dr. W. E. Britton ® stated ‘after spraying pear trees with lime and sulphur mixtures to kill the San Jose scale it was noted that the pear psylla was scarce, though the insect was observed in other localities where it caused more or less injury.” In England, Theobald,!® while working with a closely related species on apple, doubted the value of most washes in killing psylla eggs, and, while apparently he had not tested the lime-sulphur preparations, he recommends the use of a lime-salt mixture for the prevention of the hatching of the eggs. The application is said to act largely as a mechanical barrier to the escape of large numbers of the young, although he suggests that the salt has some osmotic power ‘‘as when the quantity of the salt is increased the action becomes greater.” The experiences of some of the leading growers in New York have borne out the promises of the early experiments with the lime- sulphur wash, and the use of this spray in later years seems to have afforded them almost complete protection against the psylla. On the other hand the results in most plantings have been variable and quite contradictory; and in spite of annual sprayings with lime-sulphur wash before the appearance of foliage the pest has, for several seasons, made serious inroads in pear orchards generally. The true explanation for these differences has been wanting, but the discrepancies appear to have been largely due to habits of the hibernating ‘‘ flies” as affected by seasonal conditions. Very little was known of the over-wintering adults or the circum- stances of oviposition which would appear to be essential for intelli- gent action. To these points the Station has devoted much attention for the purpose of determining the best conditions for effective spraying against the adults and the eggs deposited by them. 7U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1906 (1907). p. 446. 8N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 147:45. 1910 (1911). 9Conn. State Entomologist. Rpt. 4:2138. 1904. 10Tnsect pests of Fruit. pp. 160-162. 1909. PuateE XXVI.— Pear TREE Berore (1) anp Arter (2) Removat or Loose Bark. Removal of bark renders tree less attractive to winter adults ‘of pear psylla. BN, ane ce a Pirate XXVII.—fprayine For PsyLua ContTROL. Upper.— Unsprayed Kieffer pears defoliated by psylla attacks. Lower.— Adjoining trees in same orchard sprayed with lime-sulphur solution to destroy psylla eggs. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTIon. 427 STUDIES OF THE HABITS AND OVIPOSITION OF HIBERNATING “ FLIES.” TIME OF TRANSFORMATION OF HIBERNATING ADULTS. The abundance of psyllas during the years 1909-1913 afforded ample opportunity to watch the activities of the hibernating brood of this insect. Transformation to winter adults occurred in late Septem- ber or October of each year as shown in the accompanying table. TasLe I.— Time or TRANSFORMATION OF PsyLLA ADULTS IN THE FALL. 1910. 1911. 1912. 1913. First appearance of “ flies’’ of winter brood} Sept. 28 | Oct. 10 | Oct. 10 | Sept. 29 Average greatest abundance............. Oct. 16 | Nov. 3 | Oct. 21 | Oct. 20 Latest appearance of nymphs of summer brood einen eh: EY RA eae Oct. 20 | Nov. 12 |- Nov. 12 | Oct. 30 ¢ CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH “ FLIES’? HIBERNATE. Pear trees of all varieties were equally sought by the adults as food, and sheltered the largest number of these insects. Other kinds of fruits on which hibernating psylla ‘“‘ flies’? were often observed were apple, cherry, peach and plum, but the infestation of these fruits was apparently due to their nearness to infested pear plantings. Many adults were also found each year under leaves or other rubbish, and in tufts of grass. In 1912 large numbers of them collected about the “collar’’ and in some instances in fissures in the soil near the trunks of the trees. Other objects such as fence posts and out-buildings were sometimes found to harbor the “ flies’”’ which presumably had crawled to them after having been blown from the trees or having become numbed from the cold and dropped to the ground. RELATION OF TEMPERATURE TO THE ACTIVITIES OF HIBERNATING “PLIES ” IN THE FALL. The movement of “ flies”? to winter quarters during the years 1910-1912, of which data are shown in Tables II and III, began with the continued freezing temperatures of October and November. As indicated in Table III this movement was less marked during the 428 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE Tasie JII.— Errects oF TEMPERATURES ON THE ACTIVITIES OF HIBERNATING PEAR PsyLuA ADULTS IN THE FALL. (For 1910 and 1911.) Daily : mean Activities of adults during 1910.) temper- atures, 1910. “Flies ”’ abundant on trees...... 42 “ Flies ’’ seek lower bud spurs... . 49 Entrance into hibernation....... 34 Now fliesi@ionitrees); n-ne soe 39 ‘Flies ’’ emerge from bark...... 39 “Flies ’’ re-hibernate and none 16 emerged until spring. 16 Date. Oct. Nov. Dec. Daily mean temper- |Activities of adults during 1911. atures, 1911. oF. “Flies ” abundant on trees. Entrance into hibernation. Some “ flies’? on bud spurs during this period, but num- bers were small. “ Flies ’ emerge in large num- bers and remain on bud spurs. “Flies” re-hibernate and none emerged until spring. SSS SSS EEE™—EEEEE—E—e—E—E———————————————Eee ee New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT SratTion. 429 TaBLeE IJ].— Errects ofr TEMPERATURES ON THE ACTIVITIES OF HIBERNATING PEAR PsyLua ADULTS IN THE FALL. (For 1912 and 1913.) Daily Daily ’ mean mean Activities of adults during 1912.) temper- Date. temper- |Activities of adults during 1913. atures, atures, 1912. 1913. Chie oF, 46 | Oct. 25 54 46 26 46 46 27 48 46 28 54 51 29 49 53 30 43 46 31 34 54 | Nov. 1 35 38 2 43 ‘“ Flies ’’ abundant on trees. 34 3 46 “Flies” abundant on trees...... 41 4 47 54 5 47 57 6 47 58 7 52 43 8 52 41 9 51 43 10 41 ee i: He Entrance into hibernation. 53 13 47 53 14 46 37 15 37 Entrance into hibernation....... 35 16 36 37 17 41 34 18 43 46 19 56 48 20 60 ‘* Flies ’’ emerge in large numbers. 52 21 57 46 22 65 41 23 56 39 24 42 33 25 38 34 26 42 ‘ Flies ’’ re-hibernate........... 33 27 30 27 28 36 ‘Flies’? emerge and remain 29 29 40 on lower bud spurs. On 38 30 41 coldest days some returned SLi) Decs *1 44 to bark. Final seclusion of 43 2 44 adults did not occur until 42 3 44 Dec. 29. 38 4 38 Some ‘ flies’ on bud spurs...... 38 & 45 53 6 41 36 7 45 35 8 37 20 9 29 46 10 31 39 11 25 23 12 29 “Flies ’’ re-hibernate and none 20 13 43 emerged until spring.......... 33 14 40 42 15 33 39 16 37 33 17 42 41 18 33 37 19 26 430 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE autumn of 1913, owing to unusually mild temperatures, and in that year comparatively few “flies”? sought protection from the cold before the last days of December. While the weather was permanently cold during these months the adults remained secluded. In 1910 and 1911 a warm period of several days’ duration occurred during the last week of November of each year at which time the unusual warmth during the sunny hours of each day caused myriads of “ flies’ to leave their hiding places and gather on the bud spurs and tender growth in the center of the trees where they remained although the temperatures at night in the most instances were quite low. In preparing the tables, the influence of winds, rains ae cold storms was not considered, but these factors undoubtedly have obscured the effects of temperature to a considerable extent during some years. It appears from these records that some “‘ flies” after they have once hibernated became active again during the fall or early winter at a mean temperature as low as 32° F., under some conditions, but even at that temperature there was very little activity if colder days had recently occurred. A mean temperature in the fall of about 42° F. usually caused myriads of the “flies” to appear in exposed positions on the trees. Beneath the bark, movement on the part of the insects sometimes was observed at lower temperatures than those indicated in Tables II and III. After the “‘ flies ’’ emerged from shelter they remained semi-dormant on the trees at temperatures less than those at which they emerged from hiding quarters, but it appears from our studies that a mean temperature of at least 40° F., is required to cause the “flies” to leave their shelter during the fall or winter months. In the spring the susceptibilities of adult psyllas to slight increases in temperature resulted in extensive movements of the insects, very early each season, from their winter quarters to the limbs and smaller branches of the trees. At this period the trees were dormant and the development of the buds had not commenced. Under such conditions the ‘‘ flies”? chose by preference the newer succulent growth within the center of the trees, and the blossom bud spurs about the lower branches. Within a few days, if warmth continued, the ‘‘ flies’ scattered over the trees and disseminated through the orchards. In March, 1910, adults began to jump and fly two days after leaving their hiding places, but during 1911 these activities New Yorx AGricuLttTuRAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 431 Taste IV.— Activities or HIBERNATING Broop or PEAR PsyLtLA AND ConplrITIONS or TREES DURING THE SPRING oF 1910. Daily Tisai as mean Rain or Date. Activities of insects. Condition of trees. tem- snow perature. oH. March 26) |S Ohlies”” appearing: eilliveknine ee nie cee see 463) Clears warm)....1\|f eee ane ZT | TRE aa RRR PIAS Sie, Da | | Beene ech anaah ep y AU a ADP Cloudy* Acts eee eee OT We te AT. Pee rode tote, Bie te eM hg MOTO tere otas oe eter a 59) ||} Clears otscnteer vt eee ae 748 Al TR SER SeROR SCN RRA uc Pe Ac | (WAR R Aee nteey ee ee ea a Gt lt Clear’. ran yh cle on ieee coe: HOOD Medes eee Cee ere eed tons Re Reset ee eae os G9 h Cloudy. cnn le cece sie SHILA ER Ar cr Atccirncto BPR ce cae | (Rae On, See Sesh ae ER GL? |) Cloudy: ba4c.sclh eae ances AYIA EE Meena ates aed Listens SRLS a core oes Rte aeae AD |S Olean ee 240.) ce ec ae ml eespbeinriatdice sal av.cis vere saree oe Unie BSN I ClOALA SEE ie osfollle Mee eis eek Ohl) BOB pes ae he nee ee. eet ne eno eS HG) |e Clearer ntoc ones a Petoten ees 4 | “ Flies’? most numer- GUS. Cb et || eS nee ee tee BAe Clondyaecerk .08 Oe erecas's Saas Mote eie, whe she. te Cluster buds break- sya 2) lh ae ee UE 660 |sEattlyzcloudyenis sees ee fom et eanee ache etae Dae tell! s,s cbse sacs = Re lentes OO @loudyenec. o.\5 6 .02 WaIPMIGEL TEES ICONSLODE|) kik oh sc sone eceecs 33 | Cloudy, ice storm .02 ice 8 drives flies under] Tips of buds separat- 34 | Partly eae er Bees 9 bark. ing. AG WW@leat..ccas one Trace IUD) ees bobs cheneceed HNC tcac Mee, || RR ENN n ry eC ee AS He @loudyinco.60 .04 LL eotctecae ee Ot Nou ee tec | Decne a eetens ee Rene aaa AUS Clear’: oo 5 aya aM lye ne Secs 1 alll® A A ae en Arete) | Re, Ae oR ae a ee SY fall IAG) Ci Dat mee eres col) ee emer ny US |h Saka Roce ERR Ge Als, Serial [ae i, AOS mw, Tere ee Sik Gleares sai... h ot le aera Lael | Brees ence teeth crepe cities | IER Men Rae eee Rene Coenen ASS OLOUGY. 7. cise cote ES ete: EON ie antes ies epee ete eee call Wee Tae Tare coerce eer apache 60) | N@londy.2-s =a .3 1Gy |e Manyregecicollapsing|| 225 sheen-e- 7 ss. ceo. 58 | Cloudy.. -09 ae Wh See She tae ee Se |e Pane eee eames 48 | Partly cloudy. . os Itch? Bho eee Seis SUT Sees Leaf buds open...... 51 | Cloudy : .06 Ron eheesshatehine. prs. e will oc ere cies ae a 435 i Cloudy nneets cae .74 200 | RHE WANVINPUSA Ses Gill 2550 b rete ee eens 40 | Cloudy. sala Gal ll Hee Gaath ecy Sain ea ree ie | ane ace aac ete cere Ne Pee 48 | Cloudy, cocl. 07 OEE Mee Re aie Astaae RRS ey oy Blossom buds opening 4G) Cleary... vs sovs oil monte siete: Ct. avate eaten plat eye oa a | eee ates eee Ue 48 | Cloudy..:.....-. “38 AD |e ieee ROR tee ST ER AS eS a ltt Le AG | Cloudy: Seven cc .43 ZollaNymphs ‘dying siromi))./.. 5 ij(6 see ce ee oe 47 | Cloudy.. .09 26 coldiand(rains? )\hills.e ote kee 51 | Partly cloudy... 08 DAC MY ecru Cotes ch machd ERS tare ne Neekin OnE Sat ay ae 47 | Cloudy.. a Trace 74st). Sect ek ele AAAS sek Se || Ramen hh TR Ie RNC tec 41% 2 Clear’. 24-2 5elh een Riel Bo aks eectae cs Seidl eee feces eee aeRO Rc meti a Bil Cloudynneu tance 9 30) eNyimphsimost mumer-| ).2.8.25-ssceo-cmae SAPS Cloudyanceee en .02 May 1 OUSS SP kee ee TY Wael Cee ne tae eee 53 | Cloudyeneer os oe PF ||" ce Sene acct et aa co cl Beles | [ea eRe ed ee 61 | Cloudy 4 Eich cera ase Gtk nk bie oie Smee aowrals 45a Cloudyatan erie 02 4) |\sast fies 2s .. te.5 4 oe Bilibloom)= ene Ab Cleark ours <... Ey WY Sa eC Roe circa aes|||, Ctneeners. Saree een a ae ee Oa oz Cloudyarone ee Gal) Ree ee ene ea 34 | Partly cloudy... Cio) IR gee RAO Gey Aics|| | See ace nSanieNr I hae i ola Clear=eeee er BA his AERIS cE eco ce bay tl uae ones SO Cleary omees ses CN EL Ee BES er hd att atc || Re RecReRes or ottres cheers a oar ae Sel Cloudync-e pee 10 | Eggs hatching....... Cluster buds break- INS ete Ry eer ssn (Cloudy: eee 11a Dhewsanymphsiersee the stigmal vein is curved, oblique, and terminates in a knob. Both sexes have 12-jointed antennz; in the male they are Fie. 29.—Aputt Femate or Cacus e@canthi: a, filiform (Fig. 29, a); awa antenna of male. the female the first joint or scape is very large; the second, third and fourth slender, the fifth and sixth transverse, and the remaining six segments form a compact club. A dipterous parasite On August 29, 1912, a puparium of some dipterous insect was found in a bottle with a sickly, yellowish- looking specimen of quadripunctatus in the fifth nymphal instar, which was still alive. By dissecting a number of specimens of tree crickets we found one which contained a larva of the same parasite. This larva was large and ovoid in shape, and of a pale yellowish color. It occupied the abdominal cavity above the alimentary canal and below the fat body. The cricket was alive when cut open, but it was of an abnormal yellowish color and the abdomen was distended. The parasitic larva pupated but we were unable to rear adults from the two puparia. Mermis sp. In our rearings of tree crickets we have occasionally noticed examples of parasitism with hairworms. Individuals that were parasitized became quite sluggish in their movements during the last stages of life and were more or less discolored. The tip of the abdomen was generally blackish and there were also indications of a dark-colored discharge from the anus. Nymphs of the fourth 464 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE and fifth instars seemed to be most affected, and only one hairworm was observed to make its escape from each insect, which was accom- plished through the anus. The extent to which hairworms occur in tree crickets seems to show considerable variation from year to year, and was greatest during July and August in 1908 and 1909. In subsequent years they have been observed much less frequently. As orthoptera generally are subject to parasitism by these creatures, specimens of the hairworms were sent for identification to Dr. B. H. Ransom of the U. 8. Bureau of Animal Industry who reported that they were larve of a Mermis sp. Because of their immature con- dition it was stated that it was not possible to determine definitely if they were the same species as exist in other kinds of crickets and grasshoppers. Stalk-boring insects.— Eggs of nigricornis and quadripunctatus are sometimes destroyed by various species of stalk-borers. These latter are not true parasites, but the effect of their operations, in tunneling through the central pith of weeds and other plants and feeding upon it, is to hollow out stems and stalks, which effectually disposes of any eggs of a tree cricket that happen to be in the path of the boring insect. KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Cécanthus FOUND IN NEW YORK STATE. A Basal segment of antennae with a swelling on the front and inner side. First and second segments each with a single black mark. B Basal antennal segment with a round black spot. (Fig. 30, a.) niveus De Geer BB Basal antennal segment with a J-shaped black mark. (Fig. 30, b.) angustipennis Fitch BBB Basal antennal segment with a straight club-shaped black mark. exclamationis Davis AA Basal antennal segment without a swelling on the front and inner side. First and second antennal segments each with two black marks or entirely black. Tegmina of male 5 mm. or less in width. B Head and thorax pale yellowish-green or black or marked with both colors. C First antennal segment with a narrow black line along inner edge and a black spot near the distal end. Body entirely pale yellowish- green. quadripunctaius Beut. CC First antennal segment with black markings similar to above, but broader and usually confluent, sometimes covering the whole segment. Head and thorax often with three longitudinal black stripes; ventral side of abdomen always solid black in life. (Fig. 30, c, d.) nigricornis Walker BB Head, thorax and antennae reddish brown. Wings in life with con- spicuous green veins. Marks on basal antennal segment broad but seldom confluent. pint Beut. AAA Basal antennal segment without a swelling on the front and inner side. Basal portion of antenna red, unmarked with black. Tegmina of male about 8 mm. wide, latipennis Riley Puate XXVIII.— Lire Stages oF THE SNowy TREE Cricket (CZ. niveus): NYMPHAL InstaRs AND ADULT. Pirate XXIX.—Snowy Tree Cricket (@. niveus). 1, Female feeding on thoracic gland of male; 2, Characteristic posture of female in act of ovipositing. PuatE XXX.—TuHE Snowy TREE Cricket (@. niveus). 1, Normal scars on apple; 2, oviposition injuries under bark; 3 and 4, cross sections showing scars and diseased areas, ). nweus Puate XXXI.—Snowy Tree Cricket (@. 2, old canker about cricket puncture and subsequent extension of diseased area. . ? le lenticels (enlarged) in app tures iposition punc 1, Ov Puate XXXII.—Snowy Tree Cricket (CZ. niveus). 1, Young canker showing exudation; 2, more advanced stage; 3, separation of bark about diseased area; 4 and 5, partially and pormally healed cankers; 6, woolly aphis in cankers. ‘suuuadysnbun Aq sieos uoryisodiao pedeys-A a}J0u ¢ pu Zz UT “dOOM Giddy NI SLAMOIND ATU], AM NOILISOdIAGQ ONIMOTIONW SANITY SAOIUV A IO SUACUOSIG — TTX XX SLVIg (surydoy *q “y¥ 4q ydeis0j0y4q) ate Rane h af hm eee: ae bate Peteresyr ). tting of canes follow . nigricornis PuaTE XXXIV.—Srrivep TREE Cricket (# ion, t ing oviposi in cane; 5, sli holes wing berry; 4, bark removed sho ion in rasp t iposi 12a ON “UOIPISOGIAO 9AIsUa}X9 0} onp souBd AIIoqdseI Jo SUT]voIg *(stuoowwbiu “fD) LAMOIND GAAT, CadIMLY—AXXKX FVII Puate XXXVI.— Tree Cricket InsuriEs. 1, Oviposition by nigricornis in peach wood; 2, brown-rot infection of peaches following feeding, photographed by H. Garman. icornis). . nigri Puate XXXVII.— Srrivep TrEE CrickeT.— (# Characteristic feeding on raspberry leaves. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 465 STUDIES ON TREE CRICKETS OF BUSH AND TREE FRUITS. THE SNOWY TREE CRICKET. CEcanthus niveus De Geer* HISTORICAL NOTES AND SYNONYMY. This insect is one of the most common tree crickets as well as an important species. While its status has been clearly established in systematic literature, strangely enough it has been long confused in economic writings with nigricornis. Because of its mistaken identity niveus has generally been regarded as the author of serious injuries to raspberry, which really are the work of the latter species. The error arose from the failure of early economic workers to dis- Fie. 30.— Basat ANTENNAL SEGMENTS OF TREE CRICKETS. a, Niveus; b, angustipennis; c, nigricornis, light form; d, nigricornis, dark form. tinguish the two crickets. Following his description of niveus Walsh? says “‘ that varieties occur in both sexes with legs and antennz almost entirely black ’”’ — characters which clearly designate nigri- cornis, while Riley* in an early discussion of the same species states “that some specimens have a blackish shade.’”’ Later Riley’ says that he considers fasciatus (nigricornis) a dark and rather well- marked variety of niveus, and in this article makes the same state- ment about nigricornis, which as a matter of fact is synonymous with the above fasciatus. Because the identities of these crickets were not clearly understood, there has been more or less confusion in subsequent literature as to the habits of these insects, which still persists, although to a much less degree than formerly. 1 First described as Gryllus niveus by De Geer. Memoir pour servir a l’historie des insectes. Orthoptera, 3: pp. 399-554. 1773. 2 Walsh, B. D. Pract. Ent. 2:54. 1867. 3 Riley, C. V. 1st Rpt. Insects of Mo. 138. 1869. ‘Riley, C. V. Sup. to 9 Rpts, on Insects of Mo. 60-61. 1881. 30 466 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE A hint as to the true nature of niveus was given in a letter to the editor of the Canadian Entomologist in 1886 from E. W. Allis® of Michigan who states that he has “taken niveus entirely about apple and hardwood, and fasciatus (nigricornis) about raspberries and certain woody weeds. They are more common than niveus here and very distinct.”” Packard® describes the insect as ‘“ boring into the corky bark of the elm in the southern states, inserting its eggs irregularly, not in a regular series as when it oviposits in blackberry, raspberry and grape.’’ As regards the elm, the eggs were probably those of niveus, while in case of the latter plants the oviposition was unquestionably by nigricornis. Within recent years these crickets have been more closely studied by a number of workers, notably Houghton’ of Delaware, whose work, with our own, has no longer left any doubt as to the true character of the egg-laying habits of the two species. DISTRIBUTION. This species ranges all over the State of New York with the exception of forested regions in the northeastern part. It has been recorded in literature from the following states: Massachusetts (Faxon), Connecticut (Walden), New Jersey (Davis), Ontario (Walker), Georgia (Allard), Illinois (Forbes), Kentucky (Garman), Minnesota (Lugger), Kansas (Tucker), Nebraska (Bruner), Michigan (Allis), Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico (Rehn), Cuba (Kirby). From specimens examined we can record its distribution in the following states: Colorado and Utah (Titus), Ohio (Kostir), New Jersey, North Carolina, Connecticut (Amer. Mus.), California (Doane); Maine, one specimen (Patch), Cuba (Cardin). From correspondence we have obtained other records as follows: Texas (Newell), North Carolina (Beutenmiiller), California and Washington (Melander). DESCRIPTION OF LIFE STAGES. Egg (Fig. 31, c).— The egg is about one-ninth of an inch long and from one-sixth to one-fourth as wide. The color is dull white, often with a slight yellowish tinge. The cap (Fig. 31, d) is a little narrower than the main body; its sides are parallel and the end is broadly rounded. In color it is opaque white, but is often stained a reddish color by the bark. The projections on the cap (Fig. 31, e) are long and finger-shaped, 5 Allis, E. W. Can. Ent. 18:79. 1886. 6 Packard, A. S. 5th Rpt. Ent. Com. Forest Insects, p. 230. 1890. 7C. O. Houghton. Ent. News, 15 : 57-61 (1904), and Can. Ent. 41: 113-115 (1909). New York AGricuLTuRAL EXPERIMENT Sration. 467 having a uniform thickness of about .009 mm. from base to tip, and a length of .020 to .025 mm. ee average measurements of forty specimens of eggs are as follows: length 2.83 ; greatest width, .62 mm.; length of cap, .51 mm.; width of cap, .51 mm. NN ymph. — First instar (Plate XXVIII, fig. 1): Color white. Top of head with two rows of ten to fifteen small bristles, directed anteriorly and each with a small black spot at the base. There is a short black line extending backward from the upper edge of each eye and one or two pairs of brownish transverse spots between the eyes. The pronotum, and sometimes the meso- and metanotum, have a pair of longitudinal brownish stripes situated close to the median line. Basal segment of antenna with a small black spot on the inner side and a brownish spot on the posterior side; second segment with a black transverse line on the inner side; third, fourth, sixth and ninth segments with a narrow black ring at apex; each succeeding segment with faint gray al ny i 4 “il ' eu —— twee KK a Ki it th iy mh Hn A (i \ SM itd f ae »y i Mh \ i my Mid ~ — 9 F 4 Ling rene | HI Fie. 31.— Snowy Tree Cricket. a, Egg punctures and cankers in apple wood, (X 12); b, egg in raspberry (X 23); c, egg in apple bark (X 15); d, egg cap (x 50); e, spicule of egg cap (X 500). annulation at tip. Hind tibia with black spots at the base of the small bristles, especially prominent on the outer and upper sides. Length about 3mm. Antenne 6.3 to 7.5 mm. Second instar (Plate XXVIII, fig. 2): Ground color of abdomen transparent greenish white with two rows of pure white blotches on each side of median line. Basal segment of antenna with a round black spot on the front and inner side, and the second segment with a similar spot on the front side and a transverse dash on inner side. Outer part of antenne with gray annulations on alternate segments. Length 4.5 to 5 mm. Antenne 10.7 mm. Third instar (Plate XXVIII, fig. 3): General color greenish white. Abdomen with several rows of irregular opaque white blotches on each side of median line. The brownish markings on the head and thorax are very faint. Black spot on first segment of antenna on a white prominence. Length 6 to 7mm. Antenne 13 mm. Fourth instar (Plate XXVIII, fig. 4): Coloration practically the same as in the pre- ceding stage. Length 8.5 to 9. 5 mm. Antenne 16 mm, 468 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE Fifth instar (Plate XXVIII, fig. 5): Color pale yellowish green. Segments of abdomen with a fairly regular pattern of roundish white blotches; a small one on front ‘and one on hind margin on median line; larger blotches on each side are arranged alternately near the front and hind margins. Outer side of hind femur with numerous black spots extending over the distal two-thirds or four-fifths. Antenne marked similar to adult. Length 11 to 12mm. Antenne 23 mm. Adult (Plate XXVIII, fig. 6): Moderately slender. Pronotum as broad as long. Color very pale green. Top of head between eyes and antenne orange yellow; occipital area with longitudinal transparent greenish blotches separated by white lines. Wings transparent, with a slight greenish tinge; veins more or less colored with yellowish Fie. 32.— Harcuine or TREE CRICKETS. a, Position of embryo in egg. b, c, d, e, Successive stages in emergence of nymph. (Drawings made from @. quadripunctatus.) green. Forewings of male very broad. Antenne white, with gray annulations in the outer part at intervals of about four segments. First segment is pale orange yellow on all parts except the large swelling on the front and inner side which is white and has a conspicuous round black spot in the center. (Fig. 30, a.) The second segment is white with a similar spot. Length to end of abdomen 14mm. Forewing of male 13-14 mm.x6 mm. Forewing of female 12-13 mm. HATCHING OF EGGS AND TIME OF APPEARANCE OF NYMPHS. Before hatching, the egg becomes swollen, due to internal pressure. The end of the cap then breaks off and the embryo slips out. When it first appears the body is nearly perpendicular to the branch. (Fig. 32, b.) It retains its embryonic form until several abdom- inal segments have been exposed, then the head bends down and New York AcricuttuRAL ExprrimMent Station. 469 the thorax becomes strongly arched upward. (Fig. 32, c.) The young nymph continues to work outward by muscular contractions of the abdomen and by bending the body up and down and from side to side. The unexposed parts are wrapped in a delicate membrane which projects from the hole and clings to the body. The palpi and first two pairs of legs become free first and are then exercised in the air. (Fig. 32, d.) The body begins to straighten out again, pulling the antennz with it. The head turns upward and a watery swelling, formed to fit the end of the egg, then becomes a conspicuous lump on the dorsal side. When the body is far enough out the free legs grasp the wood and assist in relieving the remainder of the body. The nymph holds the antenne with the mouth parts and gives an upward pull. This is repeated until these appendages are released. (Fig. 32, e.) At about the same time the hind legs and tip of the abdomen become free. The whole process usually requires ten or twelve minutes, but a few of the insects never succeed in com- pletely detaching themselves from the egg. The young cricket on emerging immediately crawls from the eggshell, usually upward on the branch. ‘The watery lump on the top of the head continues to show for twenty minutes after the insect escapes from the egg, but within a short time after this period its disappears. In 1909 and 1912 the nymphs began to make their appearance about June 14 and they continued to emerge until about the twentieth day of thismonth. In 1913 eggs that had been kept in the laboratory for five days commenced to hatch on June 6. During the summer of 1913 individuals of this species were col- lected at intervals in the field in order to find out the normal time of appearance of each instar. The record is summarized as follows: July 1. First specimen of nymph in second instar. “11. Third instar in maximum numbers; some still in second and a few in the fourth stage. “ 16. Fourth instar outnumbered third by five to one. “ 19. First appearance of fifth instar. “ 23. Fifth instar in minority. “ 25. Over half of insects in fifth instar, remainder in fourth stage. “ 29. Adults heard singing at night. “ 30. An adult which had just transformed collected in the field. Aug. 5. Adults and nymphs in about equal numbers. In the summer of 1912, which was colder than usual in New York, adults were not taken until August 15, and eight days later were about equal in numbers to the nymphs. On August 27 practically all of the crickets had matured. 470 Report or THE DEpaRTMENT oF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE SOME HABITS OF THE NYMPHS. Feeding habits— During the daytime the nymphs are very inactive and remain for the most part hidden in a curled leaf, with the antenne stretched out in front and usually projecting beyond the edge of the leaf as if to detect the approach of any intruder. At night they are very active and crawl about to feed. They show signs of restlessness as evening advances and continue on the move throughout the night. Molting— When a nymph prepares to molt it first fastens its claws firmly in the bark or in the tissues of a leaf, extends the antennze backward, and arches up the back. The skin splits along the dorsal median line of the head and thorax. The head is bent down and the thorax works out through the split. The fore and middle legs are pulled out and exercised, while the palpi and antennz are still held in the skin. The hind legs are pulled upward and forward. The antenne are partly pulled out by straightening the body, and then they are grasped by the mouth and worked out in the same manner as noted in the process of hatching. When the hind legs are free the nymph grasps the support and pulls out the hind part of the abdomen. Later the skin is eaten by the insect if in the meantime the discarded remnant has not been consumed by some other cricket. MUSICAL STRUCTURES AND SONG OF ADULT. The males begin to sing very soon after reaching the adult stage. In doing so they raise the front wings perpendicular to the body, with the inner edge of the right lapped over the left, and vibrate them rapidly in a transverse direction. The mechanism which produces the sound is found near the base of the wing, the broad, expanded distal part serving as a resonator to increase the volume of sound. A short but prominent transverse vein, about one-fourth way from the base, is modified beneath to form a minute filiform rasp. It is about 2 mm. long and bears forty or fifty short teeth inclined toward the opposite wing. Both wings have a rasp but the right always laps over the left, the inner edge of which is thickened at this point to serve as a scraper. From our observations the rasp of the left wing and the scraper of the right wing are little if ever used. New York AcricunturAL Experiment Station. 471 The song of nivews is one of the most conspicuous and musical of the insect sounds commonly noted in late summer and autumn. It can be heard from the time the insects commence to mature — early in August in this latitude — until they succumb to frosts of late October or early November. The song begins at the approach of darkness and continues until morning. Occasionally a few of the insects may be heard during the middle of day when the weather is very cloudy. The song consists of a monotonous series of clear, high-pitch trills rhythmically repeated for an indefinite length of time. The quality is that of a clear, mellow whistle and has best been described by the words, treat — treat — treat. 'The pitch varies somewhat with the temperature but on an ordinary summer evening it is about C, two octaves above middle C, or on a warm evening it may reach as high as D. The rapidity of the notes is directly dependent on the temperature. On a very warm night we counted 155 beats per minute, while on a cool night the number was only 64. The song of different individuals may vary also in quality, intensity, pitch and rapidity of notes. There is, however, a tendency for the insects in a restricted site —as a raspberry plantation, clump of bushes or a single tree or a small clump of trees — to sing in unison in one synchronous movement. MATING HABITS. In addition to their musical qualities the males possess another alluring device to attract the females. This is a gland situated on the metanotum, which becomes exposed at the time the forewings are raised in the act of singing. Externally this structure appears as a rounded depression, with elevated margin, which contains numerous hollow, glandular hairs, and also two pairs of openings from much branched internal glands. When a female approaches the singing male, he turns his head away from her, when she usually mounts his back and partakes of the secretion of the gland. (Plate XXIX, fig. 1.) The male now stops singing and stands with his legs widely extended and wings raised to an angle of about 45 degrees. He appears to be in a state of great excitement, as shown by the twitching and swaying of the body and a peculiar jerky movement of the hind wings which lay folded along the abdomen. The antenne are also waved about wildly and often thrown back so as to cross and rub against those of the female. The latter eagerly 472 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE bites and pulls at the thoracic gland, and at intervals stops to rest. During such a pause the male often resorts to singing as if to hold further the attention of the female. After she has fed on the gland for a half hour or more the male reaches back with his abdomen and simultaneously she bends her abdomen downward. He then protrudes a pair of small chitinous hooks, and with his cerci on each side of the ovipositor as guides, inserts these structures into a small notch at the end of the subgenital plate. This enables him to push the barbed capillary tube of a spermatophore into the opening. The abdomen is withdrawn and the spermatophore remains hanging. The latter is a white, hard, ovoid body about .85 mm. long with a central cavity filled with spermatic fluid, and opening out through a fine tube about 1.4 mm. long bent in the form of a hook. The sperms flow out through this tube into the seminal receptacle of the female. Following this act the female continues to feed at the dorsal gland for a quarter or half an hour. If she starts to crawl away the male renews his singing, apparently in an endeavor to dissuade her from departing from him. When she finally leaves she selects a secluded spot where seemingly she will not be disturbed. Later she arches up the back, bringing the tip of the abdomen forward beneath, and then reaches back with the head and removes the spermatophore. She straightens out again and proceeds to eat the capsule in a leisurely way. She then doubles up again and works at the ovipositor with her mouth, starting at the base and continuing out toward the tip, as if endeavoring to clean this organ. OVIPOSITION. For this operation the female selects a suitable spot on a tree or bush and prepares to oviposit by first chewing a small hole in the bark, choosing the upper side of a branch in preference to the lower side, and working with the head uppermost when on a sloping or vertical surface. Upon the completion of the cavity she then walks forward a little, arches her back so as to bring the ovipositor about perpen- dicular to the branch and begins moving it up and down until she strikes the hole. She then starts to drill by giving the ovipositor quick thrusts and at the same time slowly turning it around by twisting the abdomen thirty or forty degrees to each side. (Plate XXIX, fig. 2.) As the ovipositor is forced in it takes a more or less oblique course, according to the thickness of the bark, so that the New York AaricuLtturaAL ExprerIMEntT Station. 473 egg usually comes to lie nearly parallel to the surface. It generally takes from six to ten minutes to force the ovipositor to its base the first time, but in some cases it takes much longer, depending on the resistance of the bark. After the operation this organ. is pulled nearly out and drilled in again several times, each effort taking about one and a half or two minutes. When the hole is sufficiently reamed out and the ovipositor drilled in for the last time the female forces out a drop of excrement and, by stretching out the tip of the abdomen, fastens it to the bark just below the hole. The egg is then forced down and the ovipositor is slowly withdrawn. The female pauses with only the tip remaining in the hole and deposits some mucilaginous substance. She then removes the ovipositor, moves a slight distance backward, seizes the drop of excrement in her mouth and places it over the opening. She then spends several minutes packing it in and smoothing it out so that the wound is neatly capped. (Fig. 31, c.) The whole process of depositing an egg, from starting to drill until the hole for the reception of the egg is sealed, may consume from twenty minutes to three-quarters of an hour. In our breeding cage experiments from one to thirteen eggs were deposited in a single night by one individual. Several of the insects laid a few eggs every night during the whole period of oviposition. On a few nights others did not oviposit at all. The largest number of eggs deposited by a single female was seventy-five, the smallest number twenty-four, and the average of eleven individuals was forty-nine. The eggs are laid in the soft inner bark. A groove is often cut in the surface of the wood, but generally the hard tissues are not drilled into to any extent. In most plants a hard, woody capsule forms around the egg which completely encloses it with the exception of that portion in contact with the opening made by the ovipositor in the bark. In trees having a rather soft, fleshy bark, such as apple and plum, niveus prefers to oviposit in fairly large branches from one to three inches in diameter. The eggs may be placed in almost any area in the bark, but a favorite location is in a lenticel where the initial drilling is more easily accomplished. (Plate XX XI, fig. 1.) In bushes and trees in which the large branches have a tough bark the eggs are commonly laid in the smaller branches in thick places in the bark on each side of the base of a small twig or bud. In raspberry canes, where the eggs are sometimes fairly common, oviposition usually occurs in the fleshy area at the side of the bud in the axils of the 474 Report or THE DEPARTMENT oF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE leaves, and we have never found more than one egg on each side of a bud. (Fig. 31, b.) However, the egg never extends through the woody layer into the pith, as is the case with nigricornis. On elms, the eggs are mostly placed in the corky area of large or small branches, and they do not usually extend into the inner bark. Peach trees are seldom selected by niveus for oviposition. The reason for the apparent dislike of this species for this plant is not clear, since the eggs of nigricornis have been observed in considerable numbers in the current year’s growth. In this connection it is of interest to note that in one series of breeding experiments niveus oviposited quite freely in the trunks and larger branches of a peach tree, but later the forma- tion of gum was so great that the eggs were completely forced out of their positions. Oviposition largely occurs during the latter part of August and September. SELECTION OF PLANTS FOR PURPOSES OF OVIPOSITION. Oviposition experiments in breeding cages were conducted in the laboratory to determine what kind of plants the females preferred for the reception of their eggs. Each cage contained one or two males, with a single female. In the cages there were placed a short piece of apple limb one or two inches thick, a piece of raspberry cane with foliage, and a bunch of small, pithy weeds, mainly wild carrot (Daucus carota). In a number of cages there were also included short sections of branches, about one inch thick, of maple, willow, elm and poplar. Eggs were laid only in apple, raspberry, willow and elm. Of these, preference was shown for apple wood. One cricket laid its eggs entirely in raspberry and two others deposited a small part of their eggs in canes of this plant. One specimen laid a few eggs in willow and another placed four eggs in elm. Observa- tions in the field have shown that this cricket deposits its eggs in a great variety of plants and that it prefers certain of them to others for this purpose. About Geneva its eggs are most abundant in apple, plum and cherry trees, and they are also somewhat common in walnut and raspberry. One small elm tree was observed to con- tain a large number of them and a few eggs have been found in peach, witch hazel, chestnut, butternut, wild crabapple, hawthorn, red oak, maple and lilac. Oviposition probably occurs in many other plants which possess bark of desirable thickness and not too resistant to the drilling operations of the insect. New York AaricutturaL Exrrertment Sration. 475 DATES OF LAST APPEARANCE OF ADULTS. In the autumn of 1912 specimens of this species were found on October 29, and males were heard singing on the night of October 30. These had lived through three light frosts, but none of the insects were found after heavy frosts on November 2, 3 and 4. In 1913 a good many females were found in apple trees on October 28 but no males were observed. FEEDING HABITS. This species subsists on a rather wide assortment of foods of both vegetable and animal origin, which are capable of being masticated by its comparatively weak mandibles. In rearing the crickets in cages we depended almost entirely on aphids and sugar solution, both of which were easily available and readily eaten by this and other species. The insect also ate holes in raspberry leaves and to a less extent in apple leaves. Under confinement nivews was often seen chewing at the cambium on the truncate ends of a severed branch and eating the green outer layer of wild carrot stalks. A disabled cricket or one unable to defend itself usually fell a victim to more vigorous individuals. For further knowledge of their natural feed- ing habits we dissected out the crops of a number of individuals and examined the contents with a microscope. The specimens of this species examined were in the fourth and fifth instars and all were taken from trees in a neglected apple orchard. In about half of them the crop contained a large proportion of materials of insect origin, while in the remainder the contents consisted largely of plant tissues. The latter was mostly leaf tissue, including cells with chlorophyll, leaf hairs and vascular tissue. Mycelia and spores of various fungi were present in smaller quantities. The contents derived from the eating of insects was usually so broken up that it was difficult to classify with any degree of certainty the different elements as to their origin. In quite a number of samples we found parts of what appeared to be the cast-skin of a tree cricket, which was probably its own, and in one specimen this was all the crop contained. Broken pieces of faceted eyes, which resembled those of an aphid, and antennze of probably the same individual were found in several instances. In nearly all specimens remains of San Jose scales were detected, and in the contents of one crop the pygidia 476 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE of twenty-four of these insects were counted, and probably the remains of others were present in an unrecognizable condition. The presence of San Jose scales in the crops led us to perform experiments on feeding the coccid to crickets. A small branch about one-half inch in diameter, thoroughly covered with scales, was placed in a cage with five specimens of niveus in the fourth instar. After two nights the exposed part of the stick, or about three inches in all, was entirely cleaned of the scales. In other experiments only one cricket was confined, this individual being allowed to feed on infested wood on which the number of the scales had first been approximated. In one instance a cricket over night disposed of about five hundred and forty scales, and during the next two nights approxi- mately six hundred and twenty scales. On the fifth night it devoured nine hundred and eighty scales, while on the following night it ate seven hundred and sixty scales. The counts included both mature and immature specimens, and it should also be noted that the crickets ate both the protective covering or scale and the real insect beneath. These results indicate that when the crickets occur on infested trees this coccid, as well as others, probably forms a large part of their diet. Nevertheless, the San Jose scale is con- stantly spreading in orchards that are well stocked with tree crickets. Another habit of this cricket which has attracted the attention of some entomologists is that of eating holes in fruits. We have found no examples of such injury in orchards in western New York, but in experiments where fruits were placed in cricket cages or the crickets were confined in cages built about fruits the insects ate round holes in them. The character of the injury is quite easily distinguished from the work of the more common orchard pests, for after making a small opening in the skin of the fruit the cricket ~ works its way into the flesh and feeds with its head concealed within the hole. As a result the cavity increases in diameter below the external opening in the skin of the fruit. Peaches and plums were preferred to other fruits. GFFECTS OF OVIPOSITION ON APPLE TREES. The effect on the tree of oviposition by the female is to produce in the bark a small opening as if the tissues had been punctured by a coarse cambric needle. With the majority of egg punctures little damage results, since the wounds heal quickly, the only visible New York AcricutturaL ExprrRiMent Station. 477 injury being a discolored point or a tiny pit or depression surrounded _ by anarrow ring of dead bark. (Plate XXX, figs. 1, 2.) If oviposition were never attended with more serious consequences the work of niveus in this respect could hardly be considered of enough impor- tance to warrant it being listed as a pest of the apple. Such, unfor- tunately, is not the case; for there is another form of injury which apparently arises from a contamination of the wounds made in the bark by the cricket by some infectious agent and appears as diseased areas. These, in their external appearances and effects, resemble superficially certain stages of the New York apple-tree canker (Sphaeropsis malorum Pk.) or the blight canker of apple trees (Bacillus amylovorus (Burr.) de Toni). The affected spots range generally from one-fourth of an inch to an inch in diameter, while the bark within these limits varies from purplish or reddish-brown to pale brown, depending apparently on the extent and age of the infection. (Plate XXXII, figs. 1, 2.) Usually most of the diseased areas are circular or somewhat oval in form, and occasionally one may observe a large irregular extension of the original infected area as if there had been a renewal of activities by the infectious agent. The bark within the area of infection is generally slightly depressed and may also be separated from the sound bark by a distinct line or narrow crack. (Plate XXXI, fig. 2, and Plate XXXII, fig. 3.) In more advanced stages cracks develop, separating the dead area from the surrounding tissues, and there is formed a core which adheres loosely to the wood (Plate XXXII, fig. 4), affording attractive situations for the woolly aphis. (Plate XXXII, fig. 6.) From the wounds made by the insect, located as a rule about the center of the diseased areas, one may observe in April or May more or less flowing of a gummy, reddish-colored liquid which on drying leaves a resinous product about the orifices of the wounds. (Plate XXXII, fig. 1.) Not infrequently there is an entire destruction of the bark which, on sloughing off, leaves the underlying wood core exposed in spots of varying dimen- sions. In some orchards such injuries occur to a serious extent. These conditions may be quite generally observed on trees along weedy roadsides or ravines or in apple orchards that are neglected or are indifferently managed. Orchards that are given careful attention are usually free from the trouble, although plantings — especially of young apple trees growing near neglected orchards or near raspberry plantations — have occasionally been observed which showed con- 478 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE siderable oviposition by niveus and here and there an egg puncture with the characteristic affected area surrounding it. Of the insects in this State which produce scarification and dis- figurement of bark and wood of apple trees the most prominent species, with the exception of the seventeen-year cicada (Tibicen septendecim), which is restricted to limited areas, are the buffalo tree-hopper and the snowy tree cricket, which are very common and widely distributed. Both insects are most injurious in plant- ings that lack care with respect to approved orchard practices. Both produce damage to trees as a result of their habits of oviposition, and not infrequently the effects of their work may be observed on the same tree. In the positions selected for the reception of the eggs and in the effects of egg-laying upon the health of the trees, the two insects show characteristic differences. The foregoing tree- hopper (Ceresa bubalus) deposits its eggs in the bark of the newer growth. In the case of young trees oviposition may be so extensive that portions of the tree are stunted and the tree becomes ill- shaped. The vitality of the older trees is generally not seriously affected, the principal damage being scarification and roughening of the bark if the deposition of eggs has been extensive. On the other hand niveus prefers for egg-laying soft, fleshy bark, preferably that of wood from one to three inches in diameter. By reason of this habit apple wood is subject to oviposition by this insect over an extended period of years, which results in considerable pitting, scarring and other disfigurations of the bark. (Plate XXX, fig. 1.) The extent to which apple wood is sought by this cricket for egg- laying purposes is best observed by removing the bark, which will reveal discolored areas in the cambium and wood (Plate XXX, fig. 2.) and by making cross sections of the wood as shown in Plate XXX, fig. 3. The chief damage by niveus on apples arises apparently from the establishment of a bark disease in its oviposition punctures, which causes the bark of the older wood to become scarred and roughened or kills the bark on the younger wood, with resultant weakening or death of small branches and twigs. OCCURRENCE OF Leptospheria coniothyrium ABOUT OVIPOSITION PUNCTURES. Cultural and microscopical studies by Mr. W. O. Gloyer of the Department of Botany to identify the infectious agent which becomes New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 479 established in the oviposition wounds of the tree cricket have revealed the interesting fact that during 1913 the causal organism was in the majority of cases a species of fungus known as Lepto- spheria coniothyrium (Fckl.) Sacc. (Coniothyrium Fuckelii Sacc.). According to Duggar * this is a fungus which, as a disease-producing organism, has been known only a few years. O’Gara® lists it as occurring on apple and rose at Washington, D. C., and on apples in a nursery near Clemson College, 8. C. It is stated by this writer that most of the infections took place where the bark of the trees had been bruised or broken by tools or harness in cultivating. In New York this fungus had, up to the time of this investigation on tree crickets, attracted no attention either as an apple or as a rose pest; but since 1899 it has been regarded in this State as the cause of a widespread and serious disease of raspberries, which is popularly known as raspberry cane blight. It is essentially a wilt disease and the principal damage results to the fruiting canes. The whole cane may be involved or only a portion of it. Stewart and Eustace '° believe that infection occurs in wounds of various kinds and that a break in the epidermis usually precedes the attack. They also state that cane-blight often starts in wounds made by the “ heading back ”’ of new canes, by the removal of branches, by the rubbing of canes against each other or against supporting wires, particularly in crotches where the branches are more or less split apart and in wounds made by the snowy tree cricket canthus niveus (nigri- cornis) during oviposition. That infection does actually occur in tree-cricket wounds is shown by the large number of instances in which the cane is covered with Coniothyrium pycnidia in the vicinity of the wounds, usually just below them.” The occurrence of Coniothyrium about the oviposition punctures of niveus in apple bark have suggested that this cricket may act as a carrier of the disease. In studying the feeding and egg-laying habits of this insect it appears that infection of apple bark might take place (1) as a result of wounds produced by the gnawing of the bark by the female as the initial step in the act of oviposition; (2) by means of the ovipositor, the adhesive substance discharged at the time of deposition serving to collect and to hold the spores which 8B. M. Duggar, Fungous Diseases of Plants, p. 354. 1909. 2P. J. O’Gara, Phytopathology, 1: 100. 1911. 10 F, C. Stewart and H. J. Eustace. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 226 (1902); and F. C. Stewart, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 328, p. 387 (1910). 480 Report or turn DEPARTMENT oF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE may be left in the holes during the drilling process; and (3) by the introduction of spores in the oviposition punctures on account of the remarkable habit of the insect, which employs its excreta to close the openings in the bark after the deposition of the egg. Experi- mental] proof of such carriage of the disease is, however, lacking, but studies to this end are being conducted by this Station. SUSCEPTIBILITY OF TREE CRICKETS TO SPRAYING AND OTHER ORCHARD PRACTICES. 'The occurrence of comparatively small numbers of tree crickets in well-cared-for orchards, except as they adjoin raspberry patches and weedy areas, indicate that the conditions that exist in such plantings are not congenial to these insects. The behavior of the tree crickets in this regard is strongly suggestive of the habits of well-known apple-maggot (Rhagoletis pomonella) in apple plantings in this State. Both insects thrive best in neglected orchards and are for the most part of little importance in plantings that are care- fully managed. It appears that such approved practices as pruning, cultivation and spraying afford protection to the trees from these pests. As with the apple maggot, a satisfactory explanation as to how these operations affect tree crickets is lacking. As yet we have to fall back on suppositions. It does not appear that pruning as ordinarily carried out in commercial orchards would have any appreciable influence on the numbers of the crickets. Clean culture would likely prove unfavorable to them. Following storms and high winds they may sometimes be found on weeds and other under- growth, and the absence of such plants in cultivated orchards might prove detrimental to the insects by rendering them more exposed to the attacks of birds and other foes. Moreover in view of the phytophagous habits of these creatures a hypothesis which seems quite probable is that as a result of applying arsenate of lead to apples, as is now so extensively practised in commercial plantings, the crickets actually feed on sprayed foliage and succumb to this poison. In the absence of data bearing on this latter point it seemed desirable to determine the effects of applications of arsenicals at usual strengths to foliage upon these insects, and to this end two tests were conducted by confining different lots of crickets, of five to six individuals, to sprayed and unsprayed foliage of apple trees. In the New York AGricutTuRAL EXPERIMENT Station. 481 use of the poison the arsenate of lead was allowed to dry before the insects were introduced in their respective cages. As an addi- tional check on these tests a liberal supply of plant lice was supplied to several of the lots after the spray had dried on the foliage. Some of the details of these tests and results of the different treatments are indicated in the accompanying tables. TaBLe I.—ErFrects oF ARSENATE OF LEAD ON TREE CRICKETS. On Ccanthus angustipennis. No. of Effect after Lot Treatment. ten days. Ui eee IKEA TAN SETA LC sate e MITE Eso oacoges ticusr SVsesiat core vA aeeng he All crickets dead. D3 Tee Mead¥arsenatent sisal iesen? et s8.2 . ACB ee ie a nf He o Sear Lead arsenate and a supply of plant lice........ . i 3 1 ae Lead arsenate and a supply of plant lice........ | _ STE @heekh <2 PRISE nr gmir Renn, . SERS, ee * BRS 2 All crickets alive. 6 Sa a. CeCe aap ta leks ty taeeae ah} « as eorabncks thaceg ae ts a i On Ccanthus niveus. Dysgrete be, Mead) arsenate: ieee! Atte). Set ped... All dead. TRS SRO Lead arsenate and a supply of plant lice......... “ “ itt Locale COLNE een ois SO ae SOLES Ce COS Ee aera All alive. *Poison applied July 16. {Poison applied July 25. The above tests are not as conclusive as we should desire because of the small numbers of crickets in the different lots and the little freedom given them for foraging activities. However, the results point out the fact that these creatures are, under certain circum- stances, leaf-eaters and suggest that they, In common with other species of insects with leaf-eating habits, run risks from arsenical poisoning in well-sprayed orchards. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. The facts brought forth in this bulletin indicate that the snowy tree cricket is most abundant in neglected orchards and that there is little to fear from this insect in plantings that receive careful attention. Cultivation to destroy foreign vegetation, as weeds and brush, about and in the orchard and to keep the ground about the trees clean is especially recommended. Such treatment seems not only to afford protection from the tree crickets, but in the case of orchards which lack vigor the trees will be stimulated to outgrow the various disorders to the bark that have attended oviposition by these insects. While the susceptibility of this species to arseni- cals has not been conclusively demonstrated, it is believed that the 31 482 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE numbers of crickets are materially reduced by summer applications of these poisons. Both of these measures—clean culture and spraying with arsenicals — are fortunately standard orchard operations which are invariably practised by the most successful fruit-growers. THE NARROW-WINGED TREE CRICKET. Ccanthus angustipennis Fitch. HISTORICAL NOTES. This species was first described by Fitch! as a variety of niveus from a single male specimen. The description is very brief and the only distinguishing character mentioned is the narrow wing covers. Beutenmiuller? says that this characterization ‘ applies equally as well to quadripunctatus as to the insect determined by recent writers as angustipennis. Whether the latter has been correctly determined or not can never be definitely ascertained, as Fitch’s type of the species, as well as all his other species of Gicanthus, have been destroyed. I would propose that the name angustipennis neverthe- less be retained for the species so well known to us by this name.” This species is not generally as familiar to economic workers as niveus, although it has somewhat similar habits. References to the insect are largely found in systematic writings, and as regards its life history and habits very little has heretofore been published. DISTRIBUTION. Our knowledge of the extent of distribution of this species in New York is very limited. It is common in the lake region of the western part of the State and on Long Island, and probably the insect ranges over about the same territory as niveus. It has been recorded in literature from other states as follows: Massachusetts (Faxon), Connecticut (Walden), Georgia, Florida, Texas (Allard), Illinois (Forbes), Kentucky (Garman), Kansas (Tucker), Minnesota (Lugger). From specimens examined we can record it from the following states: New Jersey, North Carolina, Florida (Amer. Mus.), Virginia (Schoene), Ohio (Kostir). Of the states mentioned, Minnesota represents the most northern limits of distribution, while Texas appears as the most western area of its occurrence. 1 Fitch, Asa. 3rd Rpt. on Insects of N. Y. Trans. N. Y. Agr. Soc., 1856, 413. 1857. 2 Beutenmtiller, Wm. Bul. Amer. Mus. Nat. His. 6:251. 1894. New York AgGricunturRaAL EXPERIMENT Station. 483 DESCRIPTION OF LIFE STAGES. Egg.— (Fig. 33, b) The eggs are white and average a trifle smaller than those of niveus. The cap is narrower than in the latter species and varies greatly in length. Short specimens (Fig. 33, d) measure about .4 mm. in length and breadth, while the long ones (Fig. 33, c) reach .7 mm. in length, have a broad base and taper down to a rather narrow tip. The projections of the cap are short and thick, measuring about .011 mm. in breadth by .014 in length. (Fig. 33, e.) The end of the cap is broadly rounded and the base slightly constricted. The average measurements of twenty specimens of eggs are as follows: length, 2.77 mm.; greatest width, .51 mm.; length of cap, .48 mm.; width of cap, .42 mm. wail! bi N P| 2) cai ai A", ‘ ya nya nd \) Ky iy | A , Fic. 33.— NARROW-WINGED TREE CRICKET. a, Egg punctures in apple wood (X 3); b, egg (X 15); c,d,long and short egg caps (X 50); e, spicule of egg cap (X 500). Nymph.— First instar: Color white. Markings of head and thorax as in follow- ing stage. Antenne entirely white; occasionally with a dark spot on the inner edge of the first segment. Hind femora with a few black spots near distal end; hind tibize with a conspicuous black space at distal end covering about one-sixth of entire length. Length 3 to 3.3mm. Antenne 8 mm. Second instar: Color greenish white. Head with a short black line above and back of each eye, and with black specks at the base of minute bristles between eyes and antennz. Thorax with a pair of dark lines near the median line. First segment of antenna with a black spot on the inner edge. Outer half of antenna very faintly annulated. Hind femur with only four or five black spots on the outer side near the distal end. Length 4.5 to 5 mm. Third instar: Dorsal area of abdomen pale green with a small median white spot on hind margin and a pair of white spots near front margin. Sides pure white. Basal antennal segment with the black spot on inner edge; and most specimens have a more or less distinct short line on the front side near the inner edge. Second segment with a small black spot on the front and inner side. Length 6 to 7 mm. 484 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE Fourth instar: Pale green. Head slightly yellowish above. Two median longi- tudinal lines of pronotum faint. Median area of abdominal segments pale yellowish green; the three white spots are relatively small. Upper part of side of each segment with a large elongate white spot reaching from front to hind margin, constricted or divided in the middle and surrounded by a ground color of pale yellow. Sides below are pure white. Antenna with a rather prominent white lump on the front and inner side and bounded on the outer side by a curved black mark. Second segment with an elongate spot. Length, 8 to 10 mm. Fifth instar: Top of head between eyes yellow or pale orange. Median area of pronotum greenish; with two faint dark median lines. Abdominal markings as in the fourth instar. White prominence on the first antennal segment, with a black J-shaped mark; and the second segment with an elongate spot. Hind femora with a few black spots near the extremity. Length 11 to 12 mm. Adult.— Very slender. Pronotum a little longer than greatest breadth. Color very pale green. Light specimens have the top of the head between the eyes and antenne yellow, and have a faint gray longitudinal streak on the pronotum. Darker specimens have the top of head orange yellow or even burnt sienna and the streak on the pronotum is strong brownish gray. Wings transparent, with greenish tinge and greenish veins. Fore wings of male comparatively narrow. Antenne faintly annulated with gray on the distal part. The first segment is yellowish with the exception of a white prominence on the front and inner side, which bears a black J-shaped mark, with the crook turned inward. (Fig. 30, b.) Length to end of abdomen 14-15 mm. Forewing of male 10-12 mm.x4-5 mm. Forewing of female 12 mm. DURATION OF NYMPHAL STAGE. Angustipennis was first discovered in association with niveus on apples during the summer of 1913 when the nymphs were mostly in the third instar, and for this reason we have made very few observations on its early life history. This species passed through the various nymphal stages about a week or more later than niveus, which may have been due to a slower development or to a later time of hatching. On July 16 the nymphs were generally in the third stage and on July 25 they were practically all in the fourth instar, while on these two dates niveus was mostly in the fourth and fifth instars respectively. The adults also matured, on the average, later than the latter species. During the latter part of October the adults become very inactive and may often be observed clinging to the trunks and larger branches of the trees. At this time the males are apt to be very few in number and apparently they die off earlier than the females. In the fall of 1912 living females of this species were found as late as October 29, and on November 3 dead ones were found on the trunk of an apple tree. In 1913 a large number of females in fairly active condition were taken in an apple orchard on October 28, but no males could be found on this date. New York AaricutturaL EXPERIMENT Station. 485 SONG AND MATING HABITS. The song is intermittent but readily distinguished from niveus by its longer notes and rests and by its non-rhythmical character. The pitch is from C ¥ to D ¥, two octaves above middle C, depend- ing on temperature and somewhat on individual variation. The sound is not so loud as that made by niveus and is of a more mourn- ful quality. Each trill continues from one to five seconds, but it lasts most commonly for about two seconds. The periods of rest vary more and may be from one to eight seconds or Jonger. On one occasion a specimen alone in a cage was observed to trill continuously for a minute or more. Out of doors the song would be unnoticed by anyone not endeavoring to detect it. On trees where angustipennis occurs in equal abundance with niveus the song is nearly drowned out by the synchronous beat of the latter species and only by listen- ing intently can it be detected. So far as we have observed it sings only at night. The method of producing the sound and the structures that make it possible are essentially the same as described under niveus. On account of the narrow forewings, however, the rasp is not so long and the resonating surface is not so great, which may, at least in part, account for the feeble production of sound by this species. The mating habits are essentially the same as those of the preceding species. LOCAL DISTRIBUTION. This cricket occurs quite often on the same trees with niveus, but while individuals of this species are very abundant in apple orchards they are, however, not so much confined to these trees as are those of the latter. On Long Island we found this insect quite common on oak trees, especially the scrub and burr oaks, and in a swamp near Geneva there were considerable numbers on alder bushes. We have never taken angustipennis on raspberries, grape, or weeds of any kind. FEEDING HABITS. An examination of the crop contents of a number of specimens collected on apple trees shows that this species has food habits very similar to niveus. Leaf tissue, fungus mycelia and spores, aphids, San Jose scales and moulted skins comprise the bulk of its food. In two individuals we found a number of lepidopterous wing scales while in another specimen a leg and the wings of some small hymenop- 486 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE terous insect were detected. The discovery of twenty-eight recogniz- able pygidia in the crop of one individual shows that this species, like niveus, may feed extensively on certain kinds of scale insects. OVIPOSITION. The female usually selects a small branch of about a half or third of an inch in diameter in which to place her eggs. She drills into the thick, wrinkled places in the bark where the small twigs branch. The details of the various operations in connection with egg-laying are, with a few exceptions, as described under niveus. We have not observed this species using a drop of excrement to seal the hole in the bark after the deposition of the egg. For this purpose she bites off particles of bark near the puncture and pushes them into the hole, making a little round pellet. It sometimes happens that the female does not completely remove the ovipositor after laying the first egg but starts to drill another hole in a slightly different direction and deposits a second egg without appreciably changing her original position. (Fig. 33, a.) From examinations of a large number of egg punctures in orchards about Geneva we have found only a few paired eggs, and our caged crickets from this section laid very few eggs in this manner. Apple branches from West Virginia and Kentucky con- tained large numbers of these double punctures (Plate XX XIII) as well as single ones, and live, caged specimens of this species sent to us from Kentucky deposited fully half their eggs in pairs. This slight difference in habit between individuals of this species living in New York and those collected in West Virginia and Ken- tucky seems to be merely a physiological variation and is apparently not accompanied by any deviation of importance either in structure or coloration of the nymphs or adults. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. This insect has habits quite similar to the foregoing species and ranks with it in economic importance. In his studies of the two species in Kentucky, Garman! states that angustipennis was the more common in cutting fruit of peaches, plums and grapes. (Plate XXXVI, fig. 2.) A serious result of the rupturing of the skins of these different fruits was the development in the wounds of such 1H. Garman. Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 116. New Yorx AcricutturAL Experiment Station. 487 destructive diseases as brown rot and black rot. In New York we have observed no damage by this species as a fruit pest. As has been suspected of niveus, there seems to be good evidence that this insect is in some way connected with the transmission of a bark disease of apples. Hopkins? has described the occurrence of diseased areas or cankers which he detected about the egg punctures of a tree cricket in apple orchards in West Virginia. He states that this peculiar injury to apple trees appears to be “quite common in all old orchards and is quite a serious trouble in some localities.” The character of the injury is clearly shown in Plate XX XIII. “A quite small and nearly round puncture is made through the outer bark, and from one to two long cavities are formed in the inner bark and sometimes grooving the outer surface of the wood. The wound thus made sometimes heals without doing harm but it often causes a blighted condition of the bark as shown in [Plate XX XIII, fig. 1,] and if the entire branch does not die, and it often does not, the woolly aphis attacks the edges of the wound and prevents it from healing. Thus an ugly scar or deformed place is the result as in [Plate XXXIII, figs. 2, 3]. Many branches so injured ultimately break off or die, so that the injury to a tree may besuch as to cause it to rapidly deteriorate and soon become worthless as a fruit producer. “Tt appears that the insect does not oviposit in rapidly growing branches on young trees, but selects those which are making slow growth. Thus when the wound is attended with blight and is subsequently attacked by the woolly aphis the wound seldom heals, the exposed wood commences to decay, and the branch dies, breaks off or becomes unproduetive.” The identity of the species was not discovered by Hopkins, but from his description of the paired egg punctures there can be little doubt that at least part of the injury as described was due to oviposition by angustipennis. We have examined a number of small branches from West Virginia which were well covered with cankers. The branches were about one-half or three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and some of the cankers showed an area of bare wood in which the groove made by the ovipositor of the cricket could be plainly seen. A good many of the egg punctures were paired, and angustipennis is the only species we know which lays its eggs in this manner in the bark, although it also deposits them singly. 2A. D. Hopkins. W. Va. Exp. Sta. Bul. 50. 1898. 488 REpPorRT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. The similarity in the behavior of angustipennis to niveus in apple orchards suggests that this insect is susceptible to the same measures as outlined in detail for the latter species. THE STRIPED TREE CRICKET. (Ecanthus nigricornis Walker. This is apparently the insect described by Fitch! in 1856 as CG. fasciatus De Geer, but according to Beutenmiller he “ erroneously mistook his insect for De Geer’s? Gryllus fasciatus which is a Nemo- bius.” A description at a later date by Walker’ under the appellation of CG. nigricornis fits the striped tree cricket very well, and for this reason Beutenmillert in 1894 recommended _ that this name be accepted since Fitch did not really denominate the insect. As stated previously Walsh and Riley considered this tree cricket as a dark variety of niveus. Others have also held that mngricornis and quadripunctatus are varieties of the same species, but in our studies of these two _ insects we have found constant differences in their habits as well as body characters, which have led us to regard them as quite distinct insects. DISTRIBUTION. This tree cricket is very common and is widely distributed over New York and throughout the United States. From literature it is recorded as follows: Massachusetts’ (Faxon), Connecticut (Walden), New Hampshire (Henshaw), New Jersey (Davis), Ontario (Walker), Tennessee (Morgan), Mississippi (Ashmead), Michigan (Allis), Illinois (Forbes), Minnesota (Lugger), Nebraska (Bruner), Oklahoma and Arizona (Caudell), Texas and Kansas (Tucker). From specimens examined we can record it from the following states: New Jersey and Connecticut (Amer. Mus.), North Carolina (C. L. Metcalf), Ohio (Kostir). 1 Fitch, Asa. 38rd Rpt. in Trans. N. Y. State Agr. Soc. for 1856, pp. 414-415. 1857. 2 De Geer, Charles. Memoir pour servir a l’historie des insectes, Tome III, 522-23, pl. 43, fig. 6. 1778. 3 Walker, Francis. Cat. of Dermaptera Saltatoria of the Brit. Mus., I. 1869. 4 Beutenmiiller, Wm. Bul. Amer. Mus. Nat. His. 4: 250. 1894. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT StTaTIon. 489 DESCRIPTION OF LIFE STAGES. Egg.— The eggs (Fig. 34, c) are of a light or medium yellow color, and brightest when first laid. The cap is smaller than that of niveus, broader than long and hemis- pherical, the sides being parallel only at the extreme base. (Fig. 34, e.) The color of the cap is dull white but is sometimes stained reddish when in certain plants. The projections are short, cylindrical, and rounded at the tips. (Fig. 34, d.) Those near the end of the cap are .012 mm. long by .008 mm. in diameter. The eggs are more uniform in size than those of niveus and are generally narrower. Average measurements of thirty-six specimens are as follows: Length 2.9 mm.; greatest width .57 mm.; length of cap .33 mm.; width of cap .44 mm, Nymph.— First instar: Color, pale slightly greenish yellow. A slight infusca- tion extends along the dorsal side from the antenne back, and is divided along entire length by a narrow pale median line. Just back of the antenne the median line meets a pale transverse curved line which arches posteriorly. On the abdomen the shaded area is bounded on each side by a pale line which is in turn bordered by a faint dark line. The antenne are gray all over but darkest toward the extremity. Length 3 mm. Antenne 6 to 6.8 mm. Second instar: Pale greenish yellow with scattered whitish flakes. Pale dorsal median line present, dorsal infusca- tion very faint. The two basal antennal segments are pale in color and the first segment has a dark longitudinal streak on the inner edge of the front side. Length 4 to 5 mm. Third instar: Yellowish green, mottled with small whitish spots and with a pale median line. Legs speckled with fine dark spots at bases of hairs. Markings of basal antennal segments of the same Fic. 34.— Srripep TREE CRICKET. = eee Ea Sear © a, Egg punctures in raspberry (X 13); Fourth instar: Antennal markings b, longitudinal section of the same distinct. Slight infuscation on head (X 3); ¢, egg (X 15); d, spicule of — and pronotum, bordering the median egg cap (X 500); e, egg cap (X50). pale line. Length 8.5 to 10 mm. Fifth instar: Dorsal part of head slightly brownish. Hairs on body mostly dark. Legs appear rather dark, due to numerous dark hairs and spots. The spots on the basal antennal segments are large and conspicuous but not confluent. Ventral side of abdomen slightly infus- cated and covered with small brownish spots. Length 11 to 12.5 mm. Adult.— The amount of color in this species varies considerably and newly moulted ‘specimens are lighter than old ones. The light specimens are greenish yellow. Head with blackish or sepia shading on median area, sides and front below the antenne. 490 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE Pronotum with similar shading on sides and median area. Wings clear with greenish yellow veins and tinge of green between veins on inner edge. Femora dull green; tibiae and tarsi black. Antenne black; first and second segments greenish yellow. The first segment has a brownish shading covering the inner and upper part of the front side, and including a heavy black line along the inner edge and a black spot near the distal end, which may be confluent with the black line. Second segment with twoelongate black spots. (Fig. 30,c.) Venter of abdomen solid black; the remainder greenish yellow. Dark specimens late in the season have the head, pronotum, legs and antenne nearly entirely black. Both pairs of spots on the two basal antennal segments are confluent (Fig. 30, d) and in some specimens each of these segments are almost entirely black. Length of body, 15 mm. Forewing of male, 10-11 mm. by 4-5 mm. Forewing of female 11-12 mm. HATCHING OF EGGS AND DURATION OF NYMPHAL INSTARS. In 1909 the young of this species began to emerge just before June 17. In 1913, eggs from the southern part of the Hudson Valley hatched June 7; some eggs from Connecticut began to hatch on June 10, while of a shipment received from New Brunswick, N. J., on June 10 a little more than one-half of the eggs had hatched. During this same year eggs of this species collected about Geneva hatched in largest numbers on June 16 and 17. A study of the eggs in their natural positions in the wood shows that generally they slant downward from the hole, and since the dorsal side of the embryo is always next to the concave curvature of the egg the young cricket on hatching first appears upside down. In some observations of young insects in captivity it was observed that they displayed cannibalistic tendencies, and the cricket that emerged first would not infrequently attack those that were in process of emerging from the eggs and devour them. During the summer of 1913 the first specimen in the second instar was found on July 2. On July 12 five specimens were taken in the third instar, and on July 17 there were about twice as many of the crickets in the fourth instar as in the third stage. On July 25 a few of the insects were in the fifth instar, but the majority of them were in the fourth stage. On August 5 most of the crickets were in the fifth imstar, but no adults had so far been observed. How- ever, adults were found several days later. In 1912 no adults could be found on August 13 but a few of them were detected on August 20. On August 23 adults and nymphs of the fifth instar were present in about equal numbers, and by the 27th nearly all the nymphs had matured. The records for 1912 are probably several days later than normal as the summer was unusually cool. New York AGricuLttTuraAL EXPERIMENT Station. 491 SONG. The song is a shrill continuous whistle, whirr-r-r-r-r, which may con- tinue for a period of several minutes. In quality it most resembles the sound ot a small tin whistle. The pitch on an average summer evening is F X, two octaves above middle C. On a very cool night the pitch drops a little and the sound becomes much fainter and is not nearly so easily detected as the clear notes of niveus. The song of nigricornis can easily be distinguished from the two preceding species, niveus and angustipennis, by its continuous note; the others having an intermittent sound. However, another com- mon species not included in this article, quadripunctatus, has a song so closely resembling that of nigricornis that the two sounds are difficult to distinguish, even by one well acquainted with them. On the average the song of the former is fainter, less shrill and of a more rasping quality. Nzgricornis can usually be heard in the vicinity of berry patches and tall weeds during the daytime as well as at night. In the morning only an occasional individual engages itself in singing, but in the afternoon more of the insects participate, and by evening the chorus appears in its greatest numbers and continues in full force throughout the night. MATING HABITS. The mating of ngricornis may begin before dark and pairs of the insects can generally be observed late in the afternoon clinging to the stalk of some tall weed or hiding on the undersides of the leaves. The female feeds eagerly at the thoracic gland of the male and, as is the case with the preceding species, he attaches the sper- matophore at the base of her ovipositor. Judging from Hancock’s! account and from our own observations the performance of this function is carried out in all the dctails as has been described for the snowy tree cricket. OVIPOSITION HABITS. In preparing for oviposition the female usually selects a position on the bark which is well above ground, the height depending largely on the diameter of the stalk and the kind of plant. In grape vines and certain weeds, stems not more than five millimeters in diameter 1J. L. Hancock. Amer. Nat. Jan., 1905, and Nature Sketches, pp. 383-384. 1911. 492 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE are often chosen, but in raspberry canes and elder the common thickness of the wood in which the eggs are laid is not much under a centimeter. If the stalk is vertical the female apparently manifests no preference as to choice of position, but if the plant slants a little she almost invariably chooses the uppermost side. In places where strong prevailing winds have caused all the weeds in a locality to lean in the same direction it will usually be found that nearly all the eggs are placed on the exposed side of the stalks of the plants. Before drilling, the female chews a small hole in the outer bark. She then arches up her body, brings the ovipositor forward perpen- dicular to the stalk, places the tip of it in the hole which she has previously made, and begins to drill. It takes about five minutes to push in the ovipositor for the first time. After this operation is done she reams out the hole by pulling the ovipositor nearly out and drilling it in a few more times. The egg is then forced down and she slowly pulls out the ovipositor, pausing with the tip of this organ in the hole to exude a small quantity of mucilaginous sub- stance. In the case of one individual an egg protruded from the tnderside of the ovipositor when it was withdrawn. The female extracted the egg from its position with her mouth and ate it. Again she chewed the bark about the margin of the hole and then resumed drilling. After about eight minutes she withdrew the ovipositor and as before another egg was caught in this organ, which she dis- posed of in the same manner as the first one. In both instances a large quantity of mucilaginous liquid was discharged at the time of the extraction of the eggs which she removed from the ovipositor by her mouth before renewing operations. After an egg is deposited the female as a finishing touch to the process of oviposition bites out small pieces of bark just above the egg puncture and places them in the hole, carefully kneading them with her mouth parts to make a neat cap over the opening. The spot where the bark is removed serves as the next position for the drilling operations preparatory to the deposition of another egg. This process is con- tinued until a number of eggs, forming a row, are laid. (Fig. 34, a, and Plate XXXIV.) The total number of eggs deposited varies greatly with individual crickets. In 1910 the records of six pairs con- fined in breeding cages were respectively as follows: (1) 165 eggs, (2) 64, (3) 26, (4) 78, (5) 52, (6) 31. During 1913 three pairs deposited respectively 22, 51 and 60 eggs. The eggs were deposited in rows New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 493 of from seven to twenty-one punctures. Occasionally the number of eggs in a series was increased over night or over a succession of nights at varying intervals by ovipositions by the same female. Observations in a, patch of raspberries showed that the number of eggs in a row ranged from two to eighty-seven. The average number in nineteen rows taken at random was about thirty-two eggs. The longest row found in a willow twig had eighty-seven egg punctures, which strangely enough are also the highest figures for oviposition in raspberries. The eggs are placed in rather compact rows with from seven to ten punctures to each centimeter. They lie in a slanting direction across the central pith cavity, the angle being about 40 to 50 degrees, depending somewhat on the diameter of the stalk. (Fig. 34, b.) The capped end of the egg lies within one or two millimeters from the opening of the hole and the egg usually slants downward from the opening instead of upward, since the female normally stands head up while ovipositing. When the rows are compact the eggs are generally directed alternately to the right and left so that they do not interfere with each other. In plants with a large pith cavity the eggs lie wholly within that part, but in those with a small central pith the cap end is partly imbedded in the woody tissues. The oviposition period for this cricket commences during the latter part of August and may extend through the month of September. PLANTS SELECTED FOR OVIPOSITION. This species prefers for the reception of its eggs plants which have a central pith surounded by a woody outer layer, and there are a great many plants of this character which are selected by the insect, for this purpose. Eggs are deposited most abundantly in raspberry, blackberry, Erigeron canadensis and the larger species of Solidago. They are also common locally in elder, grape, sumac and willow. A few eggs may occasionally be found in the twigs of peach? (Plate XXXVI, fig. 1), apple,’ elm, maple and hickory. Mr. Goodwin of the Ohio Station writes that considerable oviposition by this species occurs in peach orchards and vineyards in northern Ohio, especially on trees and vines which adjoin uncultivated fields. Similar con- ditions with respect to vineyards have been noted in the grape- growing region in Chautauqua county, New York. Mr. W. T. 2 From material collected by J. L. King at Gypsum, Ohio. 3 From material collected by B. G. Pratt, New York City. 494 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE Davis of Staten Island reports that he has also found eggs of this insect in wild cherry, white ash and Baptisia tinctoria. In going over the literature of this species we have found numerous descrip- tions of the work of this insect in various plants besides those given above, but always under the name of mivews. When the eggs are described as deposited in long rows there is little doubt as to their identity; for the only other widely distributed species with this habit is @. quadripunctatus, which deposits eggs only in smaller and more delicate plants. On this assumption additional host plants as recorded in literature are currant, Helianthus, artichoke, Ambrosia, plum, cottonwood, box elder, cherry, dogwood, black locust, honey locust, sycamore and catalpa. LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE INSECT. The foregoing list of plants furnishes a very good key to the habitat of this species. It will be noticed that most of the plants named are those which grow best in low, moist places and some are character- istic of waste places. While the list contains quite a number of trees, it has been our experience that oviposition in these is only of rare or local occurrence or as a result of small seedling trees growing among other plants. The two types of localities where these tree crickets occur in greatest abundance are low lands with a dense growth of tall herbaceous plants, such as Solidago, Erigeron, Helian- thus, etc., and on land of any kind that has grown up to bushes, briars and wild grape vines. The insects are less common in culti- vated berry patches, nurseries and orchards, but even in these situations and especially in raspberry plantings they are sometimes numerous enough to be destructive. FEEDING HABITS. We have observed this species in the field feeding on the petals and anthers of flowers and on raspberry leaves and fruit. (Plate XXXVII.) Only in the cages have we detected it feeding on plant lice or other insects. An examination of the crops of a number of speci- mens mostly in the fourth instar collected in a raspberry planting, indicates that they feed more extensively on plant than on animal matter. In a few instances there were distinct insect remains, but these constituted a small part of the entire contents of the crop, which was mostly filled with leaf tissue, some fungus mycelium and spores. New York AaricutturAL Experiment Station. 495 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. Of the known species of tree crickets, this insect has received most consideration in economic treatises. It has derived its reputa- tion as a destructive pest from its work on raspberry and blackberry, especially the former plant. The injuries it causes arise from the long series of punctures which it produces in the canes during the process of egg-laying. As a result of the rupturing of woody tissues, the cane splits at the point of injury and becomes so weakened that it eventually breaks down from the weight of the upper growth or from twisting by the wind. (Plates XXXIV and XXXV.) This species may commonly be observed in plantings of rasp- berries, and usually more or less numbers of the canes will, during the fall, show the characteristic wounds by this pest. Important damage occurs when there is extensive oviposition, which may result in the destruction of as high as seventy-five per ct. of the bearing wood. Such extreme injury is, however, rare, and in most raspberry plantations the loss caused by the insects is limited to the death of occasional canes. As previously indicated, Stewart and Eustace state that the oviposition punctures by this insect may afford a lodging place for the spores of Leptospheria coniothyrium (Fckl.) Sace. (Coniothyrium Fuckelit), which is the organism responsible for the disease of rasp- berries, commonly known as the raspberry cane blight. They further suggest that the well-known tendency of cricket-injured canes to break at the point of attack is probably due, in part, to brittleness induced by the Coniothyrium and that the injury done by the cricket may be much aggravated by the cane blight fungus. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. For the protection of raspberries and blackberries chief reliance should be placed on the prevention of attacks rather than in the destruction of the insects after they have made their appearance on the vines. Important injury may generally be averted by clean culture and the destruction of weeds in and about plantings of these fruits. Canes showing extensive oviposition and that are splitting should be removed in the course of winter and spring pruning and burned to destroy eggs contained in them. ‘The foregoing measures ordinarily afford the needed protection; but should they fail a per- manent reduction in the numbers of the tree crickets could doubtless 496 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY. be effected by systematic spraying during the months of July and August with arsenate of lead at the usual strengths for foliage treat- ment. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. For notes on habits and distribution and for assistance in collecting material on Long Island, we are indebted to Mr. W. T. Davis, Staten Island. The identifications of parasites were made by Mr. A. A. Girault, formerly of the University of Illinois and Mr. J. C. Crawford of the U. 8. Bureau of Entomology. Mrs. L. L. Van Slyke kindly furnished notes on the musical qualities of a number of tree crickets, and Messrs. W. E. Rumsey and L. M. Peairs of the West Virginia Experiment Station and Mr. W. J. Schoene, State Ento- mologist of Virginia, procured for us specimens of living insects and infested wood, for which courtesies we are under obligations. THE CABBAGE APHIS.* P. J. PARROTT anp B. B. FULTON. One of the serious handicaps in the growing of cabbage is the cabbage aphis (Aphis brassice Linn). In sections of New York where this vegetable is extensively grown the insect is a familiar pest, which seldom fails to make its appearance each year in most plantings ; while in occasional seasons it develops to great numbers and becomes very destructive. It is the common practice with most farmers to allow the cabbages to take chances with the aphis, which has proven both uncertain as well as expensive in its results. Experiments by this Station during recent years have demon- strated that the losses occasioned by the pest may be largely re- duced, if not prevented, by timely spraying. This circular has been, prepared in order to give growers a few concise directions on the protection of their plantings by this means. DESCRIPTION OF INSECT AND LIFE HISTORY. The eggs of this insect are laid in the fall, principally during October and the early days of November, in crevices and de- Fie. 35.— Wincep (1) AND Winauess (2) FEMALES or CaBpBaGcEe APHIS. pressions of the leaves, and are usually deposited in the greatest numbers upon the under surfaces. These eggs are minute, oval hodies about one-fortieth of an inch in length and are pale yellow or yellowish green in color, usually becoming black within a few days after being laid. Eggs hatch early in the spring, according * Reprint of Circular No. 30, June 15. 32 [497] 498 Report or THE DEPARTMENT oF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE to seasonal conditions, but usually during April. The aphids that hatch from the eggs are all females, and when fully developed they give birth to living young aphids which become asexual fe- males. These mature in ten to fourteen days and in turn give birth to many young. In seasons favorable to the insect the num- bers of the lice increase rapidly, and in a short period of time the leaves of the plants become thickly covered by the greyish-green creatures.. At varying periods winged females make their appear- ance, which seek other plants, and thus distribute the species through the entire field. In the autumn the sexual forms develop, which deposit eggs, thus completing the life cycle of the pest. The aphis is a sap-sucking insect and subsists on the juices of the cabbage. The effects of the feeding of large numbers of this species are either to dwarf or to kill the plants, which result in the reduction of the weight and numbers of marketable heads. IMPORTANCE OF THE APHIS TO CABBAGE-GROWING IN RECENT YEARS. During the past decade severe outbreaks by this pest have been of frequent repetition. Overwhelming numbers of the aphids appeared in 1903, 1908, 1909, 1910 and again during 1913. During these years there was, in certain sections of New York, a great diminution in crop production, due in large part to shrink- age in yields on account of the attacks by these insects and in part to plowing under the fields of cabbage to avoid taking further chances with the lice. The outbreak of 1913 was not so severe as some others in previous years, but the injury by the aphis, coupled with the prolonged dry weather, was sufficient to destroy many plantings of cabbage. The lice appeared in great numbers in June before the young plants were well established, and there was no cessation in the multiplication of the insects in most cabbage fields till early September. The rainfall during this period is recorded as the smallest in many years, and because of the slight precipitation the plants grew slowly and proved very susceptible to injuries by the lice. The abstraction of sap by myriads of the insects and the deficiency in soil moisture proved, in most fields, a severe drain on the vitality of cabbage. Many of them died, while the Sey *. vhs as aah * De Puate XXXVIII.— Sprayine ror Cappace Apuis IN 1913. Conditions on unsprayed plat (1), and on adjoining sprayed plat (2). ae : rae a ae ay. 7? Ts , iS Aw A 1 i at al A Sete i ae ms Prare XXXIX.— Types or Sprayina Ourrits Usep 1N THE STATION’S EXPERIMENTS. New York AgricutturaLt Experiment Sratrion. 499 larger proportion of the plants in fields generally grew slowly, forming small heads, which frequently were not of standard size for the market. During August the odor of decaying cabbage was very perceptible in fields in the region of Geneva. DIRECTIONS FOR SPRAYING. SPRAYING MIXTURES. Formula 1, Soap. RRR ie May ae aha ao AG Sha Saas sage a's oylid oie «x Sey CS Ty opm ots 2 6 to 8 lbs. ETE oth 5.0) Ae) | AMEN oS ao hbo Se. “aie My etagarela ® «5 evcreeans, oie « axmon 50 gals. Formula 2, Nicotine Extract. Nicotine extract 40 per ct. (Black Leaf 40)................... % pt. ARMS AGL A OIOIE RES. BELT «. «SRE eee. Deak ther gsrert 100 gals. IIIB Cornet el Tet ses uth epermpste gh 6 prensa pa sede py * 2 | PAAR, RIEL 3 to 5 lbs. Applications of one of the above formulas should be made as soon as the lice appear in threatening numbers and before any of the leaves are appreciably curled. The liquid should be applied under reasonably high pressures, and directed especially into the heart and to the undersides of the leaves of the cabbage, where the lice are usually assembled in greatest numbers. The quantity of mixture to apply and the number of applications required to afford efficient protection depend largely on the extent of infestation and seasonal conditions, as these may influence the duration of the period in which the lice continue to breed in destructive numbers. In plantings that were well infested with lice there was required in the Station tests from 150 to 175 gallons of spraying mixture per acre for one treatment, and during 1913, when reproduction of the aphis continued over a long period, two sprayings gave very effli- cient results, although the most profitable returns were obtained by three treatments at intervals of ten to fourteen days. In the employment of Formula 2, nicotine extract, which is the more costly of the above mixtures, the expense should not exceed $2.30 for the spray material and $2.40 for labor and team at liberal estimates, which make a maximum cost of $4.70 per acre for one spraying. In cooperative efforts with cabbage-growers in spraying under farm conditions the most successful experiment was con- ducted at a cost of $4.10 per acre for a single treatment, which was all that was required to protect one field of cabbage under the 500 REporT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY. adverse conditions of 1913. The chief fault with much of the spraying by farmers against the cabbage aphis is the tendency to hurry with the job and to use the spraying mixture too sparingly, which makes for faulty treatment and is liable to result in disappointing returns. SELECTION OF SPRAYING MACHINE. Spraying machines especially constructed for the treatment of large fields of cabbage have not yet appeared on the market, which forces growers to adapt for this purpose the common types of spraying outfits that they possess. The most satisfactory machine is a gasoline-power field potato-sprayer, with the usual spraying spar removed, and equipped instead with two leads of hose with short extension rods bent at the nozzle end to form an angle. Its chief merits are power to maintain uniform pressure and the pos- session of axles which may be adjusted to the width of the rows, thus reducing injuries to the cabbages by the wheels of the machine during the progress of spraying and in turning on the ends of the rows. In the Station’s experiments a “ horse-power ” or traction field potato-sprayer with a pump of large capacity and equipped with two leads of hose, as with the foregoing outfit, has given excellent satisfaction in fields moderately infested with the lice. By limiting each operator of the nozzles to two rows of cabbages it has been possible to spray practically all of the plants needing treatment. Machines that are more commonly relied on by growers are orchard power-sprayers and barrel outfits mounted on a single- or two-horse truck. These have been used with good effects against the aphis, but with many of them, on account of the width of the axles, cabbages are damaged by the wheels unless at the time of planting provision is made for a suitable spacing _of certain of the rows to accommodate the spraying outfits. Trac- tion field-sprayers with fixed nozzles are not well adapted for the treatment of cabbages as many of the insects are not wetted by the application. For spraying a small plat a knapsack sprayer is a convenient and quite satisfactory outfit. REPORT OF THE Department of Horticulture. U. P. Hepricx, Horticulturist. Roy D. Anruony, Associate Horticulturist. Gro. H. Howse, Assistant Horticulturist. Cuas. B. Tusercen, Assistant Horticulturist. J. W. Wexuineton, Assistant Horticulturist. O. M. Taytor, Foreman. Frep E. Grapwin, Associate Horticulturist. (Connected with Grape Culture Investigations.) TABLE OF CONTENTS. I. Tillage and sod mulch in the Hitchings orchard. II. A comparison of tillage and sod mulch in an apple orchard. III. Ten years’ profits from an apple orchard. IV. A test of commercial fertilizers for grapes. V. New or noteworthy fruits. VI. Ringing fruit trees. VII. Distribution of Station apples. VIII. Culture of sweet corn. TX. Strawberries. X. Currants. [501] F corsage EL 4. a i: fesbsashds \-eniokh sricceuhl th a eT am ay , vat Obs rn ie Deny ress ‘oParieeero LW vetehae By OW ORL rar + é i mate ‘ : age Oat et boakiy sy er? a ey " : , J ei, i Var ee bx t if MV 4 ‘ ' ; ; ; Exo ge) in *j 4 ' cad 7 " ; J ra Fi » f ‘4 ht ee , ed ¥ ‘ ae \ 2 ~ ‘a j Kine! var J re i oat oe dd ohens we Mia -Gy i y, yt "ea u - ; f ot lyt4 trea |b: , od OL Wa i ¢ ogat MM ‘ vat q i eld Be. Ply 5 . bres chepeticne (aS the Abe OE 4 af thas, er Me 4 col ES piel Hea EE etait AOR: thief sei yo 7 £ * ' - 4 , es i ; xy *4 ey, Li (20 tay. tid aan ek Sab ta) 3 swordurdl 1 Te ws 4 > ny ; is : aust oe é REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE. TILLAGE AND SOD MULCH IN THE HITCHINGS ORCHARD-* U. P. HEDRICK. SUMMARY. For ten years this Station has been comparing sod mulch and tillage in apple orchards. This bulletin is a brief account of the experience in the Hitchings orchard, the most notable exception which proves the rule that tillage is the most profitable method for orchard culture under general conditions. The Hitchings orchard is unique among the fruit plantations of the State. Both the lay of the land and the character of the soil differ from those in most orchards; and the trees have been planted, pruned and sprayed, the soil tilled, and the fruit harvested in very original ways. By the “ Hitchings method” as applied by its owner, the ground is laid down to sod before or as soon as the trees are set and the grass is cut for a mulch once or twice a season as conditions demand; that is, the orchard remains in sod indefinitely. In the experimental work three plats are included: Plat A lies on the floor of the valley and is comparatively level. It consists of eight rows of thirty-four trees each, two years old at the beginning of the experiment, the varieties being Wagener, Rhode Island Greening and Sutton. Plat B lies on the lower part of a rolling hill. It contains six rows, each of thirteen trees, the varieties being Alexander, Wealthy and Fameuse. The trees were nine years old when the experiment began. Plat C is higher up on the hillside and consists of four rows, each of six trees of Northern Spy. These trees were ten years of age at the beginning of the experiment. In each plat half the land is in tillage and half.in sod. All three plats appear to be well supplied with phosphorus, potash and nitrogen; all are on deep soil; and B and C receive the hillside seepage. All these factors favor the sod-mulch method. All plats were given identical care except in the matter of soil treatment. The tilled plats were plowed early in the spring and cultivated from seven * Reprint of Bulletin No. 375, March; for Popular Edition see p. 909. [503 ] 504 Report OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorTICULTURE OF THE to eleven times, a cover crop, usually of clover, following. In the sod plats was a mixed growth of orchard grass and blue grass. These grasses were mowed once during the summer, usually about the middle of June, and left as they fell, to form the “ sod mulch.” Mishaps and slow maturity have prevented crop yields in Plat A. In the other plats, also, the data regarding yields are not as satis- factory as could be desired, but, in brief: The trees in sod bore an average of a little less than four bushels while those in tillage bore a little more than three bushels per tree. Taking diameter of the tree trunks as the gauge of the two treat- ments in the bearing orchard, we find that the trees thrive as well under one method as the other. Using the same measure for the trees in Plat A on the floor of the valley we must conclude that those under tillage are doing much the better. Why the difference? Because the hillside seepage furnishes an abundance of moisture for both trees and grass, but in the dryer soil of the valley trees in sod cannot compete successfully with the grass for moisture. In comparing costs the data are disappointing. The extremes are too far apart. The cost of tilling Plat A was at the rate of $11.22 per acre, Plat B $13.30 per acre, and Plat C $24.33. We paid for cutting grass in plats A and B at the rate of 60 cents per acre and 96 cents per acre in Plat C. The average for the tilled plats was $16.28, for the sod plats 72 cents per acre. These figures bring out the point that the cost of tillage is bound to vary greatly, depending upon land, tools, teams, number of cultivations and other factors. The cost of cutting grass will be more nearly the same for all orchards. In conclusion, while unquestionably tillage is the best method of caring for the majority of the apple orchards in New York, yet there are particular places, soils and economic conditions under which the Hitchings method of sod-mulching: apple trees may be used advantageously: 1st. Orchards on steep hillsides where land would wash badly under tillage may often well be kept in sod. 2d. On land covered with rocks, trees may best stand in sod. 3d. The Hitchings method is adapted only to soils having suit- able depth. On shallow soils it will usually prove a failure. 4th. Soils must be retentive of moisture. On land that annually suffers from summer droughts the sod-mulch treatment will almost certainly prove less beneficial to trees than tillage. ‘UALNGD ‘AGISTIIP] NO O GNV g ‘GNNOUDTUOT NIV LVI :WUVY SONIHOLIP, dO MAGIA TVUENTDY —]X aLvIg New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 505 5th. Economic conditions may decide the choice between tillage and some mulching treatment, since the cost of caring for an orchard is so much less under the Hitchings mode of mulching than by tillage. Thus a larger acreage in sod may be made to counter- balance a greater productiveness under tillage, thereby bringing the net income to the same level. INTRODUCTORY. In March, 1909, this Station published, in Bulletin No. 314, a preliminary report on a comparative test of growing apples under tillage and the Hitchings sod-mulch method. The work of which this first report is an account was carried on in the Auchter orchard a few miles west of Rochester, in the heart of the apple belt of western New York. In this orchard tillage was found to be the better treat- ment. In the present Bulletin, the second report, the test was con- ducted in the Hitchings orchard, near Syracuse, under widely dif- ferent conditions and as we shall see with very different results. THE HITCHINGS ORCHARD. The Hitchings apple orchard is unique among the fruit planta- tionsof New York. The treeshave been planted, pruned and sprayed, the soil treated and the fruit harvested in very original ways. It has the distinction of having produced in the last fifteen years more prize-winning apples at the annual State fairs in New York than any other orchard in the State. In it originated the Hitchings sod- mulch method of growing apples which made the orchard at once a debating ground as to the merits of the method. The lay of the land and the soil, as we shall see, are also unique. Commendations and condemnations of Mr. Hitchings’ methods in the press and on the platform have given the orchard distinction not only throughout New York but wherever apples are grown in the United States. THE NEED OF A COMPARATIVE TEST. It early became evident that before there could be a satisfactory interpretation of his results there must be some systematic study of Mr. Hitchings’ work. The published and verbal accounts of visitors, founded usually upon a few hours’ stay, were seldom adequate and were often distinctly misleading. To obtain a fuller and more 506 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF HorRTICULTURE OF THE accurate collation of facts than those circulated by casual visitors, the New York Agricultural Experiment Station in 1903 rented for ten years plats for experimental work in the Hitchings orchards. The plats were selected in the autumn of the year named by Pro- fessor 8. A. Beach, then Horticulturist of the Station, the chief end in view being a comparison of the Hitchings sod-mulch method with the more usual one of tillage and cover crops. After carrying on the work two years Professor Beach left New York and the work fell into the hands of the writer, the succeeding Horticulturist. The Station’s ten year tenure has just passed and this Bulletin is an account of a comparison for a decade, side by side, of tillage and the Hitchings sod-mulch method in the Hitchings orchard. THE HITCHINGS METHOD DEFINED. What is the Hitchings method? The term has become the sound- symbol for a mixture of more or less vague practices connected with sod in an orchard: sod pastured with sheep, hogs or cows; sod of blue- grass, orchard-grass, clover, alfalfa, or weeds; sod from which the grass is cut for hay, or cut and piled about the trees, or left uncut; sod supplemented by straw, manure or other by-products; sod the growth of years and sod turned under more or less frequently. This confusion has spread obscurity over much that has been said about the method. Since our experiment is a comparison of tillage with sod mulching as carried on by Mr. Hitchings, his method, now to be described, and none of the modifications suggested above, must be kept in mind. No easier treatment of the soil in an orchard, short of down- right neglect, could be devised than the Hitchings method. It consists in laying the ground down to sod before or as soon as the trees are set and cutting the grass for a mulch once or twice, as conditions may demand, during each summer. The orchard is supposed to remain in sod indefinitely, plowing being detrimental to the formation of the mulch which is essential in the treatment. The cut grass is never removed from the land and until roots and branches utilize the space between plants it is raked and piled about the trees. Many who grow apples in sod supplement the cut grass with straw or similar material as a mulch about the trees — desir- able, of course, but not practiced by Mr. Hitchings and not prac- New York AcricutturRAL ExprerIMENT Sration. 507 ticable in the apple regions of New York because it is impossible to get mulching material, since straw or other roughage is not largely grown. With the particular treatment just outlined, in mind, we pass to two other factors which play equally important parts in the Hitch- ings orchard — the site and the soil. Indeed, it is impossible to separate these two factors from the treatment in accounting for the results Mr. Hitchings obtained; for all are fundamentals in his success. OUTLINE OF EXPERIMENT. SITE. The Hitchings farm is in the south-central part of Onondaga County, a region noted for dairy products and alfalfa but not con- spicuous for its apples. There are few or no commercial orchards within several miles of the Hitchings place and the nearest market for apples is in Syracuse, nine miles away, to which place the fruit is hauled by team. Previous to making a commercial planting of apples Mr. Hitchings had been a dairyman but gave up cows to grow apples, small fruits and vegetables. These statements are made because it is important to know that Mr. Hitchings is a pioneer apple-grower in his locality and that as a pioneer he has blazed a new and original trail in fruit-growing. The Hitchings farm is in the slightly rolling bottom and on the foothills of a deep valley, poorly shown in the frontispiece because the camera does not give an adequate idea of the height of the hills surrounding. On the level valley-bottom is located Plat A of our experiment, consisting of young trees. The sides of the valley are long, steep hills, the slope, of which the farm is a part, rising to an altitude of 400 or 500 feet in a distance of about a half mile. At the foot of this great hill, and as a part of it, is the main orchard, in which Plat B and Plat C, consisting of older trees, are located. The land lies in too steep an incline in this orchard for convenient culti- vation and under constant tillage the soil would wash more or less unless the work be carefully done. The ground, too, is a little uneven whereby some trees are on hummocks and others in hollows. This unevenness accounts in part for the lack of uniform- ity in the growth and productiveness of the trees conspicuous in the tables given later. 508 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF HorTICULTURE OF THE Inhabitants of hilly countries know well that moist, spongy land may be looked for at the foot or on the sides of high elevations of land. The expected happens in the Hitchings orchard, for the land, at all seasons of the year but especially in early spring, con- tains much water despite well constructed open ditches to carry it away. In fact there are several springs in the orchard, which, however, Mr. Hitchings says, usually dry up in June, and do not begin to flow again until late fall. In a heavier or shallower soil the same amount of water would saturate the land so thoroughly DIAGRAMS OF PLATS 1. Puat A. Row Se ae Ste, c. JO ee RN BN EIN Doi tae an soe ESE Wagener. DL PAR LTEE OND | TID = DEV MOS STE SEE br ened R. I. Greening. Sod Bee core eee ermine ears PRUE Hie shoe ona Dahatelae aera mena open Sutton. LaLa ah RS ce Soh Race MBN Ale ee CaaS C-cyO 5 cack Sate R. I. Greening. DCSE «SUI PAG. BREE w A EE IEE SSE Sutton. Beers ccatatd c antec Seam caterer tee eras caatereciapaeees Statens R. I. Greening. Tillage NA ETO RNR ROLLA SORE crs ote Doo oR G rol ea Boron Sutton. Basis 0d iayagh, Beasts ahs. Go 0 ators ola MA AT SEES Ae SEE R. I. Greening. 2. Puat B. 3. Puat C. Row. Row. Dey Seat, 42 Alexander. US: OER EOF Northern Spy. Tillage DOG tar. eacin Saya ‘Wealthy. "9", “ep le2ieeamatnrs o/s Northern Spy. Sey Hockey Om Fameuse. SOR teh oeaaeire eis Northern Spy. A BMROE JERSE. is Alexander. Sodan) 4i4.3ehs LK eas Northern Spy. Milagros toe eee Wealthy. oy Ee SM, Northern Spy. OL re Su custate ca: Fameuse. as to make it unworkable. This seepage is one of the fundamental factors in the success of the sod mulch in Plat B and Plat C in the Hitchings orchards. In the plat on level ground, A, all the tests possible to apply at this time show the tilled trees to be the better; on the sidehill, in B and C, the tests show sod mulch to be the better. The chief environmental difference between Plat A and New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 509 the other plats is the greater moisture content of the soil in the tatter plats, arising from the fact that they receive the seepage from the high hill on whose base they are located whereas Plat A lies on level ground to which the seepage, in summer at least, does not reach. PLATS. Two orchards have been mentioned — one on low, level ground in the valley, the other on the lower part of the hill-slope. Plat A, as before stated, is in the valley and plats B and C on the hill-slope. Both orchards were planted before the Station began experimental work with Mr. Hitchings. The trees in the valley orchard were set in November, 1902, the young trees being two years old. The orchard was seeded with a mixture of orchard grass and clover in the spring of 1903. Plat B was put out in the fall of 1894 in a timothy and clover sod from which one crop of hay had been taken. Plat C was planted in the fall of 1893 and also on a timothy and clover sod. The plats are outlined as follows: Plat A.— This plat includes all of the valley orchard, consist- ing of 8 rows of 34 trees each, the rows 30 feet apart and the trees 20 feet apart in the row. At the beginning of the experiment these trees had been set two years. Diagram 1 is a plan of the orchard showing the varieties, row numbers, and division of the orchard into sod and tilled sections. The area of each section as computed from the distance apart of trees is 1.87 acres. The soil in Plat A is undoubtedly Miami loam. It is a dark brown, clay loam of alluvial origin of which the surface soil varies from 8 to 14 inches and is comparatively free from gravel and stone. The subsoil is at least several feet in depth and is a brownish-yellow silt to clay loam. The surface soil contains a small proportion of sand but not enough to prevent crusting over after rains so that it is rather difficult of cultivation — a somewhat tenacious clay. Plat B.— Plat B is in the lower part of the hillside orchard. The rows are 33 feet apart and the trees 32 feet apart in the row, making .95 acre in each section, one in tillage.and one in sod. Diagram 2 shows the varieties, row numbers and cultural divisions. The trees in B were nine years old when the experiment began. Unfortu- nately two trees died in the early life of the orchard and their places were given to other varieties. Thus, tree 12 in row 2 is Pound Sweet and tree 5 in row 6 is Yellow Bellflower, both varieties 510 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HoRTICULTURE OF THE foreign to the experiment and therefore not henceforth to be con- sidered. The surface of Plat B is somewhat broken, but the main soil type is fairly uniform. The soil is Miami stony loam, shading in places into gravelly loam, exceedingly variable in depth, brown in color and more or less sandy in texture. In places on this plat the soil contains a high precentage of broken rock or shale fragments, especially on its higher portions. The subsoil is of fair depth and consists of a deep brownish-yellow clay loam with a considerable proportion of gravel and shale fragments. Plat C.— Plat C is up the slope above Plat B. The trees were ten years of age at the beginning of the experiment and are set at the same distances apart as those in Plat B. The area of the tilled and sod plats is .27 acre each. Diagram 3 shows the plan of the plat. The sixth tree in row 3 could not be used and a tree in row 5 had to be substituted. The soil in Plat C is Miami stony loam. It is not so gravelly as that of Plat B, is somewhat shallower in depth and contains more large stone but otherwise it is very similar. A mechanical analysis of the soils in these plats was not made but their chemical constituents were carefully studied to see, if possible, under which of the two treatments the soil was most depleted of fertility. Table V, page 526, gives the results of chemical analyses of the soils at the end of the ten-year period. The analyses, it suffices to say here, show the soil to be fairly well supplied with phosphorus, potassium and nitrogen but rather deficient in lime. That these plats are not suitable for accurate experimental work must be admitted at once. The defects are many. Thus, the trees in B and C are too few, the plats are of unequal areas, there are too many varieties, the trees in the several plats are of different ages, the land on the hillside is uneven and the soil is not uniform. But better plats could not be laid out in the Hitchings orchards and it was much desired that a comparison of sod mulch and tillage be made here where the mulch system had become most prominent in New York. MEASURING THE RESULTS. When the work in hand was turned over to the writer the plan of procedure had not developed further than the taking of notes on the yields and expenses of the several plats. As the project took New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTIon. 511 shape it became more and more apparent that small opportunity was offered for determining fundamental facts regarding the effects of sod mulch and tillage on trees for, beside the defects in the material mentioned in the preceding paragraphs, mishaps of various kinds, as the death of trees, began to occur. For the reasons given it was early decided that crop perform- ance and tree growth were to be the chief tests in the comparison of the two methods of culture as being the most satisfactory gauges under the conditions. After all, yield of fruit and growth of tree are the ultimate criteria of methods of management and if extended over sufficient time should be satisfactory to fruit-growers and ought to convince experimenters of the relative values in practice of the methods. These gauges may tell which is the better method, but they tell practically nothing as to why one method is better than another. The work in hand, then, is more demonstrational than experimental. In this discussion of results, then, yield of fruit and growth of _ tree are to furnish chief evidence. Since cheapness is one of the great merits of the Hitchings method, statements of expenses must be compared. The writer feels that to attempt to go further is to raise more questions than can be answered — to stir up more hares than can be run down. It remains to be said, before taking up the data, that while the care of the experimental plats had been directed from the Station, the work has been in the hands of Mr. Hitchings — done in his way and at his discretion. The records of yields and expenses were kept by him, being turned over to the Station at the end of each season. Perhaps this is the best place to express appreciation of the zeal and enthusiasm which Mr. Hitchings has shown in carry- ing on these experiments. If the work at any time has suffered, it is because a very busy man could do no more. If in places the data lack fullness, the same reason stands. PROGRESS AND RESULTS OF EXPERIMENT. TREATMENT OF PLATS. The trees in the several plats under comparison have received identical care in all orchard operations excepting soil treatment, which has been as follows: 512 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorTICULTURE OF THE Or Sod plats.— The sod was established, as we have seen, before the experimental work was begun. It consisted in 1905, when the writer first saw it, of a good sward of orchard grass with some blue grass, in which was a rather diversified flora of the weeds commonly found in meadows; as, the docks, wild carrot, ox-eye daisy, mullein, flea- bane and the plantains, with peppermint in the wettest places in the hillside orchard. In the ten years the sod-flora has varied but little. The character of the sod is shown in the several illustrations in this bulletin. The grass was mowed on the following dates: TIMES OF MOWING. Plat A. Plat B and Plat C. 1904, June 17 and August 20. 1904, Once — date not given, 1905, il ls yaa 9. 1905, = ate 1906, yeas 1906, July 6. 1907, +S, 44. 1907, June 26. ICC) OSS ze bp 1908, July 17. 1909, Once — date not given. 1909, Once — date not given. 1910, “ June 20. 1910, June 10. 1911, “ date not given. 1911, Once — date not given. 1912 “ “ “ “ 1912, “ “ 1913, “ “ “ “ 1913, “ “ “ “ In Plat A the mowed grass in 1904 was in part sold for hay, but was piled about the young trees in all of the succeeding seasons. The grass was put under the trees in B and C the first three summers but not afterwards, since the roots of these older trees at this age began to meet in the spaces between rows. It is hard to estimate the amount of hay the cut grass would have made per acre in the two orchards, but an average of one and one-half tons would probably be fair. Tilled plats— The following is a memorandum of the treatment of the tilled plats: TREATMENT OF TILLED PLATS. 1904. All plats plowed in May and cultivated during the season seven times. Cover-crop of clover sown about August Ist; trees hoed three times. 1905. All plats plowed in May and cultivated seven times thereafter. Cover-crop of clover sown about August 1st; trees hoed five times. 1906. Plats plowed April 24-25 and Plat A cultivated nine times and B and C eight times. Trees in A hoed four times and in B and C three times; cover-crop of clover sown August Ist. 1907. Plats plowed April 830-May 2; A cultivated ten times and B and C eight times; trees in all plats spaded about once and those in A hoed about once; cover- crop of clover sown August 3. 1908. Plats plowed April 22-23; A cultivated twelve times and hoed three times, B cultivated ten times and C eight times; cover-crop of crimson clover sown August 7 in A and on the 8th in B and C. New Yorx AqricutruraL Experiment Station. 513 1909. Plats plowed April 27-28; A cultivated eleven times and trees hoed twice, B and C cultivated ten times; cover-crop of crimson clover sown August 23. 1910. Plats plowed April 24-26 and B cross- -plowed May 30; A cultivated eleven times; and B and C seven times; cover-crop of wheat sown in A September 15. 1911. Plats plowed April 24; A cultivated twelve times and B and C eight times; trees in B hoed about once; no cover-crops this year. 1912. Plats plowed May 2 and 3; A and B cultivated eight times and C seven; cover-crops of wheat sown September 12. 1913. Plats plowed April 23 and 24; all plats cultivated five times. The cultivation between rows one way was at all times most thorough. Many fruit-growers will say that the expense of cultiva- tion, as shown by the number of times it was done and by the financial statement in Table IV, was much above that of the average tilled orchard. Strips of sod from ten to twelve feet wide were left in the tree rows in all of the plats. Mr. Hitchings maintained that cultivating could not be done between trees in the row without danger to the trees and that the roots were out beyond the sod strips at this time. Plates XLIV, XLV, XLVI, show the character of the cultivation. DISASTERS. Cherished projects seem doomed most often to disaster. Plat A in the Hitchings orchard is one of these. As the largest of the plats and because lay of land, soil, varieties, and, in fact, all con- ditions were most favorable at the beginning of the experiment, this plat was given the most watchful care. ‘‘ But who can turn the stream of destiny?’ Excessive cold in the winter of 1903-04, the first year of the experiment, killed a number of young trees in Plat A outright, so weakened several others that they died later, and unquestionably checked the growth of all. As the trees died their places were filled but these replantings could not be used for the tests under way. Out of the 272 trees in this plat, 52 were sooner or later discarded because of injury the first winter. Seemingly through some malevolent influence, but probably because of unsuitability of valley land to fruit-growing in this region, the trees in Plat A show a strong aversion to bearing apples. Ten seasons passed without a crop of apples — only scattered specimens. The trees began their eleventh summer white with bloom and all seemed favorable for at least one test crop during the tenure of our experi- ment. But in the end, as at the beginning of the test, disaster came in a night and through the same agency — cold. The freeze in blossoming time, 1913, played havoc with the setting fruit and from 33 514 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF HorricuLTURE OF THE what promised to be a full crop the writer picked one apple at harvest time. The plats in the hillside orchards escaped both freezes. The trees in all of the plats have had their full share of the usual insect and fungus troubles but so far as could be seen from careful observation, though not special study, pests were as numerous and troublesome in one section of the plats as another, with the single exception of blight. The Alexanders, always susceptible to blight, suffered more from this disease in the tilled than in the sodded sections. Seven trees under tillage were killed by the blight in Plat B. Red-bugs came in devastating numbers in B and C in 1905 and have reappeared every year since, preventing the division of the crops into market grades in accordance with size, since injured fruits, no matter what their size, had to be put into seconds or culls. In 1913, however, this pest was kept under control by spraying with Black Leaf 40. In two seasons the apple maggot was reported by Mr. Hitchings as having prevented a proper grading of all varieties in accordance with size. TasLe I.—AVERAGE YIELD, IN BUSHELS OF APPLES PER TREE, ON SOD AND TILLED LAND. ¢ PLATS B AND C, HITCHINGS ORCHARD. Sop. TILLAGE. YEAR. B a > Sg 2 = no} n n q 5 Bol os 8 3 a Sil waked baie outed) Seed KestEle. se mee a cm Zz = < cy Zz = NOQAR re) eae 47| 1.02 46) 3.14 261i 1202 21), 2°56 NOQS Mee Sota a. eee ere 25) 2.69 sate) hess) TAN ee S5 21 87 SOG Ra ee a OF 23 .92| 4.46 104): 9342) 7 1575) 94./05 NGO (ee ack ek Pea en 04; 3.96 2.08) 5.138 550), lao Aa Pe 0) OOS Rey cate ee ane ool ele 4.00) onl .22; 2.25) 3.08) 4.29 LOOD ES eek: kee 1.54] 11.04 Y42), SSA S616 AT QE UT Ste LOMO Pe ian olcn eye eee: 162 |e 00) 25.25), oOe. 61} 2.225) 3.00) 7.81 1420 Lt es eee a a Yo S A 62) 13-62) 3.17) 6:42) 40.0) 10-92)" (5-42) onle OUD bE ALA ae 5.44, 9.88! 5.08} 6.83) 2.25) 9.19) 3.91) 10.86 OS etnc dt reays Meee ee 8.97) 14.46) 5.17) 7.33) 2.83) 6.17) 4.35) 2.63 ee ee) ee eS ee ee eee b> < oO + © tho} lo) ear oe) nS lor) — i=) bo «J (JS) or = bo —_ (oe) oo ASS iS (ee) bo is co is is bo ‘LNAWIUadX AO UVAX GNOOUYG ‘VW LVIg NI SATU, ONNOX —y~TX TVIg *TOVTTIL ~~ aos E TypicAL oF THOSE IN B anp C at BEGINNING i Puate XLIIT.— Nortuern Sry Trt OF EXPERIMENT, ‘INGWIUGdXY AO ODNINNIOGG LV O LVIG—]IJ1TX @v1g “aos “EO VITIL S161 NI QO LVId—AITX Stv1d aos GOVTTILL Pirate XLV.— Puar B rn 1913: Upper Hatr, Tintace; Lower Harr, Sop. Puate XLVI.— Puar A: Upper Har, Tintacse; Lower Haxr, Sop. New Yorx AaricutturaL Experiment Srarion. 515 CROP PRODUCTION. In the long run crop production is of course the best measure of merit in a method of orchard management. Ten years, it might be thought, is a sufficiently long period to make yield of fruit almost an absolute test as to which of two methods is the better in a given orchard. Happily the ten years during which this work has been in progress have been seasons of abundant apple harvests. Crops have been good, bad and indifferent with some varieties, but total failure has not had to be recorded with any variety in the two bear- ing plats. Table I gives the yields of fruit for the ten years on plats BandC. The yields on Plat A may be briefly summarized as follows: Yields in Plat A.— A glance at the chart of Plat A shows three varieties, of which we are considering but two, Rhode Island Green- ing and Sutton; because the third, Wagener, was under sod only. The Rhode Island Greenings bore no fruit until 1911 when the sodded trees bore one bushel of second-class fruit and the tilled trees a half bushel of culls, the crop in both cases having been ruined by insects. For some reason the sodded Greenings bore no apples in 1912, while those under tillage bore twelve bushels. In 1912 Sutton in sod bore one bushel; under tillage two bushels. These figures mean but little, probably being accidental variations. Yields in plats B and C.— In the table submitted only the total quantity of fruit is given. It is doubtful whether any other figures than those of total yield are worth considering; for Mr. Hitchings’ gauge of seconds and culls for his particular and peculiar market is different from that of most apple-growers, depending for one thing more largely upon color. So, too, red-bug was a disturbing factor, causing many seconds and culls in apples large enough to go as firsts. And, lastly, Mr. Hitchings’ method of harvesting early apples over a somewhat lengthy period by allowing the fruit to drop or by shaking it on the ground would certainly cause more poor fruit in the tilled than the sod sections; thus we have the state- ment from Mr. Hitchings, ‘‘ Harvesting the crop of apples under tillage is very unsatisfactory on account of the dirt which clings to the fruit as it drops from the trees. This is entirely avoided in the sod section.” It should be added that another reason for this method of harvesting was that on the tilled land the apples were left until they dropped, with the hope that they would color better. 516 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF HorRTICULTURE OF THE Summarizing the figures, we find that Alexanders growing in sod produced an average of 1.84 bushels per tree during the ten years, under tillage 1.33 bushels. Fameuse in sod bore an average of 6.1 bushels per tree, under tillage 4.5 per tree per year. Northern Spy in sod bore 2.7 bushels, under tillage 2.5 bushels per year. Wealthy in sod produced 5.1 bushels per year, under tillage. 4.5 bushels. Averaging the figures for four varieties we find that the trees in sod, ten years set at the beginning and twenty at the end of the experiment, bore an average of a little less than four bushels per tree, while those in tillage bore a little more than three bushels per tree. To be exact, the difference between sod and tilled plats was four-fifths of a bushel per tree per year in favor of the sod mulch. Taking, therefore, the difference in total yield of fruit between the two plats as the measure of value of the two treatments, the sod-mulch method is shown to be somewhat the better way of handling apple trees under the conditions prevailing in the Hitchings orchard. NUMBER AND SIZE OF APPLES. Year in and year out there was little difference in size between the apples in the two sections. In 1904 and 1905 counts were made of equal weights of varieties from the several sections, the results showing in 1904 a slight increase in size for the apples from the tilled sections. In 1905 a similar count showed the fruits from the sod plats to be a little the larger. In neither year were the differ- ences beyond the range of accidental variation. In no season was it possible to determine, with the eye, differences in size in apples from tilled and sodded trees. Apples attain more than average size in the Hitchings orchards and probably less of these ten crops than in most orchards went into seconds and culls because of small size. Size is worth considering, in these experiments, only as it has a bearing upon marketable quantity. The value of the whole crop was affected little, or not at all, by size. But in studying the table showing the amounts of fruit for the different years the question naturally arises: Is the increased quantity in any year or for any variety due to more apples or are the apples larger? We have no data to submit to settle this question but it was very apparent, in the years when a variety in one section gave a greater quantity of fruit than the same variety in the other section, that it was chiefly because of a greater number of fruits. An examination of Table I shows New York AGRicuLTuRAL ExprErIMENT STATION. 517 an interesting alternation in most of the varieties — one year the variety produced most fruit in sod, the next under tillage. No reason appears for this biennial-bearing habit of varieties in which the off year for sod was the bearing year for tillage. COLOR OF FRUIT. It needs hardly to be said that the apples from the sodded plats were much more highly colored and therefore much more attrac- tive in appearance than the fruit from the tilled plats. It may be laid down as a universal rule that sod heightens the color of apples in the orchards of New York. Another rule that very generally holds in this State is that the conditions which produce high color are antagonistic to yield of fruit and to growth of tree. The figures presented in Table I are not in accord with this rule as it applies to yield of fruit, but those showing the relative growth of trees, Table II, are in exact accord. The correlations between color and quantity and color and growth of tree need further consideration, best given by way of illustration. Every orchardist of experience in this region knows that girdled, wounded, diseased, decrepit, poorly nourished, or somnolent trees bear more highly-colored fruit than healthy, normal trees growing near them. In this day of almost universal tillage in commercial apple orchards in New York, one of the common questions is, How ean I check growth and obtain more highly-colored fruit? High color in red apples is as trustworthy an indication of ill-being in a tree as high pulse or high temperature in a human being — so depend- able that its occurrence in any method of growing apples enables us at once to say that is is purchased at the expense of health or vigor of the tree. The red of the several varieties under tillage and in sod varied a good deal with the season. The trees in sod ripen their fruit some- what earlier than those under tillage and if in the last part of the season the weather is sunny and propitious for the coloring of apples, the tilled fruits, because they remain a little longer on the trees show less marked difference in color than otherwise. The apples on the tilled plats are exceptionally well colored for tilled fruit because, possibly, of altitude, the soil, or of some unknown factor, or some combination of conditions which often gives tilled apples from the Hitchings farm a color and finish rivaling the best 518 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorTICULTURE OF THE western fruit though seldom as beautifully colored as the same variety from near-by sodded trees. MATURITY AND KEEPING QUALITY OF THE FRUIT. As stated in the last paragraph the fruit on the plats in sod ripens a little earlier, the difference being from a few days to two weeks, depending upon the season and the variety. In a wet, cool autumn there is but little difference in time of ripening, but if the weather be dry and warm the difference is considerable. The earlier-ripen- ing Alexander and Wealthy mature more nearly at the same time in the two sections than the later-ripening Fameuse and Spy. Little can be said of the keeping quality in common storage of the apples in this experiment. None of the varieties are late keep- ers and in the tests we were able to make, the quantities were so small and the disturbing factors so many — such as lack of data as to picking, sample sent selected for exhibition purposes, quantity not sufficient for a fair test — that we are not warranted in making definite statements. Mr. Hitchings reports that with him “ the apples from the sod plats hold up much better than from those under tillage.” TREE GROWTH. What effect have the two methods had on the growth of trees? In a ten-year period it would be expected that the method under which most fruit was preduced would give greatest growth in trees. Yet such is not the case, from the figures we have to present. For, whereas our figures show the sodded trees to have yielded some- what larger crops of fruit the data show the trees to have made much the same growth under the two. treatments in the bearing orchard and a much larger growth under tillage with the young trees. Thus, we find from a consideration of Table II, giving diameters, that in Plat A the Rhode Island Greenings and the Suttons average more than one inch each greater diameter than the trees in sod, a very considerable greater growth for trees but eleven years set. In Plat B the Alexanders in sod have made a gain of a little over an inch in diameter more than those under tillage, but this evidence should be ruled out because eight of the original thirteen tilled trees died and some of the remaining five were badly cut back because of blight. The Fameuse and Wealthy trees in this plat are almost New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 519 at a stand-off with the odds a little in favor of the trees in sod. The tilled and sodded trees of Northern Spys in Plat C made almost an identical average increase in diameter in the ten years, there being but the insignificant difference of .01 of an inch. The diameters, it should be said, were taken at one foot from the ground. TaBLe JI.— Diameters or Apple TREE TRUNKS ON Sop AND TILLED LAND. PLAT A, HITCHINGS ORCHARD. Sop. TILLAGE. op bo A=| fe = al © nm n qn wn n a>n on n gn n oO Sn 2 SE AS Er San Cea get | eG eh es] es Ro SsH|/ gh] 1a HS|@a | SS (FS) ES) 49] 48 |@8|S0/ES (en) 45 ee ee} Ins. | Ins. | Ins. | Ins. | Ins. | Ins. || Ins. | Ins. | Ins. | Ins. | Ins. | Ins. 1OQSFe ee. .87| .75| 3.58] 3.24) 4.70} 4.45]| .723] .800) 4.02) 3.27) 4.23) 4.27 LOS ee 5.16) 4.73} 8.01) 6.42/10.38) 8.11]/6.103/6.000} 7.37) 7.18) 9.02] 7.92 Gain.| 4.29] 3.98! 4.43) 3.18) 5.68) 3.66]) 5.38! 5.20) 3.35) 3.91] 4.79] 3.65 Gains for Sod. Gains for Tillage. Hameusey. 5 citteat jd othe .89 inch R. I. Greening......... 1.09 inches. Northern Spys2 7... se: FOL Suttontncen ose 122 ae Wealthy cys Are se sow lose Should we take growth in diameter of the tree trunk as the sole gauge of the value of the two treatments in the sidehill orchard, we should have to say that the trees thrive seemingly as well under one method as the other. Using the same measure for the trees on the floor of the valley, we must conclude that the trees are doing much the better under tillage. Why the difference? We answer at once, because the soil is deep enough to give the trees a much larger root- run on the hillside, whereby they get away from thegrass, and because the hillside seepage furnishes an abundance of moisture for both trees and grass. In the comparatively shallow and dry soil of the valley, trees and grass compete in the sod for food and moisture and the trees suffer. There is a close agreement in the growth of parts or organs of trees as affected by different treatments or conditions and when, as with these trees, trunk diameters can be given for a series of seasons, there is little need of other measurements to show vigor and health. There 520 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorRTICULTURE OF THE might, however, be some difference in form of top whereby the trees, though larger in trunk diameter, would be possibly less desirable orchard plants. Spread of branch and height of tree ought to give all of the data in regard to form of top needed by a fruit-grower. It would have been too difficult a task to take these dimensions in the twenty-year-old trees in Plat B and Plat Cand we can therefore but say that gauged by the eye, height of tree and spread of branch in the trees in these plats increased very closely in accordance with the increase in diameter of trunk. Plates XLIV and XLV show at least that the differences in these particulars are not very marked. It was easier to measure the height and spread of the young trees in Plat A. Table III gives these dimensions and Plate XLVI shows them compared in photographs. The figures in the table need no amplification. They show a very material increase in both height and spread of branches for tilled trees. Taste II].— Heraur anp Spreap or AppLe TrEES ON Sop AND TiuLED LAND. PLAT A, HITCHINGS ORCHARD. Sop. TILLAGE. R. I. Sutton, R. I. Sutton, Greening, | 21 trees. | Greening, | 28 trees. 45 trees. 55 trees. Weightyiniteetscpweuit: hyacsor eee eee 10.01 LOT 10.11 12.38 Spreadun feet etter ee eee ne 11.8 7.64 13.10 8.52 Gainhn height: Yeah yoo Ghe far ter epee Ah lp ee Oe 10 1.31 (TAUB SPIO AG Al icles jeianis pov eiey. | eA pclae Ree | ea 1.3 .88 UNIFORMITY IN TREES AND CROPS. One of the best tests of any orchard treatment is uniformity of trees. Ina plantation of trees of the same age uniformity is a financial asset. It is essential in good orcharding that trees bear annually, that the fruit be uniform in size and color, that the crop be well distributed on the tree and that the trees in the orchard bear approxi- mately the same quantity of fruit. In growth of trunk and branches and of foliage there should also be as few departures as possible from the normal. : In the first report on sod mulch and tillage published by this Station, in all of these respects the honors went to the tilled trees. As regards the crops of fruit in the two kinds of culture in the Hitch- New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 521 ings orchards convincing data are lacking, but in tree growth, as could be seen by the eye, the trees in sod are less uniform in most of the varieties. In Plat A, in particular, the diameters, the heights and the spread of branches are all less uniform in the sod than in the tilled plat. Plates XLV and XLVI, in which the two methods of culture are illustrated, show to the eye this greater uniformity of tilled trees. For this superiority of tilled trees in uniformity we have the same reasons to offer as those set forth in the bulletin on the Auchter orchard; namely,’ ‘‘ No matter how uniform the sod there will be areas well grassed and areas poorly grassed; areas in which there is an admixture of some plant not to be found in the same quantity elsewhere. Now this lack of uniformity of environment cannot but bring about ununiformity in the trees themselves. On the con- trary, tillage is conducive to a uniform environment as it secures surface uniformity of the field, equalizes the depth of soil, and tends to evenness in the amount and availability of moisture and food. One of the reasons for cultivating any crop is to secure an equally vigorous growth over the entire area cropped.” FOLIAGE. The health and vigor of trees are readily determined in the grow- ing season by the color of the foliage. The darker the green of the leaf the healthier and the more vigorous the tree. Most fruit-growers will agree that there is no test of the well-being of an orchard, out- side of actual crop performance, more dependable than the color of the leaves. In determining the value of the two methods of cul- ture under consideration, then, much weight must be given to leaf- color, keeping in mind, however, that there is the possibility of trees growing too vigorously for best fruit producticn. In determining color of foliage reliance must be placed on observa- tions by the experimenters, since there is no ready method of color measurement. The records of the various observers from the Station sent to the Hitchings orchard from time to time during the several seasons of our tenure show that at nearly every visit the color of the foliage of the tilled trees was darker and richer, indicating greater vigor than in the sodded trees. In no case was the foliage of the IN. Y. Sta. Bul. 314:103. 1909. 592 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE OF THE trees in sod a darker green and in the few instances in which differences could not be discerned, the observation was either made very early in the season, or, and this is significant, after or during a period of wet weather. In particular, this was true of the young trees in Plat A. Thus, the color of the foliage is in agreement with the diameter of the trunk, the spread of branch and the height of head, in attesting the greater vigor of tilled trees. A fact, possibly of little practical importance but quite suggestive, is that the tilled trees usually blossomed, and so far as our records go, always leafed-out from one to several days in advance of the trees in sod. This is in accord with the behavior of the trees under the two methods of treatment in the Auchter orchard.’ In the latter orchard temperatures taken throughout one summer showed that the tilled land was warmer than the sodded land, from which the assumption was made that the trees bloomed and leafed earlier in the tilled land because the soil was warmer. If the supposition for the Auchter orchard is correct, we may assume that the tilled land in the Hitchings orchards is warmer. Observations on the time of dropping of leaves in the several plats could not be made by observers from the Station but from the following quotations from reports made by Mr. Hitchings it seems that foliage on the sodded trees dropped soonest: November 14, 1904.— ‘‘ The cultivated trees are still hanging on to their leaves.” October 31, 1905.— “ Foliage on tilled plats dark green in color, very few leaves shed; on sod plats the foliage has almost all turned yellow and one-half or more is shed.” October 29, 1907.— “ The foliage on the cultivated plats has held a good color up to date.” November 2, 1908.— ‘‘ The foliage held better on the tilled plats; kept green until destroyed by frost.” In the reports for years other than the four from which the quota- tions given were taken, the time of the leaf-fall is not noted. There is an advantage and a disadvantage for trees retaining foliage late in the season without loss of color. When foliage takes on autumn colors and drops early, the growing season is cut short and the trees probably lose somewhat in growth and vigor. In late-ripening varieties there is also, no doubt, some loss in size of fruit and, since IN. Y. Sta. Bul, 314: 103. 1909. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 5238 maturity of leaves must coincide more or less with the ripening of fruit, we should expect, as has been the case in the Hitchings orchard, that the fruit would ripen earliest on the trees dropping their leaves soonest. On the other hand the lighter tints of maturing leaves and the earlier dropping of foliage give conditions under which the apples take on higher colors. SURFACE WASH. Plats B and C, it will be remembered, are on a fairly steep hill- side. Since surface wash is one of the chief objections to tillage on hillsides, the tilled plats have been under close observation to see what harm might be done by washing. In none of the reports of any of the many visits made by various members of the Station staff, nor in any of the reports from Mr. Hitchings, is it shown that the tilled plats have suffered harm from washing. It must be said, however, that the cultivated plats are so narrow that washing would hardly take place as it might do on a wider area. This opportunity cannot be permitted to pass without stating the writer’s opinion that the danger from surface washing on hilly lands in New York is greatly exaggerated. Torrential rains are comparatively infrequent in this State, orchard lands usually are more or less stony and stones impede washing, and June and July, the months that orchards are tilled, constitute but a short time, at a season of the year when rains are all too few, for washing to take place. A rather wide observation in the fruit-growing regions of New York has not shown many tilled orchards that wash badly. After several more years in observing orchards on hillsides in this State we can reiterate with emphasis the following statements made in Bulletin 314, page 112, in regard to washing on orchard lands. “The land in the Auchter orchard is rolling, though nowhere are the slopes steep. In this respect it is a fair average of the apple orchards of western New York. At no time has there been any harmful surface wash in either of the two plats and we have not, therefore, had an opportunity to observe in this orchard the influence of cultivation on surface wash. Since tillage is objected to on hilly ground because it is supposed to favor surface wash, it may not be out of place to give observations from elsewhere in this regard. “Tn all but the steepest locations in the climate and on the soils of New York, embracing practically all sites upon which trees can 594 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorRTICULTURE OF THE be sprayed, harvested and pruned with sufficient ease to make fruit-growing profitable, proper cultivation may be made an efficient means of lessening the washing of land. Whatever contributes to the porosity of the soil prevents washing. It is obvious that cultiva- tion makes a soil granular and porous. Plowing and tillage to check surface wash on steep slopes should be as deep as possible; furrows should run at right angles to the slope to impede the fall of the water; in some cases open furrows and ditches having a very gentle fall can well be maintained. If the above means of stopping surface wash be supplemented by cover-crops, which check the wash at the season when the rainfall is heaviest, it can be said that almost any land upon which it is practicable to grow fruit can be cultivated. Such deep-rooting cover-crops as the clovers and cow-horn turnips are of great value on land that washes because they form root tubes which help to take care of the water. Artificial drainage is some- times necessary on hillsides to prevent land from becoming water- logged which of course would favor washing. There need be little solicitude about surface wash on most of the fruit lands of New York if proper precautions are observed where it is menacing.” COST OF THE TWO METHODS. Of the tests to determine the value of methods in commercial fruit-growing, the cap sheaf of the shock should be the cost of pro- duction. The curt dictum “ the weakest goes to the wall” applies in apple-growing as well as to other financial enterprises. But unfortunately when we came to apply this test to the two methods under comparison, expectant as we have been, the data are most disappointing. The extremes are so far apart, not only between the two treatments, but between the different plats under the same treatment, that the figures are at once seen to mean but little. Let us run over the summaries as found in Table IV, the amounts being those charged the Station for the work by Mr. Hitchings. A glance at the acre averages shows that it has cost the Station $.60 per acre annually to have the grass cut in Plat A and Plat B and $.96 for the same work in Plat C. The cost of cultivation per acre per year was $11.22 for A; $13.30 for B; and $24.33 for C. The average for the sod plats is $.72 per acre; for the tilled ones $16.28 per year. We can well believe that grass can be cut for $.72 per acre and that the average, though a little low, might pass for the New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 525 State, but we greatly doubt if there are many or any fruit-growers in New York who yearly pay $16.28 per acre for the cultivation of their orchards. The same operations in the Auchter orchard for the same ten years cost $.80 annually per acre for cutting the grass and $7.39 per acre for cultivation. TaBLE IV.— ComparaTIvE Cost oF Sop Mutcu anp TituAGE METHODS oF Hanpiing APPLE ORCHARDS. HITCHINGS ORCHARD. Sop. TILLAGE. YEAR. Plat A. | Plat B. | Plat C. || Plat A. | Plat B. | Plat C. GOARR a ig ieee ee $2 60 $0 50 $0 30 |} $30 53 | $12 36 $7 25 OOS ritecnniSerss icemireenetees 2 60 1 10 30 PAW 15) 13 20 4 70 OO Gas NS Soe 1 00 50 20 27 38 18 25 11 44 TOO gets ee ete ee 2 IW KO) 50 30 22 70 17 05 9 85 OO Sie weteeeen hope cca roes: 90 50 30 20 95 14 78 5 26 OOS Meer ne es) Gey Fe oy 60 40 20 25 00 18 10 G10 TAQ) sks te sae ae eer ee 60 80 25 24 50 9 80 4 40 TCHS eke te teh Pa AE os 60 40 25 15 10 8 30 5 60 TKO LAA are OS Rina ae ee 50 50 25 14 20 9 30 6 10 Tish eee Rete a et Aes ani 75 50 25 8 40 5 20 4 00 INVETAGe ene yee, $1 13 $0 57 $0 26 || $20 99 | $12 63 $6 57 ANCHE NAVERAPE: 3c cas ae 60 60 96 122 13 30 24 33 The differences in cost per acre of tillage are not due to prices of labor since the rate per hour in the two orchards averaged the same. The cost of the operation in the two orchards varied some- what, of course, because of the diverse character of the soils and of the lay of the land —the Auchter orchard being the easier to cultivate. Then, too, the smallness of the plats has made cultivation more expensive in the Hitchings orchard, and, lastly, whereas the average number of cultivations which Mr. Auchter considered sufficient to keep the land in good tilth was seven, Mr. Hitchings thought his land required nine cultivations. This brings out the point that the cost of tillage is bound to vary greatly depending upon land, tools, teams, number of cultivations and other factors, whereas the cost of cutting grass in the orchard will be approximately the same in all parts of the State. 526 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorRTICULTURE OF THE EFFECTS OF THE TWO TREATMENTS ON THE SOIL. It is important to know how the two treatments have affected the food and humus content of the soil in the three plats. Table V shows the chemical analyses of soils in the sod and tillage sections of the plats at the close of the experiment. Only the columns in the table showing total carbon and nitrogen content need be con- sidered in the present inquiry, the amounts of other substances being given chiefly to show the character of the soil. None of the constituents of the soils, excepting the two selected, in quantities as large as the analyses show them to exist, may reasonably be expected to have been appreciably changed in the ten years of this experiment. TABLE V.— ANALYSES OF SOIL FROM HITCHINGS ORCHARD. POUNDS PER ACRE IN FIRST SEVEN INCHES. CaCo,|co,| Total | ny. LocaTION. P20; Ie CaO Ca MgO Mg K,0 K carbon. Sod... .|4,440]1,940 12,600 9, 000422, 800 13, 800146, 00|38, 2001 1,860} 840) 50,200)5,800 Tilled.. .|4,720/2,060} 8,800} 6,400)11,200 eee 1,760} 780) 48,0005, 400 Sod. .. .|4,620/2,020]10,800] 7,600/18, 600/11, 200/55,600|46,200] 1,560] 700] 63,400/7,200 Tilled.. .|4,260|1, 860}14, 800)10, 600) 23, 200/14 ,000/52, 400/42 ,400; 1,220) 540) 46,000/5,800 od... .|3,900}1,709}16,600/11,800)13,200) 8,000/36,600/36,600} 1,740; 780) 74,000/6,600 Tilled.. .}2,940/1,280]12,800] 9,200) 22,800)13,800)47,600/47,600) 1,340) 600} 22,000)3,000 POUNDS PER ACRE IN SECOND SEVEN INCHES. Plat A: Sod. ...]2,520]1,540} 9,600] 6,800}/21, 600/13 ,000/49, 600} 41,200) 1,520) 680) 33,600/4,200 = Tillage. .|2,580)1,560]} 7,600} 5,400)15,000) 9,000)......]...... 900} 400} 26,800/3,600 lat B: Sod... .|4,400}1,920]11,400] 8,200|17, 200/10, 400/55, 200/45, 800) 1,660) 740) 52,400/6, 200 Tillage. .|4,580/2,000|12,400} 9,000)22,200/13,400)......|...... 13260). 560)" oo. b 5,600 The amounts of carbon found in the analyses of tilled and sodded soils indicate that there is considerably less humus in the tilled land than in that kept in sod. The same is true of nitrogen. - Whether the quantities of humus and nitrogen found in the tilled land are sufficient for the needs of the apple we do not know. Neither do we know whether humus and nitrogen are increasing or decreasing in the, several plats, since, unfortunately, analyses were not made at the beginning of the experiment. It may reasonably be assumed, however, that under the action of tillage and with the comparatively sparse cover crops turned under in the tilled plats, both humus and nitrogen have decreased more than is good for apple New York AqaricuLttuRAL Experiment Station. 527 land. This leads to the statement of a conviction that has been forming in the writer’s mind for several years past. Namely, it is becoming more and more apparent that cover crops alone in many cases are not sufficient to supply tilled orchards with the humus and nitrogen, humus in particular, that trees need and that the deficiency must be made up by an occasional application of stable manure, or by occasionally keeping the orchard in a clover sod for _ & Season. INFERENCES FOR NEW YORK APPLE-GROWERS. From the behavior of the Hitchings orchards, New York apple- growers may infer that there are particular places, soils and economic conditions under which the Hitchings method of sod-mulching apple trees may be used advantageously. Since the prerequisites for the success of the method, as indicated by the Auchter and Hitchings orchards, are not very generally found in this State, the situations in which sod may be given preference over tillage should be set forth with exactitude. These are: Ist. Orchards on steep hillsides where land would wash badly under tillage may be kept in sod.— As we have tried to show in the para- graphs on surface washing, page 523, cultivation may be so managed that there are few commercial apple orchards in New York in which cultivation need be prevented by soil erosion. It is probable that clover or some other legume might be substituted advantageously for the blue grass and orchard grass of the Hitchings method where sod is desired to keep water from wearing the land away. 2d. Land covered with rocks, whether steep or not, must often be kept in sod because of the impossibility of tilling — There are not a few such orchards in New York. 3d. The Hitchings method is best suited to soils having consider- able depth.— It is adapted only to soils in which grass roots and tree root do not come in too intimate contact and too direct competition for food and moisture. The commercial apple orchards of New York are at present on lands the top soil of which averages less than a foot in depth. On these shallow soils the Hitchings method will prove a failure. 4th. Soils must be retentive of moisture.— To sustain trees at their best under the Hitchings method, soils must not only be deep but must be very retentive of moisture, or have the water table compar- 528 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HoRTICULTURE. atively close to the root run of the trees, or, as in the case of the orchards under discussion, must be fed by seepage from higher ground nearby. On land that suffers from summer drouths, this sod-mulch treatment will almost certainly prove less beneficial to trees than tillage. 5th. Economic conditions may decide the choice between tillage and some mulching treatment.— The cost of caring for a sodded orchard is materially less, under this mode of mulching at least, than by tillage. If, then, a man chooses to grow apples extensively rather than intensively he may make larger acreage in sod counterbalance greater production under tillage thereby bringing the cost of pro- duction to the same level. THE LESSON OF THE HITCHINGS ORCHARD. We end as we began, by saying the Hitchings orchard is unique. The chief lesson it teaches is that a man may break away from the common practice, when circumstances render such practices difficult or impossible, and yet attain a high degree of success. The method of orcharding which takes its name from the Hitchings orchard is not as valuable to the fruit-growers of New York as is the demon- stration by Mr. Hitchings that new paths to success may be blazed — new practices devised to meet new conditions, old obstacles over- come in new ways. It is a splendid and successful example of resourceful pioneering and of persistent endeavor to attain the highest success. The pith and the point of the work in this orchard, so different from other orchards in the State, is that fruit-growing is intensely individual. The prime factor is the man. But from the success of Mr. Hitchings the apple-grower must not be led away from the general truth, that the individual problem can be solved most often by the rational application of the laws of nutrition and growth which plants generally follow. Applied to the problem of growing apples in New York, the general law is, that the apple, like other orchard, field and garden plants, responds to cultivation. A COMPARISON OF TILLAGE AND SOD MULCH IN AN APPLE ORCHARD.* SECOND REPORT FOR AUCHTER ORCHARD. U. P. HEDRICK. SUMMARY. This is the third account of studies by the New York Agricultural Experiment Station to determine whether the apple thrives better under tillage or in sod. The first account was published in Bulletin No. 314, 1909; the second in Bulletin No. 375, 1914. The experiment of which this Bulletin is a report was begun in 1903 in the orchard of Mr. W. D. Auchter, near Rochester, New York. In this orchard are nine and one-half acres of Baldwin trees, 40 feet apart each way, set in 1877. Of these, 118 are in sod, 121 under tillage. The Auchter orchard was chosen for this experiment because it was uniform in soil and topography and quite typical of the apple lands of western New York. The land is slightly rolling and is a fertile Dunkirk loam, about ten inches in depth, underlaid by a sandy subsoil. The tilled land was plowed each spring and cultivated from four to seven times. The grass in the sod plat was usually cut once, sometimes twice. In all other operations the care was identical. The experiment is divided into two five-year periods. During the first period the orchard was divided in halves by a north and south line, during the second period by an east and west line. One- quarter of the orchard, then, has been tilled ten years; another tilled five years and then left in sod five years; the third quarter has been in sod ten years and the fourth quarter in sod five years, then tilled five years. The following is a statement of results: The average yield on the plat left in sod for ten years was 69.16 barrels per acre; on the plat tilled ten years, 116.8; difference in favor of tilled plats, 47.64 barrels per acre per year. The fruit from the sod-mulch plats is more highly colored than that from the tilled land. The sodded fruit matures from one to three weeks earlier than the tilled fruit. * Reprint of Bulletin No. 383, April; for Popular Edition see p. 933. 34 [529] 5380 Report oF THE DEtrARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE OF THE The tilled fruit keeps from two to four weeks longer than the sodded fruit; it is also better in quality, being crisper, juicier and of better flavor. The average gain in diameter of the trunks for the trees in sod for the ten years was 2.39 inches; for the trees under tillage 3.90 inches; gain in favor of tillage 1.51 inches. The trees in sod lacked uniformity in every organ and function of which note could be taken. The uniformity of the trees under tillage in all particulars was in striking contrast. The grass had a decided effect on the wood of the trees, there being many more dead branches on the sodded trees and the new wood was not as plump or as bright in color. The leaves of the tilled trees came out three or four days earlier and remained on the trees several days longer than on the sodded trees. They were a darker, richer green, indicating greater vigor, were larger and more numerous on the tilled trees. The average cost per acre of growing and harvesting apples in sod was $51.73; under tillage $83.48; difference in favor of sod $31.75. Subtracting these figures from the gross return leaves a “‘ balance” per acre for the sodded plats of $74.31; for the tilled plats, of $140.67, an increase in favor of tillage of $66.36. For every dollar taken from the sodded trees, after deducting growing and harvesting expenses, the tilled trees gave one dollar eighty-nine cents. The effects of the change from sod to tillage were almost instan- taneous. Tree and foliage were favorably affected before mid- summer of the first year; and the crop, while below the normal. consisted of apples as large in size as any in the orchard, the falling off in yield being due to poor setting. The change for the worse was quite as remarkable and as immediate in the quarter of the orchard turned from tillage into sod; the average yield in this quarter was not half that of any one of the other three quarters. The use of nitrate of soda in the sod plats greatly increased the vigor of the trees and was a paying investment, yet for the five-years period they bore but a trifle more than half as muchas the tilled trees. The very marked beneficial influence on the sodded trees of ground adjacent under tillage teaches that not only should apples not be grown in sod but that for the best good of the trees there should be no sod near them. Prats XLVII.— Tyrn anp Sizp or AppLes ON TILLED SoIt. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 531 Only in the amount of humus and nitrogen has the soil been appreciably changed by the two treatments. The quantities of humus and nitrogen in the plat tilled ten years are so much greater that it is safe to assume that the tillage and cover-crop treatment conserves humus and nitrogen better than the sod-mulch treatment. Grass militates against apples growing in sod in several ways which act together, as: (1) Lowering the water supply, (2) Decreasing some elements in the food supply, (3) Reducing the amount of humus, (4) Lowering the temperature of the soil, (5) Diminishing the supply of air, (6) Affecting deleteriously the beneficial micro-flora, (7) Forming a toxic compound that affects the trees. General statements are: Sod is less harmful in deep than in shallow soils. There is nothing in this experiment to show that apples ever become adapted to grass. Sod may occasionally be used in making more fruitful an orchard growing too luxuriantly. Other fruits than the apple are probably harmed quite as much or more by sod. The effects of grass occur regardless of variety, age of tree, or cultural treatment, and are felt whether the trees are on dwarf or standard stocks. Because of their shallow root systems, dwarf trees are even more liable to injury from grass than standards. Hogs, sheep or cattle pastured on sodded orchards do not over- come the bad effects of the grass. Owners of sodded orchards often do not discover the evil effects of the grass because they have no tilled trees with which to make comparisons. It is only under highest tillage that apple trees succeed in nurseries and all the evidence shows that they do not behave differently when transplanted. Grass left as a mulch in an orchard is bad enough. Grass with- out the mulch is all but fatal—it makes the trees sterile and paralyzes their growth. It is the chief cause of unprofitable orchards in New York. 532 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE OF THE INTRODUCTION. A few years ago it was thought that some method of growing apples in sod might take the place of cultivation in the orchards of New York. The Hitchings method of cutting the grass and letting it lie as a mulch seemed to meet the conditions in this State better than any other of the sod or mulch systems and in response to a popular demand this Station began a comparative test of tillage and the Hitchings sod-mulch method in two orchards. The two tests were begun in 1903, and in 1909 a preliminary report was made in Bulletin No. 314 of one of the experiments, that in the Auchter orchard near Rochester, and in Bulletin No. 375, published in March, 1914, a complete report was made of the other test which was carried on in the Hitchings orchard near Syracuse. This is, therefore, the third account of these orchard-management experiments and is given to complete the preliminary report of 1909 of the work in the Auchter orchard. THE AUCHTER ORCHARD EXPERIMENTS. LOCATION. The orchard in which the experiment under discussion was carried on is located on the farm of W. D. Auchter, Elmgrove, New York, seven miles west of Rochester. The site is in the center of the great apple belt of western New York. The orchard was selected because it was the most typical one to be found in topography, soil, variety of apples and in condition at the beginning of the experiment. The land lies in a rolling plain, one of the ridges of which begins at about the center of the west end of the orchard and runs diagonally lengthwise towards the southeast corner. From this low and somewhat stony ridge the land falls gently away both north and south. About an acre in the southwest corner of the orchard is more depressed than the rest of the field, dropping at the lowest point fifteen feet from the summit of the ridge. This lowland is tile drained but artificial drainage for the rest of the orchard is not needed. New Yorx AgericutturaL Experiment Station. 533 SOIL. Though the orchard was chosen because variations in the land were few and not great, yet the character of the surface soil changes slightly with the lay of the land. On the ridge and its slopes the surface soil is a sandy loam of the Dunkirk series, nine or ten inches deep and underlaid by a compact sandy subsoil. In the acre depression the type changes to a dark colored Dunkirk loam, ten to twelve inches deep, also underlaid by a fine compact sand. The subsoil grows coarser as the depth increases providing very good natural drainage. Table I shows the composition of the soil and subsoil as determined by mechanical analysis. Table II gives the necessary data as to the chemical constituents of the soil. TasLe I.— MEcHANICAL CoMPOSITION OF THE SOILS AND SUBSOILS IN THE AUCHTER ORCHARD. Coarse | Medium Tine |Very fine Silt, Clay, sand, sand, sand, sand, 0 .05— below DESCRIPTION. 1—0.5 |0.5—0.25/0.25—0.1/0.1—0.05] 0.005 | 0.005 mm mm mm. mm mm mm Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Dunkirk sandy loam, O—9 inches...... ILE Es 52.3 3.6 ip vil 15.5 5.6 Subsoile a esse .e 9.0 60.5 eal 9.7 8.4 5.1 Dunkirk loam, 0—11 WICHES eH 52s. oleae he 4.4 26 .2 9.7 30.0 19.1 10.6 Subsoil 928.00 .fe: 3 15.6 21.5 27.9 29.0 5.5 Tasie Il.— CuemicaL Composition oF SOIL SAMPLES FROM AUCHTER ORCHARD. a SS SSS EE ES SS SS SSO POUNDS PER ACRE IN FIRST SEVEN INCHES. Location. —— 3 = To P,O;.| P. | CaO.| Ca. | MgO.| Mg. | K,0.| K. |CaCQg.j/ CO, ae N. Plat 15... 2,380/1,040]17,400)12,400)13,000| 7,800|36, 800)30,600} 1,340] 600] 29,400/2,600 IB istt2s 6. tt 3,080/1,340]14,400/10, 200}11,600| 7,000|36, 200)26,560| 1,440] 640) 41,800/3,400 Plat Sess: 2,200} 960]13,400| 9,600) 7,000) 4,200)35,000)29,800| 1,160} 520) 30,400/2,400 Plat 4). cio. 2,940)1,280/16,400)11,800/10,400| 6,200/34,800/28,800) 1,100} 540) 30,800|/2,800 Pl atya scree 2,660/1,160)13,000| 9,200] 7,400) 4,400/35,200|29 , 200 960} 440} 42,800/3,400 PlatGs.2... 2,800/1,220)14,600}10,400} 8,600} 5,200/35,200/29,200| 1,600] 720} 35,000/3, 200 Tel iy eee 2,940)1,280}14,000/10,000} 8,600} 5,200/32,800)/27,200} 1,500) 680) 45,000\3,600 Plat 82... 2,940)1,280]15,000)10,600/10, 200} 6,200/23,800)19,800} 2,160) 960} 37,200/3,000 5384 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF HortTIcuLTURE OF THE Plat 1 Plat 2 ShOSSOSSSES Pats DIP DSDHA DD DDD BD) pists bWiIDAPBPADADADADA DPA Plat 5 Plat § Diagram 4.— Puan or AucuTER ORCHARD. See opposite page. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT SraTiIon. 535 PLATS. The Auchter orchard consists of a little over nine and one-half acres of Baldwin trees set in 1877 at a distance apart of 40 feet. There are ten rows in the orchard, each having 26 trees. During the first twenty years of its existence the orchard was badly neglected, the results of which are shown in several derelict trees which, with a few replaced trees, are not in the experiment. For several years before the land was leased by the Station, the orchard had been under tillage with an annual cover-crop and had borne very good crops. Diagram 4 is a chart of the orchard showing the plats, which may be further described as follows: Plat 1 was in sod the first five years; cultivated the last five years. Plat 2 has been cultivated for ten years. Plat 3 has been in sod ten years. Plat 4 was cultivated five years; in sod during the past five years. Plat 5 has been in sod ten years with applications of nitrate of soda the past five years. Plat 6 was cultivated the first five years; in sod the last five years with applications of nitrate of soda. Plat 7 has been in sod ten years. Plat 8 was cultivated five years and has been in sod during the past five years. MANAGEMENT OF PLATS. The trees in all of the plats have received as nearly identical care as possible in all operations excepting soil treatment. The soil in the sod area and the tilled area has been managed as follows: Sod plat.— Since one half of the area which was to be under sod during this experiment had been under cultivation the previous five years, it was necessary to seed down this part in 1909. The ground was fitted in the spring and on June 2 a mixture of blue grass, orchard grass, timothy and clover seed was sowed. The half of the area which was in sod at the beginning of the experiment was cut June 3 and August 3. Throughout the experiment the grass was left where it fell, none being removed from the orchard. The dates of mowing for the five years were as follows: 1909— June 3 and August 3; 1910—June 6; 1911— May 30 and July 27; 1912—June 7; 1913— May and July 26. 536 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT oF HorRTICULTURE OF THE Tilled plat.— The following is the record of the treatment of the tilled area: 1909.— Plat plowed April 11-13; rolled and dragged April 16; harrowed May 27-28, June 9, June 25, July 9, July 21. On July 28 clover was sown and covered with a weeder. 1910.— Plowed and fitted May 27-31; harrowed June 17-18, July 2, July 12, July 25. Clover was sown July 28 and covered with a weeder. The following day it was rolled down. 1911.— Plowed and fitted April 30-31; harrowed June 1, June 16, June 26, July 4, July 12, July 21-24. Mammoth clover seed was sown on July 24 and dragged in. 1912.— Plowed May 18; harrowed June 11, June 25, July 4, July 13, July 23. A cover-crop of ‘‘ medium ”’ red clover was sown and dragged in July 25. 1913.— Plowed and harrowed May 5-9; harrowed May 21-24, June 11, July 11, July 25. On July 26 oats were sown as a cover- crop and dragged in. FERTILIZERS. Applications of fertilizers were quite incidental to the main purpose of this experiment but their use turned out to be an episode of con- siderable importance. Fruit-growers who have followed the fer- tilizer experiments in New York will remember that in this State there is little direct evidence to show that trees profit from potassium or phosphorus applied as commercial fertilizers. In fact, in the orchards of this Station fertilizers containing these two elements were thrown away in one experiment with old trees for twelve years! and in another for fifteen years? with young trees. The plants gave no adequate response in the first case and none at all in the second. The results in the Auchter orchard tally closely with those at the Station as the following statements show: When the experiment was in its infancy it was thought that all apple orchards in New York needed phosphorus, accordingly acid phosphate was prescribed and applied to the whole orchard at the rate of 400 pounds per acre. There seems to have been more doubt about the need of potassium; for this element in muriate of potash at the rate of 400 pounds per acre was used experimentally on but two cross-rows, 8 and 9 in the chart, running through both the IN. Y. Sta. Bul. 289: 1907. 7N. Y. Sta. Bul. 339: 1911. New York AqricutturaL Exprrtment Station. 537 tilled and the sodded plats. In the light of present knowledge and practice, the quantities used are excessive and the trees should have shown results if this land needed phosphorus or potassium. These superabundant applications were made for three years without visible results. The fourth season, 1907, the use of acid phosphate for the whole orchard was discontinued but it was applied to cross-rows 12 and 13 at the rate of 15 pounds per tree. The muriate of potash was again applied on rows 8 and 9 and on rows 16 and 17. Negative results followed :— neither in 1907 nor thereafter was there evidence that the trees had been “ fertilized.” It may be said that nitrogen was the limiting factor and that without it the potassium and phosphorus were inert. But there seemed to be no lack of nitrogen in the tilled plat; rich green foliage, ample annual growth, fruitful trees and large apples, all betokened an abundance of nitrogen presumably supplied by the luxuriant growths of the clover cover- crops plowed under in four of the five years. In 1910 the whole orchard received an application of quicklime at the rate of one ton per acre. At that time the opinion was current that land for most of our cultivated crops needed lime. It was assumed that the apple could not be hurt and might be benefited, and, not wishing to complicate the experiment with more plats, the whole orchard was limed. There being no checks, the effects cannot be told; but the men in watchful charge of the orchard feel that the use of lime was wholly destitute of definite indications of benefits — no response whatsoever came from the trees. Beginning five years ago, nitrate of soda has been applied in certain plats in sod as heretofore mentioned. The results were rather - remarkable but these are most properly discussed later. MEASURING THE EFFECTS OF THE TWO TREATMENTS. Trees probably respond in all characters to cultural treatment, and in like degree. Thus, in the first five years of this experiment,’ differences were found in fruitfulness, in size, color, maturity and quality of fruit, in diameter of trunk, color of foliage, size and weight of leaves, leafing-time, fall of leaves, annual growth of branches, color and size of new wood, amount of dead wood, depth of roots and spread of roots. In all of these characters the differences are IN. Y. Sta. Bul. 314. 538 Report oF THE DrePparTMENT oF HorTICULTURE OF THE in accord, showing, one and all, that the welfare of the orchard is best served by tillage. With this concurrent response of characters established in the first period of the experiment, it did not seem necessary to use all of the criteria in showing the effects of the two treatments on the orchard during the last period. The ultimate criterion of a method of management is, of course, crop performance. The yield of fruit, then, has been chosen as the chief measure of merit of the two methods in this report. So, too, diameter of trunk is the best standard to measure tree performance and is given as the chief gage of the growth and vigor of the trees. YIELD OF FRUIT. The Baldwin is usually a biennial bearer but now and then the trees bear two years in succession and it is seldom that all of the trees in an orchard take the same year off. In the Auchter orchard we have been fortunate enough to have ten crops in succession, the yields being given in Table III. In calculating the value of a crop Tasup II].— Yriewp or Fruit on Sop AND TILLAGE PLATS IN THE AUCHTER ORCHARD: : GAIN OF TILLAGE Sop Prats. TILLAGE PLATs. Suni ne B Cull B Cull B No. lod | Total || No. fod od | Total led | Total trees reled and yield. || trees. reled and | yield reled yield. apples. | drops. apples. | drops. apples Bbls Bbls Bbls. Bbls Bbls. Bbls Bbls Bbls. 19Q4 sg evens 118)329 286.1 {615.1 121) 316 | 275.9 | 591.9 ||—13 —23.2 T9OOB Re sente 118}161.3 71.7 | (283 121) 183.3 | 95.6 | 278.9 22 45.9 TOOGE oO aters ie 118}167.3 43 210.3 121) 345.3 | 185.8 | 531.1 178 320.8 il tOy tag oes 118/188.3 87 275.3 121) 311.35) v3 424.3 123 149 1908 in 35. Ses 118/272.8 52.5 1325.3 121} 540.8 | 181.7 | 722.5 268 397 .2 L909 ee ee 118} 84 91 175 121| 307 211.7 | 518.7 223 343.7 TOTO ce euens 118)180 12253) e023 120} 248 89.3 | 337.3 68 35 EGU AS LA8, 118} 28 26.3 54.3 119) 441 283.1 | 724.1 413 669.8 OW Dore ake ralece 118/523 141.3 |664.3 119} 499 219.3 | 718.3 ||—24 54 OMS zon oe¥ere 118/349 81.4 |480.4 119} 570 1381.2 |} 701.2 221 270.8 Average....|...... 2285000) LOOKS WiS2820~ levee nee 376.2 | 178.8 | 554.8 147.9 | 226.3 Acre average]...... ASSOG 21 Ll MOSEL Gl Grey connate 79.2 37.62) 116.8 31.14) 47.64 Tree average|...... 1.766 Sith) Pg AN S55 3 2.91 1.38 4.29 1.14 1.75 of apples we must, of course, know the quantities of the barrelled stock and culls. These data are given in the table presented. But the figures for total yield are by far the most important in comparing the results of the two treatments in this orchard; for, while grading assorts apples somewhat in accordance with size, yet the quantities of seconds and culls are always more or less increased by fruits New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 539 made imperfect by insects, fungi or other injuries. Attention, then, is especially directed to the columns of total yields and still more especially to the column showing the difference between the total yields of the sodded and tilled plats. Taking, then, the differences in total yield as the best measure of the two methods of treatment, we have no difficulty in coming to a conclusion as to whether sod or tillage is better for the apple. A summary of the figures speaks eloquently for tillage. Thus, during the ten years of this experiment the tilled trees have pro- duced nearly twice as much fruit as those in sod; the bearing capacity of the tilled trees the last five years was greater by 450 barrels than the first five, whereas during the second five years the sodded trees bore 33 barrels less than in the first period —showing that apple trees in sod cannot hold their own but fall behind. Sod is not only less beneficial than tillage but it is positively harmful. The showing for tillage, of course, would have been still better had not Plats 5 and 6 in the sodded section received applications of nitrate of soda which increased the yield, as shown in Table VI. SIZE, COLOR, MATURITY AND QUALITY OF FRUIT. Size.— The size of Baldwin apples is important only as it has a bearing on the yield, for the fruits of this variety are large enough, as grown either in sod or under tillage, to be acceptable in the markets. But the yield in fruit, of course, is greatly increased by increase in size, and thus this character becomes important. Data taken in the first five-year period, published in Bulletin No. 314 (page 97) show that the tilled apples are nearly one-third larger than those grown under sod —a very telling advantage in crop production. Size alone considered, if the 5-7 ratio of bigness holds for the whole crop, the proportion of culls and seconds is much larger in the sodded than in the tilled plat. Since the yield of the tilled trees is nearly double that of those in sod the number of fruits must be greater on tilled than on sodded trees. To those who have been in the orchard in harvest time, however, figures are unnecessary to show that tillage gives more and larger apples — in no other way is the tale of the deleteriousness of the sod told so strikingly as to the eye at picking time when the size and number of fruits are com- pared. Plate XLVII shows the type and gives an idea of the size of the apples grown under tillage. 540 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorTICULTURE OF THE Color.— In America, fashion calls for red apples. The apples grown in sod in this experiment, as is the case in all sodded orchards in New York, comply with the fashion and are brilliantly colored, while those grown under tillage are of sombre hues. This is the single instance in which sod-mulched fruit surpasses tilled fruit. But as we have pointed out in the two previous bulletins from this Station having to do with apples under these two methods of treat- ment, abnormally bright color indicates constitutional disease or decrepitude. The coloring matter in the skins of apples is modified chlorophyll and as the chlorophyll of leaves becomes brilliantly colored in autumn tints, preceding maturity and decay, so the bright red of the sod-grown apple may be regarded as premature ripening preliminary to decay; for the sodded apples, as we shall see in the next division of our subject, mature and pass out of season more quickly than the tilled apples. The fact that sod-grown apples are always the most highly colored fruits, disproves the current opinion that the color of apples is almost wholly a matter of climate. The statement is found every- where in pomological literature that sunlight produces brilliant colors in fruit—that, like the complexion of Shakespeare’s dusky Moor, the red color of apples “is but the burnished rays of the burning sun.” Rather, we shall find, as in this experiment, that high color is more a matter of maturity than of climate, maturity, of course, often, but not always, being dependent on climate. Maturity and keeping-quality of apples.— In all of the ten years of this experiment the sod-mulched fruit has ripened materially earlier and has been picked from one to three weeks sooner than that under tillage, depending upon the weather. Thus, if the season was wet and cool the difference in ripening time was but a few days but if dry and warm it ranged from one to three weeks. This is an intensi- fication of the deleterious action of the sod and affects the product in three ways; it causes smaller fruit, a shorter season of usefulness in common storage, and poorer quality. The difference in keeping quality was usually more marked in common storage than that of time of maturity. In cold storage, tests carried on by the United States Department of Agriculture during the first five years, as reported in Bulletin No. 314! from this IN. Y. Sta. Bul. 314: pp. 99-101. 1909. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 541 Station, showed but little difference, fruit under both treatments keeping equally well until the end of the commercial storage season. Quality of the frwt.— What is quality? The word is rolled under the tongue by both fruit-growers and consumers as meaning much, but like “ good cheer ”’ in the fable is “ fish to one, flesh to another, and fowl to a third.”’ As the word is here used, quality is, in brief, that combination of flavor, aroma, juiciness and tender flesh which makes fruits agreeable to the palate. Quality has, and is coming more and more to have, commercial value and the effects, therefore, of the two treatments on apples in this respect are most important. The tilled fruit in this orchard is much better in quality than that from the sod-mulch plats, a fact affirmed every year by those who have to do with the experiment and attested by all fruit-growers who have eaten the apples with a comparison in mind. Let us take the evidence of Mr. G. Harold Powell, of the United States Department of Agriculture, as one of the witnesses. In this report on the keeping qualities of this fruit, noted in the second paragraph before this, he says: (March Ist, 1907.) ‘“‘ The texture of the sod fruit was coarse and the flavor was insipid, with a trace of bitterness in it. The tillage apples were brittle and semi-firm in texture, aromatic and good in flavor.” (End of the commercial storage season, 1908.) ‘‘ There was a distinct difference in quality in favor of the apples from the culti- vated land, the fruit from the sod trees, though finer in color, having a coarse texture and an insipid, slightly bitter flavor.” ““ At the time this report is made, February 8, 1909, there is con- siderable Baldwin spot in the different lots of fruit and the apples from the cultivated trees though of poorer color were finer in quality than the fruit from the sod trees.” As to the findings at the Geneva Station we cannot do better than to quote a part of the preliminary report on quality in Bulletin No. 3141 from this Station: “The difference in quality is due chiefly to a difference in the texture of the flesh. In eating, the tissues of the tilled fruit are turgid and crisp while in the apples from the sod-mulch plat there is a tendency to dryness and mealiness. A determination of the water content, however, does not show much difference in this 1N. Y. Sta. Bul. 314: 101, 102. 1909. 542 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorTICULTURE OF THE respect, the tilled fruit having 84.37 per ct. moisture, the sod-mulch fruit 84.17 per ct. There is no appreciable difference in the specific gravity of the most of the fruit from the two plats as indicated by the hydrometer, showing that the percentage of soluble solids is practically the same in the two products.” “There are noteworthy differences in the flesh of the two fruits. That of the apples from the sodded trees is yellowish in color and frequently tinted with red at the circumference while that of the apples from the tilled trees is greenish and never tinted. Of more importance commercially is the fact that the flesh of the sodded fruit is more frequently spotted with the ‘‘ Baldwin spot,” a dry, corky condition of portions of the flesh due probably to some physio- logical trouble. This corky tissue sometimes envelops the core and in other specimens involves not a little of the circumference of the fruit. Such a physiological defect must be considered as a result of some harmful disturbance in the well-being of the tree.” EFFECTS OF THE TWO TREATMENTS ON THE TREES. Diameter of trunks.— Experience with several orchard experiments shows plainly that if but one phase of growth is chosen to measure health and vigor of tree, increase in diameter of trunk is much the most satisfactory. Increase in growth and vigor of the whole tree is directly proportional to the increase in the diameter of the trunks. Table IV shows the gains in diameter of the trunks of the trees tilled ten years over those in sod ten years. The diameters are those of mid-trunk, the lengths of these trunks averaging about four and one-half feet. The final figures show most strikingly the greater growth of the tilled trees. We begin to realize the magnitude of Taste 1V.— Gartn In TRUNK DIAMETERS OF TREES TEN YEARS IN SoD AND TEN Years UNDER TILLAGE. Sop-AVERAGE OF 61 TREES. TILLAGE-AVERAGE OF 60 TREES. YEAR. (a Row 1. | Row 2.) Row 3. { Row 4. | Row 5. || Row 6. | Row 7. { Row 8. | Row 9. |Row 10. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. TOUS Act. ). 3 16.30 | 16.69 | 16.04 | 15.92 | 15.55 16-405) 16.625 U7eOGn lb adidcon 18.12 1904. ho.55 55 13.53 | 14:38 | 18.88 | 13.73 | 13.01 12.66 | 12.83 | 13.19 | 18.89 Use al Gainesicee PANT UTE 2.31 2e16 2.19 2.54 Bo 3.79 3.87 3.68 4.41 Average gain for sod 2.39 in., average gain for tillage 3.90 in., average gain of tillage over sod, 1.51 in. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT StaTIon. 543 the deleterious effect of sod when we add the illuminating evidence, that the trees have grown comparatively little in ten years, to that regarding yields which shows that they were actually bearing less fruit than formerly. The conjunction of the two spells ruin. Plate XLVIII, though made from a photograph taken at a con- siderable distance from the orchard, shows that the trees in sod, corre- sponding to the trunk diameters, are smaller than those under tillage. Uniformity of trees—In no respect do the trees in sod in this orchard show injury more strikingly than in the matter of uniformity. They lacked uniformity in every organ and function of which note could be taken. To particularize: A tree in sod would bear on one branch, not on others; fruit on one side would be large, on another small; or, the crop would be weil-colored in part and the remainder poorly colored; branches and foliage differed much on individual trees; the circumference of the root system of the sodded trees was very irregular in outline and uneven in depth. The lack of uni- formity was, of course, much more noticeable in the respects named in distinct trees in sod, even though growing side by side, than in branches of individual trees. Intermittency in bearing of all trees in sod was greater than under tillage. On the contrary, one of the most illuminating pieces of evidence favoring cultivation for this or any other crop was the uniformity of the trees in tillage — a condition the desirability of which is so obvious as to need no discussion. The reason for this difference in uniformity, set forth at greater length in the previous report on this orchard, is the lack of uni- formity in the environment of the sodded trees and the greater uniformity brought about by tillage,—as, surface uniformity, equal depths of soil, and evenness in the amount and availability of air, food, moisture and temperature. Color and condition of wood.— There is an extraordinary effect of the grass on the color of the new wood, which was mentioned in the previous report and, while it may be of minor importance to the trees, is well worth again noting, since the phenomenon has intensi- fied as the experiment progressed. The differences in the wood can best be described in the words of the first description.! “The whole tree top on the tilled land is a light, bright, glossy olive-green color, emphasized somewhat by the plumpness of the 1N. Y. Sta. Bul. 314: 108. 1909. 544 Report or THE DrepartTMENT oF HorTICULTURE OF THE twigs and the tautness of the bark. The tree tops on the sod- mulch plat were darker, of a brownish cast and less glossy and bright, giving a prevailing color that distinguished the sod-mulch plat from the tilled plat a mile away.” Any one with experience would pick the tilled trees as the healthier from the condition of the new wood. As the experiment has progressed the dead wood in the sodded trees, noted in the first report, has increased out of all proportion to expectations from the first few years’ work. This dead wood, in the quantities present, was so certain a sign of failing vigor and decrepitude that the owner at the close of the ten-year period feared for the life of his trees if they were to be kept in sod. The decrepit and moribund condition of sodded orchards in New York, even when mulched, as indicated by dead wood, has done much to drive sod mulching out of practice in commercial orchards in this State. FOLIAGE. The importance of good foliage—— In the most literal sense ‘ light is life’ for plants. Foliage absorbs energy from the sun’s rays and, as every school-boy knows, plants have a marvelous faculty of developing and placing their leaves so that the largest possible amount of sunlight will be absorbed. Under the influence of the sun’s rays the carbonic acid of the air and the soil solution are synthesized into the organic materials from which the plant tissues are constructed. The foliage, then, is the assimilating apparatus of the apple-tree. In a slightly different sense it may be said to be the breathing apparatus of the tree. Or, in another way a leaf is well called a solar engine getting its energy from the light rather than from the heat of the sun. In any and all of these aspects of the functions of foliage it is seen at once that the efficiency of an apple- tree depends in large measure upon its foliage. What is the effect of these two methods of treatment upon the foliage of the trees in this experiment? Color of foliage-— The part of the leaf which acquires energy from light is the chlorophyll, the green coloring matter, found in the leaves of all higher plants. Now the amount of this indispensable chlorophyll in the leaf of an apple is measured by the depth and richness of the green of the foliage. Leaf-color is the readiest and most delicate gage the fruit-grower can use in determining the well- “HOTNJ GOg NI GNV GOVITI], YHGNA SAGUT, AO AZIG AAILVICY—]ITATX @LVIg “HOTOW dos “HOVTITIL ‘HDVIIOY AO UALOVUVHD ONIMOHY LVIG AAI], NO aduy,—X]IX IVIg ‘aDVITIOY JO UALOVUVHO ONIMOHG LVIGg HOTAW-dOg NO adUy,—] GLVIg 901], WOIs 4oa,q AYUOMT, ‘dOQ WOWd LYIg GAT], SNIUALING SLOOY —‘jT alvig ‘ANV'T GNV LVIg dOg NUTMIAA TIVA\ ANOLG UFONA ONISSVG DNOT LETT ALYOT OL ALUIN], SLOOY —]]] aLvTg REE RE. aw Hes en eh, Ha BN Cait « ea) New York AcricunturaL ExpreriIMEentT Station. 545 being of his trees even though reliance must be placed on the eye alone to secure evidence. Judged by color of foliage there was, in any year, no time while the leaves were out that even the novice in fruit-growing would not have declared the tilled trees the more vigorous and healthy. The pale, sickly color of the sodded trees could be distinguished from the rich green of those under tillage fully a half mile away as one approached the experimental plats. The appearance of the foliage of sodded trees is so characteristic that we venture the assertion that we can recognize a sod-bound apple-tree from its unthrifty foliage, mulch or no mulch, find it where you may in western New York, at any time from June to October. In passing, it must be said that, everywhere in New York, in driving by orchards the tell-tale tints of the leaves speak con- vineingly of the better health and greater vigor of tilled apple- trees to those who have eyes to see. Number and size of leaves— The number and size of the leaves tell the same tale of some kind of interference in the protoplasmic activity in the leaves on the sodded tree. It required but a glance to satisfy oneself that the leaves on the tilled trees were larger and more numerous, and therefore total leaf area much greater on the tilled than on the sodded trees. Undoubtedly the number and the size of the leaves shut out the sunlight somewhat from the fruit and thus help to account for its later maturity and poorer coloring on the tilled trees. Plates XLIX and L give some idea of the relative size and denseness of the leaves in the two plats. In the first report on this experiment an attempt was made to measure roughly the relative efficiency of the foliage of the trees under the two treatments by weighing leaves.t It was found, in short, that the leaves of the tilled trees weigh one and one-third times as much as those of the sodded trees indicating one and one- third greater efficiency of the foliage of the tilled trees. Leafing-time and fall of leaf— Not only were the leaves on the tilled trees more efficient in furnishing food for the trees because of more chlorophyll and greater size and larger numbers but they remained on the trees longer at both ends of the season and thus contributed to superior vigor and health. The leaves of the tilled trees came out from two to five days earlier in the Auchter orchard and remained on from a week to two weeks longer. In the northern IN. Y. Sta. Bul. 314: 105. 1909. 30 546 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT or HortricuLTURE OF THE climate of New York this curtailment of the season for the sodded trees must have lessened growth of tree considerably and hastened maturity of fruit not a little. In these life events the trees in the Auchter and the Hitchings? orchards behaved alike. FINANCIAL STATEMENT. After all it is the pecuniary rewards that mean most for a method of farm management. The method that makes fruit-growing most profitable is best. It is safe to use financial data in fruit-growing only provided they be taken over a sufficiently long time to offset TasLeE V.— EXPENSES OF CULTURE AND HARVESTING AND BALANCE IN AUCHTER ORCHARD FOR TEN YEARS. sop PLAT — 118 TREEs. YEAR. Fertilizer. | Pruning. pean, Spraying. Ge Lies Total. Balance. $14.62 $19.99 $58 .22 $219.25 $327.13 $225.76 1325 7.46 44.27 82.89 166.47 330.28 15.12 3.36 46.51 104.30 186.29 154.96 15.33 3.67 73.84 138.07 239 . 28 487.16 16.86 6.14 50.45 173.43 246.88 353.86 16.69 7.65 61.75 84.60 170.69 136.99 13.62 9.10 49.70 164.38 236.80 481.61 14.25 9.10 51.97 27.96 103.28 —19.13 19.50 5.00 52.84 383.54 460.88 670 .93 21.87 1.50) 46.35 243.86 319.58 707 .48 otal rsacc.ct, os $59 .02 $161.11 $78 .97 $535.90 |$1,622.28 |$2,457.28 | $3,529.90 Per acre per year fo ons 1.24 3.39 1.66 11.28 34.15 51.73 74.31 Per barrel... . .018 .049 024 . 167 -493 WEABLE ae see ee TILLED PLAT — 120 TREES. YEAR. Fertilizer. | Pruning. Caltivg Spraying. Ge Cee Total. | Balance. NGOS i iciere <1 $15.05 $14.62 $33.75 $58 .22 $210.90 $332.55 $185.34 1 (Ub y8 Saipan 18.60 13.25 48.71 44.27 96.85 221.68 355.60 GOS exalereressis 17.00 15.12 30.30 46.51 231.80 340.73 392.42 GOT sete wate 8.37 18.31 46.63 73.84 224 .20 371.35 800.31 TOO Bia a cvavetetel|tarensusteteh ate 22.10 36.67 50.45 338 . 59 447.81 723.41 TOD ee ets c Etat) bake evs tethers 16.69 60.85 61.75 229 .91 369 .20 894.20 TOTO! Srarevclauerell| cevetobets voters 13.62 55.15 49.70 183.89 302 .36 625.20 OUD S alate A keene 14,25 61.91 51.97 373.20 501.33 816.52 OUD ce retaierstell oteveleietereis 19.50 56.89 52.84 415.51 544.74 585.80 ROU GS atat savers voll RGrobatentersrs 21.87 50.50 46.35 415.24 533.96 1,303.30 MOtAls . wtetebers $59 .02 $169.33 $481.36 $535.90 |$2,720.09 |$3,965.71 | $6,682.10 Per acre per VOat Ns sci 1,24 3.56 10.13 11.28 57.26 83.48 140.67 Per barrel.... .O1 .03 .087 .097 .49 SENOS ws eniten bie 2N. Y. Sta. Bul. 375: 73. 1914. & New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 547 accidental variations. Average figures for ten crops ought to give a fairly safe standard of measurement. Table V gives the figures of expenses and profits,—of which the following is a brief summary. The average cost per acre of growing and harvesting apples in sod was $51.73, while under tillage the cost was $83.48, the difference in favor of sod being $31.75. Subtracting these figures from the gross income gives an average “ balance”’ per acre for the sodded plats of $74.31 while the “‘ balance ” per acre from the tilled plats was $140.67, an increase of $65.36 in favor of tillage. In other words, for every dollar remaining from the sod income, after deducting cost of growing and harvesting, the tilled trees gave a similar balance of one dollar eighty-nine cents. That is to say, since the remain- ing fixed charges are practically equal for the tilled and sodded areas, tillage gave nearly double the profits in this ten-year period that sod gave. The income from the tilled half of the Auchter orchard furnished a good basis for calculating the profits of a New York apple orchard. The cost of the various operations, of the materials used, and the selling prices and profits of this orchard for the ten years for which it was leased by the Station, are published in Bulletin No. 376. MINOR EXPERIMENTS IN THE AUCHTER ORCHARD. In the test as planned in 1903 the south half of the orchard, five rows of twenty-six trees each, was in sod; the north half under tillage. During the last five years the east half of the orchard has been in sod; the west half under tillage. Certain rows in the sod section of the last period have had annual applications of nitrate of soda while the remaining rows have not been so fertilized. Reference to the diagram on page 254 and to the plan of the plats on page 255 will make clear the redivision of the work made in 1909. We must now briefly discuss these minor experiments. The change from sod to tillage.— Plat I, consisting of the southwest quarter of the orchard, was in sod the first five and under tillage the second five years. How long did it take the sodded trees to “come back’? The effects were almost instantaneous and soonest discovered and probably best measured by the eye. During the last season of the first period the leaves on the sodded trees were few, small and of a sickly, yellow color. In mid-season of the first summer of tillage in this plat the color was the normal healthy green 548 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF HorRTICULTURE OF THE of tilled trees but the foliage was still somewhat sparse. The crop of this first season was a little below the normal in amount, the falling off being due to poor setting rather than to small size of apples. The second year the foliage was normal in all respects and the crop was the best per tree of all plats in the experiment as it was again in the third year and the fifth while the fourth season the yield was much above the normal, being exceeded in the tree average only by two other plats. Taste VI.— Yietp or Piats AND TREE AVERAGES IN AUCHTER ORCHARD IN SECOND-HALF oF TEsT. Prarl: Puat 2. Puar 3. Puat 4 57 TREES. 62-60 TREES. 15 TREES. 10 TREES. YEAR. Yield Yield Yield Yield Total per Total per Total per Total per yield tree yield tree. yield. tree. yield. tree. Bbls Bbls Bbls. Bbls. Bobls. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. 3 LO ceed cura ener Poteet 129 2.3 399, 6.3 24 1.6 tfc .73 TON OB eee crexencretecnisteusnet PR PLM f 4.0 115 1.9 290.0 Wee 13 1.3 LOIN RR renee Sees eC he, 478.1 8.4 246.1 4.1 25 elie 4.3 -43 1 AS es cus Dane RG EON Eee nS Chore 250.1 4.4 468.2 7.8 54.7 3.6 34 3.4 OTS ee Se ek cA Ee 393.5 Zé 307.7 5.1 37 225 1223 1.23 FAW GTA ENPELIULEO myers sil iei|| fia iets Doel Halll Scerceat > DOS decree ees S920 ee erege 1.41 TaBLeE VI.— Yieuvp or PLats AND TREE AVERAGES IN AUCHTER ORCHARD IN SECOND-HALF OF TrestT— (Concluded). Prat 5. Prat 6. Puar 7. Prat 8. 28 TREES. 30 TREES. 18 TREES. 19 TREES. YEAR. ‘ E d , Yield Yield Yield Yield Total per Total per Total per Total per yield tree. yield tree. | yield tree yield tree. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls Bbls. Bobls. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. MOOG eS ce cc lccolekexecueeeonias 83 3. 20 . 66 44 2.5 14.3 .75 LOMO. FAFA Stree ees thse eee 107 3.9 66.7 2.2 PANT 1.4 64.3 3.4 1G ae akoeneinry Rovereteee ain aeeneotc 15.3 54 Paves wide 4 wae 6.3 .30 QUEDA cee ee ERE: Re tats 225.7 8.1 AO! Mi Ia, 67.4 3.8 112 5.9 112 fis ROE ene Aare tea YOO oa oo 118.4 4.2 90.5 3 104.9 5.8 49.3 2.59 IAWETAS6 PSl! LLCO. 22 sree ctes) meres SO al aialece 2 AG aloe stays Pied aes Bore 2.59 Table VI gives the yields of the several plats during the last five years of the experiment and shows graphically the change in productiveness with the change from sod to tillage. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 549 Incidentally there is evidence here to show that the quantity of the chief food elements is a minor matter in this experiment. Of the eight plats in the orchard, the one changed from sod to tillage has least humus, as gaged by carbon, and is next to the lowest, in nitrogen and phosphorus. Yet without additions of fertilizers in the change from sod to tillage, the plat almost immediately became the most productive in the orchard. It is doubtful if the humus or the available food turned over in the sod wholly accounts for the increased productivity of this plat. The change from tillage to sod— Plats 4, 6 and 8, constituting the northeast quarter of the orchard, were cultivated the first half of the ten years and were in sod the last half. The change for the worse was quite as remarkable in this quarter of the orchard as it was for the better in the quarter turned from sod into tillage. The trees began to show the effects of the grass in their foliage before mid-summer of the first season. The deterioration of the trees as a whole began this first season and became increasingly greater from year to year until the end of the experiment. In the quarter of the orchard ten years under tillage the average yield per tree for the last five years was 5.03 barrels per tree; in the quarter five years in sod followed by five years of tillage the average yield per tree was 5.17 barrels for the same period; but in the quarter five years in tillage followed by sod the average yield was but 2.32 barrels per tree for the five years of sod — not half that of either of the other two sections. These figures are modified somewhat to the advantage of sod by the application of nitrate of soda in Plat 6. In accounting for the all but fatal effects of grass on the trees in this orchard we are almost forced to assign the toxic effect of grass as one of the causes of grass injury. One of the chief evidences that grass has a toxic effect on apples is to be found in the behavior of the trees in this newly sodded area. It does not seem possible that drought, lack of food, lack of air, or any other assignable cause than some toxic property, acting before mid-summer — almost immediately,— could have caused the trees in this plat to have taken on the symptoms of sod-bound trees as soon as the roots of the young grass came in contact with those of the trees. The use of nitrate of soda in the sod plats— Potassium, phosphorus and lime were all used liberally in the first half of the ten-year period, as we have seen in the discussion of fertilizers, page 256. Nitrogen 550 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF HortTicuLTURE OF THE was supplied to the tilled trees during the whole period by plowing under clover cover-crops. It was reasonable to assume that the sodded trees were suffering from a lack of nitrogen in the last half of the experimental decade. Therefore, Plats 5 and 6 in the sodded half of the orchard, containing 52 of the 120 trees in sod, were given annual applications, five in all, of nitrate of soda at the rate of 350 pounds per acre, a heavy dose. In some respects the results were most surprising. The foliage was abundant and of a dark, rich green, nearly as luxuriant as that of the tilled trees. There were, therefore, high hopes of abundant harvests. Table VI, how- ever, shows that, while the trees which were thus fertilized yielded more than those not so treated in sod, they bore on an average but a trifle more than half as much as those under tillage, the figures being 3.17 barrels per tree for those in sod which had nitrogen; 2.28 barrels for sodded trees without the nitrate and 5.03 barrels per tree for the trees cultivated ten years. A little calculation shows that the nitrate of soda paid well for itself. The question will be asked, why was not the nitrate of soda tried on the tilled land? The answer is, that at all times the tilled trees seemed to be having too much nitrogen judging from leaf and wood growth and the size and color of the fruit. The clover cover-crops supplied more than the trees seemed to need. Influence on sodded trees of adjacent ground under tillage.— Plats 7 and 8 show very considerably larger yields than Plats 3 and 4 though all had the same treatment. So, too, the diameters of the trees are greater in Plats 7 and 8. Why? Unquestionably, because the roots of the trees in the outside rows in Plats 7 and 8 found their way into adjacent ground under tillage though separated from the cultivated land by a strip of sod 20 feet wide. They have, too, far greater light area. Even the halves of the trees on the outside were superior to the halves on the inside, in yield of fruit and luxuriance of foliage. Account should be taken of this fact in considering the results, for the evil effects of the grass in the sodded plats have been diminished not a little by the escape of some of the roots of sodded trees from the sod to the tilled land which surrounds the orchard. Plates LI and LII, reproduced from Bulletin No. 314, show how roots from the sod pass into tilled land though none were passing the other way. _ New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 551 The facts stated in the last paragraph clearly teach that not only should apple-trees not be grown in sod but that the root-run of the trees should not be restricted by sod on any side of the tree. For the best good of the trees, there should be no sod near the trees. Just as we have shown a most favorable influence on sodded trees from adjacent tilled land, so, too, trees can similarly escape from sod by sending their roots downward if the soil be deep. EFFECTS OF THE SEVERAL TREATMENTS ON THE SOIL. What were the effects of the two treatments on the soil? A positive answer would lead straight to the pith of our problem, that of determining the relative merits of two methods of soil treat- ment. But we cannot be as positive as we should like. Analyses were not made at the beginning of the experiment and in deter- mining the effects of the two treatments on the soil one must rely chiefly on the behavior of the plants and much less on analyses made at the end of the ten years’ treatment. The results as measured by plant behavior have been given and we have now to see how these correspond with the condition of the soil as determined by chemical analyses set forth in Table II, page 533. We may as well dispense with a consideration of the figures for all of the compounds and elements in Table II excepting carbon and nitrogen; since there is an abundance of all, excepting the two named, for an orchard soil for this tree generation at least... Appli- cations of phosphorus, potassium and lime, it will be remembered, were without result in this orchard. The carbon content, however, is important. It is an index of the quantity of humus in the soil and the response that the trees have made to nitrogenous cover- crops and fertilizers indicates that the addition and conservation of nitrogen is important in this soil. Figures are given for the top seven inches of soil only, since analyses made of the second layer of seven inches showed that it was improbable that the treatment has had appreciable effect on lower depths. Let us pass, now, to a consideration of figures for carbon and nitrogen in this upper layer as shown in the following summary: 552 Report or tHE DEPARTMENT or HorTricULTURE OF THE Plat 1, in sod five and tilled five Carbon Nitrogen yeararhh dedtctuctheer a ae 29,400 pounds 2,600 pounds Plat 2, tilled ten years........ 41,800 pounds 3,400 pounds Plats 3, 5 and 7 (average of the three) in sod ten years....... 39,400 pounds 3,100 pounds Plats 4, 6 and 8 (average of the three) tilled five and in sod Live syears Swe lk Me eae ly 34,300 pounds 3,000 pounds One cannot draw positive conclusions from these figures. It is safe to assume, however, since the quantities of carbon and nitrogen are so materially larger in the plat tilled ten years than in any other plats in the orchard, that the tillage and cover-crop treatment has conserved humus and nitrogen rather better than any other treat- ment. In fact, since considerable quantities of nitrogen were added to a part of the trees in sod, thereby increasing the growth of vegeta- tion and adding more nitrogen to the soil than the treated trees have probably taken from it, we are safe in assuming that the tillage and cover-crops of clover are unmistakably more conservative of humus and nitrogen than would the sod-mulch method have been without the application of nitrate of soda. The lower carbon and nitrogen content of Plat 1 is probably accounted for by the difference in the soil type between this and other parts of the orchard, as explained in the description of the soil — the plat is in a depression which has more surface wash than other parts of the orchard. Yet, bear in mind that this was the most productive plat the last half of the experiment. Comparison of the analyses of the tilled and the sodded soils proves, we again insist, that the miserable condition of the trees in sod can- not be wholly due, in fact can hardly be largely due, to differences in the food constituents in the two soils. Or, if it be a matter of food, the quantities removed from the soil by the apple are so small that they are not appreciable by our rough methods of sampling and analyzing. At any rate we think the statement is warranted from both the soil analyses and the behavior of the trees in this experiment, and from observation in other orchards, that the intensity of the deleterious action of sod is not much influenced by the richness of the soil. New Yorx Acricutturat Experiment Station. 553 WHY IS TILLAGE BETTER THAN SOD FOR THE APPLE? In our first report on the Auchter orchard, Bulletin No. 314, we discussed at length the question, ‘‘ Why is tillage better than sod for the apple.’”’ We were not then satisfied that the conclusions reached answered the question as fully or as accurately as might be wished, yet with five years’ more work we have but few additional facts to modify the conclusions of the first report. As we tried to show in the previous report the ways in which grass militates against -apples growing in sod are probably several, which act together, as: (1) Lowering the water supply. (2) Decreasing some elements in the food supply. (3) Reducing the amount of humus. (4) Lowering the temperature of the soil. (5) Diminishing the supply of air. (6) Affecting deleteriously the beneficial micro-flora. (7) Forming toxic compounds that affect the trees. Each of these supposed causes of injury to the sodded trees in this orchard may be briefly reviewed with such additions and cor- rections as the five more years of experimental work suggest. Sod injures apple-trees by lowering the supply of water—In the preliminary report of this experiment (Bulletin No. 314, pages 115 to 121) the reduction of the supply of water was held to be the main cause of the injury to the trees in sod. The results of 120 moisture determinations in the orchard in 1907-08 gave evidence that there was much less moisture in the sodded land than in the tilled soil; the behavior of the trees in sod seemed to show that they were suffering from thirst; and a consideration of the amount of water used by an apple-tree and of the rainfall of the region made plain that there was seldom a year when trees did not suffer from a shortage of water even if the supply was not interfered with by grass. It is not necessary to review further the data and reasons given in the first report to show that injury by sod is at least in part a question of water supply. We wish here only to reiterate our belief that the great reduction of the water supply is the chief cause of the extraordinary injury to the sodded trees in this experiment. The results of a similar experiment in the Hitchings orchard, as set forth in Bulletin No. 375 from this Station forced us to the same 554 Report or THE DEPARTMENT oF HorTicULTURE OF THE conclusion. Observations, too, of orchards in all parts of New York show clearly that apples in sod suffer most in soils in which the water supply is deficient. Fruit-growers must bear in mind in comparing tillage with sod methods that the trees are not only robbed of water by the grass but that tillage conserves moisture — thus the difference in the results from these sodded and tilled trees is due to a bad effect of sod plus a good effect of tillage. It is, then, if we accept the teachings of this test, not only necessary to keep sod out of an orchard but to practice tillage, which, as all know, protects the soil from the drying action of wind and sun and conserves moisture. Sod injures apple-trees by decreasing some elements of the food supply.— It is impossible to establish a difference between results due to a deficiency of water and those due to a deficiency of food, for all of the food of the tree derived from the soil is taken up in the form of a solution. Therefore, a tree suffering from want of water of necessity suffers from want of food. We may have, then, and probably do have in this experiment, trees starving in a fertile soil because of a lack of water for the soil solution. There is nothing to indicate that any of the food elements are lacking for either trees or grass in this orchard excepting, possibly, nitrogen in the sodded part —a matter to be discussed in a later paragraph. Analyses made in 1908! and again in 1913, the results of the latter shown in Table II, show, as we have seen, a soil more than rich enough for the apple—a plant the food requirements for which are comparatively small. The trees, it will be remembered, were in no way improved in sod or under tillage by additions for several years of potassium and phosphorus and one heavy application of lime. The trees in the tilled land at no time gave evidence of thinness of fare — they flourished like the Biblical palm. Even in the sod such trees as could get any considerable portion of their roots in the tilled plats or in adjoining tilled fields, prospered in proportion. The growth of grass was always luxuriant, except in stresses of dry weather, giving further evidence that the land is not impoverished. Moreover, we have demonstrated that in this type of soil, in western New York at least, the starvation point for the apple is much lower than for field or garden crops’ — the trees thrive where grains or 1N. Y. Sta. Bul. 314: 124. 1909. 2N. Y. Sta. Bul. 339: 1911. New York AgaricutturaL ExperIMEent Station. 555 vegetables require fertilization. From all sides, too, come reports from apple-growers who augment, diminish or alter in various ways manurial treatments of their trees without appreciable results. It must be borne in mind, however, that if these trees were in need of more food, tillage would make available some of the unavailable reserve food which the chemical analyses of the plat show to be present. To the statements just made there is a seeming exception in the case of nitrogen. The action of nitrate of soda in reviving the sodded trees is almost instantaneous. Yet analyses show nearly as much nitrogen, on the average, for the sodded plats, as for those that have been tilled; indeed, in some of the sodded plats there is more. More- over, as soon as the sod is turned under, without the addition of commercial nitrogen, the trees revive, grow vigorously and show no signs of the starvation they endured in grass. This behavior can best be accounted for in one of two ways. Either the grass takes the nitrogen, the cream of the land in this orchard, in which case appli- cations of nitrate of soda would so supplement the natural supply as to give the trees a fairer share and thereby give new life; or the nitrate of soda may counteract a toxic effect of the grass. Of the two explanations we are inclined to the first, although we can offer no explanation as to how the grass can so completely exhaust the supply of nitrogen in the soil for apples and yet in a ten-year period not drain it of the fertility in this element upon which the grass itself retains its pristine vigor. Lyon and Bizzell'! have found that grasses have a strongly depres- sive influence on nitrate formation and suggest that this is a possible cause for the injurious effect of sod in orchards. Doubtless such effects would differ with different grasses and with different soils, thus accounting for the wide variations and seeming anomalies in sod and tillage methods in different localities. Lyon and Bizzell’s work opens up a promising field for investigation in the relationships of grass and trees. Sod has injured the trees in the Auchter orchard by reducing the humus content of the soil.— The statement just made is an assump- tion, pure and simple, so far as humus itself is concerned. It is extremely doubtful if humus in the quantities shown to be present 1T. L. Lyon and J. A. Bizzell, ‘“‘Some Relations of Certain Higher Plants to the Formation of Nitrates in Soils,’ Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir No. 1: 75-91. 1913 556 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE OF THE in all parts of this orchard is necessary for the apple. Fruit trees thrive in many soils in all parts of America where scarcely a tithe of the humus in either the tilled or sodded part of this orchard exists. The highest yields during the past five years in this orchard were in the plat having least humus. It can not be said that the excess of humus, as humus, in the tilled land of this experiment has made any great difference in either yield of fruit or growth of tree. But one of the postulates of agriculture is that humus increases the water-holding capacity of soils and it is not an assumption to say that in this way the greater amount of humus in the tilled land has been helpful. The “ burning out ”’ of humus is one of the bugaboos that those who keep their orchards in sod see in tillage. Analyses made in 1908! and again in 1913 as shown in Table II, give satisfactory proof to those who till, that the reduction of humus in a soil through tillage is an imaginary evil. This statement holds, provided, of course, that a cover-crop is used with the tillage. It is not too much to assume, in the light of this and other experiments, that the difference in the amount of humus in a tilled orchard and a sod- mulched orchard will be about the difference in the quantity of cover- crop turned under in the former and the amount of grass left as a mulch in the latter. Sod injures apples by lowering the temperature of the soil— Evapor- ation is a cooling process. It is to be expected, then, that the greater evaporation through the grass and the compact earth in the sodded land gives a cooler soil. The mulch obtained by cultivation, too, is a protection against evaporation with its cooling effects. Facts follow theory in this case and the expected happens. A series of observations made at depths of 6 and 12 inches in the soil in the summer of 1908? shows that the tilled soil in June and July is 1.1 degrees warmer at seven in the morning and 2.3 warmer at six in the even ng than the sodded soil. Observations were not made at night but it is doubtful if the soil temperature of the early morning, at least, would be reversed though we might expect it to be less than that of the evening after a day of sunshine. The reversals of night would probably be more than offset by the higher tem- IN. Y. Sta. Bul. 314: 124. 1909. * For a table showing the temperatures see Bulletin 314: 126. 1909. New York AGRICULTURAL ExpEeRIMENT STATION. 557 peratures in the tilled land at noon. These results agree with those of other experiments and with the conclusions of some of the best authorities on soils.! We have no definite knowledge as to whether the apple prefers a warm or a cool soil but in the comparatively cold soils in which the apple is grown in New York, general considerations lead us to believe that the warmer soil is the better. To give reasons: Heat would cause food substances to dissolve more rapidly; hasten diffusion; aid in soil ventilation; develop stronger osmotic pressure in roots; and help in the formation of nitrates. The augmentation of these several processes would, it is almost certain, accelerate vegetative activity sufficiently to make the higher temperature of the tilled land one of the factors accounting for the more flourishing condition of the trees under tillage. Sod injures apples by diminishing the supply of air in the soil.— We have no data to prove the contention set forth in the heading of this paragraph but concrete evidence is not necessary. All must agree that air is of vital importance to every part of a plant — to the roots scarcely less than to the tops of trees. Beneficient bacteria depend, if anything, to even a greater extent upon an ever present supply of oxygen. The formation of nitrates requires the addition of oxygen to some one or another of the compounds of nitrogen. Oxidation plays an important part in all of the chemical changes which take place in the soil and is therefore necessary in keeping up fertility. All will grant the proposition that there is more air in a cultivated than in a sodded soil. Nothing can be more apparent than that, when soil particles are held in a close, compact mass as in unculti- vated land, there is comparatively little room for air and that when the particles are separated by stirring the soil fresh air must be drawn in. When the air is renewed by stirring the soil several times during a season there cannot but be a most beneficient effect on the plats growing therein. These considerations need no data to prove them, they are corner-stones in agriculture, and justify us in settling upon a diminished air supply as one of the causes for action against grass in an orchard. ~ CWoburn 3rd Report: 45. 1903. Soils. By E. W. Hilgard. New York: 1906, p. 305; The Soil. By F. H. King. New York: 1895, pp. 221-225. 558 Rervortr or tHe DepartMent or HorvricuLTURE OF THE Sod affects deleteriously the beneficial micro-organisms in an orchard soil.— This is another statement which we cannot support with experimental evidence. We are assuming than an abundant humus content, good ventilation, comparatively high temperature, a more uniform supply of moisture, more nitrogen from the cover-crop turned under, all present and cooperating better in a tilled than a sodded soil, give the best environmental conditions for these bacteria. If the assumption is unwarranted, our agricultural teach- ing of the day is radically at fault. In the light of what we know about soil bacteria, little though it be, it is not unreasonable to suggest that the micro-organisms in tilled land are more helpful to apple-trees than in sod-covered land. Sod may “ poison” the apple-trees— The fact is well established that all plants have a marked effect on soils. Just how plants affect soils is not so clear. Certain it is, in the case of a sod of whatever plant, much organic matter quite different from that present before the sod, is added. It is not in the least strange, rather it is to be expected, that this mass of new matter will change the chemical and bacteriological properties of a soil, for good or evil for other crops. There is, too, as everyone informed on recent agricultural experimentation knows, considerable evidence to show that plants, grass for instance, may excrete compounds toxic to other plants. Is it not possible that sod may, then, set going some action in a soil detrimental to apples? Literally, may not sod poison the apple? Pickering, at the Woburn Experimental Farm, Ridgemont, England, has been experimenting with apple trees in sod and under tillage since 1894, twenty years. The methods employed in the New York experimental work, both in treatment of plats and in gaging results are very similar and the results obtained are for all practical purposes the same. A good summary of the conclusions at Woburn as to causes is found in the following quotation ?: ‘Direct experiments seem to negative the possibility of explaining the action of grass on apple trees in the various ways which we have discussed above, and lead us to a conclusion, which has 1 All who are interested from the experimental standpoint in this work should read Pickering’s accounts of his work in the First, Second, Third and Fifth Reports of the Woburn Experimental Farm. * Third Report of the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm, 1903: 47. New York AcricunturaAL Experiment Station. 559 also gradually been forced upon us by the appearance itself of the trees throughout the years that they have been under observation, namely, that this action of grass is not merely a question of star- vation in any form, nor of any simple modification of the ordinary conditions under which a tree can thrive, but that the grass has some actively malignant effect on the tree, some action on it akin to that of direct poisoning.” Thus, it is seen that Pickering believes that there is but one ‘mportant factor in the injury of trees in sod; namely, grass “‘ which has some actively malignant effect on the tree, some action on it akin to direct poisoning.”’ But the case against grass as a poisoning agent still rests largely on circumstantial evidence; or, rather, as we understand Pickering’s arguments, he arrives at his conclusions as to the toxic effect of grass by eliminating all other possible causes, admitting that he cannot present his supposition as a proved fact “‘ till the presence of such poison is definitely established.” Pickering’s work has been so long continued and so carefully carried on that great weight must be attached to his opinion. Yet we cannot agree with him that the malignancy of grass is wholly or even in largest part due to a poisoning effect. Rather, we are inclined to think toxicity one of several causes, awaiting more crucial experiments before attempting to say how large a part it plays in the malign influence of grass. GENERAL REMARKS ON TILLAGE AND SOD IN AN ORCHARD. The first report of this experiment has called forth many questions and some objections which are not answered in the main body of this report. It seems worth while to attempt to touch upon the most important of these here. In deep, fertile soils where trees have a deeper root-run than in the shallow soil of the Auchter orchard, competition between apples and grass may be less keen and the grass therefore less harmful. There is nothing in this experiment to show that apple trees eventually “adapt” themselves to grass—a statement often heard. The sodded trees showed harmful effects from grass as soon as sod formed and in every plat. The longer the trees remained in sod the more exhausted and decrepit they became. 560 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT oF HorRTICULTURE OF THE There are orchards in which, paradoxically enough, ill-treatment may prove beneficial. Thus, it is common knowledge that checking a tree which is luxuriating in growth may make it more fruitful. In rich, moist soils, then, sod may be beneficial as a permanent treatment for an orchard. So, too, in an orchard such as the one in which this work has been carried on, grass, in an occasional homeo- pathic dose, might prove valuable. The question is often asked as to whether sod will have the same deleterious effect on other tree fruits that it has on the apple. Observation leads us to answer in the affirmative. Indeed, with peaches and plums at least, harm is done even more quickly and is more serious. Occasionally we hear objections to the general application of our results on the ground that we have worked with but one variety — the Baldwin. To such objection we reply that the all but fatal effects of grass may be seen in innumerable orchards in New York quite regardless of variety, age of tree, whether dwarf or standard, or of cultural treatment, as spraying, pruning and the like. The effect of sod on dwarf trees, the roots of which are much nearer the surface than those of standards, must in most situations be even more serious than on the trees in this experiment — a fact to be borne in mind by amateurs in planting in door-yards which are usually in grass. Orchardists who pasture hogs, sheep or cattle in their plantations very generally hold that their trees behave differently than do those in our experiments. We have taken pains to visit many such orchards and have yet to find one in which cannot be recognized in greater or less degree the earmarks of grass injury. Since the publication of the first report on the Auchter orchard many men whose trees are in sod have told me that they could not discover the evil effects of grass so apparent in our work. In most such cases there were no means of making comparisons — tilled trees were not at hand. Within my observation whenever men with sodded orchards in western New York have plowed, tilled and used a cover-crop in a part of their orchard, they have needed no further argument for tillage. The complaint is becoming very common that continuous tillage with leguminous cover-crops pro- duces too many poorly colored appies. How best to avoid this New York AGricuLTURAL ExperRIMENT Station. 561 is a problem yet to be solved, but helpful means in securing more highly colored apples are earlier cessation of tillage, non-leguminous cover-crops and the withholding of nitrogenous fertilizers. It is a most significant fact that apple-trees can be well-grown in nurseries only under the highest tillage. A nursery in sod is a sight never seen. It would be strange if the plant behaved differ- ently when transplanted in an orchard. IN CONCLUSION. We have been considering grass left as mulch in an orchard— bad enough! But grass cut as hay, left to ripen, or pastured by hogs, sheep or cattle is worse. Grass makes apple-trees sterile and paralyzes their growth — it is the withering palsy of the apple industry in New York. It is the chief cause of the decrepit, som- nolent, moribund orchards to be seen from the roadsides and car windows in all parts of the State. Cider mills and evaporators thrive on sod-grown apples. The small, gnarly, low-grade apples sent to the markets from orchards in sod have so displeased the eye and palled the appetite of consumers that they are bringing discredit to the apple industry of the State. The average orchard in sod is a liability rather than an asset to its owner. Apple-growing is going out of fashion in New York wherever sodded orchards are in fashion. These are not loose generalities; neither are they rhetorical over-statemenis. They are cold facts written under earnest conviction of their truth from state-wide observations covering several years. They can be verified by any open-eyed man in a day’s travel in any of the apple regions of the State. 36 TEN YEARS’ PROFITS FROM AN APPLE ORCHARD.'* U. P. HEDRICK INTRODUCTION. Most men grow fruit for the money to be made. In common parlance they are practical business men. Yet in this day in which efficiency is the slogan of business, not many fruit-growers have precise knowledge of what their capital and labor are accomplish- ing. As a class, it is not to be supposed that those who grow fruit are more than others wilfully negligent of money matters, but, lacking data with which to start and method with which to keep track of the outgo and income of their orchards, and because of special difficulties, life spins past with the business affairs of most fruit-growers in a tangled skein which they hardly dare attempt to unravel. COST OF PRODUCTION DATA NEEDED BY INVESTORS. Everywhere men from city and town are planting orchards — beginners embarking upon what seems to be a pleasing hobby and yet one capable of giving a living and an income for old age. But if their ventures are founded on the figures seen in print or on the occasional phenomenal crops that nearly every orchard bears, the chances are they will find the times out of joint long before their plantings come into bearing and will take to building aerial castles in some other profession. They will learn through experience dearly paid for that many of the cocksure statements read or heard are “but the stuff dreams are made of.”” Thousands of newly fledged fruit- growers who are now drawing checks on the bank of expectancy, will leave money in, rather than take it from, the field of horticulture. They might not have been thus deluded had there been anywhere a substantial body of figures from which could have been obtained a true conception of the financial conditions of fruit-growing. ORCHARDING A BUSINESS. We are well justified in saying that with increasing competition, manifold uncertainties in orchard conditions, and unbusinesslike 1 Also presented, in essentials, before Western New York Horticultural Society, Rochester, N. Y., January 28, 1914. * Reprint of Bulletin No. 376, March. [562] Puate LITI.— Harvest Time 1n THE AUCHTER ORCHARD. i 4 A it iy New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 56: administration, fruit-growing is becoming a more and more risky business. Of this you need to be reminded rather than informed. Experience and the teachings of years have given the old hands in fruit-growing, at least, knowledge of the uncertainties in growing fruit, and now everywhere we are hearing discussions of the business side of the industry. Temporarily the “ idea of making two blades of grass grow where one grew before,” with which agriculture has been chiefly concerned in the immediate past, is eclipsed by the conception, just beginning to be realized, that agriculture is a rather highly developed enterprise requiring for success careful business management. ACCURATE DATA DIFFICULT TO SECURE. This Bulletin is presented with the hope that it may prove a helpful contribution to those who want data on the cost of produc- ing apples and on the yields, selling price, and profits in the culture of this fruit. Neither time nor material, however, suffices for any- thing like a full consideration of the subject; for keeping accounts in apple-growing is a difficult and complicated piece of business. The yearly inventory and striking of balances which do very well for the grocer and butcher do not begin to tell the whole story in fruit-growing. In growing apples, for instance, it takes several years to bring an orchard into bearing, after which it barely main- tains itself for a decade or two; the lean years and fat years are more accentuated than in most other industries; advantages and dis- advantages are exceedingly changeable; and the value of the invest- ment is variable. ORCHARD PRODUCTION MUST BE STUDIED BY PERIODS. The only possible way to obtain an absolutely accurate reckon- ing of the profits and losses of an apple orchard is to add up the expenses for the whole life of the trees and subtract from the total income; the remainder, if plus, is the profits; if minus, as often will be the case, the losses. This plan in the short span of human life will not work. Since annual accountings are not fair, and total ones not possible, we must divide the life of the orchard into periods and take data for each division. In New York, where the apple tree lives as long as man, we may make from the life of an orchard 564 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF HorTICULTURE OF THE seven periods of a decade each; these ought to make very fair units for the collection of data. DATA FOR ONE PERIOD MAY BE USEFUL. Unfortunately we do not have for any one of the seven periods much accurate data either as to the average total cost of production or the cost of any one of the several orchard operations, nor do we know much about the average cost of the materials used in orchard- ing, or the average selling price of the produce of the orchard. Now the value of such data is obvious to those who are making any attempt to keep track of the finances of their business and the object of the present paper is to put you in possession of figures that, rightly used, ought to be helpful. ‘‘ Rightly used,’ because most figures re capable of several interpretations and all are subject to the lapses and mistakes common to erring mortals. COST OF APPLE PRODUCTION IN AUCHTER ORCHARD CONDITION OF ORCHARD. The fruit to be considered is the apple as grown in an orchard situated a few miles west of Rochester, known to many as the Auchter orchard, in which the Geneva Experiment Station has carried on a comparative test of sod mulch and tillage during the past ten years. Added value is given to the figures to be presented by the fact that the orchard was selected for experimental work because it was as typical as could be found in the great apple belt of western New York. The trees are Baldwins, 27 years old at the beginning of the experiment, 37 now. The accounts tell what each of the orchard operations has cost, the number of bushels of fruit produced, and the selling price — something substantial to show what the outgo and the income of a New York apple orchard are, in its fourth decade, the period just preceding prime of life. The data, as far as possible, are given for three units, the barrel of apples, the tree and the acre. AVERAGE YIELD. The first information we must have in getting at the problem before us is the number of barrels of apples per acre per year. The exact number for the cultivated plat in this ten-year average is New York AcricuntturaL ExrrriMent STatTion. 565 116.8 barrels. Graded, the acre average for the period is 79.2 of barreled stock, 37.6 barrels of evaporator and cider stock. Reducing these figures to the tree unit we have for barrei stock 2.93, for evapor- ator stock 1.4; or total per tree, 4.33 barrels. The proportion of evaporator and cider stock is seemingly high — made so by two autumn gales in different seasons which gave many windfalls. Such episodes come in the life of every orchard. Yields per acre will vary greatly with the same variety in different orchards even in the same section but there is little reason to think that the ten-year acre average just given is much above the mark for orchards that are cared for — well tilled, sprayed and pruned plantations. It is of course much greater than the average yield of Baldwins in New York for the reason that many orchards are wholly or partially neglected. The annua! yields are shown in Table [. Taste I.— ANNUAL YIELD oF ['Rurr In AUCHTER ORCHARD FOR TEN YEARS. Per tree. Per acre. YEAR. Barreled | Cullsand| Total Barreled |Cullsand| Total apples. drops. yield. apples. drops. Yield. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. Bobls Bbls OO eee pee ie Naat le 2.45 Dele} 4.58 66.53 58 .08 124.61 LOODIRAS eee. a ee 1.42 74 2.16 38.59 20.12 58.00 OMG eeeseea ae hk fe 2.67 1.44 4.11 72.69 39.12 111.81 OU ei etaesce cae 2.41 .88 3.29 Gbroe 23.79 89 .32 NGOS Rao cys ee 4.18 1.41 5.59 113.85 38 .25 152.10 HOODS g88 Ae eh wane i Dest 1.64 4.01 64.63 44.57 109.20 TNO) ies fia Menon wee 1.92 .69 2.61 Fp real 18.80 71.01 OU UES ee see its 3.41 2.19 5.60 92 .84 59 .60 152.44 1 PAS Sete aerpeet ne 3.86 1.70 5.56 105.05 46 .17 GL 2 MS US) atc Paice d er ive 4.41 ib Oy 5.43 120.00 27 .62 147 .62 Totalste- hah as: 29.10 13.84 42 94. 791.92 376.12 | 1,168.04 10-Year average.... 2.91 1.38 4.29 79.19 37.61 116.80 INTEREST ON INVESTMENT. The first item in cost of production to be considered is interest on investment — an entry in the account over which there can be much disagreement. Unfortunately we do not know how much money has been spent in bringing this orchard to its present con- 566 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorTICULTURE OF THE dition and can only assume that the amount invested is approximately what the present valuation is. What is a Baldwin orchard, in full bearing in the prime of life, worth? Sales are too few and most of those that take place are made under conditions too abnormal to make selling price a safe gauge of value. We will suppose the value to be $500.00 per acre and the interest five per ct. This valuation is not high, for it includes not only cost of land, trees and labor, but the deferred dividends of the first twelve or fifteen years. It is sufficient, too, to cover the overhead expense of houses and barns — or at least the share of these changes that would fall to a ten-acre orchard in New York. The first expense item, then, is $25.00 per acre on investment, a sum which, divided by 116.8, the number of barrels per acre, gives a charge per barrel of 21 cents as interest on investment. TAXES. Taxes vary greatly in different counties as they do somewhat in different years in the same county. Since this orchard is but a part of a general farm, only an estimate can be made of the cost of taxes. There are few regions or years in New York in which taxes for such an orchard would be over $1.50 an acre, making the tax on each barrel of apples 1.2 cents. DEPRECIATION OF OUTFIT. The next account to be charged to cost of production is depre- ciation in teams and tools and interest on the money invested in them. Tirst-class machinery for running the average orchard will cost in the neighborhood of $1,000, the items being as follows: team $400, spraying outfit $250, harness $50, wagon $75, plow, harrows, ladders, crates, pruning tools, ete., $115. The figures named © are below rather than above average prices but there are few instances, indeed, in which the tools and teams named would be used exclu- sively for aten-acre orchard. If we set the depreciation and interest on money at 20 per ct. for the above equipment, we must add 17 cents. per barrel of apples to the depreciation account. Take notice that in obtaining the cost of production in the Auchter orchard the depre- ciation account must be thrown out, for the Station hired all work done and the workmen furnished their own teams and tools. This item is put in, then, only as an approximation of what men who are doing their own work must charge for depreciation. New York AcricutturaL ExprertmMent Station. 567 COST OF TILLAGE. Passing now to orchard operations the annual cost of tillage per acre for the decade was $7.39, making the amount to be charged against each barrel of fruit 6.3 cents. Tillage consisted, in this orchard, of plowing the ground in the spring, after which it was harrowed, rolled and then cultivated by harrowing an average of seven times per season. The price paid for team work at the beginning of the pericd was $4.00 per day of 10 hours; but the price advanced to $5.00, a fair average being $4.50. Tillage includes the labor of putting in the cover crop but not the cost of the seed. For the cover- crop seed, in this orchard, usually red clover, must be added $2.74 per acre for seed or 2.3 cents per barrel of apples. COST OF PRUNING. The expense of pruning per year per acre was $3.56 — since there are 27 trees to the acre in this orchard the cost per tree was 13.1 cents. The cost per barrel of apples was 3 cents. The average price paid fer the work was $2.00 per day ot 10 hours. COST OF SPRAYING. The average cost per acre for spraying was $11.28; per tree 41.8 cents; per barrel of apples 9.6 cents. The spraying was done the first few years with a hand sprayer, then for several years with a Niagara gas sprayer and the last three with a gasoline power outfit having two runs of hose. The first five years bordeaux mixture and arse- nite of lime were used; the last five, lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead. The orchard was sprayed three times per season the first five of the ten seasons. The second five years it was sprayed but twice per season, the first application being the dormant spray made just before buds began to swell; the second just as blossoms dropped. This treatment has given an almost perfect crop, wormy and scabby apples being rarities scarcely to be found in the orchard. EXPENSE OF SUPERINTENDENCE. The last of the cost of production charges is that of superintend- ing the work. The services of the average fruit-grower are worth more than the $2.00 per day allowed for actual work and this defici- 568 Report or tue DerparTMENT oF HortricuLTURE OF THE ency should be made up by a charge for superintending the work. The Station paid for this service $300 per year. This is a fair price since there are few competent orchardists who could not super- intend a farm enterprise of several times the magnitude of a ten- acre orchard. The charge to be entered against a barrel of apples then for superintending is 25 cents; against the acre unit, $30; against an apple tree $1.10. HARVEST EXPENSES. Picking, packing, sorting and hauling have been done in diverse ways during the ten years and the items cannot be segregated. But the total cost of these operations has been 24.4 cents per barrel. The apples, it should be said, were sorted and packed in the field. The crop was hauled to a station one and a half miles away over a country road not better than the average. The following is a summary of the cost sheet for a barrel of apples: Interest, onvinvestment. sa. ciaee +e oes $0.21 PIPASOSH eects dell: Gecghtebed Sint, eoemeue USE eae: ee .012 AMIR 93h. el ogc: s RA TLE AO TOD .063 PRIMING BY 1)2 sree stedsd al yehe ade. 2 .03 PLAVINE wet ataatinwnt toca iaee ele tee .096 Covet cropies-s letersi eit} sis ae .023 Superintending, orchard . .jc35..ocsbs Jeph ox .25 Picking, packing, sorting and hauling..... 244 $0.93 COST OF BARRELS. All of the first and second-grade apples from the Auchter orchard have been packed in barrels. The average price of barrels for ten years has been 36 cents each; the price fluctuated from 30 cents to 40 cents. The culls have been handled in crates and a charge for packages cannot be entered against them. Adding the cost of the barrel to the cost of production we have $1.29 as the total cost of a barrel of apples at the shipping point. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 569 Tapie Il.— AnnuAL Cost or TILLAGE, Cover-crop SEED, PRUNING, SPRAYING, HARVESTING AND Pricm oF BARRELS IN AUCHTER ORCHARD FOR TEN YEARS. Cover- Harvest- Price YEAR. Tillage. crop Pruning. |Spraying.| ing (inc. of seed. bbls.). barrels. TCO Oe ee ime $21.25 | $12.50 | $14.62 | $58.22 | $210.90 $0 .375 OOS eye Sistas: 34.11 14.60 13.25 44 27 96 .85 80 OO GR aoa ck 24.00 6.30 15.12 46.51 231.80 .o2 LOO TPA TEMAS. :. SRE 29.13 17.50 18.31 73.84 224 .20 .40 NOOS Avec sere ssigcuaks 28 .87 7.80 22.11 50.45 338 .59 .36 NOOO eae ete re 52.91 7.94 16.69 61.75 229 .91 385 1ONOMEE Seater 39.70 15.45 13.62 49 .70 183 .89 35 1 OT eects atest 44.00 17.91 14.25 51.97 373 .20 35 IQA poeta Baia aie 35 .00 21.89 19.50 52.84 415.51 40 OTS... LSID «3 42.25 8.25 21.87 46 .35 415.24 40 Motalycerss ses $351.22 | $130.14 | $169.34 | $535.90 |$2,720.09 $3 .605 Average per barrel. .063 .023 03 .096 .604 36 Average per tree... 27 10 131 Al AN nie cree Average per acre... 7.39 2.74 3.56 11.28 Oia Ou|Mrae eevetey: RETURNS FROM AUCHTER ORCHARD. PRICE OF APPLES. We come now to the average price of apples for the past ten years as grown in the Auchter orchard. We have received an average of $2.60 for all the barreled stock sold, which includes firsts and seconds. For evaporator and cider stock we have received 72 cents per barrel, rather above the average, possibly, because in two seasons gales of wind, as has been said, gave an abnormally large quantity of very good windfalls. The yearly prices received appear in Table III. Tape II].— Price per BARREL RECEIVED FoR APPLES IN THE AUCHTER ORCHARD ror TEN YEARS. Barreled | Culls and Barreled | Culls and YEAR. apples. drops. YEAR. apples. drops. OQAR rer cores $1 41 SOP2G 909 ME. is $3 35 $1 11 1905 Bers Cee ue 2 80 GOD IDLO ee oe Bakerton 3) 8th 1 08 GUG Maer sie tae 2 00 Ata LOG eee ete a. 2 50 1 02 TIO egeac eee Pe eee 3 50 Zhe) “| ARGO, eae ea ee 2 00 60 19OS8ssvyah . saeerk. 9, PAS Sia LO cee Sica seek 3 00 97 570 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF HorTICULTURE OF THE YIELDS. As stated on page 84, the average yield of the orchard for the ten years has been 79.2 barre's of barrel stock per acre, and 37.6 barrels of evaporator and cider stock. BALANCE SHEET. We are now ready to calculate profits and declare dividends: Subtracting $1.29, the cost of a barrel of apples, from $2.60, the amount received, a net profit of $1.31 per barrel remains for firsts and seconds. Multiplying by 79, the number of barrels per acre, gives $103.49 as the profit per acre for firsts and seconds. Sub- tracting 72 cents from 93 cents, gives 21 cents as the difference between average cost of production and average selling price of culls. Multiplying 37.6, the number of barrels of culls per acre, by 21, gives a loss of $7.89 per acre on the culls, leaving the average net profit per acre in this orchard for the past ten years $95.60; add to this the $25 interest on the investment and we have $120.60 net, or 24.12 per ct. on $500, as the annual ten-year dividend from this orchard. GENERAL STATEMENTS. In closing, several general statements must be made: The first of these is that the pan has not been skimmed in the Auchter orchard work and the milk that is left is equally as good as that which was taken. This orchard, barring accidents, will do as well, or rather better, during the next twenty years than it has in the past ten. Secondly, as good or better dividends are coming from many New York apple orchards similarly situated and similarly cared for. The figures given are a fair average for a Baldwin orchard in its fourth decade. The cost of production is, if anything, high, since the State cannot do work as cheaply as an individual. The extra cost, if such there be, has been offset, however, by the skill and efficiency with which Mr. Auchter, in direct charge of the work, has managed every detail. Third, the profits of this orchard are probably many times as great as those from the average plantation in New York. Indeed, New York AGricuLTURAL ExprRIMENT Station. 571 if the financial history of every apple tree in New York could be written it would be found that the total cost of all quite equals the receipts from all—in other words, many are losing and few are winning. ‘This is the history of financial endeavors in all industries. A TEST OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES.* U. P. HEDRICK ano F. E. GLADWIN. SUMMARY. 1. There has been a decline in yields of grapes in the Chautauqua Grape Belt, the chief grape-growing region of New York. This bulletin is a report of several experiments to determine the value of commerciai fertilizers in increasing or restoring former yields. 2. The experiments under discussion were carried on in a leased vineyard near Fredonia, New York, and in six vineyards in various parts of Chautauqua County in which cooperative work was carried on with the owners. The vineyards were selected to obtain fair averages of soils and of health and vigor of the grape plantations of this region. 3. The treatments consisted of annual applications of nitrogen at the rate of from 56 to 72 pounds per acre; phosphorus from 18.3 pounds to 25.3 pounds per acre; potassium from 52.7 pounds to 59.3 pounds per.acre; and lime at the rate of 2000 pounds per acre. The nitrogen was applied in nitrate of soda, dried blood and cotton- seed meal, the phosphorus in acid phosphate and the potassium in sulphate of potash. 4. The results of the experiments are gauged by yield of fruit, effects on the fruit, effects on the foliage and effects on the wood. A brief summary of the results in the Fredonia vineyard is: Nitrogenous fertilizers had a marked beneficial effect upon the yield and quality of fruit and upon leaf and wood growth, making it certain that nitrogen is the limiting factor in this vineyard. Lime had no appreciable effect in this vineyard and phosphorus and potassium had so small a beneficial effect that their use was not profitable. 5. In the cooperative experiments not only commercial fer- tilizers but stable manure and green manure crops were used. The results from the use of all are confusing and unsatisfactory, varying greatly in any one vineyard or in the several vineyards compared with one another. * Reprint of Bulletin No. 381, March; for Popular Edition see p. 920. [572] “VINOGGUy LY GUVAGNIA IVINAWIYEdXY NI MOIA— ATT GLVIdG New York AaricutturaL ExprrRiIMEntT Station. 5738 6. From the data obtained in these experiments it is evident that the fertilization of vineyards is so involved with other factors that only long continued work will give reliable results. From the work done, however, several suggestions may be made to grape-growers: First, fertilizers can not be profitably applied in vineyards poorly drained, suffering from winter freezes or spring frosts, or in which fungi or insects are uncontrolled, or where good care is lacking. Second, it is probable that most virieyards have a one-sided wear, there being few plantations indeed where more than one or two of the elements of fertility are lacking. Nitrogen is probably most frequently the element needed. Each grape-grower should try to discover which of the food elements his particular soil needs, if any. Third, maximum profits cannot be obtained in many vine- yards of the Chautauqua Belt because of the lack of uniformity in vineyard conditions. Grape-growers should strive by every means possible to secure an equally vigorous and healthy growth over the entire area cropped. Fourth, the steps to be taken in restoring a failing vineyard are, in the usual order of importance, ist, give good drainage; 2d, control insects and fungi; 3d, improve the tillage and general care; 4th, apply such fertilizers as may be found lacking. INTRODUCTION. THE CHAUTAUQUA GRAPE BELT. The Chautauqua Grape Belt, the largest and most important area in which native grapes are grown in America, consists of a narrow strip of land along the southern shore of Lake Erie, varying in width from two to five miles, extending from Derby, New York, on the east, to Erie, Pennsylvania, on the west, approximately sixty-five miles. The grape industry in this belt is about thirty- five years old. Starting with small and scattered vineyards a steady increase in acreage has followed until now nearly 40,000 acres are planted to grapes. The U. 8. Census Bureau reports 12,930,000 grape vines in Chautauqua and Erie counties in 1899 and 16,924,000 in 1909, a thirty-per-ct. increase. 574 Report or tHE DepaRTMENT oF HorTICULTURE OF THE A DECLINE IN YIELDS. As the industry grew there should have followed a proportionate increase in tonnage. In other words, if 30,000 acres yielded 96,000 tons in 1900, 40,000 acres should have yielded 128,000 tons or thereabouts in 1913. But with the increased acreage there has followed only a slight gain in tonnage. Table I, from data collected and compiled in the office of ‘‘ The Grape Belt,”' shows the total production in car loads shipped or used locally for the period from 1900 to 1913 inclusive. TaBLeE I.—Grapr Propuctrion IN CHauTAuQua Bett, 1900-19138. 1900 (estimated)... 8000 cars VOW 70 te as a 5186 cars 112) 0 este eke ene aeons 6669 cars TOUS jp priest ae aaes 4323 cars GOD eter res yes hae 5062 cars TOO Go eke aoe eae 7561 cars LE CEN RUS ae ee 2952 cars 1910 (estimated)... 5700 ears 1212 ee eee a ee 7479 cars 1G it Pane re peure ueer eRs 6 8100 cars Ni fiee stan ance ue 5362 cars 1S an a Re eer, 7528 cars MUNG Bee og aa eg tas 5364 cars N20 ae Nee Ree a 3957 cars 40888 cars 42355 cars A study of Table I discloses the fact that notwithstanding a greatly increased acreage, during the period beginning with 1900, the yields have been considerably less in many years and in only one, 1911, has it been larger. The total yield for the last half of the period is thus only 33 per ct. greater than that of the first half. WHY HAVE YIELDS DECREASED? Undoubtedly the chief reason for the failure of the yield to keep pace with the acreage has been the planting of vineyards on soils unfitted for the grape because of thinness, infertility and poor drainage. Vineyards planted under any of these conditions were doomed to failure from the beginning. But there are also many old and young vineyards on good soils that are not producing profit- able annual crops, indicating that something beside the soil is amiss. On these good soils two or three fair crops are often harvested and yields then diminish. Many plantings that a few years ago promised well, today are but average vineyards, or must even be classed as poor. 1A semi-weekly paper published at Dunkirk, N. Y. New Yorx AaGricutturaL Experiment Sration. 575 Further examination of Table I shows that yearly yields are exceedingly variable. A year of large yield is usually followed by short crops for two or three years; these in turn are succeeded by another yield considerably above the average. These variations are attributed to many causes, among which are severe winters, late spring frosts, summer drouths, cold, wet weather during the growing season, insect depredations and lack of fertility. Undoubt- edly any of the causes ascribed could materially affect the yield but it is certain that decreasing yields in all vineyards are not due to the same causes. Furthermore, vineyards that are in a weakened condition because of some obscure trouble are less able to stand low temperatures, drouths, and insect invasions, some one of which are of almost annual occurrence. Again, some vineyards produce very fair annual crops even though subjected to several unfavorable conditions, while others, seemingly under the same influences, are unprofitable. AN EFFORT TO STOP THE DECREASE. This Bulletin presents part of the results of five years of work by this Station in an effort to find out how the decreasing yields can be checked. Experiments in the control of insect and fungus pests and with commercial fertilizers, stable manure, green manures and lime have been made. ‘The present report is an account of the experiments with commercial fertilizers. A VINEYARD SURVEY. In order to obtain at first hand the experiences of vineyardists with commercial fertilizers and stable manures, the junior author made a farm-to-farm survey in 1909. Growers of grapes to the number of 482 were interviewed and in most instances their vine- yards were examined. The following statements sum up the infor- mation obtained pertinent to the subject under discussion. The use of commercial fertilizers has been and is an extremely irregular practice, irregular not only as to frequency of application, but also as to the carriers and the elements used. Of the 482 growers interviewed, only 46 had used commercial fertilizers in 1904, 49 in in 1905, 102 in 1906, 107 in 1907 and 178 in 1908; or in all 252 used commercial fertilizers one or more years during the five for which 576 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorTICULTURE OF THE data were collected. It will be seen also that there has been an increase in the number using fertilizers during the five-year period and it is very probable that the increase has been proportionately greater during the past four years. Of the 252 reporting as having used some form of commercial fertilizer only 89 applied a complete one. Seventy used kainit alone, 45 ammoniated bone, 28 tankage, 20 raw ground bone, 17 potash and acid phosphate, 10 bone and kainit and 10 bone and muriate of potash. Quickly available forms of nitrogen have been used in but few instances. The amounts applied, viewed in the light of our tests, have generally been much too small to be very useful. It was interesting to note that many believed they had obtained decided results from the use of com- mercial fertilizers, while others secured no favorable effects. Usually immediate returns were expected and failure to get them resulted in a change of materials or a discontinuance of the use of fertilizers. Some growers seem to have gone on the theory that fertilization is a substitute for tillage. The data seemed to show, considered broadly, that growers who had used commercial fer- tilizers regularly, other conditions being the same, had secured less variable crops from year to year, than those who had made irregular and scant applications or none at all. The survey disclosed similar irregularities in the use of stable manure but indicated that more confidence is placed in its use by vineyardists than in commercial fertilizers. But little stock is kept in this region, however, and not nearly enough manure is produced to enrich vineyards, while the cost-of importing is almost prohibitive. The usual plan in manuring is to go over a portion of the vineyard one year, another the next, and so on until all has been fertilized. This practice often requires a long period to cover a vineyard. Usually two or three forkfuls are thrown around the base of the vine, to be spread by the plow or cultivator. These amounts are not sufficient nor the mode of application such that the vine can utilize the manure at maximum efficiency. The vineyard survey made at the beginning of the work in Chau- tauqua county clearly showed two things: First, that lack of fer- tility is a contributing cause in the decline of vineyards. Second, that fertilizing practices were very diverse and the results uncertain. New York AGRICULTURAL ExpERIMENT Station. 577 STATION WORK IN GRAPE BELT. IN THE EXPERIMENTAL VINEYARD. In the spring of 1909 this Station leased the 30-acre farm of H. B. Benjamin, Fredonia, New York. The soil on the Benjamin farm is of three types: Dunkirk gravelly loam, Dunkirk silt loam and Dunkirk clay loam. The fertilizer experiment was located on the gravelly loam, described as follows: The Dunkirk gravelly loam is a deep, open soil quite inclined to leaching. It is formed of alternating layers of varying degrees of fineness. In the Benjamin vineyard it extends to a depth of approximately 20 feet. This type of soil is generally preferred by vineyardists in the Chautauqua Belt, not by reason of superiority in its plant food content nor because grapes are grown better on it but rather because it is naturally well drained and more easily worked. It consequently commands a higher price per acre. In 1909 about one-third of the entire acreage of the Chautauqua Dis- trict was located on Dunkirk gravel and Dunkirk gravelly loam. Since then, however, the plantings have been largely on other soil types as practically all land of this type had previously been planted to grapes or other fruits. Chemical analyses of this type of soil, collected from the check plats of the experiment, are given in Table II. TaBLEe I].— SumMmarizeEp CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF DUNKIRK GRAVELLY Loam SoIL ON UNFERTILIZED Piats, BENJAMIN Farm, Freponia, N. Y. Calculated to pounds per acre Depth Secticn. ee KeOs KP |PsO5 1 PR: "CaO: | Cas | MgOr | Met N. pling. Ins. Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. Ate or 0- 7/44, 600/36 ,800| 3,940) 1,720/12,800| 9,000)/16,200) 9,600) 3,200 AW ANSE oe me 7-14/47 , 400/39, 200} 2,860} 1,240 14, 400/10, 200)18,400)11,000) 1,700 Tien ae ee 0— 7/41, 400/34, 200) 2,640) 1,140)13,600) 9,600)15,800) 9,600) 2,520 i achcreteehe fend aq epore 2,380 eat iat 9, 200|15,800; 9,600) 1,480 ——— SS THE FERTILIZER SECTION. A section of approximately three acres was selected for the test of commercial fertilizers. This area is very uniform and has a gentle slope to the south. A slight depression extends across the ad 578 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HoRTICULTURE OF THE entire section from west to east. The plats extend at right angles to this depression so that the topography is uniform. The soil on the north side is possibly a little lighter than elsewhere in the section but the same extent of each plat overruns this variation. The rows, 46 in number, run north and south and contain 37 vines per row. Lae 0.74 2.64 2.38 0.81 1.64 7 | Phosphorus and potassium....| 0.85 2.84 2.34 0.95 1.74 Sosa Otablemagnune mn se) en -ils de 2 0.68 2.98 2.82 1.56 2.01 eeOd| Check. gc. as tne. iss Eee ahs 0.85 2.76 Sy 1.08 1.64 10 | Stable manure; lime.......... 0.78 2.97 2.51 1.63 1.97 11 | Mammoth clover.:...5..:+..-- 0.78 2.69 2.41 ae 175) 12 | Mammoth clover; lime....... t19 2.19 2.44 1.05 ial 139! Chechys: foe. sere: OE aS 1.02 2.34 2.00 0.74 1.52 14 | Wheat and cowhorn turnips. .. 0.81 2.30 1.80 0.64 1.38 15 | Wheat andcowhornturnips;lime} 1.02 Bie BF 1.93 0.57 1.77 SSS et SS SS ee | These data in no way indicate superiority of one treatment over another nor of that of any application over the checks. They only 38 594 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HoRTICULTURE OF THE serve to emphasize the influence of a previous crop upon succeeding ones, a point that has been mentioned before. This is shown by comparing the yields of 1911 with those of 1912 and 1913. The extreme high-yielding plats of that year fell off more proportionally in the years 1912 and 1913 than those that yielded moderately the previous year, while with two plats there was a gain in 1912. LEE VINEYARD. The Lee vineyard is a typical upland vineyard situated on the hillside south and east of Brocton. The soil is of the Dunkirk shale loam type and quite stony. The natural drainage is better than in many vineyards, owing in part to the slope, yet rock pockets keep parts of the land wet. However, lack of drainage is not so important here as in hundreds of other cases. The rows extend in a general east and west direction at right angles to the slope, varying in length from 40 to 52 vines. The plats consist of single rows separated by discards. The vineyard has had no serious insect infestations during the life of the experiment and consequently has not been sprayed. Table XIII represents the order of the plats in the experiment with their yields in tons per acre for each year and the four-year average. Taste XIJJ.— Yre_p or Grapes on Puats DIFFERENTLY FERTILIZED IN Lee VINEYARD. Calculated to tons per acre. 3 a Treatment. 1910. | 1911. | 1912. | 1913, | *¥ear 2 average. Ay Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons 1 | Wheat and cowhorn turnips; Jareh Ss. sje ene lee eee 1.25 2.04 2.93 0.74 1.74 BD WECHECIED Suc tte Retreat ee 1.25 2.09 2.48 0.63 1.61 3 | Wheat and cowhorn turnips... 1.05 2.00 2.25 0.85 153 4 | Mammoth clover; lime....... 1.42 1.79 2.52 0.81 1.63 5 | Mammoth clover............ Le? 1.83 1.99 0.74 1.48 6 | Stable manure; lime.......... 1.36 2.14 3.40 0.98 1.97 @ 4 Stablesmanurevessccnc ots - 1.56 2.17 2.84 1.08 1.91 Sl (Check ety.. 7 Wieeey, Ae ee 3 1.29 2.24 2.20 0.61 1.58 9 | Phosphorus and potassium... . 1.39 2.09 2.43 0.68 1.64 10 | Nitrogen and potassium...... 1.22 1.87 2.46 0.61 1.54 11 | Nitrogen and phosphorus..... 1.46 2.19 2.57 0.68 1 ¢2 12 | Complete fertilizer........... 0.98 Vio 2.50 0.61 1.45 13 | Complete fertilizer; lime...... 12 1.66 2.04 0.88 1.42 a RTS TE I A SS Se SS Ee Se New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 595 There appears from a consideration of the four-year average a slight gain from the use of stable manure but this is not great enough to pay for the manure applied. Plats 12 and 13 have always been inferior rows according to information furnished by the owner. Our subsequent observations and these data seem to confirm it. BARNES VINEYARD. The Barnes vineyard at Prospect Station is another upland vine- yard situated on Dunkirk shale loam. It differs from the Lee vineyard in that it lies very level below a high ridge from which much seepage water gains access to it. It would be benefited by underdrainage. The rows extend in a general east and west direction and consist of 31 vines each. The plats comprise from four to six rows. Infestations of the grape root-worm shortly before the beginning of this experiment, coupled with the wetness of the soil, have tended to keep this vineyard at low production. Table XIV gives the yields in tons per acre for each plat for the four years and the average. The order in which the plats are placed is different from that in the foregoing vineyards for the reason that the experi- ment was planned originally for a renovation experiment by the use of fertilizers and spraying. This accounts for the checks being located in pairs. Analyses of the returns indicate that previous to 1912 none of the treatments returned sufficiently increased yields over the checks to make the application profitable. The stable manure Plats 1, 2, 13 and 14 returned a profit over the checks in 1912 and 1913, while the stable manure Plats 7 and 8 did not. In 1912 the complete fertilizer applications in no instance returned a profit, nor did the phosphorus-potassium-lime-cover-crop plats. The complete fertilizer Plats 3 and 16 yielded enough above the checks in 1913 to pay small returns while Plat 9 failed to do so. Phos- phorus-potassium-cover-crop and lime Plat 4 gave net gains over check. Plat 5 and Plat 10 likewise gave small returns over Plat 11 but did not over Plat 12, both checks. Plat 17 returned a net gain over one check plat, 15, but failed to give a sufficient increase to return a profit over the other check plat, 18. These variations can only be accounted for on the ground of non-uniform fertilization in previous years coupled with soil differences which have not become apparent. 596 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE OF THE TaBLE XIV — YIELD or Grapes ON PLAts DIFFERENTLY FERTILIZED IN BARNES VINEYARD Calculated to tons per acre. ————SSS—S—SSSSS_—_——_—_—=_=—_——_—_—_—_———5—5—aaaaaaaaSSESEEESSESESESESESESEEEE=EE>]"*_]__——=—=—=—=—=—=—=F fe} a Treatment. igo. | 19f1.| 1912 4) 1913. | 3 z average. i Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons Tons. 1 iestablemanureysee- secs ee 1.12 2.14 2.55 15 1.74 2 | Stable manure; lime......... 1.12 2.38 Pt 1.08 1.82 3 | Complete fertilizer........... 1.02 2.38 1.97 1.25 1.65 4 | Phosphorus and potassium; |DEoaVeph, aren a eae ee ae 0.91 1.87 2.38 1.05 1.55 DL ROMEO tein Sees priestess Meee 1.29 1.93 1.80 0.81 1.45 Gs SCheek wen Gee Pa al 0.98 2.00 1.42 0.35 1.18 (alpotaislemmanurey a tevse f ewe 0.88 2.10 1.94 0.71 1.43 8 | Stable manure; lime.......... 1.19 2.17 1.90 0.70 1.49 9 | Complete fertilizer........... OTA 2.51 1.66 0.78 1.41 10 | Phosphorus and potassium; b- livia vec tare thairert acer an Lior 0.78 2.14 ays 0.78 1.30 TMH Checks..y , POSES. RE SFE 1.08 etl, 1.59 0.47 1.32 se Checks hy: gah Aer eyieeaes cee: 0.44 2.07 2.07 0.95 1.38 [Sel eStable manliness reece 0.61 2.14 2.82 1.22 1.72 14 | Stable manure; lime.......... 0.74 2.14 2.75 1.63 1.81 DD ales @hec enes Sens k parame bitin tyes 0.57 2.12 2.10 0.64 1.35 16 | Complete fertilizer........... 0.74 2.38 2.78 1.25 1.78 17 | Phosphorus and potassium; Hine auice cae yu Ee ee 1.05 2.17 2.65 1.22 Weal Sal MO ec Kerry reve Mews rea eerie 1.36 2.24 2.44 0,91 1.73 GRANDIN VINEYARD. The Grandin vineyard at Westfield, located in part on Dunkirk gravelly loam and the remainder on Dunkirk clay loam, presents a well drained area succeeded by a wet one. While each plat extends on each type of soil, the plats are not equally situated over the two. Approximately two-thirds of the length of the rows is on the Dunkirk clay loam while but one-third is on the gravelly loam. On the west side of the vineyard a still greater proportion of the row is on clay loam. The length of the plats varies from 129 vines on the west side of the section to 99 vines on the east, equal in area to about one-fifth of an acre. The rows run in a north and south direction. Spraying in this vineyard has been consistent and thorough. Commercial fertilizers and stable manures had been used previous to the beginning of the experiment by the owner in an experimental way but no records of the behavior of the vines under different treatments were available. Each plat row is separated from the others by discard rows. New York AcricutrturaL Experiment Station. 597 TaBLE XV.— YIELD oF GRAPES ON PLATS DIFFERENTLY FERTILIZED IN GRANDIN VINEYARD. Calculated to tons per acre. SS | ° A Treatment. 1910.4 1911s | 1982p |.. 191322). = Vee ~ average. a Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1 | Phosphorus and potassium.... 2.44 2.95 2.34 125 2.24 2 | Nitrogen and potassium...... 2.27 2.82 2.18 1.03 2.07 3 | Nitrogen and phosphorus..... 2.41 2.82 2.32 1.02 2.12 AMMO HECK). PNG. VELA Fabaceae | 2.41 2.65 2.23 1.02 2.07 5 | Complete fertilizer........... 2.44 2.58 2.42 1.19 2.45 6 | Complete fertilizer; lime...... 2.61 2.93 2.79 1.19 2.37 7 | Wheat and cowhorn turnips; Jarre cbarel cs RE acre oe i 2.10 2.48 2.66 1 22 2.11 8 | Wheat and cowhorn turnips .. 240 2.19 3.06 0.98 2.38 9 | Mammoth clover; lime....... 2.75 2.92 215 1.42 2.46 OB MO bec ke Ser, Peyter fot. eg Sito es: 2.99 2.44 2.92 0.85 2.30 i eViammoth clover..:- 2 oe 1 es 2.44 2.86 1.19 1.91 12 | Stable manure; lime.......... 2.34 2.78 3.53 1.83 2.62 13 |) Stable manure.....2......... 2.07 2.44 3.58 1.63 2.43 Table XV gives the yields in tons per acre for each plat during the four years that the test has run, with the four-year average. A study of the table shows that for the years 1910 and 1911 none of the treatments have brought about yields greater than the unfertil- ized check. In 1912, however, the increased returns from the stable manure plats, 12 and 13, returned a profit over the check plat, 10. Further than this no consistent increase can be noted. No gains are apparent from the use of commercial fertilizers in 1913. There is evidently a gain from the use of clover as a green manure and again the use of stable manure has proved profitable. Lime used in conjunction with the clover and the stable manure has contributed profitably to greater yields. The apparent gain from its use in Plat 7 as compared with Plat 8 is offset when we compare the yields of the two in 1912 and note how the 1913 yield has been influenced by each. Plat 8 which produced .40 of a ton more than Plat 7 in 1912 yielded .34 of a ton less in 1913. HAMILTON VINEYARD. The Hamilton vineyard, located at State Line and consisting of two acres, is situated on Dunkirk clay loam. This vineyard is 598 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE OF THE wet. Much seepage water from the hills above rises to the suriac> over it. The west part is worse in this respect than the east portion. The vines, while they have been planted 7 or 8 years, have the appear- ance of vines set only 3 or 4. During an extremely dry season fair wood growth is made but in a wet one it is very limited, with a correspondingly short crop. This vineyard has not been sprayed during the time the experiment has run. The plats consist of two rows, each of which runs in a north and south direction. Each row contains 44 vines. Thus each plat comprises about .14 of an acre. The stable manure and lime, clover and lime and the barley- turnips and lime plats were limed a year previous to the beginning of the test. No commercial fertilizers nor stable manure had been applied for two or three years previous to 1910. Table XVI gives the order in which the plats occur in the vineyard with the yields in tons per acre for each year and the four-year average. TasBLe XVI.— YieLp or Grapes oN Puats DIFFERENTLY FERTILIZED IN HAMILTON VINEYARD Calculated to tons per acre. { : 4. A Treatment. 1910. | 1911. | 1912. | 1918. heed + average. A Tons Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. iI || By Var) Mean teaage 0. Sein artaR ten, Wes 1.19 2.07 2.09 1.02 1.59 2 | Phosphorus and potassium....}| 0.95 2.72 2.83 1.93 2.10 3 | Nitrogen and potassium...... 0.78 3.60 2.15 0.98 1.87 AGL Checke aes ats toner 2 sok 1.66 2.40 erica 0.61 1.60 5 | Nitrogen and phosphorus..... 0.88 2.27 2.01 0.71 1.46 6 | Complete fertilizer........... ib sa 2.55 2.24 11155 1.76 7 | Complete fertilizer; lime...... 0.85 2.44 1.76 0.85 1.47 8 | Stable manure....... te danas 0.68 2.31 2.02 0.71 1.43 9 | Wheat and cowhorn turnips... 1.29 2.14 2.42 0.44 1.57 LOG Mammoth clovert. . 4-14. 0 0.71 1.93 1.30 0.30 1.06 Li" (Cheekeur anes nea eee 0.81 2.07 1.55 0.51 1.23 12 | Wheat and cowhorn turnips; Namie ae eleva utero eyonre 0.78 1.97 1.66 0.40° 1.20 13 | Mammoth clover; lime....... 0.85 2.39 1.43 0.37 1.26 14 | Stable manure; lime.......... 0.54 2.38 1.91 1.08 1.47 —————S Consideration of the data discloses nothing that would indicate any material gain for the season of 1910. In 1911, however, two plats, one the nitrogen-potassium and the other the phosphorus- New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 599 potassium, returned crops that gave a net profit over the checks. This gain may be due to the larger yield of the check plats the year before rather than a direct effect of the fertilizers. That the phos- phorus-potassium plat was at the beginning superior to the others is further shown by a reference to the yields of 1912 and 1918. The stable manure plat and the wheat and cowhorn turnip plat each yielded crops at a profit over the check in 1912. Again we must conclude, in case of the wheat-turnip plat at least, that the treat- ment was not the determining factor, but rather some unknown influence, as for example soil variation, previous fertilization or the pruning. In 1913, only the stable manure-lime plat yielded a net profit above the check plat, 11. The superiority of the phos- phorus-potassium plat has already been explained. The four-year averages do not present any data that would warrant definite con- clusions as to the superiority of any one treatment over another. SUMMARY OF RESULTS. In the experiments at Fredonia, nitrogenous fertilizers have had a marked effect upon wood growth and yield and quality of fruit. The first season, 1909, the fertilizers containing nitrogen apparently increased the crop of that year, although plat variations might account for the greater yield of the fertilized over the unfertilized vines. Bud injury during the winter of 1909 and 1910 reduced the crop the second year 50 per ct. The fertilized and unfertilized plats were affected in like degree. The crop of 1910 was fairly uniform on all the plats. The general light crop, no doubt, tended to equalize the yields for the succeeding year, 1911. No differences in the amount or the color of the foliage were apparent until the summer of 1912 in which season the foliage in the nitrogen-fertilized plats clearly showed superiority over that from the plats on which no nitrogen had been applied. The foliage from the phosphorus-potassium plats was somewhat superior to that from the check plat. Nitrogen and potassium have in some degree increased the size of the leaves as shown in Table VI. They have also materially increased the amount of wood growth. Table VII, a comparison of the plats, indicates that nitrogen was the more important of the two elements in bringing about these increases in wood growth. 600 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HoRTICULTURE OF THE The plats receiving the nitrogenous application produced fruit in the years 1912 and 1913 somewhat superior, in size of cluster, size of berry and compactness, to that from the plats to which phosphorus and potassium had been applied and considerably superior to that from the check. The phosphorus-potassium plats yielded fruit better than the check in these respects and probably more mature at the time the observations were made. The nitrogen has probably indirectly affected fruit characters through its action in producing more vigorous wood and foliage. It appears that nitrogen is the limiting factor in this aioe Appreciable results were not obtained, however, until after several applications of the fertilizer had been made. Lime seems not to have influenced the vines in the least while phosphorus and potassium, as applied in the fertilizers used, have not greatly influenced the vines for the better — have not proved profitable fertilizers. The data in the cooperative work with commercial fertilizers, stable manure and green manures are confusing and unsatisfactory. Unsatisfactory because of the great variability of the results from the treatments in any one vineyard or in the several vineyards compared with one another. Taken as a whole they do not cor- roborate the work in the Station vineyard at Fredonia. SUGGESTIONS FROM THE RESULTS. The results of the several tests of which this bulletin is an account throw comparatively little light on the value of fertilizers for grapes. It is evident that the fertilization of vineyards, as well as of orchards, fields and gardens, is so involved with other factors that only care- fully planned and long continued work will give reliable results. Indeed, field experiments even in carefully selected vineyards, as the cooperative experiments show, may be so contradictory and misleading as to be worse than useless if deductions are made from the results of a few seasons. The work that has been done is not without value, however, for it has brought forth information about fertilizing vineyards that ought to be most helpful to grape-growers. Thus the results suggest: First, and most important, that it is usually waste, pure and simple, to make applications of fertilizers in poorly-drained vine- yards, in such as suffer frequently from winter cold or spring frosts, New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 601 where insect pests are epidemic and uncontrolled, or where good care is lacking. The experiments furnish several examples of inertness, ineffectiveness, or failure to produce profit where the fertilizers were applied under any of the conditions named. Second, it is certain in some of the experiments and strongly indicated in others that the soil is having a one-sided wear — that only one or a very few of the elements of fertility are lacking. The element most frequently lacking is nitrogen. The grape-grower should try to discover which of the fertilizing elements his soil lacks and not waste by using elements not needed. Third, the marked unevenness of the soil in all of the seven vine- yards in which these experiments were carried on, as indicated by the crops and the effects of the fertilizers, furnishes food for thought to grape-growers. Maximum profits cannot be approached in vineyards in which the soil is as uneven as in these, which were in every case selected because there was an appearance of uniformity. A problem before the grape-growers of Chautauqua County is to make more uniform all conditions in their vineyards. Fourth, a grape-grower may assume that his vines do not need fertilizers if they are vigorous and making a fair annual growth. When the vineyard is found to be failing in vigor, the first step to be taken is to make sure that the drainage is good; the second step, to control insect and fungus pests; the third, to give tillage and good care; and the fourth step is to apply fertilizers if they be found necessary. NEW OR NOTEWORTHY FRUITS. IL* U. P. HEDRICK. INTRODUCTION. The purchase of new fruits is one of the perennial problems of fruit-growers. Each spring the catalogues come and the tree-buyer must decide whether he will test the most promising of the new varieties offered or wait until their value is demonstrated by others. The problem is made doubly difficult because nurserymen customarily describe the merits of their novelties in glowing terms and brightly colored plates but do not trouble themselves to illuminate by word or picture the faults of their introductions. Absolute confidence in these one-sided descriptions is usually a source of disappointment; and the buyer, once defrauded, assumes a hostile attitude toward all new varieties. Condemnation of novelties has thus become habitual among fruit-growers. Such an attitude is unsound. A brief consideration of the improvement of plants shows that denouncing novelties is setting oneself against progress. Unquestionably the limit of improvement has not been reached in the domestication of any cultivated fruit. Seedling fruits spring up everywhere, the best of which survive and compete with estab- lished sorts. Through intercrossing, plant-breeders are constantly producing new varieties of all the fruits. So, too, we occasionally find sports or mutations more valuable than the variety from which they are offshoots. Again, every now and then a species not known in cultivation is ushered in and proves profitable. Evidence of the advancement of horticulture through the introduction of new forms is to be found in the many recent new-comers manifestly in advance of any of their kind. Evolutionists tell us that there are more species of plants on earth now than there have ever been at any previous time. We may assume that if multiplication of forms accompanies the evolution of wild life the evolution of cultivated plants must follow the same law. * Reprint of Bulletin No. 385, April. [602] New York AGRICULTURAL ExpPpERIMENT STATION. 603 There are two ways in which the fruit-grower can in a measure meet the problem of horticultural novelties. He can rely upon the trustworthiness of the nurseryman and permit him, as the introducer, to be his guide; or, he can await the results of tests made by others — especially of tests made at the various experiment stations. The present bulletin is written to be helpful in either case. There are fruit-growers, prudent ones, too, who, even though now and then deceived, take great pleasure in growing new introductions. To such experimenters this bulletin offers suggestions to guide them in determining what new fruits to look upon as promising and what ones to distrust, it being quite out of the question for any one man, unless he has unlimited time and means, to try all. To those who have not the means or the time, we give descriptions of a number of new fruits which have been thoroughly tested and have been found valuable on the grounds of this Station. SUGGESTIONS TO BUYERS OF FRUITS. The term “ improved” added to the name of an old variety is a misrepresentation, pure and simple. Out of the score or more of fruits tested at this Station sent out as ‘‘ improved,” not one has differed in any way from the original variety. Fruits propagated from cuttings or grafts remain substantially the same indefinitely. The term ‘‘ pedigree ’’ is used by some nurserymen in a slightly different sense than ‘‘ improved ”’ but still with the inference that “nedigreed ”’ varieties are in some way improved. Buyers of “ pedigreed ” stock should demand proof of the supposed superiority. Varieties of fruit are pure-bred in the most literal sense, their line of descent, barring a very occasional break, being absolutely unchange- able. Occasionally, as we have just said, there are breaks or bud varia- tions in fruits. When it is proved that a variation is transmitted through budding or grafting, the new strain, possibly divergent enough to be a variety, may be of value. In the study of the history of several thousand varieties of fruits at this Station it does not appear that many sorts, not one out of a thousand, have originated as bud-variations. Many varieties of fruits come nearly true to seed. There cre several undesignated strains of some well-known plums, peaches and cherries, which have originated as seedlings and each of which has 604 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorRTICULTURE OF THE particular value or is unique enough to be given a name, just as the many seedlings of the McIntosh, Ben Davis, Winesap and other apples are separately denominated. A variety is not sufficiently well described to make it worth buying unless the merits and faults of the plant as well as of the product are depicted. In particular, the adaptabilities of a variety to soils and climates and its immunities to insects and fungi should be known before it is largely planted. One should look with suspicion on varieties which are advertised as surpassing their kind in all respects. Most novelties, even the most worthy, are superior in but one or a few respects; as, in pro- longing the season, in improvement of quality, in meeting some new climatic condition, in adaptability for some particular use, or, and most frequently, because of greater productiveness. Varieties of worth may be more commonly expected in fruits domesticated but a short time, and therefore little improved, than in species long under cultivation and much improved; thus, American species of grapes give more new varieties than the Old World species, American plums are more variable than those of Europe, American raspberries, blackberries and strawberries are prolific of new sorts; the apple, quince, pear, cherry and peach, all old types, are relatively stable. Old varieties are often remtroduced as novelties because of a variation of the type brought about by local influences; thus, the Green Newtown of the Hudson, the Yellow Newtown of Hood River, the Albemarle Pippin of Virginia, and the Five-Crowned Pippin of Australia, differ in all these regions; but brought together in any one place, all are the same. t is best, if possible, to buy new fruits from the originator or introducer as these men are most likely to have the variety true to name, and, moreover, most deserve to reap the reward for bringing forth the novelty. FRUITS TESTED BY THE NEW YORK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. This Station makes an effort to test every new fruit offered by American nurserymen which seems at all suited to the soil and climate of New York. Beginning in 1913, with Bulletin No. 364, we are undertaking to describe annually the best recent fruit intro- ductions as they grow at Geneva. We are also undertaking to call New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaATIon. 605 attention to noteworthy sorts, which, though old, have not received, for one reason or another, the attention they deserve from fruit- growers. Neither trees nor cions of these new or noteworthy fruits can be obtained from this Station. APPLE. King David.— This apple is supposed to be a cross between Jonathan and Arkansas Black and has proved superior to either parent in several characteristics. The trees are hardy and pro- ductive and quite up to the average in vigor and health. The apples are larger than the Jonathan and even better colored, making King David one of the beauties of the orchard, for, added to the deep, solid, red color, are rotundity in shape and uniformity in size, the three qualities giving the variety almost perfection from an aesthetic standpoint. The fruit hangs long and well on the tree, all the while deepening in color, but for late keeping should be picked as soon as well overspread with red and before the seeds are well ripened. The flesh is firm, fine, crisp, tender, spicy and juicy, and of best quality. Its chief fault appears to be a slight tendency to decay at the core, especially when overripe. The high quality and the remarkable attractiveness of King David make it one of the most promising new apples. King David was found growing in a fence row in Washington county, Arkansas, in 1893, and the following year was transplanted to a permanent orchard where it came to the attention of Stark Brothers Nursery Company, Louisiana, Missouri, in 1902. It was introduced to commerce by the Starks a year or two after its fortunate discovery. Tree vigorous, healthy, hardy, productive; branches long, moderately stout. Fruit of medium size, roundish-oblate to oblate-conic, slightly ribbed; stem medium in length, slender; cavity moderately deep and broad, usually russeted; calyx small, closed; basin medium in depth, somewhat abrupt, furrowed; skin thin, tender, smooth; color pale greenish-yellow, almost entirely overspread with a very attractive deep, dark red, changing to scarlet; flesh distinctly yellow, firm, crisp, moderately tender, juicy, brisk subacid, spicy and aromatic, good to very good; season November to February. PEACH. Edgemont.— In fruit and tree, the Edgemont is much like the well-known Late Crawford but surpasses that peach in several 606 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE OF THE important characters. In fact, of the score or more of peaches of the Crawford type, in many respects the best of the several types of peaches, Edgemont is distinctly superior to all on our grounds. It is a few days or a week earlier than Elberta, is juicier, less fibrous, much excels that variety in quality and, though the individual peaches are not quite as large in size, yet at Geneva the yield of fruit is even greater. If the Edgemont proves adapted to as wide a range of climates and soils as the Elberta, we shall have a new commercial peach of very great value. Whether it succeeds in commerce or not, Edgemont is well worth planting in home orchards by virtue of its exceptionally high quality and alluring appearance. The Edgemont, shortened from Edgemont Beauty, in accordance with the rules of the American Pomological Society, is of rather recent origin, having been introduced by the Miller Orchard Company of Edgemont, Maryland, in 1902. Tree very large, upright-spreading, somewhat open, productive; leaves large, oval, lanceolate; upper surface smooth, dark green; lower surface silvery green; season of bloom with Elberta, short. Fruit midseason, season short; large, roundish-oval to somewhat ccnic, halves unequal; cavity medium to deep, rather wide, slightly flaring; suture shallow, deepening toward the apex; apex roundish to bluntly pointed; color greenish-yellow changing to a pale lemon-yellow, splashed with dull red with a carmine blush; overspread with short pubescence; dots numerous, rather conspicuous; skin thin, tough, adherent; flesh yellow, faintly red at the pit, fine, tender, slightly fibrous, rich, sweet, spicy; very good; stone free. CHERRY. Abbesse d’Oignies has so many good characters that it is well worth trying commercially wherever cherries are grown in the United States. Curiously enough, it seems so far to have been tried only in the Middle West, Professor Budd having introduced it in Iowa from Russia in 1883. It grew in the Mississippi Valley, if we may judge from the accounts of it, as well as any cherry of its class in the unfavorable soil and climatic conditions of that region. We do not know of its having been tried elsewhere in the East than on our grounds and here we find it, in competition with practically all of the varieties of its class, one of the best of the Dukes. The trees are vigorous, hardy, fruitful. The cherries are large, dark red, of most excellent quality, combining the flavor of the Dukes with a firmer and yet tenderer flesh than the Montmorency. The KING DAVID h. real eo ou o fuy ’ sa Ke rh u at ; a q ae | las Hh en ae ¢ | : | wr rt , EDGEMONT (<2 ey 3h ae , 7 4 2 7 —_—*s » ‘AP 4° 1 & v vA i ; or § f* v s ’ . ‘ Ay “ ' ij Ce , 4 ¢ _ i ‘ > ‘ ' u . ‘ 4 , | ‘ wv . + J 1 ” > r . in al ‘ ie aa é Ww i rT i , i ty , 1 i . ; ae i 2, hy. ? ; fi i ie ee ¢ S ‘ axl q af P n ’ - . r ee ~ ry J » be is y 7A ; "a = ; i ae ls ° ; Be — ‘ , ee yu | 1. f i } 4 | _ . ’ + ns ’ J — 7 i ihe t i a ' ‘ ‘ ’ bel ‘ he ed Y es « = - “a vue gs > i ay & i a7 ‘ 7 . a *. = Pa A 4 ‘ ® . ’ Aw j u Br 4 is i L v + 7 : H A a ; i r 7 .Y . 4 } ‘’ , by " 7 ) Bul Th ND ee Sa a ee ry mm r ee ABBESSE D/’OIGNIES FRENCH New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT StaTIon. 607 high quality and handsome appearance of the fruit, combined with the good character of the tree, ought to make Abbesse d’Oignies a very good commercial variety. This cherry probably originated in western Europe about the middle of the 19th century. It is now a greater or less favorite wherever cherries are grown in the Old World, Professor Budd having found it, as we have said, in 1883, in Russia. Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, hardy, productive; branches smooth, thick, somewhat drooping. Fruit matures late, ripening period long; large, roundish- oblate, slightly compressed; cavity of medium depth, wide, regular; suture a line; apex roundish, slightly depressed; color dark, attractive red; dots numerous, small, light russet, conspicuous; stem slender, one and five-eighths inches long, adhering to the fruit; skin moderately thick, rather tough, not adherent; flesh yellowish-white, with colorless juice, slightly stringy, tender, moderately soft, sprightly subacid; of very good quality; stone free, about three-eighths inch in diameter, roundish, turgid, slightly pointed, surface nearly smooth. PLUM. French.— Damson plums year by year increase in popularity in New York. Plantations are small but they are becoming more and more common and those who have them find them profitable. The trees, as all fruit-growers know, are not equalled by any other of the several groups of plums in vigor, hardiness and productiveness. Shropshire is the most commonly grown Damson, but we believe French to be a better variety and think that if planted more generally the Damson industry would be even more profitable and make a still greater growth. French is the largest of the Damsons — probably a hybrid between Shropshire and some Domestica plum. The trees are larger and more productive than those of other Damsons. The fruit is excellent in quality, handsome in appearance, of large size and may be eaten out of hand with relish when fully ripe or after a light frost — a point worth remembering where only Damsons can be grown. In some seasons the stone clings and in others, curiously enough, it is free. The trees are hardy, very fruitful and carry their foliage and fruit well. The season is a week or two later than that of the Shropshire, which is an advantage. The origin of French is unknown, but it is probably an intro- duction from France and an old variety renamed. To the late S. D. Willard of Geneva, New York, to whom plum-growers are 608 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE OF THE indebted for several foreign varieties, we owe the introduction of French to America. Tree large, vigorous, spreading, dense-topped, hardy, productive; branches numerous, with many fruit-spurs; leaves folded upward, long, oval; blooming season intermediate in time and length; flowers appearing after the leaves, one and one-fourth inches across, white, borne on lateral spurs, usually in pairs. Fruit late; large for a Damson, ovate, halves equal, suture a line; color dull black, overspread with thick bloom; stem slender, three-fourths inch long, adhering well to the fruit; skin thin, tough, separating readily; flesh greenish, juicy, fibrous, tender, sweet, pleasant and sprightly; good to very good; stone clinging, semi-clinging or free. GRAPE. Hicks.— In “‘ The Grapes of New York” we took occasion to call attention to the merit of the Hicks grape as a competitor of the Concord. A few growers have since planted it but the variety does not begin to receive the attention it merits in New York. The fruit is almost identical with the Concord but ripens a little earlier — a fact which in itself should give the grape a place in the viticulture of this State. The chief merit of Hicks as compared with the Concord is, on our grounds and wherever we have heard of it in the State, that the vines are of stronger growth and are more productive. It is not improbable that Hicks would uniformly give greater yields in the Concord grape regions of this State than the Concord itself. It must be remembered, however, that ours is a heavy soil and that the Hicks might not surpass the Concord on lighter soils. Certain it is that Hicks is the better grape on heavy soils and, moreover, because of earlier ripening can be better grown where shortness of season is a consideration. Hicks was introduced in 1898 by Henry Wallace, Wallston, Missouri, who states that it is a seedling sent from California, about 1870, to a nurseryman of St. Louis county, Missouri, passing eventually into the hands of Wallace, who named it Hicks. Both fruit and vine characters lead to the supposition that it is an offspring of Concord. Vine vigorous to very vigorous, hardy, very productive; canes medium to long, numerous, of average thickness, dark brown to reddish-brown, surface covered with thin, blue bloom; leaves large, thin; upper surface dark green and glossy; lower surface whitish, becoming bronze, strongly pubescent; flowers fertile or nearly so. Fruit ripens a little earlier than Concord, ships and keeps as well as Concord; clusters large to medium, broad, tapering, often single-shouldered, compact; berries large, roundish, New York AcricuLTuRAL Experiment Station. 609 dark purplish-black, covered with heavy bloom, inclined to shatter when over-ripe, firm; flesh greenish, juicy, faintly foxy, sweet at the skin but acid at the center; good in quality; seeds adhere somewhat to the pulp, of medium size. GOOSEBERRY. Chautauqua is not a new variety and it is surprising that growers have not more generally planted it. None of the American goose- berries can compete with Chautauqua and for a number of years the variety has held its own against the only other commonly grown European sort, Industry. Whether the Chautauqua is a pure-bred European gooseberry or not, the fact remains that mildew, the greatest enemy of the Old World varieties, affects it but little. The bush has the habit of the European varieties and in its stocky, compact, upright growth and thick, dark, shining, healthy leaves, surpasses many of the best of the Europeans. At first on the grounds of this Station Chautauqua was lacking in fruitfulness, but for some years past there have been abundant harvests; in 1918, for example, the variety yielded at the rate of 14,665 pounds per acre with plants set six by five feet apart. The fruit is usually of full size and ready for picking the first or second week of July. It is not safe to delay the harvesting of the fruit because of danger of sunscald — although this variety is no more subject to such injury than other varieties. A gooseberry sold under the name Columbus appears to be identical with Chautauqua. There are a few other European sorts which closely resemble the Chautauqua, as Freedom, Wellington Glory and Portage. The origin of Chautauqua is not known. Plants were received at this Station in 1888 from the Lewis Roesch Company, Fredonia, New York, with the following account: “‘ About 1876, Mr. Lewis Roesch, Fredonia, New York, first observed the plants growing in an old garden in Dunkirk, New York, and was so pleased with them that he secured permission to layer some of the plants for purposes of propagation. The plants were strong growers, great bearers of very large fruit of good quality and did not then mildew although mildew appeared later. Mr. Roesch was unable to learn the name of the variety. The party of whom he secured the stock did not know the variety, having secured it of a neighbor who had obtained it of some nurseryman. Chas. Downing saw the fruit and was of the opinion that it was some English variety or a seedling of one. 39 610 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF HoRTICULTURE OF THE The variety was named and introduced in the spring of 1894 by Lewis Roesch, Fredonia, N. Y.” Plants medium to large, vigorous, stocky, upright-spreading, rather dense, very productive, with but little mildew; suckers few, smooth, straight, rather long, with short internodes, dull, light gray; two-year wood thick, roughened by dull gray scarf- skin over dark brownish-red; spines thick, strong, numerous, long, very sharp, in ones, twos and threes, attached at the base of the leaf; leaf-buds small, narrow, long, conical; leaves obovate to cordate, somewhat taper-pointed, rather thick; upper surface glossy, attractive green, smooth, glabrous; lower surface olive-green; margin blunt- crenate; petiole about three-fourths inch long, slender, pubescent and slightly hairy at the base; flowers open the last of May or early in June. Fruit matures the first half of July; large, one and one-eighth by one inch in size, mostly singly, roundish- oval to roundish, attractive silvery green; pedicels three-eighths inch long, pubescent; skin smooth, covered with bloom, thick, tough, translucent; flesh pale green, medium juicy, firm, sweet except near the skin; good in quality when fully mature; seeds large, numerous. CURRANT. Chautauqua, shortened in accordance with the rules of the American Pomological Society from Chautauqua Climbing. is one of the best of all in the currant collection of nearly forty varieties on the Station grounds. The plants are healthy and all that could be desired in vigor and productiveness, yielding in 1913 at the rate of 10,018 pounds per acre with plants set six by five feet. It ripens in midseason, with Fay or a few days later. The clusters are unusually long, with stems free from berries at the base and therefore easy to pick. The berries, while not uniformly as large as those of Fay, are of good size, handsome light red in color, high in quality and hang well even after ripening. Although the shipping quality has not been tested, Chautauqua will doubtless carry well over long distances. This currant is a chance seedling found in the woods by Mr. R. F. Lonnen, Mayville, New York, about 1893 and introduced by the Curtice Nursery Company, Portland, New York, in 1901 or 1902. It does not appear to have been widely disseminated. Plants were received at this Station from Lewis Roesch, Fredonia, New York. Plants large, vigorous, upright-spreading, dense, productive, healthy; suckers rather few; canes stocky, smooth, of medium length, straight, dark brown often entirely overlaid with dull gray; leaves ovate, thin, dark green; margin crenate; petiole variable in length averaging about two inches, of medium thickness, pubescent; season of bloom early. Fruit matures early in July, easily picked; clusters long, loose, New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 611 with from fifteen to twenty-four berries per cluster; stems and pedicels long, slender; berries adhere well, medium to large, often one-half inch across, roundish to slightly oblate, attractive light bright red; skin smooth, thin, tough, translucent; flesh reddish, medium juicy, fine-grained, tart, sprightly; very good; seeds intermediate in size and number. STRAWBERRIES. Indiana is a new variety which for two years in succession has been a leader among nearly one hundred varieties under test on the grounds of this Station. The plants do not multiply as rapidly as could be wished but are up to the average in this respect. It blooms late—a valuable character in localities subject to late spring frosts. The season is medium early. The blossoms are perfect. The plants thus far are healthy and although only medium in vigor have yielded well on the heavy clay soil at this Station producing in 1913 at the rate of 10,436 quarts per acre. It is reported to be more productive on heavy than on light soils. But few varieties surpass Indiana in size of fruit, this character holding up unusually well throughout the season. Some of the earliest berries are ‘‘ coxcombs ” but the prevailing shape is distinctly that of the wedge. The color is somewhat variable at first but later becomes a uniformly dark, glossy scarlet. The quality is first- class. The variety gives promise of being one of the best of shippers, having firm, meaty flesh. ; Indiana is of recent origin. It was produced by Mr. H. J. Schild, Ionia, Michigan, in 1905. It is a cross between Red Cross and a seedling, the parentage of which was Red Dawn X Ionia Market. The new variety was introduced by Mr. A. B. Sibert, Rochester, Indiana, in 1911 as a “ fig type” strawberry. Plants medium in number, vigor and height, healthy, productive; leaves rather small, dark green, smooth, glossy; leaf-stalks somewhat slender, with abundant pubescence; flowers perfect, bloom rather late, variable in size; pedicels short, slender slightly pubescent; petals average six to seven in number, broadly roundish, tapering to broad, blunt claws; stamens numerous, short; receptacle medium in size, broadly conical. Fruit-stems short, thick, prostrate, much branched; pedicels long, slender; calyx small, flat, adheres well to the fruit; fruit matures medium early, season rather long; berries large, quite uniform in size which is retained till near the close of the picking season, wedge-shape, with furrowed surface, not necked, obtuse at the apex, dark attractive glossy red, coloring evenly; seeds numerous, variable in position; flesh well colored to the center, medium juicy, firm, mild subacid; good in quality. 612 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorTICULTURE. Barrymore.— For two years at this Station, Barrymore has more than held its own against many standard, commercial strawberries. The characters which promise to make it preeminent are fruit- fulness, large size, desirable shape, unusually attractive color, with flavor and quality which closely rival these characters in the well-known Marshall. The foliage has shown some susceptibility to leaf-spot. In the later pickings the color of the fruit has been somewhat variable. The yield at this Station in 1913 was at the rate of 12,499 quarts per acre. The late blooming habit is a valuable asset in localities subject to spring frosts. The flowers are perfect. A large number of runners are produced, for which ample room should be provided in setting the plants. Barrymore is almost an ideal variety for early midseason. Barrymore is the result of a cross made by Mr. H. L. Crane, Westwood, Massachusetts, in 1901. Blossoms of Sample were fertilized with pollen from a seedling of A. B. Howard. After test- ing the seedlings resulting from this cross for a number of years one of the most promising was named Barrymore and was introduced by Mr. Crane in 1908 in which year the variety won a silver medal and three first premiums at the meeting of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Plants numerous, medium in vigor and height, very productive, somewhat subject to attacks of leaf-spot; leaves rather small; flowers perfect, bloom rather late, one to one and one-eighth inches across; petals roundish-oval, usually from six to eight in number; stamens medium in length, numerous; fruit-stems intermediate in length, variable in thickness; calyx large, attractive green, flattened, leafy. Fruit matures medium early, season long; berries large, retain size fairly well till near the close of the season, blunt-conic to wedge-shape, obtuse at the apex, attractive, glossy dark red; seeds raised; flesh well colored to the center, juicy, firm, pleasant flavored, sprigutly; very good in quality. RINGING FRUIT TREES.* G. H. HOWE. SUMMARY. 1. The object of ringing fruit trees is to induce unproductive trees to set fruit. 2. Briefly stated, the theory of the operation is: That the removal of a band of bark through the cortex and bast of a plant, at the period of most vigorous growth, does not hinder the upward passage from the roots to the leaves, through the outer layer of woody cells, of unassimilated sap; but does prevent the distribution, through vessels in the cortex and inner bark below the wound, of assimilated food. The effect of this action is to cause an extra amount of reserve ma- terial to be stored in the upper parts of the plant for the production of fruit buds. 3. Ringing seems to favor certain organs for a time but devitalizes others. 4. The removal of narrow strips of bark is less injuricus to plant growth than taking out wide rings. 5. Under certain conditions, ringing may induce and possibly in- crease fruitfulness of apples, but it rarely has these favorable effects on other fruits. 6. Only young and very vigorous apple trees, possibly now and then pear and cherry trees, can survive ringing, and even with these fruits the compensating gains seldom offset the injury to the trees. 7. The practice of ringing stone fruits should never be followed. The experiments indicate almost Ioo per ct. loss in the life of the trees. 8. Regular and successive increases in productiveness did not result from the ringing of several varieties of our tree fruits. g. Ringing had no apparent influence upon the size, color or ma- turity of apples. 10. The general effect of ringing on the roots of the trees was to decrease their size and number and to lessen their vigor. INTRODUCTION. Ringing plants consists in the removal of a band of bark through the cortex and bast of the trunk. The term girdling is frequently used * Reprint of Bulletin No. 391, December; for Popular Edition see p. 956. [613] 614 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE OF THE to designate this operation, but since this name is usually associated with wounds made more or less deeply in the wood, which result in ultimate death, as when a tree is girdled by mice or girdled for the purpose of killing, it is unfortunately chosen. French writers use the phrase, ‘‘décortication annulaire’’ (annular decortication) which is more exact than either ringing or girdling. The object of ringing is to induce and increase fruitfulness. In the growth of plants, unassimilated sap rises from the roots through the outer woody cylinder of the main stem to the leaves. There it is changed into a suitable form for utilization in plant growth. This sap is then distributed, through cells in the cortex and inner bark, to the various plant organs. When plants are ringed the upward flow of sap is not materially impeded, but returning juices are prevented from passing below the wound. This causes an unusual accumula- tion above, thus supplying the upper portion of the plant with an ex- tra amount of food at the expense of the parts below the ring. The practice of ringing is by no means of recent origin but is known to have been in use at least a century ago for the purpose of increasing productiveness of woody plants. Thus, according to Prince,! writing in 1832, Lindley, in his Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen Garden, advocated its use to bring fruit trees into bearing. Sorauer? discussed at length the principle involved and the practicability of the operation. Goodman* considered ringing just as important in the scheme of orchard management as pruning and cultivation. According to his experiments with a large number of trees the crop was increased five fold. Van Deman‘recommends the ringing of apple and pear trees only when all other means of inducing them to bear have failed. He discourages the practice of the operation with stone fruits. _Paddock® found that with certain varieties of grapes ringing produced an in- creased size of cluster and earliness of ripening but the operation was too devitalizing to be recommended as a common practice. Daniel® found that the annual ringing of tomatoes and egg-plants produced a marked increase in the size of the fruits borne. Sablon’ ringed various 1Prince, William. Pomological Manual. 2:X—XI. 1832. 2Sorauer, Paul. Physiology of Plants, pp. 159-164. 1895. 3Goodman, L. A. N. Y. State Fruit Growers’ Assoc. An. Rpt. 5:59. 1906. 4Van Deman, H. E. Rural N. Y. 73:1181. 1914. 5Paddock, W. N. Y. Sta. Bul. 151: 1898. 6 Daniel, L. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. (Paris) 131: 1253-1255. 1900. 7Sablon, Leclerc du. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. (Paris) 140: 15538-1555. 1905. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 615 woody plants in order to determine the distribution of the reserve plant juices contained therein. Hedrick, Taylor and Wellington,’ in a bulletin from this Station, found that ringing herbaceous plants was so deleterious to their growth that it could not be advocated for general practice. The loss to the plants was great and there proved to be little or no compensating gain. The object of the experiments herein reported was to determine, if possible, the extent to which fruit trees can be ringed without per- manent injury and in what degree, if at all, the operation induces and stimulates fruitfulness. Apples, pears, plums and cherries were the species used in these experiments. The work was started in 1910 and was carried on during the three succeeding years. Ringing should be performed early in June or July, at which time the bark peels readily from the wood leaving the cambium in a succulent condition. The success of the operation hinges upon the fact that at this season of the year occurs the greatest cambial activity which readily facilitates the rapid formation of new bark and at the same time prevents exhaustive evaporation ef plant juices. Any attempt to practice ringing when plant growth is sluggish or dormant always results in the death of the tree, since the cambium, being then firm, is torn from the woody cylinder during the operation. com- mon pruning knife or a sharp pocket knife is a suitable instrument for performing the operation. The rings were made of varying widths and were cut either at the base of the trunk or upon branches close to their union with the trunk. In one case narrow rings were made around the trunks at different distances from the surface of the ground. RINGING APPLES. In 1910 there were growing upon the Station grounds 122 seedling trees five years from planting, which up to this time had borne little or no fruit. Early in June, 1910, a band of bark one inch in width was removed from the trunk of each of these trees, just above the surface of the ground. These were normal, vigorous young trees, free from insect pests and diseases, and all were making a strong, thrifty growth. All received similar treatment as to cultivation and pruning. New bark began to form within a few days after the ringing and at the end of the growing season all of the wounds were entirely covered with new, healthy bark. As far as could be noticed, none of the trees * Hedrick, U. P., etal. N.Y, Sta, Bul. 288, 1907. 616 WReport oF THE DEPARTMENT oF HortTICULTURE OF THE had received any setback in the season’s growth. All were vigorous and had made considerable new growth. Table I shows the number of bearing trees and the percentage of a crop per tree for the years 1910 and 1911. TaBLE ].— Errecr or RinGinc oN Fruit Propuction or ApPLe TREES. 1910. 1911. Average Average No. of No. of Percentage | percentage | No. of | Percentage! percentage trees bearing of trees of crop bearing trees of crop ringed. trees. bearing. per tree. trees. bearing. | per tree. 122 54 44 7 107 88 56 These figures would seem to indicate that ringing, according to theory, exerted a very potent influence in bringing the trees into bear- ing and upon the fruitfulness of the trees. Manifestly, without ringing and with the same climatic conditions a larger number of trees would have fruited in 1911 than in the previous year, because of in- creasing maturity; and the crop per tree would likewise have been increased. Nevertheless, it is doubtful if such a marked increase in the number of bearing trees and in productiveness would have oc- curred, had not the setting of fruit-buds been stimulated owing to an interruption of physiological functions. It may be well to state at this point that since 1911 these trees have never yielded as large a crop even with subsequent ringing. In the early part of June, 1911, 27 of the seedling trees which had been ringed the previous year were again subjected to the removal of a strip of bark one inch in width directly above the former rings. The bark peeled off from the wood this year with as great ease as it had before. Within a few days new bark was seen to be forming from the hardened cambium over the entire surface of every wound. At the end of the growing season an entire, new coating of bark was joined to the old upon either side of the ring. Apparently the trees had suffered no ill effects from the ringing. All seemed to be in a vigorous, thrifty condition and upon comparison with unringed trees no difference could be found in the amount of growth. The 27 trees ringed produced in 1911 an average of 93 per ct. of a crop per tree and in 1912, 43 per ct. From these figures the fact ‘SHAUN, AIddy NO SONIY dO AONVUVAddyY — AT ALVIG *yreq Mou Y}IM SUL YOUl-soryy, *BULI YOUI-ou0 UO yIeq MON ‘OpIM Your ou ‘SUL YSoly ys eee hg sh § F PRISON. AAS Faria, ak , » * “i ‘ i ‘ Teri ¥ New York AGRICULTURAL ExprRIMENT Sration. 617 stands out clearly that the heavy crop in 1911 resulted in an off-year and a light yield in 1912, as is so often the case with many standard varieties of apples. The second ringing apparently had no influence in increasing the yield. The health and vigor of the trees seemed not to be decreased. All except two showed, at the close of the season, complete new bark formation. The two trees in question had failed to cover the entire rig and were not as vigorous as the others. It is possible that these trees lacked vigor from the time of planting. In the early part of June, 1912, additional ringing was performed upon these same trees. This time rings 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 and 21 inches in width were made, four trees being used for each of the various widths. These wounds were made around the trunks just above the former rings, all of the bark, whether in three-inch strips or twenty-one inch strips, being removed with equal ease. This ringing had no effect upon stimulating fruit production, for the crop borne in 1913 was about the same as that of 1912—-so similar that further averages need not be given. Table II explains the effect of the ringing upon the vigor of the trees. TasBLeE IJ.— Errect or RrincinGc on Vicor oF APPLE TREES. No. of No. of No. of trees | No. of | vigor- No. No. of No. of trees with trees parti- trees ous weak- trees various sized rings. fully ally failing | thrifty | ened in | entirely healed. | healed. | to heal.| trees. vigor. dead. 4 trees ringed 3 in. wide... it org aaNet ae 1 Seaway. cca 1 4 trees ringed 6 in. wide. . So, [eas eas 1 2 1 1 4 trees ringed 9 in. wide.. 3 1S (eo ace ae 2 DP ee 4 trees ringed 12 in. wide. . 2 ibs Ni Cer oi 2 DA WN es a. dete 4 trees ringed 15 in. wide. . 3 Cs oh ae 2 Dir Neca Pets 4 trees ringed 18 in. wide. . 3 Lepen Ee ced XE, xd 2 2) REA 4 trees ringed 21 in. wide. . 1 ae Mek ces 1 aS Hee It EN ee From the foregoing data it would appear that ringing tends to have injurious effects upon apple trees and that the wider the bands the more serious will be the injury. It may be stated again at this point that the trees used in this experiment were exceptionally strong and uniform in vigor and were therefore possibly in a better condition to withstand wounding than average orchard trees. All of the trees making a weak growth showed smaller foliage and less wood produc- 618 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorRTICULTURE OF THE tion. The foliage, likewise, lost its color and fell from the branches four to six weeks earlier than that of normal trees. Sprouts two to six in number sprang up at the lower edge of the wound on nearly every tree. This would indicate that nature was endeavoring to provide assimilated food for the roots since passage of such food from the up- per portion of the trees had been cut off. As has already been stated no gain in productiveness resulted from this ringing. The few fruits which were produced showed no differences in size or color from the normal. Clearly, ringing these trees seriously injured their health without increasing fruitfulness. Orchard space necessitated the dis- carding of these trees in 1914. Examination, at this time, of the root systems showed that, as a rule, the ringed trees had smaller, shorter roots (nearly approaching hairy roots) than the unringed trees. Trees low in vitality had extremely small root systems. Karly in June, 1911, 50 Baldwin trees three years from setting were ringed, bands 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 inches wide, respect- ively, being removed from groups of five treeseach. At the same time 35 trees of the same variety and age in another block were ringed, groups of five trees each being ringed with one-inch-wide rings at the surface of the ground and 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 inches, respectively, above the ground. In most cases new bark started to form, but at the end of the season not a single tree had made a perfect formation of new covering. Several trees in each lot were dead and all others lacked vigor. All foliage dropped about five weeks earlier than from adjoining unringed trees of the same age. The spring following the ringing, but 10 per ct. of the trees of both lots started growth, and this so weak that death resulted before mid-summer. While these two lots of trees were less vigorous than the seedlings of the previous experiments, they were representative of average trees of the com- mercial orchard. About the middle of June, 1912, out of a block of 24 Baldwin trees four years from planting, 12 were ringed one inch wide at the base of the trunks and the remaining 12 were left as checks. These were average Baldwin trees, vigorous and thrifty. None had fruited up to the time of ringing: At the close of the growing season not a single tree showed an entire coating of new bark. All had partially re- covered, but lacked vigor and tone. As compared with the checks, the ringed trees had made less growth. The foliage was smaller and dropped earlier. In the spring of 1913, one tree failed to start. All New York AGRICULTURAL ExprRIMENT Starion. 619 of the others began growth at the same time as the checks but failed to advance as rapidly. No additional bark was formed and on each ringed tree portions of the new bark died during the summer. At the end of the season the check trees had made one-third more growth than those ringed. The wounded trees were then so weak, one having died, that they were all discarded. All of the living trees, both the ringed and the checks, bore a few apples in 1913 which dropped before the time of harvesting. The root systems of the ringed trees all proved to be much smaller and less developed than those of the checks. From these experiments it is clear that the first ringing of the seed- lings influenced fruitfulness and caused them to set a large crop of fruit. The experiments with the Baldwins, however, showed entirely different results. These trees, lacking the vigor and hardiness of the seedlings, failed to survive a single operation. In some of the western states orchardists frequently resort to the ringing of their young trees to induce them to bear fruit, with very good results. Under most favorable conditions young, vigorous, thrifty trees ought to withstand and respond to one operation, but subsequent ringing is devitalizing and exerts practically no beneficial influence. From the experiments at this Station, the practice of ringing apple trees for the purpose of inducing and increasing pro- ductiveness seems too drastic a practice for the good of the trees. Even if a slight increase in fruitfulness is brought about it seldom offsets the injury to the tree. RINGING PEARS. — Early in June, 1912, 12 Bartlett pear trees four years from setting were ringed at the base of their trunks with bands one inch in width. Twelve adjoining trees of this variety were left as checks. As with apples, the pear-tree bark peeled from the wood at this season with ease. Succulent cambium covered the exposed woody cells. Soon after ringing, this cambium hardened and began forming bark over the entire wound and no injurious effects were evident. After a time, however, new bark continued to grow only in streaks, leaving patches of dying tissues. Wood growth became sluggish and the foliage failed to retain its usual dark green pigment. In the fall, 2 trees were dead, having formed but 5 per ct. of new bark. None of the others were thrifty. New bark was poorly formed. The foliage was small 620 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF HorTICULTURE OF THE and discolored and dropped several weeks earlier than that from the check trees. In the spring of 1913 the 10 living trees started growth at about the same time as the checks. Growth was slow and as the season ad- vanced more dead bark appeared where the ringing had been done. Towards the end of the summer 4 more trees died. The remaining 6 made such a poor growth that they were discarded at the end of the season. Very marked difference existed in the size of the ringed and unringed trees, the latter bemg one-third larger and making a rapid, vigorous growth. The roots of the ringed trees were poorly developed. At the beginning of the test the trees were all of equal size and similar to trees of the same age in the best commercial plantations. All received the same treatment. No fruit had been borne previous to the time of ringing. In 1913, however, both lots of trees bloomed in about equal proportions but no fruit set upon any of them, due, possibly, to the self-sterility of this variety. RINGING PLUMS AND CHERRIES. Almost no work seems to have been done upon the ringing of stone fruits. In general, drupes come into bearing earlier; are not as hardy; are less resistant to external injuries; and are shorter lived than pomes. The primary object of ringing these stone fruits was to determine in what degree they could withstand the injury, as it was hardly to be supposed that there would be a favorable effect in inducing or stimu- lating fruit-bearing. Early in June, 1912, 12 Montmorency cherry and 12 Bradshaw plum trees, four years from planting, were ringed one inch wide at the base of their trunks. No difficulty was experienced in the removal of the bark and, like the pomes, the woody cells were covered with succulent cambium. ‘Twelve trees of each variety in the same block were left as checks. At the same date 20 standard varieties of plums 15 years from setting were ringed. These trees were in an orchard of about 40 varieties all of the same age and receiving the same attention. ‘Rings one inch in width were taken out. Four trees were ringed upon their trunks just above the ground. On the remaining 16 trees the largest branches were ringed close to their union with the trunks. All of the trees were strong and vigorous and free from insects and diseases. During the first few weeks after the ringing the cambium New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 621 seemed to be hardening into bark over all the wounds. By mid- summer, however, growth had stopped and little or no new bark was evident either on the cherries or plums. The cut edges from many wounds showed growth in the nature of a callus and from these oc- easionally would extend at right angles short strips of new bark almost meeting at the center of the rings. But the wounds never entirely closed. As the season advanced much of the newly formed bark died. Tree growth became stunted. The foliage began losing color and the general vigor of all the trees seemed impaired. The 15-year-old plum trees set a small crop of fruit in 1912. At the time of harvesting no difference could be found in size and color of the fruit from ringed and from unringed trees. The flavor of fruit from ringed trees, however, seemed not to be so good and the flesh was less juicy. No fruit was borne on the Montmorency cherries or the Bradshaw plums in 1912. At the close of the growing season 80 per ct. of all the trees were with- out living bark covering the wounds. Usually the woody cells were bare and often they were black and spotted indicating fungus diseases. One cherry tree showed a considerable portion of the wound to be per- fectly healed, but this tree lacked the vigor of the unringed trees. Both the cherry and plum foliage fell from the ringed trees from four to five weeks earlier than from the checks. In case the trees were ringed on the trunks the whole tree was in a weakened condition, but where branches only were ringed, these and not the whole tree were low in vitality. Out of all the trees ringed but one, a Montmorency cherry, made any material growth the following season. All of the other cherries and all of the plums which were not entirely dead failed to make more than a start; before summer, all were dead. The Mont- morency cherry mentioned, while making fair growth, was by no means as vigorous as unringed trees. An examination of the root sys- tems of the ringed trees showed that they were smaller, shorter and less dense than those of check trees. This was particularly true of the younger trees. With the older plum trees but little difference could be found. CONCLUSIONS. The results obtained from these experiments are not favorable to ringing fruit trees as a general practice. Under some conditions, for a limited time, a more favorable outcome might be expected. Hardy, vigorous, young apple trees may readily undergo a single ringing and 622 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorTICULTURE. be benefited thereby, but subsequent operations are injurious. Trees lacking vigor are often seriously injured by the practice. The dele- terious effects of the treatment have generally been so marked upon various plant organs as to render the operation exceedingly hazardous. There seems to be no regular or systematic increase in fruit produc- tion. The gains do not offset the losses. DISTRIBUTION OF STATION APPLES.* U. P. HEDRICK. The New York Agricultural Experiment Station has twelve new varieties of apples for distribution in 1914. These varieties are the outcome of experimental work in plant breeding. They have been grown and compared with practieally all of the standard sorts of their kind and are equal to or superior in one or more respects to apples of their season, as grown on the Station grounds. The distribution of these varieties is undertaken that we may ascertain their value and adaptability in the different fruit regions of New York. A fuller description of most of the varieties listed has been published in Bulletin No. 350 from this Station. TERMS OF DISTRIBUTION. There are no restrictions upon recipients of plants as to further distribution of the varieties by sale or otherwise. If the fruits prove meritorious, it is desired that they be generally disseminated as quickly as possible. We only ask that those who receive the plants report to the Station in regard to the behavior of the varieties on blanks which will be furnished when the plants come in bearing. The trees are sent without charge but the recipient must pay expressage. Applicants must give both mail and express addresses. The Station reserves the right to make a choice of growers to whom the trees will be sent. This choice will depend chiefly upon priority of application and upon ee number of applicants from a locality. Only one tree of a variety can be ey to an applicant, but it is desired that a person receiving any should receive all of the varie- ties, that a comparative test may be made of them. The trees have been fumigated and the tops have been dipped in an insecticide but the Station does not guarantee them to be free from San José scale. Address all correspondence regarding these new fruits to the Horticultural Department, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. * Reprint of Circular No, 28, March 9. [623] 624 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorTICULTURE OF THE STATION APPLES. Broome — (Parentage unknown). Tree vigorous, upright-spreading, rather late in coming into bearing, medium in productiveness. Fruit comes in season early in January; above medium to medium in size, roundish to oblate-conic, usually com- pletely overspread with dark red; flesh yellowish, firm, medium in grain, moderately juicy, mild subacid, aromatic; good in quality. Worthy of test because of attractive color and high quality. Clinton—(Ben Davis X Green Newtown). Tree vigorous, upright-spreading, productive. Season, December to February; above medium in size, roundish to oblate-conic; color greenish-yellow, blushed with dull bronze, splashed with carmine, prevailing effect red; flesh yellowish, firm, crisp, tender, juicy, subacid, aromatic; of good quality. This apple is very attractive in appearance and of very good quality, resembling Green Newtown in size, shape and quality but of a handsome red color. Herkimer—(Ben Davis X Green Newtown). Tree vigorous, upright, slightly spreading, medium productive. Season, December to March; large, roundish to oblong-conic; color greenish-yellow, partly overspread with red, irregularly splashed and striped with dull carmine; flesh yellow, firm, coarse, juicy, brisk subacid; of good quality. Herkimer resembles Ben Davis both externally and internally more than the Green Newtown but is better in quality. Its good quality, handsome appearance and long-keeping properties commend it. Montgomery—(Parentage unknown). Tree vigorous, upright-spreading, dense- topped, produces heavy crops biennially — light crops in other years. Fruit matures about the middle of September, or soon after Red Astrachan; large, roundish to oblate- conic, almost entirely overspre2d with bright red and faintly striped with darker red resembling Red Astrachan; fiesh white, fine-grained, tender, juicy, brisk subacid; good in quality. An early variety, much like Red Astrachan but extending the season of that variety. Nassau— (Esopus X Ben Davis). Tree vigorous, upright-spreading, productive. Season December to March; medium in size, oblate; color pale yellow, splashed, striped and mottled with bright pinkish-red, blushed on the sunny side; flesh firm, coarse, juicy, crisp, pleasant subacid, aromatic; good in quality. Nassau is far better in quality than Ben Davis but is hardly equal to Esopus. The color is more like that of Ben Davis than of Esopus, the contrasting colors of red and yellow being most attractive. Otsego— (Ben Davis X MelIntosh). Tree vigorous, upright-spreading, productive. Season November to February; medium in size, oblong-conic; color pale yellow over- spread with mottled dark red, splashed and striped with carmine, prevailing effect red; flesh yellow, firm, crisp, tender, medium juicy, mild subacid; good in quality. This apple is propagated because of its handsome color, good quality, small core and sparsity of seed. Rensselaer—(Ben Davis X Jonathan). Tree vigorous, spreading, productive. Season December to February; medium in size, roundish-conic to truncate; color yellow with a dull red blush, splashed with carmine, prevailing effect red; flesh yellowish, firm, crisp, tender, juicy, subacid, aromatic; of good quality. While of but medium size, Rensselaer is so attraetive in color and of such high flavor as to make it a valuable dessert fruit. It is of the type of Jonathan both externally and internally, New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 625 Rockland— (Ben Davis X Mother). Tree of medium vigor, somewhat spreading and straggling, productive. Season November to January; of medium size, roundish- truncate, symmetrical; color yellow, entirely overspread with dark red, splashed, mottled and obscurely striped with carmine; flesh yellowish, coarse, crisp, tender, juicy, sprightly subacid, aromatic; good to very good in quality. The fruit of this cross is of the type of Mother. It is most pleasing in appearance, resembling Mother in size, shape, color, texture, flavor and quality. This apple ought to be especially valuable as a dessert fruit. Saratoga — (Ben Davis X Green Newtown). Tree vigorous, upright-spreading, dense-topped, productive. Season January to April; large, roundish-conic to oblate, ribbed; color greenish-yellow, overspread with bright purplish-red, splashed and mottled with crimson; flesh greenish-yellow, firm, coarse, crisp, tender, juicy, sub- acid, sprightly; of good quality. This apple is particularly valuable because of its bright color and large size. Its quality is much superior to Ben Davis, being nearly or quite as good as Green Newtown. Schoharie— (Ralls X Northern Spy). Tree vigorous, upright-spreading, productive. Season November to March; large, roundish-conic, ribbed; color greenish-yellow, overspread with a mottled and striped dull red, prevailing effect, dull, striped red; flesh yellowish, firm, fine-grained, crisp, tender, juicy, pleasant but mild subacid, aromatic; of good quality. Schoharie is of proper size but somewhat dull in color. It is the type of Northern Spy in shape and color; the flesh, too, is that of the North- ern Spy, more yellow, but having the same delicious flavor and aroma. Ulster — (Parentage unknown). Tree medium in vigor, upright-spreading, some- what slow in coming into bearing, after which there is a tendency to overbear. Fruit begins to mature the last of December or early in January, season long; medium to above in size, roundish-oblate, green or greenish-yellow, sometimes with faint bronze blush; flesh tinged yellow, fine-grained, crisp, tender, juicy, pleasant subacid, aromatic; good to very good in quality. A greenish-yellow, late apple, usually of medium size, unless thinned; desirable on account of good keeping qualities and high flavor. Westchester — (Ben Davis X Green Newtown). Tree vigorous, upright-spreading, productive. Season November to January; large, roundish-conic, ribbed; color yellow, overspread with dull red, mottled and splashed with darker red; flesh yellow, coarse, very tender, juicy, mild subacid, aromatic; good to very good. Westchester resembles Green Newtown in shape, but has the color of Ben Davis while the quality is even better than that of Green Newtown. 40 CULTURE OF SWEET CORN.* J. W. WELLINGTON. NEEDS OF THE PLANT. Climate—— Corn 1s preeminently a hot-weather plant and makes its best growth during the summer months. It is tender and easily killed by late spring and early fall frosts, hence in the northern part of the State it is a somewhat doubtful crop except with the early maturing sorts. Soil.— Sweet corn will grow and do well in various types of soil, thriving best in light soils which warm up quickly in the spring. Good drainage is of utmost importance — more so than with cooler- climate vegetables such as cabbage and potatoes. A gentle, sunny, south slope is ideal for hastening the maturity of early sorts. The prospective corn field should be fall plowed unless there is danger of soil washing. Fertilizers.— Plenty of available plant food must be supplied. Market gardeners prefer horse manure to cow manure for the early sweet corn crop since the former, by virtue of its hghter and heating nature, opens and warms the soil. For midseason crops, abundant use of any manure procures good results. Supplemental applica- tions of commercial fertilizers should be made in order to insure heavy yields. Where no manure is available, corn should follow clover or other legumes in a rotation and should receive a liberal application of a fertilizer with a high content of phosphorus and nitrogen. The grower must ascertain the needs of his soil for himself, the appearance of the plants and the yield thereof being the best index of the soil’s condition. Manure should be plowed under, and the commercial fertilizer broadcasted before final har- rowing. It suffices to say that the better the preparation, the better the crop. CULTURE. Planting.— Small fields may be planted on a square system, allowing horse cultivation in both directions. This method of planting results in a great saving of hand labor, in that the culti- vator reaches a greater part of the weeds. Large fields must neces- sarily be planted by machinery, and allow of tillage in one way only. These machines may be regulated to required depth, number of seed and distance between hills and are by all means recommended for extensive plantings. There are also good hand sowers which * Reprint of Circular No, 29, May 10. [626] New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTIon. 627 make the hole and drop the required seed at one operation. Two to three inches depth is proper for sweet corn. Large-growing varieties, as Evergreen, should be sown in hills at least three and one- half feet apart; small kinds, as Cory, three by three or even less. Crowding gives no gain, resulting in taller plants of less yield. Eight to twelve quarts of seed is required for one acre. Six kernels should be sown in each hill, thinning to three or four plants at time of first hoeing. Care of crop.— Cultivation must begin as soon as the young plants show the rows and be continued at frequent intervals until the corn leaves are liable to injury. Since corn makes rapid growth in the driest, hottest months, it is imperative to keep up cultivation sufficient to maintain a dust mulch. The first hoeing is done when the plants are three or four inches tall and should be repeated often enough to kill all weeds. Proper tillage will bring a crop to success- ful maturity through all ordinary droughts. . Harvesting.— Sweet corn is ripe for table use when the kernels first become plump and full of milk, about the time that the silk has turned dark brown. Early varieties begin to ripen in early July and there are plenty of succeeding kinds to carry the season until fall frosts. The delightful sweetness soon deteriorates after picking, the consumer in the city receiving an inferior article after it has spent a few days in the market. Market gardeners generally pick twice; the home gardener greatly extends this season by starting with the earliest ears. The yield per acre depends upon the variety and degree of culture practiced. The trade prefers a medium sized ear. Retail trade is highly profitable and may be greatly strength- ened by the use of attractive packages containing a definite number of ears and bearing the name of the variety and that of the grower. SECURING GOOD SEED. Seed.— In order to maintain the good qualities of a variety it is necessary to practice systematic selection. For instance, if earliness is the object desired, the grower should go through his field and select those plants bearing the first maturing ears and distinguish such plants with colored string or cloth. Upon harvest- ing, these plants are not touched and their ears are left to ripen on the stalk. This seed should be separately cured, re-selected for ear qualities, and sowed in a distinct plat the next season. Selection is continued in this improved plat and after three or four years the grower will find himself possessed of a superior strain. Pearl and Surface give an admirable discussion of sweet corn breeding in Bulletin 183 of the Maine Station. This selective work is of no avail where two or more varieties of corn are grown within the vicinity of one another as varieties have been known to mix at dis- tances of more than a mile, 628 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorTICULTURE. Care of seed— Curing the seed is an important process; poor methods may easily result in loss of all gain derived from care in growing. ‘The seed ears may be picked when the husks are dry and withering. They should be either laid away in a wire-screen, vermin-proof rack or suspended by the husks from the rafters of an attic or other dry, warm room. Each ear must be so placed that it does not come in contact with others. After becoming thoroughly dry, the kernels should be shelled and laid away in a dry vermin- proof situation. Sweet corn growing deserves more careful thought and study. The ears are used for human food and the fodder is excellent for cattle. By reason of its many uses sweet corn is, almost without exception, & paying crop and often returns handsome profits. Large acreages are grown in this State for canning and market purposes. The practice of home selection of seed and the use of more thorough cultural methods would bring thousands of dollars in additional returns to the growers. A FEW GOOD VARIETIES. Cory.— Season very early, early July to August. Plant 4 to 5 feet tall. Ears 6 to 8 inches; 8 rowed; kernels large, white, with slight reddish tinge. Cobred. Quality good. Grown for market and home use on account of its earliness. N. B.— There is also a White Cory, with white cob and dull white kernels of quite similar quality. Not as hardy. Golden Bantam.— A few days later than Cory. Plant 4 to 5 feet tall. Ears 5 to 7 inches; 8 rowed; kernels large and broad, golden-yellow when edible. Quality delicious. A home garden sort of increasing market value. The best variety for the table. Crosby.— Second early sort. Plant 5 to 7 feet tall. Ears 7 to 8 inches; 12 or 14 rowed; kernels long, white. Cob white. Quality very good. A desirable home, market and canning variety. Country Gentleman.— Main crop or late. Plant 6 to 7 feet tall. Ears 6 to 9 inches, 18 to 24 irregular rows; kernels long, slender, “‘ shoe-peg ”’ shape, white. Cob white. Quality excellent. Grown for home and market. Evergreen.— Stowell’s Evergreen. Standard late sort. Plant 6 to 8 feet tall. Ears 7 to 10 inches; 14 to 18 rowed; kernels long, medium size, white. Cob white. Quality very good. Grown for home and late market. STRAWBERRIES.* O. M. TAYLOR. CULTURE. Location and soil—In the selection of a suitable location for strawberries several important factors should be considered such as climatic conditions, distance to market, kind of market, labor supply, character and condition of soil and need of drainage. Strawberries do well under widely different climates and soils. Most varieties, however, prefer lighter, sandy loams rather than colder and more compact clay soils. A well-drained loamy soil containing an abun- dance of available plant food and humus is especially desirable. A lighter soil with a southern exposure favors early crops. The heavier clay loams and a northern exposure are preferable for the late crops. If there is danger of spring frosts an elevation may be safer than bottom lands. A chemical analysis of soil will not deter- mine its value for the strawberry crop. Preparation of soil Weedy soils increase the expense of growing the crop and decrease the yield. Hoed crops such as potatoes, cabbage, beans or corn preceding strawberries will leave the land freer from weeds; and the soil will be in better condition if manure be applied heavily for the preceding crop. Seldom is land made too rich for strawberries. A clover sod plowed under is of great value but a grass sod should be avoided on account of danger from insects destructive to the roots of strawberry plants. Deep plowing will cause the plants to root more deeply and conserve more moisture. It may be done in spring but preferably in the fall as there is usually more time then, the decay of sod or fresh stable manure will begin sooner, beneficial effects from the action of frost on clay soils will be secured, insects may be destroyed, the soil made capable of holding more moisture and the spring work may be started earlier. In some cases it may be desirable to re-plow in the spring or the ground may be worked down with disk and harrow. Thorough cultivation should be given to make the soil fine and mellow before setting the plants. Manure and fertilizers.— There is but little danger of too much plant food in the soil. To secure maximum yields there must be an abundance of readily available food. Well-rotted manure thoroughly worked into the soil is one of the best fertilizers. Coarse manure will give good results if turned under early enough to become well decomposed in time to supply the needs of the plants. Such material is valuable because of its humus which improves the physi- cal condition of the soil and also its ability to withstand drought. * Reprint of Cireular No. 31, November 15. [629] 630 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE OF THE The absence of humus often accounts for low yields, especially in dry seasons. Fresh stable manure may occasionally be the means of introducing weed seeds into the soil. Applications of from 18 to 20 tons of manure per acre are none too heavy and they may often be increased with advantage. It is at times advantageous to use commercial fertilizers. The kind and amount to use, the time and manner of application depend on conditions. The applications should bear some relationship to the character of the soil, of the season, of the method of growing the crop and of the variety of strawberry grown. Soils may lack nitrogen, potash or phosphoric acid. Two to three hundred pounds per acre of nitrate of soda or 300 to 600 pounds dried blood will stimulate growth. An excess of nitrogen may cause a rank growth at the expense of fruit. Potash may be supplied by wood ashes, 2,000 pounds per acre, or by two to three hundred pounds muriate of potash. Six to seven hundred pounds per acre of acid phosphate will supply any lack of phosphoric acid. Other fertilizers might be named. If the soil is already well supplied with any one of these forms of plant food it is useless to make additional applications of that kind. The need of each soil should be studied and it is desirable to make tests of different fertilizers leaving check rows for com- parison. Fertilizers will not take the place of humus. No rule can be given for the proper application of fertilizers. Soils differ in all their properties and the condition should govern the application. Each grower must use his own judgment, based on observation and experience, to determine what to apply. The fertilizer may be applied broadcast in the spring before setting the plants, harrowing it in, or scattered along the plant rows after setting and mixed with the soils by cultivation. If necessary, nitrate of soda may be given the fruiting beds before blossoming time, broadcasting it directly over the plant rows. The foliage should be dry at time of application or injury may result, especially if nitrate remains on the leaves. For second crop beds apply the fertilizer or rotted stable manure along the rows after they have been cleaned out following fruitage. Strawberries do not appear to respond favorably to applications of lime. Some experimenters have observed more or less injury by its use. VARIETIES. Selection.— A variety may succeed admirably in one place and yet be worthless elsewhere. Under different environments and under unlike surroundings the same variety may change both in plant and fruit habits. Adaptation should be determined before an extensive use in the commercial plantation. Information may be gathered as to what varieties to set — first, by observation of the kinds doing well in the immediate locality under apparently similar conditions and, second, by a trial of a few plants before setting New York AGricutturRAL EXprRIMENT Station. 631 extensively. The character of the market may affect the selection; it may require early or late kinds. No variety has all the qualities equally developed that go to make perfection. The newer, most promising kinds should be tested in a small way and their local value determined. Occasionally one may be found superior to the older varieties. Fall-bearing varieties— During the past few years considerable interest has been aroused in this and other States to a group of varieties called Everbearing, or Fall-bearing, varieties. Such kinds have a tendency to bloom continuously from early summer until late fall, and are grown in such a way as to mature the bulk of the crop in August, September and October. There are over a dozen such varieties on the market and it is possible to have the fruits maturing during the fall months, and to supply the table for home use. It is another question, however, if such kinds are to be grown extensively for commercial purposes. There may be a limited demand which can be supplied at prices ranging from 25 cents to 50 cents per quart. It is suggested that those who wish to grow this class of varieties begin in a small way, testing out the value of the several kinds, and increasing the size of the plantation as is warranted by the success of the undertaking. The culture is the same as for other strawberries except that the blossoms should be kept picked off the plants up to the middle or last of July, and special steps should be taken to have the soil rich and full of humus. Several of the fall-bearing varieties make but few runners and should be set closer than those that multiply more rapidly. The following is a list of some of the Fall-bearing kinds: — FALL-BEARING VARIETIES. Advance Francis Productive Americus Iowa Progressive Autumn King Autumn Repeater Dewdrop Onward Standpat Forward Pan American Superb Sex of plants —— The sex of the variety should be known. Some varieties have perfect blossoms, also called hermaphrodite, staminate, bi-sexual or male. Such kinds bear flowers containing both stamens and pistils, the center being a collection of many pistils surrounded by short tube-like parts called stamens, at the ends of which is produced the pollen. All such varieties bear fruit when planted alone. Other varieties have imperfect blossoms, also called pistillate or female. Such flowers lack the stamens. These varieties will not bear fruit if grown by themselves with none of the other kind in the neighborhood. About one row of the perfect-flowering varieties is required to every two or three rows of the imperfect-flowering kinds to insure fertilization of the blossoms. The blossoms are usually fertilized by bees and other insects. 632 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorTICULTURE OF THE In visiting the perfect flowers the insects become more or less covered with the sticky pollen which is carried by them to other blossoms and is left on the pistils, which are thus fertilized. Incomplete pollination is usually indicated by the presence of nubbins — berries with hard, greenish, undeveloped apex. The absence of pollen- distributing insects at blossoming time, too much rain, frost, or prolonged cool temperatures may greatly decrease the setting of the fruit and merease the number of nubbins. The color, size, flavor or quality of the fruit is not influenced by pollen from other varieties, nor can it be said that all perfect-flowering varieties are more productive than the imperfect-flowering kinds, nor is the reverse true. STARTING THE PLANTATION. Selection of plants— The best stock obtainable should be used. Plants from old beds are usually weakened in vitality and may be infested by insects or diseases. Vigorous, healthy plants should be selected from beds that have not fruited and plants from the earlier runners are usually larger and stronger than from those developing later. Pedigreed plants are supposed to inherit from their ancestors desirable characters which have become fixed and which are repeated without change year after year. This has not been proved to be true, however, and it is not advisable to invest in such plants. Recent experiments! carried on for twelve years have failed to prove the value of pedigreed strawberry plants. Time of planting.— Spring setting is usually preferable as it shortens the time from planting to fruitage and also secures better weather and soil conditions, making it necessary to give but one winter’s protection before a full crop of fruit is secured. Fall setting in dry seasons often results in considerable loss of plants. Pot- grown plants may be used in the fall with less risk of loss but the price is usually much too high for profitable returns, although it permits the taking of an early crop from the land before setting to strawberries. Systems of planting.— The matted row, hill, single hedge or double hedge system may be used, but for most purposes the matted row system is preferable. Plants may be set and treated to make wide or narrow matted rows. The narrow matted row is generally preferable — the rows from three to four feet apart and the plants from eighteen to thirty inches apart in the row, depending on the character of the variety as a plant-maker. The “hill” system consists in both rows and plants being set closer — twenty-four to thirty inches for the rows and twelve to eighteen inches for the plants, removing all runners that develop. Fruit from such plants is usually larger but the labor is greater. In the “ single hedge ”’ system the rows are from two to three feet apart with the plants 1 Missouri Station Bul. 117 (1914). New York Agricutturat EXPERIMENT STATION. 633 twenty to thirty inches apart. Each plant produces two runners which are trained to take root in the plant row directly in front of and behind the mother plant. The ‘‘ double-hedge ”’ system has the rows about three feet apart with the plants thirty inches apart. The mother plant develops through its runners from four to six plants trained to form three rows, one in line with the older plants and a new row each side of the mother plant row. No other plants are permitted to develop. There are many modifications of these methods of planting. Of all these systems the matted row requires less labor and the yield is usually greater. Setting the plants— After the plants have been dug they are trimmed for setting by removing all dead leaves and runners and all except one or two of the green leaves. The roots are usually shortened back about one-third their growth. The land should be marked both ways, or across the direction of the rows if the plants are set along a line stretched from end to end of the row. The roots of the plants should never be allowed to dry out. A trowel, flat dibber, or narrow, well scoured spade may be used to open the soil for the plants, the latter being most convenient for large plant- ings. Insert the spade and press forward making a wedge-shaped opening. The roots, spread out, may be inserted in this space which should then be closed and the soil pressed firmly against the roots. The crown of the plant should not be so deep as to be covered with earth nor should it be set so high as to expose the roots. It should be level with the surface. If too deep the crown may rot; if too shallow the roots dry out. MANAGEMENT OF PLANTATION. Treatment during first summer.— Cultivation should begin when the plants are set and be continued throughout the summer and fall whenever necessary to keep down weeds and to maintain a mellow soil condition. Hf possible, cultivation should be both ways until runners begin to make plants. Cultivation or hoeing should never be deep enough to disturb the shallow root system. The flower- clusters should be removed as soon as they appear, to secure stronger plants from which runners will develop later. The first runners to start should be encouraged to root by “ bedding in” or placing in a position where they will root readily and will not be disturbed by the cultivator. It may be necessary to thin out some of the later ones to avoid crowding because most varieties set too many plants. Some growers stop cultivation early, sowing among the plants oats or barley which die down after the first frosts, forming a slight winter protection. This practice, however, cannot be recommended although a cheap one, owing to the large amount of moisture removed by such a crop, which, in a dry fall, must decrease the vigor of the strawberry plants. Such a winter protection is not sufficient to keep the ground from frequently freezing and thawing. 634 Report OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE OF THE Winter treatment.— Winter protection of some form should be given for several reasons. It protects the roots against repeated freezing and thawing; mulched soil retains more moisture the follow- ing spring; the soil is left in better physical condition; additional plant food is given when coarse stable manure is used; growth is retarded in the spring diminishing danger from late spring frosts; weeds may be smothered out in early spring; berries may be kept much cleaner at fruiting time. Various materials may be used for mulching, that most easily obtained at minimum prices ordinarily being selected, such as coarse, strawy horse manure, marsh hay, wheat or oat straw, swale grass, leaves for small beds, or even corn stalks if nothing else is available. The best mulch is one that may be spread rapidly and evenly, will furnish the desired protection and yet will not injure the plants nor introduce too many weed seeds. The mulch should be applied to the entire surface of the ground as soon as it is sufficiently frozen to bear a wagon. A light coating an inch or two deep that covers the plants out of sight is preferable to one of greater depth. Treatment during fruiting season— The mulch should remain over the plants as long as possible in the spring. On the approach of warm weather it may be necessary to shake up the covering one or more times to prevent the plants from smothering, placing a portion of the material, if too thick, between the rows. The plants should grow up through the mulch left on the ground. Later in the spring it may be necessary to hand-pull the larger weeds after a soaking rain. Occasionally it may be necessary to remove the mulch and give thorough cultivation, replacing it before the berries ripen. Renewing old beds.— It is usually better to set new beds each year than to continue the old ones. This, however, depends on the condition of the bed. Under favorable conditions two and some- times three profitable crops may be harvested. Berries ripen slightly earlier and average smaller on old beds, and there is more danger from insects and disease. It usually costs more to rejuvenate an old bed than to set a new one. A quick-growing crop may some- times be harvested upon the same soil if the vines be plowed under as soon as the crop has been harvested, or the ground may be sown to a clover cover-crop to be plowed under the following spring. It will be necessary to clean out, fertilize and cultivate the rows if retained for a second crop. Some growers use a mowing machine and as soon as the leaves are sufficiently dry burn over the field during a wind blowing in the direction of the rows. There is some danger of injury to the crowns of the plants unless great care be taken. The rows are narrowed down with plow, disc-harrow or cultivator to a width of from six to twelve inches, the soil thoroughly stirred and a heavy application of plant food, preferably well-rotted stable manure, applied broadcast and directly over the rows. New York AgricutturaLt Experiment Station. 635 SPECIAL CULTURE. Forcing strawberries in greenhouses.— The earliest runners should be rooted in small pots filled with rich soil, plunged alongside the rows and as soon as the pots become filled with roots, the plants should be taken up and shifted into six-inch pots and plunged in coal ashes in a cold frame. The plants should be ripened off in October and as soon as cold weather sets in should receive winter protection. They should be brought into the forcing-house in January or February and may be expected to produce ripe fruit in from eight to twelve weeks. The blossoms should be hand-pollinated and not more than from six to eight fruits matured per pot. After the fruit sets an occasional application of liquid from well-rotted cow manure may be found beneficial. A support for the berries should be provided. Irrigation of strawberries.— A season seldom passes without the yield being reduced by a lack of moisture. Most of the growers have no special water supply or their land is unsuited to irrigation purposes. But few locations have natural advantages so that. an abundant water supply may be cheaply applied to the land, either by diverting streams or by a system of pumping the water. An occasional grower may be found who has in operation some such system or who is using what is known as the “ Skinner” system, which consists of parallel lines of pipes in which are inserted specially devised nozzles a short distance apart. A turning device enables one to direct and control the water distribution. All things con- sidered, nearly all the strawberry growers of this State will find it more desirable to put special emphasis on efforts to secure a maxi- mum amount of humus in the soil on account of its water-holding powers, and to conserve as much water as possible by thorough cultivation and by mulching. PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL. Spraying.— Few, if any, growers in this State make a practice of spraying strawberries. The rotation is so short that insects and diseases seldom cause serious injury. In some seasons, how- ever, injuries may be lessened by thorough spraying with either bordeaux mixture or lime-sulphur for diseases and with an arsenical such as arsenate of lead if insects are present. Insects— White grubs. Nearly all growers are more or less familiar with these insects which live in the ground feeding on the roots and crowns of the strawberry plants.. They are the larve of the ‘“‘ June bugs ” and are most abundant in grass lands. There is no remedy except to avoid such land for strawberries. Fall plow- ing may destroy a few of the insects, but cannot be depended upon to prevent injury. Leaf-roller. The name indicates the habit of the insect. It is 636 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HoRTICULTURE OF THE a small, brownish caterpillar which folds over one portion of the leaf and lives and feeds within the protecting fold. Spraying for the first brood must be made before the insect is protected within its folded leaf, using arsenate of lead three pounds to fifty gallons water. Mowing and burning the beds after fruiting will destroy many of the insects and if necessary a later arsenical spray may be found beneficial for the late brood. Strawberry weevil. The eggs, which later hatch into small whitish grubs, are laid in the flower buds. The egg-laying beetle eats away part of the stem below the bud causing it to droop. The grubs feed on the pollen of the flower bud and on this account the imperfect-flowering kinds are not attacked by the insect. No satis- factory remedy can be given. Spraying will give but little relief as the insects feed within the buds and are thus protected from spray materials. In cases of severe infestation badly affected beds may be burned over after fruiting; clean culture should be given; neglected spots grown up to weeds, especially if adjacent to the straw- berry bed, should be destroyed, as such places usually harbor the insects; and a quick rotation of crops grown. Diseases.— Leaf-spot. This is the most serious disease of straw- berries. Its presence is indicated by circular light-colored spots, bordered with red, on the leaves. Good air and soil drainage with selection of somewhat resistant varieties aid greatly in reducing the amount of injury. In severe cases it may be necessary to spray thoroughly with bordeaux mixture (3-3-50) as growth begins in the spring and again just before blossoming time; or in some seasons spray as soon as the old rows have been cleaned out after fruiting time. If necessary arsenate of lead 3 pounds to 50 gallons may be combined with any of these sprayings for insect troubles. A quick rotation tends to reduce injury both from diseases and insects. Mildew.— A fungus disease affecting the leaves spreading over the surface as a dull whitish mold and causing them to curl. Some varieties are much more susceptible to this disease than others. Spraying with bordeaux mixture as recommended for leaf-spot will aid somewhat in holding this disease in check, but a spray of sulphide of potassium one ounce to two gallons water is usually more efficient. FRUIT. Picking and marketing.— The fruit must be picked and handled with care te arrive at its destination in good condition. The surface of the berries should not be bruised. The color should be well- developed over the entire surface on its arrival at the market, picking slightly greener for distant than for nearby markets. If picked when wet the fruit will not ship well. The hull or calyx should be attached to each berry. Some growers prefer to grade the fruit as it is picked, placing the inferior fruit by itself in boxes in the New York AGricuLtTuRAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 637 picking stand which usually holds from four to eight baskets. The fruit is usually marketed in quart boxes which are put in crates of various sizes, the 32-quart crate being mostly in use. Yields, costs and profits— Productiveness is a variable factor depending on the variety, seasonable rainfall, temperature, char- acter of soil, amount of available food either in manure or fertilizers, amount of humus in the soil, and the cultural treatment given. While the average yield is low, about 3000 quarts per acre, it may readily under favorable conditions reach 9000 quarts or more. Costs are more difficult to determine than yields, on account of the questions involved, depending on value of land, cost of manure and fertilizers, amount of labor required not only to grow the crop but also to place it on the market, and on the business ability of the manager. It is estimated that the average cost of growing a 32-quart crate of berries and placing it on the market is in the neighborhood of $1.00 per crate. Profits are more elusive than either yields or costs because all factors of both yields and costs must be considered and the selling price determined before the balance can be struck. While there are many variations and wide extremes, a fair profit appears to be about $1.00 per 32-quart crate, and the yield per acre would largely determine the amount of the profit. LITERATURE. Publications available on strawberries— This Station makes no recommendation as to the best books on strawberries. The Biggle Berry Book, Small Fruit Culturist, Strawberry Culture, and Modern Strawberry Growing should be available at any of the large book houses. Nearly all the Experiment Stations issue from time to time information on this subject, which may be secured free of cost on application. The suggestions given in this circular are not full, specific directions. Details vary widely in different places and must be worked out by each grower to meet his own conditions. 638 REporT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE. VARIETIES RECOMMENDED FOR TRIAL. The following list of varieties is suggestive. All will not succeed equally well in any place, and some will be failures. The list, how- ever, includes only those that have made a good record at this Station during recent years, including both older and newer varieties, and which appear to be worthy of trial: EARLY: Black Beauty.— Imp.; glossy, dark red berries; high quality. Dunlap.— Per.; standard, excellent but size decreases in late pickings. Golden Gate.— Semi-Per.; very productive; many qualities to commend it. Grand Marie.— Per., bloom late; berries long, large, ship well. Indiana.— Per., large, retain size, dark, glossy red; one of the best. Monroe.-— Per., berries large, light red; bloom early. Parcell Early.— Per., Dunlap type but blooms and ripens earlier. MIDSEASON: Abington.— Per.; early midseason; very productive; light red. Amanda.— Per.; many plants; very productive; berries wedge-shape Baltimore.— Per.; excellent shipper; good in size and quality. Barrymore.— Per.; very productive; quality very good; one of the best. Chesapeake.— Per.; few runners, berries glossy red; very choice. Clara.— Per.; attractive dark red, large; quality high. German Beauty.— Per.; large, glossy, dark red; very good. Glen Mary.— Per.; standard; does not succeed on all soils. Good Luck.— Per.; very productive, bloom late; firm; sprightly acid. Goodwin.— Per.; plants few, dark green; berries dark red; very high quality. Kittie Rice.— Imp.; a mild berry ranking high in quality. Marshall.— Per.; standard for excellence; dark red; medium yield. New Discovery.— Per.; plants vigorous, very productive; fruit most attractive in appearance. Phoenix.— Semi-Per.; fruit of largest size, irregular shape; quality high. Prolific.— Per.; productive, large, bright scarlet; one of the best. Sample.— Imp.; standard; excellent color; long season. Sherman.— Imp.; dark green foliage; good quality for a tart berry. LATE: Brandywine.— Per.; standard; foliage good; fruit large, dark red. Columbia.— Imp.; many runners; very productive; large, light red. Granger.— Imp.; long-conic, attractive bright red; quality very good. Jessie.— Per.; standard; one of the best late varieties but partial to soils. Mascot.— Per.; flowers large; berries of largest size, irregular shape; very good quality. Rough Rider.— Per.; many desirable qualities; one of the best. Stevens Late Champion.— Per.; berries firm, sprightly, high quality. CURRANTS.* O. M. TAYLOR. Location and soil— Currants are by nature northern plants. They do not thrive in the heat of the South and are there of no commercial importance, but are found growing successfully only in cooler climates and are uninjured in low temperatures which are fatal to many other plants. They thrive best in the North Tem- perate regions, in northern exposures, on cool, moist, retentive soils, and under some conditions, in the partial shade of orchard trees or vineyards. For home use, some fruit may be obtained on almost any soil. Under commercial conditions, however, the heavier well- drained clay loams should be selected, avoiding as far as possible those of a light sandy nature. Preparation of soil As the bushes occupy the ground for a number of years considerable care should be given to preparation of soil. It should be well drained. Currants dislike wet feet and will not thrive if too much water remains in the soil for any length of time. Quack grass, if present, should be eradicated before setting the plants as it is difficult to keep down if intermingled with the currant roots. The soil should be well stocked with humus before setting the plants, either by plowing under heavy applications of stable manure or a cover crop, preferably a clover sod. Deep plow- ing will not only cause the plants to root more deeply but will con- serve moisture, especially if the following season be dry. Thorough cultivation should be given to make the soil fine and mellow before setting the plants. Manures and fertilizers.— As with strawberries, there is but little danger of too much plant food in the soil. Currants are rank feeders and to secure maximum yields a rich soil and liberal applications of available food are essential. The roots extend but a short dis- tance and their food must be within reach. Stable manure is one of the best fertilizers, and should be applied preferably in November, during the winter or very early in the spring before growth starts so that the crop of fruit may receive the maximum benefit from the fertilizer before the berries reach maturity in July. On most soils there is but little danger of too rank a growth or a decrease in productiveness from an excess of nitrogenous fertilizer. It may be necessary at times to use commercial fertilizer, but the kind and amount to use depend on conditions. The plant-food requirements of the currant are not materially different from those of the strawberry or other fruits; and the supplements needed on any soil are best determined by individual experiments with nitrogen, * Reprint of Circular No. 32, November 20. [639] 640 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE OF THE phosphoric acid and potash. Applications should be liberal and checks should be left so that benefits, if any, may be apparent. The following amounts are only suggestive: Two to three hundred pounds per acre of nitrate of soda or three to six hundred pounds dried blood to stimulate growth, applied as soon as the leaves have unfolded; one ton of wood-ashes or two to three hundred pounds muriate of potash; six to seven hundred pounds acid phosphate; all to be applied early in the spring. If the soil is already well supplied with any one of these forms of plant food it is useless to make addi- tional applications of that kind. The fertilizers will not take the place of humus. Propagation.— Nurserymen are usually well supplied with plants to fill orders, yet the varieties are easily propagated and the fruit- grower can often raise his own plants to advantage. In the fall, as soon as the leaves have dropped, hard wood cuttings from six to ten inches long, the longer cuttings being preferred for dry soils, are made from well-ripened wood of one season’s growth; they may be planted at once in nursery rows or tied in bundles and buried butt end up in moist sand or moss to callus for a few weeks, after which they are planted or they may remain in the sand until early spring. The cuttings are planted deeply leaving but one or two buds above the surface, placing them from four to six inches apart in the row, and compacting the soil firmly about the cuttings. If fall-planted, they must receive winter protection either with a slight back furrow of earth directly over the row or with a covering of coarse stable manure or straw applied after the ground freezes, to prevent heaving from the action of frost. They are left im nursery rows from one to two years, receiving thorough cultivation whenever necessary. A few plants are occasionally propagated from layers — the canes being bent down and a portion covered with earth, leaving the tips exposed. Roots soon develop from the covered cane which may then be separated from the main bush and planted in a per- manent location. Selection of varieties A variety may succeed in one place and yet be undesirable in another locality. Under different environ- ments and under unlike surroundings the same variety may change both in plant- and fruit-habits. As with strawberries, adaptation should be determined before planting extensively in the commercial plantation. But few of the thirty-three varieties growing on the grounds of this Station have any commercial value. We may determine what varieties to set, first, by observation of the kinds doing well in the immediate locality under apparently similar con- ditions and, second, by a trial of a few plants before setting extensively. No variety has all the qualities equally developed that go to make perfection. The newer, most promising kinds should be tested in a small way and their value determined. Occasionally one may be found superior to the older varieties. New York AGricutTuraAL EXPERIMENT Srarion. 641 The commercial culture of currants in this State is practically confined to but one species, Ribes rubrum, to which class all the reds and whites belong, although there are a few varieties grown of the black currant, Ribes nigrum. Varieties of the reds are of most commercial value, largely on account of their fine jelly-making properties. The whites make a jelly unattrative in appearance and as a rule the berries are not very good shippers. Many people dislike the peculiar flavor of the black currant although this may largely be overcome by putting the berries in scalding water for a few minutes and then cooking in fresh water. They are esteemed by some both for dessert and for medicinal purposes. Selection of plants.— The age of the plant is of less importance than its condition. Either one or two-year-old plants may be used. If the growing season has been favorable some plants will be vigorous and well-grown as yearlings and are then preferred to older stock. Many plants, however, do not make much growth the first year and these should be grown a second year before being moved to the permanent bed. Inferior plants should not be set even if the purchase price be low. The best stock obtainable should be used. Time of setting.— Plants may be set either in fall or spring. The buds, however, start into growth very early in the spring and on this account fall planting is preferable. If set in the spring the work should be done as early as possible. Setting the plants— After the plants have been dug they should be trimmed for sett'ng. The amount of pruning depends on the age and condition of the plants — usually cutting back the top and shortening in the roots in accordance with the amount of growth. After a thorough preparation of the soil the land should be marked both ways, the distaice apart of rows and plants depending on the richness of the soil and the habit of growth of the variety. The usual distance for most varieties is six by four or five feet, the wider distance being preferable. The plants are to remain in position for several years and should not be crowded. Six by six feet is none too far for some varieties. Black currants should be given more room than reds on account of their vigor. After the ground has been marked both ways the plants may be set rapidly by plowing a deep furrow one way and setting the plants at the intersection of furrow and mark. The crown of the plant should not be above the surface but rather at a level with or preferably a trifle below the surface of the ground. The soil should be firmly pressed about the fibrous roots. Cultivation.— The root system of currants is shallow, hence culti- vation should not be deep near the plants. Growth begins early, requiring early, thorough and frequent working of the soil both to conserve moisture and to make available plant food. For family use currants succeed fairly well if thoroughly mulched with coal ashes, 41 642 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF HorRTICULTURE OF THE straw or with coarse stable manure. In commercial plantations such mulching will not take the place of cultivation. On heavy clay soils plowing may be necessary at times, yet it must be done with care or severe injury may be done to the shallow roots. After the crop has been harvested the ground should be thoroughly worked over and the soil put in fine condition for a cover-crop to be sown in late July or early August, using about fifteen pounds clover seed per acre or twenty-five pounds vetch or about one bushel of oats or barley. Mixtures of the seed are sometimes used to ad- vantage. A hoed crop may be grown between the plants the first year. Pruning.— Systematic pruning is essential to improve the size of the fruit and to renew the old and weak wood. The bush-form is preferable to the tree-form. The best fruit is borne at the base of one-year-old shoots and on one-year-old spurs which develop from the two- and three-year-old wood. Most of the wood over three years old should be cut out, and only enough of the yearling wood left to maintain a yearly supply of the younger wood. From five to eight canes, well distributed to avoid crowding, are sufficient per bush depending upon richness of soil and on the variety. Most bushes are left too thick. An upright yet open habit of growth should be encouraged. It is usually unnecessary to head back the new canes but it is often an advantage to cut back very vigorous shoots. Pruning may be done any time after the leaves have dropped in the fall, or during the winter or in early spring before growth starts. Black currants are borne on wood of the previous year. Pollination.— The few experiments that have been made indicate that the currant is usually self-fertile. It is generally an advantage to grow more than one variety to extend the picking season and any possible advantage through cross-pollination may then be secured. The cause of cluster ends failing to set fruit is not well understood. Spraying.— Spraying is usually necessary each year. Disease or insect pests are to be expected. The material used and the time and manner of application depend on the kind of insect or disease; some are very difficult to combat. Foliage must be protected against their ravages or the present year’s crop may be greatly decreased and the bushes left in poor condition to develop fruit-buds for the crop of the following year. The bushes should be sprayed with a combined insecticide and fungicide soon after the fruit begins to swell, and again, after the fruit has been harvested, with a fungicide. Insects— Currant worm. Usually present each year attacking and eating the foliage; eggs are laid on underside of leaves; two broods a year, each having a long season. The worms may be easily killed with an arsenical spray such as arsenate of lead, three pounds to fifty gallons, applied as soon as they make their appear- ance soon after the fruit begins to swell. This spray should be combined with a fungicide, either bordeaux mixture, 3-3-50 formula, New York AGRICULTURAL ExpERIMENT Station. 643 or lime-sulphur 1 to 40. Powdered hellebore is sometimes used at the rate of a teaspoonful to a gallon of water. Currant borer. The insect eats a burrow along the center of the cane, and remains in this tunnel over winter. The infested canes should be cut out and burned during the winter or early spring. Spraying is useless. San José scale. Too well known to require a description. Should receive the same dormant treatment as other fruits — lime-sulphur 1 to 8, or one of the oil sprays. Currant plant-louse. Many small lice found on the under sur- face of the leaves in midsummer causing them to look blistered and reddish on the upper surface. They are sucking insects. Whale oil soap, 1 pound to 5 gallons of water or kerosene emulsion, applied to the underside of the foliage will kill all that are hit with the mixture. Diseases. — Leaf-spot. A fungus disease causing a brown spot- ting of the foliage and later death of the affected parts, the leaves often dropping prematurely. Remedy: lime-sulphur, 1 to 40, or bordeaux mixture, 3-3-50, applied at time of spraying for worms and again after harvest. Cane-blight. A fungus disease quite destructive in the Hudson Valley. One or more canes die during the summer, or the death of the entire bush follows. No satisfactory remedy. Hardiness.— Currants are hardy plants and will endure low temperatures without injury. They are liable to suffer more from heat than from cold. Occasionally insects or diseases may so weaken the plant in summer as to cause injury from cold during winter. Duration of plantations.— The life of currant bushes depends on the care given, on the variety, and also on the soil. Under ordinary conditions they cannot be expected to produce profitable crops for more than eight or ten years although some fields may be held for a longer period. It is desirable, however, to plan for a new bed about every ten years depending on conditions. Old bushes may often be rejuvenated by cutting off all the canes close to the ground and giving a liberal application of stable manure. Yields, costs and profits.— Productiveness depends on variety, rainfall, soil, plant food and cultural treatment. The yield may vary from 50 to 250 bushels per acre with an average of from 100 to 150 bushels annually, and is influenced by the distance of plant- ing. Some fruit will be secured the third year but a full crop will not be produced until the fourth year. Black currants usually yield slightly less than the reds. Costs are difficult to determine, depending on value of land, cost of manure and fertilizer, amount of labor required both to grow and to market the crop, and the character of the market. Mr. Samuel Fraser, Geneseo, N. Y., reports that the cost of growing and selling a three-ton crop of currants is in the neighborhood of $200 per acre. 644 Report or roe DeparTMENT or HorvicuLTURE OF THE Profits vary greatly from year to year depending on all of the factors involved in yields and costs and also on the selling price. The price received usually varies from four to eight cents per pound, averaging around five cents, depending on the character of the market. Most of the fruit goes to canning and jelly factories. Under some conditions an average profit of $100 per acre may be expected. In other cases it may vary one way or the other from that figure. Picking and marketing the fruit The fruit must be picked and handled with care to arrive at its destination in good condition. The berries should be dry when harvested and not over-ripe. The stems should be severed from the bushes, care being taken not to pull off or mjure berries. Some varieties are much more easily picked than others on account of the clear space of stem at the base of the clusters. Fruit may be picked greener for distant markets than for nearby markets, and slightly greener for jelly than for canning, a few green berries showing on each cluster. The season of harvest is comparatively long. Currants are usually marketed in quart baskets or in grape baskets and are mostly sold by the pound. The smaller baskets are placed in crates of various sizes similar to strawberries, the average sized crate holding 32 quarts. Publications available on currants.— This Station makes no recom- mendations as to the best books on currants. They are very few. The subject is treated in “‘ Bush Fruits’’, and ‘Small Fruit Culturist ” which should be available at any of the large book houses. Nearly all the Experiment Stations issue from time to time information on this subject which may be secured free of cost on application. The suggestions in this circular are not full directions. Details vary widely in different places and must be worked out by each grower to meet his own conditions. Varieties recommended for trial— The following list of varieties is suggestive. The kinds will not all succeed equally well in every place. Some will be failures. The list, however, includes only those varieties that have made a good record at this Station during recent years including older and newer varieties which appear worthy of trial. Rep CuRRANTS. Chautauqua.—Vigorous, productive; clusters long; berries large; picks easily. Cherry.— Large; clusters short; productive; standard. Diploma.— Vigorous, upright; light red, semi-transparent berries. Fay.— Sprawling habit; large; medium productive. Filler.— Productive; bunches short; berries large. Perfection.— Bush more upright than Fay, medium in \igor; large berries, high quality. Red Cross.— Large; milder and slightly later than Cherry. Red Dutch.— Growth good; sprightly acid; dark red; medium size. Ruby.— Mild-flavored; desirable for home use. Wilder.— Good late variety; vigorous; fruit large; long season; standard. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 645 WHITE CURRANTS. White Imperial.— Mild, high quality for dessert; pleasant flavor. White Grape.— Large; attractive color; medium quality. Buack CuRRANTS. Champion.— Mild, nearly sweet. Prince of Wales.— Very productive, mild, sweet; vigorous. cates Giant.— Very promising; large berries, long clusters; productive; one of e best. mA) fre “i , ae See a) 7 ma AL Apne eae, “eh = Pe eA Te leanne ; A ; soreh soAnen fas ite ral. sired Pilot as : Tai ail « Sieh fi i - 4 7 id ¢ ty ars et a att eh ee ’ hve fe “ny! co Moron” a % \ val peers hares ‘ eitigh® ‘ a? Lai Tit TUES ' b 4 a ‘ i- ’ ol MS toa ites i» oe A . A peel pea a - d 7 x ‘* i it’ i - 7 7 at », = 1 ie, > + . fi, ht aa fi J Ventas PX = REPORT ON INSPECTION WORK. W. H. Jorpan, Director. M. T. Munn, Assistant Botanist. L. L. Van Stryke, Chemist. ‘E. L. Baker, Associate Chemist. A. W. Crark, Associate Chemist. M. P. Sweeney, Assistant Chemist. Orto McCreary, Assistant Chemist. 2 A. K. Burke, Assistant Chemist. ®Crarence D. Parker, Assistant Chemist. 4 Freperick N. Crawrorp, Assistant Chemist. TABLE OF CONTENTS. I. Some facts about commercial fertilizers in New York State. II. Seed tests made at the Station during 1913. III. Analyses of insecticides and fungicides. IV. Inspection of feeding stuffs. V. Analyses of commercial fertilizers, 1914. *Resigned March 26. ? Resigned December 7. * Appointed February 7, resigned November 15. * Appointed May 1. [647] . a iva ike < ly : oe 9} cy - a0W yorraa i Peatoottth , Hh. a3 no ; j I TM rh 406 : i Ader ga wae ENS re) We aa denial ‘ohni ee bi as oul E 2 18) ey yeptaen) vWintoos aly Prien ue ‘Soe wily Sects wade ws HAAR wad fs ‘ mre abe’: tren as bk. oweaka Jo yi. ah : Rass aul ent nat | NST ECE Oy ee Md : ; Sen ee, . Seal) pe . aeeciAad haters bh (mmM10383 was A aoe Ia sak: ao 18 Se ee ATKATHOD TO Wats AT es i de ee a . ee | ay ges - u a. a rot (aivtarnaton tneds, aan, ‘a sw es i ERT gitianb aoitnrt oil th F ofan aise { ae Ate ® im, oe sits Vii it sbioiyan hy 1a do! he sisal ti, Rows hh “an is oni book ie: ae Dory Th * poe : } , ve ; TG) peIOSI ISL lsinvecnstoo: per 8 OD om , a — MM Wout 108 baaginer a Yepyd: > wy ¢ . “pe . { : sorry 7 1 FS AI BICK, AO Lae eu STI BE ~hy ee i REPORT ON INSPECTION WORK. SOME FACTS ABOUT COMMERCIAL FERTI.- LIZERS IN NEW YORK STATE* L. L. VAN SLYKE. SUMMARY I. COMPOSITION OF FERTILIZERS AND COST OF PLANT-FOOD CONSTITUENTS. (1) In the purchase of complete fertilizers, plant-food constituents cost least in high-grade mixtures and most in low-grade. (2) The tendency among farmers at the present time appears to be in the direction of purchasing more high-grade mixtures. (3) In complete fertilizers as well as in other mixtures and unmixed materials, the variation in selling price is often wholly out of proportion to the amount of plant-food present. (4) Nitrogen costs least in nitrate of soda; in organic materials it costs least in dried blood, tankage and fish scrap. (5) Phosphoric acid in quickly available form costs least in the form of acid phosphate; in organic materials it costs least in the form of tankage. (6) Potash costs least in muriate of potash. (7) Plant-foods can be purchased generally in unmixed materials at less cost than in mixtures. (7) In dried commercial sheep manure plant-food costs more than in any other form examined. II. RELATION OF GUARANTEED TO ACTUAL COMPOSITION IN FERTILIZERS. (1) In the case of each constituent of complete fertilizers, the num- ber of samples showing results above the guaranteed statement of composition is much larger than the number below. (2) The largest number below guaranty is in case of nitrogen (166 samples), followed by potash (151 samples), while the smallest number (112) below is in case of phosphoric acid. (3) Balancing all the cases of excess and deficiency in the 614 samples of complete fertilizers, we find that there is an average excess of 0.08 per ct. of nitrogen, 0.44 per ct. of available phosphoric acid and 0.34 per ct. of potash. (4) In the case of fertilizer materials and mixtures other than complete fertilizers, the average percentage found is above that guaranteed in all cases excepting fish scrap and calcium (lime) carbonate. (5) In such * Reprint of Bulletin No. 392, December; for Popular Edition see p. 959. [649] 650 Report on Inspection Work OF THE materials as sodium nitrate, potassium sulphate, kainit, basic slag phosphate, rock-phosphate (floats), and mixtures of bone and potash, the number of samples below guaranty is within reasonable limits and amounts. (6) In materials such as acid phosphate, potassium chloride (muriate), bone, tankage, sheep manure, mixtures of acid phosphate and potash, wood-ashes and compounds containing cal- cium, a larger proportion of samples is below guaranty than is desir- able and in some cases the amount of plant-food below guaranty is serious. Ill. SOME DEFECTS IN THE PRESENT FERTILIZER LAW. (1) Under the present fertilizer law, 27 samples of complete fer- tilizers and 7 samples of fertilizing material are violations among the samples analyzed in 1914, about one-third the number of violations there would be under the provisions of the law in force previous to 1910. (2) The present law permits absolute exemption of deficien- cies of plant-food amounting in some cases to a value of $5 or more per ton. (3) In the case of high-grade fertilizers and especially of fertilizing materials, the present law offers an opportunity for cheating farmers with impunity. (4) The present law needs amendment in order to limit more carefully the amounts of deficiencies that are absolutely exempt. INTRODUCTION. The farmers of New York State expend for plant-foods in the form of commercial fertilizers about five million dollars a year. While many dairy farmers depend largely or wholly upon farm-produced manures as the source of plant-food, all who most profitably and continuously raise cereals, hay and forage crops, potatoes, fruits, flowers, ornamental plants, nursery stock, garden crops, root crops, hops, tobacco, crops under glass, etc., are compelled to use liberal quantities of commercial fertilizers. The rates of application vary with the character of the agriculture carried on in different sections of the State, the largest amounts being used in the growth of market- garden crops. In view of the large expenditures, it becomes a matter of economic importance to the many farmers who use commercial plant-food ma- terials to exercise the best business judgment possible in the purchase of their plant-foods. It is a prominent fact that a very large propor- tion of the commercial fertilizers used in New York State is in the New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 651 form of so-called complete fertilizers, that is, mixtures containing compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. As we shall point out later these vary greatly in composition, price and the cost of plant-food. It is the principal object of this bulletin to call attention to such differences in cost of plant-foods as we have actually found to exist in the case of various commercial fertilizers sold in this State during 1914. There are certain important facts which should be made known to purchasers of commercial fertilizers in order that in the future they may buy their needed plant-foods more economically than they have been doing. In addition to the subject of cost of plant-foods, we shall discuss the composition of commercial fertilizers, the relation of guaranteed to actual composition, and some points in relation to the present laws governing the sale of fertilizers. The analyses of fertilizers contained in Bulletin No. 390 of this Station are used as the basis of our discussion. Through the cour- tesy of the Commissioner of Agriculture, Hon. Calvin J. Huson, it was possible to obtain retail prices paid by farmers for fertilizers. The following outline statement gives a classification of fertilizers, the analyses of which are contained in Bulletin No. 390. Number of samples Kind of fertilizer or material. analyzed. Complete fertilizers! t X40. PMMA. AHA REIT, Meee 614 Mixtures of acid phosphate and potash salts.................. 117 Aciasphosphate sso) ee ert SP FORE Ee ea PO as 57 Sopmmenitrates snercpacy- gs. felis ceoP ewteta yee vaecyceR eae ruse Bee 39 BON EMAAR LCLIA IS hitters Stree orev ras case cken ane ree mee ere reacie cs 34 Potassium chloride (muriate of potash)....................... 27 GIMME H bo bo OO re bo ores S oon oo woo So NOOMOWOUNATO Ww CO He He Or Door Lise or WRPOoTR Oe ye CORCTOWO Average. Cents. y= N NWMhKChAhhAUUUNUANY MAR SOH=AONACH OHH a o— aA SCOCsXNNNONQANNU New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 669 Taste XVIII (concluded) Highest. Lowest. | Average. Cents. Cents. Cents. Calcium and Magnesium in Calcium carbonate (ground limestone, marl, CONC) d Sechae the Sete oe ae Be ea oad | oe eee 0.95 0.50 0.72 Calcium hydroxide (slaked or hydrated lime). . 0.73 0.55 0.65 Calcium oxide (quicklime, burned lime, etc.). . 0.65 0.40 0.52 Mixtures of compounds of calcium, phosphoric RCL MOCLCT pean is ye Pah ne cee eee tet 1.50 0.70 0.95 Il. THE RELATION OF GUARANTEED TO ACTUAL COMPOSITION IN FERTILIZERS. While Bulletin No. 390 gives data that will enable one to calculate the difference between the guaranteed and actual composition of fertilizers in individual samples, it is desirable to have a more compre- hensive knowledge of present conditions than can be obtained by such a casual examination. The following tables will furnish numerous details relating to this feature in connecticn with complete fertilizers. TaBLE XIX.— DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GUARANTEED AND ACTUAL PERCENTAGES OF NirroGen, PHospHoric Acip AND PoTasH IN COMPLETE FERTILIZERS. Average per ct. Complete fertilizers. Guaranteed. | Found. found above guaranty. Nitrogen —- Highest per ct................ 9.88 ORS is Wer ech ode coer ever: Nitrogen — Lowest per ct................. 0.20 QE) PRs Be sg ee Nitrogen — Average per ct................. 2.08 2.16 0.08 Available phosphoric acid — Highest per ct... 13.00 LI GHOA Ieaaps ascwort ees Available phosphoric acid — Lowest per ct... 0.40 O 2580 MeBese ees. Available phosphoric acid — Average per ct.. 7.60 8.04 0.44 Potash — Highest per ct.................. 12.00 TS OG wae ones oe Potash — Lowest per ct................... 0.10 ORT2 Res oe. cee Potash — Average per ct.................. 5.70 6.04 0.34 670 Report on Inspection Work OF THE In connection with the preceding table the following statements give additional details: (1) Nitrogen. In 446 samples of complete fertilizers, the amount of nitrogen is found equal to or above the amount guaranteed, the excess varying from 0.01 to 2.29 per ct., and averaging 0.17 per ct. In 166 samples, the nitrogen is below the amount guaranteed, the deficiency varying from 0.01 to 1.09 per ct. and averaging 0.16 per ct. (2) Phosphoric acid. In 500 samples the amount of available phosphoric acid is above the amount guaranteed, the excess varying 0.01 to 4.04 per ct. and averaging 0.69 per ct. In 112 samples, the available phosphoric acid is below the amount guaranteed, the de- ficiency varying from 0.01 to 1.74 per ct. and averaging 0.51 per ct. (3) Potash. In 461 samples the amount of potash is above the amount guaranteed, the surplus varying from 0.02 to 5.47 per ct. and averaging 0.59 per ect. In 151 samples the amount of potash is below the amount guaranteed, the deficiency varying from 0.01 to 2.36 per ct. and averaging 0.36 per ct. It is a matter of interest to go into some further detail and see the number of samples going above or below the guaranty within certain limits. This information is furnished by the following tabulated arrangement of data. TABLE XX.— NuMBER OF SAMPLES ABOVE AND BELOW GUARANTEED AMOUNTS. NITROGEN. PHospPHORIC ACID. PorasH. CoMPLETE FERTILIZERS. Above Below Above Below Above Below in in in in in in number | number | number | number | number | number of of of of of of samples.| samples.| samples.} samples.| samples.| samples. Between O and 0.10 perct........ 159 95 29 35 53 50 % OMOr ESVO: 20 ae eee 155 24 45 25 59 21 : OFZ; Her SO) (Sb eres. ra 68 12 39 il7s &2 18 S OLSON ee SAO Fee susp steusis 31 15 55 11 57 14 e O40) SCE OESO), i WEE A. overe 24 9 47 6 48 10 a OF50" Her O60" Saas te 2 4 47 5 30 3 0:60) 45°0:70) 5 4 2 42 4 31 8 2 O00 ner SO). truley aie s:sls 1 1 39 2 18 10 # O38" ** TORSO: 5 Wet acs. 2 2 33 5 16 4 ¢ 0.90" Sa AESOOh ee Fy. se 1 0 24 0 23 3 = 100) of) 350) Sop ete 0 2 69 1 43 4 DBO ge oc ooo OO tet meme foreach 0 0 20 1 18 A : 2 00) = 21250 see eden cinco 1 0 + 0 6 1 oe 2 EDD) ESO ae eheretcnere 0 0 3 0 4 0 AboverahOOlt,.2eiriettsio tains 0 0 6 0 5 0 5 ° ot i ee > ts ie.) — lor] lon) or (= to - — bo is for) ew _ or a New York AGricuLtTuRAL EXPERIMENT SrTaTIon. 671 In connection with the data contained in the preceding table, at- tention is called to the following points: (1) For each of the three elements the number of samples showing results above the guaranteed statement of analysis is much larger than the number below. (2) The largest number below guaranty is in case of nitrogen (166 samples), followed by potash (151 samples), while the smallest num- ber (112 samples) below is in case of phosphoric acid. (3) Comparatively few samples are below guaranty more than 0.50 per ct., 11 in case of nitrogen, 18 in case of phosphoric acid and 38 in case of potash. (4) Balancing all the cases of excess and deficiency, we find that there is an average excess of 0.08 per ct. of nitrogen, 0.44 per ct. of available phosphoric acid and 0.34 per ct. of potash; these amounts have a money value of about $1.08 for one ton of fertilizer. In the table following we give the composition, guaranteed and actual, of the fertilizing materials and mixtures other than those al- ready considered: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GUARANTEED AND ACTUAL PERCENTAGES OF NITROGEN. TaBLE XXI.— PHospHoric Acip, PoTasH AND CALCIUM IN FERTILIZING MATERIALS. GUARANTEED. Founp. Average SpeciaL Mixtures amount AND UNMIXED rrr MATERIALS. above Highest.| Lowest. | Average.| Highest.) Lowest. |Average. |guaranty Per ct. | Perct. | Perct. | Perct. | Perct. | Per ct. | Per ct. Nitrogen in Sodium nitrate........... 15.23 14.80 14.94 15.66 14.82 15.20 0.26 ried blood y.-0nistceievaet 13.16 9.84 10.54 13.63 9.05 10.75 0.21 Bone 135s Ue ae as 4.53 1.65 2.94 4.21 2.02 3.12 0.18 Tankage (meat and bone). 7.41 2.67 5.28 7.41 2.90 5.58 0.30 Tankage (meat).......... 11.00 6.10 8.39 11.98 7.46 9.16 0.77 Ground fishies. o.0-..391 9.60 6.58 8.70 9.75 5.62 8.83 0.13 Bone and potash salts..... 2.47 2.47 2.47 2.88 2.56 2.71 0.24 Dried sheep manure...... 2.36 1.00 1.94 2.53 1.99 2.23 0.29 Phosphoric acid in Acid phosphate........... 16 11 13.87 L721 11.65 14.65 0.78 Acid phosphate and potash BAM cette tod ced esten 13 6 10.22 13.35 6.50 10.60 0.38 BONG 5 ite sisi toicnsiys sae 23 13.73 21.20 27 .68 15.82 23.33 2.13 Tankage (meat and bone)..) 21.24 6.60 12.81 21.30 7.46 14.19 1.38 Bone and potash salts.... 15 3.50 12.12 17.60 4.33 13.11 0.99 Ground isha 2 Oa 7.00 6.00 6.55 7.30 5.67 6.50 *0.05 Basic-slag phosphate...... 17.00 17.00 17.00 19.26 lve? 17.88 0.88 Rock-phosphate (floats)...| 30.00 30.00 30.00 33.54 29.68 31.52 1.52 Wood-ashes.............. 1.50 0.50 1.00 1.70 0.98 1.34 0.34 Mixtures of compounds of calcium phosphorus, etc. 8.00 2.50 4.33 8.10 2.42 4.48 0.15 Dried sheep manure...... 2.50 0.70 1.25 2.61 0,66 1.56 0.31 672 Report on Inspection Work OF THE TaBLE XXI (concluded). GUARANTEED. Founp. Average SpecraL MixtTures amount AND UN MIXED a | found MaTERIALS. above Highest. | Lowest. | Average.} Highest. | Lowest. | Average.| guaranty Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. | Perct, | Per ct, Potash in Potassium chloride (muri- ALE) See cose eeu ee 50.00 48.00 49.15 53.50 45.14 49.80 0.65 Potassium sulphate....... 48.00 47.00 47.80 52.70 48.64 50.17 ree ff ain Gece enn Gene cnet 12.40 12.00 12.07 14.40 11.44 13.00 0.93 Acid phosphate and potash SaltGeerto ae Meee ne 10.00 2.00 5.53 10.90 2.00 5.59 0.06 Bone and potash salts..... 5.00 2.50 4.38 7.64 2.81 5.10 0.72 Dried sheep manure...... 1.80 1.00 1.23 5.40 L21 2.31 1.08 Wiood-ashesi otis stent cue 6.00 1.00 3.25 5.52 3.26 3.95 6.70 Mixtures of compounds of ealeium phosphoric acid, (ENC Ate Te BA ea ER ee 5.00 3.00 4.50 5.30 4.30 4.97 0.47 Calcium in Carbonates (limestone, se GTM CAC) ates Gace 39.00 33.50 35.60 38.50 25.65 34.04 *1.53 Hydroxides (slaked lime)..| 50.00 26.45 39.44 50.60 29.75 42.54 2.10 Oxides (quicklime)........ 64.00 43.00 53.50 65.55 61.75 63.65 10.15 Mixtures of compounds of calcium, potash, etc..... 28.60 22.90 26.30 29 .30 20.90 26.62 0.32 * Below guarantee. In connection with data relating to calcium compounds, it should be stated that the guaranteed and actual figures are comparable only on the basis of calcium because only calcium is considered in the guar- anteed statements. Most of the materials contain magnesium also, and if this were taken into consideration with the calcium, the amounts above guaranty would be considerably greater. Carbonates would show a surplus over guaranty of 3.25 per ct. (instead of a deficiency of 0.98 per ct.); hydroxides, 14.22 per ct.; oxides, 11.90 per ct. In general, if we consider only the average results, the showing is good, but it is desirable to pay attention also to some details in order to show more clearly some of the extreme cases of variation above and below guaranty, and this is done in the table following. We give the highest and lowest and average amounts found above and below the guaranteed amounts in the case of each constituent of special mixtures and unmixed materials. An examination of the data in Table XXII leads to the following statements: (1) In such materials as sodium nitrate, basic slag, rock-phosphate (floats), potassium sulphate, kainit, bone and potash mixtures, the number of samples below guaranty is within reasonable limits. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 673 TasBLE XXIJ.— Hicuest AND Lowest PERCENTAGE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GUARANTEED AND AcTUAL CoMpPoSsITION. Sodium nitrate — nitrogen. Dried blood — nitrogen.... Acid phosphate — phos- PHOricacids — eee nase Basic slag phosphate — phosphoric acid......... Rock-phosphate (floats) — phosphoric acid......... Potassium chloride (muri- ate) — potash.......... Potassium sulphate — pot- ash Kainit — potash.......... Bone — nitrogen.......... Bone — phosphorie acid.. . Tankage (meat) — nitrogen Tankage (meat and bone) — nitrogen Tankage (meat and bone) — phosphoric acid Bone and potash salts — nitrogen Bone and potash salts — phosphoric acid......... Bone and potash salts — potash Ground fish — nitrogen... . Ground fish — phosphoric ACIGL rye eh ere eels Dried sheep manure — MItLOCena Ae ye Fi... Dried sheep manure — phosphoric acid......... Dried sheep manure — potash Acid phosphate and potash salts — phosphoric acid. ., Acid phosphate and potash salts — potash........:.. Wood-ashes — phosphoric ACLU Nea aes ee Wood-ashes — potash Mixtures of calcium, potash, etc.— phosphoric acid... Mixtures of calcium, potash, etc.— potash 43 ee ABOVE GUARANTY. BreLow GuARANTY. Number of Highest.} Lowest. samples. IEP Gin || JAAP Gi 33 0.70 0.02 12 0.59 0.03 50 4.16 0.02 5 2.96 0.12 3 3.54 1.38 20 5.50 0.12 5 4.70 iL le, 9 2.40 0.04 22 121 0.04 29 9.88 0.08 3 1.36 0.98 12 125 0.03 14 6.48 0.12 4 0.41 0.09 4 2 60 0.14 3 2.64 0.31 2 0.15 0.10 1 ORK Ee seit 6 1.30 0.01 6 1.74 0.04 8 4.40 0.12 97 1.74 0.02 73 1.98 0.02 2 0.48 0.20 1 PuePAOTT |e Bites ERE 2 0.43 0.10 3 1.30 0.26 Number of Highest.| Lowest. samples. iRenicta|\ Pere: 2 0.27 0.02 2 0.82 0.32 7 1.35 0.01 0) 0 0 1 OROGa toes 7 4.86 0.56 0 0 0 2 0.56 0.10 11 0.37 0.01 4 1.32 0.30 1 UGA eere 4 0.39 0.01 2 6.52 0.29 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ORGSH in. seer 1 OROGRF: AR 1 QESOHID occa 2, 0.06 0.01 2 0.85 0.04 0 0 0 20 0.63 0.01 44 11 0 0.02 0 0 0 2 0.48 0.34 1 OLOSe | 2. aS 1 0.50) | aes 674 Report on Inspection Work or THE TasLe XXII (concluded). ABOVE GUARANTY. BreLow GuaARANTyY. Number Number of Highest. | Lowest. of Highest. | Lowest. samples. samples. Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct. | Per ct. Mixtures of calcium, potash, : ete.— calcium.......... » 3.90 0.70 2 2.90 1.20 Sabonatee mais etc.) — calcium... os:3.5..5.. 7 4.65 0.20 2 0.56 0.25 Bydrocidhe Meliiced lime) — 4 6} 10.05 0.10 CLUE Ree ett ate ts 1 Dp Aayayal | Vale Gen a 1 Deen (2) In materials such as acid phosphate, potassium chloride (muriate), bone, tankage, sheep manure, mixtures of acid phosphate and potash, wood-ashes and compounds containing calcium, a larger proportion of samples is below guaranty than is desirable from the purchaser’s standpoint. A clearer understanding of what these values mean can be gained from Table XXIII, in which we give the commercial valuation of the extreme surplus and deficiency and also of the average for each plant-food constituent on the basis of one ton. While the general averages show, in case of almost every material, a greater value in plant-food than is guaranteed, it is obvious that, when we come to consider special cases, the loss to the purchaser is one of serious magnitude. For example, we find dried blood contain- ing $3.69 less plant-food than guaranteed; muriate of potash, $3.90; tankage, $6.90 ($1.68 nitrogen and $5.22 phosphoric acid); ground fish, $4.13, ete. III. SOME DEFECTS IN THE PRESENT FERTILIZER LAW. Until 1910 the law relating to the sale of commercial fertilizers made it a violation if chemical analysis showed a deficiency below the manufacturer’s guaranteed statement of composition exceeding one-third of one per ct. of nitrogen or one-half of one per ct. of phos- phoric acid or of potash or, in case of bone, one per ct. of phosphoric acid. In 1910 the section of the law relating to deficiencies in con- stituents was changed so as to read asfollows: ‘It shall also be a vio- lation of the provisions of this article if any commercial fertilizer or New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 675 TasBLe XXIII.— Hiauest anpD Lowest Monetary DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GUARANTEED AND ACTUAL COMPOSITION. VaLuE ABOVE VALUE BELow | Average GUARANTY. GUARANTY. value per ton . above ; : guar- Highest.| Lowest. | Highest.) Lowest. anty: Sodium nitrate — nitrogen......... $2.31 | $0.06 | $0.89 | $0.06 $9.86 Dried blood — nitrogen............ 2.66 0.14 3.69 1.44 0.95 Acid phosphate — phosphoric acid.. . 3.54 0.02 1.15 0.01 0.66 Potassium chloride (muriate) — pot- DST REI cE EET, SAP a 4.40 0.10 3.90 0.45 0.52 Potassium sulphate — potash....... 4.70 1.12 0.00 0.00 2.37 init —— POURS Niece ees thats ee ne: 1.92 0.03 0.45 0.08 0.75 Acid phosphate and potash salts — phosphoric acid. ...5.-.-28.--45- 1.48 0.02 0.54 0.01 0.32 Acid phosphate and potash salts — Movashe Listes. Jeter Hohe des es 1.58 0.02 1.26 0.02 0.05 Tankage (meat) — nitrogen........ 5.85 4.21 1.08 1.08 3.31 Tankage (meat and bone) —nitrogen| 5.388 0.138 1.68 0.04 1.29 Tankage (meat and bone) — phos- Te AKEENOG Ke ceo cio UM ao Dae 5.18 0.10 5.22 0.23 1.10 Boner m1brOmem ee sce iscis eiveers ay ane 4.20 0.17 1.59 0.04 0.77 Bone — phosphoric acid........... 7.80 0.06 1.06 0.24 1.70 Bone and potash salts — nitrogen... 1.76 0.39 0 0 1.03 Bone and potash salts — phosphoric BCI srrert ic: eit esy eee evs arotionsientac 2.08 0.11 0 0 0.79 Bone and potash salts — potash..... 2.11 0.24 0.50 0.50 0.58 Ground fish — nitrogen............ 0.65 0.48 4.13 4.13 0.56 Ground fish — phosphoric acid... ... 0.16 0.16 0.26 0.26 *0.04 Dried sheep manure — nitrogen..... 5.59 0.04 0.26 0.04 0.68 Dried sheep manure — phosphoric CI AERA is, 5) ete Gawialea 1.39 0.03 0.68 0.08 0.25 Dried sheep manure — potash...... 3.52 0.10 ty 0 0.86 Wood-ashes — phosphoric acid...... 0.48 0.20 0 0 0.34 Wood-ashes — potash............. 2.26 2.26 0.48 0.34 0.70 Mixtures of calcium, potash, etc. — phosphoriclacid 29.0. 44.--.-0-0- 0.34 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.12 Mixtures of calcium, potash, etc. — JOCOLAENST Wis ANSE! Veet bee heme ene eae 1.04 0.21 0.40 0.40 0.38 Mixtures of calcium, potash, etc. — Gall chum alnpareer., Seen wai bo eR 0.39 0.07 0.29 0.12 0.03 Carbonates (limestone, etc.) —cal- CUVET TUS a ie Rend ate es eater ee 0.47 0.02 0.06 0.08 *0.15 Hydroxides (slaked lime) — calcium. 0.28 0.14 1.00 0.01 0.21 Oxides (quicklime) — calcium....... 2.25 2 Pas 0.23 0.23 1.02 * Below guaranty. 676 Report on Inspection WorkK OF THE material to be used as a fertilizer shall contain a smaller percentage of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash or calcium oxide than is certified in said statement to be contained therein, when such deficiency shall be greater than ten per centum of any one of such constituents unless there be a monetary equivalent in excesses in other guaranteed con- stituents as provided herein; provided such deficiency does not exceed 20 per centum of such guarantee in any one constituent point. The basis of values of such constituents necessary in making such compu- tations shall be determined by the commissioner of agriculture.”’ It is a matter of interest, as well as of importance, to see how the present law works in practice in comparison with the former. We will make such a comparison based on the analyses of about 1000 samples of fertilizers, as given in Bulletin No. 390. We will consider (1st) the number of cases that would appear as violations under the former provisions of the law and the number occurring under the present law, (2nd) the amount and value of the constituents deficient in these samples, and (3rd) some suggestions for remedy of the defects that are shown in the present law. TaBLeE XXIV. NumsBeEr or VIOLATIONS UNDER FoRMER AND PRESENT Laws. Number of|Number of violations | violations |Number of under under samples former law.|present law.| #2aly zed. ASN Completenfentilizens)| seer Samples of bone deficient........... Pounds of nitrogen below guaranty. Pounds of phosphoric acid below PUATANGY a ae ss ed ec so a ee Monetary equivalent of nitrogen de- MCIEN CYA eee SA eee ee: Monetary equivalent of phosphoric acid deficieneyy):..1-1- 2 see Samples of acid phosphate and potash mixtures deficient.............. Pounds of phosphoric acid below QUATANGY:.. conc cis See eee ee Pounds of potash below guaranty. . Monetary equivalent of phosphoric acia.deficiency.: 4 oe: eee ee Monetary equivalent of potash de- FIGICNCY/ nto ond one oe Clee ares wie) w/e) ial 0 (ore. $0 .68 682 Report on Inspection Work OF THE amount of each deficient constituent and (3) the monetary value, based on one ton, corresponding to these deficiencies, the prices of plant-food constituents being those given in Table XVIII, which represent the average cost to farmers during 1914. An examination of the table shows in general that the range of amounts of deficiencies # very wide and extends to most of the classes of materials examined, whether complete fertilizers, special mixtures or unmixed materials. It is also shown that, in the case of complete fertilizers, the number of cases is small in which more than one con- stituent is low enough to constitute a violation, there being 2 cases in which nitrogen and phosphoric acid were both deficient and 7 cases in which nitrogen and potash were low. These summarized data raise questions as to some further details, especially the efficiency of the present law in protecting the interests of purchasers. For ex- ample, how large a monetary deficiency can occur under the present law and yet not be a violation, and how does this compare with the results of the former law? This question can best be answered by a study of the actual cases before us, and below we present further details arranged so as to throw light on this phase of our discussion. TasLte XXVIII.— Dericiencizrs Expressep IN MoNnrTrARY VALUE, COMPARING FORMER AND PRESENT Laws. CompLETE FeEertTitizers |FERTILIZING MATERIALS — NuMBER OF — NUMBER OF VIOLATIONS. VIOLATIONS. Monetary DEFICIENCY Former] Present Former] Present Total. | law. law. | Total. | law. law. Between $0.50 and $1.00....... 25 25 0 18 18 0 $1.00 and $1.50....... 12 12 1 3 3 1 fe loOrande2 00m ane oe 8 5 6 6 6 2 2 OOvand $2450 soe 5 5 4 2) 2 0 © $2: 50 and $300%. 05... 6 6 4 1 1 0 fb E3) OO sande Go- 50k ose 6 6 5 1 1 0 “$3.50 and $4.00. .....-. 4 4 3 1 1 0 oo 4 O0and $5 00.2 ae 3 3 2 2, 2 1 ©. $5)00"and $6008 «25... 2 2 9) 1 il 1 © ‘$6. 00°and $7 OOM SE el fs. os a cua 1 1 1 £ SOL OOL anid: $1 GhOQM aerce | Penick alloc) oo ieee 1 1 1 Motal:: : Ye se. Se 71 68 27 37 37 7 New York AGRriIcuLTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 683 In explanation of the data contained in the table above, we make the following statements: (1) On the basis of the monetary value of the deficiency of plant- food constituents, there would be 25 cases of violation under the former law in which the monetary deficiency is less than $1.00, and none of these is a violation under the present law. (2) When the monetary deficiency lies between $1.00 and $1.50, there would be 12 cases of violation under the former law and only one of these is a violation under the present law. (3) When the monetary deficiency is greater than $1.50 and less than $2.00, there is a total of 8 violations, 5 of which would come under the former law (3 of these being violations also under the present law); the other 3 cases are violations under the present law but not under the former. Since these 3 cases are the only ones of the kind, we will stop here to notice them in more detail. These are cases in which nitrogen is below the guaranteed amount between 10 and 20 per ct. of the guaranty, there not being enough excess of potash and phosphoric acid to make up the monetary equivalent of the deficiency of nitrogen. In these cases the nitrogen was not 0.33 per ct. below guaranty and would not, therefore, be low enough to make a violation under the former law. These 3 cases are the only ones out of 71 complete fertilizers in which there is under the present law a violation that would not come also under the former law. (4) When the monetary deficiency les between $2.00 and $2.50, there would be 5 violations under the former law, 4 of which are vio- lations also under the present law. (5) Taking the cases where the monetary deficiency is greater than $2.50, there are, all told, 21 cases which would be violations un- der the former law, of which 16 are violations under the present law. (6) In the case of complete fertilizers, where the monetary de- ficiency exceeds $1.50, the number of violations under the present law is more nearly equal to those under the former law; but, even so, too many cases escape being violations under the new law where the monetary loss to the purchaser is in excess of $2.00 a ton. (7) In the case of fertilizing materials, there would be a total of 37 violations under the former law, of which 7 are violations under the present law. In 18 cases in which the monetary deficiency is less than $1.00, there are no violations under the present law; in 3 cases where the deficiency is between $1.00 and $1.50, there is 1 violation under 684 Report on Inspection WorkK OF THE the present law; in 6 cases where the deficiency is between $1.50 and $2.00, there are 2 violations under the present law; in 10 cases where the monetary deficiency exceeds $2.00, varying from that figure to nearly $10.00, 4 cases are violations under the present law. The present law is obviously less effective in protecting purchasers in case of fertilizing materials than in case of complete fertilizers. (8) In 8 cases of complete fertilizers, in which the monetary de- ficiency exceeds $1.75 per ton, there is no violation under the present law; the specific amounts in these 8 cases are as follows: $1.78, $1.89, $2.21, $2.54, $2.65, $3.19, $3.62 and $4.81. In 10 cases of fertilizing materials, in which the monetary deficiency exceeds $1.65 per ton, the amounts of monetary deficiency are as follows: $1.69, $1.74, $1.75, $1.81, $2.03, $2.22, $2.70, $3.20, $3.54 and $4.57; and none of these is a violation under the present law. (9) An examination of the details in each of these cases to ascer- tain why these samples fall below guaranty in monetary value to the ex- tent shown, and yet are not violations under the present fertilizer law, leads to the following statements: (a) In the 8 cases of complete fer- tilizers cited above, the monetary deficiency is caused in 7 cases by deficiency of nitrogen below guaranty and in 1 case of phosphoric acid. In all the nitrogen cases the guaranty is above 4 per ct., permitting an absolute deficiency of over 0.40 per ct. of nitrogen without becom- ing a violation. For example, in one case, in which the percentage of nitrogen guaranteed is 7.41, the deficiency is 0.67 per ct., the monetary equivalent of which is $3.62, based on the average cost of nitrogen in complete fertilizersin thisState. (b) In the 10 cases of fertilizing ma- terials, the monetary deficiency is caused by lack of nitrogen in 5 cases (2 of tankage, 2 of dried blood and one of bone); in the other 5 cases, the deficiency is due to lack of potash in muriate, in which cases the present law permits an absolute deficiency of about 5 per ct. without becoming a violation. SUGGESTIONS FOR REMEDY OF DEFECTS OF PRESENT FERTILIZER LAW. Reviewing the foregoing discussion, a study of the data furnished by the results of analysis of about 1000 fertilizers examined in 1914, in relation to their bearing upon the practical working of the present fertilizer law as compared with the law in force previous to 1910, leads to the following summarized statements: New York AGricuLTuRAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 685 (1) Under the present law, there are 27 cases in which complete fertilizers are deficient in composition to an extent sufficient to make them violations, while under the provisions of the former law there would be 68 cases of violation, or 41 more than at present; in the case of 37 samples of fertilizing materials and special mixtures, 7 are vio- lations under the present law, while all would be violations under the former law, or 30 more than at present. (2) The greater number of violations occurring under the provisions of the law in force previous to 1910 is due largely to the fact that the present law exempts larger deficiencies in many cases than did the former law. This is shown especially in the case of nitrogen in high- grade complete fertilizers, dried blood, bone and tankage, and also in the case of potash in the form of muriate. (3) In all cases the present law affords less protection to purchasers than did the former law (a) when nitrogen is present in amount ex- ceeding 3.3 per ct. (including about one-sixth of all samples of com- plete fertilizers), (b) when phosphoric acid is present in amounts ex- ceeding 5 per ct. (including 597 out of 614 samples of complete fer- tilizers), (c) when potash is present in amounts exceeding 5 per ct. (including 355 out of 614 samples of complete fertilizers), and (d) in the case of nearly all high-grade fertilizing materials, such as potash salts, acid phosphate, sodium nitrate, ammonium sulphate, etc. The higher the percentage of a plant-food constituent in a fertilizer, the greater is the amount of absolute exemption of deficiency, and this works against the protection of purchasers. (4) The change from the provisions of the former law to those of the present was due to certain obvious imperfections, chief of which were the following: (a) The percentage of deficiency allowed was fixed in all cases without regard to the amount of the constituent guaranteed. For example, an exemption of .33 per ct. of nitrogen was permitted whether the fertilizer might contain 0.8 per ct. or 15 per ct., which was obviously unfair to the purchaser in the case of low-grade goods. (b) No provision was made for permitting any deficiency above the amount of exemption to be offset by any surplus of other constituents in the fertilizer. Thus in case of a fertilizer containing a deficiency of more than 0.5 per ct. of phosphoric acid, no relief was furnished even though the fertilizer might contain an excess of nitrogen and potash having a value much greater than the amount of phosphoric acid deficient. The provision in the present law permitting an offset 686 Report on Inspection Work OF THE of excess of some constituents against deficiency in another within certain limits appears on the whole, to be working well in practice, when all conditions are considered. (c) A third serious defect of the former fertilizer law consisted in the uneven allowance made for de- ficiency exemption in the different constituents when the relative monetary value is considered. Thus, in allowing a deficiency of 0.33 per ct. of nitrogen, a much greater monetary value was exempted than in case of 0.5 per ct. of phosphoric acid or potash. At present prices, one pound of nitrogen is worth about four times as much as a pound of phosphoric acid or potash. Therefore, in order to have the exempted deficiencies of the different constituents made uniform on the basis of monetary value, it would be necessary either to increase the amount of phosphoric acid and potash if the amount of exempt nitrogen were kept at 0.33, or else to decrease the amount of nitrogen if the amount of exempt phosphoric acid and potash were kept at 0.5. Thus, on the basis of monetary value, 0.33 per ct. of nitrogen equals about 1.30 per ct. of phosphoric acid or potash; or the amount of nitrogen equal to 0.5 per ct. of phosphoric acid or potash would be 0.125 per ct. It is thus seen that under the former law, the amount of exempt nitrogen deficiency was too high in relation to phosphoric acid or potash, or, expressed in another way, that the amount of exempt deficiency of phosphoric acid or potash was too low in relation to nitrogen. (5) When the present fertilizer la77 was amended, the wisdom of some of the new provisions, from the farmers’ standpoint, was ques- tioned at the time by those longest familiar with conditions. The present law has now had an impartial trial, and the analysis of the results furnished under its working, as presented in the preceding pages, shows that actual cases of injustice to farmers purchasing fertilizers not only do occur but there is offered opportunity for much more extensive injustice with complete immunity to those who may gain advantage by such injustice. To be more specific, the present law is open to one serious practical objection: It permits, in the way of a deficiency, an absolute exemption of 10 per ct. of the amount of guaranty in any one constituent without further limitation, especially without reference to the actual amount and value of the deficiency thus exempted. As has already been pointed out, this may work serious loss and injustice to purchasers in the case of fertilizers and materials containing large amounts of any of the plant-food con- New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 687 stituents. Why should a deficiency exemption be allowed, for ex- ample, in case of nitrate of soda to the extent of 10 per ct. of the guar- anty, which amounts per ton of nitrate to 30 pounds of nitrogen, having a value of $2.40 to $3 according to prices at present prevailing in this State? There is no good reason why any absolute exemption should be made to such an extent as will permit a seller to sell any fertilizer with impunity, when it contains, to the extent of several dollars, less plant-food than is called for by the guaranty and when the purchaser fails to receive by several dollars what he has paid for. Another feature of the 10 per ct. exemption is that no distinction is made between the relative values of nitrogen, which is costly, and of phosphoric acid or potash, the cost of which is about one-fourth that of nitrogen. The same objection holds good here, only in greater degree, as in the case of the former law. At present no such distinc- tion whatever is made by the 10 per ct. exemption, while in the former law some difference, though inadequate, was made by balancing 0.33 per ct. of nitrogen against 0.5 per ct. of phosphoric acid or potash. At present the 10 per ct. exemption permits equal deficiencies of ni- trogen, phosphoric acid and potash. These. defects can be properly regulated only (1) by limiting the amount of the absolute exemption of deficiency of nitrogen, phos- phoric acid and potash to less than the present 10 per ct. limit in all cases where the guaranty of these constituents exceeds certain amounts; and (2) by fixing such limitations in a manner that will ap- proximately recognize the relative monetary value of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. To effect such changes as will meet the most serious objections existing in the provisions of the present law, the following suggestions are made: (1) In the case of nitrogen, no absolute exemption greater than a de- ficiency of 0.30 per ct. (equal to 6 pounds per ton) should be permitted and (2) in the case of phosphoric acid and potash, no absolute exemption greater than a deficiency of 1 per ct. (equal to 20 pounds per ton) should be permitted. A few illustrations will make clear the effect of such a modification. In the case of all fertilizers or materials containing more than 3 per ct. of nitrogen, the 10 per ct. absolute deficiency of the present pro- vision would not hold good; for example, in a fertilizer guaranteed to contain 3.5 per ct. of nitrogen, a 10 per ct. deficiency would be 0.35 per ct., which would be permitted with immunity under the present 688 Report on Inspection Work OF THE law, but which would not be permitted under the suggested change. In such a case, exemption would, however, be permitted, provided the deficiency does not exceed 20 per ct. of the guaranty, if the other constituents are present in excess sufficient to equal the amount of monetary deficiency caused by shortage of nitrogen. In this particu- lar case, a surplus of phosphoric acid or of potash, or of both combined, equal to 1.40 per ct. would be enough to make an exemption of the 0.35 per ct. deficiency of nitrogen. Taking for further illustration an acid phosphate guaranteed to— contain 14 per ct. of phosphoric acid, a 10 per ct. deficiency would be 1.40 per ct., which under the present law is unconditionally permis- sible but which under the suggested change would be a violation, since in this case, where there is no other constituent present to furnish any balancing surplus, only 1 per ct. (equal to 20 pounds per ton) of deficiency would be absolutely exempt. The percentage of the guaranty actually exempt would thus be about 7 (instead of 10 per ct. of the guaranty). Take for another illustration a muriate of potash guaranteed to contain 50 per ct. of potash. At present there is an absolute exemp- tion of 10 per ct. of the guaranty, which is 5 per ct. of potash (equal to 100 pounds per ton, and having a value of about $5.00). Under the suggested change a deficiency of over 1 per ct. of potash (equal to over 20 pounds per ton and worth more than $1.00) would be a vio- lation. Expressed in another way, if such a material contained less than 49 per ct. of potash, the deficiency would constitute a viola- tion. Instead of allowing as now an absolute exemption of 10 per ct., or 100 pounds of potash, the suggested change would permit an absolute exemption equal to only 2 per ct. of the guaranty (50 in this case) which is 1 per ct. of potash or 20 pounds per ton. The suggested change would in large measure remedy the defects of the present law and work in the interests of farmers. An applica- tion of this suggestion to the cases considered above in Table XXVIII gives the following results: (1) Under complete fertilizers :8 cases, showing monetary deficiencies varying from $1.29 to $3.62 and aver- aging $2.25 per ton, which at present are absolute exemptions, would become violations, as they evidently should be. (2) Under fertilizing materials 9 cases, showing monetary deficiencies varying from $1.21 to $4.57 and averaging $2.80 a ton, which at present are absolute exemptions, would become violations. When the amounts of the New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 689 monetary deficiencies are considered, it is obvious that purchasers should receive more protection than the provisions of the present law afford. The added protection for purchasers of fertilizers could be furnished by amending the present section 221, Chapter 485, by incorporating something like the following addition, indicated by italics: “Tt shall also be a violation of the provisions of this article if any commercial fertilizer or material to be used as a fertilizer shall contain a smaller percentage of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash or calcium oxide than is certified in said statement to be contained therein, when such deficiency shall be greater than ten per centum of any one of such constituents unless there be a monetary equivalent in excesses in other guaranteed constituents as provided herein; provided such de- ficiency does not exceed twenty per centum of such guarantee in any one constituent;”’ and provided further that when such ten percentum deficiency amounts to more than three-tenths of one pound of nitrogen or one pound of phosphoric acid or of potash in one hundred pounds of fertilizer or material to be used as a fertilizer, it shall be a violation unless there be a monetary equivalent in excesses in other guaranteed constituents as provided herein. ‘The basis of values of such constituents neces- sary in making such computations shall be determined by the com- missioner of agriculture.” 44 SEED TESTS MADE AT THE STATION DURING 113. > M. T. MUNN. SUMMARY. Part I.— During the year, 292 official samples of seed were drawn from dealers’ stocks by authorized representatives of the Commis- sioner of Agriculture. Analyses of these samples showed 17.5 per ct. to be violations of the seed law, i. e., they contained in excess of three per centum by count of foul or foreign seed and were not so labeled. Lawn grass and grass seed mixtures were the most frequent violations, with alsike clover, red clover and redtop grass, respect- ively, coming next in order. Seed dealers experience some difficulty in determining the percentage of foul and foreign seed by the “count ” method for the purpose of labeling their stock. Studies made upon official samples agree with the results of previous work, i. e., standards of “ count for weight ” of the different agricultural seeds cannot be established and used with any degree of accuracy since the number of seeds per unit weight of crop seed varies widely. The present seed law affords only a partial protection to the pur- chaser of seeds, since it does not require a reasonable freedom from dodder or other noxious weed seeds, or from inert matter. Part II.— From correspondents, 975 seed samples were received during the year, and a practical report covering the quality, noxious weed-seed content, adulterants and general appearance of each sample was given. These voluntary examinations revealed appar- ently the same seed-trade conditions as did the seed examinations of the previous year. Since the enactment of the present seed law numerous inquiries have been received for purity tests in order that dealers may label their seeds to comply with the provisions of the law. The Station cannot undertake such commercial work; and under no circum- stances will it assume the burden of the analytical seed work for the seed trade. * Reprint of Bulletin No. 378, March; for Popular Edition see p. 915. [690] New York AGricuLtTuRAL ExprERIMENT STATION. 691 I. INSPECTION OF AGRICULTURAL SEEDS. Part I of this Bulletin gives the results of the analyses of the official samples of agricultural seeds collected during the year 1913. These samples were collected under the provisions of Article 15 of the Agricultural Law and were transmitted for analysis to the Director of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, in accordance with the provisions of Section 341 of said law. These analyses and other additional information are published by the Director in accordance with said Section 341. Article 15 of the Agricultural Law, or what is known as the “ Seed Law,” will be found below, printed in full. Following the tables are given, (1) a discussion of the method of analysis as required by the law in determining purity percentage by count, (2) a short method for the ‘‘ count ”’ determination of per- centage of foul or foreign seed, with table showing number of seeds per unit weight of crop seed, (8) comments on the requirements of the Agricultural Seed law, and the labeling of seeds, and, lastly, (4) a summary of the results of the inspection. PROVISIONS OF THE AGRICULTURAL LAW RELATIVE TO THE INSPECTION AND SALE OF AGRICULTURAL SEEDS. ARTICLE 15 OF THE AGRICULTURAL LAW.* Inspection and Sale of Seeds. Section 340. Inspectian and sale of seeds. 341. Samples, publication of results of examination. § 340. Inspection and sale of seeds. Within the meaning of this article, “agricultural seeds’’ are defined as the seeds of alfalfa, Canadian blue grass, Kentucky blue grass, alsike clover, crimson clover, red clover, white clover, vetch orchard grass, rape, redtop, and timothy which are to be used for sowing or seeding purposes. No person, firm or corporation shall sell, offer, expose or have in his possession for sale for the purposes of seeding, any seeds of grasses or clovers, of the kind known as agricultural seeds containing in excess of three per centum by count |*] of foul or foreign seeds, unless every receptacle, package, sack or bag containing such seeds is plainly marked or labeled with the per centum of such foul or foreign seeds contained therein. *See page 714. 692 Report on Inspection WorRK OF THE § 341. Samples, publication of results of examination. The commissioner of agriculture or his duly authorized representatives shall take samples of seed in triplicate in the presence of at least one witness and in the presence of such witness shall seal such samples and shall at the time of taking tender, and if accepted, deliver to the person apparently in charge one of such samples; one of the other samples the commissioner of agriculture shall cause to be analyzed. The director of the New York agricultural experiment station shall analyze or cause to be analyzed such samples of seeds taken under the provisions of this article as shall be submitted to him for that purpose by the commissioner of agriculture and shall report. such analysis to the commissioner of agriculture, and for this purpose the New York agricultural experiment station may employ experts and incur such expenses as may be necessary to comply with the requirements of this article. The result of the analysis of the sample or samples so procured, together with such additional information as circumstances advise, shall be published in reports or bulletins from time to time. REPORT OF ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF SEEDS COLLECTED BY THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE DURING 1913. CoMPOSITION. a Kind of seed, brand or trade name, name of dealer, g and place of collection. os Foreign Inert Pure seed. matter. seed. . Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. ALFALFA: 993 JA COAT LE IEL Rae EASE Sa ete Chee aes .56 1.20 98 .24 Kirby & Root, Cooperstown. 501 PANAAIE ates ce cee eben crapyea ey stale. ahaa 24 .60 99.16 John L. Shultz & Co., Skaneateles. 556 YATES eeepc? CRI: SMe RM EMSRS RES eee iy 94 97 .94 James F. Burke, Glen Cove. 624. Alias Say eet ee ee Wt: leas. Abe .20 04 99 .26 Briscoe & Tupper, Churchville. 625 I NIN TES ps ere gpa es oe Mosinee) cotinine 82 40 99 .28 Carr-Leggett Hardware Co., Port Byron 907 PAMEMD ae Saya) OE Bake De Senos Ree eee ero or .04 .60 99 .36 Francis X. Litz, Homer. 1009 IN ellie ys Sees Re ree Sep whose .08 30 99 .62 W. H. Ferguson & Son, Elmira. 1055 INL ALC ee TPR Tete tie tease sie. ciete tie Cnere .20 40 99 .40 G. L. Dana, Cobleskill. 1079 A Falta eae tere aet eee tee a ere ocev vet rere ae .04 .20 99.76 M. W. Harroway, Richmondville. Number. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. REPORT OF ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF SEEDS — (continued). Kind of seed, brand or trade name, name of dealer, and place of collection. ALFALFA (concluded): PAN Teal ices 5, Phy Puen rere athe eet Sear 2s oo ype ot PETA sade, STE, SEED ETRE DECREE ret BriCayetn me Res boyaa 25 a juansheoneahanas F. H. Ebeling, Syracuse. CAV ENU SS HAE Ais ate is Berane S War eet Ili F. H. Ebeling, Syracuse. CHOICE he Atta Sis Sa a a We ag aaa anes Brown Bros., Hyndsville. Climaxa Supenine tte seeptis an. isaac Alexander Davidson, Canandaigua. CHINMAKASe Ie WE 2h dest AS weno UNS aaa aie Chas. W. Whitbeck, Schenectady. DB Altalianes ste 22, ee etn ry asco eek gt iclipse:mne wah 542 Sa05s anode woo eaehaaashe Albert V. Brayton, Glens Falls. TRETTON e crtah: & ORES EOD De Oe eee L. L. Patterson Co., Syracuse. HAN CYA Cy See Mr yas ere a ry a ee ad R. A. Mather, Canandaigua. Banc ymem ns tats Pps arse atascoritea aed ocrre Heman Glass Seed Co., Rochester. Deh ich oA clon Maa ie hic cacy eae ae ae Geo. C. Dorsey, Geneva. TEN EVER eel omneeh SARE iGk Once ao teens aie nc Rech ROPER A. L. Houghtailing & Sons, McLean. EFAING Vets SI res. a0n, yiech «oops Siey'eatu suey bias Bons Farmers Supply Store, Ithaca. I. X. L. American Grown Fancy............ Frank D. Fish, Ithaca. I. X. L. American Grown Fancy............ G. L. Dana, Cobleskill. Strong’s Fancy Recleaned.................. Amasa M. Strong, Syracuse. ALSIKE CLOVER: J. J. Deming, Hoosick Falls. Foreign seed. Per ct. 12 1.16 28 64 COMPOSITION. Inert matter. Per ct. .10 693 Pure seed. Per ct. 99.78 98 .24 99 .32 97 .92 96 .36 99 .34 98 .52 98 .60 99.14 98.76 98 .42 99 .02 99 .66 99.16 OS) 30) 99 .72 98 .30 99 .30 99 .42 95 .45 98 .84 97 .46 97 .58 694 Report on Inspection WorK OF THE Report or ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF SEEDS — (continued). & ComPposiTION. a Kind of seed, brand or trade name, name of dealer, S| and place of collection. : Zz Foreign Inert Pure seed. matter. seed. Per ct Per ct. Per ct. ALSIKE CLOVER (continued): 913 Alsike | Clover. hdabven weuten erase oe poe eee 15.50 6.50 78.00 The Hilton & Patrick Co., Truxton. 628 TAT St ce se RSs Boned eure epee ae Ce Se) Cae OE 1.24 1.50 97 .26 C. D. Loomis, Port Byron. 982 Alsike Clovernwen. Perce taclecr ene ck cir 11.88 3.75 84.42 A. D. Morgan, Ilion. 765 Alsike Clover aie eels e Ee CL ee eee: 5.04 2.25 92571 Edwin B. Watson, Madrid. 767 Alsike Glover tus tei ies eae CC eee 9.12 2.75 88.13 Arthur G. Reynolds, Bombay. 554 UNISIKE Be see aa Meree eon: Concnercr ae Reactant eenctenetcharer: 5.74 1.00 93 .26 The Long Island Seed Co., New Hyde Park. 622 LANES i SEN Rte ey te eee ee pO LSE ee 1.02 75 99 .23 R. A. Mather, Canandaigua. 757 VAN TI year SSE 3 at eet eee Cae ea is a Pie 15.07 2.00 82.93 The F. M. Johnson Co., North Bangor. 1077 JN, 3 BBs [Sine OE SSaUGh gees 9 Bena boty or oy a TS oe aR 24 .25 99.51 Brown Bros., Hyndsville. 1082 1B ETUC SR Sn ee er es BEE eT ase es eo 03 .20 99.77 C. A. Bunn, Richmondville. 1119 BevAlsikcess BREE R CHM ee LRN eh sever bite 06 15 99.79 H. A. MeRae & Co., Schuylerville. 1060 (Cision OF BN Ries Conia dae Fa cehauce pee 2.97 1.50 95.53 G. L. Dana, Cobleskill. 1010. CHoices di ee nel heed tens eee ORE 11.80 4.50 83.70 W. Hz. Ferguson & Son, Elmira. 516 Citplaen: (Re ook Been ier ee ea eee hee 20.31 6.10 73.59 TF. H. Ebeling, Syracuse. 402 TET TGN (es wee waa Nee tena et Asa aeons Aa eh OPH Aa 12 .50 99 .38 Jamestown Electric Mills, Inc., Jamestown. 626 DDE d\en gata Met A or ni ay ero arn OU 3.41 1.50 95 .09 Carr-Leggett Hardware Co., Port Byron. 635 HAD Cys een etn Cito eee 5.38 2.00 92.62 Burton F. French, Attica. 1081 LE CV Gh ites epee oben anes Sieh bare MUGS ii r 3 BB ke 22 .70 99 .08 C. A. Bunn, Richmondville. 1115 TESA GY eee Reread ete es gee fone oxeacnclto ne 37 .40 99 .23 Cullen & Hanna, Middle Granville. 1114 Haultlesspeereete term erectsincters ooscocret st oes an De .28 .70 99 .02 J. P. Skiff, Buskirk. 652 GENUINE O ERE eR Greteotoncvormescc tascheke hors whevausebeie: 85 1.60 97 .55 Frank Hill, Goshen. 455 EMTS dieu iia sekinatn 5 6 GG a Oued BRC ocr et 6.97 2.00 91.03 Joseph A. Baumert, Antwerp. 1000 Kiaiber «25. Meee eae Pn atore nce eR 5.02 ses, 93 .23 8. J. Wright, West Winfield. 1074 PROT SE QE a mtn Cre pedsichsdokans icbecoren eee 4.96 25 94.79 Seth Smith, Sharon Springs. New Yorx Agricutturat Experiment Station. 695 Report or ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF SEEDS — (continued). £ CoMPOSITION. a Kind of seed, brand or trade name, name of dealer, g and place of collection. f %, Foreign Inert Pure seed. matter. seed. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. ALSIKE CLOVER (concluded): 975 TIN Git 0)! Sata RNR PA fed astaccr Gitesd Meare %, os) aS 9.42 .70 89.88 John Best, Herkimer. 605 EAVES ose ate Ske cuclens RSTG/ a I Tse Goce RR Te 1.58 30 98 .12 Brewster Crittenden & Co., Rochester. 665 OWES Te Ne IE TINE Sc Sk ark 2k ars i tlscard & 10.76 1.75 87.49 L. C. Smith & Sons, Monticello. 751 LOAVES 0 Sito: ho. By etGuc BT cisced DECI eae ance RCC ae a 11.28 2.15 85.97 H. D. Thompson & Co., Malone. 978 Qucenk x geemene sed cae Mi ated Gat dod gia ese 10.35 1.50 88.15 A. J. Schweinsberg, Boonville. 1116 134) No) ea bins AE Sn a ee .65 1.50 97 .85 C. A. Brownlee, Cambridge. CRIMSON CLOVER: 607 Crimson’ Glovers sos. feist eee ees aes .56 1.10 98 .34 Brewster Crittenden & Co., Rochester. Rep CLover: 409 GAC lO Werm es ae ten eee cst ass ie Bae a 1.59 .90 97.51 O. W. Clark & Son., Buffalo. 503 Red @loviersannn nett vce ite tina ewe hein 4.49 .86 94.65 John L. Shultz & Co., Skaneateles. 852 tHE C URES oft, oRCIR RM sich cade ear em Ale en Eee 18 10 99 .72 Bedford Farmers Cooperative Assn., Mt. Kisco. HOW ay ARE Clavier’s eo 4.08, see cc es Mee ge 2.45 1.10 96.45 Charles W. Golder, Jamaica. 647 REGU CIO VER srojcistavsiavh cy aksetecnlahue ad Ae ee 1.59 .80 97 .61 Alexander Davidson, Canandaigua. 651 IRedk@1O Wer Pris, so 6, nin eves Revava ceed aan ee 4.35 1.80 93 .85 Frank Hill, Goshen. . ; 654 Rede @lovieras sucha sr cins staigs cin oar scli-co sic eee 48 1.30 98 .22 George W. Sayre, Warwick. 953 VERGO Vera ae wiieenis Saale escaic sis cia Re 1.62 40 97 .98 Arthur Hill & Co., Amsterdam. 1099 RECA CLOVER ain bi cleceaieieys- sie une ARV Oe a Ze 1.30 96 .45 Geo. Wood, Delmar. 1117 Redi@olwerkery ee ke ck nas bake ct OL MR. 1.89 2.40 95.71 Champion Grain Co., Mechanicville. 1124 Redi@lovercy vie sibictrun, te kacein coe se ee 1.86 1.30 96 .84 Edward O’Neil, Valley Falls. 966 ATC Eee. py AEBS Scene coctatrnctanins aad AR 18 30 99 .52 Martin Collins, Johnstown. 996 Ace ammioths cep inn ocn cet iene wal. ails 1.40 97.49 F. P. Bouton, Schenevus. 914 Aetna Mammothier cen hacia ea ke 121 4.50 84.29 Babcock & Holmes, Cuyler. 696 Report on Inspection Work OF THE Report or ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF SEEDS — (continued). ’ ComposIrTIon. 2 Kind of seed, brand or trade name, name of dealer, |—— g and place of collection. k 7, Foreign Inert Pure seed. matter. seed. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Rep CLover (continued): 702 FAT OD Vee hes Wess eu a ae cue teea rel actin 1.02 54 98 .44 The John T. Darrison Co., Inc., Lockport 612 UVa C1 AYO) BUNS Bee ARN SERA Var eee i fe eH ee 80 24 99 .46 Maurer-Haap Co., Rochester. : 911 AtlasuNfammm otha s.c)cccins sant oer tees 6.96 2.10 90 .94 The Hilton & Patrick Co., Truxton. 1101 AtlasaVieGine ee tae crac arava oes oe ae 7.39 1.10 91.55 J. H. Ward, Stephentown. 1103 Clase amImochbes vcr sea contre bates casio 6.60 1.30 92.10 J. H. Ward, Stephentown. 856 EXO) 0002 ORRae chet hi eve teaes eee au Re RE Seca Res Aeon 1.35 .64 98.01 E. V. Kratsch, Bedford Hills. 974 H BORA ae eee erie Ni Le Ai ah REN Rt, ARAL ai 3.27 3.00 93.73 John Best, Herkimer. 1011 Buckeye Mediums Mec cr. verses cee oer sore: 4.30 1.80 93 .90 W. H. Ferguson & Son, Elmira. 1092 Choices\iammothemnee aan eee eee oe 2.16 30 97 .54 C. W. & E. Grantier, Esperance. 646 ChoicesMiammothiase pee eee aee eee 2.43 .90 96 .67 Alexander Davidson, Canandaigua. 1151 ChicicesMiedinumis:. 52.05 2 caiotoe veneers G 6.03 1.50 92.47 The Hunt Hardware Co., Central Square 755 CHOICE eI sarc Bete ease one ts 51 .66 98 .83 George D. Northridge, Malone. 756 Climax ction cian ines ee Ree 2.82 1.30 95 .88 The F. M. Johnson Co., North Bangor. 701 Crown. Medium; . stun. gocw. aes eee 54 .20 99 .26 James O. Rignel, Lockport. 1068 Crown) Mammoth. 45-02 seen 5.70 1.10 93 .20 Melvin Burhans, Carlisle Center. 979 AGT Cy aysceee paca talcice sik dcetaers ee CA ETE 1.65 .80 97 .55 C. H. Payne, Stittville. 601 BK ae our cts Sea tees eo Oe nL eee Ee 54 10 99 .36 A. W. Gilman, Rochester. 618 HUB GKAis. 3 pote tcc oe ecko. eats Oe MEY eee Res: 63 34 99 .03 Perry C. Shafer Co., Brockport. 634 Han eye Medium cytes seetisers ais fleete eis cio5 sige 4.44 .90 94.66 Burton F. French, Attica. 619 HaultlesssMediumiw 7. sae eee aste--oe 1.89 .80 97 .31 R. A. Mather, Canandaigua. 620 Haultlessy\lamamo thie sey wee eaten eae 1523 .90 97 .87 R. A. Mather, Canandaigua. 965 Bauiltlessne teem cae Chitin, 5% ions = COE 1.47 .90 97 .63 D. B. Abrams & Co., Gloversville 1091 Sige oie evo ss es MSM IRS oe oN 86 APRON Coe 5.97 2.60 91.43 White & Vrooman, Middleburg. 1086 Heh Mammoth prectsercrces £6 cemtarirte te 2.49 1.80 95.71 C. A. Bunn, Richmondville. New York AcricuLTurAL Experiment Station. 69% Report oF ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF SEEDS — (continued). - Composition. 2 Kind of seed, brand or trade name, name of dealer, |—— g and place of collection. " z, Foreign Inert Pure seed. matter. seed. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. RED CLover (continued): 906 GemeMammothgaa Sarna etre be 39 a2 99 .39 Byron L. Grant & Son, Cortland. 648 GemeMiediumey set et ee ee en re. 1.05 .80 98.15 Ewart & Lake, Pavillion. 613 Glopemlamimothpanr eer eter e SY .50 98 .93 Maurer-Haap Co., Rochester. 623 Globes Miediumr epee set oe ek cen ae .63 .08 99 .29 E. R. Haysen Co., Seneca Falls. 970 exes Vledinmier sti eee eee ne .03 10 99 .87 Jacob Alten Est., St. Johnsville. 967 IPeXeeLaViammothey in reece ee Alb) 40 99 .45 Mohawk Valley Cooperative Co., Fort Plain. 905 iarsersVianimothveseen ste ete cn eee 5.79 1.70 92.51 Byron L. Grant & Son, Cortland. 753 RBIS CT re Peis tena ester Ane RN eel 2.50 90.38 H. D. Thompson & Co., Malone, 1075 KainersMaminothy seit eit tence eater myl .90 98 .59 Brown Bros., Hyndsville. 988 DATS CRE Sa Tate aren nen re CREE 105 40 98 .55 W. J. Bissell’s Sons, Waterville. 1070 DL feng Beh A Se oe Sn eck aa lo a aaa .69 .60 98.71 Winnie & Seeber, Seward. 1113 igairceyees Ue Gh oe Sal ere tan teh a ae EAS 1.38 .80 97 .82 J. P. Skeff, Buskirk. 801 ions Niammotht te vio. ee ee oe ee 1.05 .40 98 .55 William H. Paddock, Wolcott. 1054 IW ishaovnnVoyiltls kG Gata ae hale aera a ae kee aoa ape 1.50 1.30 97 .20 Jay G. Cross, Cobleskill. 1003 DMB Viamimocay ei ccc fess ot oko ee 24 40 99 .36 Edw. F. Dibble, Inc., Honeoye Falls 1063 Warm ther kere eet oe aes ook ast ne 1.59 .80 97 .61 G. L. Dana, Cobleskill. 1085 Mammo thier writ ert tars o ers © se teeee 3.87 1.20 94.93 C. A. Bunn, Richmondville. 999 Mammo thts pentose pe ge a 6.37 1.10 92.53 A. E. Ford & Son, Oneonta. 762 Miamonro th Special meg rari teen rere 4.80 2.20 93 .00 Herbert J. Sanford, Potsdam. 637 Mammothiee soterc Set cepa se eet: 2.70 24 97 .06 Bramer Morgan & Reding, Attica....... 909 Mammothten ss see. eo eee: 2.10 .20 97 .70 Francis X. Litz, Homer. 1080 Miammothaeer epet cee etic enc eset Ibe cht 380 97 .93 Fox Bros., Richmondville. 511 Mamm othiee Saree pee cert lee ics sista 24 .68 99 .08 L. L. Patterson Co., Syracuse. 659 Mamimnothtay bret oreo easier 6.00 2.70 91.30 L. R. Wallace, Middletown. 698 Report on Inspection Work OF THE Report or ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF SEEDS — (continued). . ComposirTIoNn. 2 Kind of seed, brand or trade name, name of dealer, g and place of collection. ‘ z Foreign Inert Pure seed. matter. seed, Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Rep Criover (concluded): 1089 Nierrramn oti eye se ehncecteetns aieesiar seach ih ancayeueneatenetoney 1.23 1.30 97 .47 Becker & Company, Central Bridge. 761 Mediums pecial (ies cuderpcuve chery. aparece) eau 8.10 2.75 89.15 Herbert J. Sandford, Potsdam. 506 Miedimit eak teleke tes. Mea eels eBiawae 2.52 2.10 95.38 Burt L. Giddings, Baldwinsville. 632 IMS Fev s ess Aye Mey avess eo SSIS oveotn oh trot 39 .60 99 .O1 John H. Bradish, Batavia. 1090 INTSCLY TIN tet tete seis hee couse ts tea ne ai-/ei ans ebestiee a 6.30 2.10 91.60 White & Vrooman, Middleburg. 1118 IMicciiuirn. tte ts. Mic ariinks eatin Gs cierd coor oan 5.67 2.10 92.23 H. A. McRae & Co., Schuylerville. 643 Medium)).seearkcaoe = - BS Td CPST eT 18 40 99 .42 J. Milton MeMahon, Fairport. 644 Medium Special 255" antisense or: 1.20 1.00 97 .80 Peck Hardware Co., Canandaigua. 660 Nec umn ere seer Posuicncae fascia eee 3.03 2.10 94.87 L. R. Wallace, Middletown. 1122 Miediumubialipseagnn) eemiecn mei eiest sito: 1.53 2.50 95.97 Albert V. Brayton, Glens Falls. 959 BanvAtm eniganiia-yw 1k Ge ci onen wie oe 1.62 1.25 97 .13 Wilber N. Carpenter & Co., Amsterdam. 1069 Bar vAmmeriGame tenttaeny eee acca occ aera sane 3.06 2.30 94.64 J. V. 8S. Eldredge, Cobleskill. 1066 Bara Gornt. ty bbsnuth klegs = Sir phys Beacepaces: 3 rae S.- 2.85 .50 96 .65 Melvin Burhans, Carlisle Center. 752 Qucen Wanmgmothis ts cys: age ta. fom eee 5.13 2.30 92.57 H. D. Thompson & Co., Malone. 977 Queen) Mieduami.:.. 2c eer eae creel 11.04 70 88 .26 A. H. Barber, Boonville. 1064 Rielialb le: } vagy. shsenheees ceo aio oe ere eke cheers ibysiley .62 98 .21 G. L. Dana, Cobleskill. 406 Reliab lesteaeh tects tcyeann: otek das atarae aNskone Gon .93 1.14 97 .93 F. Knoche & Co., Hamburg. 410 Reliable. tient Pain weep 5 sisi o oavehet 6.59 1.70 91.71 J. H. Fairchild & Son, Portville. 1088 JSVAMEN GIGS EE SS ere sco Coke ety Crate mee .09 54 99 .37 Becker & Co., Central Bridge. 606 Star Visage thmemewttntac isc ccs 2/12 ato 24 40 99 .36 Brewster Crittenden & Co., Rochester. 604 SiH eyobhifaale., 2 Ob aac hk he ee aes ets A 86 10 99 .54 Brewster, Crittenden & Co., Rochester. 508 Strong a Mi aracvn ee ie steno wicies, = os cf ste ete 1.32 26 98 .42 Amasa M. Strong, Syracuse. 509 Strong's Hance eee tis oc. sie cles .o9 .50 99.11 Amasa M. Strong, Syracuse. 638 Sriperhing veh ria ose oesiass scans stekale .69 40 89.91 William Hamilton & Son, Caledonia. New York AgricutturAL ExprerIMentT Srarion. 699 Report oF ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF SEEDS — (continued). .s CompPposITION. 2 Kind of seed, brand or trade name, name of dealer, |—— g and place of collection. z Foreign Inert Pure seed. matter. seed. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Swrer CLover: 1121 sweet Cloyers ssf bic eae 6.40 1.00 92.60 Albert V. Brayton, Glens Falls. Wuitr CLover: 997 Wihite:Cloverdacr Wiest ne since ec base sreelieiers .99 1.22 97.79 Morris Bros., Oneonta. 989 Wihite Clover ancien “cco cen ean onion cueing 2.94 Lewd 95.31 W. E. Owen & Son, Utica. 616 WMihite! Cloversk cecal rs oe econ cc en nei 1.02 1.00 97 .98 Briggs Bros. & Co., Rochester. 614 Muhite Cloverata sare te ec cncie coeur ers 43 15 99 .42 Maurer-Haap Co., Rochester. 553 Withite Clowerartaaane Meee aco nner: « 2.08 1.25 96 .67 The Long Island Seed Co., New Hyde Park. 1095 JEVILUi 3 Ailes She nttyieot et Cea oIR Eas CCIE en ae ae 2.29 1.30 96.41 Chas. W. Whitbeck, Schenectady. 851 iWihite;Clovetinan saan tse neciinceerapte = 5.58 2.00 92.42 William A. McDonald, Yonkers. CANADIAN Buus Grass: 403 Canadiam Blue Grassi ins. eo ce a oe sae 3.99 7.40 88.61 Jamestown Electric Mills, Inc., Jamestown. Kentucky Buur Grass: 1005 JE, 18 icity Se Seasrricic Ce neece CUO eran EON ee .44 | 10.40 89.16 Edward F. Dibble, Inc., Honeoye Falls. 1097 @lunaxvbaneyeen Vile os oon ts dees eas 86 8.70 90 .94 Chas. W. Whitbeck, Schenectady. 855 Han cya © leaned Gard yas coe cre oars setae .68 | 18.40 80.92 E. V. Ktarsch, Bedford Hills. 1109 IDS Ae igs y0's Pb Sead RODS ae ae Oe ET OZ 9.10 90.38 J. J. Deming, Hoosick Falls. 609 1D Eve edhe 2 Coe POG CO CIE TNS Oe nea te 1.02 13.20 85.78 Crosman Bros. Co., Inc., Rochester 608 ID ANC Zook dere clo acne HOOD OID oe eS eae 12 | 24.90 74.98 Crosman Bros. Co., Inc., Rochester. 518 Kentrcky Blue Grass 252.525. co¢e.9s4e004¢ 42 9.20 90 .38 F. H. Ebeling, Syracuse. 454 entivky lie Grasse oo doco. genes ceuse- .48 | 20.50 79 .02 A. H. Herrick & Son, Watertown. Lawn Grass: 990 Conlkdin’splmaperiale site sok elas ac. o «4 15.42 | 47.50 37 .08 C. E. Goodale, Richfield Springs. 1111 aayuit Grasse ae 25 Pan eee ec... .o2 | 23.50 76.18 J. J. Deming, Hoosick Falls. 1100 iPraneissBinesVinxed |: ty Seniors recor.) oveysre,0,5)«, + .86 | 16.00 83 .64 Geo. H. Price, Albany. 700 517 Report on Inspection Work OF THE Report oF ANYLYSES OF SAMPLES OF SEEDS — (continued). Kind of seed, brand or trade name, name of dealer, and place of collection. Lawn Grass (concluded): Sha diy fINOOk yaoi say Bc se eiuk Cites eateaee PETE J. J. Deming, Hoosick Falls. Stand andteewy ccc muscieyaevsesyece oe ete Neisner Bros., Rochester. MILLET: Germanvreeemnr nae Fede ead hase. evokes ausibyese § Arthur Hill & Co., Amsterdam. JaPOMeSe h seestis.< puss sues & Gee lausiavenereii@io eieaanale ahs Kulbauns & Richter, Fonda. NEMO Gore aacd.chd MoS Ue cena men Hina amare etn L. R. Wallace, Middletown. ORCHARD GRASS: WH OICeY ae isso pean aust Wois tar reuctouslte Gases F. H. Ebeling, Syracuse. Rape: ID WarlSHssexcuricica miter riee mici ir een Crosman Bros. Co., Inc., Rochester. DD Warte TP SSEX tcc cuca n tee ee en RLS Meee EVA DON is Mere en. Uo tbasa nada o eae a A ote Hedw. fF. Dibble, Inc., Honeoye Falls. Rep Top: GG A Op) srotete waa tole besca clhtemnatshon ental kee eel toaeechy The Long Island Seed Co., New Hyde Park. RGGUAR © Toi Acoe vet cdsroh.cioc Peasant AL AAA Om acne lem Wonton de EVOCIRAR OB arc poreisin' ROE RTRS aC cae Cee 45 1.20 98 .35 J. H. Ward, Stephentown. 853 Beste Rimotiiyee mon fon tee ein eee age 18 .20 99 .62 Bedford Farms Cooperative Assn., Mt. Kisco. 1059 Be Umothivas ait a iles!s Sve al ete Se get RN .58 1.22 98 .20 G. L. Dana, Cobleskill. 1071 Bingote See os Fac hh 8 5 2 eA feces .02 10 99.88 Winnie & Seeber, Seward. 962 BAN OF s,s bir, sare hel dad th Sis oc Sg .02 10 99 .88 Kulbauns & Richter, Fonda. 1052 BISON ead co iig ene Ne 1.12 1.25 97 .63 Jay G. Cross, Cobleskill. 980 Bisons. oe dons Hae ae Se ER ty costo .85 .60 98 .55 Chas. J. Clark, Holland Patent. 1123 BisOnt. cp) 5 hose te ate ae eee .99 .70 98 .31 John J. Tracy, Ballston Spa. 630 LBS YS) dN ais Steve eaten meas en Ce cc Mere 18 40 99 .42 Steele & Torrence, Batavia. 602 B05 1 eee NEUES ORCI GEL TO ELIE ACP RR A DSc 22 521 99.51 A. W. Gilman, Rochester. 912 Cavucaneiep iawn eter. tS. aA .09 10 99.81 The Hilton & Patrick Co., Truxton. 991 CAG Meurer eI SE, 28 Y ee .02 10 99.88 C. E. Goodale, Richfield Springs. 904 CRSAS! 62 Beet ce ive se Sa aeEae 04 .10 99 .86 Byron L. Grant & Son, Cortland. 763 Choice eho in). 2 eee ES oe TA .80 98 .46 Herbert J. Sanford, Potsdam. New York AcricutruraL Exrrertment Station. 703 Report oF ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF SEEDS — (continued). : ComposITIon. 2 Kind of seed, brand or trade name, name of dealer, ———— 2 and place of collection. i z Foreign Inert Pure seed. matter. seed Per ct. Per ct. Per ct Timorny (continued): 987 (CHS VaWery eae: BES ARES: the lerite puny ee a RL Dt 7A 65 98 .61 C. H. Phister, Vernon. 615 @litniax Sybex ca etc apace ey are ne 58 .70 98 .72 Briggs Bros. & Co., Rochester. 956 Colonia eee Ma. neha cet arte ier aE 81 BIAS. 98 .44 C. Van Buren Co., Amsterdam. 662 COOSA. E0 ; CS ESS RSI ie ale Ne 29 .70 99.01 Matthews & Harrison, Kingston 902 Colonial wey cent oceg is boiic Ms crtetina sees Listas 19 .50 99.31 Byron L. Grant & Son, Cortland 1053 Gres CoS aAEH LE, 9" SU Rae are aL i AR nh ae 1.42 1.30 97 .28 Jay G. Cross, Cobleskill. 1001 D.B. Timothy. LNA yp act oe ROR OA 04 .50 99 .46 Edw. F. Dibble, Inc., Honeoye Falls. 1105 DORM i a He Race Me nec tratoat Siaet a sektatan af 38 1.70 97 .92 J. H. Ward, Stephentown 405 OEY a chia WE" 5 EI Oi DEM ERTS Cie ane rem 18 25 99.57 Harvey Seed Co., Buffalo. 922 ARREST gu APNE, Ris Meteora ata eh net apaphetts ava .02 10 99.88 Edward Rhoader, Waverly. 998 (BG) STSCI Oe. Ras Mae mE ni tegen eet eR RN oe 18 .20 99 .62 Morris Bros., Oneonta 611 (GIG OSES hy 5 5 RE RARE, CE OE ce Ve eRe Ne 13 .50 99 .37 Maurer-Haap Co., Rochester 1108 BG] ove aaa 2 RE: Sie, Aiea iS eh tote Sea a 19 so 99 .06 J. J. Deming, Hoosick Falls. 903 COROT ES e Bee SCN tS SR ES SEL Re A or Det WH ay apa .20 99 .69 Byron L. Grant & Son, Cortland 505 (SyCIIG Fe PRE Fs; Sees ca Rete ean ee ar ne PR .05 15 99.80 Frank Mead & Co., Oxford. 452 Grolab Med alec 20 boil ahann ccoiaieco pes cc esate olla .20 99 .69 Hermon C. Clark, Mannsville. 627 (Golds Niedalieer iy fas acs ee Pes te 20 .20 99 .53 Carr-Leggett Hardware Co., Port Byron. 451 Vea lGYaVoV es cues Bg & Leecheitey Ree eR roe ten a an arc 04 29 99.71 Nelliss & Louphen, Copenhagen 404 1B G}AYO) hres GSAS.) BREN Die ee ORO RRER I ener eae Meee Ea .05 .20 99.75 Joseph Thiel, North Collins 973 VQ Or AA. Pee heer ee erate tans yes .05 .20 99.75 John Best, Herkimer. 1094 Date AS UATH e) Bo is nN Re OR lat Oe eee .99 .20 98 .81 Chas. W. Whitbeck, Schenectady. 411 Uniberstatenks peerion cera ewan Merk nee: cea nieya fue. foie 18 15 99 .67 L. Y. Miller & Sons, Olean. 407 A EY RR apes Secs phiavo oy Si 5, OF evo 6 SG Oe Se ea stil .25 99 .64 a Knoche & Co., Hamburg. 642 Cy oeMaea RG 3 Ace sas tt yl eee 34 .25 99 .41 Burr & Starkweather Co., Rochester. 704 Report on Inspection Work OF THE Report oF ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF SEEDS — (continued). . Number. Kind of seed, brand or trade name, name of dealer, and place of collection. Trmoruy (continued): ISTIC ONG Heiner? Vaan. 9 eteea eine AlN a eel Arar Chris. Fox, St. Johnsville. UNIS CIC Cyr ROMY oo PUT rely since ns Mee iat change aN IS G. L. Dana, Cobleskill. TESLA OWE Poteet to tne SON cart aR VAN whe Ne wa eee a aye Arthur Hill & Co., Amsterdam. LECT CN EAR SAS RN CoRR PRE IE OP Melvin Burhans, Carlisle Center. IG OETA Gog SRR Ee BRO RSE EER Eee T G. M. Helmer, Herkimer. TLpl oie igete ds Sis Se LEO ey ne ee ey Farmers Supply House, Warsaw. TAL OYET Theos’ yh eee es yn NOR er a Cen F. Knoche & Co., Hamburg. IU OT Ae oe S.A Uae ata ne Mee Or eA G. L. Dana, Cobleskill. INIOCELE YS eee hn tae Ch Chapter ro ieee L. C. Hatch & Sons, Monticello. IN ENIAC) die MORES Oo EE DLT On Ocoee hea Snyder-Fancher Co., Middletown. Onondacapeyrrs costar iet arene err rere Parker Bros., Cape Vincent. Overrun iA tehe, es Sinieics ncnonon thee netoce Wm. 58. Dickinson, Messengerville. Pan Am enicani. ieee iors eee res Donald G. Fraser, Batavia. PanvAmenicantaae Aer ter enn ona enoe Wilber N. Carpenter & Co., Amsterdam. Reriection eats S>>>S>S>>>>>>>E>SE~LExEEEEEESESESESESEyxyx7yooraeeeeee EEE ———E—EEEEEEe Sample | Certifi- Name and address of manu- Where Soluble number. | cate |facturer and trade name or brand. taken. sulphur. number. eerci: 1666 713 | Niagara Sprayer Co., Middle- port, N. Y., Canandaigua | *G 58 Soluble Sulphur Solution *F 58 .42 1806 713 |! Niagara Sprayer Co., Middle- port, N. Y., G Soluble Sulphur Solution F 58 .92 1885 713 | Niagara Sprayer Co., Middle- port, N. Y., Olcott G 57 Soluble Sulphur Solution F 58.16 1900 713 | Niagara Sprayer Co., Middle- port, N. Y., Middleport G 58 Soluble Sulphur Solution F 58 .00 MIXTURE OF SOLUBLE SULPHUR AND OILS. Sample | Certifi- Name and address of manu- Where Soluble number. | cate |facturer and trade name or brand. taken. sulphur. number. : Per ct 1210 Aphine Mfg. Co., Madison, N.J.,| Tarrytown *G Fungine cay 4.95 1694 648 | Charles Fremd, North Rose, IMs Who, North Rose G | —— Sulco-V-B-(Sulphur Com- pound) F 7.82 1362 523 | B. G. Pratt, New York City, Auburn G Sulfocide F 31.81 *G and F stand respectively for Guaranteed and Found New York AaricutturAL ExprerImMent Station. 7 NICOTINE PREPARATIONS. Sample number. 1211 1208 1205 1503 1845 1853 1222 1223 1207 1701 1206 Certifi- cate number. facturer and trade name or brand. Aphine Mfg. Co., Madison, N. J., jee 2578 Wet Bit Ms | Name and address of manu- Jas. l jus} A cBinhehards New) York Blanchard, New York City, Powdered Tobacco Hammond’s Slug-Shot Works, Fishkill, N. Y., Tobacco Extract _——— | sO Ee 838 Kentucky Tobacco Product Co., Louisville, Ky. Black-Leaf 40 Kentucky Tobacco Product Co., Louisville, Ky., Nico-fume Parke Davis & Co., Detroit, Mich., Nicotine Parke Davis & Co., Detroit, Mich., Nictone Parke Davis & Co., Detroit, Mich., Rose Nicotine H. kD) oD) lo) 25. 25 .6 Crude fat. Per ct. 5. 3.8 bo bo Oren (o'<) Crude fiber. 12. whats! 738 Number. 6002 5616 6557 6092 6131 5498 5665 5758 5556 6064 5648 5513 Reprorr on Inspection Work oF THE ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF FrEpING Sturrs (continued). Name and address of manufacturer or jobber and brand or trade name. LinsEED Mrats (concluded): The Metzger Seed & Oil Co., Toledo, O “Old Process Oil Meal ”’ Midland Linseed Products Co., Minneapolis, Minn. “Old Process Ground Linseed Cake ” National Feed Co., St Louis, Mo. “Pure Old Process Linseed Meal ” Purabla Oil Co., Blue Point, L. I. “ Purabla Oil Meal ”’ f The Sherwin Williams Co., Cleveland, O. “Linseed Oil Meal ” The Toledo Seed & Oil Co., Toledo, O. “Major Brand Old Process Oil Meal ’”’ The Toledo Seed & Oil Co., Toledo, O. “ Major Brand Old Process Oil Meal ”’ The Toledo Seed & Oil Co., Toledo, O. “Major Brand Old Process Oil Meal ” The Toledo Seed & Oil Co., Toledo, O. “Old Process Oil Meal ” Matr Sprouts: American Malting Co., New York, N. Y. “ Hully Malt sprouts’’§ American Malting Co., Buffalo, N. Y. “Malt Sprouts ” H. G. Anderson & Co., Buffalo, N. Y. “ Malt sprouts ” Where taken. Auburn Albany Malone Blue Point Syracuse South Dayton Downsville Binghamton Chatham New York Kinderhook Buffalo * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. t Found, sesame oil meal. § Found, malt sprouts, malted barley, barley hulls. Crude protein. Per ct. G* 30. F* 32.1 G 32. F 32. 34. 34.5 Leo ep) 30. 40.9 eo Ke) 33. 36.5 "3 Q) F 32.4 31.2 31.1 yO yO = SY (or) w yO > Or 10.9 Number. | | | | 6424 6431 6070 6169 5494 6333 5546 5483 6203 5637 6205 5491 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. ANALyYsEs or SAMPLES OF FEEDING Sturrs (continued). Name and address of manufacturer or jobber and brand or trade name. Maur Sprouts (concluded): Atlantic Export Co., of Wis. Chicago, Ill. “ Malt Sprouts ” P. Ballantine & Sons, Newark, N. J. “ Malt Sprouts ”’t M. F. Baringer, Philadelphia, Pa. “ Malt Sprouts ” Farmers Feed Co., New York, N. Y. “ Malt Sprouts” ¢ Geneva Malting Co., Geneva, N. Y. “Malt Sprouts ”’ John Kam Malting Co., Buffalo, N. Y. “ Malt Sprouts ” Lembeck & Betz Eagle Brewing Co., Watkins, N. Y “Malt Sprouts” Geo. J. Meyer Malting Co., Buffalo, N. Y. “ Malt Sprouts ” Henry C. Moffat, Buffalo, N. Y. “ Malt Sprouts ” Perot Malting Co., Buffalo, N. Y. "Malt Sprouts ” M. G. Rankin & Co., Milwaukee, Wis “ Jersey Malt Sprouts ” Albert Schwill & Co., Buffalo, N. Y. “ Malt Sprouts ” The C. Zwickel Malting Co., Buffalo, N. Y. ““ Malt Sprouts ” Where taken. Buffalo Chester Middletown New York Poughkeepsie North Collins Watkins Bufialo Buffalo Buffalo Albany Buffalo East Avrora * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. Contains screenings (largely whole weed seeds). Contains weed seeds. Crude protein. BOQ le) AQ 02 coh) 2 cone) 02 =O = OQ 8 SS BSB RR BS SB RR BR NB BR RB J 2 es a Bes B > to a a longs) 739 740 Report on InNspecTION WoRK OF THE ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF FrEpING Sturss (continued). & | Name and address of manufacturer or jobber Crude Fe and brand or trade name. Where taken. protein. Z Per ct. DistTILLeRs’ Driep GRAINS: 57538) Ajax Milling & Feed Co., G* 30. New York, N. Y. Owego F* 30.1 “ Ajax Flakes ”’T 5639] Atlantic Export Co. of Wis., G 28. Chicago, Ill. Albany F 29.2 “ Atlantic Grains ’’t 5951! Geo. E. Brisbin & Co., G26: Clyde, N. Y. Attica 1M yf AG “ Argood Dried Distillery Grains ’’{ 6160} Clarke Bros. & Co., G 30. Peoria, Il. Mechanieville | F 31.7 “ Empire State Dairy Feed ’’t 6312) Columbia Distilling Co., Gabe Waterloo, N. Y. Waterloo BK 32,1 “ Distillers Dried Grains ”’f 5983) The Dewey Bros. Co., G 24. Blanchester, O. Java Village Bee “ Bourbon 3 D Grains ”’f 5768} The Dewey Bros. Co., G 26. Blanchester, O. Marathon 138) 27 “Corn 3 D Grains ”f 5985} The Dewey Bros. Co., G 30. Blanchester, O. Darien Center| F 29.3 “Eagle 3 D Grains ’’f 5754] The Dewey Bros. Co., G 30. Blanchester, O. Union F 29.9 “ Eagle 3 D Grains ”’f 5471| The Dewey Bros. Co., G 30. Blanchester, O. Buffalo F 31.3 “Eagle 3 D Grains ”f 6112} Donahue-Stratton Co., G 30. Milwaukee, Wis. Sanitaria Spgs.| F 35.5 “ Hiquality Spirits Distillers Grains ”’t 5955) The Hottelet Co., G 30. Milwaukee, Wis. Attica F 29.4 “Hector Dried Distillers Grains ’’t * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. + Found to be from corn, oats, rye and barley. t+ Found to be from corn, oats, rye and bales, with light barley, light oats, barley screenings. Crude | fat. Per ct. wal 10.7 Crude fiber. Per ct. 14. 10.7 11.5 10.4 13. 12.1 13. 10.6 14. 8.7 14. 10.1 New York AarioutturaL Experiment Sration. 741 ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF FErEDING Sturrs (continued). | 8 Name and address of manufacturer or jobber Crude Crude Crude 5 and brand or trade name. Where taken. protein. fat. fiber. a Per ct. Eerscts Per ct. DisTILtERS’ Driep GrRaAIns (concluded) : 5766) Husted Milling Co., G* 30. 8. iol. Buffalo, N. Y. Homer 1 Silcfs} || 14 9.9 “ Husted Distillers Grains ’’f 5798| The Larrowe Milling Co., Cee Ue 9. Detroit, Mich. Preble F 26.4 9.7 7.4 “ Staff Brand Dried Distillers Grains ’’{ 4942| Purdy Bros., G 30. 9. We Jamestown, N. Y. Auburn F 28.4 | 10.41 10.1 “ Empire Corn Distillers Grains ’’§ 5517| Traders & Producers Supply Co., G. a0). 10. 14. Buffalo, N. Y. Sinclairville F 25.4 | 10.2 oe) “ Chippewa Distillers Grains ’’{ 6304) The Ubiko Milling Co., G2 8. 14. Cincinnati, O. Genos. F 28.5 9.1 10.6 “ Goodrich Distillers Dried Grains.’’§ 4943} The Ubiko Milling Co., Ci Sil, 12. 13% Cincinnati, O. Auburn B32 290F |e lse5onelOedG “ XX XX Fourex Grains ” § Driep Brewers’ GRAINS: 6428) Anheuser Busch Brewing Ass’n, G 21. 6. 18. St Louis, Mo. Middletown EF 26.8 6.1 Seo “Dried Brewers’ Grains ”’ 5640| Atlantic Export Co. of Wis., G 24. OF Ife Chicago, III. Albany F 31.2 6.8 11.4 “Dried Brewers’ Grains ” 6315] Bartholomay Brewery Co., G 18.40] 6.11] 24.76 Rochester, N. Y. Rochester 23.9 eo 113} 3° “‘ Dried Brewers’ Grains ”’ 6171) Bartholomay Brewery Co., G 18.40] 6.11} 24.76 Rochester, N. Y. Poughkeepsie | F 22. 6.7 14.3 “ Dried Brewers’ Grains ”’ 6402] Chicago Grains & Feed Co., Gi 25e i. ty Chicago, Ill. Washington- | F 31.4 6.9 11.3 “‘ XXX Brewers’ Dried Grains ” ville 5472| Farmers Feed Co., G 27.20| 6.30| 17.20 Buffalo, N. Y. Buffalo Ms Pf aff Hasse) |) We “ Dried Brewers’ Grains Bull Brand ” * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. + Guaranteed, ‘‘ Made from corn,” found to be from corn, oats, rye and barley. t Guaranteed, ‘‘ Made principally from corn.” Found to be from corn, oats, rye and barley. § Found to be from corn, oats, rye and barley. : } : : 4 Found to be from corn, barley, oats, and rye, with light barley and grain screenings. 742 | Number. 6113 6192 6048 5630 5601 6132 6119 5492 5634 5663 5619 6128 Report on JnspecTION WoRK OF THE Awatysps or SAMPLES oF FrEpine Sturys (continued). Name and address of manufacturer or jobber and brand or trade name. Driep Brewers’ Grains (concluded): Hoffman «& Co., Syracuse, N. Y. “‘ Brewers’ Dry Grains ”’ The Hottelet Co., Milwaukee, Wis. “‘ Holstein Dried Brewers’ Grains ” M. A. Joshel, Geneva, Ill. “Pure Dried Brewers’ Grains ” Milwaukee Grains & Feed Co., Milwaukee, Wis. “Crown Brewers’ Dried Grains ” K. & E. Neumond, St. Louis, Mo. “’ Goldness Kalb Dried Brewers’ Grains ”’ The Penna. Central Brewing Co., Scranton, Pa. “Dried Brewers’ Grains ” Penn. Grain & Feed Co., Philadelphia, Pa. “Peerless Brewers’ Dried Grains ” GLuTEN FEEDS: Clinton Sugar Refining Co., Clinton, Ia. “Clinton Gluten Feed ” Corn Products Refining Co., New York, N. Y. “ Buffalo Gluten Feed ” Corn Products Refining Co. New York, N. Y. “Crescent Gluten Feed ” Corn Products Refining Co., New York, N. Y. “ Globe Gluten Feed ” The Dewey Bros. Co., Blanchester, O. “ Buckeye Gluten Feed ” Where taken. Sanitaria Springs Matteawan Elmira Troy Guilderland Center Conklin Candor East Aurora Stephentown Grand Gorge Schenectady New Wood- stock * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. Crude protein. G* F* G Fr G F eo ep) oe) yO ep co te) seo ep) HO Per ct. 23. 28 .6 20. 25. 25. 26.8 25. 29.1 24. 25.7 23.71 26.5 Crude fat. Per ct. 5.10 hs Crude fiber. —_—— Per ct. 15. 12.2 14. 13. 5 13.1 15. 12.1 13. 12.4 15.85 12. 15. 11.5 “100 100 On 5965 5996 5611 6404 6174 6036 5484 5751 6460 6046 5792 New York AcricutturaL Exprertment Station. 743 ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF FEEDING SrurrFs (continued). Name and address of manufacturer or jobber Crude Crude Crude and brand or trade name. Where taken. protein. fat. fiber. Per ct. Per ct. ee ct GuutEeNn FEEDs (concluded): The Dewey Bros. Co., G* 20. 5. 15. Blanchester, O. Salamanca F* 20.5 4.2 11.9 “ Buckeye Gluten Feed ”’ Douglas & Co., G 20. 2. 8. Cedar Rapids, Ia. North Java F 22.8 3.1 6.4 “ Douglas Gluten Feed ” J. C. Hubinger Bros. Co., G — | —— | —— Keokuk, Ia. Elba F 20.8 3.2 6.7 “ Hubinger Gluten Feed ” J. C. Hubinger Bros. Co., G 28.50 | 2.40 7.50 Keokuk, Ia. Albany He 2226 ied b ffeil “ KKK Gluten Feed ” The Huron Milling Co., G 22: 3. 8. Harbor Beach, Mich. Goshen F 24.1 3.5 6.2 “ Jenks’ Gluten Feed ”’ The Keever Starch Co., 22). 4.5 le So. Columbus, O. Poughkeepsie | F 18.4 4.5 6.8 “* Keever Gluten Feed ” A. Nowak & Son, G — | — Buffalo, N. Y. Corning He 2657 2.5 6.2 “ Gluten ” Piel Bros. Starch Co., Gr 2ie ae 8. Indianapolis, Ind. Buffalo BY 2527 2.43 6.1 “P Bro Gluten Feed ” A. E. Staley Mfg. Co., G 23. 2.50 | 12. Decatur, Ill. Owego F 23.6 2.6 6.2 “Staley’s Gluten Feed ” Union Starch & Refining Co., G 24. 3. 6.30 Edinburg, Ind. Delanson F 25.1 3.3 6.8 “ Union Gluten Feed ”’ GuuTEN MEALS: Corn Products Refining Co., Gg —— | —; New York, N. Y. Horsehead F 42.8 1.6 2.6 “ Diamond Gluten Meal ” Corn Products Refining Co., G 40. 1.5 4. New York, N. Y. Brewerton F 44.5 3.2 oil “ Diamond Gluten Meal ” * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. Report on INSPECTION WorRK OF THE 744 *pooy AUIUIOFT “poss AUIUIOT] “poss AUTMOF, ‘peo AuTUIOFT ‘yonpoid ui0d ang ‘pooy AUTUIOF] *‘poesj UeyN[s U10D ‘[eoUl UIIES UIOD ‘gonpoid ui0o 9714 oind y “‘peoy AUTULOFT ‘yonpoid uzoo ayy ind W “SyUSIpeisuy N 1d » IVE 748 “pegiseo SV ‘SeSSB[OUI PUB SBuTMVeINS UIBI “‘SSulTpprur geoym ‘URIq yvoyM ‘[eouL uUeyN{s ul0od ‘[veUI psesuo}j09 ‘[vour U0 ‘Yeoul possul] ‘SUIBIS PelIp SJOT[IISIC “SoUT|pprar ‘uvid [woul ueyn[s ‘[eaur poo9su09409 ‘[eeul ul0d ‘Jeour [IO ‘poao}y SJoz[ISTC OED) EN ‘queo rod T jo jyey-ouo yes ‘eour possu0y}0d ‘avid U100 punods ‘[eour Yeo ‘[vour pees usoo ‘AojIeq punois ‘s}eo punory “qyes ‘sassefour ‘s}80 peyor ‘u10d peyovio ‘ssurused0s Ulery “q[Bs pus $}8O peor ‘[eaur poasuTy ‘u109 poxoe10 ‘Sessejoul ‘SSUTUeeIDS UleIs pouvopdexy “qyes ‘sossvjour ‘sdulueei0Ss uleis punois ‘ssurddijo 480 ‘peey UeyN[s us0d ‘JeouI paesu0}}0—0 “4B quad Jed [ jo j[ey-ouo ‘sSsurmseI0s aa ee pe}oq pue punois pue ssuiddipo 4vo ‘sossuloul ‘pooj ueynjs ‘[eaul possu0y40+) *s}USIpeizuy G8 89 6) rei OR *ureyo1d apnig wospnyy{ “ao Tasha SorjIosNVg wospny{ SEPSIS LENE L wospnyy SOs ER MEERUT o][e01} UOT] sao) FON ‘Uoye} O10 AA pI eS1OF{ 8. 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These analyses and the accompanying information are published by said Director in accordance with the provisions of Section 224 of said Law. Since many requests have been received for such data, it has been deemed best to give figures showing the current values of fertilizer ingredients, with an illustration of the method of apply- ing these figures in determining the approximate commercial val- uation of the different brands. TRADE-VALUES OF PLANT-FOOD ELEMENTS IN RAW MATERIALS AND CHEMICALS. The trade-values in the following schedule have been agreed upon by the Experiment Stations of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey and Vermont, as a result of study of the prices actually prevailing in the large markets of these states. These trade-values represent, as nearly as can be estimated, the average prices at which, during the six months preceding March, the respective ingredients, in the form of unmixed raw materials, could be bought at retail for cash in our large markets. These prices also correspond (except in case of available phosphoric acid) to the average wholesale prices for the six months preceding March, plus about 20 per ct., in case of goods for which there are wholesale quotations. *Reprint of Bulletin No. 390, October. [806] New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 807 TRADE-VALUES OF PLANT-FOOD ELEMENTS IN RAW MATERIALS AND CHEMICALS. 1914 Cts. per pound Nitrogen in nitrates and ammonium salts....................0--eeeeeeee 163 Organic nitrogen in dry and fine-ground fish, meat and blood.............. 223 in fine-ground bone and tankage Mes Ao. Siege aan «SRG oa 213 if ial, Coes lO OE AiaGl lege. jgadgbaulodccoddsoddsacuunee 7G; e in castor pomace and cottonseed meal.................. 225 c: Invmixed ‘fertilizers .ntevases cine ete te Cn ane 193 Phosphoric CA, WE GOC-BOLUD Cs croc //epoin dis An Rye cosas oye aie ceabeye pa 3 Citrate-soluble: (reverted). 2. cece. cicc oa eer 4 in fine-ground fish, bone and tankage................... 4 in cottonseed meal and castor pomace................... 4 in coarse fish, bone, tankage and ashes.................. 34 in mixed fertilizers, insoluble in ammonium citrate or water . 2 Potash as high-grade sulphate, in forms free from muriates (chlorides), in ASHES MOLCT ee Tot ee oe Ttie apa cma oe roe arene ye era cera em 5 INGMUPIATOL!: fsb eek LAS Oe SR ME ER EL te ORR 4 in castor pomace and cottonseed meal................---seseeee- 5 “ “ VALUATION AND COST OF FERTILIZERS. The total cost (to the farmer) of a ton of commercial fertilizer may be regarded as consisting of the following elements: (1) Re- tail cash cost, in the market, of unmixed trade materials; (2) cost of mixing; (3) cost of transportation; (4) storage, commissions to agents and dealers, selling on long credit, bad debts, etc. While the total cost of a fertilizer is made up of several different elements, a commercial valuation includes only the first of the elements enter- ing into the total cost, that is, the retail cash cost in the market of unmixed raw materials. VALUATION AND AGRICULTURAL VALUE. The agricultural value of a fertilizer depends upon its crop-pro- ducing power. A commercial valuation does not necessarily have any relation to crop-producing value on a given farm. For a par- ticular soil and crop, a fertilizer of comparatively low commercial valuation may have a higher agricultural value; while, for another crop on the same soil, or the same crop on another soil, the reverse might be true. Rute For Caucutatinc APPROXIMATE CoMMERCIAL VALUATION oF MIxEpD FErR- TILIZERS ON Basis oF TRADE-VALUES FoR 1914. Multiply the percentage of nitrogen by 3.9. Multiply the percentage of available phosphoric acid by 0.9. Multiply the percentage of insoluble phosphoric acid (total minus available) by 0.4. Multiply the percentage of potash by 1.0. 808 Report on Inspection WorkK OF THE The sum of these 4 products will be the commercial valuation per ton on the basis taken. Illustration— The table of analyses shows a certain fertilizer to have the following composition: Nitrogen 2.52 per ct.; available phosphoric acid 6.31 per ct.; insoluble phosphoric acid .89 per ct.; potash 6.64 per ct. According to this method of valuation, the computation would be as follows: INTO REM arte seits, ocd ie Lae ES @ AEE OF 8 GRE One SOc ee 2.52 x 3.8 $9.83 Awvatlable;phosphoricyacidi.. .-ase eee rer eee ee ee eee 6.31 x0.9 5.70 Imsolublesphosphonic:acid:. 34... eee eee ee 0.89 x 0.4 0.36 Potash: ojo.05< 5 ) bo Bradley’s Patent Superphosphate Ga2206) 8 9 1.50 Central Bridge 5655 | F | 2.04] 8.46] 9.88 | 2.38 Bradley’s Potato and Vegetable G | 3.29 | 8 9 7 Manure Albany 5211 | F | 3.57] 8.81} 9.95 | 7.36 Bradley’s Retriever Manure Gl) 2247" 46 di 5 Marathon 6382-42 Abe) 6249) fe 07a eo Bradley’s Superior Compound G|0.82| 9 10 7 Schuylerville 5664 | F | 1.03 | 9.06] 11.48 | 6.84 Bradley’s Tobacco Manure G | 4.53 3 4 5.50 Cato 6514-[ 44), 82-1 3561 | 4221 8228 Bradley’s Unicorn Gaipleconles 9 2 Margaretville GAD 5 Ele 9 a) Oe Grail Orval 2.58 Bradley’s Weymouth Staple Phos- Ge 1657/8 9 10 phate Margaretville 6406 | F | 1.33 8.60 | 9.67 9.67 Canner’s Pea and Bean Special Fer- Cal tORS2a tees 8 9 tilizer Orchard Park 5023 | F/|0.98| 6.21 | 7.56) 8.96 Champion Cereal Mixture G |P165a8 4 Cato 6513 | F|2.08| 8.21 | 9.63 | 3.94 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 811 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN NEw YorRK STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE NAME; AND Locality WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL Co., New York, N. Y. (continued) Clark’s Cove King Philip Alkaline Guano Orchard Park Crocker’s Ammoniated Superphos- phate Dundee Crocker’s Cabbage and _ Potato Manure Union Hill Crocker’s Century Fertilizer Cherry Valley Crocker’s Colonial Fertilizer Tonia Crocker’s Complete Manure Carthage Crocker’s Dissolved Phosphate and Potash Cherry Valley Crocker’s General Crop Fertilizer Cherry Valley Crocker’s Globe Phosphate Carthage Crocker’s Grain Grower Boonville Crocker’s Harvest Jewel Fertilizer Hornell Crocker’s High Grade Potato Fer- tilizer Lodi Crocker’s High Grade Special Cherry Valley Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Num- Phosphoric acid ber ——_. Avail- Potash able | Total G* 8 9 Zz E50 I DE: Or Saye |) BSH G 9 11 2 4753 | F 1OSGe) LOR(Salee sO G 8 9 6 6035 | F 7.19 9.49} 5.88 G 5 6 10 5240 | F 4.86 | 5.86 | 11.20 G 10 6006 | F 6.79 lid \ 10-44. G 8 9 4 5181 | F 8.36 | 9.56} 4.59 G 10 11 2, 5232 | F 1OPS6 ele G alee 260 G 7 8 1 5235 | F Mes O Su Or Sd munointidl G 10 11 8 Shae |e 10.34 | 10.84 | 8.42 G 10 11 4 5568 | F 11.43 | 12.68 | 3.96 G 8 9 2 A531 ob: (92s SeoOb aezeoo G 6 7 10 6537 | F 6.58 | 7.84] 9.68 G 8 9 4 5238 | F 8.58 | 9.82 | 4.30 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 812 Report on Inspection WorkK OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN New YORK STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounpbs or FERTILIZER NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER OR JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Name;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND LocaLiTy WHERE SAMPLE wWaAS|_ ber —--- ——_— TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL Co., New York, N. Y. (continued) Crocker’s Nobsque Guano G* 1.03 | 8 9 2 Palmyra 5363 | F*| 1.05 | 7.67] 9.28 | 2.48 Crocker’s Paragon Phosphate G | — | 12 13 5 Castile 4525 | F | —— | 12.10 | 12.50 | 4.54 Crocker’s Perfection Fertilizer G/ 1.65; 8 9 10 Cincinnatus 6373 | F | 1.66] 8.58 | 9.24] 9.74 Crocker’s Rainbow Phosphate G| 2.06] 8 9 3 Boonville 5565) PE 2843 799) S299 eon a7, Crocker’s Root and Vine G | 0.82 | 9 10 7 Cortland 4441 | F | 1.11 | 8.67 | 9.69 | 10.54 Crocker’s Special Potato Manure G | 3.29] 8 9 7 Cherry Valley 5239 | F | 3.138) 8.34] 9.24] 7.42 Crocker’s Universal Grain Grower G | 0.82] 8 9 2 Boonville 5566 | F {| 1.15] 8.17] 9.387 | 2.28 Crocker’s Wheat and Corn Fertilizer G | 2.06] 8 9 1.50 Cherry Valley 5237 |. F | 2.02 | 9.07 | 10.39 | 2.46 Darling’s Blood, Bone and Potash Gul 4nd | 4 8 7 Laurel 5496 | F | 4.23] 6.78] 8.42] 6.88 Darling’s Long Island “ A ”’ G)3.29| 8 9 a Hicksville 5440 | F | 3.27] 8.86] 9.56] 7.30 Double Strength Manure G} 3.29] 8 9 10 Johnstown 51386 | F | 3.46} 7.56] 9.21 | 9.50 East India Corn King Gale2eaveles 9 6 Poughkeepsie 4805 | F | 2.60] 8.80] 9.98 | 6.04 East India Economizer Phosphate Gi 0.82 | 8 9 2 Poughkeepsie 4804 | F/} 1.01 | 8.85] 10.55 | 1.91 East India Farm Favorite G | —— | 10 11 8 Cortland 4434 | F | —— | 10.10! 11.40! 8.70 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGricutTuRAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 813 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN New York STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JOBBER; BRAND OR TRADE NAME; AND LocALITY WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL Co., New Yorks, N. Y. (continued) East India Fruit Growers Friend Cortland East India Garden and Farm Manure East Marion East India Improved Compound Pounps 1n 100 Pounps oF _——— | | ee Deposit East India Mayflower Mapleton East India Monarch Phosphate Apalachin East India Potato Manure Apalachin East India Roanoke Phosphate Sherburne East India 10% Vegetable and Potato Cortland East India Tiger Brand Nelson East India Unexcelled Fertilizer Nelson East India Vegetable, Vine and Potato Sherburne East India Victor Special Cortland Fine Ground Bone Freeport 14% Acid Phosphate West Haverstraw a oo bo bo 2.24 5474 hey FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid Nitro-| Avail- gen | able | Total 0.82 | 9 10 1.07 | 9.89 | 11.03 3.29] 8 g 3.438 | 8.038 | 9.381 12652 \%)5 6 1.65 | 5.95 | 7.27 1.65 | 8 9 1.84 | 9.06 | 10.20 —— | 12 13 —— | 12.42 | 13.17 3.29} 6 7 3.00) |! 6.79) 165 1030s 9 1.19 | 8.26 | 9.76 1.65 | 8 9 1.78 | 8.83} 9.95 1.237)|/°6 of 1.20 | 6.37 | 7.59 2.061 8 2.36 | 7.98 | 9.24 2.47 | 6 7 DeADy |e GEO4 mine 3.29 | 8 9 3.28] 9 10.20 2.47 | ——— |} 22.88 2.31 | —— } 21.56 — | 14 15 —— | 14.61 | 15.43 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 814 Report on INSPECTION WoRK OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN New YorxK STATE IN SPRING AND SumMER oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Name AND AppRrESS OF MANUFACTURER OR JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Namgs;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND LocaLiry WHERE SAMPLE WAS|_ ber (a TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL Co., New York, N. Y. (continued) 14% Acid Phosphate G*| —— | 14 15 ae South Plymouth 6312 | F*; —— | 14.18 | 14.92 | —— Genuine German Kainit Gy) | Se Cooperstown 5551 | F | —— | —— | —— |} 13.67 Genuine German Kainit Ge | — | | —— | 12 Chittenango Sta. 5815 | F | —— | ——— | —— | 14.40 Grass and Lawn Top Dressing G | 3.9 ies 6 2 Poughkeepsie 4806 | F | 4.04] 6.83] 8.16] 1.92 Grass and Lawn Top Dressing G/| 3.91] 5 6 2 Central Bridge 5656 | F | 2.88 | 6.24) 7.86 | 2.94 Great Eastern Dissolved Acid Phos- G | >| 14 15 — phate Oquaga Lake 5874 | F | ——, 14.85 | 15.38 | —— Great Eastern English Wheat Grower G| 0.82] 8 9 2 Unadilla 52 ee 2 Sr dSe—9eiGn| 2202 Great Eastern Garden Special G| 3.29] 8 9 a Jamaica 5420 | F |} 3.41 8.26 | 9.56] 7.14 Great Eastern General G| 0.82} 8 9 4 Delanson 5133 | F | 0.94 | 7.94} 9:56 | 4.02 Great Eastern General G |.0782 |) 8 9 4 Salem 5665 | F | 1.22 | 8.20] 9.44] 6.30 Great Eastern New York Potato Gi} Te65n ees 9 10 Special Afton 5826} F | 1.57 | 8.11] 9.24 | 10.74 Great Eastern Northern Corn Special G | 2c4%\F 9 10 2 Unadilla STA | BO 2.77 |) 8 -6buimeoes2 | 2296 Great Eastern Peerless Potato G | 12037) a 8 10 Manure Clayton 5T14- | Bode 20) — 0184-86 7-|— 9285 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 815 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLECTED IN NEw YORK STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER OR JOBBER; BRAND OR TRADE NAMB; AND LocaLiry WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL Co., New Yorks, N. Y. (continued) Great Eastern Schodack Special Unadilla Great Eastern Soluble Bone and Potash Salem Great Eastern Unammoniated Wheat Special Sherburne Great Eastern Vegetable, Vine and Tobacco Fertilizer Clayton Ground Tankage Elmira Ground Tankage 6-30 New York Ground Tankage 6-30 Tarrytown Ground Untreated Phosphate Rock Chester High Grade Dried Blood Brockport High Grade Ground Bone Coalden High Grade Potash Compound Castile High Grade Sulphate of Potash Castile Pounps 1n 100 Pounps oF FERTILIZER Num- Phosphoric acid ber Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total G*| 0.82 9 10 U/ Biden |) anes al: 9.33 | 10.33 6.51 G | — |} ll 12 2 5666 | F | —— |} 10.22 | 11.60} 2.70 G | — | 12 13 —_ 5801 | F | —— } 12.10} 13.38 | —— G | 2.06 8 9 3 5713°| BF) 2.44 6.49 7.62 6.21 G | 7.40 | —— 9.15 | —— 4789 | F | 7.31 | —— } 10.52 | —— G | 4.94 | —— | 18.73 | —— 5547 | F | 5.30 | ——— | 15.88 | —— G | 4.94 | —— | 18.738 | —— 5626 | F | 5.05 | —— | 14.22 | —— G | ——| —— | 31.12 | —— 5689 | F | ——| —— | 33.54 | —— G | 9.87 | —— | —— | —— 5354 | F | 9.05 | —— | —— | —— G | 3.29 | ——) 20.59 | ——— 5078 | F } 3.65 | —— } 20.92 | —— G | 1.65 8 9 10 A526) Hee 7a 8.60 | 9.31 | 10.52 G | — —— | 48 4524 | F | —— | —— } —— ] 52.70 . * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 816 Report on Inspection Work OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN New York STATE IN SPRING AND SumMER oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER OR JOBBER; BRAND OR TRADE Namgs;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND LocaLITy WHERE SAMPLE wWaAs| ber rn Nitro- : TAKEN AOE Potash AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL Co., New York, N. Y. (continued) Lazaretto ‘“‘ AA ”’ Superphosphate GSE 285 10 4 Union Hill 6029) FF) 1:89") 8S -8aetesss4 4512 Lazaretto Alkaline Dissolved Bone G | —} 138 14 3 Union Hill 6031 | F | —— | 12.99 | 14.22 | 3.42 Lazaretto Dissolved Phosphate G | —| 14 15 —— Union Hill 6033 | F | —— | 14.94 | 15.24 | ——— Lazaretto Dissolved Phosphate and G | —— | 10 11 2 Potash Union Hill 6032 | F | —— | 10.34 | 10.84] 2.12 Lazaretto Extra Ammoniated Bone G | 0.82) 8 9 4 Phosphate Union Hill 6034 | F | 1.01 | 8.05 | 9.63 | 3.94 Lazaretto High Grade Alkaline Gf }40 11 8 Dissolved Bone Union Hill 6030 | F | —— | 10.32 | 10.84] 8.12 Michigan Carbon Works General G|0.82| 8 9 4 Crop Middleport 5918") Fs 1 :0:94-1 9.24) 10°20" 3772 Michigan Carbon Works Homestead G | 2.06] 8 9 1.5 Fertilizer North Collins 5920 | F | 1.76] 7.90] 9.00 | 1.76 Michigan Carbon Works Homestead Gare 2206nes 9 3 Potato and Tobacco Fertilizer Middleport 5917 | F\} 2.10") 9:01 \aoess |) °S220 Michigan Carbon Works Red Line G | — | 10 11 2 Phosphate with Potash Fredonia 5934 | F | —— | 11.19 | 11.67 | 1.63 Milsom’s Buffalo Fertilizer G West Falls 5100 | F * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Summer or 1914 (continued) NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JoBBER; BRAND or TRADE NAME; AND Locauiry WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL Co., New York, N. Y. (continued) Milsom’s Buffalo Guano Adams Milsom’s Corn Fertilizer Springbrook Milsom’s Crown Phosphate Adams Milsom’s Eclipse Phosphate Adams Milsom’s Erie King Fertilizer South Berne Milsom’s Fancy Fruit Grower Cazenovia Milsom’s Harrow Brand Phosphate Little York Milsom’s Imperial Phosphate Penn Yan Milsom’s Medal Brand Manure McGrawville Milsom’s Old Pilot Phosphate dams Milsom’s Old Pilot Hartwick Milsom’s Potato and Cabbage Manure Springbrook Milsom’s Potato and Truck Grower Adams 52 817 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLEcTED IN NEw YorkK STATE IN SPRING AND Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or = oo od j=! 5165 yO FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid Nitro- . Avail- gen | “able Total 0.82 9 0.88 | 8.38 | 9.60 2.47 | 9 10 2.33 | 8.38 | 10.11 | 0) 11 ——— | 1OLOL (P2148 nl LO 11 ——— ee SO eal OF82) eed 8 1208) |) 77819250 0.82 | 9 10 1.08 | 9.58 | 10.52 2A | 6 i 2.65 | 6.27 | 7.69 = | 12 13 ae | WETS) |) di etc! 3.29 | 6 a SOV HON TON | ic00 2.06 | 8 9 2.04 | 8.32 | 10.23 2.06 | 8 9 2.44 | 8.16} 9.50 0.82} 9 10 0.98 | 8.86 | 10.14 1.65} 8 9 1.68 | 7.67 | 8.69 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 818 Report on Inspection Work or THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CotLpcTED In New YorK STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JOBBER; BRAND OR TRADE NaAmgE;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND LocaLtity WHERE SAMPLE was] ber Soa SSEEN TAKEN Nitro- Aer Potash gen able Total AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALCoO., New York, N. Y. (continued) Milsom’s Potato and Truck Grower G*| 1.65 8 9 10 McGrawville 6351 | F*| 1.70 | 8.60] 9.50 | 10.08 Milsom’s Soil Enricher Ga le65 8 9 4 Canandaigua 6005 |} F | 1.59 | 8.57 | 9.95] 3.96 Milsom’s Vegetable Fertilizer G | 3.29] 8 9 a Springbrook KOE elae |) sieeye | 3S 9237 | 6.71 Milsom’s Wheat, Oats and Barley G |.0:82) |) 8 9 2 McGrawville 63538 | F | 0.94] 8.51 9.69 | 2.34 Muriate of Potash G | — | —— | —— | 49 Brockport 5353 | F | —— | —— | —— | 50.34 Muriate of Potash G | —— | —— | —— | 49 West Haverstraw 5477 | F | —— | —— | —— | 48.44 Muriate of Potash G }— | — | —— | 49 De Ruyter 6390 | F | —— | —— | —— | 50.80 Nitrate of Soda G {15 ena Enero || ae Cortland 4438 | F |15.389 | ——— | —— | —— Nitrate of Soda Gauls aE |) SOREN |) Cn West Haverstraw 5476 | F |15.12 | ——— | —— | —— Nitrate of Soda G |15 eee | Cooperstown 9002 | F /15.23 | ——— | —— | —— North Western Challenge Fertilizer Go| 103s ans 9 2 Catskill 5694 | F |} 1.06 | 8.05] 9.69 | 2.44 North Western Complete Compound G | 0.82! 8 9 4 Waterloo 4904 | F | 0.90 | 9.95; 11.09 | 4.07 North Western Diamond Potash GA) e65alaes 9 10 Mixture East Aurora 5O77 1) EH Vesa GSeeo8 LOOM 9.72 North Western Electric Phosphate G | —— | 10 11 2 Hamlin 4546 | F | —— | 10.66 | 11.22} 2.382 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT SraTiIon. 819 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN New York STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE NaAme;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND Locautity WHERE SAMPLE WAS] ber — TAKEN Nitro- Rea Potash gen ae Total AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALCOoO., New York, N. Y. (continued) North Western Farmers’ Standard Gai ie2z3r 6 7 5 Frewsburg Oe | es Ie) i yer 58) | LY North Western Garden Manure Gr lpoezo 8 9 if Orchard Park 5022) | Hel 345 38H 9.24 7.60 North Western High Grade Alkaline Ge | = |] 11 8 Phosphate Malone 3773 | F | —— | 10.47] 11.57 | 8.42 North Western High Grade Alkaline Gl = || ile 11 8 Phosphate Hamlin 4548 | F | —— | 10.57 | 10.71 8.04 North Western Horse Shoe Brand G | ——| 12 13 5 Batavia 5385 | F | —— | 12.32] 12.94] 5.18 North Western Pride of the North G | 1.65 5 6 10 Rhinebeck 4829 | F | 2.09 6.29 7.33 | 10.44 North Western Pride of the North Galeleos 5 6 10 Cazenovia 5839 | F | 1.29] 6.08} 7.46 | 10.96 North Western Pride of the North G | 1.65 5 6 10 Homer 6163 | F | 1.86 | 5.538 |, 7.91 9.88 North Western Puritan Phosphate Ge O2825 9 10 7 Frewsburg 5098 | F | 1.00} 9.53] 11.03 | 6.98 North Western Red Line Fertilizer G@ 2047 8 9 6 Cazenovia 5Hooe) fH W266) |) 4.96) 8286 | e.62 North Western Shawnee Phosphate GeleteGon |S 9 4 Palmyra SaG4 Rt 167) (8203) P1007 I) 4220 North Western Soluble Fertilizer G | 3.29 6 10 Chittenango Station SSlG | Fo 333°) 6.038 abs |) Sez North Western Success Phosphate GaOrsZalmag 8 1 Croghan 3778 | F 10.88} 6.99! 8.99} 3.42 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 820 Report on Inspection WorkK OF THE ANALYSES oF FarTILizERs CoLLEcTED In New YorkK STATE IN SPRING AND SumMER oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps oF FERTILIZER Name AND AppREss OF MANUFACTURER - or JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Name;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND LocaLity WHERE SAMPLE WAS] ber — TAKEN Nitro- Potash gen | Avail- | Total able AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL Co., New York, N. Y. (continued) North Western XXX Alkaline Phos- G*| —— | 10 11 5 phate Elba 5388 | F*} ——]| 9.39 | 9.95] 5.56 Pacific Nobsque Guano Gal oeOsn|as 9 2 Colden 5OSO | kale OZ got Oe i eee Packers’ Union Animal Corn Fer- Go| 24a 9 10 2 tilizer Afton Doo) | Hel e2Ze/9n| ess Hel O ee ialeeels Packers’ Union Banner Wheat G | ——| 10 11 2 Grower Hudson Falls 5315 | F | —— | 10.69 | 12.27 | 2.66 Packers’ Union Gardener’s Complete G | 3.29] 6 7 10 Manure Afton 5823 | F | 3.16] 6.52| 7.84] 9.82 Packers’ Union Potato Manure G|2.06| 8 6 Afton 5825 | F | 2.19} 8.30] 9.39] 5.30 Potato and Garden Manure Gals e208 ae 8 7 Little Neck 5458.) FE | 3247 | 7.67.| 9.055) 2.7.22 Potato and Onion Special G | 1.65 | 10 11 6 Marion A (A er a Ol O75) | lees (ello OO Pulverized Sheep Manure G , 2.06 | —— | 1.25 1 Freeport OAT LP Ah) 2 2/ | Vb cae Pure Unleached Canada Hardwood G | — | —— | —— | 2 Ashes New York 6102 | F | —— | —— | —— | 3.36 somes a EN A Se Ale in pe ia Ef Quinnipiac Ammoniated Dissolved G|1.65]| 8 9 2 Bone Darien 5390 | F | 1-71 | 7.28 9.24) 2.90 Quinnipiac B Fervilizer G|0.82]| 8 9 4 Webster 6036 ' F!'0.93' 8.21 | 9.3871 3.66 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 821 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLECTED IN NEw YorK STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Name anp Appress oF MANUFACTURER or JoBBER; BRAND orn TRADE Namg;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND LocALITYy WHERE SAMPLE waASs| ber —_———— TAKEN Nitro- Potash gen | Avail- | Total able AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL Co., New York, N. Y. (continued) Quinnipiac Climax Phosphate G*| 1.03 | 8 9 2 Baldwinsville 6155) E1200) 78-27 oesy, P2266 Quinnipiac Market Garden Manure G73" 290i |Ge8 9 a Webster 6037 | F | 3.52) 8.73 | 10.01 | 6.55 Quinnipiac Mohawk Fertilizer G 0-825 0 77 8 1 Baldwinsville GL565 | EA LEO) 7 S2R ie On2e ole 24 Quinnipiac Potato Phosphate G} 2.06] 8 io 3 Schuyler Lake SAO ES 217 | Ge92 sees. | (6-40 Read’s Champion Phosphate G | ——| 10 11 2 Wales Center 5047 | F | —— | 10.02] 10.52] 2.14 Read’s Corn, Wheat and Rye Ge Garis 9 4 Carthage 5180 } F | 1.64] 8.46} 9.76] 4.20 Read’s Farmers Friend Super Phos- G} 2.06) 8 9 3 phate Carthage 5176 | F | 1.97 | 8.384] 9.82] 3.26 Read’s Farmers’ Reliable G | —— | 12 13 5 Sharon Springs 5242 | F | —— | 18.32 | 14.16 | 5.16 Read’s High Grade Farmers’ Friend G 3229) | %6 7 10 Wolcott 6023 | F | 3.42 | 6.66] 8.10 | 9.92 Read’s Leader Fertilizer G | 0.82 |} 7 8 1 Wales Center 5046} F | 1.00} 7.72} 8.54] 1.26 Read’s Lion Crop Grower Gi t.23" | 6 7 5 Otego Otay che | eon) OF 920 | a SOM onae Read’s Oriole Fertilizer G | 2.47] 6 7 5 Lima 6043 | F | 2.05] 7.385] 8.40 | 4.56 Read’s Pioneer Fertilizer G|0.82) 8 9 2 Wales Center 5048 | F | 1.14! 7.63 } 9.87 | 2.02 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 822 Report on Inspection Work OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLECTED IN New YorK STATE IN SPRING AND SUMMER OF 1914 (continued) Name AnD AppRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JoBBER; BRAND oR TRADE NAME; AND Locatiry WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALCoO., New York, N. Y. (continued) Read’s Potash Compound Carthage Read’s Potato Manure Clyde Read’s Practical Potato Special Carthage Read’s Standard Super Phosphate Carthage Read’s 10 and 8 Perry Read’s 10 and 8 Carthage Read’s Truck Fertilizer Lynbrook Read’s Vegetable and Vine Fertilizer Wolcott Reese’s Crown Phosphate and Potash East Bethany Reese’s Elm Phosphate Perry Reese’s Potato Manure Elma 16% Acid Phosphate De Ruyter Special Cabbage and Cauliflower Fertilizer Wading River Special Potash Mixture Marion Pounps 1n 100 PouNnpbs oF FERTILIZER Num- Phosphoric acid ber ns Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total G*| 1.65 | 8 9 10 SZ} OB 1S) PS62al eon oe03 G | 2.47] 6 7 10 A759) | Ble Zeol 6.654)\) eds) | TL 14 G|0.82| 4 5 8 HON OL OI MoniZaleareOozn ore G|0.82| 8 9 4 578) |) EY) W037) Sse lose Ses 4.45 G {| —— | 10 11 8 3198 | F | ——]} 10.58 | 11.92 | 8.24 G | —— 1 10 11 8 5706 | F | —— | 11.21 | 12.37 | 7.74 G{3.29] 8 9 7 5AZT Ba 20 | eA eeon leo eZo G | 2.06; 8 9 6 6022 | F | 2.05} 8.39} 10.389 | 6.08 G | —| ll 12 2 6451 | F | —— | 11.48 | 11.92] 3.32 G | ——| 14 15 — 6455 | F 14.76 | 15.30 | —— G|0.82] 9 10 7 5043 | F | 0.88] 9.28 | 10.46 | 7.50 G | —— | 16 17 — 6389 | F | —— | 15.98 | 16.84 | —— G| 4.11} 5 6 5 5514 | F 13.92] 5.68] 6.44] 4.93 G|0.82| 9 10 7 5366 | F | 1.08 ' 9.78 | 10.52] 7.34 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York Agricunturat Exprriment Station. 823 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLECTED In New York Strate IN SPRING AND SummeER or 1914 (continued) NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JOBBER; BRAND oR TrapE Namg;| Num- Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid AND LocaLity WHERE SAMPLE was| ber TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALCO., New York, N. Y. (continued) Superior Alkaline Bone Gs 10 11 East Henrietta 6018 | F*}/ —— | 9.87 | 10.46 | 5.04 12% Acid Phosphate G | —— | 12 13 — South Berne 5201 | F | —— | 12.10 |} 13.84 | ——— Wheeler’s Bermuda Onion Grower G |} 0.82 9 10 7 Hartwick HRS2) | LE LOS) | eS. Ge95 6.22 Wheeler’s Corn Fertilizer Ga eG 8 9 2 Sherburne 5802 | F | 1.67 | 8.88 | 10.14 1.96 Wheeler’s Fruit and Grain Grower G | — | 10 11 8 Hudson Falls 316 | F | — } 10.46 | 11.35 8.58 Wheeler’s High Grade Phosphate G | —= || Wz 13 5 and Potash Delanson 51384 | F | —— | 18.11 } 14.09 5.10 Wheeler’s Peerless Acid Phosphate G | —— | 14 15 — Delanson 132 | F | —— | 15.13 } 16.13 | —— Wheeler’s Potato Manure G | 2.06 8 9 3 Hartwick 5783 | F | 1.60 | 9.38] 10.20} 3.90 Wheeler’s Royal Wheat Grower G| 0.82} 8 2 Conewango 5927 | F | 0.92) 8.22) 8.73 || 2.28 Wheeler’s Superior Truck Gr) aio28) Ih ae 9 7 Hicksville SER a eee al 8.27 GrGanimeeoe Wheeler’s Wheat and Clover G | ——] 11 12 2 Fort Ann 5319 | F | ——]} 11.16 | 12.34] 2.56 Williams & Clark’s Americus Fer- G) | 1665 8 9 10 tilizer Berlin 5679 | F | 1.70} 8.05! 8.93 9.76 Williams & Clark’s Aroostook Potato G | 3.29 6 a 10 Phosphate Eagle 6462! F 2.63 6.03 4.69) |) (9.16 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 824 Report on Inspection Work OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN New Yor«K STATE IN SPRING AND SumMER oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER OR JOBBER; BRAND oR TrApE Name;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND Locautiry WHERE SAMPLE WAS|_ ber ———————— TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL Co., New Yorks, N. Y. (continued) Williams and Clark’s Root Manure G* 0.82 | 9 10 7 South Plymouth 6316 | F*! 0.87 | 8.59] 9.60] 6.51 Williams & Clark’s Elk Brand G|0.82] 8 9 4 South Plymouth 6313 | F | 0.84] 8.388] 9.24] 4.42 Williams & Clark’s Good Grower Gr ele2s 6 7 5 Johnstown ayes} |) 18 || ik es: 6245 eon 4.94 Williams & Clark’s Great Planet G | 3.29 8 9 i Manure Berlin 5OO | Iocan |p (oe O2n th Ont Geet. Williams & Clark’s Matchless Fer- G } 1.65 8 9 2 tilizer . Berlin 5678 | F | 1.59} 8.53 | 10.07 2.34 Williams & Clark’s Meadow Queen G | 2.47 | 9 10 2 Fertilizer White Plains 5617 | F | 2.65 | 10.17 | 11.67 1.96 Williams & Clark’s Meadow Queen G | 2.47 | 9 10 2, Fertilizer Hamburg 5935 | F | 2.32) 9.26 | 10:14| 3.14 Williams & Clark’s Panther Phos- G | 1.65 5 6 10 phate South Plymouth (33415) | ned diel ed baal GY 6.11 PAL 9.98 Williams & Clark’s Potash and Fish G |) 2-47 4 5 4 Bridgehampton 9529 | F | 2.48 | 4.43} 6.07 | 4.76 Williams & Clark’s Prolific Fertilizer G | 0.82 rif 8 1 Berlin 5675 | F | 0.85 7.94} 9.50 1.46 Williams & Clark’s Royal Phosphate G | L2035\8 9 2 South Plymouth 6314 | F | 0.96! 8.61 9.95 | 2.36 Williams & Clark’s Triumph Phos- G | —— | 10 11 2 phate Berlin 5677 | F | —— | 10.64 | 11.60 | 2.76 Zell’s Economizer Phosphate Falconer 5099 ry 2 So 0 on oo © bo * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 825 ANALYses oF Frertitizers CottecteD IN New York State 1n SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Pounpbs 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Name AND AppRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JoBBER; Branp or TrapE Namg;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND LocaLity WHERE SAMPLE was|_ ber —————— TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL Co., New York, N. Y. (concluded) Zell’s Electric Phosphate G*; — | 10 11 2 Prattsburg 6549 | F*| —— | 10.72] 11.16 | 3.16 Zell’s Fruit Tree Invigorator G | —— | 10 11 8 Interlaken 6528 | F | —— | 10.11 | 10.71 7.91 Zell’s General Crop Fertilizer G| 0.82) 8 9 4 Marion 4773 | F | 0.89 | 9.73 | 10.93 | 4.06 Zell’s High Grade Bone and Potash G | —— | 12 13 5 Marion 477 EF | —— | 12.21 | 13.05 | 4.77 ' Zell’s High Grade Wheat and Corn Gaiede6hs 10 11 4 Manure Marion 4771 | F | 2.06 | 10.74 | 12.56 | 5.60 Zell’s Special Potato and Cabbage Ge 02820529 10 U Manure Marion 4776 | F | 0.82 | 10.61 | 11.41 | 6.12 AMERICAN Fertitizine Co., BALTIMORE, Mp. American Champion Grain Grower G/0.82| 8 9 4 Springville 5034 | F | 0.99 | 8.40} 10.09 | 4.90 American Eagle Crop Grower GaP ieGon ees 9 2 Sinclairville 5931 | F | 1.67 | 9.18 | 10.78 | 2.386 American Excelsior Guano G | £.6aih 8 9 5 Pine Bush 0685 | F | 1.77 | 8.62] 9.84] 5.38 American Formula Wheat and Corn G | —— | 10 11 5 Springville 5038 | F | —— | 10.28 | 11.60 | 5.08 American Potato and Vegetable G 3.29") 6 7 10 Compound Springville 5033 | F | 3.63 | 6.10 | 7.52) 11.72 American Prize Truck Guano Gj}1.65 | 8 9 10 Avoca 4931 | F | 2.04] 8.76] 9.82 | 10.08 American Standard Crop Compound G | ——]| 10 11 8 Attica 3190 | F | ——! 9.81 | 11.03 | 9.02 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 826 Report on Inspection Work OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN New York STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE NAME; AND LocaLity WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN AMERICAN FeErtiuizina Co., Batrt- MORE, Mb. (concluded) Ammoniated Bone Compound Springville Bob White Manure Compound Attica Dissolved Bone and Potash Sinclairville Double Extra Bone and Potash Springville High Grade Acid Phosphate Batavia Muriate of Potash Pine Bush Nitrate of Soda Pine Bush Sulphate of Potash De Ruyter 10% Tankage South Dayton Armour FeErtiuizER Works, BAtrtt- MORE, Mb. Armour’s All Soluble Cincinnatus Armour’s Ammoniated Bone with Potash Florida Armour’s Banner Brand Altamont Armour’s Bone, Blood and Potash Delhi Pounps 1n 100 Pounps oF FERTILIZER Num- Phosphoric acid ber —— Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total G*| 0.82 | 8 9 2 5037 || E092 | SSel5tiee9e 26 oat0 G | 1.23 9 10 4 3189 | F | 1.52 | 9.42] 10.68 | 4.90 G |} — |} 10 11 2 5932 | F | —— | 10.30 | 11.86 |] 2.36 G | — } 12 13 5 5036 | F | —— | 12.64 | 14.28} 4.85 G | —— | 14 15 ee 5381 | F | —— | 15.35 | 16.71 | ——— G | — | —— | — | 48 5687 | F | —— | —— | —— | 50.16 G |14.82 | ——— | —— | —— 5688 | F {14.82 | ——— | ——— | —— G |} — |} — | — ; 48 5831 | F | —— | —— | —— |} 50.12 G | 8.23 | —— | —— | —— 5945 | F | 7.98 | ——— | —— | —— G]2.88} 8 8.50 | 4 6365 | F | 2.84] 8.29] 9.63 4.52 G | 2.47 6 Gno0Nls 2 5682 | F | 2.48 6.40 | 7-20)" 2.24 G | —— |} 10 10.50} 8 5203 | F | —— | 9.61 | 10.01 7.87 Gaia 8 8.50 | 7 3639 | F | 3.83 8.11 9.31 7.28 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 827 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN New York STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps oF FERTILIZER NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JOBBER; BRAND or TRADE Namgs;} Num- Phosphoric acid AND LocaLity WHERE SAMPLE waAs|_ ber TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total Armour FERTILIZER WorKS, Batti- MORE, Mp. (continued) Armour’s Bone Meal G*}) 2.47 | —— | 22 — Hempstead 5462 | F*| 2.10 | —— | 27.16 | —— Armour’s Cauliflower, Celery and G| 4.93] 8 8.50 | 5 Potato Mixture Aquebogue O40) |) E5222) | Wavenle sol I 426 Armour’s Conn. Valley ‘Tobacco G | 4.52} 4 4.50} 5.50 Grower Fertilizer Cato 6511 | F | 4.56} 4.77 | 5.85) 6.34 Armour’s Corn and Wheat Fertilizer G | 126o"'"8 8:50' | 5 Richfield Springs 9555) | EY | 1.50) |/BeO M19) 19895) | 5.32 Armour’s Crop Grower G}0.82! 8 S250) | 2 Cortland 6152 | F|1.15] 8.86) 8.86} 4.25 Armour’s Dried Blood Fertilizer G |13.16 | ——— | ——— | —— White Plains 5621 | F |12.74 | —-— | ——— | —— Armour’s Fruit and Root Crop G|1.65] 8 8.50 | 5 Special Fertilizer Adams D153) 9| fied a oll albaftsde| |p tsi Biel | OR) jell Armour’s Grain Grower Gai le65 ses ei) ||) Altamont 5206 |} F | 1.73} 7.86] 9.76) 2.96 Armour’s High Grade Potato G | 1265) 8 8.50 | 10 Altamont 5205 |} F | 1.42} 8.35] 9.387] 8.56 Armour’s High Grade Potato Gaels 8 8.50 | 10 Barneveld DOE ee le ole iol ne SarsnlOsos Armour’s Long Island Trucker Gaitse29o |i o 5.50 | 6 Marathon 6383 | F | 3.27] 5.82] 6.44] 6.06 Armour’s Manure Substitute G | 3.29 6 6.50 | 4 Middletown 9605 | | 3:07 | 5.71 | 6.80)| 4.12 Armour’s Manure Substitute G 3229), 6 6.50 | 4 Liberty 6409 | F | 2.73] 6.97 | 8.01 | 3.82 Armour’s Phosphate and Potash G | — | 12 12.50 | 5 Adams 5155 | F | —— 1! 12.42 | 12.70 | 5.18 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 828 Report on INSPECTION WorK OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLEcTED IN New YorkK STATE IN SPRING AND SumMMER oF 1914 (continued) Name AND AppRESS OF MANUFACTURER OR JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Name;| Num- AND LocaLity WHERE SAMPLE was|_ ber TAKEN Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total —_———_ ef | Es Ee TT Armour FeErriuizER Works, MORE, Mb. (continued) ' Armour’s Phosphate and Potash No. 1 Delhi 3642 Armour’s Potato and Grain Special Fertilizer LeRoy 5380 Armour’s Potato Special Fertilizer Cohocton 4927 Armour’s Raw Bone Meal North Collins 5065 Armour’s Special Potato Grower Hempstead 5461 Armour’s Star Phosphate Fertilizer Rochester 4544 Armour’s Star Phosphate Poughkeepsie 4810 Armour’s Star Phosphate Kings Park 5413 Armour’s Star Phosphate Central Islip 5466 Armour’s Star Phosphate Middletown 5601 Armour’s Star Phosphate Yorktown 5471 Armour’s Star Phosphate Richfield Springs 5557 Armour’s Truckers Special Fertilizer Cortland 341 Armour’s Wheat & Clover Boonville \ 5572 10.50 10.72 hej C2 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 829 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLECTED IN New York STATE IN SPRING AND SumMER oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER —— oR JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Namg;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND Locautiry WHERE SAMPLE was|_ ber SE TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total Armour FeErtinizER Works, Battt- MORE, Mp. (concluded) Armour’s Wheat, Corn and Oat G*| 0.82 | 7 7.50} 1 Special McGraw C450) | BF 1222) |) 72559 |) 1286 Armour’s York State Special G|0.82] 8 8.50} 4 Altamont 5204} F] 0.91 | 8.18} 8.86} 4.06 Armour’s York State Special G/0.82|] 8 8.50| 4 — Boonville 5573 | F | 1.02 | 8.48} 9.24] 4.42 Basic Slag G | — | ——} 17t —— Cuba 5961 | F | —— | —— |} 17.81 | —— Genuine German Kainit G | —— | —— | —— } 12 Aquebogue 5493 | F | —— | —— | —— |} 13.72 Ground Tankage G 4.93 | |-- 9732 Special Potato Manure G| 3.29] 8 9 7 Hicksville 5401 | F | 3.37 | SalGhy 199249)" 7236 Wheat and Grass Manure GarOE825|78 9 2 Jamestown 5095 | F | 1.02) 7.999) 29269") 2:16 Howarp, J. W., SOMERVILLE, Mass. Sheep Manure G | = | = Newark 6467 | F |} 1.389} 0.17 | 0.25 | 3.20 Hupparp Frrtiuizer Co., Tur, Baurti- monn, Mp. Hubbard’s Blood, Bone and Potash G | 3.28] 8 —_| 7 Palmyra 5369 | F | 3.06} 7.98 | 8.58 | 7.68 Hubbard’s Climax Phosphate Gans ated 8 4 Summitt 5247 | F ¢ 0.97 |- :7.65: | 8.03: |- 4.02 Hubbard’s Farmer’s I X L G|1.64| 8 — | 2 Palmyra L537 Ga ime sha ft bike | fc aeye32pp femme pesSh 2) | feel ted Hubbard’s 14% Phosphate G | —| 14 —— Windsor 5877 | F | —— } 15.10} 15.91 |} —— Hubbard’s Jersey Trucker G|1.64| 8 —— | 10 Palmyra 53868 | F | 1.85} 8.06} 8.42 | 10.94 Hubbard’s 12-5 Alkaline Windsor 5876 hy 2 — tot or * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGrIcuLTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 847 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLECTED In’ New York STATE IN SPRING AND SumMER oF 1914 (continued) [eee eee Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Name ann Appress oF MANUFACTURER ——e or JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Namg;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND Locauiry WHERE SAMPLE waAs|_ ber ——. TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total Hupson Carson Co., Bauiston SPa., Davidge’s Concentrated Manure G*| 1 —| 1 —— Mt. Kisco 5614 | F* 1.43 | ——— | 8.22 | —— Davidge’s Special Phosphorus G |} — |—— |} 5 nl Ballston Spa. 5663 | F | —— | —— | 14.16 | —— INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL CoR- PORATION, Burrato, N. Y. Bedford Farmers Four Ten Hight G | 3.30 | 10 11 8 Mt Kisco 5612 | Fj} 2.99} 9.81 | 10.838 | 7.94 Bedford Farmers Three Hight Six G} 2.40] 8 9 6 Mt. Kisco 5613 | F | 2.48 | 8.41 | 10.07] 5.71 I. A. C. Four Ten Four G | 3.30 | 10 11 4 Springville 59389 | F} 3.27 | 9.61 | 10.97 | 5.82 I. A. C. Three Ten Hight G | 2.40 | 10 11 8 Springville 5940 |} F | 2.538 | 9.91 | 10.79] 7.94 I. A. C. Two Nine Four G | 1.60 10 4 Springville 5988 | F |.1.71 | 9.39 | 11.67 ; 3.98 INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL CoR- PORATION, BurraLo FERTILIZER Works, Burrato, N. Y. Animal Tankage G | 6.10 |) —) | —— Mount Morris 6049 | F |} 7.46 | —— | —— | —— Bone Meal G | 2.40 | —— |} 22 —- Collins 5057 | F | 2.39 | ——— | 22.82 | —— Celery and Potato Special Gy) £260) jars 9 10 Silver Springs 4519 | F|] 1.49} 8.11] 9.31 | 10.34 Celery and Potato Special GP lLe6onh ss 9 10 Thiells 5499 | F |] 1.64} 8.35 | 10.01 | 10.380 Dissolved Phosphate G | ——| 14 15 = Watertown 5192 | F | ——] 14.59 | 15.11 | ——— Dissolved Phosphate G | —] 14 15 === Owego 6359 } F | —— 1! 16.10 | 16.52 | —— * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 848 Report on Inspection Work OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED In New York Strate in Sprine AND SumMeER oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER NAME AND AppRESS OF MANUFACTURER —_— oR JOBBER; BRAND OR TRADE Name;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND LocaLiry WHERE SAMPLE wWaAS|_ ber SS TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL CoR- PORATION, BUFFALO FERTILIZER Works, Burrato, N.Y. (continued) Dried Blood Qt Ons. | Utica 4236 | F*| 9.96 | —— | ——— | —— Dried Blood Go O084)) SS ee | Rochester 4541 | F /10.16 = Dried Blood G | 9.84 sna Zale ee Willard 4787 | E0e ) = ee Dried Blood Ga OPS. a | es Collins 5054 | F |10.27 | ——— | ——— | —— Dried Blood Ga|9s84 Kings Park 5416") /10839n (= ae eee Dried Blood GulLgie 4.) 2 mee ey ee Creedmoor 5448 | F {10.438 | ——— | ——— | —— Dried Blood G | 9.84 | —— | —— | —— Central Islip 5469 | F 10.14 | ——— | —— | —— Dried Blood Ce ee SS | ff Yorktown 64700) OE |10220) SS SSS Dry Ground Fish G | 6.58 | ——— | ——_ | —— South Lima 6044) oF 15.62) —— eS Extra Phosphate and Potash Ga ———7|10 11 8 Silver Springs 3199 | F | —— | 10.29 | 10.65 | 7.48 Farmers Choice G | 0.80 8 9 5 Richfield Springs 4241 | F|] 1.18 | 8.66 | 10.20| 6.45 Fish Guano G{0.80] 9 10 2 Silver Springs 4521 | FY Lia2 Oneill WING 7e et 72 Garbage Tankage G | 2.25 | —— | 4 0.75 Fairport 5378 | F | 2.75 | —— | 3.44] 1.00 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 849 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED In New York STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Pounns 1n 100 Pounps oF FERTILIZER Name AND AppRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JoBBER; BRanD or TrapE Namg;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND Locatiry WHERE SAMPLE waAs|_ ber _ TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL Cor- PORATION, BuFFALO FERTILIZER Works, Burrato, N.Y. (continued) Garden Truck (GF) B80) Wf 9 7 Watertown DISSE aeod | ededonl LORSOe ma caoe, Garden Truck G| 3.30] 8 9 7 Thiells 5501 | F | 3.28 | 8.46} 10.20 | 6.49 General Crop G|—| 9 10 3 Sharon Springs 5213 |} F | ——]| 9.31} 10.71 3.10 General Favorite G |) 12200 es 9 2.50 Collins 5059 | F |} 1.41 8.42 | 9.76 | 2.80 High Grade Manures G | 3.30 | 7 8 10 Richfield Springs | 4240 | F | 3.05} 7.46] 9.18} 9.98 Ideal Wheat and Corn G |} 1.60 9 10 5 Silver Springs A522) Be GO) Gh bse | elORO 7 i o202 Ideal Wheat and Corn G/1.60] y 10 5 Thiells 5500 | F | 1.64] 8.84] 10.25] 6 Kainit G | — | —— | —— ] 12 Batavia asd | EF } —— | ——=))) = 1 13.84 Muriate of Potash G } — |} —— | —— | 48 Silver Springs 4520 | F | —— | —— | —— | 53.50 Nitrate of Soda G |15 —— | —— | —— Fairport 5377 | F |14.98 | ——— | ——— | —— Phosphate and Potash G | —— | 12 13 Clyde 4760 | F | —— | 12.75 | 18.33 | 4.383 Potato and Truck Manure G/1.60| 8 9 6 Penn Yan 4913) |e By ae9ol 7.85 9.44 5.50 Sulphate of Ammonia G {20.50 | ——— | —— |} ——— Mount Morris 6050 | F j20.44 | ——— | —— | —— * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 54 850 Report on Inspection Work OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLECTED In New York STATH IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) — Pounps 1n 100 Pounps oF FERTILIZER NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER ee or JoBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Namgs;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND LocaLity WHERE SAMPLE WAS| per — TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL CoR- PORATION, BuFFALO FERTILIZER Works, Burrato, N. Y. (concluded) Sulphate of Potash G* —— | —— ; —— | 48 South Lima 6045 | F*| —— | —— | —— | 50.28 Top Dresser Gala ORG 7 5 Richfield Springs 4242 | F | 5.73 | 5.74] 7@:20'| 5.56 Top Dresser Gal aecOe| a6 7 5 Penn Yan 4903 | F | 4.61] 6.79 | 8.387 | 5.45 Vegetable and Potato G|2.40| 8 9 (i Norwich 5829 | F | 2.39] 8.382 | 10.14| 7.24 INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL CoR- PORATION, PENNSYLVANIA FER- TILIZER BrancuH, Burrato, N. Y. Acid Phosphate G,—| 12 13 —-= Romulus 6540 | F | —— | 12.22 | 13.14 | —— Big Bonanza G{0.80| 8 9 + Canaseraga 4529 | F | 0.82} 8.26| 9.50] 4.08 Economy G|1.60] 8 9 4 Campbell 4949 | F | 1.68] 8.87 | 10.39 | 4.72 Empire 10% G{1.60} 8 10 Horseheads 4936 | F | 1.62] 8.76! 9.82] 9.74 Four Fold Gj}0.80| 8 9 2, Mallory 5787 | F | 0.94 |} 9.70 | 10.90] 2.34 Gardener’s Special G | 2.40 | 6 7 10 Canaseraga A527 | EF) 2271) 6 eA Ta aaeGon} 0 Grain and Grass G | — | 10 11 2 Romulus 6538 | F 9.79 | 10.71 | 2.14 Potato and Truck Manure Gi} 1.60} 8 9 6 Clarence 5905 | F |] 1.59} 8.10] 10.14] 5.98 Vegetable and Vine G | 0.80 | 10 11 8 Clarence 5904 | F {1.28 | 9.18 | 11.06 | 7.92 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AqricuitTuRaAL EXPERIMENT Station. 851 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLECTED IN New York STATE IN SPRING AND Summer or 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps oF FERTILIZER Name AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JoBBER; BRAND orn TRADE Nams;) Num- Phosphoric acid AND Locality WHERE SAMPLE wWaAS| ber —— TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total INTERNATIONAL SEED Co., RocHESTER, F Ve International A 1 Special Manure G*| 2.47] 6 7 10 Arkport 6464 | F*) 2.541 5.92) 7.85; 9.387 International Crop Grower G@ | 0.83) 7 8 Darien Center 4742 | F | 0.92 6.94 8.38 2.81 International Electric Fertilizer G | 0.82 8 9 2 Darien 4739 ; F | 1.038 7.45 9.12 QeS2 International Grain and Grass Fer- Gia |ebe23) a0 11 2.50 tilizer Darien Center 4741 | F | 1.57 9.438 | 11.16 2.61 International Potato and Truck Gi ele23 8 9 7 Manure F Darien Center 4740 Le 38h) OV 266U | Seb 7.72 JARECKI CHEMICAL Co., THE, SANDUSKY, O. Black Diamond Fish Guano G{ 1.66] 8 4 South Byron 4539 | F | 1.73 | 9.28) 9.82 | 4.22 Fish and Potash Garden Fertilizer G | 1.66 8 — | 10 Clyde 4763 | F | 1.62; 8.89 | 9.31 |} 10.88 Fish and Potash General Grower G{0.838 | 7 3 Warsaw 3191 | F | 0.84 6.97 Mead 4.57 Fish and Potash General Grower G | 0.83 7 —— | 3 Eden Center 5072 | F | 0.81} 8.02] 8.48] 2.92 Fish and Potash Grain Special G| 0.83] 8 —— | 4 Lockport 5912 | F|0.88| 8.67] 9.14] 2.09 Fish and Potash Truck Manure G | 3.33 8 —-| 7 Charlotte 4550 | F | 3.37 | 8.37 | 8.67 | 6.70 Humus Phosphate with Potash G | 0.20 | 10 —— Charlotte 5351 | F 1] 0.31 9.61 | 10.39 84 |] | ff | | Special Cabbage and Onion Guano Walker 4549 ry * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 852 Reprort on Inspection Work OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN New YorK STATE IN SPRING AND SuMMER oF 1914 (continued) Name AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Namge;| Num- AND Locatiry WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN Listers AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL Works, Newark, N. J. Lister’s Ammoniated Dissolved Superphosphate Cooperstown Lister’s Bone Meal New Rochelle Lister’s Buyers’ Choice Acid Phos- phate Corning Lister’s Cauliflower and Cabbage Fertilizer Webster Station Lister’s Celebrated Ground Bone and Tankage Acidulated Huntington Lister’s Corn and Potato Fertilizer Cherry Valley Lister’s Corn No. 2 Fertilizer Attica Lister’s Dissolved Phosphate and Potash Cherry Valley Lister’s Excelsior Guano Phelps Lister’s G Brand Spencerport Lister’s Grain and Grass Fertilizer Utica Lister’s High Grade Dry Blood Fairport Lister’s New York Special Fertilizer 4540 Byron Pounps 1n 100 Pounps oF FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid ber (a Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total G*| 2.06 | 8 9 1.50 4247 | B*| 2.14.) 8.31 9.37 1.60 G | 2.67 | —— | 22.88 5622 | F | 2.638 | —— | 27.68 | ——— G | —— | 14 15 — 4932 | F | —— | 14.31 | 15.37 | —— G | 3.29! 8 9 7 5833 | F | 3.37 WSO aleaOelSulin i? 92 G | 2.67 6 12 — 5480 | F | 2.90 | 10.20 | 12.50 | ——— G | 1.65 9 3 5222) He 92s aieoon| MSE CON or OS Gal s655|e10 11 4 AT5ON | Ey el 574 S10 2498 | ailess 4.34 G | —— | 10 11 2 §221 | F | ——] 9.88 | 10.14] 2 G| 0.82} 9 10 7f 4906 | F | 0.99 | 8.91 9.69 | 7.42 GahOss2alans 9 4 4746 | F | 0.94] 8.53 9.95 | 4.20 G|—]| 9 10 5 4230 | F | ——] 9.05 | 9.31 Depo G | 9.87 | ——— | ——_ | ——_ 5375 | F |10.07 | ——— | —— | —— G | 0.82 9 10 F 10.94} 8.389! 8.99 | 10.38 d * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 853 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN New York STATE IN SPRING AND Summer or 1914 — (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Namg;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND Locaurry WHERE SAMPLE waAs| ber —_ TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- |Potash Listers AGRICULTURAL gen | able | Total CHEMICAL Works, Newark, N. J. (con- tinued) Lister’s New York Special Fertilizer G*| 0.82 | 8 9 10 Ballston 5662 | F*/ 0.91 | 8.72} 9.56 | 10.18 Lister’s Oneida Special G | 0.82) 7 8 1 Catskill 5691 | F | 1.05] 7.08| 8.10} 1.20 Lister’s Orchard Fertilizer G | —— 56 7 10 Spencerport 4745 | F | ——| 6.52] 6.82 | 10.90 Lister’s Potato Manure G {| 3.29] 8 9 a Phelps 4908} F | 3.35 | 8.17 | 9.31 | 7.70 Lister’s Potato Manure G| 3.29] 8 9 7 Huntington 5429 | F | 3.42 | 8.86) 9.44) 7.68 Lister’s Potato No. 2 Fertilizer G | 1.65 | 10 11 4 Utica 4229 |} F | 1.82 | 10.59 | 11.99 |} 4.16 Lister’s Reliance Gale0seies 9 2 Trumansburg GLA Ha e244 SP 25nlAOeslal st 2206 Lister’s Special 10% Potato Fertilizer G/ 1.638! 8 9 10 Pittsford 4743) | 68h eS. Tee 9895 eA Lister’s Special Wheat Fertilizer GaP Garis 9 3 West Bloomfield 6007 | F | 1.78} 8.02} 9.56] 3.40 Lister’s Standard Pure Superphos- Gry) eee || 8 10 2 phate of Lime Spencerport 4747 | F | 2.46 | 9.83 | 10.27 | 2.29 Lister’s Success Fertilizer G{1.238] 9 10 2 Cherry Valley 62238 | Fj 1.40 | 9.18 | 10.58) 2.82 Lister’s Superior Dissolved Phos- G | — | 10 11 8 phate and Potash Spencerport 4748 | F | —— |} 10.23 | 10.49 | 8.70 Lister’s 10% Potato Grower G | 3.29 i 10 Waterville 5558 | F | 3.44] 7.18 | 8.16 | 9.69 Lister’s 3-6-10 for Potatoes G | 2.47 | 6 7 10 Ballston 5661 | F 12.49! 6.93’ 8.03 ! 10.72 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 854. Report on Inspection Work OF THE ANALYSES OF FeErRtILizERs CoLtnecTteD 1n New York Stare in SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JOBBER; BRAND oR TraDE Nams;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND Locatiry WHERE SAMPLE was] ber ee TAKEN Avail- Potash : able | Total Listers AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL Works, Newark, N. J. (con- cluded) Lister’s 2-5-10 Fertilizer G* 5 6 10 Cortland 4444 | }F* 4.49 | 5.23 | 10.24 Lister’s U. S. Superphosphate G 8 9 2 Sherburne 5807 | F 7.97 9.09 | 2.82 Muriate of Potash —— | —— | 49 Fairport 5376 | F ——— | ——- | 49.80 Nitrate of Soda G —— | —— | —— Cortland 4446 | F —— | —— | —— Lowe tt Frrriuizer Co., Boston, Mass. Kainit : G ——._ | ——__ } 12 Binghamton 5883 | F ——— | —— | 12.54 Kainit G ——— | —— | 12 Arkport 6465 | F —— | —— | 12.76 Lowell Animal Brand for All Crops G 8 9 4 East Meredith 6407 | F 8.41 9.05 | 4.88 Lowell Bone Fertilizer for Corn, G 8 9 3 Grain, Grass and Vegetables Cortland F 8.20} 9.56] 3.62 Lowell Cereal Fertilizer G a 8 1 Boonville 5570 | F 6.88 | 7.60 123 Lowell Cereal Fertilizer G 7 8 1 Cortland 6331 , F GEO2h| toe, 1.28 Lowell Corn and Vegetable G 8 9 7 Middle Granville 5671 | F 8.32). 9.125) 16292 Lowell Express Brand for Corn, G 7h 8 2 Potatoes and Grain Cortland 6335 | F Ppa h Wee Ail 2.02 Lowell Grain Phosphate G 10 11 8 Middle Granvillle 5669 | F 11.533: 1..67_|. 7.90 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 855 ANALYSES OF Fertitizers CoLtecTED In New Yor«k STATB IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Pounnps 1n 100 Pounnps or FERTILIZER NAME AND ApprRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JOBBER; BRAND or TrapE Namg;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND Locatiry WHERE SAMPLE was|_ ber _——————_—_—_—___—— TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total Lowest. FrErtitizerR Co., Boston, Mass. (continued) Lowell Ground Bone G*| 2.46 | —— | 23 — Binghamton 5862 ; F*| 3.22 | ——— | 24.86 | ——— Lowell Potato Grower with 10% G |} 3.28/06 if 10 Potash Union 6157+) F+|-3-80-| 6235-|--6 279) -9.-74 Lowell Potato Manure G | 1.64] 7 8 4 Cortland 6334 | F | 1.74| 7.61) 8.29] 4.44 Lowell Potato Phosphate G|2.46] 8 6 McLean 4450 |} F | 2.53 | 8.13] 8.94) 6.46 Lowell Soluble Phosphate oe ——— 13 —= Corbettsville 6393 | F | —— | 18.40 | 13.90 | ——— Lowell Special Grass Mixture for Ga} 4 1OR | 7 8 6 Top Dressing and Lawns Middle Granville F | 4.09 | 7.24} 8.10] 6.382 Lowell Special Potato Fertilizer Watertown oop) bo i for) > = (<=) Lowell Sterling Phosphate Boonville Lop) oS [0] bo oo © nS Lowell Sterling Phosphate G|0.82] 8 9 4 Cortland i F | 0.90} 7.81} 8.62] 4.18 Lowell Superior Fertilizer G | 3.69} 7 8 10 Copenhagen F 4).3)51 TeO2a eS 10) | -9)-65 Lowell Vegetable and Grain Fer- Ga) 1647) 8 9 10 tilizer Boonville Ba We77 B8l 8278: | 39164 Lowell Vegetable and Grain Fer- G/1.64| 8 9 10 tilizer Cortland Pb 66) S87 Ors e270 Muriate of Potash G | —— | —— | —— | 50 Binghamton F | —— | —— _ —— ' 50.40 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 856 Report on Inspection Worr oF THE ANALYSES OF FErRTILIzERS CoLLEcTED IN New York Strate IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER OR JOBBER; BRAND OR TRADE Namgs;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND Locatiry WHERE SAMPLE WAS) ber a TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total -—— | << | — —<$— |] qc — Im — /—__—_ LOWELL FERTILIZER Co., Boston, Mass. (concluded) Nitrate of Soda G*i15 ee sey Pa ee) |) eee Union 6159 | F*/15.27 | —— | —— | —— 6-30 Ground Tankage G5 —— | 14 a Arkport 6463 | F | 5.05 | ——— j 14.99 | -——— ———| —S Fs J ———_——_—_—_—___! —___—__ Luptam Co., FrEpERICcK, NEw YorE, INE We Ludlam’s A. B. F. Fertilizer Gul sess 9 2 Babylon 5543} F | 1.58] 8.66} 9.82) 2.62 Ludlam’s Antler Fertilizer G a 10 Hale Eddy 584 F 62} 7.52 | 10.08 Ludlam’s Cecrops Fertilizer G 8 7 Aquebogue 5495 | F O1-+-82614--6272 Ludlam’s Fruit and Vine Fertilizer G 9 10 Hale Eddy 5849 | F .10 | 10.20 | 10.58 Ludlam’s Palmetto Fertilizer G 9 Mexico 5792 | F 7.99 | 8.93 4 18 Ludlam’s P. G. Phosphate G 11 6 Mexico 5793 | F 10.07 | 10.65 | 4.48 Nitrate of Soda G —— | —— | —— Calverton 5507 | F — | —— | ———- Lyon, 8. G., Aurora, N. Y. 3. G. Lyon’s Ammoniated Bone Gj} 1.22) 8 9 3 Super-Phosphate Aurora 6527 | F | 1.50 | 9.384] 11.48 | 2.86 Marrs Formuta & PrruviAN GuANO Co., THz, New York, N. Y. Mapes General Crop Brand G | 1.65] 8 10 2 Binghamton 6302 | F | 1.81] 8.17 | 10.65 | 2.62 Mapes Grain Brand G | 0.82] 8 —| 4 Honeoye Falls 6008 ! F ! 1.00] 8.33! 9.63 | 4.68 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 857 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLECTED IN New York STATE IN SPRING AND SuMMER oF 1914 (continued) NAME AND AppRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JoBBER; BRAND or TRADE NAMB; AND Locality WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN Mares Formuta & Peruvian GuANo Co., Tur, New York, N. Y. (continued) Pure Ground Bone Sayville The Mapes Average Soil Complete Manure Floral Park The Mapes Cauliflower and Cabbage Manure Mattituck The Mapes Cereal Brand Mt. Kisco The Mapes Complete Manure “ A ”’ Brand Coxsackie The Mapes Complete Manure 10% Potash Binghamton The Mapes Corn Manure Hicksville The Mapes Dissolved Bone Mattituck The Mapes Economical Potato Manure Baldwinsville The Mapes Lawn-Top Dressing Sayville The Mapes Nitrogenized Super- Phosphate Coxsackie The Mapes Potato Manure (L. I. Special) Floral Park Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Num- Phosphoric acid ber 8 Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total G*| 2.47 | —— | 20 — 5540 | F*| 3.24 | ——— | 26.52 | ——— be Ceri 8 5 5455 | F | 4.251 7.09 | 8.08 6.72 G | 4.12 | 6 —-| 6 5488 | F | 4.39 5.88 6.76 6.79 GallplinGa 6 8 3 5615 | F | 1.838} 5.97 | 9.69 3.34 Gale 24vallelO 12 2.50 5697 | F | 2.66] 9.53 | 12.43 3.36 G | 2.06 3 5 10 6301 | F | 2.63 4.04] 5.74] 11.1 G | 2.47 8 10 6 5463 | F | 2.68} 9.03 | 10.81 6.62 Gaie22 065) 12 —— 5487 | F | 2.49 | 17.40 | 19.26 | ——— G | 3.29 4 6 8 6153) |) FN 3252) | 4550) |) 6576. |) 8-44 G | 2.47 2 3.50 2.50 9539) | i) 2.58.) 3.39 4.33 4.08 G | 2.06 9 11 2.50 5698 | F | 2.04] 8.81 | 12.05 2.62 G | 3.29 | 4 6 7 5456 | F | 3.60] 6.45] 7.59 | 7.54 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 858 Report on Inspection WorkK OF THE ANALYSES OF FrrtiuizeERS CoLtitectep In New York STATE IN SPRING AND Summer or 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps oF FERTILIZER Name AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JoBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Nams;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND LocALITY WHERE SAMPLE wWAS|_ ber ———— TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total Mares Formuta & PERUVIAN GUANO Co., Tur, New York, N. Y. (concluded) The Mapes Potato Manure Ct da, 4a ——| 6 Coxsackie 5699 | F*| 3.87 | 8.14] 9.24] 6.64 The Mapes Tobacco Starter Im- G | 4.12} 6 8 1 proved Baldwinsville 6154 | F | 4.50] 7.49] 8.938 | 2.94 The Mapes Top Dresser — Improved G | 9.88] 5 8 4 Full Strength Mattituck 5486 | F | 9.81) 7.381) 8.71 | 4.30 The Mapes Top Dresser — Improved G | 4.94] 2.50] 4 2 Half Strength White Plains 5616 | F | 4.45 | 3.82 | 4.72] 2.62 Martin Co., D. B., PHILADELPHIA, Pa. Martin’s Acid Phosphate G | —— | 4 14.75 | —— Penn Yan 4919 | F | —— | 14.02 | 14.41 | ——— Martin’s Dissolved Organic Com- G | 1:03 9 | ——]| 2 pound Branchport 6543 | F | 1.08 | 9.52} 10.84) 2.12 Martin’s High Grade Potato Manure G | 3.30] 8 — | 10 Branchport 6544 | F | 3.27) 8.69 | 9.381] 9.23 Martin’s Potash and Soluble Phos- G | —— | 10 11 8 phate Penn Yan 4920 | F | ——}| 9.97 |] 10.27) 6.77 Martin’s Special Potato Manure G | 0.82] 8 9 5 Penn Yan 4918 | F | 0.97] 8.11 | 9.56| 4.67 McCoy, Guo. E., Perksxkiu, N. Y. An Honest Fertilizer G {5 —— | 16 —— Peekskill 5627 | F | 5.18 | —— | 20.78 | ——— Miter Frertiuizer Co., Bautimore, Mp. Club Brand G | 0.42) 8 8.50 | 2 Jamestown 5929 | F | 0.52 | 8.83] 9.05 | 2.36 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 859 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED In New York STATE IN SpRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JOBBER; BRAND oR TrapE Namg;| Num- AND LocaLity WHERE SAMPLE was] ber TAKEN Munroe & Sons, Guo. L., Oswego, N. Y. Pure Unleached Wood Ashes Gt Binghamton RS Yiay || Lake Nassau Fertiuizer Co., New York, Common Sense Potato Manure Worcester 5763 Corn Fertilizer Watertown 5186 General Favorite Watertown 5187 Gladiator Truck and Potato Glens Falls 5305 Grass and Grain Fertilizer Watertown 5185 Soluble Phosphate Collins 5055 G F G 10, Special Potato Fertilizer G Glens Falls 5307 | F Ten and Eight Special G Carthage 5705 | F G F Wheat and Grass Grower Lowville 3784 Nationat Fertiuizer Co., Tut, New VoRK INET YS National Complete Root Special G “ Special ”’ Calverton 5505 | F Naturat Guano Company Aurora, It. Sheep’s Head Brand Pulverized G Sheep Manure Rochester 4744 | F Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid Nitro-| Avail- gen | able | Total —— OF 25) |e O-a0) —— |) 0845") 0298 1.65 | 8 9 1.92 | 8.82} 9.76 1.65 | 8 9 UTS: |) 8.27 (L1OLO4 0.82 | 9 9 1.07 | 9.06 | 10.14 3.29 3.31 | 7.49 | 8.85 LO 11 ——" | 10°24 | 1P-54 ———— ie 15 Sa aly |) UG 1.65] 8 9 1.80 | 8.64 | 10.24 —— | 10 11 ——" 9791 | 1D: 41 0.82] 8 9 0.97 | 7.63 | 9.69 3.29 | 8 9 3.77 | 8.66 | 9.60 2.25 | 1 1.25 2.26 | 1.24| 1.40 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. Potash 7.12 1.50 2.24 860 Report on Inspection Work OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED In New YorK STATE IN SPRING AND SumMMER oF 1914 (continued) Name AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JoBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Namg;| Num- AND Locauiry WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN NeEwsurGH RENDERING Co., NEWBURGH, N. Y Concentrated Tankage Newburgh Pure Meat and Bone Fertilizer Newburgh Newuor «& Son, L., Aubany, N. Y. Pure Fertilizer Albany New York FErtiuizer Co., BALTIMORE, Mb. 14% Acid Phosphate Schenevus New York Corn and Grain Schenevus New York General Crop Grower Schenevus New York Phosphate and Potash Hartwick New York Potato Guano Schenevus New York Potato Guano New Berlin New York Special Potato Fertilizer Hartwick New York Special Trucker New Berlin New York State GranceE PuRCHASING AcEncy, Onean, N. Y. Nitrate of Soda Darien Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid ber SS Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total G*|11 —— | —— |} -——— 5606 | F*/11.98 | ——— | ——— | ——~ G|4 —— | 16 -—— 5607 | F | 5.25 | —— |} 17.83 | ——— G| 5 —— | 9 ——— 51385 | F | 6.07 | —— | 9.65 | ——— G | —| 14 —— | -——— 5771 | F | —— | 14.84 | 15.24 | —_— G | 0.82] 8 —| 4 5766 | F | 0.88 | 8.28) 9.88 | 4.46 G | 0.42| 7 | 5770 | F | 0.50 | 7.29) 8.85] 2.22 G | —— | 10 —— | 8 5785 | F | —— | 10.36 | 10.78 | 7.23 Gal LGas| eas —— | 10 57651) SBE aS ei Oon|meo aon ell s70 Cae lGoe eas 10 5856 | F | 1.78 | 8.42) 9.24 | 10.52 G|0.82| 4 ——} 8 5784; F | 1.06] 5.64] 6.18] 6.82 G | 3.29] 8 —| 6 5854 | F |} 3.10] 8.381 | 8.99 | 6.26 G |14.81 | ——— | —— | —— 5394! F [14.94 | ——— | ——— | ——— * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AaricuLturRaAL FxprERIMENT STATION. 861 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLECTHD IN New YorK STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) NamME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or Nitro-| Avail- gen F*|15.30 FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid or JopBER; BRAND orn TRADE Name;| Num- AND LocALitTy WHERE SAMPLE waAs|_ ber TAKEN New York State Grance PuRCHASING Aqgency, Ouean, N. Y. (con- tinued) Nitrate of Soda Cazenovia 5880 Nitrate of Soda Chaffee 5957 Patrons P of H 4-8-7 Mellinville 4818 Patrons P of H 4-8-7 Darien 5392 Patrons P of H 4-8-7 Cazenovia 5879 Patrons P of H 14% Mellinville 4817 Patrons P of H 14% Darien 5393 Patrons P of H 1-8-4 Cherry Creek 5084 Patrons P of H 1-8-4 Darien 5395 Patrons P of H 10-8 Pleasant Valley 4827 Patrons P of H 10-8 Darien 5391 Patrons P of H 10-8 Pierrepont Manor 5715 Patrons P of H 10-8 Cazenovia 5845 Patrons P of H 10-8 Dayton 5944 oe) Potash able | Total 8 0) Ih 2 8.46 | 9.90 | 7.42 8 8.50 | 7 ROA SA7T GN Wels 8 8.50 7.96 | 8.01 § .02 14 14.50 | ——— 13.23 | 14.03 | ——— 14 14.50 | ——— 15 15.98 | ——— 8 8.50 | 4 8.63 | 9.31 3.74 8 8.50 | 4 9.07'| 9.538 | 4.20 10 10.50 | 8 10.70 | 10.90 | 7.53 10 10.50 | 8 10.10 | 10.76 | 7.68 10 10.50 | 8 12 || MO |. 7.21 10 10.50} 8 10.22 | 10.84 | 7.31 10 10.50 | 8 10.51 | 10.88 7.77 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 862 Report on [nspection WorK OF THE ANALYSBS OF FERTILIZERS CoLLECTED IN New York Stare in SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JoBBER; BRAND oR TRADE NaAme;| Num- AND LOCALITY WHERE SAMPLE WAS] ber TAKEN New York State GRANGE PURCHASING Aqarncy, Onan, N. Y. (con- cluded) Patrons P of H 2-8-5 Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or Nitro-| Avail- FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid Potash able | Tota 8 8.50] 5 efit 9.95 | 5.34 | | |] — |] —— |] —— | —— | —— |] —— |] —————— — __ | —__——. Fort Covington 3776 Patrons P of H 2-8-5 Darien 5396 Patrons P of H 2-8-5 Cazenovia 5843 Patrons P of H 2-8-10 Mellinville 4816 Patrons P of H 2-8-10 Darien 5397 Patrons P of H 2-8-10 Pierrepont Manor 5716 Patrons 2—-8-10 Pulaski 5791 Patrons P of H 2-8-10 Cazenovia 5844 Patrons P of H 2-8-10 Dayton 5943 Patrons P of H 2-8-10 Chaffee 5956 Niantic Menuapven Orn & Guano Co., THe, Soutrn Lymn, Conn. Bone Fish and Potash Orient 5525 Nitrate AGENcIES Co., New York, Dried Blood Brockport 5361 Dried Fish Riverhead 5485 gen G*| 1.65 F* 1.59 G | 1.65 a eles 7 G | 1.65 ID) WU so7/ G@ | Aes F | 1.64 G | L365 Va he eas) G | 1.65 BS eleo G F G F G F G F G F G |13.16 F |13.63 G | 9.23 F | 9.75 8. 9. 8. 8. 8 8.50 | 10 7.98 | 8.86 | 10 8 8.50 | 10 8.44 | 9.12 | 10.04 8 8.50 | 10 8.45 | 9.19 | 9.40 8 8.50 | 10 8.25 | 8.71 | 10.49 5 6 3 5.86 | 7.08 | 3.42 —4 6.35 | —— —— | 7.30 | — * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 863 ANALYSES OF Fertiuizers CottectEeD In New Yor«k State mn SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Name AnD ApDRESS OF MANUFACTURER OR JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Namgs;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND LocaLity WHERE SAMPLE was| ber —_ TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total Nitrate Acrencres Co., New Yorx, N. Y. (continued) Ground Bone G*| 2.46 | ——— | 22.88 | ——— Williamson 6026 | F*| 3.67 | ——— | 22.58 | ——— Ground Tankage G | 5.75 | —— |} 138.73 ; —— Berne 5137 | F | 5.88 | —— | 13.44 Ground Tankage G | 5.85 | ——— } 138.57 | —— Riverhead 5484 | F | 5.46 | ——— | 20.05 | —— H. A. Brand Basic Slag G | — |t14 17 —— Mt. Kisco 5700 | F | —— | —— ]} 19.26 | —— High Grade Acid Phosphate G | —| 14 — | —— Brockport 5358 | F | —— | 15.33 | 16.07 | —— High Grade Acid Phosphate G | — | 16 — | -———_— Riverhead 5481 | F | —— | 16.39 | 16.53 | ——— High Grade Acid Phosphate G|——| 14 —— | — Orchard Park 5902 | F | —— |} 18.99 | 16.07 | ——— Muriate of Potash | G | — ; — | — | 50 Utica 4237 | F | —— | —— | ——- | 51.60 Muriate of Potash G}— | —— | — | 50 Rochester 4542 | F | —— | —— | —— | 50.52 Muriate of Potash G | — | —— | ——- | 50 Poughkeepsie 4811 | F | —— | ——— } —— | 33.40 Muriate of Potash G | — | — | —-| 50 Ogdensburg SAGE NN Ne ED Muriate of Potash G | — | — | —— | 50 Kings Park 5415 |} F | —— | —— | —— | 353.16 Muriate of Potash G | — | —— | —— | 50 Creedmoor 5446 | F | —— | —— | —— ] 49.10 Muriate of Potash | G | — |} — | — | 49 Central Islip 5468 | F | —— | —— } —— | 50.06 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. { No official method for determining available P.O; in this sample. 864 Report on Inspection Work oF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN NEw YorK STATE IN SPRING AND SumMER oF 1914 (continued) NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JOBBER; BRAND OR TRADE Name;| Num- AND Locauity WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN Nitrate Agencies Co., New York, N. Y. (concluded) Muriate of Potash Yorktown Muriate of Potash Binghamton Nitrate of Soda Willard Nitrate of Soda Ogdensburg Nitrate of Soda Brockport Nitrate of Soda Binghamton Patarsco Guano Co., Bautimore, Mp. Coon Brand Guano Oxford Patapsco Alkaline Plant Food Williamstown Patapsco Cabbage and Asparagus Guano Sherburne Patapsco Empire Alkaline Bone North Norwich Patapsco Fish and Potash Guano Cazenovia Patapsco Grain and Grass Producer Remsen Patapsco Grain and Grass Producer Sherburne Patapsco O. K. Phosphate Knox Pounps 1n 100 Pounps oF FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid ber — Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total Ge —— | —— |} 50 5472 | F*) —— | —— 47 .64 G | — | — | —| 49 6361 | F | —— | —— | —— | 41.78 G {15 — | —— | —— 4786 | F |15.24 | ——— | ——— | ——— G |15 —_ | ——_ | ——— 5251 | F {15.50 | —— | —— | —— G {15 —_ | ——- | ————- 5359 | F |15.19 | ——— | —— | —— G {15 — | ———__ | -———- 6362 | F |15.51 } ——— | —— | —— G | 0.82 | 9 10 5819 | F | 1.24} 9.44 | 10.80] 3.14 G;— | 8 9 5 5795 | F | ——]| 8.13 | 8.67 | 4.67 G | 2.47 | 8 9 6 6397 | F | 2.65 | 8.74] 9.88] 6.88 G | ——/| 12 13 5 5808 | F | —— | 12.09 | 13.01 | 4.84 (Ge ibe(alsy || mete} 9 2 5834 | EF | A744) | Sh29 We OSOMe | S25 12 G | 0.82) 8 —_—}| 4 6| F | 0.84] 9.23 | 10.65 | 4.14 G| 0.82] 8 9 4 F | 0.98 | 8.58 |] 10.46 | 4.32 G | 0.82 9 2 5652) F) 0.97 | 8.08! 9.761 2.12 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 865 ANALYSES OF FprtTiLtizeRs CoLLEcTED IN New York Strate IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or Name AND AppRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JOBBER; BRAND or TrapDE Name;! Num- FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid AND Locatity WHERE SAMPLE wWaAs| ber TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total Patapsco Guano Co., BautimorE, Mp. (concluded) Patapsco Peerless Potato Guano G*| 3.29 | 6 7 10 Sherburne 6398 | F*) 3.388 | 6.50] 8.28 | 10.90 Patapsco Prolific Potato Phosphate G | 3:29 | 8 9 if Cazenovia Sao | EN Poe sO tSedonl LOM Osa GEO? Patapsco Pure Dissolved S. C. Phos- G | —— | 14 15 —- phate South New Berlin 5857 * | —— | 15.58 | 16.58 | —— Patapsco Special. Potato Guano 1.65 | 8 9 10 Remsen 5577 | F | 1.71 | 8.49 | 10.33 | 10.38 Patapsco Superior Alkaline Manure G | ——| 10 11 8 Cooperstown 4250 | F | —— | 10.43 | 11.385 | 7.39 Patapsco Superior Alkaline Manure G | —— | 10 11 8 Knox 5653 | F | —— | 10.25 | 11.29 | 8.04 Patapsco Vegetable and Corn Ferti- G|1.65| 8 9 4 lizer Cooperstown 4249 | F | 1.74} 7.72 | 9.18 | 4.18 Patapsco Vegetable and Corn Ferti- G;1.65| 8 9 4 lizer Sherburne GBLT | B59 | ed 622)! V9 2s e420 PrrpmMont-Mrt. Arry Guano Co., Batti- MORE, Mp. Bone Tankage (Gi) 3.253 || = || SS | Ontario OPS | P|) @) AP |) ee Se |) Levering’s Standard Gaile Goules ===!/ & Cincinnatus 6376 | F | 1.64 | 9.03 | 9.63 | 4.04 Muriate of Potash G | — | — | — | 50 North Rose 6024 | F | —— | —— | —— | 51.382 New York Cabbage and Potato Cy MeaGar lees — | 10 Guano Owego 6358 | F | 1.72) 9.02] 9.44] 9.09 New York Vegetable Manure G_|"3529) 8 ——— | 6 Orchard Park 5015 ' F' 3.50! 8.64] 9.44! 6.88 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 55 866 Report on Inspection Work OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLECTED IN New YorK STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Name AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JoBBER; BRAND OR,TRADE Namu;| Num- AND LocaLiry WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN Pounps 1n 100 Pounpbs or FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid Pimpmont—Mr. Arry Guano Co., BAutt- MORE, Mp. (continued) New York Early Vegetable Manure Hicksville Piedmont Banner Brand Hicksville Piedmont Celery and Vegetable Compound Orchard Park Piedmont Complete Fertilizer Hicksville Piedmont Farmers Favorite Owego Piedmont 14% Acid Phosphate East Bloomfield Piedmont General Crop Grower Sidney Piedmont Grain and Grass Guano Hamlin Piedmont Long Island Special Eden Piedmont Long Island Special Hicksville Piedmont Market Garden Manure Eden Piedmont Oat and Grass Guano Romulus Piedmont Pea and Bean Grower New Berlin Piedmont Perfection Guano Chaumont Piedmont Special Mixture Owego ber Nitro-) Avail- Potash gen able | Total Gavan 8 —-| 5 5427 | F* 4.08 | 8.84) 9.18 | 5.84 G | 3.29! 6 —— | 10 5428 | F | 3.31 6.65 | 7.33 | 11.60 G | 2.47 6 —. | 10 DOL7 | HR | 2.4456 28 7.13 | 10.92 (Gaal EZ FA Tal at —— | 5 DAGa) |) 2k 630 |) Sols aeorod lllo G/0.82| 8 —| 4 6357 | F | 0.92 | 9.34] 9.82 | 4.68 G | —— | 14 —— | —— 6014 | F | —— | 15.12 | 15.384 | —— Gil 8 — | 2 HSGOM Ey alee se 7a eonol 9.63 | 2.18 Goieds25"| 9 —— | 2.50 6016 | F | 1.17 | 9.07 | 10.01 | 2.82 Ges 9) Ile — | 7 5024 | F | 3.20] 8.60] 9.76 | 8.22 Gril se2on dt — | 7 5464 HF |3128.| hadeneeon bl 8.22 Gy 2e47 8 —— 6 5025) |) BR 2251 8.39 | 9 6.63 G | —— | 10 wo 6539 | F | ——]| 9.93 } 10.01 2.28 G | 0.82 —- 9 5853 | F | 0.92 | 7.59 | 8.29 | 9.14 Gilelebo — | 5 Sy AOL fae\lmad De | legit 8.88 | 9.88 | 5.26 G | —— | 10 —| 8 6356 | F | ——! 10.69 | 10.97! 7.61 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 867 ANALYSES OF FerRTILIzERS COLLECTED IN New York Strate IN SPRING AND Summer or 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounnps or FERTILIZER NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Nams;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND LocaLiry WHERE SAMPLE WAS) ber _ TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- ‘Potash gen | able | Total PrepmMont-Mr7. Arry Guano Co., Bautt- MORE, Mb. (concluded) Piedmont Wheat and Corn Guano Gtr 1.65 8 —— | 2 Darien 5389 | F*! 1.50 8.53 9.93 2.60 Piedmont Wheat Compound G 12 5 Port Gibson 5373 | F | —— | 11.93 } 12.43 5.06 Thomas Phosphate Powder (Basic G | ——",f15 17 ——— Slag Phosphate) East Bloomfield 6015 | F | —— | —— |] 17.92 | —— Pine & Son, B. J., East Wituston, L. I. Pine’s No. 1 Star Raw Bone Super GaP3229" |v 8 Ul Phosphate Complete Manure East Williston ay |) de |) ieee 7.74 9.44 ‘ee Pine’s No. 2 Star Raw Bone Super G |} 2.25 |) 6 a 3 Phosphate Complete Manure East Williston 5438 2.53 7.34 | 9.12 3.40 PuLvERIzED MANuRE Co., THE, CuIcaAco, Inu. Wizard Brand Pulverized Sheep G | 1.80; 1 —| l Manure Syracuse 6329 | F.| 2.20) 1.85 | 1.48 | 2.05 Rasin MonumMentaL Co., Bautimore, Mp. King Guano G | 2.06] 8 9 1.50 Vernon Dele ee enna: 7.76 9.16 1.78 Muriate of Potash x | —— | —— |} —— | 48 Cobleskill 5122 | F | —— | ——— | —— | 49.80 Nitrate of Soda G |14.82 | ——— | —— ; —— Cortland 6151 | F |14.82 | ——— | —— | —— Rasin’s Acid Phosphate G | —| 14 15 —— Penn Yan 4922 | F | —— | 14.82 | 15.94 | ——— Rasin’s All Crop Guano GrOss2n tas 9 5 Greene 15433 faa feel anal jae Weel 8.68 | 10.10 | 5.10 Rasin’s Bone and Potash Fertilizer G | —— |} 10 11 2 East Berne 248 | F | —— | 10.16 ! 11.60 2.34 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. {No official method of determining available P20; in this sample. 868 Report on Inspection Work oF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLEcTED In New York STATE IN SPRING AND SumMER oF 1914 (continued) Name AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Namg;| Num- Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER | Phosphoric acid Total Potash * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. AND Locatitry WHERE SAMPLE was| ber TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- gen able Rastn MonumentauL Co., BaAutimore, Mb. (continued) Rasin’s Empire Guano G* 1.65 | 8 McLean 4448 | F*| 1.68 | 9.47 Rasin’s Genesee Valley Root Manure G | 0.82] 8 Delanson 5127 | F | 1.02 8.61 Rasin’s Genuine German Kainit G — Cobleskill 5109 | F | —— | —— Rasin’s Gold Standard Goe2e4 7 als McLean AAATE| aly 2g |, Ge 07 Rasin’s High Grade Bone and Potash G | —— | 12 East Berne 5250 | F | — } 12.69 Rasin’s Irish Potato Special G | 3.29 | 7 Moravia 6501 | F | 3.28] 8.21 Rasin’s [XL Fertilizer G | 0.82] 9 McLean 4449 | F | 1.30} 8.88 Rasin’s National Crop Compound G | 0.82; 8 Homer 6349 | F | 1.01 8.74 Rasin’s Nitro Top Dresser G | 8.23 | 4 Angelica 5966 | F | 7.94] 4.28 Rasin’s Pure Raw Bone ¢ G | 3.70 | —— Delanson 5128 | F | 3.64 | —— Rasin’s Special Fish and Potash G | 3.29] 6 Mixture Linwood 64590 Re Seiad) Rasin’s Special for Vines and Vege- G)| 05827558 tables Angelica 5967 | F | 0.80 | 7.92 Rasin’s United Grain Grower 0.82 Sherburne 6400 | F | 1.00} 8.51 Rasin’s Vegetable Special Genie6s Homer 6348 | F | 1.88} 8.385 New York AcricutturaAL ExpreRIMENT STATION. 869 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLECTED In New YorK STATE IN SPRING AND SUMMER OF 1914 (continued) NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JOBBER; BRAND OR TRADE NAME; AND LocALITY WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN Rastn MonumMentat Co., BALTIMORE, Mb. (concluded) Rasin’s Wheat and Truck Mixture Penn Yan Rasin’s XXX Fertilizer East Berne READING Bone FERTILIZER Co., READING, Pa. Alkaline Phosphate and Potash Hamburg Farmer’s Tankage and Potash for Corn, Grain and Grass Gowanda Gilt Edge Potato and Tobacco Grower Gowanda Muriate of Potash Hamburg Nitrate of Soda Hamburg Reading All Crop Special Hamburg Reading Prize Winner Gowanda Reading Special Potato and Tobacco Manure Marilla Reading’s Ten and Eight Honeoye Falls Tobacco and Truck Special Hamburg Truck, Fruit Tree, Vine, Potato and Tobacco Grower Hamburg Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Num- Phosphoric acid ber ae aera Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able } Total | G* 10 Hah hie |) 68 4921 | F* 10.86 | 11.80 | 8.60 (Ey ales fo 9 5 5249) F 184) 8 O209i18 | 116.12 — | 8 9 5 5028 | F | ——]| 8.77] 9.05] 5.20 Gal OR82 78 9 4 5069 | F | 0.88 | 8.384] 9.24] 4.10 G | 1.64 | 7 8 10 5068 | F | 1.66 | 7.73} 8.93] 9.56 G | —— | —— | —— | 50 5032 | F | —— | —— | ——| 49.44 G |14.80 |} —— | —— | —— ROBIL |. JB) ee |) <= | = | = Ge GA 8 5 5026 |) Hi 1656) |MBvAGa: PP SeG7 || (G56 Guiza 9 10 12 5067 | F | 2.43 | 8.60} 10.14 | 12.48 G | 0.82] 6 7 7 5911 | F | 0.85 | 6.18} 7.33] 6.94 G | —— | 10 11 8 6009 | F | —— | 10.20 | 10.78 | 7.64 Go 2e474 6 6 O27 |) He 2eaou | vfs Llualeeee Oo ee Ora: G | 3.29 | 8 9 7 5029 |} F | 3.24!) 8.81] 9.638? 7.42 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 870 Report on Inspection Work oF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED In New YorK STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Name AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JOBBER; BRAND or TRADE Name;| Num- AND Locauiry WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN ReEEvEs Co., R. C., New York, N. Y. Reeve’s Phospho-Peruvian Guano New York REICHARD, Ropert A., Allentown, Pa. Lehigh Potato Manure Johnsons Rogers & HupBarpD Co., THE, PoRTLAND, Conn. Hubbard’s Bone Phosphate Fallsburg Base Complete Hubbard’s Bone Base Fertilizer for Seeding Down and Fruit East Chatham Hubbard’s Bone Base New Market Garden Phosphate Sharon Springs Hubbard’s Bone Base Oats and Top Dressing East Chatham Hubbard’s Bone Base Potato Phos, phate Sharon Springs Hubbard’s Bone Base Soluble Corn and General Crops Manure East Chatham Hubbard’s Bone Base Tobacco Manure East Chatham Soluble Royster Guano Co., F.S., Baurrmore, Mp. Nitrate of Soda Delhi Nitrate of Soda Caywood ber 5684 Pounps 1n 100 Pounpbs oF Nitro- FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid Potash Avail- able | Total 9 10 9.24 | 10.10 8 10 8.57 ; 9.05 7 8 8.45 | 10.07 6.50 | 16 8.66 | 17.26 6 7 7.46 | 9.50 4.50] 8 6.27 | 9.09 9 10 9.68 | 10.52 6 8 6.47 | 7.83 7 10 7.74 | 11.22 6533 | gen a+] 2.50 F+ 2.47 G | 1.64 F | 1.63 G | 1.50 F | 1.70 G | 2.20 F | 2.39 G | 2 F | 2.15 G | 8.50 F | 7.91 G}2 F | 2.24 G | 2.50 F | 2.67 sms F [5.12 G lis F (15.42 G 15 F (15.37 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRricuLtTuRAL ExperRIMENT STATION. 871 ANALYSES OF FerRtTILizeERS CoLLECTED In New YoRK STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounpbs oF FERTILIZER NamE AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JOBBER; Brand or Trapeze Name;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND LocaLity WHERE SAMPLE was|_ ber SSS TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total Royster Guano Co., F. 8., Batrrmore, Mb. (continued) Royster’s Ammoniated Potash Com- G*| 0.82 | 9 ON SOR eae pound Batavia HaSon | EF IE09) | 9. 5510227 |= 8.40 Royster’s Big Yield Potato Pro- GaieleGon|io 5.50 | 10 ducer Richfield Springs 4239 | F | 1.91} 6.26 | 7.20 | 10.06 Royster’s Big Yield Potato Pro- Gy labor tera 5.50 | 10 ducer Lorraine OLS Tae =| Qa “F831 | 9x03h 8F8" 96 Royster’s Bumper Crop Phosphate Celi = |] 8.50 Fultonville 5592 | F | —— | 9.12] 9.50 | 5.92 Royster’s Challenge Complete Com- Ce econ ies 8.50 | 6 pound Canaseraga 4530) | ei: he Sr b6l- 2920686 Royster’s Champion Crop Compound Colpls6oy lars 8.50} 4 Fort Ann 302 | F | 1.66] 8.58 | 9.12 | 4.24 Royster’s Complete Potato Manure G | 3.29 | 6 6.50 | 10 Delhi 3648 | F | 3.38 | 7.08 | 8.22 | 10.58 Royster’s Corn and Hop Special G | 2.06 | 8 8.50} 3 Fertilizer Richfield Springs HO54 EP 210 V9R24 | OrSsr i TS 24 Royster’s Fish, Flesh and Fowl Gap ikGar |) 6s 8.50} 3 Batavia 5382 | F | 1.80 | 8.78 | 9.56] 3.38 Royster’s 14% Acid Phosphate Gr |) |) 1! 14.50 | —— Richfield Springs 4243 | F | —— } 14.87 | 15.11 | ——— Royster’s General Crop Fertilizer Gh 0:82) 8 8.50} 5 Lorraine 5163 | F | 1.10 | 8.56] 9.44] 5,08 Royster’s Gold Seal Potato and G@ [eeRGar Ss 8.50 | 10 Cabbage Special Delhi 3644 ' F ' 1.67! 8.64! 9.56 } 10.74 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 87 2 Revorr on Inspection Work OF THE ANALYSES OF FrrtiInizErRs CoLuecteD IN New York STATE IN SPRING AND SumMMER oF 1914 (continued) NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER Pounps rn 100 Pounpbs or FERTILIZER oR JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Name;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND Locatity WHERE SAMPLE was! ber — TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total Royster Guano Co., F. 8., BauTmoreE, a) Mp. (continued) Royster’s Harvest King Fertilizer Ga 65a48 8.50 | 2 Clyde 4758 | F* 1.93 | 8.99 | 9.37-| 3.02 Royster’s High Grade Acid Phos- G | —— | 16 16.50 ; ——— phate Cobleskill 5123 | F | —— |} 17.09 | 17.47 | —-— Royster’s High Grade Potato Grower Ge) 247 6 6.50 | 10 Canaseraga 4528 | F | 2.385 | 6.98] 8.16] 9.63 Royster’s High Grade Potash G | —— | 10 10.50 | 10 Mixture Delhi 3647 | F | —— | 10.94 | 11.22 | 10.14 Royster’s High Grade Potash G | ——} 10 10.50 | 10 Mixture Lorraine ol61 | F | —— | 10.85 | 11.45 | 10.03 Royster’s Imperial Formula Ce OLs2 sears 8.50 | 4 Lorraine 5160 | F | 0.89 | 7.98 | 8.80] 5.69 Royster’s Peerless Grain and Grass G | —— | 10.10} 10.50] 2 Grower Lorraine 5159 | F | —— | 10.94] 11.22 | 2.48 Royster’s Peerless Grain and Grass G | ——] 10 10.50 | 2 Grower Bath 6552 | F | —— | 10.66 | 10.97 | 2.18 Royster’s Practical Truck Guano Ga Qtr 8 8.50 | 6 Mellinville 4819 | F | 2.80! 8.80] 9.58 | 7.46 Royster’s Prolific Potato Producer (23'9|| a6 6.50 | 5 Sterlingville 5708 | F | 1.40] 6.96 | 7.78} 5.32 Royster’s Pure Raw Bone Meal G | 3.70 | ——— } 21.50 | ——— Peconic Do20 | B |. 4.4% |). ee | Royster’s Royal Special Potato G | 4.11} 7 7.50" | 7 Guano Riverhead 5497‘ F ' 4.16 1 8:16) SiG) 7.18 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AgaricutturaL Exprriment Station. 873 ANALYSES OF FrrtiLizers CoLtEcTED IN New York Strate IN SPRING AND Summer or 1914 (continued) NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER oR JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Name;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND Locatity WHERE SAMPLE was| ber SSS TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total Royster Guano Co., F. S., BAuTIMoRE, S Mb. (concluded) Royster’s Seeding Down Special Fer- G* 0.82 | 9 9.50} 3 tilizer Delhi SpH45e EA 106) | 1016 10h 78) |) 402 Royster’s Special Celery and Onion G | 3.29 | 8 8.50) |, 12 Guano Berlin 5674 | F | 3.31 | 8.60} 9.18 | 12.78 Royster’s Special Corn and Tomato Gaels Gon are TAO Guano Lorraine 9158 | F | 2.02 | 7.88 | 8.96 | 4.92 Royster’s Special Corn and Tomato Cee Goa lees HR) ® Guano Sterlingville DOOR TE: sles Domenie Oo) leOron Royster’s Special Fruit and Crop EF |) SS 1G) 10.50 | 8 Grower Lorraine 5162 | F | —— | 10.75 | 11.23 |} 8.02 Royster’s Superior Potash Mixture G | ——] 12 12.50 | 5 Perry 3196 | F | —— | 12.89 | 13.33 | 4.97 Royster’s Truckers Favorite G | 4.94] 8 8.50 | 5 Floral Park 5452 | F | 4.64] 9.20] 9.56] 6 Royster’s Universal Truck Fertilizer G)|,383294) 78 SOM Z Unadilla Vaal) LON PANS Pall we TUL heeled ws 7 Royster’s Wheat, Oats and Barley G | 0282/58 SPOON 2 Fertilizer Perry 3195, EF | 0.92'| 8.19 | 8:99 | 1.90 SANDERSON FrertiLizer & CHEMICAL Co., New Haven, Conn. Nitrate of Soda G |15 SS = | |d Hicksville Gels} | Do) (i) Ske) |) ae) || Se Riverhead Town Agri. Society Fer- G | 4.94 | 8 —— | 6 tilizer 1913, Formula No. 2 Riverhead 5478) | BE 497) S02 3 E06 ont: Sanderson’s Special Potato Manure G | 3.30,| 7 8 7 Hicksville 5417) F ' 3.32 | 8.90 ' 9.501 7.48 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 874 Report on Inspectton Work OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLECTED IN New YorK STATE IN SPRING AND SumMeErR or 1914 (continued) Pounps rn 100 Pounpbs or FERTILIZER Name AND AppRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Name; Num- Phosphoric acid AND Locauiry WHERE SAMPLE WAS| ber a TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total ScHAAL-SHELDON FERTILIZER Co:, Burra.o, N. Y. Complete Fertilizer with Extra Pot- G44 650/18 9 10 ash Eden Center Oye \r ae le 7 S.08)| HOFot LOsS Dissolved Phosphate with Extra Pot- Gass alo 11 4 ash Fredonia 5933 | F | —— | 10.48 | 11.08 3.98 Farmers’ Favorite G | 0.82 9 2 Kennedy HOOT Ea alo SolO ne OR50! | e2e4S Fruit and Vine Fertilizer G-|-2-47 6 7f 10 Springville 5941 | F | 2.50} 6.10 | 7.82}. 9.80 Grass and Grain Fertilizer Gaiale23 8 10 uf Eden Center 50735 | SE ald S42 28).38) | SO niiSil too Guano G | 0.82 8 9 4 Kennedy 5092S Fel 12045-82502 65 | oeo9 High-Grade Ground Bone G | 3.29 | —— | 20.59 | ——— Kennedy 5093 | F | 3.24 23) fe 4k | ——— New York Trucker G | 3.29 8 9 a Pavilion 6452) (EB le3s38) |e 7e20) ORSON e702 Schaal’s Corn and Potato G | 1.65 8 9 4 Eden Center 5076 | EH} 1-90)|. -8.83Hih 926s) |) Ae18 Schaal’s Standard G | 1.65 8 9 2 Boston 5937 || EF 1 1663 | (8s28)el0n20) | 2566 Superior Ge lROF82m rd 8 9 Eden Center 5O7D sR all OSs || Geuiule oem ee Ten and Hight G | —— | 10 11 8 Lawton 5923 | F | —— | 9.67 | 10.06 | 6.72 SHAFER Co., Perry C., Brockport, N.Y. Shafer’s Special Fertilizer G | 2.06 | 8 9 5 Brockport 6357 F ' 2.30 | 7eilahe.sae | 8.20 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL:-EXPERIMENT STATION. 875 ANALYSES oF FertTILizeERS CoLLECTED IN NEw YorRK STATE IN SPRING AND SumMER oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounpbs oF FERTILIZER NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JOBBER; BRAND oR TrapE Name;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND LocaLiry WHERE SAMPLE waAs| ber — TAKEN Nitro-} Avail- ’ |Potash gen able | Total SHay Fertiuizer Co., THe C. M., Groton, Conn. Fine Ground Bone G*| 2.46 | —— | 30 + Orient 5526 | F*) 2.59 | ——— | 23.08 | ——— Shay’s Potato Manure G | 3.29 | 8 8 a Orient Ne7B al 1D | aja lo Uh eer OMI?) 6.98 SHOEMAKER & Co., Lrp., M. L., Purna- DELPHIA, Pa. Swift-Sure Bone Meal G | 4.53 | —— | 20 Southampton 5534 | F | 4.21 | ——— | 21.16 | —— Swift-Sure Guano for Truck, Corn Gr Pl s60 8 —-| 5 and Onions Southampton pis |} Ja) | dhatsy || Wadden di dldbeala) | ole: STAPPENBECK & Sens, H., Utica, N. Y. Animal Bone and Potash Ga ir2 8 16 3.50 Cazenovia 5836 | F | 2.40 | 12.04 | 19.64 4.84 Stevens, CuHas., NAPANEE, ONTARIO “Beaver Brand” Canada Un- G | — | — 1.50) 4 leached Hardwood Ashes Syracuse 6172 | F | —— | —— TOF lt 366 STOCKWELL Co., J. W., Frutmorz, N. Y. Stockwell Co’s Home Mixed 4-8-8 G | 3.29 8 a 8 Fertilizer Fillmore SIO ee Week 8.30 | 8.58 8.86 Stockwell Co’s Home Mixed 1-10-10 G | 0.82 | 10 — | 10 Fertilizer : Fillmore 5971 | F | 0.83 | 10.54 | 10.83 | 10.68 Stockwell Co’s Home Mixed 2-8-10 Ge inl. 65 8 —— | 10 Fertilizer Fillmore 5969 | F ; 1.68 7.93 8.82 | 10.54 Stumpe & Water Co., New York, INS? Emerald Lawn Dressing G|3 5 7 6 New York 5548 | F | 3.65 6.62 8.22 6.50 8S. & W. Co’s Bone Fertilizer Cains —_—— 20 = New York 5549? F + 3.85 | ——? 25.38 | ——— * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 876 Report on Inspection WorkK OF THE ANALYSES OF Fertiuizers CoLLEcTED In New York StaTE IN SPRING AND SumMER oF 1914 (continued) Name AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JoBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Name;| Num- AND Locality WHERE SAMPLE was|_ ber TAKEN Swirr & Company, Curcago, IL. Pounps 1n 100 Pounpbs oF FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total Nitrate of Soda G*|14.77 — | ——. Kennedy 5090 | F*/15.50 —— | —— Nitrate of Soda G |15.22 | ——— | —— | ——— Hicksville 544 RSs 27 Swift's Animal Bone Fertilizer G | 4.94 8 — 5 Young Bros. Formula No. 1 Aquebogue 54941 F | 4.82] 8.68} 9.24] 5.22 Swift’s Diamond B Fertilizer G | 2.47 8 —— | 56 Glen Cove 5404 | F | 2.41 8.33 8.99 | 5.66 Swift’s Early Potato and Vegetable G | 3.29| 6 — | 10 Grower Glen Cove 5410 | F | 3.22 6.48 | 6.76 | 10.18 Swift’s Grain Fertilizer G | 0.82 8 —— | 2 Cherry Valley 5229 | F | 0.93] 8.16] 8.61 1.92 Swift’s Kainit G }— | — | — | 12 Otego 5778 | F | —— | —— | —— | 11.44 Swift’s Onion, Potato, Tobacco GoieieGoales ie Horseheads 4933 | F | 1.52 8.80 9.12 7.16 Swift’s Pulverized Sheep Manure Gilee OOslts 0550) pe loa0 |. Lod Gowanda 5925) |) F | 2 — 1.65 2.20 Swift’s Pure Bone Meal G | 2.47 | —— | 24 —— Eden Center 5071 | F | 2.45 | ——— | 24.94 | —— Swift’s Pure Bone Meal G | 2.47 | —— | 24 ——— Glen Cove 5405 | F | 2.46 | ——— | 26.28 | ——— Swift’s Pure Corn and Wheat Grower G | 0.82 8 —— | 4 Savona 4948 | F | 0.95 7.90 | 8.48 3.70 Swift’s Pure Diamond B Fertilizer Gale247, 8 9 5 Kennedy 5088 | Fo | 225190) 7282 || Geet ve25 Swift’s Pure Diamond C Fertilizer GolaleGonlees 9 4 Horseheads | 935 | F | 1.65' 8.08 | 8.48! 3.79 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York Agricutturat Expertment Station. 877 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLECTED IN New YorRK STATE IN SPRING AND SumMER oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Name anp ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER OR JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Namge;} Num- Phosphoric acid AND LocaLiry WHERE SAMPLE WaAS| ber ————— TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total Swirt & Company, Curcago, Itt. (con- tinued) Swift’s Pure Diamond C Fertilizer G*} 1.65 | 8 —-| 4 Delhi 6401 | F*!| 1.50} 8.15} 8.61 3.92 Swift’s Pure Diamond C Fertilizer G | 1.65 8 —| 4 Romulus 6541 | F | 1.57 8.35 | 8.67 4.30 Swift’s Pure Diamond E Fertilizer G | 3.29] 8 —— | 7 Cortland 6339 | F | 3.388 | 7.52) 8.16 | 7.98 Swift’s Pure Diamond F Fertilizer G |— |! 8 —-| 3 Savona 4946 | F | ——]| 8.29] 8.61 3.24 Swift’s Pure Diamond G Fertilizer G | —— | 10 —-| 8 Hamden 3635 | F | —— | 10.20 | 10.90 | 8.02 Swift’s Pure Diamond G Fertilizer G | —— |} 10 — 8 Horseheads 4934 | F | —— | 10.02 | 10.46 8.04 Swift’s Pure Diamond G Fertilizer G | — |} 10 — 8 Cherry Valley 5231 | F | —— | 10.01 | 10.62 | 7.61 Swift’s Pure Diamond G Fertilizer G | — } 10 —| 8 Romulus 6542 | F | —— | 10.60 | 11.54 7.94 Swift’s Pure Dissolved Animal Bone Guile 237s 18 4 and Potash Medina 5915 | F |} 1.34 | 16.04 | 19.64} 3.23 Swift’s Pure Early Potato and GH 3229) |G 7 10 Vegetable Grower Kennedy 5089 | F | 2.83 | 6.43 | 7.89 | 9.20 Swift’s Pure Garden City Acid G | —| 14 == | = Phosphate De Ruyter 6391 | F | —— | 18.88 | 14.16 | ——— Swift’s Pure Grain Fertilizer 3-8-2 G | 2.47 8 — 2 Altamont LZ) | MEN IE2238 7.66 8.80 2.16 Swift’s Pure High Grade Market G |3.29) || 8 —-| 7 Garden Manure Valley Stream 54385 | F ) 3.25 8.68] 9.50! 7.32 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 878 Report on Inspection WorkK OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED In New YorK STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER or JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Name;}| Num- AND LocaLitTy WHERE SAMPLE Was] ber TAKEN Swirr & Company, Cuicaco, Itt. (con- Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total cluded) Swift’s Pure Potato, Celery and G*! 0.82 5 — | 10 Onion Delhi 6403 | F*| 0.85 |} 4.98 | 5.23} 9.36 Swift’s Pure Red Steer Gari Ga 4526 —— | 2 Cherry Valley 5230 | F | 1.64] 8.58] 8.86] 1.96 Swift’s Pure Screened Hard Wood Co | SO Ashes Hamlin 6017 | F |} —— | —— | —— | 5.52 Swift’s Pure Special Alkaline Mix- Cal) —— | 10 ture Delhi 3643 | F | —— | 9.92 | 10.380 | 10.15 Swift’s Pure Special High Grade G | —— | 16 = | Acid Phosphate Union 6160 | F | —— | 16.83 } 17.03 | ——— Swift’s Pure Special Phosphate and Go| —— | 10 === || 2 Potash Altamont 5117.) F | —— | 10.389 | 11.29} 2.14 Swift’s Pure Superphosphate GE aINGoe| aes 9 2 Eden Center 5070 | F | 1.65) 8.48; 9.56} 1.92 Swift’s Pure Truck Grower GP) 05824 es === || 4 Cortland | 6843 | F | 0.85 | 8.08} 8.42 | 3.94 Swift’s Special Potato Fertilizer Gr] Le6bn|s —— 10 Herkimer 4231 | F | 1.62 | 8.23) 8.61-] 9.34 Swift’s Special Tobacco Fertilizer G {| 4.50] 3 —— | 5.50 Savona A943 1h 913292) | seo aie tos hints LO SyrAcusE RENDERING Co., SYRACUSE, Nie¥e Animal Brand, A Complete Fer- Gj 2.46] 8 9 4 tilizer Waterville 5561 | F | 2.54 | 8.98 | 9.50] 4.36 Syracuse Bone Meal for Cattle and G | 3.28] 5 23 Ss Poultry Syracuse 6174! F ! 3.48 ! 11.20 | 21.94 ' —— *These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. : New York AaricutturaL ExpEerRIMENT STATION. 879 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLtLEcTnD In New York STATE IN SPRING AND SumMeER or 1914 (continued) NAME AND AppRESS OF MANUFACTURER OR JOBBER; BRAND orn TRADE Name;| Num- TAKEN Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid Px 8. C. Phosphate AND Locauity WHERE SAMPLE was! ber : Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total Syracuse Renverine Co., Syracuss, N. Y. (concluded) Syracuse Ground Bone G*| 2.46 | ——— | 23 => North Collins 5921 | F*| 2.61 | ——— | 25.88 | —— Syracuse Gypsy Brand Cet 10 11 8 Adams 5167 | EF | ——} 10.71. | 10.97 | 8.08 Syracuse Indian Brand for Corn and Gap lAGoai aS 9 4 Wheat Adams 5166") FL E87 | 28220 78.93) || 4. 51 Syracuse Market Garden Manure Gor 28aine@ 8 8 Port Dickinson 5867 | F | 3.70} 8.17 |. 9.69 | 8.90 Syracuse Onondaga Brand GVROLS2a eS 9 4 Collins Center 5060 | F | 0.92 | 7.96] 8.42] 4.14 Syracuse Potato Manure G | 2.46] 8 9 6 Waterville 5562 | F | 2.42 | 8.78 | 10.46 | 6.938 Syracuse Seneca Brand G 41.24) 8 9 4 Binghamton 5863 | F | 1.25 | 8.383 | 8.93 |. 4.10 Syracuse Special for Celery, Cabbage Ga le ey 8 9 and Potatoes Adams 5168 | F | 1.31 | 6.88] 7.68} 9.35 Syracuse Superphosphate GuOFS2ay a 8 2 Clarence 5906 | F | 1.07] 7 Of otiy4 NPs Syracuse Superphosphate for Oats Ca nOSS 2m aart 8 2 and Buckwheat Cincinnatus 6377 | F |1:04) 7.14] 7.738] 2.24 Tuomas & Son Co., I. P., PorapELputa, Farmers’ Choice Phosphate G | 1.60 | 9.50 | 10 2 Wading River 5516 | F | 2.00} 9.62] 10.14} 2.44 Pure Ground Bone (GI) eek) || = || 23 SeSeaE Easthampton Bisse) || IN ay) |) ———— | 8) 2b) |) G | —| 14 14.50: | —— Wading River 5518 | F | —— | 15.97 | 16.07 | —— *These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 880 Report on Inspection Work OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN New York STATE IN SPRING AND SumMER oF 1914 (continued) NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JOBBER; BRAND OR TRADE NAME; AND Locauity WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN Tuomas & Son Co., 1. P., PHILADELPHIA, Pa. (concluded) Thomas’ Long Island Special 4-8-7 Southampton Thomas’ Truck and Potato Fer- tilizer Easthampton Truckers High Grade Guano Wading River THomson & Sons, Lrp., Wm., Twrrp VINEYARD, CLOVENFORDS, Scor- LAND Thomson’s Vine Plant and Vegetable Manure New York THorBuURN & Co., J. M., New York, N. Y. Thorburn’s Complete Manure New York Thorburn’s Lawn Fertilizer New York Tunnstt & Co., Inc., F. W., Para- DELPHIA, Pa. F. W. Tunnell & Co’s Bone, Blood and Potash Floral Park F. W. Tunnell & Co’s New York Potato and Truck Manure Floral Park Pounps 1n 100 Pounps oF TuTuHiLu, Nat. S., Promisep Lanp, N. Y. Southold Town Club Fertilizer, Wm. A. Fleet, Purchasing Agent 5-8-8 Southold Southold Town Club Fertilizer, Wm. A. Fleet, Purchasing Agent 6-8-5 Riverhead FERTILIZER Num- Phosphoric acid ber —_ Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total G*| 3.25 8 —— 503824) 6H |t3-47 1 Bie O3 alae Os | oO Ge eA ae nee 7 8 8 155% 0) fa a Is ks) A: 3 I 30 Gy || 3.28) || 7 8 7 517.) F330 |) 7-35 NAaROC I, eie26 G | 3.25] 7.50 | ——]| 5 GLOSS PR 3268s ONIGs 2e525 OG Ga 2-475\ 6 a 6 5544 | 257 eGe4 se Welln G | 4:94 8 9 5 5545 | F | 4.47 | 9.24] 9.98 | 5.74 G | 4.12} 8 9 7 5454 | F | 3.71) 8.97} 10.01 | 7.24 G | 3.30] 8 9 7 BASS AP Bea2 alr Wh Loa ae Com nae Oe G/| 4.10] 8 —— | 8 Ho21 3) T4031) eon 9 Gall toe 16 4.921 8 — | 5 5480 | F | 4.701 7.87 | 8.03! 6.06 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 881 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN NEw YorkK STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) NAmE AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JOBBER; BRAND or TRADE Namge;| Num- AND LocaLity WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN TUSCARORA FERTILIZER Co., BALTIMORE, Mp. Animal Tankage Sheridan High Grade Dried Blood Sheridan Muriate of Potash Sheridan Nitrate of Soda Sheridan Nitrate of Soda Blodgett Mills Tuscarora Acid Phosphate Cincinnatus Tuscarora Animal Bone Silver Creek Tuscarora Big 4 Four Cincinnatus Tuscarora Crop Grower Akron Tuscarora Fruit & Potato Cincinnatus Tuscarora High Grade Cincinnatus Tuscarora Phosphate and Potash Cincinnatus Tuscarora Special Potato Grower Silver Creek Tuscarora Standard Cincinnatus ber 6369 Fey Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total 7.41 | —— | 6.87 | —— 7.39 | —— | 7.46 | —— 13.16 |} ——— | —— | ——— 13.03 | —— | —— | —— —— | —— | —— | 48 —— | —— | —_ | 47.33 14.81 | —— | —— | —— 15.40 | ——— | —— | —— 14.81 | ——— | —— | —— 15.04 | ——— | ——— } —— —— | 14 14.50 | ——— —— | 12.65 | 12.94 | ——— 2.47 | ——— | 22 a 2.67 | —— |} 23.18 | —— WE Me 7.50). 4 1.74 |, 6.93) |, 7.97.) 6.69 0.82] 8 8.50 | 2 ORS M292) ins 4Sat@ 3.80 1.65 | 8 8.50 | 10 1.62 | 8.56 | 9.12 | 10.42 — | 10 10.50 —— | 10.63 | 11.03 | 7.71 — | 10 10.50 | 2 — | 9.68 | 10.08] 2 3.29 | 8 SO) 7 3.23 | 8.19 | 9.35 |, 7.04 1G5n|es SOOM 1.60! 8.08| 9.441! 3.90 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 56 882 Report on Inspection Work OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN New YorkK STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) NAME AND AppDRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JOBBER; BRAND or TRADE NAMB; AND LocaLiry WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN Tuscarora FERTILIZER Co., BALTIMORE, Mp. (concluded) Tuscarora Trucker’s Special Silver Creek Tuscarora York State Special Akron Tycert Co., J. E., PHILADELPHIA, PA. Tygert’s Special Potato and Tobacco Fertilizer Hicksville Unitep States Frrtrizer Co., Tue, Bautimore, Mp. Farm Bell Acid Phosphate Almond Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Num- Phosphoric acid ber Se Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total GFis35297 | 26 6.50 | 10 5946 | F*| 2.99 | 6 6.72 | 9.92 G|0.82] 8 8.50} 4 5910 |} F| 1.14] 7.88} 9.18 | 5.20 Farm Bell Animal Ammoniated Stanley Farm Bell Celery Compound Williamson Farm Bell Excelsior Guano Williamson Farm Bell Fruit and Grain Grower Stanley Farm Bell Fruit and Potato Guano Cameron Mills Co eee 15 = 59650 En —— | aa 7elelor eon GPG" a8 9 5 6001 |} F | 1.64} 8.90} 9:50] 5.04 G | 3.28 | 8 9 12 6019 |} F | 3.14] 9.17] 9.69 | 12.82 G | 3.28 | 8 9 7 6020"9[--F 4352201929560") 102205) “6576 CD 11 8 6002 — | 10.49 | 11.03 | 8.08 1.65} 8 9 10 Farm Bell Meat and Potash Mixture Stanley Farm Bell Pennant Winner Rushville Farm Bell Phospho Potasso Cameron Mills Farm Bell Potato Special Burns ¥ G 6466 | F | 1.74] 8.78 | 9.50 | 11.34 G F 0.82; 9 10 7 6003 1.09 | 9.88 | 10.46 | 7.44 G| 0.82] 8 ee 6468 | F | 0.93 | 8.56] 9.26] 4.56 (Cr a 13 5 6470 | F | —— | 11.96 | 12.18 | 4.70 G | 3.28 | 6 7 10 6469 | F | 2:97.' 7.382! 7.92"=°9°83 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 883 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLECTED IN New York STATE IN SPRING AND Summer or 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER Name AND ApprESS OF MANUFACTURER or JOBBER; BRAND oR TRADE Namg;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND Locauity WHERE SAMPLE wWwAs|_ ber SS TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total Unitep Srares Fertiuizer Co., Tue, Bautimore, Mp. (concluded) | Farm Bell Wheat Oat Corn Special iy G50 482) Wyi.8 9 6 Williamson 6021 | F*, 0.95 8.98 | 9.76] 6.18 VAUGHAN’S SrED StTorE, New York, Sead G | 2.88] 8 —— |} 4 Vaughan’s Lawn and Garden New York 6101 | F |.2.57 | 8.45 } 9.68 | 4.34 Vaughan’s Rams Head Brand Pul- G | 2 ———= || 1.20) verized Sheep Manure , New Rochelle 5623 | F | 2.38 | ——— 1.97 1.82 Vaughan’s Rams Head Brand Pul- G | 2 1 ie20) |) 1. verized Sheep Manure New York 6118 | F | 1.99 | 1.18 1.26 | 1.66 Vaughan’s Rose Grower Bone Meal G | 3.70 | ——— } 22 oo New York 5550 | F | 4.30 | —— ]| 22.32 | ——— VIRGINIA CAROLINA CHEMICAL Co., New MORK Nays G |14.82 | ——— | —— } —— Nitrate of Soda Bridgehampton 5530 | F 15.20 } ——— | ——— | —— V. C. C. Co’s Animal Ammoniated G0. 82ihe8 9 4 Guano Marathon 6385 | F | 1.09 | 9.77 | 10.01 | 4.26 V.C.C. Co’s Beef, Blood and Bone Ge3329) as 9 7 B. B. B. Valley Stream 5433 | F | 3.26 | 9.42 | 10.58 | 7.62 V. C. C. Co’s Champion Corn and G | 1.65 | 10 11 5 Grain Grower Freeport 9443 | F | 1.82 | 10.25.) 11.35 | 6.10 V. C. C. Co’s Diamond Ammoniated Giy} 2.47.) 4 8 5 Superphosphate Marathon 6384 | F | 2.67 | 7.67 | 8.67 | 6.24 V.C. C. Co’s Early Truckers Special G | 4.94] 8 9 i) Riverhead FF! 4.85' 8.83 | 9.63! 6.36 *These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranted and Found. 884 Report on Inspection WorK OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN NEw YorK STATE IN SPRING AND SumMEr oF 1914 (continued) NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER oR JOBBER; BRAND OR TRADE Namg;| Num- AND LocALITY WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN VirGINIA CAROLINA CHEMICAL Co., New York, N. Y. (concluded) V. C. C. Co’s Fruit and Vine Ferti- lizer White Plains V. C. C. Co’s General Crop Grower Freeport VY. C.C. Co’s Good Luck Fertilizer Oxford V. C. C. Co’s Indian Brand for Potatoes and General Use Sherburne V. C. C. Co’s Little Giant Fertilizer Freeport V. C. C. Co’s Monogram Complete Compound Hempstead V. C. C. Co’s National Alkaline Phosphate Oxford V. C. C. Co’s Owl Brand Potato and Truck Fertilizer Marathon V. C. C. Co’s Soluble Guano Bridgehampton V. C. C. Co’s Star Brand Potato and Vegetable Compound White Plains V.C.C. Co’s Tip Top Top Dresser Stanfordville V. C. C. Co’s 20th Century Potato Manure Calverton | Pounps 1n 100 Pounps oF FERTILIZER Phosphoric acid ber —-———— Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen | able | Total G* 0.82] 8 9 8 5619 | F*| 0.91 8.82 | 9.87] 8 G | 0.82] 8 9 5 445 | F | 1.04!) 8.56] 9.56}| 5.86 G {0.82 | 9 10 2 817 | F |] 1.26) 9.55 | 10.71 2.76 Galt 2e474|ae 7 10 5803 | F | 2.69 | 5.65 |] 7.01 | 9.94 G|—| 9 10 3 F | —— | 9.50] 10.46 | 3.76 G4 4.65 |. 8 eee 5460 | F | 1.68 | 8.36] 9.56 | 3.98 G 10 11 8 5818 | F | —— | 10.87 | 11.99 | 8.30 Ga aeGoay ss 9 10 6386 | F |] 1.68 |} 8.95 | 10.05 | 9.04 G/1.65] 8 9 2 DOSL |) | eT SSh4 Ga ao e7Galesn LO G | 3.29 | 6 Uf 10 5618 | F | 3.44| 6.97] 8.03 | 10.26 G|5.76| 5 6 5 4828 | F | 4.87] 5.71 6.36 | 6.19 G| 4.12] 8 9 8 5510 | F | 4.27 | 8.60 | 9.541 8.82 *These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 885 ANALYSES OF FerRtiLizERS CoLLEcTED IN NEw YorK STATE IN SPRING AND SumMER oF 1914 (continued) Pounps 1n 100 Pounps or FERTILIZER NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER : ‘ oR JOBBER; BRAND OR TRADE Name;| Num- Phosphoric acid AND LocaLtiry WHERE SAMPLE WAS| ber —$—_—_— TAKEN Nitro-| Avail- Potash gen able | Total WeEBER & Don, NEw York, N. Y. Weeber & Don’s Lawn Invigorator G*| 2.47 | ——| 3.50| 2.50 New York 6119 | F*| 2.56 | —— | 4.33 2.81 WHaNN Co., W. E., PHILADELPHIA, Pa. Whann’s Chester Valley Fish and G|1.48 | 8 9 5 Potash Fertilizer Babylon 5542 | F } 1.66 7.84 9.50 4.58 Wiucox Fertiiizer Co., THe, Mystic, Conn. Wilcox Cauliflower Fertilizer G | 4.11 6 i 5 Amagansett 5537 | F | 4.01 6.84 8.16 6.20 Wilcox Dry Ground Acidulated Fish G | 7.81 + 6 Se Orient 5524) Holegeol 5.01 5.67 | —— Wilcox Fish and Potash G | 2.46 5 6 3 Baiting Hollow 5504 | F | 2.81 5.40 7.20 3.70 Wilcox Potato, Onion and Vegetable G | 3.30] 8 9 7 Phosphate Mattituck soll | F | 3.46 | 8.65 9.31 7.06 Wilcox Pure Ground Bone G | 2.46 | —— | 22 —- Greenport 5528 | F | 2.73 | ——— | 22.70 | ——— * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found.} 886 Report on Insprecrion Work OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN NEw YORK STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Lime (Cautcrum) Compounpbs Name AND AppREsS OF MANU- Cal- Equal | Mag- | Equal FACTURER OR JOBBER; Branp| Num- cium to nesium to or TRADE Name; AND Locauity| ber oxide | calcium | oxide mag- WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN (CaO) (Ca) | (MgO) | nesium (Mg) AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL CHEMI- cau Co., THE, New York, INE Ye Fine Ground Nova Scotia G* —— | ——— | —— | ——. Plaster Hudson Falls 5313 | F*| 37.42 | 26.75 | ——— | ——— AmeErRIcAN Lime & STONE Co., Tyrone, Pa. Hydra-Oxide of Lime G| 66.75 | 47.70 Portville 5953 | F | 68.99 | 49.30 2.38 1.44 Baker Co., J. E., BAINBRIDGE, ‘A. Victor Ground Limestone G | 47 33.50 Nunda 6457 | EF} §49:63°) 35.45 4.48 2.70 BALLARD Co., J. W., BINGHAMTON, INE Ye Ground Limestone G Collins HOSon ek: oleae 2.68 1.62 Ground Limestone G 50 35.70 Binghamton 6364 | F | 35.89 | 25.65 11.19 6.75 CALEDONIA CHEMICAL Co., CALE- pont, N. Y. Better Farming Lime G | 50 35.70 | ——— Hudson 4826 | F | 49.38 | 35.25 1.85 112 ConLEY STONE Co., F. E., Utica, Raw Ground Lime G| 51.50 | 36.80 Guilford HOLS eH) wlio 36.80 Beale, 1.98 Corson, G. & W. H., PLymoutH Meertine, Pa. Corson’s Prepared Lime G| 42 30 ——— (Hydrated) Floral Park 5457 Al .49 | 29775.) 30557 18.43 Dutcuess County Lime Co., Dover Puarns, N. Y. Hydra-Oxide of Lime G| 37 26.45 Dover Plains ASTS 1) Hy) AQ 30s 102 eal. 99 19.30 *These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. New York AGrRIcuLTuRAL Exprriment Sration. 887 ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN New YorRK STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Lime (Caucrum) Compounps (continued) Name Anp ApprREss oF MANUv- Cal- Equal | Mag- | Equal FACTURER OR JOBBER; Branp| Num- cium to nesium. to or TRADE NAME; AND Locatrty|_ ber oxide | calcium | oxide mag- WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN (CaO) (Ca) (MgO) | nesium (Mg) Epison PortLaND CEMENT Co., STEWARTSVILLE, N. J. Edison Pulverized Limestone Gae50 35.70 Penn Yan AQIS: WR 5192) 37 10 3.06 1.8 Or FarnaM CHESHIRE Lime Co., Farnams, Mass. Farnam Cheshire Lime Co’s G! 60 43 ———_ | ——— Agicultural Lime White Plains AO) |) 184) Oil || CD.65 |) ———— ||) == * GENESEE Lime Co., HoNEOYE Fats, N. Y. Genesee Hydrate Hydrated Gale 65 46°40 > |) Lime Trondequoit 53879 | F | 70.88 | 50.60 2.60 1.56 Haserot CaNNERIES Co., THE, CLEVELAND, O. Horsehead Lime G 54. Dayton 5926 | F | 45.: 32.30 | 2.12 1.27 INTERNATIONAL AGRI CULTURAL CoRPORATION, CALEDONIA Maru Brancu, CALEDONIA, ING Lime Carbonate G 50 35.70 Port Crane 6395 | F 49.38 35.30 1.44 0.86 KELLEY Is~tanp Lime & TRANs- PorT Co., THE, CLEVELAND, O. Tiger Brand Agricultural G| 48 34 .30°| ——— Limestone Hammondsport 49387 | F | 42.87 | 30.65 9.42 5.65 Tiger Brand Hydrated Agri- G| 54 Sie) || || cultural Lime Portville 5954 | F | 57.838 | 41.30 | 21.21 12.80 Le Roy Lime Works & SToNnE Quarrins, Le Roy, N. Y. Le Roy Agricultural Lime G Le Roy 6039 |} F | 75.90 | 54.20 2.99 1.80 * These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 888 Report on InNspEecTION WorK OF THE ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS CoLLECTED IN NEw YorkK STATE IN SPRING AND Summer oF 1914 (continued) Lime (Catctum) Compounps (continued) Name and Appress or Manv- Cal- Equal | Mag- | Equal FACTURER OR JOBBER; Branp) Num- cium to nesium to or TRADE Namgp; AnD Locauity| ber oxide | calcium | oxide mag- WHERE SAMPLE WAS TAKEN (CaO) (Ca) (MgO) Siva Mg) Onr1o & WeEsTERN Lime Co., THE, Huntineaton, Inp. Agricultural Lime G*| 54.46 | 38.90 Cherry Creek 5086 | F*| 58.07} 41.50] 39.45 23.80 Rocxitanp & RocKkrort LIME Co., Rockianp, Mz. R. R. Land Lime G 60 43 Hicksville 5459 | F | 60.53 | 438.20 3.48 2.10 Security Cement & Lime Co., BERKELEY, W. Va. ‘Berkeley Ground Limestone G Wellsville 5962 | F | 538.64] 38.30 2.42 1.45 Berkeley Hydrated Lime G| 70 50 Belfast 5968 | F |} 69.24] 49.44 2.09 1°25 Sotvay Process Co., THE, Syracuse, N. Y. G 60 43 Solvay Land Lime Blodgett Mills 6381 | F 66.74 | 47.65 4.08 2.45 STANDARD Lime & STONE Co., Tue, Buckrystown, Mb. Ground Lime G 90 64 Calverton 5508 | F 86.44 | 61.75 2d 1.67 Standard Ground Limestone G 50 35.70 | ——— Collins 5924 | F 53.95 | 38.50 | ——— | ———— WarNER Company, Cuas., WIL- MINGTON, DEL. Cedar Hollow Limoid G 47 33.50 F 46.73 | 33.40 | 34.69 22.92 Cohocton 4925 *These letters indicate, respectively, Guaranteed and Found. 889 New York AcricutturaLt Experiment SraTion. ‘punoy puv psszuvienry ‘Ajoatqoodsau ‘ay Borpul 819949] BOY, y OF Lz 98 °8E 08'S GPG 98°G A | [P09 AU ODO) a LOVESG OF ¢ 09'S 0¢'T r9) SINATTT YSBjog pus oury AN ‘VINOGGIV() ‘HONVUg TUV]] VINOGTIVD ‘NOLLVHOdUOD) TVHALTAOINDY 'TVNOILVNUGLNT 69° 6 06 02 GG 6G 08 7 AX | 898¢ urypoRyedy ——— | 06°22 Ze ¢ 19) ysejog pue sury peisdeig s,uosi0g ‘Vd ‘ONILGG HLAOWATY “FM 3 “D ‘NOSUOD O& 62 90° TF 96°¢ O18 Ss ae (Ce | EGSo SB Boouag ae 09 83 OF g 8 os r9) ByOINT “AN ‘VOIL “AW “WOOD UaZIILLuay 32 ANITT AWINOD 06 °8Z PP OF gi 66% G8°G x1 | OF09 sruope[e) GG GE og'¢ 09'S og T +0 SPNIHSGNY soysy Poo Aer N ‘VINOGTIV) ‘HHT, “OD IVOINTHD VINOagIVD apixo (8D) (08D) THIOL | O1qR BAW ulnisou uIMIdTBO aprxo ysejog -SBIN oy yenby | wn1wpe9g 13q NAYV], SVM FIdWVG TUAH AA ALITVOO'T poe omo0ydsoyg “UNN |GNV ‘GWVN ddvuy, yo aNvug ‘uaaaor ee HO UPAALOVEANV]Y dO ssdudady aNV GWVNY NAZITILUAY, JO SANNOg (QOT NI sannog ee ___ “HSVLOT GNV dIOW OIMOHASOHY ‘(WAIDIV)) AWIT JO SANNOANWOD DPNINIVLNOD SAUNLXIT ‘FI6T 40 YEWWAS NV DNIUdg NI HLVLG MYO MAN NI GALOATIOND SUIZITILYA] JO sasKTVNY ecanach. é aa a Ay - {a — t . a a eae i. a AP PEN DPX: I. Poputar EpIitions oF STATION BULLETINS. II. PeriopIcALs RECEIVED BY THE STATION. III. MrtTroroLocicAL ReEcorps. [891] : 7 SHIT ie i. I « ae = cP MOIretc? Git in caval: é4A0ie0 Let aie = , | = 7 ) . , CC 2 RSS ADDO IONE ral, LE pi@e} POPULAR BULLETIN REPRINTS. A NEW METHOD OF DETERMINING MILK QUALITY.* F. H. HALL. Microscopic To the unaided eye, normal fresh cows’ milk is a bodies in faintly yellowish, white liquid, apparently uniform milk. throughout and simple in composition. Probably most of its consumers realize, however, that milk is more complex in make-up than it appears at first view, since they see fat rise to the surface as cream or find the casein coagulating after longer keeping. Yet few milk drinkers appreciate the great com- plexity in composition of this common article of diet, or know how many and how delicate means and methods must be used by scientists to identify the varied components of milk and to trace their intimate relationships as these affect the handling of milk and the making of other dairy products. Fundamental study of milk is very essential, for apparently slight variations in the relationships of its constituents may greatly affect its value or even change it from a most wholesome food to a menace to health or to an actual poison. Many of these studies may be left to the chemist, for he must determine the ultimate composition of all the milk constituents; and some of them he, only, can find, since they are in solution and therefore beyond the range of vision, even if aided by the most power- ful microscope. But milk contains, ordinarily, three classes of bodies, or under some conditions four, which can be brought into view by the micro- scope; and two of these classes of microscopic objects — the fat globules and the bacteria— have most intimate relations to the value and wholesomeness of milk; and the third class — cells and cell fragments — may be indicative of sanitary quality. Casein belongs in the “ possible”? fourth class referred to, for the minute particles of this colloid, or jelly-like substance, are only just beyond the power of the compound microscope. They are revealed by “ultra- microscopic ’’? methods. * Reprint of Popular Edition of Bulletins Nos. 373 and 380; for Bulletins see pp. 79 and 117. 893] 894 Poputar Epitions oF Station BULLETINS OF THE First of the bodies that may be seen when milk is Fat globules properly exposed under the compound microscope in milk are the fat globules. These are normal secretions studies. of the udder and form an essential, though varying, proportion of all milk. Milk fat is very highly prized in human dietaries; so that the quantity of fat globules present in milk has come to serve as an index to its quality. Their amount can, however, be easily and accurately determined by a chemical method, the Babcock test; and microscopic study of them is not now considered so essential as at one time. Such study was very useful in early work on milk, in establishing the nature of these globules, and is still helpful in working out certain problems, like those of churning. In the most valuable microscopic work with milk, though, the fat globules are a detriment; since they are comparatively large and cover or obscure the other microscopic objects it is desired to study. Accordingly, in such work the fat must be dissolved. This is one step in a new method of microscopic examination of milk now in use at the Station, whereby the other two classes of minute objects are made to stand out clearly in the field of vision. Of these two classes, the cells should properly Cells in be placed first since they are, like the fat globules, milk. normal constituents of all milk and are derived from the udder. These cells are discharged at all times in varying numbers. The fluctuations may or may not indicate dis- eased or abnormal conditions in the udder, therefore the changes in number may become an index to the sanitary quality of the milk. Though placed third among the microscopic Bacteria bodies found in milk, because they are not normal in milk. constituents of it — are not produced by the udder but find their way into the milk after it is secreted — bacteria shculd really be considered first, for they are, without doubt, most important of all, at least from a sanitary standpoint. Though not essential components of milk, bacteria are almost universally found in it, even in the udder, and they exert a more immediate and greater influence toward change than any of the normal milk constituents. They are living organisms and make. milk both their food and the scene of most diverse vital activities; so that each type cf bactertum may change the milk materially, either for good or for ill. Because of the importance of microscopic bodies Prescott-Breed in milk and because these have, until recently, microscopic been most studied by indirect methods, there seems method of much promise in a new plan of attack, originated milk study. by Prof. Prescott, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Dr. Breed, now of this Station. This method has already been used in two extensive series of studies made at the Station. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT SraTion. 895 In using this method a small, measured drop (.01 cubic centi- meter) is taken directly from a well mixed sample of milk, spread over a definite area of a clean glass microscope slide, and dried by gentle heat. Duplicate ‘“‘ smears” are usually placed on each slide. When dry, the slides are placed in xylol (a colorless, liquid chemical derived from benzine), which dissolves the fat. They are next immersed in alcohol to harden, or “ fix,”’ the dried milk to the slide, then in methylene blue to stain the bacteria and cells. A final immersion in alcohol reduces the blue color somewhat, and brings the microscopic objects out distinetly on a light blue field. The ceils, cell fragments and bacteria may now be easily studied and counted under the microscope, the “‘ fields ’”’ appearing somewhat as shown on the plates. No printed reproduction, however, can bring out the stained objects as they are revealed in the light-suffused smear on the glass slide. By adjusting the tube of the microscope to a definite length and using the proper eye-piece, each field examined will have a definite area and will represent a fixed fraction of the whole smear and, therefore, of the sample and, finally, of the milk itself. Several fields are examined on each smear, and on one or more duplicates, and the average count of cells or bacteria is taken as representative of the milk from which the sample was drawn. STUDY OF BACTERIA IN MILK BY THE MICROSCOPICAL METHOD. It is believed by the investigators at this Station, How bacteria that, for many purposes, the use of the compound in milk microscope for counting bacteria in milk is a much have been better method than the one now: in common use. studied. The present method of study is an indirect one, and depends on the fact that bacteria are living organisms. It counts them, not as they are in the milk, but only after they have so increased in numbers that around each one, or around each invisible cluster of them, a “ colony ” has developed large enough to be seen by using a hand lens or even the unaided eye. The ‘technique,’ or detailed scheme of operations, in this method requires the use of a sample of milk, drawn carefully so it shall fairly represent the larger quantity from which it comes, and dilution of this sample to separate the bacteria and make it possible for colonies to grow without overlapping and obscuring one another or being so numerous that it is difficult to count them. A definite portion of this diluted sample is then mixed with a “nutrient medium ” or food supply, which is a gelatinous, trans- lucent, or almost transparent material, firm at ordinary temperatures but fluid when warmed. This must be made sterile by heat so that no bacteria or other living organisms shall be present except those coming from the milk sample. By thoroughly and repeatedly 896 Poprpuxtar Epitions or Station BULLETINS OF THE shaking together the warmed liquid medium and the milk sample, the bacteria are distributed somewhat evenly. The mixture is then poured into a flat, circular, glass dish known as a “ petri plate,” and spread evenly over the entire area. Usually one or more dupli- cate plates are made from each sample, and the plates are placed in an incubator to favor the growth of the colonies about each bacterial center. The temperature of incubation must be quite carefully regulated, for some bacteria are very sensitive and will not grow unless all the conditions are right. After four or five days, usually, colonies will have developed, presumably about each germ or group of them, until they are large enough to be visible under a hand lens of small magnifying power. Many of the colonies can then be seen by the naked eye, but others will be of pin-point size or smaller. All the colonies are counted on the whole plate or a definite portion of it, and the number obtained multiplied by the proper factor to account for the separation of the sample and amount of dilution. The final figure is commonly spoken of as the number of bacteria in the milk. This is never literally true, as some of the colonies always develop, not from single bacteria, but from “ clumps ”’ or unseparated collections of them. Moreover, a count made from plates held at one temperature only does not show all the colonies that might develop; for certain bacteria, like those accustomed to life in the udder and the warmth of the animal body, will not grow at low temperatures. By exposing the plates to such temperatures for two days longer, additional colonies may be developed. The opposite condition may also occur, and bacteria be present in the milk that thrive only at temperatures lower than the one commonly used for incubation. It will be seen from this condensed popular description, that the “plate”? method of counting bacteria is complex and time-con- suming; and it is dependable only in the hands of trained bacteriolo- gists, equipped with elaborate and costly appliances. Do the two methods give equally reliable informa- Comparative tion regarding the number of organisms in milk? advantages This question will be discussed at some length of the two later, for the number of bacteria present is an methcds. important index to the sanitary quality of market milk; but the two methods differ so materially on many other points that it is necessary to summarize briefly the advantages and disadvantages of each. The microscopic method is simple, comparatively inexpensive, can be learned easily by any bright young man, and can be applied successfully by men who are not necessarily trained bacteriologists; it makes possible a report on the bacterial content of a sample of milk within a very few minutes; and it shows not only the numbers of bacteria, but also their forms. Through this feature of the method, certain types of bacteria thought to be especially important New York AGricuLtTuRAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 897 in relation to health can be identified at once. The method also shows the number and kind of cells in the milk, some of which may indicate the sanitary quality of the milk. On the other hand, the samples used for direct microscopic work are very small, are some- what difficult to measure accurately, and may not represent the milk quite so well as larger samples would do. It is believed, however, that the rapidity of the method makes it possible to duplicate samples so extensively that the small size need not interfere with the accuracy of the work. An important objection is, however, that all bacteria are counted, whether living and active at time of sampling, or already dead and harmless. By the plate method no dead organisms are counted, since living germs alone can grow to visible colonies. The colonies on the plates present differences in habit of growth that are quite characteristic for certain types of bacteria and this makes identification of some of them possible. By using different culture media, also, the plate method may be used to prove the presence or absence of liquefying bacteria, which cause some undesirable forms of milk decomposition, or of acid-formers that sour the milk. If particular types or species of bacteria are desired for special study, the plate method must be used to allow selection, isolation and the making of “ pure cultures.” Against the plate method we must place the length of time required before the count can be made—two, five, or even seven days in some cases before we can be sure that colonies have developed about all possible centers. The expense for apparatus — sterilizers, incu- bators, ete.— and the outlay involved in securing proper conditions to prevent outside contamination is large with the plate method; and the manipulations are so delicate that only trained bacteriolo- gists can do the work successfully. The hand lens used is not powerful enough to show the individual bacteria; and these can not be readily studied on petri plates under the compound microscope; hence the information secured from colony-growth is all that is immediately available. The numbers of organisms present, without Comparing special regard to the kinds, is the information usually the methods. sought in bacterial examination of market milk; and if the new method fails to give this informa- tion accurately, its other advantages must count for little. To determine the fundamental reliability of the microscopic method as compared with the now standard plate method, counts were made by Mr. Brew, by both methods, in 450 samples of milk from several different sources. {In the main these samples were from milk from four farms contributing to the supply of the city of Geneva. The studies on the milk of these farms began with the taking of samples of the milk each morning for ten weeks, as it was brought from the farms to a central delivery station in the city. Samples 57 898 Poprutar Eprrions oF STaTioN BULLETINS OF THE of the fresh, morning milk were taken each day from the milk of one farm, and of the night milk, delivered at the same time, for 60 days. Not quite so many samples were taken from the other farms; but the series made possible a detailed study of the daily variation and development of the bacterial condition of the milk in 225 samples. The milk from 33 other farms contributing to the city supply was studied in less detail, not more than a week being given to any farm, and only five fields in any sample were counted under the micro- scope. The object in these more superficial studies was to make a general survey of the situation and to determine the efficiency of the microscopical method when used rapidly as it would be under commercial conditions. The results of the counts showed little relation- Relative ship between the figures secured by the two methods accuracy when only single samples were considered; but of the two when series of samples are examined a relationship methods. is shown. The count made under the microscope is almost invariably much higher than that shown on the plates and certainly represents the total number of indi- vidual bacteria more accurately than the plate count, the results in the latter case being invariably low because of clumps. Among the 450 samples examined only three showed more bacteria by the plate method than by the direct microscope count. The relative differences between the two counts are greater when the bacteria are few in number. In samples of milk showing plate counts of 10,000 per cubic centimeter, the microscope showed approximately 44 times as many individual bacteria. A somewhat fairer basis for comparison, however, is to consider each “ clump ”’ of bacteria shown under the microscope as a unit only, since such a collection of germs would, on the plate of nutrient medium, develop only one colony, perhaps indistinguishable in any way from the colony surrounding a single isolated bacterium. On this basis, the germ-poor milk referred to above showed only 17 times as many organisms in the sample under the microscope as on the petri plate. When the milk contained more bacteria — about 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter — the count under the micro- scope was only about 5 times as great as on the plates; or, if the clumps were considered as units only, the microscope count was slightly lower than the plate count. We cannot say definitely as yet, why there are such great differ- ences in the counts by the two methods; but the fact that there are differences is not at all surprising under the conditions that have already been explained; and does not discredit either the old or the new method. It is hoped by further work to secure a logical and satisfactory explanation. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 899 In the rapid examination of the samples from the 33 farms, which were not studied in detail, only a few fields were examined on each smear and if very few or no bacteria appeared on these fields the milk was ‘‘ passed ” as of good sanitary quality. Is this a safe procedure? Of the 225 samples thus examined 60 were passed; and the plate counts of these 60 samples showed that 42 of them contained less than 50,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter, eight were between 50,000 and 100,000, eight more less than 200,000 and two above this figure. (One of these high counts was probably due to a con- taminated plate.) Among the 120 samples examined more closely, 101 would have been ‘‘ passed”? by the more rapid, commercial examination, of which only two showed more than 100,000 bacteria per unit. The average plate count of 161 samples where no bacteria would have appeared on examination of a few fields was 29,000 per cubic centi- meter; that is, practically all of the milk was of good or excellent sanitary character. In other words, it seems safe to assume that practically all samples passed by the microscope as having no bacteria present when several fields are examined would yield a plate count of less than 100,060 per cubic centimeter. On the other hand, out of 450 samples examined there were 246 that gave plate counts below 100,000 per unit; and 67 of these gave microscope smears in which bacteria could be readily found. Thus the plate method passed 67 of the 246 samples as having less than 100,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter when the microscopic examina- tion showed they had many more than this. Considering both comparisons and assuming all of the bacteria to be active, we find the plate method passing 67 out of 246 samples as below a certain limit when the microscope count showed them to be above that limit — an apparent error of 23 per ct.; whereas the microscopical method passed erroneously only 9 or 10 of 60 samples cursorily examined, a 15 per ct. or 17 per ct. error, or two samples of 101 carefully examined —a two per ct. error. Thus when the microscope is used in this way it tests milk more severely and probably more accurately. The comparison of the two methods has been made only on fresh, unpasteurized milk, and the conciusions reached must be understood as applying only to the use of the microscopical method in milk of that character. Whether this method can be made applicable in studies of milk from unknown sources, which may include some that has been pasteurized, future studies must determine. In such milk most of the bacteria are dead and presumably harmless; om these dead germs appear under the microscope for a time, at east. 900 Porvunar Eprrions or StratTion BULLETINS OF THE This new method of determining the bacterial Why and content of milk, by the use of the compound micro- where use __ scope to count the organisms in stained milk smears the new on _ glass slides, from its rapidity, imexpensiveness, method? simplicity, absence of delicate manipulations calling for high technical skill, and wide scope in identi- fication, seems a very promising assistant in the examination of milk. It is hoped that this method, or some modification of it, can be made of practical use to the milk dealer, butter-maker and cheese- maker as a means of grading milk according to its bacterial condition. This should make it easier for the farmer to secure a better price for a high-grade milk than for a.poorer grade. CELLS IN MILK. It has been known for three-quarters of a century Presence that the first milk of each lactation period, the of cells in colostrum, contains cells derived from the udder or, milk not through it, from the blood. The belief was, how- new fact. ever, that these cells soon cease to be discharged, and that few are present in normal milk. Recent studies, though, especially those made during the past fifteen years, have proved that cells in large numbers are found in all normal milk; and that in some cases, which have accordingly been considered abnormal or the result of udder infection or disease, the multitude of such bodies seen under the compound microscope has been so great as to be almost beyond count. Much attention has been given to the development Methods of methods for making such studies; but many of of study. those employed have been indirect and complex. Most of these methods have required the rapid whirl- ing of the milk in a centrifuge to throw out the sediment; and the samples for microscopic examination were taken from this sediment —not from the milk itself. The new method of Prescott and Breed, however, proves that not all of the cells in the milk are collected in this centrifuge sediment; for the counts of cells made by this method are much larger than those made by any examination of samples from sediment. The new method is a direct one, as small samples of the milk itself are taken and the counts made from “smears”? viewed under the microscope. Though devised for the study of cell content of milk, this dried-smear method appears to be of even greater value in bacteriological work, as already pointed out. Cells in milk have been held by many students to Why study be abnormal constituents and therefore undesirable. cells? The makers of milk clarifiers have counted as one of the valuable features of clarification the fact that this process removes many cells from the milk. New York AcricuttTurRAL ExprerRIMENT STATION. 901 Some of the cells found in milk are leucocytes — the white blood corpuscles that are the active agents in destroying certain disease germs in the body; and after the first week or so of lactation, the presence of these leucocytes in the udder has been considered evidence that they were attracted there because disease germs were in the milk. It has been held, in particular, that there is a close relation- ship between the presence of large numbers of cells and of the germs that cause mastitis, or inflammation of the udder, a disease that results in ‘‘ gargety ”’ milk. Boards of health in some large cities, and one National organiza- tion, have adopted, as a standard for normal milk, a cell content not exceeding 500,000 per unit (a cubic centimeter, or 18 to 20 drops); and would reject milk showing more cells than this as abnormal and unfit for human food. It is therefore important that the dairy farmer should know what justification there is for the belief that cells in milk are detrimental in themselves or as indicators of abnormal conditions or disease in the udder that might make milk unwholesome. The studies on the cell content of the milk of the Studies at Station herd were made by Dr. Breed before he the Station. became a member of the staff; but his appointment as Bacteriologist renders doubly appropriate the publication, in a Station bulletin, of the valuable data secured. The three main purposes in this work and the extent of the in- vestigations were as follows: (1) To make anumber of examinations of the milk of individual animals in order to determine the normal cell content of milk. For this part of the work from five to eight samples were examined from each of 21 cows in the Station herd, from 62 to 68 samples from each of four other cows in this herd, and one sample from each of 53 cows in a Guernsey herd belonging to Mr. Alfred G. Lewis of Geneva. In the summaries along this line data are also included relative to the cell content of the milk of two other herds previously studied by Dr. Breed and his associates, one at Meadville, Pa., of 41 cows, and one in Germany of 3 cows. (2) To make detailed examinations of the milk of individual cows in the hope that some reason could be discovered for the known variations. These included studies on the effect on cell content of period of lactation, age of cows, udder troubles, etc. For part of this work two cows fresh in milk were used for one week and for three weeks, respectively; four cows, more advanced in lactation, for five weeks; and eighteen cows, near the end of lactation, for one or two milkings. (3) To study the influence of the milking machine on the number of cells discharged in milk. In these tests six cows were used for about forty days in a detailed study of the effect of varying the vacuum; two cows were under observation for 8 or 9 days in testing 902 Poputar Eprrions or STatTioN BULLETINS OF THE the effect of a change from hand milking to machine milking; and the remainder of the herd furnished 56 samples of hand-drawn milk and twice as many drawn by machine. The investigation proves plainly that milk appar- Normal milk ently normal in all respects, from healthy cows in rich in cells. all stages of lactation, milked by hand or by machine, contains large numbers of cells. The average for the Station herd was lower than that of any other herd examined but was still 439,000 per cubie centimeter; the Guernsey herd came next, with 895,000, the three German cows were third, with 932,000; and the Pennsylvania herd averaged over a million cells per cubic centimeter. These numbers are much greater than those reported by other investigators, owing to the greater severity of the method used. By the older methods many cells in centrifuged samples were lost in the cream or remained in the milk and therefore could not be counted in the sediment samples used. It will be noticed that the average number for each of these herds, except that of the Station, is above the limit fixed as an allowable maximum as a result of examinations made by the older methods. The milk of nine goats in the Station flock was also examined, and gave astonishingly high cell counts, the average for these goats and two others previously studied being nearly seven and a half million cells per unit. As goat milk is used with great success in the nutrition of infants and invalids, it would seem that high cell counts can not be a reliable indication of poor sanitary quality. The average obtained for the Station herd repre- Variations and sents wide variations, not only in different cows but fluctuations also in the same cow at different times and in in cell counts. separate quarters of the same udder at the same time. The greatest average number of cells occurs in colostral milk; but equally large numbers of cells are occasionally found in milk drawn at any time during the lactation period. Several very high cell counts have been obtained from the milk of cows near- ing the end of lactation, and such high counts appear to be more common at this time than near the middle of the time in milk. The average counts for the latter half of the period, however, are not markedly higher than those for the earlier half. As the quantity of milk is less toward the end of lactation the whole number of cells discharged is lower than during the earlier part of the period. Marked variations occur in the numbers of cells found in the milk from day to day; but the cause or causes of these fluctuations have not yet been discovered. There is uniformly a larger number of cells in the strippings than in milk previously drawn, but it was not possible to assign a cause for the increase in cell counts in the strippings. No constant relationship could be found between the counts for the first streams from the udder and those from samples taken later. New York “AGRICULTURAL ExprntuENT STATION. 903 The four quarters of the udder act independently, so far as cell content is concerned, since the counts for the different quarters of one cow’s udder may show as great variations as those from separate udders. In the group of cows that gave high average cell counts were two cows that had recently aborted, two old cows and one that had suffered from udder troubles, which might appear to indicate that these cows sustain the common belief that the peculiarities mentioned are causes of profuse cell shedding. On the other hand, however, one cow in this high-count group possessed no characteristic that has ever been thought to have an influence in producing such counts; and the low-count group contained one cow that had recently had udder troubles and still had a hard lump between the front quarters, one cow that had aborted within five weeks of the time of testing, and one old cow. The milking machine has been thought a cause of Influence of increased cell content of milk; as it was believed milking that the use of unusually high vacuums has a tend- machine = ency to draw blood or its leucocytes into the udder; and vacuums. that is, to cause ‘ leucocytosis.””’ The comprehen- sive data secured in these tests indicate that there is no basis for such a belief. In all the comparisons made, machine-drawn milk appeared to have a lower cell content than hand-drawn milk; and variations in the vacuum used, up to 193 inches, gave no corresponding changes in cell content. In the vacuum-increase tests, three cows of different ages and milking history, and each in a different part of the lactation period, were selected as experimental animals; and three in similar stages of milk giving and of comparable cell counts were used as checks. Starting with a vacuum of 144 inches, five successive increases in the degree of vacuum secured, each of an additional inch of mercury supported, were made at weekly intervals. The high vacuum of 193 inches was maintained for only one milking and the machines were rapidly returned to the normal by a change at each milking. The animals showed no physical effect from the vacuum increases; and the changes in cell content of the milk could be connected in no way with the changes in conditions. The milk of one of the experi- mental animals appeared to increase slightly in cell content as the vacuum increased, with one rather high count after the first rise of an inch and others while the vacuum was at 173 inches and at 183 inches, with a return to practically the original figure at 193 inches and a rise to a high count again when the machine supported only 145 inches of mercury. The check cow of this pair, without vacuum increases, showed very similar and almost as great changes in the cell content of her milk, 904 Poruztar Eprtions or Station BULLETINS OF THE With the second pair of animals, the cell content of the milk of both remained nearly constant throughout the test, the one high count being in the milk of the check cow. With the third pair, also, the fluctuations in cell count were greater with the cow milked without vacuum changes; and the number for the experimental animal was as low at the high-vacuum milking as at the start or at any time during the test. These data manifestly show no evidence of “ leucocytosis.” Two fresh cows were milked by hand for one week and two and one-half weeks respectively, and then by machine. The average cell content for the last four or five days of hand milking was 510,000 for one cow and 95,000 for the other; and the corresponding averages for the first four days of machine milking were 230,000 and 55,000. Part of the animals in the Station herd are milked by hand regularly, part by machine, which made it possible to compare quite large numbers of normal samples of milk taken by each method of drawing. Of such samples, 56 from hand milking had an average cell content of 381,000, and 113 from machine milking 309,000. The facts that half of the Station herd has been milked by machine for years and that the herd as a whole gives a lower average cell count than any other herd examined, appear to confirm the other evidence that machine milking, by the vacuum type of machines, does not increase the cell content of milk or tend to draw cells from the interior of the udder. The investigations in the Station herd and others Do high cell have not demonstrated that any relationship exists counts mean between the number of cells discharged and specific unwholesome bacterial infections of the udder. None of the milk? cows in these herds gave ‘“ gargety’”’ milk at any time, thus making it impossible to study the influ- ence of that particular udder trouble on cell counts. Some of the cows had aborted, however, and others had previously suffered from diseased udders; but in these cases no consistently high cell counts or abnermal fluctuations were noted that were not duplicated or exceeded in milk of cows apparently normal in every way. Many udders or quarters of udders showed the presence of large numbers of bacteria of a type undistinguishable by any cultural methods from those producing inflammation of the udder; but the cell counts of the milk when these bacteria were present were some- times large, sometimes small; so that the evidence so far obtained makes it impossible to decide whether or not the discharge of large numbers of cells in connection with particular types of bacteria has any sanitary significance. The studies of the cell content of milk made by the Conclusion. Prescott-Breed method appear to prove the accuracy and utility of the method; they have made it very evident that the presence of large numbers of cells in milk does not New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT StTaTIon. 905 necessarily indicate abnormality; they have shown that the vacuum type of milking machine does not draw blood from the udder or increase the cell content of the milk; and they have made it necessary to secure much additional data before we can say in what way cells in milk can be used as indicators of sanitary quality. DO DORMANT CURRANT PLANTS CARRY PINE RUST?* F. H. HALL. ¥ It is a peculiarity of certain rust fungi that they Fungi living must live part of the time on host plants of entirely on different different species. | The well-known apple rust would plant species. disappear in any locality where all cedar trees were cut down so that none were left on which the so-called ‘‘ cedar apples’”’ could develop. These ‘ apples” are fruiting bodies of this stage of a fungus, and from them the infection spreads, not to other cedar trees, but to the apple. Here the fungus assumes an entirely different form and bears fruiting bodies of a type very unlike cedar apples. These produce spores which may again infect the cedar. Another fungus of this same type appears in one stage only on the pine and in others on the currant. This fungus, with the two diseases it produces, was unknown in the United States until within recent years and is still uncommon, so there is some hope of restricting its spread. This makes it advisable to prevent its transmission in every possible way. On the currant this fungus produces felt rust, a disease of very little economic importance; but on certain pines — those with needles in groups of five, of which the white pine is most abundant and most important — it causes blister rust, a very destructive trouble. The fruiting bodies of the fungus in its pine- ¢ How the inhabiting form cannot infect other pines, but currant ° very readily pass to species of Ribes (currant and and pine gooseberry), principally the black currant, even fungus though these are at considerable distances from the spreads. diseased pine. On the currant leaves, the fungus produces two fruiting forms, one of which can infect other currant plants and thus spread the disease rapidly among currants, but cannot infect pine; while the other form can infect pine but noé currant. * Reprint of Popular Edition of Bulletin No. 374; for Bulletin see p. 231. [906] New York AGricuLttTurRAL EXPERIMENT Station. 907 As the currant drops its leaves in the fall, it has generally been believed that the plant retains no fungus fruiting bodies in the spring which can infect either currant or pine; but that new outbreaks of the currant rust must again originate in the pine blister-rust fungus. But outbreaks of currant rust on the Station Mysterious grounds, first in 1906 and again in 1911 and 1912, outbreaks. cast some doubt on the assumption that the fungus cannot pass the winter on the currant and renew the disease there without the intervention of the pine blister-rust form. Quite careful search had failed to reveal the disease on pine trees anywhere near the Station or near other currant plantations about Geneva, in which the felt-rust had appeared. This was a rather serious matter; for if the fungus can remain alive on the currant over winter it would be unsafe to ship currant plants from any rust-infected section. The risk to the,pine would be too great. To test the possibility of this overwintering and Fungus reinfection of currant in the spring from the felt- does not rust form of the fungus, about 500 yearling plants of survive black currant were dug in November, after the winter on leaves had fallen, from a nursery near Geneva in currant. which practically every leaf had shown the disease. These were distributed to various students of plant disease, widely separated over the northeastern United States, and were, after a season of rest, brought into greenhouses and forced into growth. In no case did the disease reappear. This was true, also, in those cases where an attempt was made to spread the infection by means of the fallen leaves. Many of these leaves were saved and kept outdoors in wire baskets until spring, when they were brought into the greenhouses and used to inoculate the currant plants growing therein. No disease resulted, although every condition was made favorable for germination of the fungus spores if any living ones had been present. The same plants, or others under the same conditions, took the disease very readily when inoculated from the fruiting bodies of the fungus found on pine trees. For, after very careful search by nursery inspectors Diseased of the State Department of Agriculture, two such pines found. _ diseased trees were finally found, at quite a distance from the Station, it is true, but in such a position that it was possible to trace to them, through intervening currant plantations, the origin of the very puzzling outbreaks previously observed on the Station grounds and elsewhere. After the greenhouse experiments failed it became morally certain that there must be some such trees; and the nursery inspectors determined to examine every five-leaved pine anywhere in the vicinity of Geneva. The two found were in a bunch of eight culls left in the nursery block 908 Porutar Epitions oF STATION BULLETINS. after the other trees, probably imported seedlings, had been sold. They were later destroyed, so that it is hoped there will be no further outbreaks of currant felt-rust and no more cases of pine blister-rust near Geneva. Of course, negative experiments cannot prove Currant a case; but these careful tests made with so many quarantine plants and under such favorable circumstances, unnecessary. seem to show that there is no danger of transmitting either pine blister-rust or currant felt-rust by leaf- less Ribes plants sent out in the spring. It is therefore believed unnecessary to exclude from shipment currant plants from nurseries where currant rust has prevailed. No pines should, however, be sent out from such nurseries until it is clearly proved that they have not been infected. SOD MULCH SOMETIMES A SUCCESS.* F. H. HALL. Tillage A test reported in Bulletin No. 314 of this Station usually best appears to prove quite conclusively that, for apple practice in orchards in New York State, on most soils and in orchards. nearly all situations the tillage-and-cover-crop system is superior to the sod-mulch method of handling the soil. In the work now reported, the results of another test show that, under some rather uncommon conditions, the sod- mulch method may give fruit better adapted to certain market demands, and a larger yield, at less expense. But the situations where these conditions are likely to be met are so few that orchards succeeding in them must be considered “‘ exceptions that prove the rule,” ‘‘ Tillage is best.” Probably best known among the representatives vonage of sod-mulch systems in New York State is one aaideted for among the hills of Onondaga County, southwest faate of Syracuse. In this orchard was developed the ‘* Hitchings method ” of sod mulching, named from the owner of the orchard and originator of the method, Mr. Grant Hitchings, who has united with the sod mulch other original ways of dealing with his trees and fruit, so that his orchards stand for much that is ‘ different ”’ in fruit culture. This farm, as the home of the simplest method of sod mulching, was selected by the Station ten years ago, as a most appropriate place to locate a comparative test of the two strongly contrasted ways of handling orchard soils. Three plats were selected for the purposes of the test. A, the largest, is on the comparatively level floor of a valley, at the foot of a rather steep hill on whose slopes lie B and C, the other plats. In A, the trees, two years set when the experiment began, are R. I. Greening and Sutton in alternate rows. Each section — tilled and sod mulch — of this plat, contains nearly two acres. Description of plats. * Reprint of Popular Edition of Bulletin No. 375; for Bulletin, see p. 503. [909] 910 Poruxtar Eprrions or SratioN BULLETINS OF THE In B, each section, with an area of almost an acre, contains one row of each of three varieties, Alexander, Wealthy and Fameuse, the trees being nine years old when the test began. The smallest plat of the three and highest in elevation is C, containing six rows of Northern Spy trees, set one year before the trees in B. The area of each section in this plat is but little more than a quarter of an acre. The soil in the three plats belongs to the Miami series, ranging from the dark brown, rather tenacious clay loam of the valley floor, moderate in depth, to a deeper soil with more and more stones in the loam, and with some gravelly or sandy spots as the elevation increases in B and C. In all three plats the soil is well supplied with the usual elements of fertility, though somewhat deficient in lime. In B and C the surface of the land is somewhat uneven and the soil, in both depth and character, varies too much to make these plats very suitable for experimental work. ‘But better plats could not be laid out in the Hitchings orchard and it was much desired that comparison of sod mulch and tillage be made where the mulch system had become most prominent in New York.” The general plan of the experiment was outlined at the Station, but the operations were left to Mr. Hitchings’ judgment and most of the records were kept by him, as the location is rather inconvenient for frequent visits by Station men. The trees were in sod when the experiment began, those in Plat A having been set in sod; and the grass roots have been left undisturbed throughout the ten years on the sod-mulch sections. Once each summer, or twice if necessary, the grass was mowed, and usually left to lie where it fell, to form the mulch. In A, part of the grass was cured for hay the first year and removed, the rest being piled about the trees to cover the area through which the roots spread. In subsequent seasons all the grass was thus placed above the roots of the trees in this plat; and the same plan was followed in B and C for two or three years, after which the grass mulch was left undisturbed, as Mr. Hitchings believed the roots had then met between the rows of trees. In the tillage section the land was plowed in late April or early May each year, cultivated from seven to twelve times during the summer, with special hoeing or spading about the trees as the owner thought advisable. In one season the trees in one section were hoed five times. In every year but one a cover crop was sowed about August 1. This was usually of mammoth clover or crimson clover but wheat was used twice. This cover crop was turned down the next spring. Recalts Disappointment followed disappointment on Plat A; for a’severe winter at the outset killed several trees and undoubtedly lowered the vitality of many others. Because of this, or, more probably, because the valley Culture. on fruit. New Yorx AaricutturaL Experiment Sration. 911 soil and conditions are not well adapted to apple-growing, all of the trees were slow in maturing. When a crop was promised, by a good show of blossoms, untimely frosts or unseasonably cold weather at blooming time destroyed the prospect, so that in the whole ten years only scattering fruits were harvested on this plat. Here, tree-growth alone must be depended on for information as to the effect of the two methods; though this plat, by size, uniformity of soil and conditions, and arrangement of varieties, was considered most promising of all. On the B and C plats, on older trees, some apples have been pro- duced every year, and in a few seasons the yields have been excel- lent, for trees of this age. On these two plats, with four varieties, the trees in sod have yielded more fruit in twenty-five instances, those in tilled soil more in thirteen cases, while on two occasions the trees of one variety produced the same amount on each plat. With each variety the average annual yield of trees in sod was greater than that of those under tillage; but the differences were small, ranging from less than a peck with Northern Spy to a bushel and three-quarters with Fameuse. The fruit on the tilled sections was not as well colored as on sod, and was, for this reason, less desirable for market purposes, especially for a local or semi-private trade such as Mr. Hitchings has developed. The money value of this difference, however, would be hard to fix; and when we consider that high color is most frequently an index of lack of vigor in the trees bearing such fruit we must not place an exaggerated value on this characteristic. No constant difference in size of fruits grown by the two methods could be distinguished; but in many cases it was quite evident that the increased quantity of apples from the trees in sod was due to greater numbers rather than to larger size. The fruit yields on two plats apparently show eta the sod-mulch method better, but tree growth foliage indicates very little difference on these plats and color of foliage shows greater vigor in the tilled trees. On Plat B, Fameuse trees in sod made an average gain in tree diameter, during the ten years, of .89 inch more than those under tillage, while Wealthy trees reversed this showing with an increased gain of .73 inch for the tilled trees. On Plat C, Northern Spy trees made almost identically the same gain under the two methods. In no case, with these varieties on B and C, was the foliage better on the trees in sod and was as good only early in the season or after heavy rains. At all other times the tilled trees showed a darker green in their foliage; and in four seasons when observations were made they held the foliage longer in the fall. On A, with the younger trees, these foliage differences were much more noticeable and at 912 Poputar Eprrions or Srarion BULLETINS OF THE times striking, thus showing clearly the greater vigor of the trees on tilled soil. On this plat, tree diameters confirmed the evidence of the foliage; for both Greening and Sutton trees on the tilled sec- tion were more than an inch greater in diameter than those on sod, the Suttons nearly an inch and a quarter greater. These are con- siderable differences for trees of this age, and can not be considered as accidental, since 150 trees were measured. These figures plainly show greater vigor for tilled trees on this plat while on the other plats no such difference appeared. How is this to be explained? First, the soil on the hillside is deeper than that in the valley and gives the trees a larger feeding area so that the roots can get away from the grass; and, second, on the hillside there is an almost constant seepage of water from higher up the slope, which affords an abundance of moisture for both trees and grass. In the comparatively shallow and dry soil of the valley the trees in sod can not compete successfully with the grass for either water or food, and therefore suffer. With crop yields favoring the sod mulch under these conditions, the exact cost of production is not needed to prove it the better method in this orchard, for it is quite evidently cheaper to leave land in sod than to till it. It is well that the case is so plain, for it would be hard to reach a fair average for the cost of cultivation from the data secured in these tests. The plats were so small that the expense of handling them as units was greatly increased; and it is doubtful whether many orchards would require, or at least receive, as many cultivations during the season as were given the tilled sections of these plats. In brief, however, the cost of cultivation in A, the large plat in the valley, was $11.22 per acre annually; in B, the second plat in size, at the base of the hillside, $13.30, and in C, the small plat well up the slope on steeper grades, was $24.33 per acre. The cost of mowing the grass averaged 72 cents an acre. Other The relative cost of the two methods, even were crops equal, makes sod mulch better for Mr. Hitch- ings; and he finds other advantages. Under his method of harvesting, which is to allow many of the varieties to ripen on the tree and drop, or to shake them off, the exposed dirt under the tilled trees is decidedly objectionable, as it bruises and soils the fruit. This, with the poorer color of the red varieties under tillage, makes apples thus handled less acceptable in market. Wherene From the behavior of the Hitchings orchards, New York apple-growers may infer that there are particular places, soils and economic conditions under which the Hitchings method of sod-mulching apple trees may be used advantageously. Since the prerequisites for the success of the method, as indicated by the Auchter and Hitchings orchards, are not very generally found in this State, the Expense. considerations. sod mulch applicable? New York AGricuLttTurRAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 913 situations in which sod may be given preference over tillage should be set forth with exactitude. Ist. Orchards on steep hillsides where land would wash badly under tillage may be kept in sod.—There are few commercial apple orchards in New York in which cultivation may not be so managed that soil erosion will not interfere seriously with the tillage-and-cover-crop system. It is probable that clover or some other legume might be substituted advantageously for the blue grass and orchard grass of the Hitchings method where sod is desired to keep water from wearing the land away. 2d. Land covered with rocks, whether steep or not, must often be kept in sod because of the impossibility of tiling.— There are not a few such orchards in New York. 3d. The Hitchings method is best suited to soils having considerable depth.— It is adapted only to soils in which grass roots and tree root do not come in too intimate contact and too direct competition for food and moisture. The commercial apple orchards of New York are at present on lands the top soil of which averages less than a foot in depth. On these shallow soils the Hitchings method will prove a failure. 4th. Soils must be retentive of moisture-— To sustain trees at their best under the Hitchings method, soils must not only be deep but must be very retentive of moisture, or have the water table com- paratively close to the root run of the trees, or, as in the case of the orchards under discussion, must be fed by seepage from higher ground nearby. On land that suffers from summer drouths, this sod-mulch treatment will almost certainly prove less beneficial to trees than tillage. 5th.. Hconomic conditions may decide the choice between tillage and some mulching treatment.— The cost of caring for a sodded orchard is materially less, under this mode of mulching at least, than by tillage. If, then, a man chooses to grow apples extensively, rather than intensively, he may make larger acreage in sod counterbalance greater production under tillage thereby bringing the cost of pro- duction to the same level. The chief lesson taught by the Hitchings orchard, the Hitchings with its unique features, is that a man may break orchard. away from the common practice, when circum- stances render such practices difficult or impos- sible, and yet attain a high degree of success. The method of orchard- ing which takes its name from the Hitchings orchard is not as valu- able to the fruit-growers of New York as is the demonstration by Mr. Hitchings that new paths to success may be blazed — new practices devised to meet new conditions, old obstacles overcome in new ways. It is a splendid and successful example of resourceful pioneering and of persistent endeavor to attain the highest success. The pith and the point of the work in this orchard, so different from 58 The lesson of 914 PopuLar Epirions or SrTation BULLETINS. other orchards in the State, is that fruit-growing is intensely indi- vidual. The prime factor is the man. But from the success of Mr. Hitchings the apple-grower must not be led away from the general truth, that the individual problem can be solved most often by the rational application of the laws of nutrition and growth which plants generally follow. Applied to the problem of growing apples in New York, the general law is, that the apple, like other orchard, field and garden plants, responds to cultivation. PURITY OF FARM SEEDS IN 1913.* F, H. HALL, The seed inspection law of New York State is secur- Adulteration ing some of the good results expected from it. of seeds Only 173 per ct. of the samples collected in 1913 decreasing. failed to reach the standard set by the law, while in 1912 almost 21 per ct. were in violation of its provisions. The mixed grass seeds, such as the lawn mixtures, were poorest in quality, as three of the six samples, or 50 per ct., were in violation of the law. One of these samples contained only 37 per ct. of pure seed and another less than 50 per ct. Those who wish to use mixtures of different grasses will find it much safer and more economical to buy the seeds of the several kinds desired and mix them at home. Almost as large a percentage of alsike clover samples as of lawn grass were in violation of the law, 44 per ct. of the 34 samples; but the quality of the seed was very much better, since only one sample showed less than 75 per ct. of pure seed, one other less than 80 per ct. and eight others less than 90 per ct. Red clover was somewhat better than alsike, with 25 violations out of 85 samples, or about 30 per ct., of which only one sample contained less than 85 per ct. of pure seed, and three others less than 90 per ct. Redtop was not as good as it should be, showing 17 per ct. of violations, with one sample containing less than 65 per ct. of pure seed, one 75 per ct., and nine others less than 90 per ct. White clover was still better, with one violation only out of eight samples, and this contained more than 90 per ct. of good seed. The one violation among the nine samples of blue grass contained almost 90 per ct. of good seed, but one other sample, not a violation of the law since it contained only smail quantities of other seeds, was so mixed with rubbish that it showed less than 75 per ct. of good seed, two samples only 80 per ct., and none of the remaining five samples was over 91 per ct. The examination of timothy seed brought to light only one violation in 86 samples, with 95 per ct. of pure seed; and practically all the other samples showed 97, 98, even 99 per ct., or better, of good timothy. * Reprint of Popular Edition of Bulletin No. 378; for Bulletin see p. 690. [915] 916 Porunar Epirions or Station BULLETINS OF THE No samples contrary to law were found in alfalfa, crimson clover, millet, orchard grass, rape or vetch; but the orchard grass con- tained too large an amount of rubbish to entitle it to very high grade. From some of the cases mentioned above it will Seed law ibe seen that the seed law does not safeguard the only partial purchaser to anything like the same extent as other protection. inspection laws. The fertilizer law requires the manufacturer or dealer to guarantee the amount of valuable ingredients in the brand; and the feeding stuffs law demands, in addition, that one rather undesirable ingredient, fiber, shall not exceed a certain minimum without an explicit statement, among the other guarantees, of its presence and amount, and also that all constituents of mixed feeds shall be named on the container. The seed law, on the contrary, requires no guarantee of the amount of pure seed, but merely that a label must be used if the seeds contain ‘in excess of three per centum .. . of foul or foreign seeds.” This makes it very necessary for the purchaser to examine closely the seed he is about to buy, even if he has the dealer’s guarantee that it com- plies with the law. Personal examination will usually detect any considerable amount of rubbish present, like sand, gravel, chaff, pieces of plant stems, joints of grasses or similar material, for such substances are much more easily recognized than foreign seeds. If the seed appears to contain considerable amounts of such rubbish, the buyer should insist that it be cleaned before he takes it, secure a reduction in price proportionate to the amount of impurity, or look elsewhere for his supply. The seed buyer should also make sure that the seeds of per- nicious weeds are not included among the impurities in the seed he secures. Alfalfa seed under the limit of ‘‘ three per centum of foul or foreign seeds ”’ and hence legally sold without a label, might contain enough wild mustard seeds to give 120,000 plants of this pest to the acre, enough of Canada thistle to give 300,000 plants, or of alfalfa dodder to give 350,000 plants. Again, the samples of seeds do not represent goods that are likely to be as uniform in source and quality from year to year as are the standard brands of fertilizers and feeds. For these reasons, the seed inspection bulletin under the present law can not be as useful a guide in the purchase of seeds as are the other inspection bulletins in respect to the goods they cover. How- ever, the knowledge that the seeds they handle are liable to sampling and analysis, with public announcement of the results and prosecu- tion for violations, makes dealers much more careful in regard to seed quality, so that, as we have seen, there has been a general, and not inconsiderable, improvement in seed-trade conditions in 1913 as compared with 1912. New York AGRICULTURAL ExpreRIMENT Station. 917 The regular bulletin bearing the same number as this ‘‘ popular edition ’’ contains the results of these official inspection analyses. This bulletin will be sent on request, but its somewhat limited usefulness seems to make it inadvisable to send it to all on the Station mailing list, as is done with the fertilizer and feeding stuffs bulletins, The seed-inspection law is so restricted in scope Voluntary that even with the yearly bulletin at hand, the examinations. individual purchaser would have little assurance as to the quality of the seeds in his market; there- fore the Station will continue, until the demands overtax its facilities, to make examinations of samples for farmers who wish to sow only pure seed. Certain conditions are essential, however, if the samples are to furnish reliable information. First, the sample must be large enough to represent fairly the quantity of seed from which it is taken. This means at least two ounces for the larger seeds, like alfalfa, the clovers, millet and rape, and at least one ounce for grass seeds. Second, the sample should be taken from lots from which the dealer agrees to supply the purchaser’s needs after the report of the analys's has been received. The small packets or samples sometimes furnished by dealers are frequently taken from seed specially cleaned for advertising purposes; and examination of them serves to delude rather than to enlighten the sender. Third, in taking samples, the bulk of seed should be thoroughly mixed, or small quantities should be taken from top, middle and bottom of the bag or other container and mixed before taking out the amount to be sent to the Station. Fourth, the sample should be sealed in a strong, tight package that will not be easily broken in the mail. and marked plainly with the name and address of the sender. It is not sufficient to send an unmarked package with a separate letter describing its contents, as the Station may receive a score of seed samples in a single mail. If these conditions are complied with, the Station will examine the samples as promptly as possible, usually within two days, and report to the sender at once, giving the percentage of pure seed, percentage of rubbish and percentage of other seeds, with an indica- tion of the kind and quantity of spec ally undesirable weed seeds present. A statement is also usually made as to the general quality of the seed; but the Station does not make germination tests. It must be thoroughly understood that these examinations will be made for farmers only, or for other intending purchasers of seed for farm use. The Station can not and will not examine seeds for dealers or others who wish to know their quality for purposes of sale, or for labeling under the law. THOROUGHNESS PAYS IN POTATO SPRAYING* F. H. HALL. Potato New York State potato-growers still have much spraying to learn about spraying. Many of them appar- neglected. ently know little about the benefits from this practice, since they fail to spray at all. Others evidently believe in spraying, but make too few applications or put them on too carelessly to obtain the most profitable results. In one of the most important potato-growing sections of the State, near Rush, the Station sprayed small areas in 66 fields, in only 19 of which, or less than 29 per ct., did the owners spray at all. It is probable that not much over one-fourth of the potato-growers of the State spray. This is somewhat surprising, for the Station has urged the practice for many years, and in two series of tests, one extending over nine years and the other ten, has proved clearly that spraying is a most profitable insurance investment. In the ten-year tests under Station conditions the average increase was at the rate of 97% bushels per acre annually; while in the farmers’ business experiments extending over nine years, spraying gave a net profit in 94 cases out of 114, or 82.4 per ct., and the average annual net gain, financially, was $14.48 per acre on over 1,500 acres. Thus there is a certainty of a nice gain from spraying, if made a regular practice, with only slight possibility of loss in a few cases, as the average Joss in the 20 cases where any occurred was only $5.78 an acre on 233% acres. The average gain in yield in the Station tests, almost 100 bushels to the acre, is much better than the average in the farmers’ business tests, 36 bushels; which seems to indicate a difference in thoroughness between Station spraying and applications made on the farm. It is probably true, however, that yields at the Station, on strong soil and with good culture, are better than yields generally and the gains from spraying therefore greater. Hence, to test the Station work enforces thoroughness. * Reprint of Popular Edition of Bulletin No. 379; for Bulletin see p. 244. [918] New York AGricutturaAL ExperIMEeNT Station. 919 effect of thoroughness it is necessary to do the work on farms where all conditions, except the spraying, are such as the average farmer would meet. Accordingly arrangements were made by which ore eae ieh: the Station secured the right to spray one-fiftieth of an acre in each of many potato fields near Rush. The Station employed a man (a Cornell student, during his summer vacation) to measure the required area in each field and to spray the vines thoroughly every two weeks. As already stated, no bordeaux spraying was done by the owner in 47 of the 66 fields selected; while in the other 19 fields the Station spraying was in addition to from one to eight treatments by the owner. The Station work was done . with a knapsack sprayer, thoroughly and repeatedly, so that five applications were made on late-planted fields and six on those planted earlier. Results The season was a very poor one for testing ; any spray treatment, as dry weather restricted growth and prevented development of fungus diseases, while a frost on the night of Sept. 14, when the sprayed vines were still green and vigorous, cut the season short two or three weeks. Very little early blight appeared and no late blight, so that the greatest factors in spray benefit were absent; yet by a somewhat better control of “bugs” in a few instances, some repression of tip-burn and by the little-understood stimulus of the copper sulphate on potato plants, spraying resulted in increased yields in 41 out of 47 unsprayed fields and in 15 out of 19 of those sprayed more or less frequently and thoroughly by their owners. The average net gain, as measured by the difference between the actual weighed yield of the sprayed row and of an equal length of check row beside it, was at the rate of 172 bushels per acre where no spraying was done by the owner and 15 bushels where the owner sprayed and the gain came from the added applications or more thorough work in the Station spraying. Beeanct a6 These tests confirm the belief gained from aie previous potato spraying experiments, that this ; operation is seldom performed at a loss and is generally very profitable. Certainly conditions would rarely be as unfavorable for showing benefit from spraying as in these cases, yet in probably more than one-third of the fields there was a finan- cial profit from the spraying, no gain or very slight loss in another third of the fields, and a smail loss on most of the remaining fields. This applies with almost equal force to sprayed and unsprayed fields. The work also enforces the necessity for careful, thorough and repeated applications if the greatest benefit is to be secured; for there was apparently, in this dry season, little gain from much of the spraying done by the growers themselves. SOME FERTILIZER TESTS IN VINEYARDS.* F. H. HALL. In the Chautauqua Grape Belt the vineyard area Declining increased fully one-third between 1900 and 1913, but grape yields the yield of grapes for the last half of this period demanded was only 33 per ct. greater than for the first half. In investigation. other words, while the area increased, the yields per acre decreased, so that many vineyards became a source of loss rather than gain to their owners. The very poor crop cf 1908 called attention forcefuily to the need for investigation into the cause, or causes, of the reduced yields, and an appropriation was secured from the State Legislature to support such work. In the spring of 1909 this Station leased a 30-acre farm near Fredonia on which there was already a large vineyard, and sent a corps of investi- gators into the field to learn, if possible, why these declines in yield had occurred. A general survey of the situation made it clear than many vineyards had been planted on soils too thin, too infertile or too poorly drained to be suitable for grape culture; but many vineyards were noted, both old and young, on good soils but not producing profitable annual crops. Here something was evidently amiss, and it has been the object of the Station studies and tests to locate the unfavorable influences. Already much has been done to enable grape-growers to control certain insect pests that have, at times and over quite wide areas, seriously reduced crops; and directions for handling these foes have been given in Bulletins 331, 344, and 359 of the Station. In this bulletin there is presented a summary of five years’ work in applying commercial fertilizers in order to insure an ample supply of plant food for the vines and the fruit they should bear. A preliminary survey of conditions relative to the use of fertilizers in this district showed no uniformity of practice and no consistent gains from the many fertilizing materials and combinations used in different vineyards. The only conclusion that could be reached from this survey was “ that growers who had used commercial fertilizers regularly, other conditions being the same, had secured less variable crops from year to year, than those who had made irregular and scant applications or none at all.” * Reprint of Popular Edition of Bulletin No. 381; for Bulletin see p. 572. [920] New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 921 Five years’ work with commercial fertilizers has now Range and _ been completed in the leased vineyard at Fredonia; results and from two to four years’ work with similar fertili- of tests. zers, and in some cases with manure and cover crops also, has been carried on in cooperation with the owners of six other vineyards in different parts of the Grape Belt. The results prove, mainly, that the problem of grape fertilizers is very dependent on other factors, and no very definite conclusions as regards specific applications have been reached through these compre- hensive tests. In the Fredonia vineyard, readily available nitrogen appears to be a determining factor in crop yields; but the other tests give no positive indications in the same direction. In these tests the duplicate plats in many instances give variant results; or the favorable influence of a fertilizer element in one combination will be offset by a loss or no gain when the same element is used in another combination. The conclusions which might be drawn from one vineyard are also quite liable to be at variance from those furnished by another vineyard under apparently comparable conditions. In the vineyard at Fredonia eleven plats were,laid Tests at out in a section of the vineyard where inequalities of Fredonia. soil and other conditions were slight or were neutral- ized. Each plat included three rows (about one- sixth of an acre) and was separated from the adjoining plats by a “ buffer ”’ row not under test. One plat in the center of the section served as a check, and five different fertilizer combinations were used on duplicate plats at either side of the check. Plats 1 and 7 received lime and a complete fertilizer with quick-acting and slow-acting nitrogen; Plats 2 and 8 received the complete fertilizer but no lime; on Plats 3 and 9 potash was omitted from the complete fertilizer combination; Plats 4 and 10 received no phosphorus; Plats 5 and 11, no nitrogen; and Plat 6 was the check. The materials were applied at such rates that they provided for the first year 72 pounds of nitrogen per acre, 25 pounds of phosphorus and 59 pounds of potas- sium; and for each of the last four years two-thirds as much nitrogen and phosphorus and eight-ninths as much potassium. The lime was applied the first and fourth years in quantity to make a ton to the acre annually. Cover crops were sown on all plats alike and were plowed under in late April or early May of each year. These differed in successive years, but included no legumes. The crops used were rye, wheat, barley and cowhorn turnips separately and the last two in combination. The cultivation differed only in thoroughness from that generally used in the Belt, the aim being to maintain a good dust mulch during the whole growing season. Pruning by the Chautauqua System was done throughout by one man, who pruned solely according to the vigor of the individual vines and left four, two or three, or no fruiting canes as appeared best. The vineyard was thoroughly sprayed, all plats alike. oe 922 Porutar Eprrions or Sration BULLETINS OF THE Low winter temperatures, affecting immature wood and buds caused by unfavorable weather of the previous season, reduced yields materially during two of the five years, and practically neutralized any anticipated benefit from fertilizers. Following the first of these low-crop years, came a season, 1911, in which favorable conditions, acting upon vines left undiminished in vigor by the light crop of the previous year, resulted in heavy and quite uniform yieldson all the plats. The yields for the five years are shown in Table I; and a summary showing the average gains from each treatment is given in Table II, with the average financial balance after deducting the cost of fertilizer application from the increased returns from the plats receiving them. TaBLe I.— YrevD oF Grapes (Tons per Acre) IN FervitizER EXPERIMENTS. Plat 1909. | 1910. | 1911. | 1912. | 1913. | 5-year No. average. Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons.| Tons. 1 | Complete fertilizer; lime........| 4.48 | 2.10 | 5.37 | 3.46 | 2.14 3.51 2 | Complete fertilizer............. 4.76 | 2.21 | 5.71 | 4.30 | 2.88 3.96 3 | Nitrogen and phosphorus....... 9.17 | 2.14, | 5.61.) 4.00 | 2.25 3.33 4 | Nitrogen and potash........... 4.25 |.2.55 | 5.64 | 4.10 | 2.85 3.87 5 | Phosphorus and potash.........| 3.41 | 2.00 | 5.44 | 4.35 | 1.78 3.39 CHIRCHeCKNG He FOr SABA Sao ae 3.38 | 2.10 | 5.32 | 3.60 | 1.24 3.12 7 | Complete fertilizer; lime........| 4.69 | 2.38 | 5.62 | 4.80 | 3.04 4.10 8 | Complete fertilizer............. 4.66 | 2.07 | 5.71 | 4.98 | 2.72 4.02 9 | Nitrogen and phosphorus....... 4.99 | 2.04 | 5.35 | 4.89 | 2.61 3.97 10 | Nitrogen and potash........... 4.79 | 2.26 | 5.91 | 4.89 | 3.07 4.18 11 | Phosphorus and potash........ 4.99 | 1.87 | 5.03 | 4.21 | 1.97 3.61 TasLe I].— Averace INCREASE IN GRAPE YIELDS AND AVERAGE FINANCIAL GAIN FROM FERTILIZER APPLICATIONS. N =nitrogen, P= phosphorus, K = potash, Ca=lime. Gains in tons per acre. ING SP KG INGORE RINE eral PING pion | ee een Ca. ; Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. PirStaplairolapalte sah Meter 3.51 3.96 3.83 3.87 3.39 Second platiof pair: 3:0... 246.0%. 4.10 4.02 3.97 4.18 3.61 AVICTAL Chie tatyciey ces mse ys 3.80 3.97 3.90 4.02 3.50 Check plath crac ccs ah eer er ei 3.12 3.12 3.12 3,12 3.12 Average: gainlhs Os 000. Ate ete .68 85 .78 .90 38 Average financial gain............. $5.82 | $13.84 | $14.05 | $18.54 $6.99 Lo eee ie) atlen [ From this last table the benefit from nitrogen appears quite evident since every combination in which it appears gives a substantial gain over the one from which it is absent. Phosphorus and potassium, without the nitrogen, lead to only a slight increase over the check; New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 923 and lime appears to be of no benefit. Financially, the complete fer- tilizer and lime combination, the nitrogen and phosphorus combina- tion and the phosphorus and potassium combination failed to pay their cost in five of the ten comparisons; the complete fertilizer was used at a loss four times out of ten; and the nitrogen and potassium combination three times out of ten. Lime had no appreciable effect on either vines or fruit. No effect of the fertilizers on the fruit itself, aside from yield, was shown for the first three years; but in 1912, and even more markedly in 1913, the fruit from the plats on which nitrogen had been used was superior in compactness of cluster, size of cluster and size of berry. In 1912 also, when early ripening was a decided advantage, the fruit on the nitrogen plats matured earlier than that on the check plats. In 1913 the favorable ripening season and the smaller crop tended to equalize the time of ripening on all plats. The grapes on the phos- phorus-potassium plats were better in quality than those in the check plats but not as good as those on the plats where nitrogen was used. Other indexes also show plainly the benefit from nitrogen in this vineyard; for size and weight of leaf, weight of wood produced and number of fruiting canes left on the vines were all greater where fertilizers, and particularly nitrogen, had been used. The three-year averages (1911-1913) of the measurements for these characteristics are shown in Table III. Tasis IJ].— Comparative PropuctTion or LEAvEs, Woop AND FruitTina CANES on Grape VINES DIFFERENTLY FERTILIZED. (Averages for three years.) Leaf Wood Fruiting FERTILIZER APPLICATION. weight.* | pruned.f | canes left.f Grams. Lbs. Complete fertilizer; lime)... os. 03. ge es es 1,033 1,295 2,468 @ompletetertilizens = ses). 2st. eet cs acon oy ve ce 1,010 1,367 2,609 Nitrogeniand phosphorus: «0%. 0's. Yee 1,047 1,272 2,585 Nitrogen:and| potassium: ss* J)/).'.42: gaan. 1,069 1,401 2,646 Phosphorus and potassium.................... 964 1,086 2,326 Chiecksseptees secee ec isic err a ios ace Nations sasaesiens 930 915 2,110 SS Se SS SSE Se ee *Each weight is of 300 green leaves, 5 from each of 60 vines. The first leaf beyond the last cluster was selected. {+ Amount per acre of wood pruned in fall. t Number per acre. In order to secure information as to the behavior of Cooperative fertilizers on the different soils of the Grape Belt, experiments. cooperative tests were carried on in six vineyards owned, respectively, by 8. S. Grandin, Westfield; Hon. C. M. Hamilton, State Line; James Lee, Brocton; H. 8S. Miner, 924 Porunar Epirions or Sratrion BULLETINS OF THE Dunkirk; Miss Frances Jennings, Silver Creek; and J. T. Barnes, Prospect Station. The soil in these vineyards included gravelly loam, shale loam and clay loam, all in the Dunkirk series, and the experiments covered from two to two and a half acres in three cases and about five acres in each of the other vineyards. The work con- tinued four years in all but one of the experiments, which it was neces- sary to end after the second year. The general plan of the tests was much like that at Fredonia in most of the vineyards, with the additions of plats for stable manure and for leguminous and non-leguminous cover crops with and with- out lime. From two to six check plats were left for comparison in each vineyard. As already stated the results were often incon- sistent in duplicate plats in the same vineyard, and if one test ap- peared to point definitely in a certain direction, the indication would be negatived by results in other vineyards. In these experi- ments the yield of fruit was the only index to the effect of treat- ments; as it was not possible to weigh leaves or pruned wood, or to count the canes left. Nitrogen and potassium in combination, which Commercial gave the largest gains and greatest profit in the fertilizers Station vineyard at Fredonia, showed a 13 per ct. in cooperative increase in yield on one plat in the Jennings vine- tests. yard and a 9 per ct. decrease on the other; in the Miner vineyard this combination apparently re- sulted in a 25 per ct. increase, in the Lee vineyard in a 2% per ct. loss; in the Hamilton vineyard a 17 per ct. gain; and in the Grandin vineyard neither gain nor loss. In only two of the five vineyards in which this combination was tested was the gain great enough to pay the cost of the fertilizer applied. Similar discrepancies, or absence of profitable gain, mark the use of the other fertilizer combinations. Even stable manure, the standby of the farmer Manure and and fruit-grower, when applied at the rate of five cover crops in tons per acre each spring, and plowed in, did not, cooperative on the average, pay for itself. Indeed, there were tests. few instances among the 60 comparisons possible, in which more than a very moderate profit could be credited to manure. The average increase in yield following the application of manure alone was less than a quarter of a ton of grapes to the acre; while the use of lime with the manure increased the gain to one-third of a ton per acre. The ton of lime to the acre annually would not be paid for by the gain of 175 pounds of grapes. Cover crops were used in five of the six cooperative ex- periments; and proved even less adapted to increasing crop yields than did the manure. There was no appreciable gain, on the aver- age, from the use of mammoth clover; indeed, a slight loss must be recorded for the clover except upon the plats which were also limed, and even with the lime the average yields on check plats and New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 925 mammoth clover plats differed by only one one-hundredth of a ton. Wheat or barley with cowhorn turnips made a slightly better show- ing, as the plats on which these crops were turned under, without lime, averaged about one-twentieth of a ton to the acre better than the checks. With these non-legumes, lime was apparently a detri- ment, as the plats with the lime yielded a tenth of a ton less, on the average, than those without it. The results of the several tests of which this Suggestions bulletin is an account throw comparatively little from the light on the value of fertilizers for grapes. It is results. evident that the fertilization of vineyards, as well as of orchards, fields and gardens, is so involved with other factors that only carefully planned and long continued work will give reliable results. Indeed, field experiments even in carefully selected vineyards, as the cooperative experiments show, may be so contradictory and misleading as to be worse than useless if deductions are made from the results of a few seasons. The work that has been done is not without value, however, for it has brought forth information about fertilizing vineyards that ought to be most helpful to grape-growers. Thus the results suggest: First, and most important, that it is usually waste, pure and simple, to make applications of fertilizers in poorly-drained vine- yards, in such as suffer frequently from winter cold or spring frosts, where insect pests are epidemic and uncontrolled, or where good care is lacking. The experiments furnish several examples of inertness, ineffectiveness, or failure to produce profit where the fertilizers were applied under any of the conditions named. Second, it is certain in some of the experiments and strongly indicated in others that the soil is having a one-sided wear — that only one or a very few of the elements of fertility are lacking. The element most frequently lacking is nitrogen. The grape-grower should try to discover which of the fertilizing elements his soil lacks and not waste by using elements not needed. Third, the marked unevenness of the soil in all of the seven vine- yards in which these experiments were carried on, as indicated by the crops and the effects of the fertilizers, furnishes food for thought to grape-growers. Maximum profits cannot be approached in vineyards in which the soil is as uneven as in these, which were in every case selected because there was an appearance of uniformity. A problem before the grape-growers of Chautauqua county is to make more uniform all conditions in their vineyards. Fourth, a grape-grower may assume that his vines do not need fertilizers if they are vigorous and making a fair annual growth. When the vineyard is found to be failing in vigor, the first step to be taken is to make sure that the drainage is good; the second step, to control insect and fungus pests; the third, to give tillage and good care; and the fourth step is to apply fertilizers if they be found necessary, , CONTROL OF CABBAGE MAGGOT ON EARLY CABBAGE.* Ey EAT: Any pest which attacks the roots of plants Cabbage maggot snust be considered a dangerous enemy. The injuries serious. . . . injury involves the parts most essential to the life of plants; and the pest itself is lable to be so hidden from view that its presence will become known only when the effects of its work appear, which is frequently too late for effective control. The concealment in the soil, also, and the protective influence of this cover make repressive measures very difficult and uncertain. or these reasons, control of the cabbage maggot has long been a problem for entomologists. In the growing of late cabbage, however, the insect is not to be feared in the field, since its ravages for the season are over before the plants are set; and the practice of screening seed beds (discussed in Bulietins 301 and 334 of this Station) makes it possible to secure, at only slight expense, healthy, uninjured, vigorous plants to set. Upon early cabbage, on the contrary, the cab- Work on early }a0e mageot is a field pest; and its injuries cabbage. ; are sometimes so severe as to destroy all hope of profit from the crop. In order to secure the best prices for early cabbage, the heads should be ready for market in July; and this means that the plants must be set in the field — from greenhouses or cold frames — in late April or early May. Shortly after this time (May 20 to June 5) the cabbage maggot flies * Reprint of Popular Edition of Bulletin No. 382; for Bulletin see p. 405. [926] New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 927 appear and are busy laying their eggs. From these the larve hatch in a few days so that when the young plants should be mak- ing their best growth the maggots are most abundant and most busily at work. In consequence, entire plantings of early cabbage sometimes present the appearance of the check rows shown on the title page and in Plate XX; and the roots, upon examination, are found to be as pictured in Plate XXIV. Against this pest, only two methods of control are practicable — the young maggots may be killed by injecting into the soil some contact insecticide, or the flies may be prevented from laying their eggs about the plants. Many materials have been tested for the pur- pose of destroying these larve, but, in the main, without thor- oughly satisfactory results. If strong enough to kill the mag- gots the materials employed have also been strong enough to Use of insecticides. injure the delicate roots of the plants and to so stunt them that the crops have been little better than they would if the insects had been allowed to work undisturbed. The experiments made by other entomologists, some of them dating back thirty years, and preliminary tests made at the Sta- tion seemed to indicate that carbolic acid emulsion was most promising of all the insecticides suggested, and it was decided to make a series of thorough tests with it in both laboratory and field. : In the laboratory, direct immersion of eggs of Tests of caroblic : - oo 1 1 1 Seidemiulsion. the maggot flies in the emulsion, even when as strong as 114 per ct. of carbolic acid, did not affect them; but when the eges were covered with soil and treated with emulsion, so that the exposure was more prolonged, as it would be in the field, few of the eges hatched and the larve that did hatch died near the eggs. This was true even when the emulsion contained only one-third of one per et. of the acid. Field tests with the emulsion were made during two different years on cabbage seed beds near Seneca Castle, but it proved wholly ineffective, though not injurious to plants five to seven 928 Porunar EpitTions oF STATION BULLETINS OF THE inches high. On plants one or two inches high the same emulsion was very injurious. In tests on transplanted cabbage, in two fields — one heavy clay and the other light sand — an emulsion slightly stronger than one-third of one per ct. acid caused serious injury to recently set plants. Plants longer set were not injured. As a result of all these tests with insecticides, then, even the one commonly regarded as best is a very uncertain dependence against cabbage maggot. Although it will destroy eggs and young mag- gots when used at a strength of one-third of one per ct. carboliec acid, it will not kill older larvee; and it is certain to injure small or recently set plants and liable to do some harm even to older plants. There remains, therefore, only one resouree— Tar-pads. : e : to prevent the flies from laying their eggs on the plants. The so-called “ repellent”? materials —lme, ashes, tobacco dust, tar, ete.—have proved either wholly ineffective or too expensive to use; but one mechanical obstruction to egg laying—the “tar-pad” or hexagonal tar-paper collar — has given excellent results and can be applied at only shght expense. These pads are made from single-ply tarred felt, are hexagonal disks about 3 inches from angle to angle, slit to the center at one angle and with a short cross cut at the center which allows the collar to fit about the stem of the plant. When placed in position it should lie close upon the ground and fit snugly about the stem, so that the flies of the cabbage maggot are mechanically prevented from reaching the stem at the point where the eggs should be laid, just at, or slightly below, the surface of the ground. These pads can be easily and rapidly cut by the use of a special tool, not patented, and easily made by any good blacksmith. The pads can be made for from 50 to 55 cents a thousand. The idea of using such pads was first proposed about 25 years ago, and they have been used with good success in several localities since that time. In New York State, however, their adoption has not been general, though they are made commercially by firms on Long Island and at Rochester. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTIon. 929 At the Station four careful tests with these Tests of pads were made during 1912 and two during tar-pads. be 1913, and the results justify a hearty recom- mendation of this method of preventing injury to early cabbage by maggots. In three of the tests injury from maggots was great and benefit from use of the pads was marked. In the first field 400 disks were applied to four alternate rows of plants on May 22, and during the next month ten per ct. of the check plants were either killed or badly wilted, as compared with one per ct. of those protected by the tar-pads. In addition to this notable numerical difference, the cabbages in the protected rows were slightly larger than those in the check rows. That is, mag- gots had worked on the unprotected plants and checked their growth even where the attack was not severe enough to result in death or distinct dwarfing. This same effect was observed in all the other tests where maggots were abundant. This check to growth materially interferes with early heading, a most important factor in profitable marketing of early cabbage. In the second test 16 per ct. of the check plants were killed or seriously in- jured, as compared with 514 per ct. of those protected. In this ease the lumpy condition of the clay soil and low setting of the plants made it impossible to place the disks so that effective pro- tection could be secured in all cases, and a heavy shower soon after placing the disks covered many of them with earth and allowed the flies to deposit eggs on the stems above the pads. In the third test of 1912, the injuries on checks and protected rows were eight per ct. and two-thirds of one per ct. respectively. In the most striking test in 1913 disks were placed on about 700 plants in six alternate rows, on May 3. By June 5 the alternate rows showed marked differences, as brought out in the illustra- tions. It was estimated on June 9 that 93 per ct. of the pro tected plants and only 45 per ct. of the checks would make market- able heads. After harvest it was found that nearly three-fourths of the plants in the protected rows had furnished suitable heads for early marketing and only one-fifth of those on the check rows. 59 930 Porvutar Epirions oF Station BULLETINS OF THE On the basis of 1,000 plants, the results were as follows: 1,000 protected plants yield 723 marketable heads 1,000 check t Piri kOe ik i Gain due to tar-pads... 530 Value cf 530 heads at 814 cents per head.... $44 17 Costrot, protection’. arice allan. te delan oe 1 40 Net profit per 1,000 protected plants.... $42 77 M is In two of the tests of the first year and in one aggot injury ties unevenly the second year, cabbage-maggot injury was distributed. comparatively slight, even on the check rows, although other fields nearby suffered severely from the pest. This restricted distribution of maggot infestation is a factor that must be considered by each grower; for fields adjacent to those badly infested, or even certain areas in infested fields, may be com- paratively free from the insects and therefore need no protection. In testing the utility of the use of the pads it will be well to apply them on alternate rows, leaving the intervening rows as checks, in order that the extent of the infestation and the effectiveness of the pads may be more readily learned. If uninfested areas of considerable size are noted, they should be kept under observation in subsequent years, as soil or other conditions there may regu- larly make these areas practically immune to maggot injury, so that pads need not be applied. These tests prove quite plainly and con- clusively that where maggots are abundant ana where conditions are such that the pads can be properly applied, these tarred-paper disks serve as efficient protectors of the cabbage plants. They not only prevent serious injury to practically all the plants, but protect all from the slighter infestation which re- Conclusions. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 9381 tards growth and makes the earliest and most profitable market- ing of the crop impossible. Their use has advantages over the use of carbolic-acid emulsion, aside from the greater certainty of protection and liability of the latter to injure the plants. It is easier to apply the pads than to make one application of the emul- sion, and to insure effectiveness of the carbolic acid, repeated treatments are necessary. In using the emulsion, also, the grower is apt to delay treatment too long; while the pads are best applied as soon as the plants are set and then need no further attention. In the past, the tarred-paper disks have been offered for sale at about seventy cents a thou- sand, and they can be made at home for less than this. In our ex- periments on sandy soil, with plants of suitable size, one man was able, without any previous experience, to adjust the pads care- fully at the rate of 300 per hour. On this basis the cost of pro- tecting cabbage will run approximately from $1.35 to $1.50 a thousand plants. The labor cost will vary according to the char- acter and condition of the ground, and the way in which the plants are set. It is difficult to protect properly, by the disks, plants that are set low in the ground or are wilted. In the employment of tar-pads as a means of protecting early cabbage, truckers should ar- range to transplant seedlings of good size with rather long stems. Disks cannot be satisfactorily adjusted about small plants, for in setting such seedlings it is necessary to place them low in the soil so that only the leaves protrude. Moreover, while transplant- ing it is well to avoid placing the seedling in a depression. This frequently occurs when the work of setting is done by hand, for in making a hole for the roots more earth is removed than is necessary, so that after the operation is completed the plant occu- pies the center of a shallow basin. Tar-pads placed about cab- bages that have been set in such situations are liable to become covered with soil during the first shower, which reduces their efficiency. Cost. Recommendations. 932 Poruuar Epitions or Station BuLueEtTInNs. Some growers set their cabbage plants on a slight ridge. This practice is an advantage where tar-pads are used, as the protectors are not liable to become covered with soil. To secure the greatest benefit the tar papers should be applied immediately after the plants are set in the field. If this work is delayed for several days it gives the flies an opportunity to deposit numerous eggs about the plants. The method of applying the card is to separate the two edges of the slit running to the center, slip the card around the plant after it is set, and see that it fits snugly about the stem. The paper pad should then be pressed down firmly so that the under surface will be in contact with the soil, and the radial opening closed. (Fig. 23, p. 420.) In the use of tar-pads the more important points to keep in mind are to set good-sized plants, place them on a ridge rather than in a trench, and attach the tar papers at the time the seedlings are trans- planted. HOW SOD AFFECTED AN APPLE ORCHARD. IL* F. H. HALL. Five years ago a bulletin of this Station, No. Tillage 314, announced that in the Auchter orchard, superior to typical of the great majority of commercial apple sod mulch. orchards of western New York, the tillage-and- cover-crop system of soil management was, in practically every way, superior to the sod-mulch system. Five additional crops have confirmed this conclusion and strengthened the belief that grass roots above apple-tree roots are detrimental to the health of the trees and a menace to good crops. Under exceptional circumstances, as in the Hitchings orchards, discussed in Bulletin No. 375, deep soils well supplied with moisture may grow both apples and grass successfully and to the financial advantage of the orchardist; but such conditions are so uncommon in commercial orcharding in the great New York apple-belt that the only safe practice is to adopt the tillage-and-cover-crop system unless careful study of all factors has proved sod-mulch better for the particular combination of topographical, soil, labor and market conditions in individual orchards. The Auchter orchard, in which the experiment Auchter here reported was located, is near Rochester, in orchard and _s the _heart of the ‘‘ apple belt’ and was chosen its management. because it was uniform in soil and topography and quite typical of the apple orchards of western New York. The land is slightly rolling and is a fertile Dunkirk loam, about ten inches deep, underlaid by a sandy subsoil. The orchard includes nine and one-half acres, set to Baldwin apple trees, 40 feet apart each way, which were 27 years old when the experiment began in 1903. About 120 trees were included in each half of the experiment. On the sections devoted to t llage the land was plowed each spring and cultivated from four to seven times, after which * Reprint of Popular Edition of Bulletin No. 383; for Bulletin, see p. 529. [933] 934 Poruntar Epitions or STATION BULLETINS OF THE a cover crop was sown, usually during the last week in July. During all but the last year of the past five-year period the cover crop has been medium or mammoth red clover, but in 1913 oats were sown. On the sod-mulch plats the orehard grass and blue grass were cut once, sometimes twice, and the crop allowed to le where it fell. In all other respects except the application of fertilizers in certain sub-sections, the treatment of the plats has been alike and such as prevails in the best commercial orchards. During the first five years of the experiment Experimental the orchard was divided into east and west halves conditions for the cultural operations and during the last and results. five years into north and south halves. In this way, at the close of the ten years the northeast quarter of the orchard has been tilled ten years, the northwest quarter in sod five years and then tilled five years, the southwest quarter in sod ten years and the southeast quarter cultivated five years and then in sod five years. About one-half of the area in sod during the last half of the test — a section through the middle of the area — received annual applications of nitrate of soda in an effort to overcome the unfavorable influence of the grass. In considering results, of course yield comes first, since orcharding is a commercial proposition and upon the amount of fruit harvested must largely depend the income; but in comparing systems where production cost differs as greatly as in sod-mulch and tillage methoeés of soil management, it is essential to associate these costs with the yields. The average yield on the plat left in sod for ten years was 69.16 barrels per acre, on the plat tilled for ten years 116.8 barrels, a difference in favor of the tilled plat of 47.64 barrels per acre. These apples were sold at varying prices but averaged $2.60 for barreled stock and 72 cents for evaporator and cider stock, from which sales there was secured an average annual return of $126.04 per acre for the apples grown on sod and of $224.15 from those under tillage. The average acre-cost of growing the apples on sod was $51.73 and under tillage $83.48. Subtracting these figures from the gross return we have a “ balance” per acre for the sodded plats of $74.31 and for the tilled plats of $140.67, an increase in favor of tillage of $66.36. For every dollar taken from the sodded trees, after deducting growing and harvesting expenses, the tilled trees gave one dollar and eighty-nine cents. In general quality, also, the fruit from the trees under tillage was much better, being crisper, juicier and of better flavor; and it kept from two to four weeks longer than the fruit from trees in sod. In color, however, the apples grown on sod were superior to those from tilled trees, and they matured from one to three weeks earlier. The difference in the effect of the two systems on the trees was New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 935 almost as great as on the fruit. The trees in sod gained 2.4 inches in tree diameter, taking the average of the measurements, while those under tillage gained an inch and a half more than this, or 3.9 inches. This difference extended in a similar ratio to gain in height and spread of branches; and the foliage of the tilled trees was so much more abundant, and of such dark, rich, green color, that the line between the two plats could be recognized more than half a mile away. Closer view showed more plainly the sparseness of foliage, irregu- iarity of branches, presence of dead branches and lack of plump, healthy, bright-colored new wood on the trees grown in sod. The trees under tillage, on the other hand, were very uniform in develop- ment, with new growth and fruit well and evenly distributed, and notable for their vigor and health. At the close of the first five years one quarter Change of of the orchard was changed from sod to tillage conditions. and another quarter from tillage to sod. In each case the effect of the change was almost instan- taneous. Before midsummer the trees released from the infiuence of the sod showed plainly the benefit of the added moisture and available plant food furnished them by tillage. Both trees and foliage improved notably, and the apples on them grew as large as any in the orchard. The number setting was, however, influenced by the previous poor conditions so that the first year’s crop was below normal; but the average for the entire five years was as great as that of the trees continuously under tillage. The change for the worse was quite as remarkable and as immediate in the section . of the orchard turned from tillage to sod; for the average yield per tree on this section during the first year was less than three- quarters of a barrel, while even the trees continuously in sod yielded twice this amount. The use of nitrate of soda on the sod helped matters somewhat, and was a paying investment, yet for the whole five years the trees in sod thus fertilized yielded less than half as much as the tilled trees without any fertilizer. Since the trees under tillage have borne heavy Does tillage crops annually for ten years, without any addition exhaust to the soil except the seed of the cover crops used, the soil? it might be supposed that the soil would show the draft. Careful analyses made at the close of the test prove that this is not the case. The mineral elements of fertility are practically alike throughout the plats, and the nitrogen and humus are much greater on the tilled plats. Though analyses were not made at thestart itis not probable that material differences then existed, for the soil is apparently quite uniform, and previous treatment had been the same for years. It is fair to conclude that the tillage and cover-crop treatment conserves nitrogen and humus 936 Porutar Epitions oF STATION BULLETINS OF THE better than the sod-muich treatment, while it also gives much larger crops. Grass in an apple orchard is evidently a detri- Why is grass ment, and it acts against the best interests of harmful? the trees in several ways. These ways have been so fully discussed in Bulletin No. 314 that it is only necessary to state them here. (1) The growing grass lowers the water supply, since every plant uses and evaporates many score of times its own weight of water. Under rare conditions this reduction of the water content of the soil might be an advantage to the trees, but in ordinary seasons, on soils neither very deep nor specially retentive of moisture, as in most New York orchards, the trees need all the rain that falls during the growing season, and the draft of the grass roots on the supply of water left near the surface by showers is robbery that affects both the crop of apples and the trees that bear them. (2) With the water there goes into the grass a certain amount of plant food, which will become available to the tree roots only after a considerable time and some of it probably never. The use of fertilizers in certain portions of the Auchter orchard proved this factor of plant food of less consequence than that of water; yet the trees in sod responded promptly and profitably to applica- tions of nitrate of soda. Trees under tillage, on the other hand, seemed to have enough and to spare of nitrogen, as well as all the other food elements they needed. (4) The growth of grass on a soil reduces its temperature. Whether this is a serious disadvantage we cannot say, but most New York apple soils are comparatively cold; so it would seem reasonable to suppose any additional cooling influence harmful, as heat causes the food substances in the soil to dissolve more rapidly, hastens their diffusion through the soil water, aids soil ventilation, stimulates the absorptive action of the roots, and helps to form nitrates in the soil. Thermometer readings made over a considerable period showed that the tilled soil in June and July is more than a degree warmer than the sodded soil in the morning and more than two degrees warmer at night. (5) The supply of air is less in a sodded soil than in a tilled soil; and good soil ventilation is essential not only to the life of the plant itself, but also to the activity of the bacteria which make certain forms of plant food available. (6) Sod affects deleteriously the beneficial micro-organisms in the soil. The experiment given supplies no definite data to support this statement; but the lowering of the humus content of the soil, restriction of the air supply, cooler temperature and smaller moisture content of the soil under the sod are all factors unfavorable to the development of those bacteria whose action in the soil we know to be beneficial to plants. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 937 (7) Sod may “ poison” apple trees. This conclusion has been reached by very careful investigators in England, who assign to this factor, principally, the evil effects which they have found to follow attempts to grow apple trees in sod land. The sudden changes from good to ill results when trees in the Auchter orchard were changed from tillage to sod, and from ill to good when changed from sod to tillage, lend some support to this theory that the grass roots excrete some substance harmful to apple trees; but the other factors previously mentioned, particularly the lowering of the water content of the soil, seem quite sufficient to account for the evil influence of sod without laying much stress upon its excretion of an actual “‘ poison.” It is hardly necessary to repeat again, or to Deductions emphasize the main conclusion from this ten- from these year test, that tillage and cover crops rather tests. than sod-mulch should be generally adopted by commercial orchardists in New York State. But some other statements may be made regarding the applica- tion of this experiment in other directions. In orchards on deep soils the sod-mulch method is less of a detri- ment than on shallow soils. In the deep soil the tree roots have some chance to escape the drought-producing influence of the grass roots. Under some conditions, as where moisture is over abundant and apple trees make too luxuriant growth, sod may occasionally be used with benefit to check growth and promote fruitfulness. There is, however, nothing in the experiment to indicate that on ordinary soils the grass roots and tree roots ever establish amicable relations; for the difference between the tilled and sodded plats was greater at the end of ten years than during the first half of the test. That is, apples do not become adapted to grass. The injurious effects of the grass on apple trees occur, no matter what the variety or age of the tree or other cultural treatment; and are even more liable to be shown by dwarfs than by standard trees because of the shallow root systems of the trees on dwarf stocks. Pasturing orchards in sod may reduce the injury from the grass just to the extent that the pasturing reduces the growth of the grass; but it can never wholly overcome the evil. The owners of sod orchards may not realize how their trees are weakened and their crops lessened by the growth of the grass, since they have no tilled trees under the same conditions to compare with them; but a trained observer can usually detect, even from a distance, signs of poor health and diminished vitality in the light color of the foliage. The sod-mulch system is bad enough; but grass grown in the orchard, not for a mulch, is all but fatal — it makes the trees sterile and paralyzes their growth. It is the chief cause of unprofitable orchards in New York State. THE PEAR PSYLLA AND ITS CONTROL.* F. H. HALL. Probably the most troublesome insect attacking A serious the pear is the psylla. These tiny creatures are pear pest similar in many ways to aphids and are some- times called jumping plant lice. They are sucking insects, like plant lice, and like them, they multiply rapidly, producing several broods each season, so that, unless checked, they make up in numbers what they lack in size, and may injure the pear trees very severely. The larve, or nymphs, of the first brood, in early spring cluster about the axils of the leaves or young fruits or work from the under side of the tender young leaves and suck out so much sap that growth is checked just when it should be greatest. The leaves become stunted and sometimes fall, and the fruit ceases to grow in size and may drop prematurely if the work of this first brood is continued by the later broods. In long-continued attacks the trees may become almost defoliated, and the new leaves, if they appear, are generally few in number and pale in color. With the injury caused by the draft on the sap of the tree, there is joined an external disfigurement of both leaves and wood due to the copious secretion of honey-dew by the psylla, which serves as food for the ‘sooty fungus.’”’ Growth of this fungus soon gives the wood a smutty, discolored appearance and darkens and stains the leaves. If the attacks of psylla are severe the trees go into winter in a weakened state and succumb much more readily to low tem- peratures than do uninjured trees. Renewed attacks, year after year, so lessen the vitality of the trees that they become profitless cumberers of the ground. The mature psylla flies (Plate I, fig. 4) of the Life history _ last fall brood pass the winter on the trees or in of pear psylla protected places about them; and appear not to become completely dormant until permanent low temperatures have been reached. During late November and early December, a rise in the daily mean temperature to only a few degrees “Reprint of Popular Edition of Bulletin No. 387; for Bulletin see p. 422. [938 | New York AcricutturaL ExprrimEeNnt Station. 939 above freezing, especially if the sun shines, will bring the flies from their hiding places under the rough bark or in crevices in it and send them to fruit spurs. With settled cold the flies remain dormant until warm days again occur in late March or early April. They then seek the bud spurs and may remain active continuously if the temperature remains above freezing, or may be chilled into quiescence if the mercury drops again. Soon, however, they mate, and egg-laying begins, the time for this varying with the weather. The dates of the beginning of oviposition for the four years 1910-1913, inclusive, were, in order, April 2, April 14, April 15 and March 21. While egg-laying does not have a very constant relationship to the condition of pear buds, some are always laid before the cluster buds break, and most of them before the tips of these buds have separated. This is an important fact to remember, for it is the index of the proper time to attack the insects — a most essential factor in control measures. The eggs are orange-yellow in color and very small, so that single ones cannot be distinguished by the eye; but they are often deposited in such numbers that they appear as distinct orange spots or patches. The earliest eggs are laid on the wood, in crevices in the bark around the bases of the blossom buds or on the stems, or in some cases on watersprouts. Oviposition is more often on the under side than on the upper side of the stems and bud spurs. Later, when foliage is unfolded, eggs are laid on the leaves. Egg-laying lasts about two weeks, the time again varying with the weather; and the date of hatching is also dependent on the same factor. Under artificial conditions in the warm laboratory, the larve may emerge in eight days, or outdoors, in cool weather, it takes ten days longer; while warm days hasten development. This frequently makes many early-laid and late-laid eggs hatch at the same time, as on April 19, 1910, May 2, 1911, May 4, 1912, and April 10, 1913, when the young larvee emerged in countless numbers. The larve are quite unlike the adult flies, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2 of Plate I, which represent the five stages of their development, the last being the well-known “ hard-shells.’”? These nymphs or larvee are rather sluggish, wingless creatures quite similar in all stages and always easily identifiable by their bright red eyes. Suc- cessive broods of these nymphs emerge about a month apart through- out the summer and continue the harmful work of the first brood. Of course, spraying is practically the only Remedies possible method for controlling the pear psylla — suggested. spraying with a contact insecticide, since the insects feed from beneath the surface and cannot, therefore, be poisoned. But the older sprays and methods proposed have not proven thoroughly satisfactory, as these were usually attempts to control the psyllas after the larve were present in large numbers on opened buds and developing leaves. The difficulty of 940 Poputar Epitions or Station BULLETINS OF THE reaching all the tiny creatures at this time with a spray that would be effective and at the same time safe to the tree made it almost impossible to destroy all of the early broods and made repeated treatments mnecessary——a_ time-requiring and _ expensive plan. As far back as 1896, however, Dr. J. B. Smith of the New Jersey Station recommended spring spraying with whale-oil soap just as the buds begin to swell; and in 1899 Prof. Slingerland of Cornell also urged treatment at this time and suggested kerosene emulsion or kerosene and water as applications. In his tests these and other materials for destroying the eggs did not prove successful and, consequently, few attempts have hitherto been made to fight the insect in this stage, as the eggs have been thought quite resistant to any contact insecticide at a strength safe to use on foliage. The advent of lime-sulphur suggested new possibilities, and tests were accordingly planned by this Station to determine the feasibility of getting rid of the insects in the winter or early-spring stages and to escape, thereby, the difficult task of summer control. These tests have now been continued for four Successful years, and have proved very conclusively that treatments. the psylla can be readily controlled by either of two methods, each involving but one treatment, or, at worst, by using both applications. For complete success, how- ever, the treatments must be carefully made, and, particularly for the destruction of eggs and young larve in the spring, at just the right time. The treatments recommended — fall or early spring spraying with nicotine preparations, miscible oils or soapy solutions to kill the hibernating adult flies, and treatment with lime-sulphur just as the cluster buds are beginning to spread, to destroy eggs and emerging nymphs, can be made uniformly successful in isolated orchards, or in communities where all growers unite in the effort. Where adjacent orchards are neglected, however, it may be necessary to make sup- plementary sprayings to control invaders from such unsprayed plantations. During 1911, experiments were conducted by Fall spraying the Station in the pear orchards of the Middle- for adults. wood Farms, Varick, N. Y., to test the value of fall spraying to reduce the numbers of over- wintering adult psyllas or “flies.” The orchard contained 800 Bartlett trees and had suffered severely from psylla injury during the summer. Spraying began on December 6 and continued at intervals, as weather permitted, for ten days, during which period thousands of the insects were clustered on the untreated trees. The insecticides used were tobacco extract, fish-oil soap, and lime- sulphur used separately, and each of the others in combination with the tobacco extract. The tobacco preparations and the soap solutions proved very effective, but lime-sulphur at the strength for dormant spraying was New York AGrRIcuLTURAL ExPERIMENT Station. 941 ’ unless combined with the tobacco not destructive to the “flies ’ extract. On warm days which followed the sprayings few “ flies’’ were detected, and it was estimated that less than five per ct. of them escaped. In the spring so few of the psyllas emerged that no further sprayings were necessary. Similar experiments in many other pear orchards have been made in the years subsequent to 1911, and wherever weather and other conditions allowed the work to be done thoroughly large percentages of the “ flies’? have been destroyed by these late fall applications and the insects so reduced in numbers that no further treatments have been needed to control them. Where conditions have been unfavor- able for thorough work, or where the psyllas in adjoining orchards were uncontrolled, spring treatments have been found necessary in addition to the fall spraying. The three spray mixtures used — tobacco extract, fish-oil soap and lime-sulphur with tobacco—have been about equally efficient, and perfectly safe to use on the trees. Some orchardists prefer the soap, as it is somewhat less expensive. The fundamental experiments in spring spray- Spring spraying ing to control the hibernating adults were made for adults. in the Collamer orchards at Hilton late in March, 1910. The psyllas were then very numerous in the large orchard of Bartlett, Kieffer and Seckel pears, and 1,530 trees were sprayed either with kerosene emulsion or fish-oil soap. The kerosene emulsion was not effective, possibly because improperly prepared so that the percentages of oil varied on different trees. The fish-oil soap as originally applied, and where used as a supple- ment to the kerosene emulsion, greatly reduced the severity of the infestation. The following spring another test of this kind was made in the orchard of Mr. L. B. Wright at Hilton, in which about 800 trees were treated with miscible oil or fish-oil soap. The trees in this orchard had been freed from their rough bark, giving less protection to the insects and greater effectiveness to the sprays used. Both applications were successful, the fish-oil soap being rather more satisfactory. Along the same lines as these two tests cooperative work was carried on with twenty-five pear-growers, in which miscible oils, home- made oil emulsions and soapy sprays were used alone or in com- bination with tobacco extract. Of these mixtures the soap solutions alone and the tobacco extract with soap were both efficient and safe, but the emulsions were less satisfactory. Psylla eggs have generally been found quite Destroying _resistant to sprays at any strength safe to use eggs and on trees at the stage of growth when the eggs young larvae. are present. Many different materials and com- binations had been used in early tests, but they proved either harmless to the eggs or harmful to the trees. 942 PorunarR EpitTions oF Station BULLETINS OF THE In lime-sulphur solution, however, a spray seems to have been found both efficient and safe. In 1910 and 1911 five careful tests were made by the Station in pear orchards near Lockport and Medina, using either the home- made or concentrated lime-sulphur sprays. Both forms of the mixture proved destructive to the eggs or so weakened or repelled the minute nymphs that did hatch that few of them reached the young leaves. Other insecticides used had little or no effect on eggs or young larve and could not be counted on to control the pest. The results of these tests are summarized in Table I. TasLe I.— Errect oF Various INsEcTICIDES ON PsyLuA Eaes. Noa Eaees Countep. Bud rT Dilution of spray. 51 aaa seme rm ie! 2S TERT pmy | counted. killed. Sound. Col- lapsed Per ct. Lime-sulphur......... (Concentrate 1-8)... 90 39 | 2,082 98 Lime-sulphur......... (Concentrate 1-6)... 75 18 339 94 Lime-sulphur......... (Formula 15-20-50) . 102 1,806 564 *24 Vish-oil soap.......... (25): Sega osetia bald 100 232 20 8 Kerosene emulsion... .| (1-8).............. 100 900 52 5 Miusciblevoilee acs ree. (SIRS) apes aerta a gael M 100 800 45 5 Blackleattextracte. 20 l=-oO)ee anes. 100 824 64 ie (1340) ea eee 100 920 48 5 Black leaf 40......... @E1000) is ache 100 810 61 7 Checks? ictus. ao eeise Unsprayed.......... LOO a 2oee, 175 G *The small percentage of eggs destroyed in this test was presumably due to the lower amount of sulphur in solution in the wash. Cooperative tests in twenty-five other orchards were made in 1911, using lime-sulphur only as this had proved most effective in the preliminary tests. In all cases where care was used to make the treatments thorough and to apply the solution at the right time, practically all of the eggs were destroyed. The owners who were careful were highly pleased with the results of their work and have come to depend almost entirely on this method for controlling the psylla. To secure these good results it is essential to watch closely the development of the pear buds and spray just when the cluster buds are opening at the tips. Thus the problem of psylla control is reduced Conclusions. to a comparatively simple one—to make a thorough ‘‘ clean-up” of the adult ‘“‘ flies’ just before they enter or just before they emerge from winter hibernation, New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 943 or to destroy the eggs and young larve of the first brood while they are still on the branches, stems and fruit spurs or on the unopened cluster buds. The first treatment is usually the best one to adopt as it so reduces the number of hibernating flies that few eggs are laid the next spring. Then, if lime-sulphur is to be used in the spring for scale, as is the common practice in many large orchards, its application can be postponed a little and the few psylla eggs that are laid be destroyed. Especial pains should be taken to destroy Spraying the pest in this stage, as effective work greatly winter flies. reduces the number of eggs deposited on the trees and simplifies subsequent spraying opera- tions. The best means of killing the “ flies”? is spraying during a period of warm weather, preferably in November or December, or during March or early April. A rise in temperature induces the insects to emerge from their hiding quarters and creep to the portions of the trees exposed to the warm rays of the sun and protected from a cold wind. While the insects are able to crawl they are very sluggish in their movements and do not fly. This habit makes them very vulnerable to treatment and the grower should take full advantage of it by so spraying that Fig. 36—Con. Tone of the insects be allowed to escape. To kill dition of the flies it is essential to wet thoroughly all portions during the Of the trees, and especial pains should be taken to praying. for force the liquid under loose bark and into all cracks and crevices in the bark. The experiments by this Station have also shown the wisdom of spraying one tree thoroughly before proceeding to another. In balmy weather the flies, like squirrels, may dodge quickly to the opposite side of the tree. By spraying the entire tree they are unable to avoid wetting by the spraying mixture. Treatment late in the fall or early winter is especially recommended as the influence of steadily decreasing temperatures at this season on the movements of the flies makes them especially vulnerable to spraying. In planning for this work select days when there is no danger of the spraying mix- ture freezing on the trees. The most satisfactory spray from the standpoints of safety to fruit and leaf buds and effectiveness against the insect is three-fourths of a pint of tobacco extract to one hundred gallons of water to which are added from three to five pounds of dissolved soap. (Formula 1.) It is also advisable to remove the loose and rough bark to discourage the flies from wintering on the trees and to render them more exposed to spraying mixtures. This operation may be done at a convenient time but the bark is more easily detached following a wet period. To avoid infection with disease care should be taken not to cut into live tissues. 944 PopuLaR Epirions oF STATION BULLETINS OF THE The eggs about to hatch and the newly- Spraying for eggs emerged nymphs succumb to an application of of winter flies. the lime-sulphur mixture. In this lies a hint to the fruit-grower for an effective use of this spray against the psylla as well as the scale. The eggs of the psylla are laid principally during April and commence to hatch early in May or when the blossom cluster-buds are beginning to separate at the tips. (Fig. 25.) Most growers spray much earlier than this for the San Jose scale, but by postponing the treatment of pear orchards until the blossom clusters are well advanced one may deal another effective blow against the psylla and with the same treatment successfully combat the scale. The lime-sulphur solution, ,. of tid ae 4 Tie, testing 32°-34° B., should be diluted “ “Pates othe ceee ee in the proportion of one gallon to eight or nine gallons of water. (Formula 4.) The spray should be used in liberal quantities and pains should be exercised to wet all portions of the tree, especially the fruit spurs and _ the under sides of the young wood, where most of the eggs are laid. A third opportunity to Spraying for the strike hard at the psylla first-brood is when all of the eggs nymphs. have hatched and the young nymphs are largely assem- bled in the axils of the young leaves and fruits. This occurs normally during the latter part of the blossoming period and the young insects can be reached by spraying just as the blossoms drop. The most. satis- factory spray: iis tobacco extract, using three- fourths of a pint to one hundred gallons of water to which are added from three to five pounds of dissolved soap. (Formula 1.) i The grower should endeavor : oa 24.—Too early for Late summer to combat the pest by the ost effective psylla 5 : edatcor spraying. | preceding measures and thus avoid, if possible, the neces- sity of later spraying. If the trees are badly infested during the summer time it is a very difficult task to bring the pest under New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 945 control as there is an intermingling of all stages of the insect, and some of them are resistant to any spraying mixtures which , can safely be used on foliage. Moreover the leaves, especially if the growth is heavy, seriously interfere with thorough treatment, and there is also danger that foliage injured by the psylla may be further damaged by the appli- cations of the sprays. Frequent and thorough spray- ing with the tobacco extract (Formula 1), on the first dis- covery of injurious numbers of the insects is the most satis- ee ee * factory means of affording pro- ig. 37.— Conditions of blossom clusters ; during the spraying for psylla nymphs. tection to the trees. SPRAYING MIXTURES AND FORMULAS. Formuta 1. Tosacco ExtTRAct. Tobacco extract (40 per ct. nicotine)...................5- $ pt. Waiter ere ng she A ben Been as ae RN CR a ew ee 100 gals. SLOP Su etree NaN yA CERI er OA RRR: ENTS eal > Noe dahlias ok aay 3 to 5 Ibs. Formuta 2. FisH-o1t Soap. Bush-oilieoapirer tis Lens. Hk SONA. BO: RSE AL I 20 Ibs. Wie bis beard Myra $c coinm De eyed ay eed big ®. aesrandt8 aedti h ogespasee ns & 100 gals. These are recommended for fall or spring spraying to destroy the “ flies.”” Formuta 3. MuIsciBuEe OIL. MVITSCIDICT OM meer sat a Sa terete tao eo cre ee cae 7-8 gals. NVVIDCED eee tenants cate ke NE 8 To ATR, : ANSLEIA A © eis rates 100 gals. This is a rather dangerous spray and should be used only in the spring as buds are swelling and never after buds begin to show green az the tips. Formuta 4. Lime-SuLtpHUR MIXTURE. Lime-sulphur solution (32°-34° B.).............0 ccc ceeeee 1 gal. \WEIUGIES Sg CONS ot et RE aS ee ee ae eee eee 8 to 9 gals. To be applied just as the blossom cluster-buds separate at the tips to destroy psylla eggs about to hatch and newly-emerged nymphs. 60 TREE CRICKETS OF GARDEN AND ORCHARD.* F. H. HALL. Undoubtedly many country folk have heard, during Insect the sultry nights of late summer, the shrill, musical songsters. trills, or ‘‘ songs,” of tree crickets; but probably only a limited number of nature students have more than wondered who the singers might be. Few persons, indeed, have seen many tree crickets and fewer still realize that there are several species of these interesting little songsters of the night, that they may be both helpful and harmful to fruit-growers, and that they have some most interesting structural peculiarities and habits, unlike those of any other group of insects. Of these crickets there are three species worthy of Work of some attention from orchardists and gardeners in tree crickets. New York State; but only one that causes serious harm directly by its own work. The other two may even be quite useful at times, and have usually been placed in the category of beneficial insects, as they often feed upon San José scale and other small insects that are distinct menaces to fruit interests. But it is now known that all these species may transport the spores of the fungi that cause certain plant diseases, and that they sometimes deposit these spores where the resultant fungus growth produces cankers and dead areas in bark and wood. Tree crickets belong to the group of straight-winged What are’ insects, which includes our common grasshoppers, tree crickets? locusts, katydids and black crickets; but they are smaller, slenderer insects than any of these, and are of a delicate, light yellowish-green color which makes them quite inconspicuous among the foliage of the plants on which they live. Indeed, during the daytime in bright weather, to see them at all, in their five immature stages, it is usually necessary to search very carefully for the very long, slender, forward-stretched antenne, which the insect extends from within or below some curled leaf or * Reprint of Popular Edition of Bulletin No. 388; for Bulletin see p. 452. [946] New York AcricutturRAL ExperRIMENT Station. 947 similar shelter, seemingly to secure warning of the approach of any intruder. Only as evening approaches, or on cloudy days, do the tree crickets become active; for they are essentially nocturnal insects, and feed, sing, mate and lay their eggs mainly in the dusk of evening or at night. The five immature stages and the adult of one of the tree crickets are shown on Plate XXVIII, and the pictures convey better than can words the general appearance of all the species. There has been con- siderable confusion as regards both the systematic classification of these tree crickets and the economic importance of the different forms. The studies made at this Station should aid in fixing permanently the distinctions between the three species of economic importance in this State. These species differ mainly in small markings on the antennze and in the slight variations in size and in the relative length and width of the wings. Imagine the entire insect tinted a light, yellowish- green, more soft and delicate than that of the luna moth, with the abdomen somewhat darker, and the figures on the plate will give a good picture of the tree crickets. The eggs of tree crickets are laid in late summer or Life history of early fall in or partly beneath the bark of woody tree crickets. stems, or in the softer pith at the center of the stem of plants like raspberry, elderberry or grape. ‘The female cricket is provided with a delicate but strong ovipositor, a most ingenious boring implement which the insect forces to a con- siderable depth through bark and soft wood, afterward reaming out the hole until the egg can be passed through the channel to its pro- tected winter home. Not satisfied with depth alone, the mother cricket seals each orifice, either with a pellet of her own excrement deposited for that purpose, or with bark chips which she dislodges, chews up and makes into a ball. The method of sealing with excre- ment seems to be a peculiarity of one species, the snowy tree cricket, and makes this species doubly liable to be a transmitter of plant diseases; since the spores of fungi have been cultivated in the labora- tory from such excrement caps. This species deposits only one egg in a place, on apple frequently selecting a lenticel to lessen the labor of boring out the egg chamber. On trees and bushes with tougher bark the eggs are frequently placed where the bark is thicker and softer, as at the side of buds or small twigs. In raspberry canes the most common place of oviposition is in the fleshy area at the side of the bud in the axil of a leaf, and sometimes an egg may be laid at each side of the bud; but more have never been found in the Station studies. A closely allied species, the narrow-winged tree cricket, very similar in structure as well as habits, sometimes places two eggs through one opening, but drills two chambers at a slight angle with each other, places an egg in each and then seals the single opening with a bark pellet. 948 Poputar Epririons or STatrion BULLETINS OF THE The third species of economic importance, the striped tree cricket, prefers for egg deposition plants with a central pith, like raspberry, blackberry, and certain weeds, while their punctures are common locally in elder, grape, sumac and willow. This species, unlike the others, places its eggs in long rows, one above the other, and the punctures are so numerous that the stems frequently break at the points punctured. This is particularly true of the raspberry, and makes the cricket a pest of serious economic importance under some conditions. The female cricket may lay from one to a dozen or more eggs in a night and continue the process every night or with occasional intermissions until from twenty-five to seventy-five eggs are laid. a Ai HWA ii es oT o a a ix Ne a oO Ne wit BR i seth ua ee — E. Zz Fz = =a AN a ae = 1 SSA Hi Bh ae Uae os et E UIT II! A D c Fie. 31.— Snowy TrrEE CRICKET. a, Egg punctures and cankers in apple wood, (X 13); b, egg in raspberry (X 234); c, egg in apple bark (X 15); d, egg cap (X 50); e, spicule of egg cap (X 500). The eggs are much longer than wide, are etched over most of the surface with cross-hatched scratches, and each has a cap covered with minute mound-like or teat-like projections. The size and shape of the cap differs with the different species and serves as a means of identification. The nymphs of the tree crickets begin to emerge from the eggs during early June, and the hatching process is a most interesting one. When the egg hatches, the cap at the outer end breaks off, leaving its trace on the head of the emerging nymph in the shape of New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTIon. 949 a projecting watery lump which may remain for twenty minutes after the insect has fully emerged. The young larva assists its own emergence by movements of fore legs and twistings of the body, and when about half out of the orifice pulls its long antennz out by grasping them with its mouth parts at different points along their length and pulling gently. Each of the five nymphal stages, or instars, lasts about a week or ten days, with much overlapping of the stages. The change from each stage to the next means a molting of the old skin, and emergence clothed in a new and larger suit. With each change the wing pads become more prominent, but the other variations are inconsiderable, so that the nymphs look very much alike at all stages; but the adults are notably changed by the long, gauzy wings. The mature forms begin to appear about the first of August and from that time until late in October, their songs may be heard every favorable night. The “ song ”’ of the tree cricket is not, of course, The cricket a true song, but a more or less musical sound made songs. by the rasping of one wing over the other, the volume being increased by a resonator-like expansion of a portion of the fore wing near the base. In trilling, the wings are raised vertically and vibrated rapidly from side to side, the rasp of the right wing lapping over the scraper-like edge of the left. With the snowy cricket the song is one of the most conspicuous and musical of the common insect sounds of late summer and autumn; a clear, mellow whistle resembling the words treat, treat, treat, pitched about in C, two octaves above middle C, on a warm evening rising to D. These clear, high-pitched trills are repeated rhythmically for an indefinite length of time, with considerable variation between indi- viduals in quality, intensity, pitch and rapidity of notes and with a tendency of the insects in a restricted site — a raspberry planta- tion, clump of bushes or trees or a single tree — to sing in unison. The song of the narrow-winged tree cricket is about a half tone higher than that of the snowy cricket, about CX to DX instead of C to D, is not so loud, is longer both in notes and in rests and is not rhythmical in character. Each trill lasts from one to five seconds, but most commonly about two seconds, and the rests vary from one to eight seconds or longer. The song is more mournful in quality than that of its snowy relative, and so much feebler that it is not noticeable without special attention where the two species are in equal numbers. The striped tree cricket makesa shrill, continuous, whir-r-r-r-r-r-ring trill, like the sound of a small tin whistle, continuing sometimes for several minutes. It is much higher in pitch than that either of the other two species — about FX on an average summer evening. Unlike the other species it sings in the daytime as well as at night, though the full chorus does not join in until toward evening. 950 Poruxtar Epitions of STaTion BULLETINS OF THE Most remarkable of the peculiarities of tree Sex crickets is the fact that the male attracts the female attraction not only by music, but by a feast, both furnished of tree by his own body. When singing, which is evi- crickets. dently to attract the female, the upraised wings disclose upon the body of the male a peculiar rounded depression with elevated margin, which contains numerous hollow glandular hairs, and two paired openings from much branched glands within the fore-body of the insect. ‘The secretion of these glands is eagerly consumed by the female cricket which mounts upon the back of the male and feeds in the depression for several minutes previous to the actual mating, while the crossed antenne of the pair are touched and rubbed one upon the other in what appear to be mutual caresses. Two of the three forms mentioned, the snowy Economic tree cricket and the narrow-winged tree cricket, importance _ live quite largely in apple, plum and cherry orchards of tree but are also somewhat common on the raspberries and crickets. on walnut. During their early life they are probably beneficial, at least not injurious, as they live to quite an extent on other insects — including even their own weak or disabled relatives. On dissecting several snowy crickets (nymphs of the fourth and fifth instars), the crops of about half of them were found to contain a large proportion of materials of insect origin, while in the others vegetable matter predominated, including leaf tissue and fungous threads and spores. The insect remains that could be identified were those of their own or their mates’ cast-off skins, broken pieces of insects’ eyes, probably those of plant lice, and, in practically all cases, portions of the protective coverings and of the bodies of San José seales. In one cricket’s crop remains of twenty-four scales were found, with others probably present but not identifiable. This discovery led to an experiment to test the destruction of scales by crickets, and in laboratory tests a single cricket ate from 300 to 900 scales nightly, both covering and insect below. This would indicate that where crickets occur on scale-infested trees they make this pest a consid- erable part of their diet; yet the scale is constantly spreading in orchards that are well stocked with crickets. They can never be depended upon to control the scale, and if injurious in other ways, as they seem to be, the destruction of the scales should not be allowed to count heavily in their favor. During the later stages of their lives tree crickets live largely on vegetable tissue; and may do some slight harm by eating holes in leaves. They are also said, in some places, to cause considerable damage by eating holes in fruit, in which they produce a very char- acteristic injury. The opening through the skin of the peach or plum will be small, just large enough to allow the head and thin New York AGRricutTuraAL ExperIMENT STATION. 951 neck to enter, while a considerable cavity may be excavated in the fleshy part of the fruit. These cavities, protected from rapid drying by the small size of the opening, make excellent starting points for fruit rot; so that the initial in- jury by the cricket is but a small part of the final harm to the fruit. It should be said, however, that such injury to fruits has not been found in New York State, but it is reported to be quite com- mon in Kentucky. The same small initial injury and considerable attendant damage later result from the oviposition punctures; for these are sometimes followed by slight exudation of sap, with formation of a gummy substance and, par- ticularly on apple trees, open the way for canker-producing fungi. The cankers formed about these punctures are usually small, but they may later be extended by the entrance of other fungi anddo much harm to the trees. They also serve as excellent harboring places of the woolly aphis. The possibility of injury from the orchard crickets in these indi- rect ways probably more than counterbalances the good they may do by destroying scale in- sects and plant lice. They should not be allowed to increase; but are usually kept well restricted in weil-cared for orchards. The freedom of such orchards -from some of the favorite weed-hosts of crickets, the pruning and the spraying seem to make conditions Fig. 34.— Srrirpep TreE CRICKET. a, Egg punctures in raspberry (x 13); b, Longitudinal section in same (X 3); c, Egg (X_ 15); d, Egg cap (X 50); e, Spicule of egg cap (X 500). unfavorable to their increase; but the exact manner in which these conditions and operations affect the crickets has not been determined. It is evidently inadvisable to set young apple orchards adjacent to large plantations of raspberries without some precautions against tree crickets; as these insects are usually found most numerous in such localities, both the orchard species and the one which affects the raspberry particularly. 952 Porvurar Epitions or Station BULLETINS. This species, the striped tree cricket, must be Raspberry classed definitely as an injurious species, as it appar- tree cricket ently feeds to a much smaller extent on other insects than the other two species, sometimes becomes numerous enough to do quite a little harm to raspberry foliage, and by its punctures so weakens the canes that they break from any unusual strain. In most cases only occasional canes suffer, but in some raspberry plantations, as much as three-fourths of the bearing wood has been found broken from the effect of the punctures or by the development of the raspberry cane blight fungus at these points. IXven where the canes do not break, the ready entrance which the punctures offer to this fungus leads to death of the canes, for this disease is one of the most destructive and difficult to control of those affecting the raspberry. This makes it necessary to restrict the numbers of the striped tree cricket as much as possible; for which the best measures are clean culture, the destruction of weeds in and about raspberry or black- berry plantations, and the removal and burning, during winter and spring pruning, of canes that show tree cricket punctures. Should these measures prove ineffective, it is probable that the crickets can be completely controlled by systematic spraying during July and August with arsenate of lead, three pounds to fifty gallons of water. “DEAD ARM” OF GRAPE VINES.* F. H. HALL. The dead-arm disease of grapes is a _ widely Disease often distributed trouble and in the aggregate does overlooked. much harm in vineyards of the State. It, how- ever, is not recognized as a disease by most growers; and little or no effort is made to check its spread. The attacks are very slow in developing to the final vine-killing stage and affected plants are usually scattered promiscuously throughout the vineyards, so the work of the disease is easily attributed to accident, winter killing, general lack of vigor, etc., rather than to the true cause, the fungus parasite, Cryptosporella viticola. Yet diseased vines have been found in _ practically every vineyard examined, the percentage sometimes going as high as 5 per ct. in any particular season, with perhaps as many or more new cases visible the following year. The trouble is found in every grape-growing section of the State, though a cursory exami- nation indicates that it may be less prevalent in the Keuka Lake region than elsewhere. The most prominent indication of the presence Symptoms. of the disease, at most times in the year, is the dead arm which gives the trouble its name; but an- other striking symptom, visible only in June and early July, is the peculiar yellow coloration of the foliage and the dwarfing, crimping and curling of the leaves that mark affected portions of the vine. (Plate VI.) The yellowing should attract the attention of every grower during cultivation, and the diseased arm or vine should be removed at once or marked for such treatment at pruning time. There are several other less prominent signs of the disease, which enable the expert to distinguish it from other troubles, but which would not be so quickly noticed by the ordinary vineyardist. These are peculiar, longitudinal, ribbed excrescences on the trunk or arm, dry rot in the heart of the trunk and usually extending to the margin, small reddish brown or black spots on the green shoots, petioles, peduncles and leaf veins, and spotting and rotting of the berries very similar to those produced by black rot. * Reprint of Popular Edition of Bulletin No. 389; for Bulletin see p. 251. [953] 954 Poputar Eprrions or Station BULLETINS OF THE The fungus producing this disease has two fruiting Development of forms, but one of them has not been found in New the disease. York State and apparently is not essential to the indefinite continuation of the life of the parasite. The pycnidia, or spore-containers, of the fungus stage found in this State are minute flask-shaped bodies, occurring usually in the bark of one or two previous seasons’ growth, which raise the corky layer of the bark, and form the tiny pustule-like spots shown in Plate VIII. A drawing of one of these pycnidia, greatly magnified, is shown on the title page. These are found in greatest abundance in early spring, and each ruptures and pours out its accumulation of spores shortly after the bursting of the grape buds. The spores seem to be embedded in a mucilaginous material which swells greatly when it absorbs moisture and forces itself and the spores from the pycnidium in a striking, reddish yellow ball or curl. These spores may be carried to young shoots a few feet away by spattering drops of rain, or may be washed to shoots immediately below, but most of them pass to the ground and perish. The spores find favorable conditions for germination in the clinging drops of water which persist on the shoots for many hours during continued fog and rain, such as often prevail in both the Chautauqua and Central Lakes regions late in May. After the germ tube enters the interior of the shoot, about a month usually elapses before the disease shows externally, but by the first of July lesions appear. These are generally found only at the bases of the shoots, indicating that but one period of infection occurs each year. This spore infection of the new shoots was formerly thought to be of minor importance in the spread of the disease, as compared with inoculation from the saw and other pruning tools previously used on diseased vines, since these agencies may transfer the parasite directly to the arm which it will destroy, while infection of the arm from the shoots is indirect. If only a few spots are produced on the shoot, the resulting cane may bear a crop the succeeding year and be removed before the fungus has had an opportunity to grow down into the more permanent part . On the other hand, if the infections are numerous there is a possibility in case the cane is saved for bearing wood that marked symptoms of the disease will develop during the bearing period of the cane, and at all events the probability of the fungus gaining entrance into the arm is greatly increased. Infection through tools used in pruning has been proved possible by many successful inoculations made in this way, and is probably a common means of spreading the disease. Spread through purchase of infected nursery stock is possible, but tests made indicate that under most conditions vines started from infected cuttings will not survive to reach the grower. If the cuttings are made from canes only slightly infected, though, it is quite prob- able that the cuttings would make vines that could be sold and New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 955 that might grow for several years without showing marked evi- dences of disease. Development of the disease is slow, so that infected arms or vines may live four, five or even more years, but with a constantly increasing loss of vitality. Under such conditions any severe strain on the vine, like a particularly hard winter, may result in its death; and while the vine still lives the yields of the whole plant or of the affected arm are reduced below the profitable point. Such vines or arms should be hunted out and removed, and new healthy wood be secured to take the place of that diseased. This is not difficult, for the new growth from Remedy. near the ground or below its surface, even on a badly infected vine, is usually free from the disease, and can be kept so if the affected portions of the vine and adjacent ones are promptly and thoroughly removed. : The remedy for the disease is therefore quite simple: The diseased vines should be marked in early summer, when they are easily recognizable from the yellow leaves, and all affected wood removed and burned. By carrying a piece of old cotton or linen cloth when cultivating the vineyard, it is but the work of seconds to attach to the diseased vine a strip of cloth to direct attention to it when trimming. Often the removal of a single arm eradicates the disease, but in other cases the whole trunk will be found affected. If the characteristic discoloration or dry rot of the wood of the main trunk is apparent the whole vine should be sawed off at a point below the last indications of rot. In many cases it will be best to cut the vine off close to the ground so that renewals will come from below the surface. If all sources of infection are removed, such renewals are sure to be healthy and to develop rapidly into strong vines. In some years it might be safe to leave infected wood to bear fruit while the renewal canes are growing, but when conditions are favorable for infection such a procedure would be very unwise. In any case each renewal should be inspected carefully some time during late summer to see that it has not been infected; for if it has been attacked by the fungus, even slightly, it should be rejected. To insure one healthy renewal it is well to leave two or three suckers at the base of the stump from which to select when tying up. At the regular trimming time precaution should be made not to leave for bearing wood any canes that show lesions of the disease. Detection of these is easy with a little care, as they are usually conspicuous at this time, being reddish in color and slightly elevated. Spraying should be effective in preventing the spread of this disease, and where black rot is prevalent the first application for this disease, when the shoots are eight or ten inches long, should protect these shoots from infection with the dead-arm fungus. Where growers realize the necessity of spraying to control root worm, and own spraying machines for this work, the use of an early application of bordeaux to assist in eradicating the dead-arm disease would be well worth while. RINGING AN UNSAFE STIMULUS TO FRUIT-BEARING* F. H. HALL. Sluggish fruit trees sometimes so tax the patience A of their owners that any measure would be adopted, dangerous however drastic, if it promised to spur the laggards remedy. into fruitfulness. For this reason the practice of ringing trees and plants has occasionally, for a hun- dred years or more, been recommended by plant physiologists and used by growers to induce or to increase fruit-bearing. The method has a theoretical chance for success; since the removal of a ring of bark from tree trunk or plant stem may be made with comparative safety at a certain time in the season and does not seriously interfere with the upward circulation through the active, growing, new wood, but does prevent the downward flow of the sap with the plant food formed in the leaves. Thus the food for the whole plant, including the lower stem and roots, is concentrated in the parts above the ring, and should and does serve as a stimulus to the formation and development of fruit buds. But is this stoppage of the normal circulation without danger to the plant, or is the good great enough to overbalance any such danger? Only careful experiments, continued for some time, can answer these queries satisfactorily; and such tests, made at this Station, prove that the practice is generally either of too slight ad- vantage to pay for itself or too dangerous to justify its use even when immediate results seem favorable. Tests reported in Bulletin No. 151 of the Station prove that ringing grape vines of certain varieties produces earlier ripening and better clusters, but that the vines suffer severely and do not become normally vigorous again for a long time, if ever. Bulletin No. 288 reports ringing of herbaceous plants, like tomatoes and chrysanthemums, as detrimental to the plants and productive of no compensating results in earlier or better fruits. The present bulletin records tests of ring- ing on apple, pear, plum and cherry trees, which indicate very limited advantage for the practice under any conditions and decided disad- vantages in most cases, particularly with the stone fruits. * A reprint of Popular Edition of Bulletin No. 391; for Bulletin see p. 613. [956] New Yorx AaricutturAL Experiment Station. 957 In June, 1910, a ring of bark one inch wide was Ringing removed from the trunk of each of 122 seedling apple apple trees then five years from planting. The bark was trees. taken just above the surface of the ground, and left in each case a clean surface of succulent, active cam- bium (new wood) which began immediately to repair the wound, so that by the end of the season all the rings were entirely covered with new, healthy bark. The trees were exceptionally strong and vigorous tu start with and probably in better condition to withstand ringing than average orchard trees. None of them showed any set-back from the operation. During this season no effect on the fruit could be expected, except some slight increase in size of the apples already set, but notes were taken on the crop as a check upon the effects of the ringing, if any, upon the number of trees fruiting and of fruits setting upon the individual trees in 1911. The results appear to favor ringing; since twice as many trees set fruit in 1911 as in 1910 (107 and 54, respectively), and the bearing trees produced 56 per ct. of a full crop in 1911 as compared with 7 per ct. in 1910. Of course, some of this increase was due to the advancing maturity of the trees, but it is evident that ringing these young, healthy, vigorous trees stimulated fruit production. The trees, however, never bore so good a crop again, even though subsequently ringed. In 1911, 27 of them were ringed a second time by removing inch strips directly above the for- mer rings, again with quick healing and no apparent ill effects. But these trees ringed a second time averaged considerably less than half as good crops in 1912 as in 1911, and did no better than the trees ringed only in 1910. In 1912, wider bands were removed from these same trees, the rings ranging from three to twenty-one inches on groups of four trees each. This severe treatment had no effect in stimulating fruit production, but an exhausting effect upon the trees, which increased with the width of the ring. One tree in both the three-inch-ring group and six-inch-ring group died after ringing, and from one to three trees in each of the other groups were lessened in vigor. In 1911, Baldwin trees three years from setting were ringed, in groups of five trees each, beginning with two-inch strips and increasing the width of the band by two inches for each succeeding group until twenty inches was reached. At the same time the bark was removed from similar groups of trees in inch rings at varying distances from the ground, up to two feet. These young trees suffered severely from the ringing, as new bark was not formed rapidly enough to cover the wound in any tree by the close of the season. The foliage dropped very early on all the trees, several died, all showed lack of vigor, and only 10 per ct. of them started into growth the following season. Tests made the next year, with trees four years set, removing only one- inch rings, resulted about the same; as the ringed trees made less 958 Porvutar Epitions oF STatTion BULLETINS. growth than similar trees not ringed, dropped their foliage early and made less growth, particularly of roots. From these experiments it is clear that the first ringing of seedlings influenced fruitfulness favorably and resulted in a good setting of fruit without noticeable injury to the trees, but that subsequent ringing did not produce similar effects. With the Baldwins the results were all unfavorable to the practice. On young Bartlett pear trees ringed in 1912 by Ringing inch bands, the formation of new bark was not satis- other factory; and before the end of the next season half fruits. of the ringed trees were dead and the others had made such poor growth that they were discarded. Dig- ging showed the root systems to be very poorly developed. Ringing is very seldom recommended for stone fruits; as trees of this kind usually come into bearing earlier than apples and pears; are not as hardy, are less resistant to external injuries and are shorter lived. Nevertheless, some tests of the practice were made on both plums and cherries, with even less satisfactory results than with the pears. Few of the wounds healed perfectly, the foliage lost color and dropped early, growth was stunted, and of all the trees treated only one Montmorency cherry made any material growth the follow- ing season. Where any fruit set, as it did on a few of the plum trees, the ringing led to no increase in quantity, and to some decline in quality. “The results obtained from these experiments are Conclusions. not favorable to ringing fruit trees as a general prac- tice. Under some conditions, for a limited time, a more favorable outcome might be expected. Hardy, vigorous, young apple trees may readily undergo a single ringing and be benefited thereby, but subsequent operations are injurious. Trees lacking vigor are often seriously injured by the practice. The deleterious effects of the treatment have generally been so marked upon various plant organs as to render the operation exceedingly hazardous. There seems to be no regular or systematic increase in fruit produc- tion. The gains do not offset the losses.” FERTILIZER FACTS FOR FARMERS.* F. H. HALL. Possible Fertilizer users in New York State might save economies thousands of dollars by wiser selection in their in buying purchases of such materials. First, they might fertilizers. easily gain by buying fertilizer ingredients and mixing them at home; since nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash sell at much lower rates in unmixed materials than in “ complete ”’ fertilizers of any grade, as both are quoted in ordinary retail trade. Second, there are quite wide differences in the prices of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in the various unmixed materials which furnish these elements; and careful study of the materials on the market would lead to considerable saving through choice of the cheaper instead of the more expensive sources of the elements of plant food in separate form. Third, and probably most applicable in the great majority of fertilizer purchases, the selection of high-grade instead of low-grade ‘‘ complete ’’ fertilizers would secure the plant food elements more economically. These facts, with others of interest, are shown by a study of the composition and prices of different brands of fertilizers and _fer- tilizer materials on the market in New York State. The analyses of more than 1000 brands of such goods are shown in Bulletin 390 of this Station. The selling prices were secured by the collecting agents of the State Department of Agriculture and furnished the Station by the Commissioner, these being the ordinary retail prices of dealers who sell to farmers in comparatively small lots. Associa- tions of farmers, buying in large quantities for cash, secure their plant food at lower prices than prevail in the usual retail trade. The average price of nitrogen in 600 brands of ‘‘ com- aha plete ”’ fertilizers of all grades, of which samples were Eloments analyzed, was 27.0 cents a pound; but in unmixed materials of whatever kind, except commercial dried sheep manure, it was from 2% to 9 cents a pound lower. Even in the highest grade of mixed goods the average cost of the nitrogen was 24.2 cents a pound, while in meat and bone tankage it was only 22 cents, in dried blood only 21.6 cents and in nitrate of soda, the cheapest source of nitrogen, only 17.8 cents. By far the most expensive nitrogen furnisher, however, was the sheep manure, recently so widely and extravagantly advertised, in which the element cost * A reprint of Popular Edition of Bulletin No. 392; for Bulletin see p. 649. [959] 960. Porutar Epirions oF Station BULLETINS OF THE 69 cents a pound, or more than three times its ordinary commercial valuation. This same sheep manure was, also, with the exception of wood ashes, the most expensive source of phosphoric acid or of potash. If such prices are asked for this material, no intelligent user of plant foods should give it a moment’s consideration. For phosphoric acid, in readily available form, acid phosphate is the cheapest source, and wood ashes the most expensive, the phosphorus costing four times as much in the ashes as in dissolved rock. The best grade of mixed goods approaches reasonably close to the acid phosphate as an economical source of supply, the differ- ence being less than half a cent a pound, but in complete fertilizers of lower grade the cost per unit rapidly increases so that in low-grade goods the phosphoric acid costs 20 per ct. more than in acid rock. For somewhat slower-acting phosphoric acid, tankage and fish scrap show good value. At the price quoted for the four samples collected, $13 a ton, ground rock phosphate or floats is not considered an economical source of phosphoric acid. At $8.50 a ton, at which price it is known some goods have been sold, the insoluble phosphoric acid would cost about 1.4 cents a pound. This is less than its commercial valuation in mixed fertilizers. Potash, at the prices prevailing during the first half of 1914, could be obtained cheapest in muriate, at an average price of 4.7 cents a pound, in kainit it cost 5.4 cents, in high-grade mixed goods, 5.6 cents and in sulphate, 5.7 cents. In the lower grade mixed fertilizers it cost 6.8 cents, or 44 per ct. more than in the muriate. In wood ashes, however, the price broke the record for fictitious valuation, reaching the limit of 30 cents a pound, or an increase of almost 540 per ct. above what potash could be obtained for in its cheapest form. The lime content of ashes has not been considered in making these computations. Using the value of this element would lower prices of phosphoric acid and potash somewhat. Of course, the war has so changed the potash situation that these figures are not applicable at present. The comparisons just given show that with the All mixed exception of a few materials, like sheep manure fertilizers and wood ashes, whose value has been greatly expensive. overestimated in popular opinion, the three elements of plant food most commonly considered can be obtained cheapest in comparatively simple chemicals or other natural compounds; that is, in unmixed form. For example, the average cost of nitrogen, in all the simple or natural sources of supply examined, except sheep manure, was 22 cents a pound, in complete fertilizers of high grade 24.2 cents, in those of low grade 32.5, in those of all grades, averaged, 27 cents; and in the so-called bone and potash mixtures 33.5 cents. Similarly, phosphoric acid in unmixed goods, except floats, sheep manure and ashes, could be secured at an average cost of 43 cents Nrw York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 961 a pound. The average cost in complete fertilizers was 5.9; and in special mixtures like phosphate and potash, bone and potash, lime, phosphate and potash, ete., the average cost was 63 cents. Potash in potash salts cost 5.3 cents; when combined with the other two elements in complete fertilizers, its price, averaging all brands, was 6.2 cents; and in special combinations 6.3 cents. It will thus be plainly seen that the plant food elements in unmixed chemicals, ete., are obtainable, even in local markets, at prices decidedly below those prevailing for the same elements in ready mixed form. In hundreds of cases, these materials could undoubtedly be mixed at home at a cost far less than the difference between their price and that of the same amount of each element in some manu- facturer’s combination with a fancy name. With study of farm conditions, also, it would certainly be found in many instances that a single element or a comparatively inexpensive home-mixture of two of them would give as good results on a particular field or for a specified crop as any brand of “ complete” fertilizer on the market. But most users of plant food will, without doubt, High grade in the future as in the past, buy ready-mixed fer- fertilizers _tilizers rather than purchase the ingredients and best value. mix them at home. Yet economy is possible, even in buying complete fertilizers; for the figures of composition and prices show that high-grade goods give by far the best value for the money invested. The plant growers of the State pay about $5,000,000 a year for fertilizers — mainly mixed goods; but only one-fourth of the brands of fertilizers offered for sale in the State in 1914, and certainly less than one-fourth of the quantity of goods sold, were ‘‘ high-grade”; that is, contained plant food elements with a commercial valuation greater than $25 a ton. It is evident that, far more often than not, the buyers of fertilizers select brands that supply the plant food they desire at prices much above what they need pay. The average selling price of the low-grade to medium high-grade goods was $26.45 a ton, which was $8.66, or 48 per ct., above the average retail value, in the large markets, of their plant food con- stituents; while the average price of the high-grade goods was $34.77, which was only $6.62, or 23 per ct., above the commercial valuation of their ingredients. That is, the purchasers of high-grade goods paid out less than one-fifth of their money (19 per ct.) for freight, distribution expenses, etc., while those who bought goods of lower grade gave almost one-third (32 per ct.) of what they spent, for something outside the commercial valuation of the plant food secured. The buyers of ‘“ low-grade” goods (commercial valuation less than $16 a ton) paid $22.98 for goods whose plant food value, on the regular basis was $13.74; therefore they devoted $9.24 a ton, or 40 per ct. of what they spent, to the incidental expenses of the fertilizer traffic. 61 962 TaBLe I.—Ccst or Ont Pounp or Piant-Foop To FARMERS. EEE Nitrogen in Low-grade complete fertilizers............... Medium-grade complete fertilizers............ Medium high-grade complete fertilizers... .... High-grade complete fertilizers.............. . Average of all complete fertilizers............ Bone and potash mixtures................... Bone=meal ete Ley ey ete? eae Tankage (meat and bone)...............-... Wankageq(mest) Nas sas te ert te, toe eet So Dried#bloode. cpr hetta kelsey sar beh oe eee Commercial dried sheep manure.............. Mishsserap)xesseh ee eine Aone cs ones see Phosphoric Acid in Low-grade complete fertilizers............... Medium-grade complete fertilizers............ Medium high-grade complete fertilizers... .... High-grade complete fertilizers............... Average of all complete fertilizers............ Acid phosphate and potash mixtures.......... Bone and potash mixtures................... Acid phosphate (dissolved rock).............. Bone-meal (terete. o 3 Gateer hie aes ee DOCH Ne Ce hs Betts Ces Sick atte ce ORME UM or sy oe Commercial dried sheep manure.............. Wrood-ashes il: Ps S40) oct MEER EE & eda re Bish Scrape sash .pk see Lioe tee AEE ee ee Basic-slag: phosphate: .i2.4.)2e-4 0. es see ee Ground rock-phosphate (floats) — insoluble... . Mixtures of compounds of calcium, phosphoric acidtands potash ese. Arne ene te ae Potash in Low-grade complete fertilizers............... Medium-grade complete fertilizers............ Medium high-grade complete fertilizers....... High-grade complete fertilizers............... Average of all complete fertilizers............ Acid phosphate and potash mixtures.......... Bone and potash mixtures................... Muriate (potassium chloride)................ Sulphate (potassium sulphate)............... Kainit (low-grade potassium chloride)........ Commercial dried sheep manure.............. Wiood=ashesyanictieitiet iver ie Te | A nye ae Mixtures of compounds of calcium, phosphoric acid ‘and'*potash sie ee ler, testy, ee Calcium and Magnesium in Calcium carbonate (ground limestone, marl, ANCE) Repo ORL NONE on Se tera eh Skea 2 ee Calcium hydroxide (slaked or hydrated lime). . Calcium oxide (quicklime, burned lime, etc.).. . Mixtures of compounds of calcium, phosphoric EID EHC Als ed inc, MOP ru scha este Pera — NOOO “I ~I o> 0O So Or wnoownwoor —_— IO OO bo oO aaa ean ort) Tor) — bo Lowest. He bO bO OO bo aQo»nre © NOWWOUN TOW Nore Ee CORGCOWS Porvutar Epirions or Station BULLETINS OF THE A.verage. 27.0 to Uonnnoun NO— SAMUMEANAUAAY VY HUA oARRAMWUUUNOANY D?D SSnunV 8)swanus a I OS IOI CONIC \ New Yorx Acricutrurat Experiment Station. 963 If all the purchasers of lower grade fertilizers had judged brands and values wisely, they might have saved themselves at least $500,000 in 1914; since the lower-grade brands cost at least that sum more than would high-grade goods of the same value as measured by the retail price, in the large markets, of the fertilizer elements they carried. It should be noted in this connection, however, that the high- grade fertilizers are higher priced, as a rule, because they contain larger proportions of nitrogen than do goods of lower grade, and nitrogen is the most expensive element in fertilizers. To those growers, therefore, who know they do not need much nitrogen, the purchase of complete fertilizers of the highest grade might not be advisable, as the waste of nitrogen might easily overbalance the gain from better prices for the other ingredients. In such cases, brands of lower grade should be selected, in which the proportion of nitrogen is less, but in which the selling price is still not unreasonably above the commercial valuation of the ingredients. Such brands may be found in every grade. Even in the lowest grade goods, one brand was found whose selling price was only $2.03 above its commercial valuation; in medium-grade goods one fertilizer carried ingredients whose commercial valuation was equal to the selling price of the brand; and in medium high-grade goods one brand was found whose selling price and commercial valuation differed: by only 10 cents. To sum it all up, the lesson of the figures is that careful study of fertilizer values will result in saving to the purchaser. That such study is being given by many farmers is shown by the fact that in 1902 69 per ct. of the brands on the market were ‘‘ complete ”’ fer- tilizers, in 1914 only 61 per ct.; in 1902 only 17 per ct. of the brands offered were high-grade goods, while in 1914, 26.1 per ct. belonged in that class. Rather slow progress, however, when the chances for saving are so evident! In making the comparisons of brands, buyers can, in Inspection most instances, depend upon the manufacturer’s shows good guaranty, since in only 27 brands of complete fer- conditions. tilizers out of 614 examined was the deficiency of elements great enough to make the sale of the brand a violation of the present fertilizer law; and of special mixtures and unmixed materials only 7 samples out of 390 examined showed sufficient deficiency to class them as violations. Balancing all excesses and deficiencies it is shown that the manufacturers of com- plete fertilizers gave fertilizer elements worth about $1.08 a ton more than their guaranties demanded, there being an average excess of 0.08 per ct. of nitrogen, 0.44 per ct. of available phosphoric acid and 0.34 per ct. of potash. In general, therefore, the manu- facturers’ guaranties, especially if backed by good reports in inspec- tion bulletins of recent years, may be taken as safe guides in com- puting the relative value of the brands, using the figures for the 964 Popurtar Epitrions oF STATION BULLETINS OF THE commercial value of the ingredients given in the present or past season’s “‘ Fertilizer Bulletin.” In individual instances, however, brands fell considerably below guaranty; so that the purchaser of dried blood from one lot sampled would have received $3.69 less plant food than was guaranteed; one lot of muriate of potash was worth $3.90 less than its guaranty called for; one of ground fish $4.13 less than the guaranty; and one of tankage $6.90 less than its supposed content of nitrogen and phos- phoric acid. The brands of calcium-containing materials apparently fell below legal requirements as a class, and some really were poor value for the money invested, but in other cases the content of magnesium was great enough to make the lime compound fully as efficient in sweetening the soil as the guaranty would indicate; for magnesium, though not specified as an ingredient to be guaranteed, is even more valuable than lime, pound for pound, in correcting soil acidity. Sodium nitrate, basic slag, floats, sulphate of potash, kainit and bone and potash mixtures held well up to their guarantees; but acid phosphate, muriate of potash, bone, tankage, sheep manure, mixtures of acid phosphate and potash, and wood ashes fell below their euarantees in too many instances to be thoroughly satisfactory from the purchaser’s standpoint. Previous to 1910 the fertilizer law made it a viola- Change in tion if the goods fell below the guaranty for any law aloss_ element by a fixed amount (one-third of one per ct. to farmer in for nitrogen, or one-half of one per ct. for phos- some cases. phoric acid or potash) without allowance for any excess that might exist in other elements. This was felt to be unfair in two respects: It made the maker of high- erade goods liable to penalty for a much smaller proportionate deficiency in his goods than the maker of low-grade brands; and it might frequently punish the manufacturer who really gave far more plant food value in two elements than the brand was short in the third ingredient. In attempting to remedy these defects the law was changed in 1910 to allow deficiencies, up to a certain limit, to be balanced by excesses in other elements; and to subject the manu- facturer of a brand to prosecution for proportionate rather than fixed deficiencies. By the new law, a deficiency up to 10 per ct. of any element is allowed without penalty; and up to 20 per ct. if the monetary value of the deficiency is made up by an excess of one or both of the other elements. With many brands this law is to the advantage of the consumer; with others, it may be decidedly to his disadvantage, and allow deliberate over-guaranty of goods without replacement by a financial equivalent and without legal penalty. In low-grade goods, those in which the guaranties are not above 3.3 per ct. of nitrogen and 5 per ct. of phosphoric acid or of potash, New York AGricuLtTuRAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 965 this law favors the purchaser, since the deficiencies allowed without penalty are less than under the old law. With goods of higher grade than this, on the other hand, the advantage is with the manufacturer, and increasingly so the higher the guaranty of the goods. For example, nitrate of soda is usually guaranteed at about 15 per ct. nitrogen, on which the law allows a deficiency of 1.5 per ct., or 30 pounds of nitrogen to the ton, selling at from 16 to 21 cents a pound in different localities; in 16 per ct. acid phosphate the allow- able deficiency might cost the purchaser from $1.10 to $2.65 a ton; while in muriate of potash guaranteed at 49 per ct. potash, the deficiency might, without penalty, lose the purchaser about 98 pounds of potash in a ton; that is, from $3.90 to $5.45, according to what he would have paid for the goods at spring prices of 1914 In complete fertilizers, taking the analyses of eight brands below guaranty, the actual deficiencies, measured by the commercial valu- ation of the elements, were worth from $1.78 to $4.81 a ton; and in ten cases of fertilizing materials the absent plant food had a retail market value ranging from $1.69 to $4.57. Of course purchasers of such goods lost more than this; for in almost no instance did they get the ingredients for their commercial valuation. In general it may be said that, under the present law only 34 violations were found in 1004 samples examined; while under the old law 105 of the samples would have fallen below their guaranties enough to class them as violations. The possibility for injustice to the farmer, therefore, Remedy for is considerable under the present law; and it would defects seem very desirable to provide a remedy if one in law. can be found that will not be unfair to the manu- facturer. Such a remedy appears to lie in fixing a limit beyond which the 10 per ct. deficiency provision shall not hold. The Station would suggest amendment of the law by inserting in it the words: ‘and provided further that when such ten percentum deficiency amounts to more than three-tenths of one pound of nitrogen or one pound of phosphoric acid or of potash in one hundred pounds of fertilizer or material to be used as fertilizer, it shall be a violation unless there be a monetary equivalent in excesses in other guaranteed constituents as provided herein.” PERIODICALS RECEIVED BY THE STATION. Acelimitation O0OR. Fh..t. 0k Stee Oe SHR RN aes Soe, AREER Complimentary Acriculturalek pitomisty.vim.\-\sessae oer. oa eee She eee ae ote Complimentary Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales.................. Complimentary Agricultural ournals, Chimaesct. case ce seperate een eee he Complimentary Agricultural Journal of the Union of South Africa.......... 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Department Ol, TENOF tis: tiie eye koe shay che marti vi aheieys Shae wis ete ee 43 Se OeOOnbn le wi DUletIGs: DY. dc aa. ssi hie wgels banat Win Aon chats he oO wee Smita sbandry, Obes) OW WOTK. ooo occ eos v< syeee aie cl cage a2 hei apehegee ete tenascin? 25 Aphis brassice (see Cabbage aphis). cabbage (see Cabbage aphis). APPOMEMEHIS tOnStadt, Meth «sj. sc. << <4 cape} oon esiekdes oP «Akh « Keele eae 10 epplexonenand, balance, sheet) Of...» < = ehera -meince «aap Cie 664 Asparaginate agar medium for soil bacteria.................0+.0--+--e 210 ACMA OEMs, Woy Oi Fool ths s4ngeoao.sco5ae ae ooapsoo0ensbdc 564 EXPO IMUM EG: LIM Sprouse peated «aces 2c. cabevet a ysyeleet ta islcons.0 3150s cee 529 MINOT “EXP CTIMENbSs . icine dak /Behgs serdwke pes eras epee ac 547 HHELDNAOS) Btigeved aot ag plo CCAD ES GOs Cl ASO Oka homer G Ge OUCRE 569 B. Bacterniagunetield vaoilMeountsyiOlsfee = fests c A= Tels ocots oleh. its aes i8l eas TaDVET MOYES sire Co hniabilys Some ese s CDOS Oe RO OOe OND Ad uoS - 79 mMmicroscopicaliidetermination! Of - ae. eee os se ete 27 Kash PLESSMG siren Tl le ewe rales ecorss sv lovaon «vs cles oeeuspey ss. aes revs oes 136, 138 microscopic and plate counts compared.................-::.0: 104 Ol LLOZEN SOUS MODES OMS eos cece evens yeveyeysicceyeud =: siecelaialeis/s.e/ cee) s © she ee 295 109 SOM CU UMe eINed a pL OTe a ramee erate hus ocysicraies oe oreh eonchenelev ero coieie! ono te VoKs 28, 197 986 INDEX. Page. Bacterial sand “cell countsrof mille aes. eee eee eee 151, 153 counts’ of field) soil¢3.s eee MR FOR ene ers 191, 193 milk samples... 2. ..+e<-n: 87, 89, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97 potted) SOU Vac wae ew cbitaa a enon ate cudnt 187, 189 Bacteriology, Department of, notes on work ...............ccccccecccese 26 : TEPOT soy soy nudeqaus eacksisr ops ¥on RoR Nokereesceron remanent eee 79 Baker, E. L., resignation as Associate Chemist.................ccceceees 9 Burium, phytate, conmtposition OF... 2... aa seat aes ome nae ee 344 Barker; Js, Wacincwlars Wy: gs cosas ccdat eek eee eee eee ee 43, 63 Barnes’ vineyard, fertilizer experiment anise dee eects crane eet 595 Basie slap’ phosphate,’ cost: of plant food im... ki2.02.05... co. eeae oe eee 665 Blood; ‘dried, costi of plant food in.v.4. 3.24 setae eee eo eee eee eee 661 Board of \Control, members of. aamcseee easier econ Meee ee renee V Bone-meal, cost: of plant: 100G UW. .sse.ois ssi.) se 21 eae teeta one cae ee 660 Bordeaux, mixture, results) of inspectionas’..-e sae eee eee 720 Bosworth, Alfred W., bulletins by................ 286, 293, 297, 300, 303, 305 Botany. Department of, notesionsworke esse =a eee ere eee 29 TEP OVE 12% Joss Lae eet ene eee telomere ere tene te rotons 231 Bran, wheat (see Wheat bran). Breed, RobertaS:° bulletinabysecs toe cet toa on eee een ae eee 117 Brews. James oD: bulletin bye cvisc kis ce tc ne aiedec sade toke Cee oO aG tee ee 79 Brewers’ dried grains, results of inspection.........5..0...5...00eceseoeee 741 Browns culture mediumstor soll bacteriay eee +e asec tereie ete meant 224 Budget, ichangering torm desirable ssi criticise iierieterer een asi 2 Bulletins, edition Of 2 fast iew cok cocaine oie ctor eee RC oe eee eee 17 LASE OE oe eS ea oe ae Oe eee Oe ene a 38 technical MGSt Aol os Scars. iace weave Dees ake eat Sat Soe ee 39 Bulletins reprinted: No. 373, 79: No. 374, 231; No. 375, 503; No. 376, 562; No. 377, 383; No. 378, 690; No. 379, 244; No. 380, 117; No. 381, 572; No. 382, 405; No. 383, 529; No. 384, 715; No. 385, 602; No. 386, 735; No. 387, 422; No. 388, 452; No. 389, 251; No. 390, 806; No. 391, 6138; No. 392, 649; No. 393, 9. Bulletins reprinted, Popular: No. 373, 893; No. 374, 906; No. 375, 909; No. 378, 915; No. 379, 918; No. 380, 893; No. 381, 920; No. 382, 926; No. 383, 933; No. 387, 9388; No. 388, 946; No. 389, 953; No. 391, 956; No. 392, 959. Bulletins reprinted, Technical: No. 32, 320; No. 33, 381; No. 34, 286, 293; No. 35, 179; No. 36, 362; No. 37, 296; No. 38, 197; No. 39, 305. Burke, A. K., resignation as Assistant Chemist..................--see0e> 9 C. Cabbage aphis, circular sOn). < cf. ciiis ire Gots siete apo eleva ore winte ys seo eee ee 497 description: and! Mite WIStOLy j.-)1r-reeielterolei eye r miciekeretsteiete 497 directions! forscontrolscess oencios tite lene os nine eee 499 INDEX. 987 Page Cabbage aphis, importance to cabbage growing....................000. i: SelechiOnyOl Sta VEL. Saag.) ck amish ne siretneh sick atte eae 500 early, protecting from cabbage maggot..................005 407, 420 probectineswathetanpadss css seer aceite el sce 412 mapgot, carbolic-acid emulsion’ forts. ee ets ces eeee 407 CODES Eg (OS 8 ge Cl aM A i A ar 926 dnferRASbOry KR is PCL e ee ee hee scrote ates ee 407 ONE Cat yr CapbAee amas cata eminem. cscs aiad ae Gaus 405 SHIEH RY LOR tt. mire Tee ehoe eee ote ira in MEN gene snd cone Reasovers 32 GAINEY Ole ap PeaMancerereeerese cee scree ee ne oelste ete cle 406 RISCIOMLAT IPAS ODN amas et eT NE ee cy ate sae dc Rioters 412 Calcium (see Lime). Carbolic-acid emulsion for cabbage maggot................. ccc cece eevee 407 Carona Les; MCUNCELON TIN VIOUL i: Atay e Ne tas Ge SAL eed Soe ore nie Shkate oleaee sani ere 64 WASCIMwAChIONM Ole Tenn OMe tee Oe cece ine teeta ee kes eine we aie: 303 andasalts; immamolkwconditilon ss ean tee ects is eer reais 305 phosphorusicontentrol wesc tadeae eee ec ene ses eon aan 300 Suudies*innich emistriyy Ola kiy Oe eat! eee ae oe tienes eceleye Sicko 296 WADLCICY ROE Wa Wet 2. titees 7a) NR Mate elo fe SiS alata See eos a oelta viele ae Uh 284 Caseinates of magnesium, investigation of.................0..0ceeeeeees 281 Celleand bacterialcounts ot milk ese No. Po ee Oe fe 151, 153 content wavierage, Ot mi lcm crryaceengeras Cte oe ees eatersit oer tice ore ee 142 Oly Sorter ew eM or. Settee ae eine Mia eerste Miata erator ee 143 MuUlkpandelAchatlon™ PenOdier se yaya e ate cise ieee 144 TOP Maieailica syeeahweterekaleis evs et cae te helene. d ite oe grayele wiele 130 examminationvotemuilkes method Weeds 4. 2. sete ee oe ce dee seus cele 129 Celligeinsmilk-vcounts Ofer. Seer eee pete else oes oe eeuncke ciel IBZ sass AUSCUSSLON OL: Ly Aa een eile keto ee tee Ciecre o aeiarermicrerr este teke 117 effect of machine and hand milking...................... 173 WEAKEN: Cony ida Olds Coc oek coven Gb ahodoooDOdar 163 DY SICING HOTTUBCANCE (Ket gene mie ctu ase vis Revs «ee mae see 120 Mmicroscopicaladetenminatlonvol seme eae ees sees 27 Chemistry, Department of, notes on work ...................2..0-eeee 30 EE PORT ee nts: eretons serene Revewin sree ta ete teas seals, ota te 281 Ofek ANG K CASS TIES Les Lee er teters ences oteeaes, min area sero ins 296 S DUCE RMIT Rant Cate Cee ean Mee eD IS, Si eehy. Vane ad Maven see 30 PEiy Gina We Aes SS teerk Sate aeere aeiate ee one ono ore ee otere tare ae 320 Chernicswexp CriMentseiM TIN OING: iota geese s © ole e > cus Disa orate Hele eens 620 Cherny, Abessed?Oignies, description: Off.) ee nse le ee eee yea bees 606 Circulars reprinted: No. 26, 43; No. 27, 63; No. 28, 623; No. 29, 626; No. 30, 497; No. 31, 629; No. 32, 639. (Chrscunll ars mS ta Ol cep ryoneye fess rsqakess tere obetoreeeke arog a alaveae ig Lone Rial dome ee MPN ates) fsa ep leics usted 39 Commercial fertilizers (see Fertilizers, commercial) . Compounded feeds, results of inspection.................06- oletetehele Boo, Uke 988 INDEX. Page. Conn, Hi. Joel, bulletin. by 2. .aweersce eereeao. ob -eoeee Re ea 179, 197 Gorn, phy tin: im) 1. Sills sssieaes sdecuen kee OR OR TR ee 339 sweet (see Sweet corn). Cottonseed meal, organic phosphoric acid of ............. ccc cece eee ueee 321 meals, results of inspectionie ey aci. &toanbiitaas .tanaeel.. see 735 Cows, development of ‘Station herd, ....¢.. 0:2. 2 be desteehan, ) eee ee 25 Cranberry \toad-bug,. bulletin: tomas inc. 4 emt ee outed oath. oo ee eee 383 economic, importance ,asddgu.obdes .fe.c5. te eee 386 effect:on: plants). 25:1: .. upd sBOeIS eS oe eee 392 Ene 68+ Of hts cksid Rear ersewstgeay ie REI oe ee a 394 experiments, in control, .i ce ded. be quhes: 1acas eae 395 flooding forpcontrok oo5 2. 54k. 0 oie phe ee 395, 397 habits. cfs. <. schon ey eeevhiss MEA eee: Ree 392 BASEORY OF is 0 os. o.sin sss alae oie cin band aehe gents Sere een 385 lafe: “RISKOPY ie rssigshd ayes S42 sacle, Rees See Ee 391 life sptapes 408 .....:< 5. yebkitwrekiiet aegis Sa enee ee 388 method s.ofacontrol. 4. 4. neers ee eee eerie 403 MOLES MOM Fy S50 sive c!n'. zw niacin Rete AE ORC 32 SY DON VNB, OF o. so o's oid vehokea ore dS pe else de SRO 387 tests: ofvineecticides) for, 2) is.2 sera ieee ee eee 399 Crawford, F. N., appointment as Assistant Chemist..................... 10 Crickets, tree (see Tree crickets). Cronartium ribicola, greenhouse experiments with ...................... 234 inoculation) ex PenimMenhs te rjeunt shana Sse sab eee 239 life. History OF 250.6 athes os scape « haa rpg ie ee 232 outbreaks: Of ..:.5-dcgaers Senta ge. glitter te eee 232 OVERWINLETING OF a. 5 fen, |e bales a tetteee aonnEnee Bene 231 Cryptosporella viticola (see Dead-arm disease). Culture mediatfor, soil) bacteriagsg- tiie, £2 toeastieteltoene Ee ewe. Se ee 197 COMP OSILLON gic.) sani cdayarn toruiscye re kaece oe over 203 TASES ph aes. sd elder ee nome 219 Currant. Chautauqua, .description: Of..14.15-4)5cte eRe eee eee 610 felf-rust,, OVerwinbering Of 502). . jjsee fatness ee opie eee ee 231 Mustsands pine Tust.notes, ony relation) adler eee 29, 906 origin of joutbreaks, 2: «si. peje Gael ates See eee * 240 @urrantss circular OM) 2)c ac. 4 s0o0)2 @.-" se wicee deities peeiIeRgeR Roe eerie 38, 639 varieties: recommended 5. .).cis.)-taclss -vshelere ctataje lt laeie mpi pannel s rete 644 D. Dead-arm disease, bibliography: (i. (340.00. «Rb AS. »Gel). tocar eee 277 CONGO. i 5c ais'iyo, side Sie ais Rune shotele loi Byes oe Peeve 266 CELOLOL Yi: .0.'5) vein aisle Cc wicloelplee elsiohe aiomsaionekesore ate ae 255 history, and) life-histony,<\s:ceee -ce) ah eels nites Bo bihaterte 252 infection experiments ...... his: alkke mie tiki ite sketeteictarenereteneets 269 INDEX. 989 Page Derd-arm disease, inoculations bysancision siney..c.ce cee estes eee eee 276 DVeSEU WCE yectrtls MISC a avetel sw laketone cpaierere Rus cnavarece%s, = 274 EME OUEMI TOOLS! Soia's telowie sre eerie cise ss sicis's 2 277 [ite History: Or. fun PUG. Si ec cs cle tt stele sis este av ae sic ¢ 258 ODF OT APES we sic wic © eetethote ie tater metre sieve le atetetal ciara sreynicres eieToiene 251 ALANSMISSION Winsome venise sere ei eeete coer sictorere hove pesiceayarats ova e 264 DY SPLrayiNGVspPOres) sree ae skeletere cle. 6. 272 Department of Agronomy (see Agronomy, Department of). Bacteriology (see Bacteriology, Department of). Botany (see Botany, Department of). Chemistry (see Chemistry, Department of). Entomology (see Entomology, Department of). Horticulture (see Horticulture, Department of). DRECEOT SF CPONG s cic cise ceeds 55) 404 6/5 cine 54 9 staid > woe ay ctegehs Shere lena ere aetH arah nelle 9 Distillers’ dried grains, results of inspection.........................:.-- 740 H. Entomology, Department of, notes on work’. .2...........220 cece eee ee 32 TEPORES SMe ees eee h iene ee eters sia aeavererat 383 Equa emt new ESURCO Vs Ste oS nerst come eaeetcte Ves MN eae eats) hoists ntsc ot eraun 14 iPmiension. woLk, relation of Station tos. Aeeeeee setae ode sc ete ee ee 23 ¥F. Heenimr SONI, (TESULUS, OF “INSPECUION, oo. 6. olen. coins wera

sibieciss- ciierdeeiesie 715 CCE CRW ON MATUOUIE Ol, Ay eish src Ghats) i.sio'c)isVo. 1 bial o-ointnlsys Bhn(epal lege st Ceuuiais pista ale 30 NOME Nhe Sag doa gore o aeOn Ce IO OU OU ON Ob tegen y d Oocob 18 TED OL MONE cere Mer repro espe 6 ae cuogens halle a Chol aenehe iil yp eKe sh 649 Investigations away from Station, list of .................-. eee eee eee 20 MOE OS il ONE ray%.< oie) sopsicy sor « sen oth et eae tater irre 553 Tobacco-culture investicabions, MOtesHONy\.. eases oe eee ine soe 19 Prade values of plant -food)osk ptm ante © sas iol wate kd ald aM tetd ocatees IR nee 807 LTEA SUITED Sy TEPORG 4.0.50! ave craronare iayayaevaiusos Sele) cnavet o shonoretaaheese) AAtadee ehoheyal eden Ne 1 iiree cricket, narrow, winged. distribution. 0). 1-4 ek eee ee ne eter 482 ECONOMIC IM pPoORlANee see se see ier 486 feeding: habits ye. tee. seen ens. 2a eee 485 isboryeccs::.0% UCR, SE COREE eee 482 life staged! 2 2d285. 22 CHMASS eRe ae 483 Localidistribubion: ©4145.) eae erie 485 nym phalpstages.acac hie. uinieciniesacre ere 484 OVIUPOSTLIONN 36 sus cape en aioe rica ae eee 486 Sone vand imatine salbits Were eaee 485 EHOW, GUSELIDULION OL qj. cms cick crit ona leieriet eb ace ekae ene 466 eilech OL OVI pOSItLon™ Ona p ples. cer merrier 476 feeding Jhabits 5. Gat ameias ccrctete tise eiektael eieekeiters 475 OO WO Cm mec im nC CMC ete nC nC Tt CNC Mire i oe CiCy Cie C InpDExX. 997 Page Wree cricket, snowy, history and synonymy of .........«..ss-.+arsces 465 VER SIS OEE a MO RO a rt cor ae ea PU ed 466 MIRACLIN OE MULLIN Gite ih ro oye ecanosvrra SN8/ete Meraidva Uee ee eis Cee 471 iad: OLA NL IGT Yate Sle, Sie en ee Ree co Een Er Rye Rn geet 470 CLD ORE OTN hoc, cath pee ani abncee seep INL ig AMAL A os Re Rake 472 ESOT OM ye cnattsrc acy ors Sie cetacean olor eR Nene ie Oat ecltenye ante 470 BUNGIOCR ROR A ctlece ¢.6aricra chy Mane thee elo ene Pana 465 Btripeds control smeasures: a. oats Sacins ccs cane oe eee ee 495 GUSET MOC LOTS OF ve ste yeie Ws tects hee, eae 488 CCONOMUC “UmMIpPOrtanee? c4 d- esas ns ee teense 495 Peeding rn apits Aoi aca as Hated oe one neta eee 494 hatching and nymphal stages .................... 490 ile Reve ofa aera A ee err ge ne RENT OE ra, 489 hoca ls dustripmGromy ty. onic coasts doo weenie eee 494 mating and oviposition’ habits........-..00....-- 491 plants: for ovipogition: - 2. ssa csem cas dane one ee. 493 SOT ans Carers gine cieiraser ote ttey sural se ouerorte rene sensac eee TPP Rea Fo reo 49] CRI CKOL Sr CHANACLET Sts cus iva nepnicieks maatennt aie ares tean oh ate soa ae ee 454 SHAELOle MYCHOW par acute oolaracrac oatare Secret Aon 481 GUISE UD LEGIONS fc tratyiel worl ier oystoratl joy tious cares ayers Ser, Soke tore aaa ee 455 ECONOMICRIMp OntAN Ceaser moe kori e ener eae 455 APTA S Vibra ania othe vivelapaioteiereieeistansiamoesais iss alae eee eats eee: 33 HA UHAMO UK LOUK Oil, Gob qogonc tonceAcsomhooognonae 452, 946 MARES GAGES core ce ytos, fies s a atnisl siete cuss Reece A Ca see mne Sieve eeeP See 458 MALUM AEN CIMITES gy ayaerovsesreenveta ssi akshe rae ous ciate oeneee toratuseeee icone 460 susceptibility to sprays .......2...6.0...+54 a iia at ape arres 480 Tuberculosis in Station herd, eradication of.....................c-sse0ee 25 Vi: fan solvike, LL. Ii, bulletins by... 22.2.2 6c eases 281, 286, 297, 300, 305, 649 Kouevatd whredonia, analyses Of soll... i.e esc ds swe ween ees geeuenne 577 wanevards,, decline in productivity «16... ce%.veldics ote du dclecaesimnnnenns 574 AEE EUEZER PLACHICES INK Wile. se iudelajaias a dustecarsie ioe aon Shap sine eae megane 575 LEST SUES onntoieo coigs cinco oor tao manta tad at 920 Ww. SOS HTINGIT (7) bc] WET (09 0 so a er ie reece 582 TE COLGS 8s) tae sikralouel ae cer/ouce sieaste rei eta ie obs halt Oat allo ro maya onsureuclehe shale toner 974 Mure iateey VVr,, CULCUNAT (DY oa cc. as «slave so ass vse ela es Goats pa ol wise ce mae 626 Wheat bran, inosite monophosphate from ..............0eeeeceeeerneeee 375 BreanicupHospHOric ACIS OL Src. oe yw se oe ole/eie.s wrelel cies chet 362 Serta Wem MOTI G VAN DVR. oct’ ol cs assy) aca eves eiouet el one) on. mia ol ave/aielin o) #'9) nile wileiele on 281 Nivoudrashes coshor plant TOOd IMs. bed cas cea cee so cis can see veces 664 Pa a aiitad iy “af Mae © “< » el I \4 ' f . (Tibi hindi wae r Fi : i { “ ; — J k : iat § on 5 . i inyere 7 ® I “ OTT 3 5185 00258 3142 PER TE OPT Pee Eo | PEERED Y ND on Ae