LOS Bit et rateret teat aL i . Ve aes es Ronee eh a BE ea = ge = C Xk | pl X =. cotter Seplen ay ib : i399 97 Z State oF New York DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT CF THE Department of Agriculture For the Year Ending September 30, 1917 PARE Jil TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE JANUARY 15, 1918 ALBANY J. B. LYON COMPANY, PRINTERS 1918 STATE OF NEW. YORK No. 26 IN ASSEMBLY JANUABY 15, 1918 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Part II To the Honorable the Legislature of the State of New York: In accordance with the provisions of the statutes relating thereto, I have the honor to transmit herewith the Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture of the State of New York, for the year ending September 30, 1917. CHARLES 8S. WILSON Commissioner of Agriculture January 15, 1918. Bulletin Bulletin Bulletin Bulletin Bulletin 85. 386. 87. 88. 89. CONTENTS PAGE Dairy Demonstration Work in New York State............ 7 Report of Farmers Institutes from June 15, 1915, to June 30, DiGi ev ete Recgaar tts ued ernierens sie teks: iseeaew ni coe sea ets ana ieee 73 Grasses and Leguminous Crops in New York State......... 527 List of Butter and Cheese Factories, Milk Stations and Con- dense Plants an New Work State. ose. seo nie Ble ace: 807 HarmsCensus oteNewevorkastatececmercne nese eee eer 879 [5] aa om M x, iM ws MS) STATE OF NEW YORK DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE CHARLES S. WILSON, Commissioner Bulletin 85 Dairy Demonstration Work in New York State Prepared by A. J. NICOLL Issued by the Bureau of Farmers’ Institutes and Compiled under the Supervision of the Director a me | aia Thy ont ‘ wtwry -t 1 ACY 2 pie 2? of eo! a Le : : YS , ee cae) ay ae ” CONTENTS PAGE EMPEOMUCEI OM eer Piha sicimestrs ho sree Sin een ala ol hayshe Valo gale et eta ets 13 Early History of the Cow-Testing Association, A. J. Nicoll.............. 15 Need of Dairy Improvement Association Work in New York State, A. J. INGE OLE: Ceececta avery an leisucts etch cccitexaticdon elves aacucteusee le Buin sieve cl als abe cusmayedeiw le, desis lave, cdue 27 Pena Tiere: Wave TTR HN, dip INTO NAS spect au cadence Bea ole Uno oad dol6 oe 44 Rice ainyalmprovementeAgsOClablONer at) + eiiase icicles ctl weit aeience eis 48 Wyoming County’s Dairy Improvement Associations, H. M. Bowen...... 60 Fundamentals in Dairying, Edward van Alstyne....................... 60 Agreement, Constitution, and By-Laws.......... Sodom UGHdO GOODODOSDOSS 70 [9] INTRODUCTION The first publication issued by the State Department of Agri- culture on the work of dairy improvement associations was Bul- letin 30, issued in 1911 and entitled “ Cow Testing Associations.” Although at that time the work of such associations was in its infancy, the subject matter set forth in the bulletin was so clear and convincing that it attracted wide attention, making evident the fact that the fundamental principle of profitable dairying was a better cow, intelligently fed. The five years that have passed since Bulletin 30 was issued have been evolutionary, as the title of the present bulletin would indicate. Substantial growth has taken place, showing the possibilities to be attained by better breeding, increased yield, and economic feeding, as factors in reducing the cost of production. The numbers of associations and cows under test have increased, and with these have come better methods of organization and administraton. This evolution has sent into the discard much that was undertaken in good faith, but found to be unsuitable; with it have gone not a few cows wholly unfit to have a place in twentieth-century dairying. That the number of the unfit may be materially decreased is one object of present-day associations. With their elimination must go certain men, who, either because of ignorance, lack of adaptation to the business, or undesirable farm location, are working under a handicap too heavy to be overcome. To set in order and record the development of the cow-testing association idea in New York State, and to make widespread the facts, as to both its accomplishment and purpose, this bulletin has been prepared. With greater knowledge, better and more intelli- gently handled machinery, and with better equipped men — with the support of the director of farm bureaus and county farm managers, of the New York State Dairy Association and hun- dreds of wide-awake dairymen, as well as of members of our own associations — the director of farmers’ institutes and his associates feel that in the next decade there should be manifest marked results in solving the problem of profitable dairying. There is no [13] 14 Darry DEMONSTRATION WorxK In NEw York STATE question but that in the average dairy the margin of profit is too small, but to the careful observer it must be equally apparent that, desirable as it might be from an individual standpoint, the remedy does not lie in an-arbitrarily increased price without regard to the law of supply and demand, but in a better article more economi- eally produced. Much of the credit for what has been accomplished is due to Mr. A. J. Nicoll, through whose efforts this bulletin has been pre- pared, and to Mr. John A. Ennis, who together have had charge of the work in the field; also to the many farm bureau managers in whose counties the work has prospered; and within the last year to Mr. H. E. Babcock, assistant director of farm bureaus, to whose untiring efforts and resourceful brain is due the working out of ‘‘ the dairy improvement association ”’ idea. With the hope that a careful study of the contents of this bulletin may result in the putting in practice of the principles herein set forth and that thereby the dairymen of the state may be benefited, it is sent forth on its mission. Epwarp vAN ALSTYNE, Director of Farmers’ Institutes. EARLY HISTORY OF THE COW-TESTING ASSOCIATION Aco. Niconn, Delhi, New Y. Farmers’ Institute Lecturer The cow-testing association work in New York State began with the organization of an association by Professor W. A. Stocking at the State College of Agriculture, on May 1, 1908. Such good results were obtained from the work at Ithaca that the dairymen in other localities began to be interested. Four of the herds entering the Ithaca association at its organization showed for the first four years the following increases in profit over feed for each COW : YEAR Herd 1 Herd 2 Herd 3 Herd 4 BAESt ee es ts een ee: $18 04 $38 04 $22 86 $13 36 SECOTG Meee te ke ar Nk he ise eee 44 63 Ail 33 66 19 62 RRInG aah a eee ees CE eee 36 02 48 32 57 40 50 59 HOUDtH eee eet nee ee oo eee 40 81 54 84 46 59 51 73 The following extract is taken from the last report of the above association: ‘‘ We have six members of this association who have been in the entire time which this association has been running. These men have received considerable benefit from this work, as their production per cow has increased from 65 to 70 pounds of fat per cow per year. It has also been of benefit to the entire community in raising calves from cows which were producing a larger amount of fat.” The second association was organized at Delhi, Delaware county, New York, on February 26, 1910, and is still in active operation. Field work was begun on April 1, 1910, with Mr. Roy Cornell as official tester. According to the books of the creameries, during the first year of existence of this association, sixteen herds did actually deliver 270,179 pounds more milk; and [15] 16 Darry DEMONSTRATION WorK IN NEw York STATE had they been paid at the same price per hundredweight as the previous year, would have received $4,839 more for the milk of a smaller number of cows. The price at the creameries, however, was considerably higher in 1910-11 than in 1909-10. The com- plete record is set forth in the following table: 17 Farty History or THE Cow-TrEstina ASSOCIATION 0S FSF‘ S$ €8 129‘T ¢9 ett 29 661 80 2ST SL ZO ‘T 10 ¥LF 9¢ S6E 9T S0¢ 00 ZFS 18 O&T‘T 89 SLIy GO SOF Ot t14 1€ OSF LI GLP 6E 299$ Ivok UWOIZBIOOSSE IO} asvaIoUuy Z8 090‘2F$ | ZE 9LESes 29 SOL‘F SF OLE ‘SZ 0€ ZE6‘E LeceGeul FP £69‘S 06 999‘T Sh 26S‘S ¥Z 688‘Z 61 Z£9‘Z OF LZSI‘E $9 G82‘ Tx LEU 98 186‘ 89 2921'S 19 919‘F 6Z 020‘%$ LI6 ‘yoreyyy -O16T ‘dy aeok uOlyeIDOssy 62 180‘ 80 F8E‘Z 89 ZEL‘E €Z 919 ‘T 99 O¢F‘F €8 Z6L‘T CL LGL % 80 #88‘'S 61 ¢86‘T 6S 9S0‘°Z 96 60T' Ts GE SEO‘ Tx ZO 9F6‘S LE ZISZ 0¢ 102'F 06 Z0F ‘I$ OL6T “We —6061 ‘dy SHOTHD NI GIVg ATNOP 6LI‘OLZ spunog areok TOT} BIOOSSB JO} asvaIOUT ‘ssoTy | SYFUOUT XIg , 029 ‘Sat ‘Z FOF‘ SEz 0Z8" L2I 182‘ L0Z cos ‘&6 FZ0 962 158‘ 86 £60‘ T&T 12S‘ 6FT LOT ‘SEI Lee 881 EFS‘ 6S. CFF ‘C6 x. 962 ‘ELT 81g ‘GST OLF S61 SFI ‘SOL spunog ces 0¢ 9€ OF 8T 09 GS O€ VE 8Z LE GZ GY 43 GS Gg 91 SMO Jaquin NY TI61 ‘WIV I-OT6T Tudy rea uoryeo0ssy IPF ‘SST ‘Z 698‘ E9T 120‘ 6&1 ZC6 90 682'96 06z ‘0Sz OF9 ‘FL SIT ‘Est 120‘ 6&1 O18 ‘6IT 020‘ 62T OFO ‘9, COS LLx 790 ‘FLT F9& ‘621 982 FST It¥F ‘08 spunog OT6I ‘Wore JN-606T ‘dy WU 10 SAIMAAITAG: AUAWV AND ccc [P30], I ST fr eee IM Op 0 [titttttttttettrtttteeeteteee CI A ee FI A ZI 67 Peeters ee treet n ees Il OG rrttttttttesestttttetereseee Or Occ 6 ee 8 WG ttt tts eens eee eee es 1 ee 9 Tp [ttt ttt terest eee ences ¢ BO ttt ttt eet t ese e eee et eee e eases ; Coon ¢ (eee z eee I SMOO Joaquin quay] utawoa Ny eee 18 Datry Demonstration Work In New Yorx State In the table below is shown the average increase in production of milk and butter fat per cow in one of the herds in the Delhi association, the average decrease in the cost of feed, and the net average increase in profit per cow over feed, extending over a period of three years: TA Number Pounds Pounds Value of | Cost of Profit cows milk fat product feed over feed 1 bs ae ela hen don gee lear 38 4,716 229 $75 66 $43 49 $32 17 WOLD Ee. See Ee See 39 4,905 239 91 42 35 72 55 70 DIC) IS ae, Se i Oe eee eee 36 5,914 296 115 37 38 64 76 73 The cost of feed was reduced $4.85 for each cow, and the profit over feed increased $44.56 in the three years. One of the herds in the Delhi association during its first years was the pure-bred Holstein herd of Walter L. Terry, of Walton, New York. The record of this herd shows the advantage of membership in a cow-testing association in breeding for produc- tion and in selling surplus stock when the yearly records are known for the entire herd. Mr. Terry has since died, but this herd is still included in the association. The record for the entire herd was as follows: Y Number Pounds Pounds Value of Value Cost of Profit HAR cows milk fat milk a feed over feed SSS ed LOT eleisiclets . 32 | 220,810 8,583 |$3,488 79 |$2,300 00 |$1,523 12 | $4,265 67 1912. J.6 cca 36 271,526 9,911 | 4,354 31 | 3,150 00 | 2,113 57 5,390 74 ESS S66 S500c 61 359 , 372 12,720 | 6,038 35 | 5,000 00 | 3,165 94 7,872 41 The following statistics indicate the average record for each cow in the herd: Pounds Pounds Value of Cost of Profit YEAR milk fat milk of stock feed over feed ND UTOAIS il ercrstatets, VOONVLAVHD OP OermcyseOt) Ci mo.ry Ow) Perm Tec cho AaB A enyosy Od Ooms aay Hoon Aoqyie A osurmou0y /SAVOVUVLLV)S) :gWwooug uoBIoosse pues AyUNOD SNOILVIOOSSY LNANHAOUdWNT AYIVG WLVYLG MWUYOK MAN N Earzty History oF THE Cow-TrEstine AssocIATION TIEISETGOD “UMoIg Avy oT ‘muoyUByD ‘neeing wae 7 ‘190330g puouATyy ‘IMaUIIANOL) “ooyo, ys ‘ourg "JT ‘O “AQTBA AIOYO ‘Wosiqieypy “f “4.q0y “SUBING'T 9SOA4 ‘TJOUIOD 104[R A, Gg “UY ‘uUMoyssodooy ‘ssl[gq “y epne[D "UM099S89 MA “4981 99'T ‘OTTAUOPSUIYsE Ay “UeYSurUUNH “fT *plOFIVET MON “WABPT °C Joupaer ‘BUOID A ‘AUSW IevOSC ‘quoyeg puvljoy ‘sde1opuy “O “Vv ‘aleyolvury ‘preureig “02% a[[IAMOT “BIOSTLD “OD 'T ‘OTTIAYAIUTG ‘uOTUBYY Jog “euooe’y “AULT, "T ‘seyO “OUOTBIY ‘J9pooy MA WYO ‘uoysulry ‘Aojeq somes Ce) O18 G0, CeO Gacna premag ‘yasulogq UIAIV JT Sanremo reich cy ty Th Care Cyr) doryqur oye EL Ne doto oon oOo ooo IneusiaAnor ‘MBTPIerT [ae Sai pag Joquey prysuudg ‘ysno ‘q “YY DO ao cr okdvosn Do 6 Go 4 SLLIOJAT WOYOTIBD ay “VW “--q -y ‘umoyssedoog ‘atddry jy opneyo Wlallelealon: eure. is! le lefts, oy «ney one UM0}4S9 A ‘oUIOI "(P “a Ss OT[LATOYSUTYSe Ay ‘MOJO BOUAIRTD EGE acc plojpIV TT MON ‘AIQUAAOD ABUT Gta wile cuied eo) le epee cwuncy. 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MOIOn On ODOO DOOM OnoO nS WO1q9 F{-Pp10f}1B FY Cielo) fe) eve fellellel(eNelejlere)e\elisieits Kaye A asplaquiey SI6r ‘Fc dy QT6T ‘— eune : NOLONTHSYV MA FI6L ai 00q OOD MoMrO OOM UmOOOd OO moon OOOO On Te UTE AA SUaLST S061 “it ACTN OOo od deo OO Oeecn bd eee eee (jjour00) BoVyyy -SNIMdANOT, OI6L aT uve OO On tia Oo Oo Ut OG Geo CD SD OOOO OTF LO) Hp WY sna Gey :VOOL CI6I ‘GS BEY@ | OOO 0 010 a6 se eee ee Velvigistsiseeonee AUIS GTI >NVAITTNG 9161 QT “qaq OOO OOOO OG Oo se ee ee * AOTTBA m0yOYoD :NGAAaLg ansealoie a woreIoosse puke AZUNOD LNANWAAOUMNT AUIVCT NEED OF DAIRY IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATION WORK IN NEW YORK STATE A: J. Nicorz, Delhi, N. Y. Farmers’ Institute Lecturer According to the census of 1900, the 1,501,608 dairy cows in New York State produced an average of 4,378 pounds of milk for each cow. The 1910 census reported 1,509,594 cows, with an average production of 4,410 pounds of milk, or a gain of only 32 pounds for each cow in the ten years. In thirty-two of the counties, the average production for each cow was less in 1910 than in 1900. In seven of the counties the decrease was over 1,000 pounds of milk for each cow, according to Circular 17 of the State College of Agriculture. While the production of the average cow does not seem to be increasing as it should, the cost of production has been going up very rapidly. Few dairymen realize that the cost of producing milk in New York State has about doubled in the last fifteen years. Yet if we look at some of the items that enter into the cost of production we shall see that this is true. INVESTMENT IN DAIRY CATTLE A herd of dairy cattle consists of cows, yearling heifers, heifer calves, and herd bull. At the present time the investment in a dairy herd is twice as much, or in other words is 100 per cent higher than it was in the year 1900. If the value of dairy cattle has increased 100-per cent within fifteen years, the depreciation has been increased in proportion; for cattle grow old, become dis- eased, and die, just as they did when they cost only half as much as they do now. The roughage consumed by the dairy herds, based on the value of hay as quoted in the Rural New Yorker of October 6, 1900, and October 2, 1915, shows an increase in value of 36 per cent. The grain required by the herd, most of which is purchased, is 50 per cent higher than it was on October 1, 1900, as shown by the following table, which gives the prices of the feeds sold to the 27] 28 Dartry DEMONSTRATION WorK IN NEw YorK STATE farmers of Delaware County by C. E. Kiff, of Delhi, to be fed to the cows of their dairy herds: Increase Grain 1900 1915 per ton Wines tiCeds emits ic tenes sis cc eet Ween sao $20 00 $33 00 $13 00 Cornmeal; sae ey fee ee lide oes 21 00 37 00 16 00 Hominy gmealerer eee eee oe 2. cs yee eae ae 19 50 35 00 15 50: Chittentmaecalleerse ee ae oP a Seto i Pe TS 22 00- 30 00 8 00 Cottonsecdamenlenee nme tie: ee hee 27 00 35 00 8 00 Groundioatserseeye ee ee etek ee eee ee 27 00 40 00 13 00 Minseedemed lepeewe eee ce es Gee ae ee ee 30 00 40 00 10 00 These prices show an average increase of 50 per cent in cost of feed to the farmers within fifteen years. The labor required on a dairy farm is at least 50 per cent higher than in 1900. At that time a hired man on a Delaware County dairy farm received $20 and board, while during the last year a man doing no more work cost the farmer $30 and board. Furthermore, help is harder to find, and, as a rule, is not so satisfactory. If the investment has increased 100 per cent in fifteen years, and interest and depreciation has increased in proportion; if the roughage consumed by the herd is worth 36 per cent more and the grain 50 per cent more; if the labor that enters into the cost of production has increased in cost as much as grain; and if the average production for each cow in the state is no greater, it is evident that in order for the farmer to have the same profit in the dairy business as he had fifteen years ago, he must receive a higher price for the product placed on the market. While the selling price of dairy products has advanced in the past fifteen years, it has not kept pace with the cost of production. The following table gives Borden’s prices for 3.9 milk at Delhi, for the years beginning October 1, 1900, and October 1, 1915: Increase on 100 1900 1915 pounds UNO iS ak I te eds AEA RIe RO BIR A at gh 5 MAO : $1 10 $1 48 $ 38 IV Ie yreiney eestor eee Uke ey etn cose ites ae ck inet ts 90 1 23 33 Me, hee mee CRS ant Soree MRP SERD EEE 8 SD 80 ales 37 TCUN/ 2 SR Re Se OS iS Aen ERS SL Sa enn 2 90 1 43 53 ANTTELAT TS Ra ages CREO Stanek Sve neon ane fates aga Bie eo ah ad 1 05 1 59 54 September ti... ter. Gabi a, see eens! eee ee 1 25 1 68 43 (Carel oe Sakae Son ORE f GENS FO Ce Cn aoe. 1 35 1 87 52 November) hs ehh a er A) FE ANE Sek | See eee 1 45 1 97 52 WMecentberce sir: aac RE Cakes mee ie ee 1 50 1 97 47 AINE ve scec-e + ohahs- 0 Meee cea USIATS Ree 1 50 1 87 37 HG DIUARYA avs Ee SIO Abad SANE Cas Ee ee 1 40 1 82 42 Mar chithersrs se os as ae Ace heen ea ou omen meee 1 30 aa) 47 NEEp oF Datry IMPROVEMENT AssociaATION WorK 29 It will be seen from the above table that the increase in the price of milk in the fifteen years is 87 per cent, which is much less than the increase in the value of everything that enters into its pro- duction ; but, with an increased cost of 100 per cent in investment, interest, and depreciation, 50 per cent in grain and labor, and 36 per cent in roughage, a problem presents itself. Despite the increase of 87 per cent in the selling price of dairy products, and allowing, as we must, for the increase in the value of beef and hides, the dairyman still finds himself with a smaller profit than he had from a similar herd on the same farm fifteen years ago. There are two ways in which the producer of dairy products can increase his profits: 1. They may be increased by an increase in the selling price. The dairyman feels that he is entitled to this, first, because of the great increase in the cost of everything that enters into its produc- tion, and, secondly, because milk at its present retail price is much cheaper than any other food of its class that comes on the table of the consumer. A quart of milk is equal to 15 cents’ worth of beef at 20 cents a pound, to 23 cents’ worth of eggs at 35 cents a dozen, or to 20 cents’ worth of oysters at 40 cents a quart. The dairyman, when he considers the value of the food he is placing on the market and its high cost of production, feels that the present selling price is too low; but so long as there is sufficient milk available to supply the market at the present price, no very great increase can be expected. 2. The second way for the dairyman to increase his profit 13 by a lower cost of production. It is rather strange that farmers when thinking of a greater profit usually expect it to come by way of a higher selling price; in this case they think they are justly entitled to a higher price, but are so intently watching the market end of the business that they forget that the same result can often be obtained by lowering the cost of production. The latter is usu- ally within the farmer’s control, while the former is often beyond his reach. Records made by cow-testing associations show that the average herd is making all its profit from about half the cows; one- fourth of the herd just about pays expenses, while the remaining one-fourth is kept at a loss. All herds have some good cows, usually enough to breed a profitable herd; but the unprofitable 80 Datry DEMONSTRATION Work IN NEw YorK STATE individual is much too common for the good of the dairyman. When we remember that weare not using the dairy cow as Nature intended, we shall not be so much surprised to find the low pro- ducer of milk and fat in the herd. Nature intended the cow to produce sufticient milk, containing sufficient fat to sustain her ealf until it could obtain its hving from the land. This was by no means a large production. A few hundred pounds of milk containing perhaps a rather low percentage of fat was all that was needed, and when the need was filled, the supply ceased. By intelligent selection, breeding, feeding, care, and environment, we have developed the dairy cow from her natural production of sufficient to feed her calf to the splendid performers of the dairy breeds of today, when we are producing from a single cow more than fifteen tons of milk and as much as the body weight of the cow in butter fat in a year; and the records of production are still going up. If we compare present conditions with the condition of the cow as we began with her, we need not be surprised to find the unprofitable individual in all breeds and in most herds where a careful system of selection has not been followed. In order to show the possibilities of selection as a factor in increasing the profits of the herd, we give the record of two herds in an Oneida county association. The first herd of fifteen cows has no unprofit- able individuals, while the second herd has a number of the “boarder” variety. The record is as follows: RecorD OF ENTIRE Recorp or Brest Recorp OF Best HERD 10 Cows Cow Herd 1 Herd 2 (isicows) (@9 cows) Herd 1 Herd 2 Herd 1 Herd 2 Poundssmilks ees 108,288.6 |213,355.6 77,011.6 69 , 397.1 9,478.7 8,739.1 Average per cow....| 7,219.2 5,470.6 We, COL et 6,939.7 <] cee mente enh iPoundstate ees. + 4,028.6 7,359.8 2,771.0 1,360.9 341.2 296.8 Average per cow.... 268.5 188.7 Qin P3620" 7) ek Sees aa |e Value of product... ./$1,816 55 {$3,070 27 |$1,294 74 |$1,010 25 $154 85 $127 66 Average per cow.... 121 10 78 72 129 47 101'02 | Ake eee eee Gost of feed........ 698 27 Ne Sled 476 81 465 93 46 96 48 70 Average per cow.... 46 55 45 68 47 68 46 59) i) acteiteee crane lierste ee Labor, depreciation, ANCETESE acrcleteion 525 00 1,365 00 350 00 350 00 35 00 35 00 IAS CTH EO. croc royeieceiche eis 35 00 35 00 35 00 35/00). le. cee eel lee eee aiets MotalicOsts. .crciessts T22o 20 3,146 73 826 81 815 93 81 96 83 70 PAV ETAL EY cls eisiialelsisiele 81 55 80 68 82 68 HA) I Gooosacs || coscnasce IPTORG ce.o cso ctl eveveverevals GU Rete ll toca cGeos 467 93 194 32 72 89 43 96 PASVIET ALC creroieicinyslisleisie'e 39) OO: We kiesinteauas 46 79 19043) fs cciverels [lee Rees WOR s Caracas shale e.srsll| (ec reietenercs 76146) ier Saeed) fee oxrs.s cre | | ees seis c ced | eee IANTCV ARO ceiie-sie cleieieterelll cleveleinieicssse MOG Gl ereteccwmretcrere: |] cosecsie-ate ses te l-aveeceveretera ail | CCR Cost_per 100 pounds TAM oe Ochre icone 1 12 1 47 1 07 il ile 86 95 Cost per quart milk. 0242 0317 0230 0252 0185 0205 Return for 1 hour [ADOT cise vaowrenens 52 17 58 35 81 56 —<—<—a = Norr.— Charge for labor, $22; and for interest aid depreciation, $13 a cow, for one year. NeEeEp oF Datry IMPROVEMENT AssocIATION Work 31 It should be noticed that after a charge of $35 a cow for labor, interest, and depreciation has been added to the cost of the feed, Herd 1, with fifteen cows, still makes a profit of $593.28, or $39.55 a cow, while Herd 2, with thirty-nine cows, makes a loss of $76.46, or $1.96 per cow; yet we find in this herd ten cows with a record showing a net profit of $194.32, or $19.48 profit for each cow, while one cow made a profit of $43.96. Deducting the record of the best ten from each herd, we find the poorest five in Herd 1 making a profit over all expenses of $125.35, while the poorest 29 in Herd 2 lost to the owner $270.78. Herd 1 con- sumed 87 cents’ worth more feed for each cow than did Herd 2, while the best cow in Herd 2 ate $1.74 more feed than the best cow in Herd 1, and made $28.93 less profit. One of the main objects in keeping dairy cows is to afford a market for the crops grown on the farm, and for the labor of the farmer and his family. In order to show the different returns given by the different cows in the herd for the hay consumed and the labor expended, as well as the cost of the product, we have selected the records of two herds with a production of milk and fat above the average in their localities. The first is a grade Jersey herd owned in Delaware county, of which the following record was made: Dartry DEMONSTRATION Work In NEw York STATE o2 ¢O ST LV. 8o P OF GZ 92 GT 99 OT 9€ O€ SI 8I VI IZ 88 € 86 02 90 ST 8L 1c 82 , A, ial ° 2 2) q 8 3 » 3 ~ ~ =) 3 6 al lentil ctu |= Dee at we epee, alee Ay Ay > oO al a o o fan ia Entire herd........ 5,134.5} 245.9/$94 36 $48 45/$83 45 $10 91] $1 62/$.0349] $0 28/$15 05 Best 12 cows.......| 5,437.9] 267.5/103 34| 49 87} 84 87 18 47] 1 56] .0335 35] 27 32 Poorest 5 cows..... 4,407.9] 193.9] 72 83] 45 05) 80 05 *7 22) 1 81] .0389 13} 10 00 | * Loss. The second is a grade Holstein herd of twenty cows, the record of which may be seen in the following table: ts! 1m td od be sO 5.9 al S = S go 2 os | oa 28 f | a] 8 3 i) = q £ Nee. o a E 3 STOW We ana ind Saeed cai Fe ue ese | oat No. Cow 5 iS § a 5 3° 8, & el lle & g s 2 olka AS 2 mies yee aS nD n 6 GH ° © 5 (=) q Fa] gS se} as) © ° a 49 2, q ° >| Ra q g 3 ~ 3 Ca] n ve) ~ 3 t=) 5 Siler Poua ion tee Senile alt Sil Seas ay cy Es a ea bs a SL eke Ds asf SOs el nls al lal 02.1) 227.8)$78 15/$62 56/$97 56]...... $19 41] $1 68)$.0361| $0 02] $5 64 .4| 220.4) 86 86) 65 48/100 AS| i eae 13 62] 1 68} .0363 OFA) “7 PP .8| 158.9! 67 78) 62 56) 97 56]...... 29 78} 1 94! .0418 *06| 2 12 -4| 281.4] 89 33] 65 48/100 48 ...... il a6) ah Gal SOB Y/ 09] 8 16 .¢| 220.4) 92 46) 60 65) 95 65...... 3 19) 1 52] .0328 16] 11 34 aA Ol 108941) 62756)597 Ore. 26 62} 1 83] .0393 #04); 3 18 ZO leis oes Oo O2 "5019100 sera S 35 Ol; 2 12) .0456 *11 34 9.091 161.4) 50 97) 60 38] 95 38 ...... 44 41} 2 50] .0538 *19| *2 84 0} 292°5/107 16] 70: 43/105. 43) $1 73)... ..- 1 68} .0362 20) 13 46 .8| 224.6] 90 49) 64 90] 99 90...... 9 41; 1 54} .03382 10} 9 00 -6| 341.3}143 18] 65 39/100 39| ADEE |pevetorar. 1 02] .0219 55| 31 54 .7| 221.8] 83 09] 66 04]}101 04'...... 17 95) 1 69] .0364 03; 6 14 .2| 178.1] 66 55] 62 56] 97 38) oecuee 31 Ol} 1 93] .0415 *Q08} 1 71 .9| 205.0] 78 45] 66 04/101 04 ...... 22 59) 1 80} .0387| *005| 4 42 .1| 340.6}132 42] 71 90]106 90| PAE) | Gia oe 1 32} .0284 41) 23 36 .8} 294.6/115 35] 69 63)104 63; 10 72]...... 1 39} .0300 28] 17 20 -9| 297.9}140 19] 71 90}106 90) 33 29]...... 1 21} .0260 47| 26 59 .5| 309.6/102 81) 67 15/102 15 Galle code 1 50} .0322 19] 12 76 .6] 230.1]/102 46} 64 69) 99 69) 2 77]...... 1 38] .0297 21) 13'\ 34 .8| 154.9] 59 75] 60 38] 95 38}...... 35/63! 2) 11)| 20455 #11 14 Average...| 6,246.3] 237.7| 91 04] 65 16/100 16 a; shebeeta 9 12) 1 60} .0328 11] 9 06 we * Loss. Norr.— The return for one hour of labor may be found by subtracting the total cost of feed, depreciation, and interest from the value of product and dividing the difference by 117, the total number of hours spent in caring for the average cow during the year. The return for each ton of hay consumed may be found by subtracting the total cost of grain, labor, depreciation, and interest from the valuation of product, and dividing the difference by the quantity of hay consumed by the cow during the year. II—2 ‘ 34 Datry DrmMonstTRATION WorxkK In NEw York STATE The average production of each cow was 6,246 pounds of milk and 237.7 pounds of fat, yet the cost of feed was so high that there was a loss of $9.12 for each cow. Some farmers think that it is better to keep stock enough to eat up the hay, even if the production of each cow is low. It should be noticed that in this herd the best cow paid 55 cents an hour for all time expended, and the market price for hay, or, she paid the labor charge of $22 a year and paid $31.54 a ton for her hay, while the poorest cow, No. 13, lost for the owner $44.41 for the year. She paid him the market price for his hay if he would give her 19 cents an hour for the pleasure of her company, or, she would pay him $22 for caring for her during the year if he would pay $2.84 for the privilege of seeing her eat 5885 pounds of hay for which she paid nothing. Seven of this herd paid less than nothing for the labor, and two paid less than 50 cents a ton for the hay consumed. The following table shows the average record of the above herd with the seven cows that returned less than nothing for labor removed : 28 = By poate = Zs Ea] = i Z 5 fe) so) § om od Ss aA i=} an qo wd 5 ion S ~ Om or = » & Ss ye) 2 S a4 ke Bee seer ei [vo ty meee tee m Nn ‘So Cl ° ° = = a = 3 so) 5 3 % Bo ee o 3 E a é 5 ~ 3 » ~ = i) b=] =! = n ~~ ~ n n ~ ~ So ° Ss ° ° eo ° 9° o ® Ay a > 1S) H Z (6) io) —S fon] Entire herd........ 6,246.3] 237.7/$91 04/$65 16/$100 16/*$9 12] $1 60/$.0344] $0 11] $9 06 Best 13 cows...... 7,002.0) 269.4)104 92) 66 63} 101 63) 3 29] 1 45] .0312 21) 13 18 Poorest 7 cows... .| 4,842.9] 178.9] 65 28] 62 43] 97 43/*32 15] 2 01] .0432 *08} 1 33 * Loss. Neep or Datry ImproveMENT Association WorkK 35 To show the possibilities of good selection, careful breeding, and economic feeding, we compare two Oneida County herds in the same locality and the same association, from which the milk was sold at the same price. Their record is shown in the follow- ing table: Recorp oF ENTIRE Recorp or Best ReEcorD or Brest HeErRpD 5 Cows Cow Herd 1 Herd 2 @cows) Bo) eon) Herd 1 Herd 2 Herd 1 Herd 2 Pounds milk........ 93 ,875.2 |138,827.0 57, 964.3 4042200 12,520.25) 9,132.3 Average per cow...-.| 10,430.5 6,035.9 11,592.8 SLR A | ciate vernisye arall teria eux, store Rounds\iate 2 4-1-7. 3,112.8 4,574.7 1,952.0 1,282.4 431.5 270.6 Average per cow.... 345.8 198.9 390.4 OA aa aa Witotc cat 5 taal) | Roce Cao oe Value of product..../$1,485 31 $2,185 64 $926 29 $680 20 $197 92 $155 41 Average per cow.... 165 03 95 03 185 26 TSGROB GN secre seusge sok He cciccetessicnel Gos ofaeed 922). ==. 671 26 1 lB) ZA} 378 80 371 75 82 26 95 51 Average per cow.... 74 58 65 81 75 76 (ESTP ce amcunn| |boconnecdcc Profit over feed..... 814 05 671 88 547 49 288 45 115 66 59 90 Average per cow.... 90 45 29 21 109 50 yt hth all WesereetdcAill tec G66 Labor, depreciation : and interest...... 315 00 805 00 175 00 175 00 35 00 35 00 Average per cow.... 35 00 35 00 35 00 B00) Mere do cecil comacaeoc sRotal (COSt. acjocus 21s - 986 26 2,318 76 553 80 566 75 117 26 130 51 Average per cow... . 109 58 100 81 110 76 INET By ne Soda Ul) oop acckooc Net profit. a5 25: 499KO5), MAES Ae ec 372 49 133 45 80 66 24 90 Average per cow.... DOKL lhe csytate ote 74 50 ZENG Mle erate tow lla: anstatereversts INGtiLOSsesetey. by crac. = Il be age als AV EV AY GAPE iCOWian-o8 ovaries Cost of 100 pounds milk...... Cost of one quart milk....... Cost of one pound fat........ Record of 263 herds, with 4,000 cows 26 597,113 6,649.2 970,336 242.5 $389,734 04 $97 43 9,857,749 2,464 17,058,711 4264 5,748, 104 1,437 $115,237 3 $28 80 $85,753 68 $21 43 $200,991 O1 $50 24 $35 00 $85 24 $48,743 03 $12 18 Record of best 72 herds, with 1,018 cows 7,374,309 7,243.9 293,023 287.8 $123,854 09 $121 66 2,229 , 236 2,189 5 258, 125 5,156 1,756, 145 1,723 $29,536 44 $29 09 $25,790 62 $25 33 $55,727 06 $54 34 $35 00 $89 34 $32,897 03 $32 31 Record of poorest 63 herds, with 1,008 cows 5,196,019 5,154.7 193,498 191.9 $72,124 59 $71 55 15113 $45,040 27 $44 68 $17,844 82 $17 70 $62,885 09 $62 38 $26,036 64 $25 83 $1 88 $0 0406 $0 50 Record of best cow in the 4,000 $126 77 $35 00 $161 77 Two hundred seven cows like the best one would have given as much milked and more than 80 per cent of the fat produced by the poorest 63 herds of 1,008 cows. Note that one-fourth of the 4,000 ‘88 Datry DEMONSTRATION WorK IN NEw YorK STATE show an average loss of $25.83; the cost of feed was highest in the poorest herds. Note the splendid production of the best cow. REASONS FOR DAILY WEIGHING OF THE MILK OF EACH COW IN THE HERD 1. It tells the dairyman when all the cows are milked. In a large herd it is not an uncommon thing to miss a cow. 2. It increases the interest of both the owner and the help. 3. It increases the interest of the farmers’ boys in the dairy business as nothing else will. 4, It gives the only correct basis for economical feeding. 5. It often detects a sick animal by calling attention to the falling off in the milk. 6. It tells when the pastures begin to fail. 7. It enables the farmer to get more milk from the herd during the year and at a less cost, by stimulating him to better methods of feeding and care. REPORTS FROM ASSOCIATIONS In Duteness County a member of the association found that his test at the milk station was 3.3 per cent. for the month, while his association test was 4 per cent. On calling the attention of the manager to the matter, a mistake was found and the dairyman received another check for the month’s milk that more than paid the cost of membership in the cow-testing association for the year. The tester from Sullivan County writes: ‘‘ When the associa- tion started in December last, not a member was feeding a balanced ration. Before the cows went to grass the past spring, nearly every farmer had changed to a mixture giving more milk at a less cost of feed and with less udder trouble.” From Schoharie County comes the report that the tests of sev- eral members have been raised at the creamery. Some farmers have kept the milk of low-testing cows for home use. Calves that never would have been kept have been raised from dams with good records. The records have made good sales for cows. A better-balanced ration is fed, thus lowering the cost of feed. Some dairymen are keeping cows that they intended to dispose of ; others are selling cows that they intended to keep. NeEeEp oF Datry IwpRovEMENT AssocraTION WorK 39 In Otsego County, Mr. Henry L. Wardwell, by employing the tester for two days in the month, has been able to have his herd tested for the Registry of Merit of the American Jersey Cattle Club. The reports are verified and vouched for by Director F. G. Helyar, of the State School of Agriculture, Morrisville, N. Y. The Hartford-Hebron Association, in Washington County, reports records from the herd of the K. Bb. Norton estate as follows: Our herd is now headed by Brookside Torono, No. 97199, a well-known son of the famous Hood Farm Torono, 60326. Among his two-year-old daugh- ters which we now retain are the following, with their best month records: Brookside Jewel, 314366, 730 Ibs. milk, avg. test, 5.2%, 37.96 lbs. fat, 42.30 lbs. butter, 159 Ibs. grain. June, 1916, and first month after fresh- ening. Brookside Lady, June, 1916, 932.4 lbs. milk, avg. test, 7.6%, 70.86 lbs. fat, 83.36 lbs. butter, 159 Ibs. grain. Brookside Queen, 314367, May, 1916, 1054 lbs. milk, avg. test, 5.5%, 57.97 lbs. fat, 68.20 lbs. butter, 159 lbs. grain. Brookside Daisy, 314365, June, 1916, 836.5 Ibs. milk, avg. test, 6.5%, 54.37 lbs. fat, 63.96 lbs. butter, 159 lbs. grain. Brookside Lassie, 314364, June, 1916, 915.6 Ibs. milk, avg. test, 6.5%, 59.51 Ibs. fat, 70.01 lbs. butter, 159 lbs. grain. Brookside Rosebud, 314370, June, 1916, 802.4 lbs. milk, avg. test, 5.2%, 41.72 lbs. fat, 49.08 lbs. butter, 159 lbs. grain. Cows ALREADY QUALIFIED IN REGISTRY OF MERIT Victor’s Albertie, 240616 (R. of M.) Class AA, 9531.8 lbs. milk, 506.07 Ibs. fat, 595 lbs. 6 oz. butter, 336 days in milk. Marjoram Brookside, 207976 (R. of M.), 10,618 Ibs. milk, 538 Ibs. fat, 633 lbs. 3 oz. butter. Eurotas Dot, 288399 (R. of M.), 6529 lbs. milk, 376 lbs. fat, 442 lbs. 14 oz. butter. (Heifer.) Rose Brookside, 187196 (R. of M.), 9197 lbs. milk, 399 lbs. fat, 470 Ibs. 1 oz. butter. Royal Missel, 225565 (R. of M.), 8936 lbs. milk, 439 Ibs. fat, 516 Ibs. 10 oz. butter. Royal Insie, 225512 (R. of M.), 11,228 lbs. milk, 476 lbs. fat, 560 Ibs. 12 oz. butter. : Royal Eurotas, 213787 (R. of M.), 9202 Ibs. milk, 510 Ibs. fat, 600 Ibs. 12 oz. butter. Eurota Eurotas, 271538 (R. of M.), 7122 Ibs. milk, 403 Ibs. fat, 474 lbs. 8 oz. butter. (Three-year-old.) My Royal Flirt, 298656 (R. of M.), 5446.8 Ibs. milk, 308.41 lbs. fat, 362.13 lbs. butter. (Heifer.) Burotas Missel, 288398 (R. of M.), 8176.9 lbs. milk, 459.48 lbs. fat, 540 lbs. 9 oz. butter. Estimated butter in all instances 85% fat. Missel Brookside, 182101, milked 59 lbs. in one day, and 1525 lbs. in 30 days. The Warsaw Dairy Improvement Association, Wyoming County, has had during the last year the noted Jersey herd of Mr. F. B. Keeney. The records of the following cows show what can AO Datry DEMonsTRATION WorK IN NEw YorK STATE Fie. 546.— Jacopa’s LORETTA, 251186 Fic, 547.— JACOBA’S CorINNE, 251615 Nerep oF Datry Improvement AssoctaTIon Work 41 be done by an intelligent system of selection and breeding with continuous milk and butter-fat records of the individual cow: Jacoba’s Loretta, 251186, No. 2506, Class A, Advanced Regis- try of Merit, A. J. C. C., born May 21, 1909. Butter produced Date of freshening Pounds Ounces May S79 10) Dl ee ERIM SARL s Ses ol khe NAM 353 1 Noy. ss pana LO) ra eed ime ret BE SA he ies ied Oe DES 635 7 Dee. DD AOS err rte sslenia eck vp cures en cae OUI gn pe Tee 693 13 Jan. hee LYON IS) seeder ees ee RES et centenary, FS eo eed 893 13 Mian chy Zeal OM Gieey oy cece «2 5) Spektor 198 (in two months) Total, five calves and 2,577 Ibs. 2 oz. butter, at 6 years 10 months old. Jacoba’s Corinne, 251615, No. 2085, Class A, Advanced Regis- try of Merit, A.J. C..C. Butter produced Date of freshening Pounds Ounces IN ON Saee el Sus li Oi eliapaen te ews ahaa aL Mies 367 3 DCC om OMe ee en at eae 643 13 Belo see De AU Ee oe aS 726 1133 FAN Talal Ol OM REN ian ace eos celeron ee 630 9 (317 days) Apr. 28, 1916 Total, five calves and 2,428 lbs. 12 oz. butter, at 6 years 6 months old. Jacoba’s Mona, 251191, No. 1921, Class A, Advanced Regis- try of Merit, A. J. C. C., born November 13, 1909. Butter produced Date of freshening Pounds Ounces Jan. OWL ON pa ee Ee ei tee), Si nue dee 366 il Ret seg yO Spee emaner et el. tk She aie ee hp tam rat a pe 508 15 ADE 13) LOM Areas ieee ett oy se RNR Ween nO 630 9 Mayan: ZO VOM ceomete ye teeta tase he ccira atetavtenses eee An ee 806 ne | July 7, 1916 Total, five calves and 2,312 Ibs. 14 oz. butter, at 6 years, 8 months old. No other cow has produced a total equal to any one of these three at equal age. AQ, Datry DEMoNSsTRATION Work In New York STATE Fie. 548.— JAcospa’s Mona, 251191 Fig. 549.— Poais IRENE 2p, 146435, DAM or JAcoBA IRENE, 146443 NEED or Datry ImprovemMENT AssoctaTION WoRK 43 The Jersey cow, Pogis Irene 2d, 146435, celebrated her nine- teenth birthday by completing a year’s record of 9,930 pounds of milk, containing 695 pounds of 85 per cent butter. She carried a calf during 200 days of this test. The production of almost 700 pounds of butter by a cow of her ; age is a wonderful performance in itself, and, when taken in con- junction with her previous records, should place her among the notable cows of the dairy world. She was started on her first test June 12, 1910, and has made the following records: Days in Year Age pune ‘ ue calf during test 1 OMOR IAT esraneds sm oval wee c ate hee ee 9,177 573 193 OMe ony ears 4 months eerie arias serene 8,950 615 224 LOT iGuyearsyGimonthseess. ss... 404650) 9,270 624 150 NOTA Diy CATs tire serrate oe Ryo sitet 9,930 695 200 Pogis Irene 2d’s value was first recognized in 1909, when her daughter, Jacoba Irene, 146443, broke the record of the Jersey breed by producing 1,121 pounds of butter in a year. Pogis Irene 2d has now three daughters in Advanced Registry, and the fourth one is now on test. Norr.— The New-York State Fair Commission announces the following premiums to be awarded at State Fair, September 11- 1G, 1906: To the member of a cow-testing association whose herd of from ten to nineteen cows shall show the largest increase in average milk production oe the records of the preceding year — first prize, $15. 00; second prize, 10.00. PLANS FOR THE FUTURE A. J. Nicoxt, Delhi, N. Y. Farmers’ Institute Lecturer An important factor in the success of dairy improvement asso- ciation work in New York State has been the very efficient work done by the farm bureaus of the different counties; and as the demand for register-of-merit work has increased, it has seemed best to change the name of the organization and to have a definite understanding between the different parties interested in carrying on the work as to what each should be responsible for. At the normal institute held in Ithaca, in November, 1915, a plan was discussed that has been developed during the past winter and is now ready to be tried out by the different associations of the state. Under the old plan, the Bureau of Farmers’ Institutes found it difficult to obtain data and to keep in touch with the different organizations. As none of the officers of the associa- tion are paid for their work, correspondence was often unan- swered, and valuable data were unavailable. Under the proposed plan each party has certain responsibilities that are assumed in a written agreement, and, if any part of the work fails, the responsibility can be placed where it belongs. The high cost of doing advanced registry work, or, in other words, of keeping official yearly records of dairy cows of the different breeds, has created a demand on the part of a large num- ber of dairymen for this class of work to be done under the direc- tion of the Department of Agriculture and the farm bureaus of the state. The summarizing of the record books that has been done free for the associations by the Bureau of Farmers’ Insti- tutes has often been delayed on account of the lack of funds to employ the extra assistants needed to complete the yearly records and return the books promptly to the owner. Under the proposed plan this work will be done quarterly by the testers under the direction of the farm bureau managers, thus enabling the farmer to have his books fully summarized at the close of the year. The duties of the tester will be much the same as heretofore, except in the matter of summarizing the records, for which he [44] PLANS FOR THE FuTURE 45 will be paid one day in the month by the farm bureau of his county, in counties where farm bureaus are established. He will also have the additional duties of conducting the register-of-merit work as described on pages 2209-2217. We strongly advise all dairymen to practice the regular weigh- ing of each cow’s milk at each milking, as it will keep him in closer touch with the individual cow, will create a greater interest on the part of both himself and his help, and will amply repay him for the little time it requires. blanks for keeping the daily records of milk will be furnished free by the Bureau of Farmers’ Institutes. | If for any reason a dairyman cannot weigh at each milking, the weight, calculated from weighing each cow’s milk one day in the month and multiplied by the number of days in the month, will come very close to the actual weight. The following is a record of a herd of 20 cows for the month of April, 1916, and shows that there is little difference in the actual and the calculated weight : Weight Excess aR eee $k Seg es a ee Cow Calculated Actual Calculated Actual Late oy Bato Se Re eee 765 695 TO) tes ee i) ooh ee a) ae PIE Rar brie Fi 252 D1 Gmer ne deere 24 BG Gotu ne Ee Se ae eee 654 642 1D nes state teed A 2 5 nh dR APEIE ent ae ee rere na aS 756 743 Akay Bee ee Se ease ys nee tee are 816 SOS ere ae 47 Gyn ik ES are 618 GhO Mae 32 We ss Gn PR AO te 360 345 Dg be serisRoes Co ot nel at a Res BOR 540 DAS Ie pee et. lee 8 OP ore ane Sanh Soh At cefepime ot 666 647 P PLO SS ee IO). Se i area Re La ea ee 690 GOD Ree an Went 2 OE cc ok cshne ae eee Res COerert tr 438 381 57 ~=Going dry 1D) bd ciate Cee ERED ae ote ae 570 EVAR a. Cae 5 1B sk ea rede icr ea ee aN Oe ere 633 GO 2m ee nese 29 ee ee ee SE ree 516 Vip reacts Ee ey: 1 Ess he ta eS See eee 345 STAN air ta tae 29 Eee Gabi lanai Glee Ih cee ener A ee 573 CE e at ee At ge 3 (PEO Ae Pope cors 2S ces Ales 258 254 ps eae rie BSL LSE. to aire ea She Ra es aR 675 GSOM ee ton he 5 18)... Sc vase eae et tee Ai eS (oh 456 AGS srry tated. 7 Dine, SRST EIA ans SES 528 489 ho AE Sb TOY LL Se a a ee 11,109 11,072 229 192 Norn.— Difference between actual and calculated weight, 37 pounds. 46 Datry DEMONSTRATION WorkK 1N NEw York STATE A similar result is shown in the following table, which is made up from the weights of another herd: WEIGHT EXcEss Cow No. Calculated Actual Calculated | Actual Lyrae Ry A hte oes cet hes sac sectete 666 651 q Usain eee 8 Del LV ek aah | Ae Aa cae ee 600 579 215. 2.5. 33 yh Rea ae a Weke WM Ae nan a 587 576 Ly) 5 ee HE. ola oa atniutives pat arp Melia ie a aa eae 666 (Oia | apes eA ] BR ass ctthakote AO CRS) ERIE CEE 300 BOs Sekate so ee a Ea Nt he Bena ler, clogs 852 SOSalueneres eee 1] Tlie: oot ES ABS LR) SS MO eae 300 292 S:-|"be ae MR ee Re ENE a Be cra oo 672 GOS wee eee 21 OD) a oa incase ee aa eerie ul 703 Biers eee OSES Ses Aon ashe, 330 SAD | eS 12 TE) Sp deg eS ee See See ae 594 579 LD lie ee eee DR tent. wa. fishes a's Does 807 SB Seer ae 78 1B, So sete See aerS oe Oe ee eee 7174. 754 20S eae 1M ws ond eee es ens Sane in 330 SAD) \ cheer eee 12 NES ag msonaie. be alee eee ee ae 977 OOS. |e be Srey 21 TB. o's BRS ky See ee 1,062 105% Ha peak hee 16 san aes chy ycOh oO pe LER ae 453 444 Gis Ee eee 1 oN eae Fe hd Ace eat en 549 HOG eee ee y 17 110) fo ee 8 ie Snes One eee 683 648 35 pli FAD Ses oe yd Oe See on Oo ES oe 1,094 1,086. fo A ee 5c EO ball eee Sea ee s caaysie 13,007 13,032 155 180 Notsr.— Difference between actual and calculated weight, 25 pounds. Some dairymen think that they can tell the production of milk by seeing it in the pail. The production is generally based on the quantity of milk given in a day when the cow is at her best. Among dairymen it is a common saying that a certain cow is a large producer because * ‘in the best of the season you can’t milk her in a pail.” We often hear this, yet if a complete year’s record were kept, it is very likely that the cow that was supposed to be “the best in the herd,” actually gave less milk and made less fat than did several others that never quite filled the pail. The fol- lowing table gives the record of eight cows in the same herd, show- ing that the cow giving the largest quantity of milk in a day did not give the most milk throughout the year: PLANS FOR THE FUTURE Best day’s Cow Age milk Sree: SENS BM. (oP) Sa 6 35.5 CN chr strat ROE oe ia FS re Nt SINE 3 37.0 Gt ee ee oe ks Shea 13 37.7 1 ge Aaa ts SAMOS Are thee ee eae 5 32.7 TRUE, EMBERS A choos Lite meee te 7f 35.4 SAPP ys recor conto oko sais 3 aes TEC isha hd eek ear ie aa eR 3 18.9 Me RTE Oa eo soe yn toy eistotis sheets 6 Slee Tota yield milk 7,664 5,658 6 , 606 6,229 7,476 7,418 5,715 Gio Per- centage 4.06 3.38 3.86 3.73 2.97 3.50 3.96 3.20 47 Tota yield fat 311.0 191.6 255.4 232.5 222.6 259.8 226.6 215.4 Note that cow 3 was the largest producer of milk and the highest tester in butter fat, but she did not give so much milk in a day as cows 4, 6, or 13. Cow 17 gave only about half as much milk on her best day as did cow 4, yet she gave 57 pounds more milk in the year and made 35 pounds more fat. THE DAIRY IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATION “The dairy improvement association ” is the name now used to designate the cow-testing associations of New York State. The man in charge, formerly known as the official tester, is now known as the “ dairy demonstration agent.” THE DAIRY DEMONSTRATION AGENT The dairy demonstration agent must be a man of good moral character. He must be a total abstaimer from intoxicants. He must be neat in appearance and kind and obliging in his conduct. He must be able to pass a satisfactory examination in milk test- ing, feeding dairy cows, and dairy management. His books must be neatly and accurately kept, and the figures must be distinct. He is to summarize the record books as a part of his regular work. He must be prompt in reaching each farm in time for the eve- ning milking and be on hand promptly when the time comes for milking in the morning. He must be quiet about the barn and neat and careful in weighing, straining, and sampling the milk. The dairy demonstration agent must furnish a horse and rig or other suitable conveyance to transport himself and the outfit from farm to farm. The dairy demonstration agent is to follow instructions as issued by the director of farmers’ institutes. Together with the director of farmers’ institutes, the county farm bureau manager, and the president of the dairy improve- ment association, the dairy demonstration agent must sign the following agreement : MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING BETWEEN THE DIRECTOR OF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES OF NEw YoRK STATE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TH NIVAUNUAIGHR, OR io sueaticegets lo) ee vrei a aie County FARM BUREAU, THE PRESIDENT ORTE eierean cei DAIRY IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATION, AND ....,..... , DAIRY DEMONSTRATION AGENT. (1) This Memorandum is entered into by the Director of Farmers’ Insti- tutes, New York State Department of Agriculture, by the Manager of the County Farm Bureau under the authority of the executive [48] Tue Datry IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATION 49 commipiee/Or, thet 2.5.00. sae se County Farm Bureau Association and the Director of Farm Bureaus of New York, by the officers of the .............. Dairy Improvement Association, the home office of the latter being at Melee seals tate e ohare , New York, and by ................, Dairy Demonstration (2) The purpose of this Memorandum of Understanding is to provide for the joint cooperative conducting of a dairy improvement association and the cooperative employment of a dairy demonstration agent approved by the Director of Farmers’ Institutes to do work with such association and else- WNCLemIME er yTtry nee nro te County as hereinafter specified. (3) In consideration of the dairy improvement work hereinafter set forth to be performed, the Director of Farmers’ Institutes hereby agrees, subject to legislative appropriation, that he will supply all members of the Dairy Improvement Association and the Demonstration Agent with all necessary blanks such as stable sheets and herd-record books; furnish experts to assist in the organization and conduct of the work upon request of the Farm Bureau Manager, paying the traveling expense of such experts to the county in which work is done, conveyance and entertainment to be furnished by the County Farm Bureau or by the Association, as the former may determine. (4) The Manager of the Farm Bureau, subject to authorization by the executive committeeof the 2). 00s. ees sn: Farm Bureau Association and approval by the Director of Farm Bureaus, agrees to exercise close super- vision over the work of the Dairy Demonstration Agent; to assist him at all times in planning and carrying out his work; and to report promptly to the other parties to this Memorandum failure of said Agent to perform his duties in an efficient and effective manner. He also agrees to report the condition of his associations to the Director of Farm Bureaus quarterly, or as the latter may request, and to send duplicates of the monthly records of all cows entered in Register-of-Merit work to the Director of Farmers’ Institutes. (a) the iPresident: of (thew st 25. Ao ai): Dairy Improvement Association agrees to see that the Demonstration Agent is furnished with necessary sup- plies, such as Babcock tester, acid, and scales, and that there are sufficient members in the Association to provide him a minimum of 24 days’ work each month at two dollars ($2) a day and board for himself and his horse. The President further agrees to use his best efforts to secure the collection of fees, not to exceed two dollars ($2) annually from each member, for the pur- pose of providing the Agent with necessary supplies, and to see that all mem- bers in the Association pay the Agent promptly for his services as above. (6) The Dairy Demonstration Agent agrees to follow the instructions as published by the Director of Farmers’ Institutes, and to report monthly in writing on blanks provided for the purpose to the Manager of the .......... Farm Bureau and to. the President of the .............. Dairy Improve- ment Association on the progress of his work. He further agrees not to undertake any new lines of work without the official sanction of said Manager and President. In counties where there is no farm bureau manager, the Dairy Demonstration Agent agrees to report to a duly authorized repre- sentative of the Bureau of Farmers’ Institutes, who will otherwise perform 50 Darry DemonstrATION Work In New York Sratr the functions of a farm bureau manager with regard to dairy improvement association work. (7) It is understood that the Farm Bureau Manager may, upon author- ization by the executive committee of the Farm Bureau Association, arrange for the employment of the Dairy Demonstration Agent by the Farm Bureau one or more days each month to do such work in connection with said asso- ciation and with the dairy improvement projects of the Bureau as seems wise, said Agent’s salary of two dollars ($2) a day and his necessary traveling and living expenses to be paid by the .............. County Farm Bureau. (8) It is understood, after the Dairy Improvement Association has been cooperatively organized and the Dairy Demonstration Agent jointly employed, that the general supervision of the work of the Association and of the Agent is delegated to the Manager of the Farm Bureau, and that no party to this Memorandum will undertake any new lines of work without his approval In counties where there is no farm bureau, this general supervision will be performed by an authorized representative of the Bureau of Farmers’ Insti- tutes. AID a Meat ote se eNeueL ci yn c>col evans alte aysfolls ears) aiale-s fereyalsaras idleusuoryeis etemeianets Director of Farmers’ Institutes of New York State Department of Agriculture Dae we Rei etki) So) byl |g Ae eiskroars o Baeele tea inde ad se aam aed eee Meagiag er 20 fit sais ac Rtas ere County Farm Bureau ND) EGC gears eee SEASON = da fics -tsTcile m leieteicite a: gio Tsnaite axs3} ales Suetehe ob. conseeta easy avebone PrESident Ope sims. ie eae ee Dairy Improvement Association HD) UGG pare rey eee ret Beet us Pct eNo Gia a lagteets see gels) ky AT! YF | qua | Al ¥eF | quao | Alt "Sq'T ‘sqqy | suysoy | ‘sqT ‘Sq "Sq'T eg ‘sqT | ‘sqrT og “sq'T DNIWTIN Aud Mog ao ut sAep LSV1 aay TIN ‘oq UaaWAN YO ANVN, aoudg PNWSay | -wny AV eee ee wok IVLOT, uod IVLOY, Wed JE ee ome a ee 16h scou aS S eee TOON, (-yso9 ATqZuour Jo ystuy ayy UO Ajdwoid yUuese UOYRIysUOWAp Airep Aq Neainq we; Sut -ye19d009 Jo JosvuvUT oY} OF oJvoT[dNp UI podopuad oq YSNuUI puB ‘sUOT}RIDOSSB JUOTIAAOId a eee aa ee Cees ssoIppV -ut Anrep pue snvoing wary AzUN0D YIM UOTZRIdd009 Ut ‘aINg;NoWsy Jo yuowyredaq 27819 YIOX MON OY} JO soyngysuy sidulIEy JO neaing oy} Aq poJoNpUod 4se4 YLIaT\-JO Sree ag eee Sag ee eee oe JOUMG -19}SIS9Y Ul WOYBOYIYIND IO} polayUd SMOD JO Sp10DAI UIGJUOD OF SI YUAUIOYeYS STYT) Sagi oe staal ak Rat ES a UOI}eIO0ssy INANGALVLG ATHLNOJ LIVAT\[-1O-AALSION YT SHLOLILSNI SUANYVY FO NVENNE i ee cat Sapa AyuNo/) GYOLTAOIYOV dO LNANLYVdad — MYOA MAN HO ALVIS WYOMING COUNTY’S DAIRY IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATIONS H. M. Bowen, Warsaw, N. Y. Farm Bureau Manager, Wyoming County Dairying oecupies a leading position in the agricultural activities of Wyoming County. In this industry our chief problem is the economie production of milk. The solution of this problem lies in the improvement of our dairy herds by the development of better individuals and the elimination of unprofitable ones. The chief agency in attaining this object, embraced by a large number of our best dairymen, is the cow-testing association, now known as the dairy improvement association. There are now operating in Wyoming County six of these organ- izations, aggregating 180 herds, with approximately 4,000 cows. Of these associations, three have reorganized under the name of dairy improvement associations, while three are still cow-testing associations and will be reorganized at the expiration of the present year. In the associations that have been in operation for two or more years, approximately one-half of the members have remained from the beginning. While it requires considerable labor to reorganize an association, yet we never experience serious trouble and nearly always have men on the waiting list. The demand for the work of the cow-testing association is very strong and we could easily form two more associations if we could find the time. A strong sentiment for the improvement of the dairy herd has grown up in our county as a result of our associa- tions. The “robber cows” are becoming more and more unpopu- lar, and our best dairymen are eliminating them from their herds as rapidly as possible. The registered sire is rapidly displacing the mongrel and is producing a marked change in our dairy herds. All of these results are to be credited largely to the cow-testing associations. A county register of merit was established last year, and we publish monthly all cows in the associations giving over 1,350 pounds of milk or over 45 pounds of butter fat. We have in our [60] Wyromina County’s Darry IMPROVEMENT: ASSOCIATIONS.. 61 newly organized associations taken up the register-of-merit work as outlined by the state, and have already entered a number of cows for the meritorious list. In each of our associations we have made a strong local organi- zation by securing strong, capable, successful dairymen for officers and directors, and placing all the responsibility possible on them. We have used great care in selecting the best possible type of young men for the position of testers— young men who are not only efficient in their work, but who also possess leadership qual- ities. Perhaps in no way have the associations served the dairy- men to better purpose than in pointing out to them the relation of cost of milk production to the price they receive for the product. The summaries show conclusively that a herd of average cows are in many cases a money-losing proposition. We have cost-accounted over 100 herds. Asa result of this work the farmer is learning to apply to his business the same principles that other business men apply to theirs. It has been shown that in the average herds of four associations in Wyoming County, eliminating pure-bred and low-producing herds, the average cost of producing 100 pounds of milk is $1.37. This low cost has been made possible for the following reasons: 1. Alfalfa was generally grown. 2. Nearly all farms used silage. 3. All owners of these herds were members of cow-testing asso- and had discarded the ciatlons — some for more than one year unprofitable cows. 4, Small losses by death in herds. 5. Low feed costs compared with other counties, not only because freight rates were less than in the eastern part of the state, but because some of the dairymen took advantage of the market and bought in large quantities. The relation indicated between the cost of milk production and the price received could not have been established had it not been for the cow-testing assoctations. Not only have we proven the need of improvement of the dairy herd, but we have also shown conclusively that the producer of milk of high quality must be paid a price that warrants the cost of producing it. The cow-testing association turns the X-rays of common sense on the dairy business as no other agency can do. FUNDAMENTALS IN DAIRYING Epwarp van Austyner, Kinderhook, N. Y. Director of Farmers’ Institutes (The following address was given at the annual dinner of the Wyoming County Cow-Testing Association, Warsaw, January 7, 1916.) In order to have correct ideas on any subject, we must know the underlying facts, and from them reason logically. In order to do this we must dismiss from our minds all prejudice and previously formed opinions, accepting facts as they are, not as we had thought they were, nor as we should like to have them. When I was up in Maine a few years ago, an old man living in the back country was asked, “‘ What do you do in winter when the snow shuts you in?” He replied, ‘‘ Sometimes we set and think, and sometimes we just set.” While the latter certainly does not tend to mental development, I believe in the end it is better than to think crookedly. One of the great needs of the present day is for men to think straight, namely, first to get bottom facts, and then to draw logical conclusions from them. My purpose today is to set in order before you some facts, easily to be apprehended by any unbiased mind. If we agree as to these we should be able to arrive at the same conclusions, even though they are at variance with what may have been our previous ideas. To ‘“ set and think” that we are the victims of the monopoly working against heavy handicaps, ignoring actual facts, will not only do us harm, but will take away a desire for the individual effort always fundamental for success. Were we to take at face value all the statements in the agri- cultural press and from the lips of those with good intent, but whose mental processes stop too soon, we should be constrained to believe that most dairymen were on the road to bankruptcy. How ean it be otherwise when apparently expenses far exceed receipts ? These are not willful misstatements, but half-true statements, more harmful than downright lies. We know that it is rare for a dairyman to be sold out. In most cases they are paying for and improving their farms, educating their children, and bring- ing into their lives at least a degree of present-day necessities. In (62) FUNDAMENTALS IN DatryIne 63 these estimates all manner of costs are piled up on the old cow, while, in reality, it is impossible to set her on a pinnacle inde pendent of the rest of the farm. She is part of the farm equip- ment; in many cases without her the farm could not possibly be run. I shall divide what I have to say under four heads: 1. Profit from the farm crops marketed through the cow. 2. Increased value from the farm because of manure returned to the land. 3. Direct money profit. 4. The effect on the man. PROFIT FROM CROPS In many cases this is the only profit from the dairy, and, while it is too small, it is not to be ignored. One of the most prominent and successful of New Hampshire’s dairymen told the speaker that when’ his hundred-cow dairy paid the interest and depreci- ation on the capital invested in them, paid for the labor, pur- chased feed, and returned for the large amount of farm products that they consumed a price sufficient to allow a fair income from the land, he was doing as well as the average business man. Many New York State-dairymen are doing the same thing, but do not appreciate it. Take the item of pasture. On many farms such land would be utterly valueless without stock —we shall not stop to consider the question of whether in some cases animals other than dairy cows could not be profitably substituted, for we are now dealing only with the dairy—vyet this pasture is charged against the cow, and no credit is given the farm; yet, without the channel of the dairy to turn it into cash, there would be no income whatever from this source. To a degree, the same is true of hay and forage. True, the man who sells his hay to his dairy at a less price than he could obtain for it at the station after expenses are paid, is not a good business man nor a good dairyman, and he needs a cow- testing association to help him weed out unprofitable cows. On the other hand, to charge such hay to the cow at the gross market price and then charge against her the labor of feeding it — which is less than it would be to put it on the wagon for market — is 64 Datry DEMONSTRATION WorxK IN New York STATE unfair to the cow. Often clover hay and mixed grasses find their only profitable market through the medium of the dairy. For cornstalks, bean fodder, straw, and silage corn, there is no outside market without the aid of the cow to turn this very raw material into a finished cash product. These are large items on most farms. It is both customary and correct to figure silage corn at one-third the price of timothy hay. This year on that basis silage is worth at least five dollars a ton. A conservative yield of ten tons an acre returns fifty dollars to the farm. Silage is a profitable crop at $30 an acre. What would I do this year with my thirty acres of silage corn without my dairy to turn it into cash? Why then pile all these costs on the cow, when she is the factor that makes it impossible to operate the whole farm at a profit? This naturally brings me to my second head. PROFIT FROM MANURE At the outset I wish to state clearly two facts, the first being that it does not follow in logical sequence that a dairy farm must increase in fertility. Alas, it is too true that I can point out many that in spite of having had dairies on them for at least a generation are not increasing in production. This is the fault of the management, not of the dairy—reasons I cannot now take up; let it be sufficient to say, however, that such cases are the exception, not the rule. The second fact I wish to emphasize is this: Because the owner fails to use manure from his dairy to the best advantage, it is as unfair to fail to give the cow full eredit for it as it would be to fail to give her credit for butter fat lost through poor skimming or churning. There are always two values to a fertilizer of any sort —the commercial value, based on the cost of the ingredients, and the agricultural value, based on its power to grow crops. The two are seldom the same; the former may be much more or less than the latter. What is the value of the voidings of a dairy cow for a year? The average dairy cow will void—liquid and solid — about 60 pounds daily, or almost eleven tons in a year. At $2 a ton, a fair average commercial price for the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash that it contains, the value would amount to $22 annually. At present war prices for such ingredients, these values ~~ FUNDAMENTALS IN Datry1INnNG 65 might be doubled. Fully 50 per cent of the plant food is in the liquid, most of which is often wasted. While it is impossible to save it all, | am very certain, if the time and energy expended in tirades against milk handlers were put forth in an intelligent effort to save and properly utilize this by-product, the results would be much more satisfactory to the pockets of the dairyman. Without attempting to discuss methods of using the above economically, I would say that any good farmer can retain 75 per cent of the commercial value of his manure. The agricultural value of manure is usually more than the commercial, as evi- denced by the results obtained from manure that has lost at least half of its plant food. Considering its humus-making con- tent and its ability to increase materially that of the sod to which it is applied, and its value as a breeding place for soil bacteria, I am certain it is within the truth to say that the increased agricultural value will fully overbalance the loss in plant food when the manure is handled according to present intelligent methods. ies toe SIS tie wee ete 130640 pales Average acres per farm............. 30-8)... ete A038. ap dase Average yield per acre in tons....... 1 Ad bod hie 1328) ee anetioce. OU: OF GROOT (UEP WTO. a5 5b 509085003006 Amount Amount Seed Meee PEEP aah © cca s 2) Slacsel ro ean: $1 07 .12bu. $0 80 TRE HLIVAEE 55 90 o's Sic DOO Ot OO IE oes Coe oO Ort 2 78 15.7 lbs. 15 INES AITTOG.c' 6 Bt.e'o dio 6G UG NCE SI america cc oc .9 tons 1 84 Mianhlabonecrertiinc snc ous ces wash 10.2 hrs. 1 69 8.3 hrs. 1 39 IEVorse pl abormerermrtiecici ss sists eer ars 9.7 hrs. 1 40 8.3 hrs. 1 33 quipmentmMise wr Aeeeie screech alee semua AQ’. coun ceaieerae 37 Wserotgandsatiompenicent.q-ee-6-ee< selec S200 cece eee 411 Use of buildings, at 8 per cent....... .......... 100) Steen 97 InterestaAtioOmperrCODth cc 2. cagrcece wsidiernca clas Pee eee ee dele 20 Muscellanecoustre: cee c esr cl6 oo eee eebeeaeces OL. sees 03 NotalcostiOlerOwING. <0. sc cjcic< sherri ee $12 di eee $11 19 Cost of marketing per ton.............. 78.7tons 209 236.8tons 2 60 Costiofcrowineiperitones nckie. ccc-cchics = sopeieeinrne SeAlk tates 8 73 Cost of growing and marketing perton... .......... lOgbO Rea 11 33 IEXGTIA IOS WON, 3-5 0 SOG DO RCE co noose 280! , he chaos 3 83 ProhtyperananNOULe eres. © o.eeiecs ats, RB eSee eee ol. Sete heer 54 These results are at variance with public opinion. Profits from farming, or any other occupation, will depend upon various factors, and one of the important factors affecting profits is the method used in figuring. If only the cash costs of production are included one conclusion will be reached; while, if all costs are included, another and a widely different conclusion will be reached. Any person using figures obtained from cost accounting methods should thoroughly understand them before drawing any con- clusions. If the results from a farm show that the profits on the crops and animals have been 0, it does not mean that the farmer has lost money. Before any enterprise shows a profit by cost accounting methods it must first pay all cash costs — for all labor, both man and horse, for use of the land, buildings and machinery, and all other costs. This means that the farmer has paid wages for all his time, and interest on his investment. A farmer who is breaking even on his crop and animal enterprises is doing as well as a man making a labor income of approximately $400. Tf one finds that he is losing money on any crop enterprise, it does not necessarily follow that he should discontinue that crop. The season may have been unfavorable, the market may have been PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Norma INSTITUTE 91 especially poor, or there might have been other conditions that pre- vented that particular year from being a normal one. Assuming that the year was as good as one could normally expect, there are yet.reasons why a farmer might find it to his advantage to continue growing an apparently unprofitable crop. Suppose, for example, that the oat crop on a particular farm shows a loss of $2 per acre and that labor costs 20 cents per hour. Oats normally require about 20 hours of man labor per acre so that a loss of $2 per acre means a loss of about 10 cents per hour. This means that while working on oats the producer receives 14 wages or 10 cents per hour. If the work on oats comes at a time when one would otherwise be idle, or if there is no more profitable work that could be substituted, then growing oats is desirable. While growing oats the farmer is getting 10 cents per hour for his time and full pay for the work done by his horses, full rent for his land and buildings, and pay for all other expenses. Aside from the standpoint of labor distribution, the crop may utilize the land to better advantage, it may improve the rotation, furnish straw for bedding at a lower cost than it could be purchased, or answer other purposes. Results secured by cost accounting methods on the cost of crop production are valuable. They furnish reliable figures,:and these figures are relative, so it is possible to compare different crops on the same farm; but these figures are not final. Cost of produc- tion, while important, is only one of several factors that should be considered in deciding whether or not one should grow any particular crop. 99 Report oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES FUNCTIONS AND PURPOSES OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE CoMMISSIONER CHARLES S. WILSON INTRODUCTION This conference of institute workers with the scientists at Geneva and Cornell is for the purpose of acquainting the institute workers with the information which has accumulated as a result of recent scientific research. In addition, our department repre- sentatives get the enthusiasm and inspiration which naturally results from a meeting of this kind. PURPOSE OF THE INSTITUTES The item in the Appropriation Bill providing funds for the institute work reads as follows: For maintenance and extenslon of farmers’ institutes held under the auspices of the commissioner of agriculture, and for holding farmers’ educational meetings and dem- onstrations and cooperating with the State College of Agriculture and other institu- tions and organizations including inspections of and recommendations concerning farms connected with state institutions as provided in the agricultural law, to be paid on the order of the commissioner of agriculture and certified in sums as needed and for which vouchers for expenditures duly audited and verified by him shall be rendered, thirty thousand dollars. The institute work has been carried on by the state of New York for twenty-nine years, this season’s work making the thirtieth. During this time it has grown, and grown rapidly too, until the work has extended to all parts of the state of New York. Last year it reached 111,306 people. There were held in 1914-15: Mira trie mn he eet © CNN Ce a1. axe Sica ah Sule a8 Do) ch walocs atone e abe 450 Hrs Gite N SE MOONS PCP ger sk cosa cso gd, wie toon ons ous enacensdeu at 5 My eB ES STONES eee mctriyei ts 5 (as ch cieuseisile, Sucve 4 aie aut eve 1,305 HO ralmeiihem Gd amee pee eg iaa 7. .eNege eG uouele) 3s elds, Seale toi 111,306 Through all these years the character of the institutes has been, in the main, educational. They have done, and are doing, valu- able work. In the last thirty years agriculture has developed and progressed in a marked degree. Recently extension schools conducted by the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University have sprung up. The institutes and the schools each perform their proper function, the schools occupying PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTLENTH Norma INSTITUTE 95 the more technical field and the institutes the more general. There is no conflict between the two; there is no duplication of work. The two agencies are working together harmoniously and cooperatively. INTRODUCTION OF A NEW FEATURE — THE AGRICULTURAL LAW It has been stated that the institutes have outlived their use- fulness — that there is no longer a need for work of this char- acter. I agree that the institute work of today is not the same in character as that of twenty years ago, but I do not agree with those who believe that the institutes should be abolished. I do be- lieve, however, that the institute work should progress and develop together with, and perhaps in advance of, the progress and development of agriculture, and I think an opportune time has arrived to introduce a new feature into the institute work — or perhaps I should say, to revive a dormant feature. That feature is the dissemination of. information in regard to the agricultural laws of the state of New York. As stated above, the function of the institutes hitherto has been to impart technical information. The conductors or speakers may have called, and probably did call, attention to the laws of the state — to the dairy law in a dairy section, to the nursery laws in a fruit section, ete. But no systematic effort has ever been made to instruct the farmers definitely in regard to the provisions of the laws. I am wondering how many of the institute workers them- selves are familiar with the provisions of the laws sufficiently to make a creditable, clear and legal explanation. The primary function of the Department of Agriculture is regu- lative — to enforce the agricultural laws of the state of New York. The institute workers are representatives of this department, and this winter it is planned to have the institute speakers explain to the farmers the agricultural laws. IGNORANCE OF LAW A GENERAL PLEA One of the difficulties of the department is the plea of ignorance on the part of the violators. In particular was this brought out in connection with the enforcement of the new apple grading law. Mr. Atwood informs me that in 95 per cent of the violations the defendant has stated that he knew nothing of the law, or did not 9 4 Report oF FarMeErs’ INSTITUTES understand its provisions. Of course evidence of this kind has a tendency to weaken our case. ‘This plea of ignorance is made in violations of the other laws as well as the apple packing law. There are two ways of enforcing our agricultural laws: first, by hiding for the purpose of catching someone whom you at once fine $50 or $100; second, by educating the public in the regulations of the state, at the same time requesting their cooperation in the en- forcement of the law. I like the latter, and, while I do not intend to abandon the former method, I wish to emphasize the educa- tional method. AVAILABLE AGENCIES FOR EDUCATIONAL WORK In addition to the press, the Department of Agriculture has three available agencies for educational work of this kind: 1. Through the agents in the field. Each year copies of the individual laws are printed and sent to the agents, who distribute them to the best of their ability. An agent in the city of Rochester, for example, leaves a copy of the pure food law with every retailer of pure food, with a request that such retailer examine its con- tents. ) mallrmeters; i\iehe. evs ee Le 137. 17100 anch=—022 5) mail limeters. 2.11.5 al. OLR eas 1200. Since the diffusion of soluble material through the soil is known to be exceedingly slow, the inference is that large particles of lime would form a thin shell of neutral or slightly alkaline soil, and the remainder of the mass would be influenced only as the capillary movement of water carried the lime carbonate beyond this shell. The probabilities of the tenth-inch materials reaching the entire cubic inch of soil within five years is small. PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NORMAL INSTITUTE 1é oo Co The following statement of influence of fineness upon availa- bility was agreed to by Messrs. Van Slyke, Fippin, Cavanaugh and Collison: First. Availibility is approximately proportional to fineness. Second. ‘Ten-mesh stone has about 50 per cent that will pass a 50-mesh sieve. Third. Use of ten-mesh size vs. fifty-mesh size depends on quantity to be used and on cost of both material and of handling, including freight. Fourth. About twice as much ten-mesh sieve as of fifty-mesh is required to furnish amount necessary for five year period or average period of rotation. 134 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF CARBONATE OF LIME OF VARIOUS DEGREES OF FINENESS W. H. MacInrirEe INTRODUCTION In the art of agriculture, the use of lime for soil improvement constitutes a practice which has been followed since ancient time. However, in spite of this long usage, relatively little advance has been made scientifically in the simplification of lime problems. Particularly is this true in regard to studies as to differential values between lime carbonate of various degrees of fineness. As an instance in point, the chemical composition of limestone and the chemistry of its burning were not known until about 1800. In so far as we know, the custom of burning lime for building purposes antedated the practice of its agricultural use. It was, therefore, known that by burning, the hard limestones could be made utilizable as well as the soft chalks, marl and ashes, which were probably first used for agricultural purposes. . Agriculturally speaking, then, the practice of burning was followed primarily to permit utilization of limestone, especially the harder rocks, by effecting a state of fineness which would permit of its application to the soil. It is our purpose, in submitting this paper, to enter into a con- sideration of some of the chemical activities which are character- istic of the various forms of lime. It is not our intention to dwell upon the biological phase of the soil needs for lime, nor to any extent upon the comparative physical effects of liming, but rather upon the chemical activities of the carbonate forms in the soil. At this point, let it also be understood that we have no inten- tion of entering the field of economies of the use of lime in its various forms, under such conditions as exist in the state of New York. . Tael3 hs a eRe ee aE NS on SS GNo Acta, «acces 18.55 per cent. LOSS pthian guy Bat. weyers, . oy5 «ch ele Tetd otek 2 > ane «SPEER S hc 32.01 per cent. The burnt lime, hydrated lime and fine carbonate treated soils were analyzed weekly during an interval of eight weeks; and, al- though they were exposed, not sufficient rainfall occurred to effect leaching. Seven months after the time these analyses were made, the eight ground limestone soils were analyzed for carbonates. The analyses are given in Table IV. COMPARISON BETWEEN THE ACTIVITIES OF 8 TREATMENTS OF GROUND LIMESTONE AND THE AVERAGE OF 4 EACH OF BURNT AND HYDRATED LIME, AND 2 OF PRECIPITATED CARBONATE, UPON AN ACID SOI. CaCO; gain per A. 2,000,000 Ibs. of soil at end Substance applied of 9 months Average (Cround elim estoneuriers side tie sare cate « o oelaee 20,404. < aaa Ground Plimestoneyes.ra so. oe ee tee oe sce 20; 264°" eee ECround wliMestOnemey: Aaeee we rccec! ocd bake cehomeces’s es 22. 232 0 eae GroundmpliimestOnes pis acrhe oterehcke neta eae eos tons leas Sree 20.318 ae Grounde limestone ye snee ce lees cae oe ins ee 24° 0827" SSRs Croundasimestoneye:5-a0-1n) eee ee eas coe 22,545. gocvete Croundelimestone: oyster Roe ee te eres Fae 19, 459% eer Ground Qlimestone fic dce cue bers Se oe ee oie oes Se ee 24,445 21,845 CaCO, gain per A. 2,000,000 lbs. of soil at end of 8 weeks. Burnt lime, hydrated lime and precipitated chalk 19,387 (10 ELEALMENES)! | Flats eres eckke trees Cae ae! Sue T MeL ctese te etch hanes eae eae 19, 387 PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Norma INSTITUTE 139 The data of Table IV show that after being subjected to seven mouths of leaching by winter rains, there was still more residual carbonate of lime from the application of ground limestone than was found from the more active finely divided carbonate applied, and that formed from the carbonation of burnt and hydrated lime, though none of the latter was leached prior to analysis. Here, again, one may say, Is this not conservation? On the contrary, No; for, when dealing with an acid soil and the usual lime applications, the beneficial results come from the lime which reacts with the soil to neutralize lime requirement, and not from that which is leached away and lost. This raises the ques- tion as to the doubtful value of lumps of limestone remaining in a soil which is acid. Physical betterment occurs in speed and extent in proportion to the solubility of the carbonate. Hence, we sometimes secure physical betterment more extensively from burnt lime than from equivalent amounts of CaO as ground limestone. Let us now turn from these results where the limestone had been in contact with the soil for but a relatively short time and con- sider the case of the Pennsylvania Station plats at the end of thirty years of liming. In the Pennsylvania experiments two tons of almost pure lime have been applied each year to one of the 4 tiers, the one growing corn, while two tons of ground limestone of corresponding purity have been applied each year to the tiers growing corn and wheat. Each tier then received 2 tons of burnt lime every fourth year, and two tons of ground limestone every second year. Thus, all the burnt lime of each application has been exposed upon one series of plats, while the ground limestone has been subjected to leaching from twice the soil area. That is, in each rotation of corn, oats, wheat and grass, the entire amount of burnt lime was applied to the corn, while one half of the ground limestone was applied to each the corn and wheat. The results obtained after thirty years of liming are given in Table V which show in a very convincing manner the fact that, in spite of the increased solubility of burnt lime after carbonation, we do not lose proportionally more of the base when it is applied in the oxid form than when applied as limestone. Furthermore, in practice different conditions would exist. Practically all of the 140 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES burnt lime as ordinarily apphed would combine with the soil and be held rather than leached. This “ fixing ” insures longer periods of plant response than would ensue, were the leaching more extensive than the fixing. Citation could be made to plats, long since free of burnt lime or its carbonate, which continue to give benefits from the liming. In other words, in ordinary practice, usually less of burnt lime is applied than the amounts which a soil is capable of fixing and holding in forms other than those of hydrate or carbonate. TABLE V. COMPARISON BETWEEN CONSERVATION OF LIME APPLIED AS CaO AND THAT AP- PILED AS FINELY GROUND LIMESTONE. COMPOSITES OF 4 TIERS. TOTAL AVERAGE CaO AS BURNT LIME, 31,000 LBS.; AS GROUND LIMESTONE 36,960. Burnt Lime Treatments and 6 Tons Burnt Ground Manure Lime Limestone CaO gain in 21 inches, as total CaO MOS Aig eT Atencpeep ents cho ous. bie: a, oreveves teeters 19 ,536X liens 21,088 CaO gain in 21 inches as CaCO, DCT eA UR rere eine fis) scorer io udicpeu'scondic 1 66== 10,703 13,542 CaO gain in 21 inches as other forms Nos yperoAmpr sete yeghst. ay. heuk lt ie dete fe 7,770X 7,090 7,546 CaO gain in 21 inches as total CaO per cent of application...:....... 63* 57 4 57 CaO gain in 21 inches as CaCO, per Cent SOhmappMCAtLION!... cris 1s sale is MeOH, 34.5 36.6 CaO gain in 2] inches as other forms per cent of application....... Sled 25.1 XX 229 20.4 Uistinves TATE. 2 so nwlaoeeou ge dc x 17099 *55.1 Mreaited@iplatsmtr cnt oie ee rae =—— 901 //30.6 INE CHECK Bias lacie © oc)siols sfereuers X 7598 XX24.5 But, suppose we use ground limestone containing some pieces of appreciable size. Being less soluble, it will react less exten- sively than burnt lime, and we would still have limestone remain- ing. In other words, a good portion of the coarse limestone is not only not available immediately, but is probably never utilized. Hence, in many cases, we may not receive maximum possible increase per cent from applied CaO as limestone, because though in part removed or reduced, the soil acidity has not been sufti- ciently reduced or entirely overcome. This means that acidity or rather acid reacting materials still exist uncorrected or un- neutralized, although some of the limestone is still present and subject to leaching by carbonated water. Again, would this con- dition tend toward conservation of total lime? It would not. PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NorMAL INSTITUTE 141 Let us see why. In the case of rock derwed soils which are at present strongly acid, or rather of high lime requirement, we find the leachings to be always alkaline. Why is this the case? When the soil waters leach from soil they are impregnated to a greater or less degree with a gaseous substance. Water so im- pregnated not only will not permit of the acid-acting soil material extracting lime from its solution, but it will even make the soil more acid by removing additional bases. This base removing proc- ess accounts for the major portion of the soil acidity or lime requirement. It is analogous to the action of sulphuric acid upon tri-calcium phosphate, by which process the acid takes away a part of the lime and leaves a salt which is limehungry and anxious to recover and re-unite with its lime of which it was robbed. So also we have in the soil acid salts, principally silicates which have lost part of their lime, and also other bases. Because of the loss of bases the soil has an affinity for lime which serves to replace them. Probably this illustration will serve to clearly show the case in point. In the laboratory we took an acid soil, one which decomposes a considerable amount of lime. ld PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NoRMAL INSTITUTE 171 FAT The vegetable and animal fats and oils serve as a source of energy for the maintenance of the activities of the animal body, being in this respect equal to about two and one-fourth times the same weight of carbohydrates. The fats of the food may also be utilized for the production of body fats, and to some extent per- haps of the milk fats. We may consider the relative importance of these classes of in- gredients in the animal economy from two-points of view, namely, physiologically and commercially. Considered from the point of view of physiological necessities, these ingredients are all es- sential to animal growth and maintenance, and in this sence have equal physiological value. While the animal must have sufh- cient proteins to meet the demands for constructive and replace ment purposes, it is equally true that it must have sufficient di- gestible food to supply the energy necessary for maintaining internal and external activities. A lack in either case is fatal, certainly to physical well-being and possibly to existence. A deficiency in either direction would limit the production of a milch cow or require the use of her body substance. The food of a given animal should contain no less than a minimum amount of protein. On the other hand, a milch cow giving thirty pounds of 5-per-cent milk utilizes daily sixteen pounds of digestible organic matter, at least eleven pounds of which would be applied to fuel purposes. If a fattening steer were eating the same kind of digestible food and gained two pounds of live weight daily, at least thirteen and one-half pounds of the sixteen would be oxidized for energy purposes. Water is confessedly an essential ingredient of an animal’s feod, and the formation of bone and of the soft tissues, as well as the digestive processes, requires the presence in food of the com- pounds of the ash. It is not possible then to claim rationally that any one class of the ingredients above mentioned is supremely important to the growth, maintenance and welfare of the animal body. The reasons why protein has been given such large prominence in our discussions of animal nutrition are largely commercial, 172 Report oF FarMers’ [INSTITUTES although undue relative importance has been laid upon the nutri- tive functions of protein. ‘The great preponderance of the ordi- nary farm crops are made up largely of carbohydrate materials with a.small percentage of protein. ‘There is no crop that gives a satisfactory yield which carries a high protein percentage. The most important forage crop which today supplements the protein supply of the farm is alfalfa, but the percentage of nitrogen compounds present is not high. Peas carry a higher percentage but the yield is unsatisfactory as a grain crop, al- though used in the green state peas are a useful forage plant. When the German feeding standards were launched in this country, it was very evident that it would be difficult, if not im- possible, to compound what was then called a balanced ration from home raised feeding stuffs. Farmers were urged therefore to invest in the protein feeding stuffs such as cottonseed meal, linseed meal, gluten feed and so on. In this way protein came into great prominence in public discussions, and the attention of cattle feeders was focused upon that as a greatly important factor in their feeding; but, as we see, chiefly for business reasons. This exaltation of protein still clings to our literature, and, to a certain extent, to our commercial standards. This has been un- fortunate, especially in relation to our so-called compounds foods. The farmers have been told by those interested in the sale of pro- prietary feeds that, because one feed combination carries 20 per cent of protein, it is considerably more valuable than another carrying only 15 per cent of protein — a statement which may be either false or true. It is very important to consider not only the percentage of protein, but the materials with which this protein is associated. If, on the one hand, the protein feeds are supplemented by such materials as corn meal, hominy feed, wheat middlings and similar standard materials; and, on thegother hand, by mill screenings, oat hulls, and other highly indigestible materials, it would be unfair and delusive to make a comparison on the basis of the percentage of protein. Another way in which undue emphasis has been jaid upon protein is in determining the relative economy of two feeds by charging up the total price of the feed to its protein content. It has been taught, for instance, that if on this basis the protein of PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NorMAuL INSTITUTE 173 cottonseed meal costs four cents a pound, it is more economical to purchase it than some feeding stuff carrying less protein, where the pound cost of the protein is five cents. This method of charging up the full cost of the feeding stuff against the protein ignores whatever value the other ingredients of the feeding stuff may have. Now, if the home raised crops have no value to the farmer — that is, if he has no market for them and has a plentiful supply,— then any saving from the purchase of carbohydrate material in gluten feed would be of no advantage to him. But, if he can sell his hay, his oats, or his corn, it is irrational to assume that he is justified in ignoring ‘the value of carbohydrates or fats in the feeds which he purchases. I, therefore, conclude that undue commercial emphasis has been laid upon protein in two particulars: First, in measuring the value of compounded feeds, or of any feeds, solely by the per- centage of protein present; and second, in computing the economy of the purchase of feeds by charging up the entire ton price of the feed against the protein present. 2. Views or Dr. E. S. Savaae In expressing his views on this subject the writer assumes that the question under discussion is the amount of protein to be pur- chased in the concentrates. No one questions the impcrtance of growing all the lezume roughage that it is possible to grow. The nitrogen and protein that is gained in this way is partly gained from the air at no cost whatsoever; therefore every bit that the farmer can get adds so much to the permanent value of his farm. In addition to the roughage the farmer may perhaps grow some grain. Then. the question comes to the dairy farmer, What feeds shall I purchase to supplement the roughage and concen- trates I already have on hand? The answer is, buy concentrates that will yield total digestible nutrients the cheapest, and which will so adjust the ration that the nutritive ratio of the entire ration shall be not wider than 1:6. The writer bases this answer on these facts: 1. Total digestible nutrients cost no more in high protein foods than in low protein foods. 2. In addition to 1, if the relative manurial values are euhe 174 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES any consideration at all, the total digestible nutrients are much cheaper in the high protein foods than in the low protein foods. Statement 1 will be considered first. Total digestible nutrients should first be defined. To find the total digestible nutrients in any food add together the digestible protein, the digestible carbo- hydrates, and 2.25 times the digestible fat. 1. COST OF TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS The cost of one pound of total digestible nutrients has been. com- puted in the following feeds: TABLE I Total dig. Cost of 1 lb. nutrients Cost of of total dig. Feed in 1 ton one ton nutrients 1 Distillers .Oried (STAINS iF .. \oi0 at opcph aj 1,778 $32 96 $.0185 257 G hutenwar COdmerce ter ac ccm ciochaeneteiets 1, 614 30 07 .0186 Se IC OLNEAMCAIM ewicies Foss eos se eee ahs 1, 676 31 09 .0186 4) Homimtiys fee. vers setests). ete Sis. Zckote ee 1, 692 31 59 0187 5. Cottonseed meal .......... Fe ee or 1, 564 32 29 . 0206 GoM are ter cecueieiteers cigs sc sis leicys < wievagers, oye 1,588 33 19 . 0209 eae O Gr DGAMee Stents. .aicls sier< srs hoes ares 1,218 Pai PAS . 0224 SAOMsMea Me oon is 1s. s Be ate Ree 2 1, 558 36 75 .0236 9, (Ground yoatspe ser act apteiictts sae omc: 1, 400 37f 55 . 0268 In Table I, column 1 is the digestible protein + the digestible carbohydrates + (the digestible fat x 2.25) in one ton of each of the feeds named. The data is from “ Feeds and Feeding,” fifteenth edition, Henry and Morrison. Column 2, the ton price is the average price for the year October, 1914, to September, 1915. The quotations used were for the fifteenth of each month as quoted wholesale by a Buffalo, N. Y. firm in carlots f. 0. b., Rochester, N. Y., Syracuse, N. Y., or Baltimore, Md. Column’ 3, the price of one pound of total digestible nutrients, is obtained by dividing column 1 into column 2. The amounts of total digestible nutrients in one ton of each food is what is actually paid for in each case. Column 3, the cost of one pound of total digestible nutrients, gives a true relative basis for the choice of feeds to supplement those already at hand. It also may throw some light on the question of selling some home-grown feeds and purchasing others to take their places. From column 3 it is seen that during the year 1914-1915 dis- =I PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NorRMAL INSTITUTE 1 tillers dried grains and gluten feed were, on the basis of total digestible nutrients, relatively as cheap as corn meal and hominy, and actually nearly as cheap. This on the face of it shows that there is no need of putting less protein into the ration than the amount indicated by a nutritive ratio of 1:6, because total feed value is just as cheap in these high protein feeds as in any other feeds. This will hold for any year in the opinion of the writer. Therefore the thing for every feeder to do is to prepare a table like Table I from the list of concentrates that may be purchased. Then choose from this list those foods which will bring the nutritive ratio of his ration between 1:45 and 1:6, making the choice from those which will yield total digestible nutrients the cheapest. It is understood that such .a choice will always be modified by a careful consideration of the mechanical condition and effect on the class of animals being fed, and all other con- siderations of this character. The point is that, under the present condition of the feed market, enough high protein feeds will be found among the five or six feeds, which are relatively the cheap- est, to properly balance the ration. 9. MANURIAL VALUES A consideration of the manurial values of feeds is important in its bearing on the questions discussed under the cost of digestible nutrients. The net cost for milk production of a feed under any system of permanent agriculture is the first cost minus the value of the fertilizer constituents appearing in the manure from that feed. If the urine and solid manure of the cow is properly conserved 75.5 per cent of the nitrogen (N) and 89.7 per cent of the phosphoric acid (P.O;) and potash (K.O) is returned to the soil from that in the feed. The rest of the nitrogen, phosporic acid and potash appears in the milk. Obviously, since the mature cow is neither gaining nor losing live weight, these are the only two outlets for the materials taken in in the feed. Table II gives the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash appearing in the solid and liquid manure from a mature cow producing milk: These amounts are calculated by multiplying the amounts available in the feed, if it were spread directly on 176 Report oF FarMeErsS’ INSTITUTES the land as a fertilizer, by the percentages given above, 75.5 per cent of the nitrogen, 89.7 per cent of the phosphoric acid, and potash. Column 4 in the table is the total value of the fertilizing constituents in the manure. Nitrogen is valued at 18 cents, phos- phoric acid at 4.5 cents and potash at 5 cents per pound. TABLE II Phosphoric Nitrogen acid Potash Feed pounds pounds pounds Value Distillers’ dried grains.... 74.1 12.2 3.0 $14 04 Glutenitteed? .A0e28 = eke Gilles Ie 4.1 11 74 Gormnymeniliin eateries DO 10.9 6.6 4 87 Hominy =. cs ee ee 257 D2a2, 17.0 6 48 Cottonseed meal ......... 106.6 47.9 34 53) 22 98 BaLley gree seen Gielen 27.8 22 1B} 33 6 35 Wheatabrane: 2450. o0055 os 38.7 52.9 29.1 10 81 Oilemieall eee ea ee cies 81.8 30.5 22.8 Wis Ground Oats, .oeeccse os. 29.3 14.4 10.0 6 42 It will be seen from this table that the high protein feeds, cottonseed meal, distillers dried grains, linseed oil meal, and gluten feed, have a high manurial value per ton when fed to dairy cows. - Objection might be made to these values on the basis that no such values can possibly be recovered with even the very best method of handling the manure. On this point. the writer quotes the following from the fifteenth edition of “ Feeds aud Feeding” by Henry and Morrison, page 277: BRITISH PRACTICE In Great Britain, where many of the farmers are long-periol tenants, the manurial value of feeding stuffs is recognized by law in a manner that tends greatly to the betterment and permanence of her agriculture. The Agricul- tural Holdings Act, which is the law governing the relations between land. lord and tenant, directs that when a tenant is vacating his leasehold he shall be reasonably compensated for the improvements he has made. Among these, credit must be given for the fertilizing value of feeding stuffs which the tenant may have purchased and fed out, and also, under certain conditions, for the fertilizing value of grains produced on the farm and fed to stock. In order to furnish data to guide the valuers who serve in-settlement between landlord and tenant, after full and extended study, Lawes, Gilbert and later Voelcker and Hall of the Rothamsted Experiment Station drew up the tables showing the compensation to be allowed for -the fertilizing value of various feeds. The recommendations, as revised in 1913 and adopted by -the Central Association of Agriculture and Tenant Right Valuers, are that the tenant shall be credited as follows for all manure resulting from feeding purchased feeds to stock on the leasehold: a hy i PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NorRMAL INSTITUTE 1 For all unused manure, or that which has recently been applied to the land without a crop being grown thereafter, a credit of three-fourths of the total value of the phosphoric acid and potash in the feed is allowed. » Because a greater loss of nitrogen commonly occurs in stored manure than a manure dropped in the fields by animals at pasture, a credit of 70 per cent of the total value of the nitrogen is allowed when the stock have been fed at pasture, and of only 50 per cent when they have been fed in barn or yard. When one crop has been grown since the application of the manure, a part of the fertility thereby being used up, the credit allowed is only half that stated above. It is realized that the beneficial effects of farm manure persist much longer than two years, but owing to the difficulties in checking records for a longer period, the compensation is not extended over a great time. The principles of the English law, as here set forth, should be drafted into every lease drawn between landlord and tenant in this country. All men know how conservative are statements of law, yet here it is seen that the percentages written into English law are 50 per cent of the nitrogen and 75 per cent of the phosphoric acid and potash in the feed. We have not had to think of these things in this country, but the sooner we begin to think of them and practice them, the sooner will come a permanent system of agriculture. Deducting the manurial value from the first cost we have the net cost per ton in column 1 of Table III. Column 2 gives the net cost of one pound of total digestible nutrients obtained by dividing the net cost per ton by the pounds of total digestible nutrients in each ton. The order of the feeds is changed to com- pare with the order in Table I. TABLE III Net cost of Net cost lb. cf total Feed of 1 ton dig. nutrient Wottonseedemealie in soir ee econ ie ay sh ycrcuensend aoe $9 31 $.0060 Desinlers. (dried: rains rae sys. « ee ee see een 18 92 .0106 ‘Glimreray ageveyol) Ee SAR eee ants FT) bee ek 18 33 0114 Oileinea lee shoe eee PR Rate ae AS 19 52 .0125 NACE] Ose pate eee Be ee a ee AEN ay Eker ey 16 45 0135 LEU CSTENT CA 2 EO UG CREE RPS ae ee Sha ig 25 11 0148 @orrepriiea le er bee Ri at ERE we PAS J NI wean hd 26 22 .0156 iB Yr d Re ied) whe Geer oR Le eee Coy Pie aL ae nT 26 84 .0169 CSLOUNGPOMES EA ine Sat ee eee ae eh kee Sih 118: 0222 This table throws all the high protein feeds to the head of the list. The amount of the fertilizing constituents saved may be estimated at a much lower figure, and still the relative value of the protein feeds will be the lowest of any. Too much stress 178 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES cannot be laid on this point. The position of the feeds in the list may change from time to time, but there will always be some high protein’ among those relatively the cheapest on the basis of relative values alone, and surely if the manurial values are given any consideration. This discussion again brings out sharply the need for conserving the liquid manure, for the manurial values arise principally from the value of the nitrogen and therefore the protein. It might seem that the views of the writer are somewhat in opposition to the views of Dr. Jordan in the first section of this paper. PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NorMAL INSTITUTE 903 in tree planting when otherwise it would be idle. Fall planting is especially advantageous to the farmer. In making plantations, he should consider what kind of trees will be most useful to him. If he requires fence posts, he may plant black locust, which will attain a size sufticient for this use in about fifteen years. If he is already plentifully supplied with timber of this character, then he may plant a valuable timber species which will increase the sale value of the land, even though it is not yet matured at the time he wishes to sell. The extent of forest planting by farmers in this state may be seen from the following figures: Out of a total of 15,000 acres reforested with trees sold by the Conservation Commission since 1909, 9,000 acres, or 3/5 of this area, have been planted by farm- ers. A classification of purchasers and the number of acres re- forested by them as follows: Municipalities, 3,300. Private corporations, 1,900. Wealthy land owners in the Adirondacks, 975. Schools, 600. Railroads, 150. Farmers and all others purchasing trees, 9,600. In discussing tree planting by farmers, we must divide the farmers into two classes: 1. The farmer who is out of debt. 2. The farmer whose farm is mortgaged. The census of 1910 gives us the following figures: there are 166,674 farms in New York State operated by owners; of this number, 72,311, or 43 per cent, are mortgaged — 43 per cent of the farmers are paying inter- est at the rate of 5 or 6 per cent on a portion of their capital. For the farmers who are in debt only moderate investments in tree planting are to be recommended. These could be confined to the planting of trees for fence posts or other small sized tim- ber products which will mature within a few years; or, when it is possible to start a plantation by utilizing labor otherwise un- employed, the initial cost of establishing a plantation of valuable timber species may be kept low enough to make such an invest- ment profitable on account of the increased value which it will give to the land. 204. Report oF FarMERS’ INSTITUTES For the farmers who are not in debt, a forest plantation pro- vides a safe investment for his capital, provides employment for inen when they may be otherwise unemployed, and at the same time adds to the beauty and value of his farm. In many parts of this state, outside of the Adirondacks and Catskill Parks, extensive areas requiring reforesting, and large areas of forests which are in a dilapidated condition, are to be found. Such reforesting or forestry projects are too large to be undertaken by individuals, since a long period is required for their development. These areas, however, furnish excellent op- portunities for investment by corporations or organizaticns which will endure for a long period of time. At the beginning it was stated that forests are of general benefit to the community, not entirely from the point of timber produc- tion, but also by protecting the hillsides, preventing erosion, build- ing up the fertility of the soil, regulating the run-off of water in the streams, and adding to the natural beauty of the scenery. If this is true and the forests are beneficial to the whole community, is there any reason why the more extensive forests should not be owned and administered by the community for its own benefit ? This statement brings us directly to the consideration of a law passed by the New York State Legislature which provides for the acquisition and administration of tracts of forest land by towns, counties and villages (Chapter 74 of the Laws of 1912). Up to the present time none of the counties of this state have taken advantage of this law. Work in reforesting is being carried on by twenty cities and villages in connection with the protection of their water supply. We have yet to develop a real communal forest managed under scientific principles for the purpose of timber production. Section 72-a, Chapter 74 of the Laws of 1912, entitled “Ac- quisition and Development of Forest Lands,” provides for the following: The governing board of a county, town or village may severally acquire for such county, town or village, by purchase, gift, lease or condemna- tion, and hold as the property of such municipality, tracts of land having forests or tree growth thereon, or suitable for the growth of trees, and may appropriate therefor the necessary moneys of the county, town or village for which the lands are acquired. Such lands shall be under the management and control of such board and shall be developed and used for the planting and rearing of trees thereon and for the cultivation thereof according to the principles of scientific forestry, for the benefit and advantage of the county, town or village. PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NorMAL INSTITUTE 205 The amount of non-agricultural land in the different counties of New York State, not including counties situated within the Adirondack and Catskill Parks, is as follows: There are twenty counties which contain between 5,000 and 20,000 acres of land needing reforesting. There are twelve counties which contain between 20,000 and 50,000 acres of land needing reforesting. There are twelve counties which contain between 50,000 and 100,000 acres of land needing reforesting. This gives us a total of 44 counties, each of which contains sufficient land needing reforesting for a county forest. What reason is there why counties or towns should not acquire the areas of denuded land and devastated forests within their limits under the provisions of Section 74 of the Laws of 1912 and ad- minister them as county forests? Such lands administered under proper forestry methods would yield a very satisfactory revenue which could be used in paying the expenses of the county or town. ’ Woodlands, from which the larger timber trees have been re- moved in lumbering operations, may be secured at relatively low prices. Such woodlands may be developed by removing poor tree species and favoring the young growth of valuable tree species. Open spaces in such forests may be planted. Such forests would yield considerable revenue from the sale of wood removed by im- proving the stand. The county or town holding forest lands would not be taxed upon them. Village forests outside of the corporate limits of the village would be subject to taxation in the town in which they are located, unless classified under one of the forest taxation laws of this state. In the administration of the county or town forest, inmates of county institutions could be used to furnish labor. Such labor would cost the county practically nothing, since otherwise many of these inmates would be unemployed and would be an expense to the county. In conclusion should like to emphasize the fact that small areas of non-agricultural land included in farms ought to be re- forested by the farmers owning them if thesé farmers are in a financial position to do so. More extensive tracts of land which are remotely situated where they may be easily separated from farm lands — for example, hilltops and other extensive areas of non-agricultural land — may be administered to better advantage 206 REPORT OF FarMeERS’ INSTITUTES by a permanent organization, such as a county, town, village or private corporation. One of the greatest benefits to be derived from a communal forest is the direct effect which it will have in bringing the subject of forestry before all the people. Forests are either directly or indirectly a benefit to all the people, and they should know it. A campaign for county forests is well worth while for the sake of its educational value, since it will first be necessary to convince the people of the necessity for car- ing for our forests on a large scale before they will become suffi- ciently interested to establish a communal forest. Timber pro- duction requires an investment for a long period of time, and for this reason does not attract private capital. Counties, towns, vil- lages and some private corporations are organizations which will last indefinitely, and they are therefore in a position to acquire and administer forest lands most profitably. SS ai PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NorMAL [NSTITUTE THE ECONOMIC SIDE OF NEW YORK STATE WOODLANDS Dran Hvuau P. Baker When. Director van Alstyne asked me to speak to you upon “The Economic Side of New York State Woodlands,” in your seventeenth annual gathering, I appreciated the opportunity of meeting you here in the State College of Agriculture in a discus- sion of this kind. Getting together on such questions as this is the basis of cooperation, and cooperation looms large before us in this country today. In a second letter received from Director van Alstyne he referred to the fact that my talk would be limited to twenty minutes. It was rather a staggering suggestion, because anything I might say on this question in twenty or thirty minutes is in reality merely an introduction to a discussion of the econ- omic problems involved in the handling of New York State wood- lands. But I am greatly pleased that you men and women who are meeting the farmers of the state should be interested in the farm woodlot, and, through the woodlot, in the larger questions of New York woodlots and forests. To some of you, at least, I have expressed before this the atti- tude of the College of Forestry toward forests and forestry in New York. The institution which I represent stands for a definite purpose, a definite thing in forestry in the state, just as this great College of Agriculture stands for definite lines of work in agriculture. Economists tell us that the source of all wealth is the soil, and any state that will prosper must consider very fully the complete utilization of its soil. J mean not only the soil which may be under the plow at the present time, but all of the soils. The soils of New York which are being farmed at the present time yield, according to statistics put out by the U.S. Bureau of Census, about two hundred million dollars annually. This is not enough from the soils of this state. The educational work of your organization and that of the College of Agriculture, the Geneva Experiment Station, and other agencies, has brought about great increases in the annual returns from farm lands; but we can no longer delay consideration of all lands, all soils, in 208 Report oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES the state. I say no longer because I am looking at the whole question of forestry in New York with the startling facts in view that the state of New York has a debt equal to $47.00 per acre for every acre of land, good and bad; that last year the legis- lature levied a direct tax of $18,000,000; that the joint Legisla- tive Committee on Taxation has just reported that the cost of state government in New York, between 1910 and 1914, in- creased 40 per cent, and they report that there is every indication that it will be necessary to impose each year during the next five years a direct state tax of from $14,500,000 to $19,000,000. This tax, it is claimed, will be necessary even if the state suc- ceeds in stopping further increases in cost of government, holding its present expenses to the present amount. I am also considering this question of the use of our wood- lands in the light of the experience of the older countries where in several instances the forest soils of the province or state give a considerable part of the income to the state in which they are located. In referring to the income from our agricultural lands, I assumed that the annual return per acre per year in New York is from $4.00 to $6.00. This is not large when one considers the returns which are secured from the German forests. In the Black Forest of Southwestern Germany, a region very much like our Adirondacks, a return of from $2.00 to $4.00 per acre per year is being secured. In one section near Baden I was amazed to find owners of tenant farms turning their tenants away from the farm, tearing down the farm buildings and planting Norway Spruce. In little Saxony as high as $6.00 per acre per year is being received from forest lands. ‘True, economic conditions over there are quite different from ours; yet in the expense of our government per capita our economic conditions are not so differ- ent. If we are to be relieved from our increasingly heavy state debt and direct taxation, we must consider sensibly and with vision every phase of the full use of the soils of our great state. You people who are interested especially in agriculture have 300 years of practice, good and bad, back of you in this country. Those of us who are working in forestry have but a decade or two, and this not so much in practice as in determined efforts in the education of the people. After this long agricultural history, New PROCEEDINGS oF SEVENTEENTH Norma INSTITUTE 209 York, according to the statistics of the nation and the state, shows an area greater than the size of Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island as idle land. I say idle, because it is not productive. The people of the state have just decided at the polls that New York can afford the luxury of nearly two millions of acres of un- productive land in the Adirondacks and Catskills. I am very sure that those who are opposed to the right use of the forest lands of the Adirondacks and Catskills have not connected up their use with our state debt of $47.00 per acre, and our direct tax. There is a direct connection, and two things, must be considered together in any economic discussion of the problem of New York State woodlands. I speak with knowledge when I say that our woodlots are as a rule idle, because the returns from most of them, according to investigations which the State College of Forestry has been carrying on during the past four years, do not cover interest on capital invested, taxes, etc. That is, in many instances the farmer with unproductive woodland is boarding a part of his land just as much as he boards an unproductive cow. As a matter of public policy, there is absolutely no question as to the economic advisability and necessity of using our forest soils. I am using the terms “‘ agricultural soils” and “ forest soils” in reference to conditions in the state, but unfortunately we have not as yet definite data as to just how much agricultural soil and how much forest soil we have. Every square foot of land that can produce an agricultural crop must be classed as agricultural soil, and the forester is the last man to want to see any soil capable of producing agricultural crops put into forest trees as a crop. The necessity for a thorough stock-taking of the natural resources of the state has constantly been borne in upon the college. Such a knowledge of our natural resources is absolutely necessary before we shall have the accurate knowledge necessary to plan with saneness for the future. With the changed economic conditions which will result from increased population, there will, of course, come some change in the extent to which we will occupy the soils of the state for agri- cultural purposes. However, I feel that it is fairly safe to say that if, after 300 years of human activity in New York State, we still have 10,000,000 of idle acres, there is not going to 910 Report or Farmers’ [Ns tirures be great change in use of land during the next fifty years. Here I want to sound a note of warning to those good, enthusiastic people who would see the idle of our cities, or the newcomer from abroad, take up all of our so-called abandoned farms. New York has abandoned farms and possibly it has been with these farms as it is with individuals —a simple following out of the law of the survival of the fittest. Should there not be a better knowledge of the exact value of the soils on abandoned farms before we allow people to occupy them with sure defeat ahead —- to repeat the tragedy of the abandoned farm. In the Rural New Yorker for November 6 there is a brief but interesting article upon ‘““Some Deserted Farms in New York,” and I quote a part of the last sentence: ‘A, few acres can be purchased here with slender savings and homes established on the basis of hope for future independence and freedom.” The forester is Just as anxious as anyone to see all true agricultural lands used for agriculture, but let us be fair to the man “with slender savings” and let the organizations working for agricultural uplift in the state protect the man who may be exploited by the real estate agent or the enthusiast who believes that any soil will grow an agricultural crop. I have emphasized the necessity of knowing just what we have in the way of forest land and agricultural land in the state. When I came to New York early in 1912, I made a very sys- tematic search, through correspondence and otherwise, for data regarding land conditions, and found, of course, a few figures given out by the United States Census Bureau, by the State Con- servation Commission, by the State College of Agriculture, and others. I was disappointed to find that these figures were general in character only, and that there was very little definite informa- tion which would let us say to a community, a county, or a part of the state, so much of your land is of greater value to you for agricultural purposes, or so much is of greater value for forestry purposes. Believing that any definite plans for the practice of forestry in New York, or the consideration of it as an economic problem, must be laid upon more definite information, the college began at once a study of forest conditions in several different counties, +1 PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NorMAL INSTITUTE 211 during the summer of 1912. Investigations were made in Onon- daga, Greene and St. Lawrence counties. These investigations were more or less experimental to determine the best method of car- rying on a stock-taking of soil and forest conditions. In the fall of 1918 a single township was selected in Oswego County; every farm was visited and the lands carefully plotted. This was done to determine the cost of studies, and was followed in the summer of 1914 with more accurate studies of the same nature in the counties referred to above, and in Madison and Cattaraugus counties. In the summer of 1915, five men were started in a thorough study of four hill counties in the southern part of the state. Four of these men were advanced: forestry students who worked on bicycles, visiting every farm, mapping in the woodlot areas on enlarged geological survey quadrangle sheets, talking to the farmers of the treatment of their woodlots, and also as to the disposal of timber from them. Questions were asked also as to local supples; that is, what kind of lumber the farmers were using and where it was obtained. It was an amazing thing to find in some townships nearly a half of the township covered with woodlot, and yet the farmers were paying a high price for lumber from the Pacific Coast and from the southern states. The man in charge of this study worked with an automobile, supervising the work of the men on bicycles, and as his part of the study visited retail lumber yards and manufacturing plants to find out what they were using and whether it would be possible for them to use the products of the woodlots. The map of Broome county which I have here with me is in itself a study of the economic side of New York woodlands. A preliminary report is soon to be published by the college on the hill counties studied last season. Out of these studies there has come the conclusion that the only solution of our woodlot problems, from an economic standpoint, is the development of a market for the products of the woodlot. A study of market con- ditions in these hill counties forces the conclusion that this can only come through the cooperative efforts of woodlot owners. Already the college has underway two or three different schemes for bringing about the cooperative marketing of woodlots. As a part of the plan for a study of woodlots, and their relation FAG Report oF FarmeErs’ INSTITUTES from an economic standpoint to the business of the farm and the industries of the counties and state, the college made an investiga- tion in 1912, in cooperation with the United States Forest Service, of the wood-using industries of the state. Two men assigned by the college and two from the United States Forest Service visited a large proportion of the wood-using plants of the state. Those not visited personally were reached with cards, and the report is very accurate for the year 1912. Its accuracy and value, of course, will decrease with passing years. The circulation of this report brought so many inquiries regarding the marketing of forest products that the college established in 1913 a Wood Utiliza- tion Service, which is‘in the Department of Wood Utilization. This service lists the materials which woodlot owners and manu- facturers have to sell, and sends these out in the form of a bulletin sheet to some 600 producers and consumers. It is effective for the disposal of lumber and other products which are produced by the single or cooperative efforts of woodlot owners. The college is finding that owners of wood-using plants are very anxious to learn where they can get satisfactory supplies, especially of hardwoods, and they are perfectly ready to buy the products of the woodlot, providing that these products can be put into standard form and delivered in sufficient quantities to make them worth while. Merely getting woodlot owners to have their woodlots cut together is not enough. The cooperative cutting must be followed by find- ing a market for the products of the cutting. This the college be- lieves can be taken care of as effectively as in any other way by its Wood Utilization Service. The satisfactory marketing of the products of the woodlots to- day will mean that the owners will be the first to solve the problem of the up-building and extension of the woodlot; that is, if a farmer finds that by taking care of his woodlot and by doing a little reforestation in the fall or spring, he can turn his product over to the buyer through cooperation with his neighbor. And with such a marketing agency as the college is maintaining, it is not going to be a difficult matter to convince him of the desirability of reforestation and protection. The economics of New York State woodlands are based upon the same fundamental ideas and facts as the economics of agricultural or industrial production —: PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Normat INSTITUTE (33 develop a need for the products of the woodlot and the forest and the woodland owner will meet the need. Protection and reforesta- tion will take care of themselves, in a sense, if the market is assured. Whatever is accomplished in the forests belonging to the state or in the woodlands of the private owner, must be accomplished as the result of education. This I do not need to tell an organiza- tion such as the State Bureau of Farmers’ Institutes, which is concerned with the education of the people, nor do I need to point out that the splendid work of the State College of Agriculture is based upon its education of the people. The work before the State College of Forestry, and other agencies working for forestry in the state, is to go out and by practical demonstrations and other- wise to bring our people to see that forestry is a sound business proposition, just as essential for the welfare of the state as any other phase of conservation. Agriculture, which is just as much a part of conservation as forestry, cannot alone solve the problem of the complete utilization of our soils. Neither lne of work is subordinate to the other, but if the history of the development of agriculture and forestry in the older countries means anything at all, it means that the two lines of work are coordinate and must work hand in hand in bringing about the best use of the soils, and in up-building the industries of what we believe to be the greatest commonwealth in the Union. Li oes Report or Farmers’ INSTITUTES |UD) —s ii MARKET DISTRIBUTION OF POULTRY PRODUCTS E. W. BensamMin The work and thought spent on the problem of distributing poultry products from the producers to the consumers has brought us to the point where we are beginning to at least see the surface more clearly, even though it may be said that we can yet hardly see below the surface. A few of the many workers, however, are beginning to see rays of light, and more definite ideas are being developed for the more efficient, more sanitary, and consequently more satisfactory methods of handling these products. The mere fact that the problem of obtaining better markets for the produc- ers and better supplies for the consumers is being agitated, has been an incentive, I believe, to the business associates generally called middlemen. I believe it has been an incentive to these associates to spur themselves on to more efficient work. Much im- provement has been realized up to the present time, and it should uot be hard for institute speakers to point out cases of this im- provement to their audiences. PRESENT SYSTEMS ARE WELL DEVELOPED - The present routes traversed by market products may be likened to a hard twisted cord which is, of necessity, entwined in a tightly drawn entanglement with the other hard twisted cords of similar nature, by the intricacies arising from competition and the peculiar demands of the producers and the consumers. By close study and shrewd operations, it may be possible to slightly shorten the distance between the producers and the con- sumers, and still pass through the entanglement of competition. This problem looks very much easier from the outside than it does after the theorist has taken up the work, and actually found himself in the midst of the problem. The producers demand complete freedom of responsibility for the quality of their pro- ducts, and the satisfaction which it should give to the consumers when it finally reaches them. The consumers, on the other hand, demand all sorts of special service and conveniences, which can- not possibly be provided by the distant producer, and must be PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Norma INSTITUTE Q15 furnished by special tradesmen who have the time to make a study of their demands and extract pay for this work from the consumers themselves. We must realize that the whole system has developed naturally, and has been hardened by time. We must attack the problem cautiously and with good sense, or else we shall undo all the benefits which may be derived from the present system, and we shall have a result which is worse than that which we have at the present time. Careless attack and the thoughtless installing of theoretical systems of marketing are very common occurrences. We can point to failures of cooperative associations on all sides. We have, also, organizations which are really supported by taxation of many people, or by gifts from a few people. ‘These organiza- tions, in many eases, absolutely need this support in order to keep up their expenses and still compete with the regular tradesmen. In other words, some supposedly beneficial organizations have to receive direct gifts in order to enable them to pay expenses. It is very easy to condemn all presently established methods of distribution, and to accuse all middlemen as the instigators thereof; and rural audiences, as well as audiences of city con- sumers, are especially susceptible to this sort of talk, often praising the speaker for it. I believe we should be very careful in what we say in this respect. We should recognize what value there is in our present system, realizing that the men engaged in handling the products are human beings, and perhaps as earnestly desire improvement of the system as we do ourselves. We should not line up these middlemen before the eyes of the public as antagonists of better methods. The discussion of market methods opens a great temptation for us to wave our hands and shout, ‘‘ reform.” It seems to me that we should be careful and see that we have left the right impression in the ears of our list- eners, and that we have given sound advice for reconstruction. THE POULTRY PRODUCERS’ ASSOCIATIONS For nearly three years here at the New York State College of Agriculture, we have been trying out the desirability or unde sirability of the various principles of preparation, shipment and sale of market poultry products. We have done this through 216 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES the medium of a trial cooperative association which we have called “‘ The Poultry Producers’ Association of Ithaca.” The business of this association has never been interrupted since it was started nearly three years ago. We have tried many differ- ent methods of operations: various ways for making payments to the producers; rules for grading the products which the pro- ducers bring in; collecting the products from the farms versus re- quiring the producers to bring the products to the station; defi- nite prices for products versus prices dependent on the market ob- tained ; accepting the producer’s word for the quality of the pro- ducts to be shipped to the consumers versus requiring that every- thing be inspected and guaranteed by the manager in charge. The Poultry Producers’ Association, as we have it developed at the present time is, I believe, the culmination of what we have been able to learn relative to cooperative marketing of poultry products. The principle of the organization of the Poultry Producers’ Association is such that the farmers who are vitally interested in developing an association of this sort bind themselves together, take shares of stock at $5.00 per share, have their business con- trolled by a board of representative directors, hire a manager to do the work, and then stand together loyally with faith in the result. There may be times when the results will be unsatisfac- tory, and some members will become discontented. There will be times when the results are highly satisfactory, and everybody wants to go into the association at once. The members should have all these things explained to them, and they should be pre- pared for them in advance. The competing middleman has -been through all of this, and his training has been such as to prepare him for these crises better, probably, than has the training of the average producer. The hard knots of experience have shown us a good many of these pitfalls, and we are now ready to help communities to develop organizations of this sort, and will en- deavor to do this developing sanely. In the development of the Poultry Producers’ Association, as with all other cooperative organizations, much depends upon the character of the representative men who are appointed as mem- bers of the board of directors, and much depends upon the man- - PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Norma INSTITUTE 217 ager. We have been through a bitter experience in this regard in one of the branch associations. We believe that this can be avoided by closer supervision of the community during the or- ganization period. The New York State College of Agriculture will do its best to assist in the organization of these associations and to train men for the managership of these associations. In communities where it is thought desirable to develop something of this sort, the matter should be taken up in detail with the col- lege and close cooperation can be expected. BENEFITS OF COOPERATIVE ORGANIZATION In comparing and combining the effects of the Poultry Pro- ducers’ Association and the effects of other similar organizations, we have found that, while organization and cooperation of the farmers may, in some cases, have only a slight direct advantage, in every case which has come “under our observation, many, and usually nearly all of the following distinct benefits have been noted : 1. Organization tends to make the farmers feel that they are not alone. There is an opportunity and an incentive to exchange ideas. The discussions dealing with the organization work usually start discussions along other lines, which may be even more highly beneficial than the original discussion. The organ- ization is usually a means of disseminating information, such as is contained in bulletins and cireulars, and which might be ob- tained from lectures or demonstrations. 2. When individuals are thrown together in organizations they seem to develop a certain pride in the products which they are producing, and make special efforts to produce a better quality, or a quality which will be at least as good as the average for the whole membership. 3. Letter prices are usually obtained for the products, at least after the organization has been doing business for a reasonable length of time. Better prices are caused by both the improved quality and the standardization of the products. Care should be taken, however, that the members do not depend upon better prices entirely for their loyalty. 4, The prices received by the members should be based upon 918 Report oF Farmers’ INsSTrrutTEes the quality of the products furnished by each. This fact is of considerable moral value as it is bound to keep the producer in- terested in increasing his net profits for his products. 5. The interchange of ideas and accompanying discussions nearly always develop a more intelligent purchasing of supplies, such as feed, fertilizers and machinery. One member’s experi- ence with certain purchases will help to guide the others. 6. By proper management, some of the necessary supplies can be purchased in combination so that one large order can be sent to the supply dealer, and reduced prices obtained and more stand- ard quality guaranteed. 7. Other pieces of cooperative work might be carried on in order to secure expert help in mating up the stock; doing the hatching and possibly the brooding; supplying breeders for the community; and inspecting and possibly testing the flocks for health, vigor and productivity. 8. A community which is thoroughly organized usually de- velops a reputation for certain definite products which it 1s pro- ducing and guaranteeing. Such a reputation gradually becomes the pride of all residents; and, if the work can be continued through the early and often discouraging stages, it will gain the helpful support of everyone. QUALITY OF PRODUCTS SHOULD BE IMPROVED If anyone has been in the large markets and noted the quality of the eggs which are being received direct from the farmers, they will be shocked at the apparent willful neglect on the part of the farmer to produce even reasonably decent food stuff. Eggs containing large percentages of absolutely rotten ones are shipped from New York State farmers into the New York market. Such cases have been seen by the writer. Until the farmers can be brought to realize their responsibility in taking care of the eggs and poultry, and assuming responsibility for the quality of these eggs and poultry until they are accepted by the customers, they cannot expect any increase in the price which they receive. A large part of the high cost of living for the consumers is due to the loss in the quality of the products while they are on the farm. it is hardly fair to blame the transportation companies and the i PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Norma INSTITUTE 219 middlemen solely, when the farmers themselves are largely to blame. The farmers should learn how to candle their eggs, and should learn how to handle their poultry. They should be required to handle these products according to certain simple standards. The farmers should be prepared for legislation of this nature as early as possible, by their attention being brought to the present neglect. SELLING POULTRY PRODUCTS It is very difficult to recommend one method of selling poultry products to everyone. Personality is an exceedingly strong fac- tor when it comes to representing the quality of eggs which one has to sell, and of satisfying the consumer who receives those eggs. This personal requirement is perhaps the thing which makes it so necessary to have middlemen between the producers and the consumers. Some producers are natural salesmen. These peo- ple may safely be encouraged to go beyond the middlemen and reach the retail store, the bakery, the resturant or hotel, direct. They will be able to meet the complications and difficulties, and will be able to absorb the profit which would be demanded by the middleman without assuming over-balancing expenses Other producers are just the reverse; they prefer to delve more thor- oughly into the problems of production. They do not have the ability to deal with customers. They are successful producers, provided they can dispose of their products with a small amount of trouble and delay, but they would be entirely unsuccessful if they endeavored to eliminate, to any great extent, any of the mid- dlemen in the presently established system of distribution. It is difficult to know just what to recommend to an audience of pro- ducers. Each man has his own individual problems. He must use good judgment and common sense in learning whether it will pay him to sell his eggs to his local market or to ship them to a more distant market. It may pay him to sell his poultry alive, or it may pay him to dress it and sell it to a special consuming trade. Ordinarily the farmer, who has less than 500 hens, cannot afford to specialize in his marketing work. Smaller producers especially need to combine with others in the same community, so that together they can act as one large producer, and be 220 REPORT oF FarMERS’ INSTITUTES able to have their market work, both buying and selling, done by some one trained for the business. The improvement of the methods for the market distribution of poultry products depends upon greater individual! interest and knowledge. With all the interest and knowledge desirable, however, it would still be impossible for the producer te do very much in improving his own methods for distributing his pro- ducts, unless he has enough of these products to make it worth while, or else combines with others. Together they can act as a unit which will control enough business. I believe that co- operative organization will be one of the leading factors having to do with the sane improvement of our market methods — coop- erative organization among both the producers and the consum- ers. We should all begin to think along these lines; then, when the time comes for organization in our community, we shall be ready to work. PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NorMAL INSTITUTE OD EXTERNAL INDICATIONS OF EGG PRODUCTION O. B. Kenr Since those hens that are the most persistent layers — that 1s, that lay during the most weeks or months — are the best layers, it 1s comparatively easy, by selecting those pullets that begin to lay fairly early in the fall and lay late the following summer or fall, to cull out the poor producers and grade the birds according to their performance. In a flock that is well cared for most hens will average about five eggs a week while laying. In order to lay 200 eggs, it is necessary for a hen to lay from about December 1 until the first of the following September, or for nine months. If she takes a vacation in the winter, it will of, course take longer. While five eggs a week does not hold true for all hens by any means, yet it is a fair average. Some hens, like Lady Eglantine, will average better than six eggs a week, and keep it up. But what is much more common, some hens will average only two or three eggs a week; yet there is a much greater difference in the length of the laying period of a high and a low producer than there is in the number of eggs laid per week. Realizing this, we want to know how we can most easily and surely recognize those hens that are laying. Pullets that are laying can readily be distinguished by: (1) a full, bright red comb, showing sexual maturity; (2) a distended abdomen showing that the ovary is full of developing yolks, and that the oviduct is distended; and (3) by the laying out of the color of the ear lobes in yellow-skinned, white ear-lobed varieties. In flocks which are not selected particularly for pure white plumage, the ear lobes of the pullets are yellow before they begin to lay. While a bird is laying, either pigment is drawn from the body to give the yellow color to the yolk, or else a new supply is not forthcoming to the different parts of the body. This results in the bleaching or fading of the yellow color in the ear lobes, beak, shanks and plumage. This fading proceeds in the order just given. As a result, the ear lobes that were yellow before the laying period become white very rapidly after the pullets start to lay. This is the easiest, and in most flocks the most reliable test of 222 Rerort oF Farmers’ [NstTirures whether a pullet has begun to lay. It is also reliable in picking out the layers during the winter and spring months, but is some- what uncertain with hens during the summer and fall. After the first of July the easiest way to pick out the layers is by selecting late moulters. Most hens do not begin to molt until they have stopped laying, but there are some hens that will lay and molt at the same time. This is usually evident by their molt- ing piecemeal; that is, by dropping a feather here and there and then growing one in its place. It is extremely rare for a hen to be free of feathers and laying at the same time. A hen with a full abdomen and a pliable comb shows that she is in laying condition. A hen with yellow shanks after the first of July and until the last of September has either been a poor layer or else has not laid in some time. The color of the shanks, while fading with egg production, is regained during the molting period or after the hen ceases to lay. This, of course, only applies to birds with yellow shanks, and is influenced by the amount of pigment in the shanks. The more intense the yellow, the slower the color fades out and the quicker the hen regains her color. The yellow color also depends on the feed given. Yellow corn, or lots of grass or other green food, helps to keep up the color. The question is frequently asked, Do the hens that molt early begin to lay first? So far as our records show there is appar- ently no relation between the time a bird molts and the time she starts laying after her molt. The late molters molt more rapidly and hence lose less time, which results in greater egg production. To summarize: In order to pick out the best hens: (1) Select those pullets that start to lay early as compared with the other members of the flock, and market all those that are very late in beginning to lay. (2) Begin culling out hens in July as fast as they stop laying, and market them in order to save on feed and get the benefit of slightly higher prices on market birds. (8) Continue culling until the flock is reduced to the number it is desired to keep over winter. (4) Let this culling apply to all birds regardless of their age, except that the more times a bird sur- vives culling, the more leniently it should be dealt with. If possible, select a small breeding flock of the latest or best layers from which to raise cockerels for the next year’s mating; and in this way, help to breed up the flock. PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Norma INstiruTe 223 A COMPARISON OF DIGESTIBLE CO-EFFICIENTS FOR CATTLE, SWINE AND POULTRY AS SUGGESTIVE OF A MORE ACCURATE BASIS ON WHICH TO COMPUTE POULTRY RATIONS A. B. Dann An attempt made two years ago to tabulate and compare the rations recommended by the various experiment stations brought out rather forcibly the fact that we have no uniform basis on which to compute the nutritive ratio and the total nutriment of our poultry rations. It was with the hope that there might be some one basis which we could adopt for the sake of uniformity, if for nothing more, that the present study was made. It re presents an attempt to incorporate in one paper all the data on digestibility by poultry that could be found, and to compare this data with similar factors for other animals, in the hope of finding a more accurate basis for study of the nutrients in poultry feed- ing. Due to the difficulty of obtaining coefficients of digestion of feeds by poultry, which has resulted in the very meager data now available, we have come to freely use the coefticients for other animals, and, in some cases, the total composition of feeds direct, without considering digestibility at all. To quote from a fairly recent bulletin: ‘“‘ With the present experiments, the nu- tritive ratio has been considered as the ratio of the protein to the sum of the fat multiplied by 2.8, and the nitrogen-free-ex- tract matter. That is, the digestibility has not been taken into consideration, and the fiber has not been included in these caleu- lations.” If I am correctly informed, the station computes the nutritive ratio in all instances from the total composition of the grain, disregarding digestibilty entirely. Most of the stations, however, lacking data for poultry, are using digestible coefficients for cattle. This has been spoken of as the best we have, and on these grounds has been used rather widely, although there.is a feeling that the figures for swine would be more accurate. But here again we are little better off than with poultry, for the amount of data available on digesti- bility by swine is scarcely as voluminous as that for poultry. In an attempt to justify the use of digestible coefficients by cattle, DIA. Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES or ta work out some other method that might be more nearly accurate, I wish to present a few tables for comparison. Before doing this, however, I wish to give credit to Prof. J. M. Bartlett or Orono, Maine for the data on “ Digestion Experiments with Poultry ” as found in Bulletin No. 184 of that station, and also to acknowledge free use of the appendix tables in Prof. W. A. Henry’s handbook on “ Feeds and Feeding” where the coefii- cients of digestion for cattle and swine were obtained. It might be well to state here the apparent accuracy of the methods used, and the apparent reliability of results obtained in experiments to determine the digestibility of feeds by poultry. The method of separating the feces from the urine by a surgical operation to make separate exits for the large intestine and the renal system, has been in use for some time, but for the most part has proved unsuccessful. It is an artificial condition, and as such undoubtedly has considerable influence on the health and activity of the bird, as well as on the physiological processes of digestion, absorbtion and excretion. The method used at Orono, Me., on which most of the data in this paper are based, was secured by collecting the feces and urine together as normally discharged, and then making chemical analysis to determine the amount of uric acid. This, as representing the urine, was then subtracted from the total, and the balance taken as the feces. By actual test as high as 98 per cent accuracy was secured in these determi- nations and it would seem that the data thus obtained are quite reliable. At least, it is the best we have and can undoubtedly be used with considerable safety for the purpose of comparison with similar factors for other animals. In Table No. 1 are compared the percentages of the nutrients in several feeds that are digested respectively by poultry, swine and cattle. Unfortunately, we cannot compare these figures for the entire sixteen feeds which I am able to find as having been used in poultry digestion experiments, for only eight fecds are common to each of the three groups of animals, and one of these, potatoes, is not ordinarily considered as being of great value from a nutritive standpoint. We are limited, therefore, to the comparison of only seven feeds. Of these I wish particularly to call attention to the one PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NorMat INSTITUTE 29! feed which has been used in digestion experiments most widely, namely, corn. Comparing the percentage of protein that is digested from corn, we find the average from sixteen trials with poultry to be 81.5 per cent; the average from twelve trials with cattle to be 76 per cent; and the one trial with swine to be 69 per cent. Next let us compare the trials with wheat: Protein digested from wheat with ten trials by poultry averaged 75 per cent; with four trials by cattle 74 per cent; and with an unknown number of trials by swine 80 per cent. From these instances it would appear that poultry digest protein more nearly like cattle than like swine. Comparing the percentage of the nitrogen-free-extract digested from these feeds, we find with corn, poultry 91 per cent; cattle 98 per cent; swine 89 per cent: with wheat, poultry 87 per cent; cattle 93 per cent; swine 83 per cent. In other words, poultry are about midway between swine and cattle in their ability to digest nitrogen-free-extract. Comparing the percentage of the fat digested from these feeds, we find with corn, poultry 88 per cent; cattle 86 per cent; swine 46 per cent: with wheat, poultry 53 per cent; cattle 71 per cent; swine 70 per cent—a rather wide variation, but the balance in favor of the likeness of poultry to digest fat similar to cattle. And so we might enumerate for other feeds, finding many exception, but nevertheless, as will be shown by the summary of averages, a tendency toward a likeness of poultry to digest more nearly like cattle than like swine. It is true that the average is not the most conclusive proof, since we want the digestion of individual feeds, but the average of the percentage of nutrients digested by poultry, cattle and swine for the same feeds will at least be comparable, which is the object desired. ‘Three general averages have been taken. First there is given the average percentage of the nutrients digested by each group of animals when all the feeds listed are considered ; namely, sixteen different feeds for poultry, representing a total of seventy- four trials; fifteen different feeds for cattle representing a total of one hundred and thirty-one trials; and eleven feeds for swine representing a total of thirty-three trials. This, it must be re- membered, is an average from feeds not common to each group, II—8 296 Report or Farmers’ INSTITUTES but it is interesting to note that here again the figures, if indi- eating anything, show that poultry digest more like cattle than like swine. Thus we have: J ELON gh Mia Mee cas (9.x 73.6 per cent PT OLOUM Pa. on: ote cre eer AUCs. essa tae creer et 72.4 per cent SWIM. we Ce ep ei eee 80.4 per cent oul tings pace ier ey. 19.4 per cent IN as Ee, Wee IS Vattley Aan sktin. eka Dee 83.3 per cent Siwalierssir.t feet ioe ees 87.9 per cent . Powliryg ce cs sierr 8 uccesce te 72.4 per cent aCe ace, sme eats 2s Waterco eater 78.7 per cent WG sprite oc wast tae ote 67.6 per cent Now to compare the average percentage of the nutrients digested in the eight feeds common to each group — namely, whole corn, corn meal, wheat, barley, Canada field peas, millet, wheat bran and potatoes — we find: Powhity), Qerby- «ties ob 72.0 per cent Petotein’s seeaustars 3 isi: Oatley... .<2 dae eee ¢ 70.2 per cent SWMMCh sheathed. Syn ce 78.6 per cent Poultry). csc cus see oo 72.3 per cent INES He A ee ceteee Cattle: .-.c2 0 cistern: oe ere 87.0 per cent Swine’. 7. melee ce ae 88.3 per cent Roultry, ieee ts 71.3 per cent Hailiss srcceriass s Heaeate GattleyAcc te gotecmsee 75.0 per cent SMG). 4.cnre pe cepehsibone Me 63.1 per cent This, it is to be remembered, is a comparison where the same feeds are common to each group of animals and undoubtedly more comparable than the above table. We still find our digest- ive relationship of poultry to cattle holding good, although the variation 18 rather wide, especially in nitrogen-free-extract. To state the result in figures, we find that when compared to cattle, poultry digest protein in the ratio 100: 97.5, whereas when com- pared to swine they digest protein in the ratio of 100: 109.2, bo Lo -I PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Norma INSTITUTE or a difference in the ratio 1:6.7 in favor of digestion by cattle. Likewise for nitrogen-free-extract, poultry digest, as compared to cattle, in the ratio 100: 120.5; whereas when compared to swine, they digest n. f. e. in the ratio 100: 122.1, or a difference in the ratio 1: 1.8 in favor again of cattle. Again, in the case of the digestion of fat, poultry digest, as compared to cattle, in the ratio 100. 105.2, whereas when compared to swine they digest in the ratio 100: 88.5, or a difference in the ratio 1: 6.3 in favor again of cattle. It is evident from these figures that the digestion by poultry more closely resembles that by cattle than it does that by swine. A third method of comparison is made on the basis of seven feeds, potatoes being omitted owing to the fact that they are quite different in character from the dry grains and ground feeds. Taking an average similar to the above, but using only the seven grain feeds common to each group, we find: OWL cl etccses mere econ te 75.66 per cent EROLEUM sr atoyeg a 0 20s 6 Cater fie ee Gk wae. 73.00 per cent AWE seater Su MNen roe ee oe 77.86 per cent EE Sonta ryote hs a bea hte ohh 3 82.66 per cent JLRS 0 Ae ae es Catiledi emery oii iter 86.57 per cent DWMIE! wae tres Gb bvee Sys 87.00 per cent IP Omltry sth Ae aise 23 ste sea 71.33 per cent Ait eames cere hi ook (Obit Seem Renee Murrieta 75.00 per cent NSIVJ60 01 eat nent ay ee een 63.14 per cent On the basis of similar computations as presented for the last named group of eight feeds, we find for the digestion of protein a difference in the ratio 1:0.6 in favor of swine; for the digestion of nitrogen-free-extract a difference in the ratio 1:0.6 in favor of cattle; and for the digestion of fat a difference in the ratio 1:6.4 in favor of cattle. Our correlation is still present though not so marked, and it would seem that if we were to judge from the available data we could only conclude, because the exceptions to the rule are so few, that the coefficient of digestibility for the nutrients in the case of poultry is more nearly like that for cattle than it is like that for swine. 99 Report or Farmers’ INSTITUTES It will be noticed that fiber has been entirely omitted in our comparisons, but since we have considered in all cases the nitro- gen-free-extract of the carbohydrates, it would in no way affect the results. We have been dealing with individual nutrients rather than with the digestibility of the feed as a whole. It is very essential to speak of fiber at this time, however, since it is upon this part of the feed that our next comparison will hinge. Cattle are apparently the most efficient animals we have in di- gesting fiber, and poultry, on the contrary, seem to be the most ineficient (Table I.). To quote a few writers on this subject: Kalugine (E. S. R. 8, p. 915) —‘“ Poultry digest crude fiber even less than horses or swine, and the crude protein of buck- wheat and wheat is digested in an inferior degree.” F. Lehrman concludes that fiber is indigestible by poultry. (Dent. Landw. Presse. 1901 No. 39, p. 341.) H. Weiske in experimenting with geese concluded that crude fiber is not digested by them. (Landw. Vers. Sta. Bu. 21, p. 411.) Prof. J. M. Bartlett, Orono, Me., records digestion of fiber only in the case of a few feeds such as cut clover, India wheat, and a small amount in whole oats and wheat bran, and states that poultry digest very little crude fiber. (Me. Bu. 184, p. 327.) I think we are safe, therefore, in concluding that, if poultry digests fiber at all, it is only to an inferior degree, and that we may disregard it with apparent safety. In order to reduce our comparisons to simpler terms and to in- troduce two other bases on which to compute the nutritive ratio of poultry feeds, let us compare the amount of digestible nutrients in one hundred pounds of feed according to five different bases of computation, namely: (1) the total composition of the feed; (2) the nutrients digested by swine; (3) the nutrients digested by cattle; (4) the nutrients digested by cattle, omitting the fiber; (5) the nutrients digested by poultry. The fourth factor is intro- duced in view of the facts just stated in regard to digestion of fiber by poultry. These values have been worked out in Table II —the figures representing the amount of nutrient per one hundred pounds of feed. As the table is arranged, all figures are comparable hori- PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NorMAL I[NSTITUTE OOP, | PAE PS! MOO steys Pe ee OOF 92 | OOFL85 are aE Scn 02; ae WA CV WAS tes) Pee OPPS | Aas |S oh a 00 001 eas aa OO STE) 08S 00°¢¢ 00°#9 | O'S 00°8¢ | 8T 00°68 00°82 | O'L¢ 00°68 | € 00°€9 0O'TL | OIF 0O'22 | IT 00°88 00°82 | 0°0€ 00°42 | 9 00°26 00°68 | 0°29 00°S9 | 8 00° OL OTL | O'Tg 00°S9 | ¢ 00'9_ | 00:46 | 079%, | 00°88 | 3 00°O0T | 00°9LZ | 0° F% 00'SL | & 00°68 00°22 | OTE 00°22 | 9 00° 9 CONC Oise aeaa 00°8 | Z 00° 68 00°26 | 0°0¢ 00°02 | ¥ 00°TL 00° £6 “| 00°72 | F 00°16 | 00:26 | °777: | 00:99 | Te, 00°98 00°€6 | O'8¢ 00°92 | oT joe} ure S[BIty By -xo Taq] -o1d Jaq ‘aN epnig | -wnN WILLY) a qoBIy “xo “HON "P2878 [MOTs oq ANIMG sett} 19q -MInNy Soa 99°28 . of 99°C) Cy OO PO CoC DEIN COG f Voy traf yove ony uouUuL -WI09 Spode} UTvIS WIAGS JO IdBIDAY oni) €8° Sl eee 10°22 Cet) Lr Ie re OC rete Ties dnoiz yoRo 0} WOUIUIOD Spada} YYSIO Jo osBIOAY Gren SOP G Ne ste nl) Ge: aye eae ea ee eee einai spooj [@ Jo odus0Ay SSo0c oF #8 | --°°: | $6°9F | 9 Ditters renee eee ters Ts gg0qm og oge'og | cee oop |z oil tenes (quaut une]) Joog, 00°S6 oe eee ee e 09°26 z @) Ove) 0.0 «81s 6 (6) = =e) 0) 6 « ups enepele dweios poog. ogee | Of FT | F:OTx | 09° OM! & OpDAT PO CoGoMD oncoad ar TOAD MAO |ledtudo. ||) Yanga |looond Fan an “+ -TeaUur [10 “dO 00° 2€ | 00°9F | G’ETx | OL TL | € tee DELO ESM ph bt > Chl Vath SS 6 tees see eee ssul[pprur BOM Sapoe |ioo0o0 |) segod reife ieee] Nalekstsiie >> yeaur AUTUO AT tzZ'eg | 68°86 | -°-°: | oF zo | z BL iy ORG Tel ese sae aay |pra | eS RGOC domo ork gon ge stag O8'€8 | OF ES | 6'0Z% | 00'SL | € Soar vce seoq eh SIpuy 6668 | 66 98 |) - =~ ORGS | See ae a re eee ite 2 EM eS PANS HPS PASY I) ONL (Mey | SOS 9 |) eee |) fei ee Sebo ete 0) OO Ga) OZR OS es ee OGROON iG - aA 98.7204) (G05S8)| Ries seal ce 2 ealas As]Iee 00'€¢ | 70'L8 ea cORG Za OE PEOT MA OOTL8 | OO OS ee | OOe Pana ieloes Weee{) -09°28 | OL 88 oe Of GL | G SEO) [EPID I1'sg | 2e°16 +++ | gets | of Dieee teres eeeseeee es sqI09 a[OU A, qoriy ule} S[elt} BT -xo IIquy -o1d req H-N epnig | -wnyn aaa AULTOOg NOMLSADIG JO SINAILMGIOD JO WIAV]E, AALLVUVAWOD —J][ ATAV], 930 Report or Farmers’ INSTITUTES zontally, and, if a study of these be made, it will be found that just about 72 per cent of them follow our previous correlation of similarity in digestion by cattle and poultry. But here a new and closer correlation is brought out, which is that between the fiber-free values for cattle and the values for poultry. With just one exception, that of millet, the carbohydrates as digested by cattle, minus the fiber, approach more nearly the carbohydrate value for poultry. In other words, if we eliminate the fiber from the nutrients digested by cattle, we apparently have, as it appears from these data, the most accurate available measure of digesti- bility by poultry. This is still more clearly shown where the averages for the seven feeds are summarized. TABLE II.— COMPARISON OF METHODS OF WORKING OUT THE VALUE OF FEEDS FOR POULTRY BASED ON DIGESTIBILITY OF NUTRIENTS Nutrients . Total Nutrients | Nutrients | digested Nutricus chemical egted piceted by cattle She S . , composi- y y cattle per Feed Nutrients tion per | swine per per 100 pounds poultry 100 pounds}100 pounds|100 pounds) of feed 100 Ma of feed of feed of feed Fiber — fife d free CeCe POLE yale 10.3 Csi 7.8 7.8 8 4 Whole Corn... . C. H. (N. F. E.). 70.4 63.5 66.8 65.5 64.3 Water cee canny 5.0 Zo 4.3 4.3 4.4 EEN oie svehens ae suche 91.9 75.8 84.3 83.0 82.6 Protein... scan oer 9.2 8.1 6.1 6.1 6.9 Corn Meal..... Cee and aa ee 68.7 65.5 64.3 63.2 59.1 HG Ge cievefenssieye ce 3.8 3.0 3.5 3.5 Bak MUGEN aeheve eecerere aes 86.5 80.4 78.3 Tiles 73.4 IBTOPEIM asses cle ate 11.9 9.4 8.8 8.8 8.9 Wiheat ese cts are ‘Cais Loe eeeonen 71.9 68.8 67.5 66.9 62.6 Bab ive co Guest wisi 2.1 1.8 125 1.5 1.1 MUNG ta cones * 88.5 82.3 79.7 79.1 74.0 Proteins. 12.0 9.1 8.4 8.4 9.3 Barley= asc ee 6 Let ae eae cy eet 68.7 62.5 65.3 63.2 58.5 LOE) Ree Ae ret 1.8 1.2 IAG) 1.6 1.2 AMS a ee eee 84.8 74.3 ideas (ha der? 70.5 Protease «ce 23.1 21-1 19.7 19.7 20.6 OAS Fayette. basis COE RS Lee Sa itor 50.2 48.5 49.3 47.2 44.1 Matas b2. oe 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.6 aRIN se yorer eis Lie Bat 70.1 69.9 67.8 66.1 IBrovelneee spe. 10.9 7.4 (eal Theil 6.8 MMSE eesereicare ee (GRAS Fas eae 62.6 57.6 48.5 44.4 61.6 Bab eerve te reve torso ere 3.5 2.1 2.5 Pe 3.0 BIL EN Pee key revere one 81.4 69.7 61.2 5771 Woe Proteins sane 15.4 11.6 11.9 11.9 11.0 Wheat Bran.... CP aa Stes 53.9 44.1 42.0 38.3 26.0 Hattie chokes 4.0 2.9 2.5 2.5 1.5 Sag icirer ee oes 78.3 62.2 59.5 55.8 40.4 SUMMARY OF AVERAGES Per 100 pounds, Averages of 7 Feeds Protein | (OSGEl Fat TaN Roultryis Met aeie ein eee ees oe Re 10.27 53.74 : 2.16 68.87 Cattle/|(Hiber ree) *2..5 50 qeenle c+ cece 9.97 55.53 2.33 70.74 Cattle. cc) Pn sn call merce nee e eoionat 9.97 57.68 PBR 72.89 SWwInes, od ves re ae eta weteenm ents 10.54 58.64 1.93 73.52 Total chemical composition........... Z 13.34 63.7 3.0 83.87 * Computed by omitting fiber values. PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NorRMAL INSTITUTE Fart From this table it would seem that fowls are a little more efficient in digesting protein, and less efficient in digesting carbo- hydrates and fat, than are cattle. They appear, on the other hand, to be less efficient than swine in digesting protein and carbo- hydrates, but more efficient in digesting fat. But the point cf particular interest lies in the comparison of the total nutrients when computed as an average for the seven feeds for each group. The fiber-free cattle-digested factor 70.74 more closely approaches the corresponding value for poultry 68.87 than does any other factor, and it is this that I wish to leave for your consideration. The difference here is so slight that it might be accounted for by a difference in composition of the grain used, by experimental error in readings or in computations, or by the individual char- acteristics of the animal. But in any case, the results seem rather consistently comparable, and it is hoped that further in- vestigation may be carried on to check up the accuracy of the method. I wish to say just a word here as to the reliability of the figures used in these tables. It is interesting to note that according to Henry’s “ Feeds and Feeding” and Maine Bulle- tin 184, we have recorded more digestion trials with corn, wheat and oats by poultry than we have by cattle, namely: corn, by cattle 12, by poultry 16; oats, by cattle 6, by poultry 13; wheat, by cattle 4, by poultry 10. Yet we place con- siderable confidence in Prof. Henry’s computations which give us his ~ Table 111.” Another point I wish to make is, that in the event that it - were found desirable, upon further investigation, to use for our poultry the fiber-free coefficients for cattle, it is a very easy matter to compute the amount of digested nutrients direct from the appendix tables of Prof. Henry’s book. In fact, for my own information, I have already made computations for over one hundred feeds, and find that they appear to check up very well and to look reasonable. Considering these two points and in view of the fact that it will undoubtedly be a great many years before we will have suffi- cient data to allow the use of digestible coefficients obtained direct from poultry, and also because we have constant need for working 232 Revort oF I'armers’ INSTITUTES out nutritive ratios, total nutriment and the like, I am wonder- ing if, for the sake of uniformity alone, we would not be justi- fied in adopting a standard method even though it may not be entirely grounded on good statistical experimental data. If so, what would this system be? The total chemical composition of feeds is undoubtedly the most inaccurate. We have seen, further, that digestion by poultry seems to be more nearly like cattle than it is like swine, and, coupled with this fact, if we agree that fowls do not digest fiber, I offer you the suggestion that we might find it advantageous, at the present time, to use the easily computed method of eliminating the fiber from the digested nutrients as obtained from experiments with cattle, and adopt these values in computing the nutritive ratio and the total nutriment of our poultry rations. £es PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Norma INSTITUTE De SOME COMMON LEGUMES F. E. Ropertson anp F. C. Bartow VETCH Winter vetch (Vicia villosa) for many years grown and highly valued as a cover crop in orchards, has been within the past four or five years quite widely grown as a forage crop in combination with oats and the clovers. It is also being grown with good success with oats as a soiling crop. Being richer in protein than alfalfa its feeding value in this respect should receive consider- ation. Another point that may be considered in its favor is that its range of growth is greater than alfalfa. It seems to thrive very well indeed on soils that are markedly acid in nature. The rate and time of seeding winter vetch varies with the purposes for which the crop may be grown: 1. When desired for a forage crop with oats, and to follow this crop in the clover and timothy, use from 6 to 8 pounds of winter vetch seed per acre in addition to the regular seeding of oats, clover and grass seed. Grown in this manner the vetch does not interfere materially with the oat crop harvest. 2. Grown as a soiling’ crop with oats, use 10 to 12 pounds per acre with the usual, or somewhat heavier, rate of seeding of oats. The aftergrowth of vetch may be pastured or plowed under as a soil improver. 3. When grown for seed, use 25 pounds of winter vetch with one-half bushel of rye or wheat per acre. This crop should be seeded early in order that the vetch may get well established before winter. The method for growing winter vetch seed in New York State is not yet well established. SWEET CLOVER The sweet clover crop within the past two years has received considerable notice, but as yet we are not justified in recommend- ing its culture where alfalfa will grow well. Sweet clover seems to thrive well under conditions where alfalfa is not successfully grown, and for this reason the crop may have an important use in certain sections of the state. 934 Report oF Farmers’ INsTrTuTEs The rate of seeding is about the same as with alfalfa. The time of seeding under average farm conditions in New York State is in the spring, and the crop is handled in much the same way as alfalfa when seeded with oats or some other associate crop. Experience seems to indicate that a rather compact seedbed is desirable. Unless the crop is permitted to self seed, or an annual application of seed is sown, a permanent stand of sweet clover cannot be assured, and even with these precautions, we have not yet sufficient experience with the crop to justify saying that it will ever be possible to maintain a good stand of sweet clover comparable to a perennial stand of alfalfa. Two cuttings of sweet clover may be made the season following seeding. The first crop should be cut early, June 10 to 25, or before the stalks get mature. When the stand cf sweet clover is as thick as alfalfa the stalks are not coarse. To insure a second crop to be used as hay or for seed, the first eutting should be made rather high, before blossoming time, otherwise many of the plants will die. Sweet clover-is palatable and nourishing and is eaten readily by horses, cattle, sheep and swine after they become accustomed to its rather bitter flavor. Since it has a use as a forage or pasture crop on the farm it is well worth experi- menting with to determine its economic range of growth and use. Generally the white blossomed sweet clover (Jelilotus alba) is to be preferred to the yellow blossomed (Melilotus officinalis) be- cause of its vigorous growth and more abundant foliage. WHERE NOT TO GROW ALFALFA Our point of view concerning the range of conditions under which alfalfa will thrive is changing. ormerly alfalfa growing was considered closely restricted to certain soil areas where con- ditions were peculiarly suitable. Today we find alfalfa grow- ing excellent (profitable) crops on a very wide range of soils. Alfalfa growing should not be discouraged because we do not yet know on what soils it will fail to make a satisfactory growth. While we recommend that alfalfa growing should not be dis- couraged, at the same time it is unwise for anyone to attempt to grow alfalfa anywhere before complying with all of the condi- tions we know successful alfalfa growers advocate. Alfalfa is PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NORMAL INSTITUTE 935 too valuable a crop to attempt to grow before supplying the con- ditions under which alfalfa thrives. Manifestly there are a few on thin rock- conditions under which alfalfa will never thrive land soil subject to drouth, wet soil where adequate drainage cannot be supplied, and deep sandy soils very deficient in organic matter. Some soils on high elevations with hardpan subsoils, may never be made suitable for alfalfa growing. Knowing, however, that alfalfa thrives best when certain con- ditions are satisfactory it would be poor policy to attempt to grow the crop successfully before supplying these conditions. Always insure the alfalfa crop with: 1. Proper drainage to remove excess water. No economic plant thrives under conditions of excess water. 2. Supply available fertility, if lacking, with farm manures or adequate applications of fertilizers. 3. An abundance of carbonate of lime is most vital. Apply one to two tons per acre even on soils that contain some hme carbonates. 4. Inoculate the soil or the seed, or both, with either (a) soil from fields where alfalfa has been growing successfully, or (b) with bacterial cultures. 5. For New York State seed secured from northern states is preferable to that from the Middle West. Northern grown seed is desirable. 6. The time and method of seeding is also most important. There is a growing tendency to sow alfalfa seed not later than the middle of July, and in some parts of the state earler seedings are more satisfactory than late seedings. Thus, by supplying the conditions under which alfalfa thrives, and following the practices advocated by our most successful alfalfa growers, many farmers will learn that alfalfa growing has a much wider range than is now supposed. 236 Rerort oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES THE STANDARDIZATION OF SEED POTATOES F. C. Stewart The necessity of fixing some standards for seed potatoes is becoming very evident. Buyers of seed potatoes all over the country are complaining bitterly of the difficulty of obtaining good seed potatoes. The majority of the growers of seed potatoes appear to be utterly ignorant of what constitutes good seed, or else they are without conscientious scruples in the matter. In many cases the only difference between seed potatoes and table stock seems to be in the name and the price asked. This condition of affairs must be remedied somehow. The present haphazard methods in the seed potato trade work to the disadvantage of nearly all parties concerned excepting, perhaps, a few unscrupulous dealers. Mr. W. A. Orton of the Bureau of Plant Industry has advocated, as a remedy, the organization of a system of inspection and certification of seed potatoes. In Wisconsin, Michigan, Vermont and Maine steps have already been taken in this direction. During the past two years there has been much discussion of the subject in this state. It is to be hoped that some definite action may be taken soon. In the standardization of seed potatoes three chief things to be considered are: (1) The degree of varietal purity to be required ; (2) the amount of the various diseases permissible and, (3) the methods of inspection and certification necessary to in- sure conformity to the standards adopted. We will briefly con- sider these in turn. VARIETAL PURITY Concerning the standard of varietal purity I will say that it seems to me it should vary somewhat according to circum- stances. For example: A mixture of Rural New Yorker No. 2 and Sir Walter Raleigh is difficult to detect; moreover, these two varieties are so similar that it does not matter greatly if they are mixed. On the other hand, there is no excuse for the mixture of a late with an early variety, as, for example, Sir Walter Raleigh or Carman No. 8, with Irish Cobbler — a very frequent combination which is disastrous to the grower of early potatoes. = PROCEEDINGS oF SEVENTEENTH Norma INSTITUTE 2937 In other words, a mixture of closely related varieties belonging to the same group is permissible within rather wide limits, but a mixture of varieties belonging to different groups should be per- mitted only within very narrow limits. No field showing over 15 per cent of varietal mixtures should be accepted’ for seed even if the owner is willing to rogue it. Fields showing less than 15 per cent mixture of varieties of different groups may be accepted if thoroughly rogued. DISEASES The extent to which potatoes may be diseased and yet qualify for seed depends, of course, on the nature of the disease. ‘There must be different standards for different diseases. The wart, being a dangerous disease not yet established in the United States, should be carefully guarded against. Seed pota- toes should be absolutely free from wart. Just what may be expected of powdery scab is ae clear at present. Recent observations indicate that it may be unimpor- tant in the United States except, possibly, in the extreme north- ern part. However, for the present, it seems best to require that seed potatoes be absolutely free from powdery scab. Of the common scab it may be said that a small amount of it on seed potatoes is not seriously objectionable, because the germs of the disease are readily destroyed by the corrosive sublimate treatment, which should generally be given to seed potatoes any- way. Of course, no very scabby tubers should be included. I agree with Mr. Sands that a tolerance of 10 per cent slight scab infection should be allowed, provided that of this amount the infections on any one tuber do not cover more than 10 per cent of the surface thereof. The same may be said of Rhizoctonia as of common scab. Even a severe attack of late blight need not, necessarily, dis- qualify a field of potatoes for seed purposes. Frequently, little or no rot follows severe attacks of blight. A severe attack of rot, on the other hand, may warrant disqualification. Moreover, when conditions are favorable for rot, shipment from blighted fields for seed purposes should not be permitted for at least a month after digging. The object of this requirement is to give affected tubers a chance to show themselves so that they may be 238 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES sorted out. I think that the claim, sometimes made by southern growers, that seed from blighted fields is especially liable to rot after planting, and gives poor stands, is not well founded. Rotting of the seed pieces after planting is usually due to other causes. With reasonable care in sorting the seed at planting time very few blighted tubers need be planted. Neither is there any great danger of starting blight through the use of seed from blighted fields. While outbreaks of blight have sometimes been traced to the use of blighted seed, such cases are rare, and experience goes to show that fields planted with blight-free seed usually blight as early and as severely as those planted with seed from unblighted fields. Blight-free seed has not the advantages often claimed for it; yet potatoes from fields showing much rot can hardly qualify as first-class seed. Mosaic is a new disease which promises to become a very im- portant factor in the seed potato business in this state. It is transmitted through the seed, yet shows no evidence of its presence in the tubers. There is no means by which affected tubers may be detected. Badly diseased plants are easily detected by their wrinkled, curled foliage and small size; but in mild cases it is often difficult to distinguish diseased plants from healthy ones. This fact makes inspection for mosaic difficult and uncertain. As yet it is uncertain how strict it will be necessary to be in re- gard to mosaic. With some varieties it is very destructive, and recent experiments at the Geneva Station indicate that, under some conditions at least, tubers from slightly affected plants may produce plants which are entirely worthless. Thus, accord- ing to present indications, fields showing much mosaic are to be avoided as a source of seed. However, we are confronted by the fact that mosaic is widespread throughout Maine and northern New York; and, if we are to have enough seed potatoes to supply the demand, we shall be obliged to pass fields contain- ing some mosaic. In view of this, and the difficulty of detecting mild cases of the disease, it is suggested that, for the present, the limit on the amount of mosaic permissible be placed at 5 per cent. No field showing over 15 per cent of mosaic should be passed even though the owner is willing to rogue it, and fields con- taining a smaller amount than 15 per cent should be rogued down to 5 per cent or less before being accepted. PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Norma INSTITUTE 939 Leaf roll and curly dwarf are transmitted through the seed and, as with mosaic, affected tubers can not be detected; in growing plants these diseases may be detected quite readily. Fields showing more than 10 per cent of either of these diseases at the beginning should be disqualified for seed. Fields showing less than 10 per cent may be accepted after thorough roguing. The same rule should apply to fields containing many small, weak plants unaffected by any recognizable disease. The presence of a high percentage of small, weak plants is evidence that the strain is degenerating, and it is unsafe to use for seed even tubers from the large plants in such fields. Similar limits should be placed upon blackleg. The presence of over 10 per cent of blackleg should disqualify a field. If there is less than 10 per cent the field may be accepted after thorough roguing. It should be borne in mind that the corrosive sublimate treatment of seed tubers is a preventive of blackleg. The wilt diseases (Fusarium and Verticillium) and the stem- end browning of tubers require stricter treatment. These dis- eases are especially dangerous because they are transmitted through the seed, and there is no known method of efficient pre- ventive seed treatment or of eradicating them when once estab- lished. Fields showing, previous to roguing, over 2 per cent of plants affected with wilt should be disqualified; and not to exceed 1 per cent of tubers affected with distinct stem-end browning should be permitted at the final inspection. | OTHER CONSIDERATIONS In addition to the above there should be some regulation re- garding the size or weight of tubers. For late varieties I should recommend two to twelve ounces, and for early varieties two to ten ounces as being the proper limits of weight. Also, it should be stipulated that, in fields acceptable for seed, good cultural con- ditions shall prevail and that the yield shall be a satisfactory one for the variety. The discussions at the several conferences which have been held over this matter show that it will be very difficult to reach close ‘agreement on seed potato standards until after there has been more experience with the actual work of inspection and certification. 240 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES My view is that the standard should not be placed high at first so that it may be gradually raised as our knowledge of the subject grows. SUMMARY OF STANDARDS Briefly summarized, the following standards are proposed for New York seed potatoes: 1. Freedom from evident varietal mixture. 2. Conformity to type of variety as regards vine and tuber characters. 3. Freedom from wart and powdery scab. 4, Practical freedom from leaf roll, curly dwarf, blackleg and weak hills. 5. A maximum of 5 per cent of mosaic. 6. Freedom from serious infection with other diseases. 7. Good cultural methods. 8. Tubers to weigh between 2 and 12 ounces for late varieties and between 2? and 10 ounces for early varieties. 9. Satisfactory yield for the variety. METHODS OF INSPECTION AND CERTIFICATION While the difficulty of deciding upon standards is considerable, that of working out methods of inspection and certification is greater. About two years ago when this matter first came up for serious consideration in New York it was thought that the inspection and certification should be done by the state through its Department of Agriculture. Accordingly, the department detailed Mr. H. C. Sands to investigate and draw up the necessary standards and rules and regulations to govern it. Mr. Sands made a thorough study of the problem and outlined a very complete method of pro- cedure. It being found that an act of the legislature was required to give the commissioner of agriculture the necessary authority to earry out the proposed inspection and certification, a bill providing for the state inspection and certification of seed potatoes was intro- duced into the legislature during the closing days of its last session. This bill failed of passage. Lately the view has prevailed that it would be unwise to enact such a law until after some experience has been gained through an PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Norma INSTITUTE Oat unofficial system of inspection and certification. With experience as a guide it will be possible, when a. law is finally enacted, to avoid some mistakes which are sure to be made if a state inspec- tion and certification should be established at once. At its last annual meeting the New York State Potato Associa- tion took up the matter and referred it to a committee of three consisting of Mr. F. A. Sirrine, Mr. C. B. Tillson and the writer. This committee has not yet completed its labors and is not pre pared to make a full report, but will probably recommend a method of procedure essentially as follows: The New York State Potato Association, through its president and secretary, will issue certificates of inspection upon the recommendation of official in- spectors of the association. The official inspectors are to be ap- pointed by the president of the association upon the recommenda- tion of the Department of Plant Pathology of the State College of Agriculture. The salaries and expenses of inspectors are to be paid by the association. A tax sufficient to cover the expense of inspection and certification will be levied upon the growers and dealers to whom certificates are issued. The time and manner of inspection are to be prescribed by the association through its Com- - mittee on Inspection and Certification. It will be necessary to make at least two field inspections — one at blooming time, the other near the close of the season. A third inspection, at digging time or after the tubers have been placed in storage, will be necessary in some cases. Each certificate issued should bear a serial number, and all the potatoes shipped under a certificate should be bagged at the car in new bags holding 165 pounds. Each bag should have attached to it, when filled, a shipping tag bearing the certificate number, the name of the variety and the words, “ Certified Seed: New York State Potato Association.” On the reverse side of the tag should appear the name of the local association or dealer shipping the seed; and the grower’s namo may also appear if he desires. it. Certificates may be revoked by the association at its discretion. A grower or dealer making improper use of his certificate should be promptly punished by the revocation of his certificate for the year. © ~ phe bo bo Report or Farmers’ INsrirutes STANDARDIZATION OF POTATOES EK. H. ForristaLy. What I have to say will deal with methods and distances apart of planting potatoes to insure desirable size potatoes. I call your attention especially to this board which represents the size of potatoes as agreed upon for standards by the Cortland County Potato Growers’ Association. These meshes have a con- stant variation in size from the largest to the smallest, and there are six meshes in all. The Cortland County Potato Growers’ Association adopted, as a standard, meshes 2, 3 and 4 as repre senting the sizes of potatoes they would sell for seed, thereby es- tablishing a standard for Cortland County potatoes. It goes without saying that they must be free from blemishes, irregularities and diseases. I call your attention to these potatoes that have been graded according to this standard. Note the uniformity of these three lots graded through meshes 2, 8 and 4. I might add that these potatoes are known in Cortland County as the Norcross Seedling, a white sprout potato of remarkably good quality and noted as being a heavy yielder. The farmer who buys potatoes of these sizes will not have to invest in a lot of potatoes varying in size from the very large to the very small. He also is insured of a better crop than when he invests in seed of all sizes. Let us look at this chart showing results of grading in tuber unit work on the farm of Frank Carter: Yield = Total| Total VARIETY me No. 1} No. 2} No. 3] No. 4] No. 5| No. 6] Eee merece eee] Se) esi Nes a bose = = be be ke <== 2 > Avaperhil! 8 |"; E(e2 ea} ae) &] 2] zu les] Fe 22 a |8 5 : é Pita hear : a |* og |oag ao] rs - nN io) Boal ad o ir) = = a ioe, g a =) * . . . . 2 ~~ ~~ Co 1 _— 362 rj See esate (eres Near eset ei thcte, | anaes Saat 5 Dobe. aoe 310 bu. |....| 4.43] 21.29] 41 21.16] 6.71) 5 83.42] 16.28] $129 30/$77 50/351 80 Wea tteeee. 128 bus) 27) 21233 cide 21°33) 12.67) 5.17 17) 56 44 80 68} 70 25| 10 43 Differences). 29! buss lee ier aetelisecee | olateta-«||erahectta| s eheriate |lesemcers 27.42 $43 62/'$7 25). 22. . —— a ee SS ——— a ooOoOoOoOoooooeososoOS——OSOS =~ The first line gives averages taken from grading on seven farms. Note the yield per acre of 310 bushels — total seed 83.42 bushels. The value of that seed at 50 cents per bushel, or the price of seed stock for 1914, gives a value of $129.30 per acre. If this entire crop had been sold at the cars, at the ruling price of 25 cents per bushel, it would have returned to the farmer $77.50 per acre. This farmer has gained $51.80 by growing seed pota- toes at 50 cents per bushel and grading the same according to this standard. Besides this, he has practically 50 bushels of large and small potatoes to be utilized on the farm as food for his stock. al Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES Let us see what six other farmers received when following the old custom of planting their potatoes far apart, allowing 7.44 feet per hill. Their average yield per acre was 281 bushels. Planting far apart has given them an average of 27 per cent oversized potatoes, undesirable for table use or seed stock. They are the kind of potatoes that we ordinarily get when we order mashed potatoes in the restaurant. These six men have an average of 56 per cent seed stock, which, at 50 cents per bushel, would net them $80.68. The entire crop marketed at the car (this in- cludes the very smallest as well as the oversized potatoes) would bring $70.25. These men by grading their potatoes and selling according to this standard would have gained $10.43.. However, from my point of view, this seed would have been very undesirable because it had not been properly grown. In addition to the $10.43 gained, they would also have had 123 bushel of potatoes to feed to the stock. Closer planting, then, not only gives us larger yields per acre, but stock that is more desirable either for table use or for seed. It also gives a larger money return for labor. We find that by closer planting of potatoes in Cortland County the farmer can decrease the area planted by 38 per cent, or a little more than one-third, and receive the same for his potatoes as he formerly did when he planted by the old method. This is a saving of labor, fertilizer and ground that can be employed to grow other crops. In other words, it is a better utilization of the soil. This third chart shows that potatoes will ordinarily grade the same when planted the same distances apart on practically the same kind of soil, whether yielding heavy or light. RESULTS OF Two YEARS’ GRADING OF POTATOES ON FARM OF M. F. WEBB Year Oanrare per | No.1] No.2] No. 3|No.4| No. 5] No. 6] Total rae Per Per Per Per Per Per cent cent cent cent cent cent 1915 | Green Mountain...| 110 bu. |] .... 1 1914 | Green Mountain...} 250 bu. 4 12 33 37 8 82 18 PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Normat INSTITUTE 945 In a year like 1914, when we had a crop of potatoes in the United States equivalent to 114 per cent, and these potatoes were allowed to go onto the markets unstandardized, the result was that the price per bushel was below what they had actually cost the farmer to raise, many potatoes being so large that they were undesirable. This caused the city dealers a great deal of expense in grading, if they were to get the most returns. This expense means storage, rent, insurance, and labor of men doing the work of getting rid of the culls at a low price. The alternative is to sell these potatoes to the poorer trade, taking out the commission and returning the balance, if any, to the farmer. If every farmer in the United States had graded his potatoes in 1914 according to this standard, practically 82 per cent of our entire supply would have been put on the market. The ten-year average is 74.6 per cent. As this year’s yield is estimated at 74.2 per cent, you see that we are practically normal, and potatoes are selling for from 50 to 85 cents per bushel. An 82 per cent crop could be marketed at a price that would allow the farmers fair remuneration for raising potatoes. Let us consider potatoes that grade through meshes 3 and 4 that conform to this standard for smoothness, ete. They will waste only about 7 per cent in cooking, while large, irregular potatoes will waste from 17 to 30 per cent. In conclusion: 1. Selected seed gives larger yields of desirable sized potatoes. 2. Planting far apart increases the size of the potato and lowers the value of the crop. 3. Quality is affected by method of planting. 4, The general public should be educated to the value of a reasonable sized potato, smooth and free from blemishes. 5. All large and irregular, as well as small potatoes, should be marketed through the stock on the farm. 6. Undesirable potatoes should never be allowed to come in competition with standardized stock. 246 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES STANDARDIZATION OF POTATOES C, B. ‘Titis08N The standardization of potatoes with which the speaker is familiar has reference to seed potatoes rather than to table stock. In fact, so far as I have been able to learn, outside of a small section of Long: Island very little work has been done in this state in the way of standardization of table potatoes. I suppose this is due quite largely to the fact that the public is not as yet fully aware of the advantages that would be derived from a standardized table potato. One must admit that it costs a little more toemake a standard- ized product of any commodity than it does to produce the ordinary stock run. This means that the producer will be ob- liged to demand a little higher-price for standardized potatoes than the ordinary field run. Until the consumers begin to see the advantages of paying this extra price I suspect that the practice will not become general. Of course, this same thing holds good with the seed potatoes, except that the buyers of seed potatoes already realize the importance of the standardized seed potato and are willing to pay the extra expense in producing it. In fact, a great many of the large buyers of seed potatoes make price only secondary, provided they can get a standardized potato of the right quality. They are willing to pay well for it. This makes the standardization of seed potatoes a very easy matter. In the northern part of the state we have not advanced the work of standardization of potatoes to cover all the different phases of it that we expect to as the work grows. The principal thing that has been emphasized thus far is to produce from high producing stock potatoes which are practically free from disease. After we have succeeded in obtaining stock that will meet with the approval of the most exacting along this line, then we shall attempt to grade the potatoes according to size, and standardize each grade. I do not wish to be misunderstood by saying that as yet we have paid no attention to size. This is not true. We have from the start produced medium-sized uniform potatoes, but have not separated them into different grades according to size. PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Norma INSTITUTE DAT By fairly close planting we have found it very easy to avoid the overgrown potato. On some of the poorer potato soils we find it necessary to plant farther apart in order to insure suffi- cient size. The maximum amount of disease that should be tolerated in certified seed potatoes is a matter that has not been definitely decided upon in this state. At the present time definite plans are being made for the establishment of the standard to be used in the certification work. In my judgment, this is one of the most important things that the potato growers of this state have under- taken. After we once have this standard worked out and adopted, it will be possible to turn out a uniform article from the different potato-growing sections of the state. Personally, I am desirous of a high standard. Still, I think it is of the utmost importance that the standard for certification be low enough at the start so that the best potato growers will be able to qualify within a comparatively short time — say one or two years. I think I can see where there would be great danger of having the standard so high that it would be possible for a farmer only here and there to produce seed potatoes that would be accepted as certified. From year to year it will be possible, un- doubtedly, to raise the standard by decreasing the maximum amount of minor potato diseases that will be tolerated. Although a few states of the more important potato-growing sections have adopted plans for certification work, it seems best at this time for the State Potato Growers’ Association to undertake this work until we know definitely the standard that should be set and maintained. After this standard is once recognized to be the ideal standard, then the state department of agriculture can be of the utmost assistance in carrying it out. I think by working through the State Potato Association we will be able to relieve the state department of much experimental work in arriving at the proper standard. There is no phase of the potato-growing industry that looks more favorable at the present time than the production of stand- ardized seed. The same thing undoubtedly will hold true with table stock just as soon as both the producer and consumer realize the importance of putting upon the market a standardized article. 248 Report or Farmers’ INSTITUTES POTATO STANDARDIZATION Orrin F. Ross Mature potatoes, free from blemish, of ideal shape and size, at a low market price, are desired by the consumer. The grower first of all wants a large yield per acre and the highest market price he can get per bushel. These two desires are wide apart, and can only be brought closer together by the consumer paying the full price for the extra effort and the probable reduced yield to the grower. In other words, I believe standardization is but a cold business proposition, where the buyer can secure any grade he desires whenever he is ready to pay for effort, time and material used to produce the desired grade. In the United States most of the potatoes are sold for table stock without grade or restriction. The most desirable size for this trade is between five and ten ounces, and some markets will pay a small premium for such stock, especially large hotels and restaurants. There is a still smaller demand for tubers weighing over ten ounces, used for potato products by manufacturers. I am also informed that some sections and restaurants want a grade smaller than six ounces.. On most markets the large and the small patotoes can be mixed and sold for a price slightly under the regular grade offered. Where size alone is the main con- sideration all parties can be supplied at a small increase in cost by passing the “ field-run” over a standard grader adjusted to make the three grades desired at one operation. However, if the other desires of the consumer are met, the cost will be greater in proportion to the demands, because to secure these conditions something must be supplied that machines do not possess. The size, other things being equal, is influenced in the field by the distance apart in the row, but what this distance shall be depends upon many factors; such as, season, climate, soil, fer- tility, variety and set, or the number of tubers per hill. The important factors in growing the tubers to a large average size are: a long and favorable growing season, right climate, with good potato soil, plenty of plant food, and a large variety having few tubers per plant. With these conditions present the plants PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Norman Institute 249 should be closer in the row than when these factors are absent, in order to secure the greater percentage of tubers of medium weight. It has been my experience with growers that they desire large tubers which usually yield heavily, are easily harvested, and have brought regular market prices when delivered at the shipping point. If the above considerations are correct it would seem that the practical way to meet the standards for table stock is to use a mechanical grader for size, and secure the type and quality by sorting and selecting the seed stock used to produce the crop. The buyer or grower of seed stock should have in mind qualities other than appearance. Every grower should desire first of all a large yield per acre, because this usually means a small cost per bushel for production, and his profit is the net margin be- tween his cost and sale price, times the quantity. He should have the same sum left for profit if he cleared 10 cents per bushel on a 400-bushel per acre crop that he would have if he cleared 20 cents per bushel on a 200-bushel crop, but in practice he usually nets more per bushel on the 400-bushel crop and makes four times the profit on the 400-bushel crop over the 200-bushel one. There- fore it would seem that the first and most important factor to consider is hereditary characteristics for a large production. To obtain a large production because of climate, soil, fertilizer or a favorable season, does not add to the value of the tuber for seed purposes. Any one who has done selection work and isolated pure lines for a number of years, has learned that different lines will vary more than 100 per cent in yield, owing to seasonal and fertility conditions; but that, side by side, one line will more than double the yield of another year after year no matter what the conditions. This must be due to the inherent characters possessed. During the past year I have helped harvest lines in their second and third year of development, which showed within an extreme range of four tubers difference in counting 100 hills; also that the shape was as uniform as the set. To give methods or results of our selection work would make this article too long, but it is safe to say that any variety or group contains enough variations so widely different that a grower can secure any desirable character by isolating a hill showing these, until enough seed is secured to plant his entire field. Many hills 250 Report or Farmers’ INstTiTuTEes should be used, and the least desirable lines discarded each of the three years. My experience during the past three years with many fields leads me to believe that the quickest, surest and most prac- tical means of sectring a potato that will give large production, of ideal shape, and free from inherent disease, is by selection for these characteristics, and developing this line pure until all the field can be planted from it. Then practice a method of elimination of all weakness or disease that may creep in. I should suggest that each year the home seed be dug by hand and every undesirable hill discarded. To do this the plants should not be close enough so that the hills cannot be separated when dug. If the seed trade wants and will pay extra for potatoes to run un- der ten ounces, then they can be crowded, and a type may be se lected having a large set. Growers might profitably use planter size taken out with a grader, providing the parent hills are thor. oughly rogued each year. The practice of using small potatoes from the bin year after year cannot be too severely condemned, because the greater number of these small tubers are produced by the poor, weak and diseased hills, PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Norma INSTITUTE 951 INJURIOUS INSECTS Dis pee nee CODLING MOTH AND SIDE INJURY Studies of the codling moth in cooperation with the Bureaus of Farmers’ Institutes and of Horticulture of the State Depart- ment of Agriculture, and the Monroe County Farm Bureau, have shown serious ‘side injury” during the last few years in the apple belt from Rochester westward. In some instances 20 per cent or more of the yield bore the small and characteristic blem- ish produced by larvae hatching from late-deposited eggs of the first brood. The pests enter the side of the apple usually the lat- ter part of June or during the first half of July, eat a shallow circular gallery with a radius of about one-sixteenth of an inch; and then, in large measure, desert the place of initial injury and migrate to thé blossom end where they frequently succumb to the poison applied just after blossoming. This type of injury is much less common in the Hudson Valley and appears to be most prevalent near the shore of Lake Ontario. Experiments in three counties — Niagara, Orleans and Mon- roe — show an average reduction of wormy apples in three orchards, resulting from a-second spray for the codling moth, of but 1.29 per cent, for the third of only 6 per cent, or for the two additional sprays, of less than 2 per cent. These figures compare very closely with those obtained in the Hudson Valley and strongly confirm our earlier conclusions relative to the great value of the application just after the blossoms drop, for the control of the codling moth. In all fairness it should be added that the results obtained in the Niagara and Orleans county orchards were not entirely satis- factory so far as the percefitage of wormy apples is concerned, this ranging for plots, in the case of the former, from 13 to 14 per cent, and for the latter from 27 to 34 per cent on the sprayed trees, and on the checks from 67 to 69 per cent. By far the eater portion of this infestation, 9 to 12 per cent in one case and 25 to 33 in the other, was due to “side injury.” The ex- planation of this condition is found in the fact that the “ side 252 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES injury ” is produced by young caterpillars hatching from eggs laid by moths developing from overwintered apple worms or larvae, and as these begin feeding on the camparatively unpro- tected growing surface of the fruit, the probability of destroying them at the outset and before they have inflicted this blemish, is not good. A summary of all the plots shows a reduction in “ side injury” of only a little over 1 per cent as a result of the second spraying for the codling moth. It is obvious from the above that the condition of the fruit, especially in sections where there may be considerable ‘“ side injury,” depends to an appreciable extent upon the work of the preceding year. There are orchards in the western fruit section, and one of our experimental orchards be- longs in this class, which are comparatively free from codling moth, the total infestation being approximately 5 per cent or less and, in the ease of the check trees of this experimental orchard, amounting to only 6.36 per cent. It is noteworthy that this com- parative freedom occurs in sections where the codling moth is known to be abundant, and also in orchards habitually sprayed but once for the pest. There is this in common for the trees nearly free from codling moth injury, and that is they have been sprayed annually whether in fruit or not and it is more than probable that the treatment was thorough. Our conclusions may be briefly summarized as follows: The first spraying for the codling moth, the treatment just after blossoming, is by far the most effective method in con- trolling the pest. . The presence of abundant is a most potent argument for thorough, annual sprayings for the codling moth whether the trees be fruiting or not. This may not be necessary where “ side injury ” is not serious; as, for example, in the Hud- ‘ ? ‘side injury’ son Valley. The second spraying for the codling moth would probably be more effective in reducing “side injury” if it were made the latter part of June, though so far as checking this pest is con- cerned, it does not seem to be essential. In the case of orchards badly infested last year, another late spraying may be advisable between the fifth and tenth of July, something depending on seasonal conditions. PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NorMAL INSTITUTE 953 Both the usual second and third sprayings for the codling moth, even if they have comparatively little influence in reducing the numbers of this pest, are abundantly justified in localities where scab is more or less prevalent; assuming, of course, that a fungi- cide is universally added to the poisoned spray. APPLE MAGGOT The apple maggot is becoming locally abundant in some sec- tions and there is now a keen interest in methods of controlling this pest. Its work is easily recognized by the irregular, brown, sometimes rotting channels in the flesh or pulp of the fruit. The insect displays a marked preference for the late summer and early fall varieties, though it also attacks winter apples. The evidence at hand indicates it to be a somewhat local form, and while there may be some disagreement as to the best method of controlling this pest, there is httle question but what material benefit may be secured by the collection and destruction, by feed- ing or otherwise, of the late summer and early fall varieties twice a week, and of the fall and winter varieties once a week. The object of this procedure is to destroy the maggots before they have had an opportunity of escaping from the fruit and entering the soil, where they pass the winter within a few inches of the sur- face. Thorough cultivation is doubtless of value, since it pro- duces conditions more or less unfavorable to hibernation. SAN JOSE SCALE San José scale has been less abundant in some orchards than in earlier years, and examinations in several infested and un- sprayed orchards in the town of Schodack show a decrease in the infestation compared with that of two years ago. The re- duction is probably attributable in large measure to the activities of various small parasites. ‘The condition of most of these in- fested trees, however, is not entirely satisfactory, and although the damage resulting from scale infestation in such localities is much less than that of earlier years, we do not consider that conditions justify the abandonment of the dormant application for the control of this pest. Aside from the check upon San José seale, it is our opinion that incidental benefits resulting from the treatment more than meet the cost of the application. Ns! Rerort oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES WHITE GRUB White grub injury has been very serious in portions of southern Rensselaer and northern Columbia counties at least. These in- sects have a three-year life cycle, the most serious damage being inflicted the season after the beetles are most abundant, conse- quently the probabilities of damage in oné year may be approxi- mated somewhat by the amount of beetle injury to the leaves of hickory, ash, butternut, black walnut, elm and birch the preceding season. ‘The subsequent infestation by white grubs is most likely to develop in the more vigorous sod near injured trees, for the simple reason that the beetles are very apt to seek the nearest available grassy shelter after feeding during the night. Infestation can also be determined in a general way at least, by examining grass sod either in the fall or spring, and if small, white grubs a quarter of an inch in length or thereabouts are numerous, material damage may be expected the following summer. Susceptible hoed crops such as corn, potatoes and strawberries should not be planted upon land badly infested by partly grown erubs. It is safer to sow with any of the small grains, especially rye, since this greatly increases the chance of a portion of the crop escaping damage. The nearly full grown grubs now in the soil under badly infested grass have almost completed their feed- ing; and, if planting with susceptible crops such as corn or pota- toes is delayed till the latter part of May or early in June, there will be decidedly less chance of serious injury resulting. Farmers in areas subject to white grub outbreaks should be very careful about planting upon recently turned sod, especially at the three- year intervals when there are good probabilities of serious injury. CEE ee ee ee a 4 i ee ee eee PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Norma INSTITUTE 255 SOME INJURIOUS INSECTS ProFessor P. J. Parrorr THE PEAR THRIPS Of special interest to institute workers who are to attend meet- ings in the Hudson River Valley is the new orchard pest known as the pear thrips. [or several years it has been very destructive in the region about Germantown, and during the past year it caused severe damage across the Hudson river in pear orchards about Milton and Marlboro. An account of the species is given in Geneva Bulletin 345. The pest is a difficult one to combat be- cause of the nature and suddenness of its attacks. Spraying is the most efficient method of control. The period for effective spraying is during the time when buds are breaking and until they are entirely opened at the tips. The most efficient mixtures are nicotine preparations in combination with an oil emulsion or soap. A very satisfactory formula is three-fourths pint of nicotine solution (40 per cent) in one hundred gallons of water, adding from two to five pounds of soap. Apply the mixture in liberal quantities as a rather coarse, driving spray, holding the nozzles fairly close to the trees in order to force the liquid into the ends cf the buds. When petals drop repeat the treatment to destroy the larvae. Considerable protection may be afforded to the trees by a heavy application of whitewash as buds are beginning to break at the ends. The whitewash is made by taking eighty pounds of quicklime for each one hundred gallons of wash. This should be strainea through fine brass screening before applying. THE ROSY APHIS This species was much less injurious this season than during the previous year, but in occasional orchards about Spencerport, Wolcott and Geneva there was considerable evidence of the destructive work of this pest. Insects of this character are generally hard pests to combat, and this aphis in particular pre- sents a series of difficulties which are not usually encountered in a single species. The destructiveness of the rosy aphis is at- tributed to its partiality for blossom and young fruit-clusters, and its habit of multiplying to maximum numbers at the time when 256 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES the vigor of the tree is required for the development of the young apples of the current year’s crop. The susceptibility of the. “baby ” apples to injury suggests the importance of spraying at an earlier period than is usually done by most fruit-growers, Ex- periments by this station point to the destruction of the newly- hatched aphides on the opening buds as the most important step to reduce injuries by this pest. See Geneva Bulletin 402. Thorough spraying of the opening buds will completely destroy an associated species, the oat aphis, as well as afford temporary relief from the green apple aphis. The possibilities of combating the rosy aphis by this treatment are indicated in the following table which summarizes the data of a spraying experiment in an orchard of Rome apple trees, with some interplantings of other varieties. SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT AGAINST THE Rosy APHIS Centers of Fruits Leaves Number and Variety of Tree Treatment Infestation Injured Curled BS PRVOIIe! 7), Cia: stele le bic tale sprayed. 46 33 172 10 Mixed varieties........ sprayed. oi 8 0 29 7 AMOS oso cagaagos sao’ not sprayed.. 319 279 1323 Average per sprayed Rome ............... 2.55 1.83 9.55 Average) for all sprayed theese 90-2 6-7 1.93 1.17 7.17 Average for unsprayed Rome ............ 45.57 30.85 189 THE, CHERRY LEAF-BEETLE The fact is probably well known to most institute workers that the greatest surprise of the season, at least to students in ento- mology, was the appearance in large numbers of the leaf-beetle (Galerucella cavicollis) upon cherries and peaches during early summer. The species was widely distributed throughout western. New York, and was probably more numerous and destructive in the southwestern section, especially in Chautauqua, Cattaraugus and Erie counties. Complaints of its ravages were received from Areade, Wellsville, Alden, Irving, Batavia, Rochester, Eden, Jamestown, Randolph, Brant, Angola, Fredonia, Dunkirk, Rochester and Penn Yan. It was also reported as injurious in nursery plantations about Dansville, Clifton Springs and Geneva. Mr. A. B. Buchholz, Horticultural Inspector of the State De partment of Agriculture, reported that the beetle was common in the central and eastern portions of Orleans county upon sour cherries and peaches. Mr. L. F. Strickland, Horticultural In- spector of Niagara county, states that the insect was observed at PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NorMat INSTITUTE = 257 Sanborn, Lockport, Gasport and Middleport. In some gardens it did considerable damage to both fruit and foliage of cherry trees. Several growers reported considerable numbers of the beetles on foliage of young peach trees. The principal damage was in the southern portion, and there were no complaints of injuries by the insect for the northern section of Niagara county. According to Mr. F. Z. Hartzell of this station the beetles were first discovered at Fredonia on June 7, although they appeared nearly a week earlier in the southern portion of Chautauqua county. He states that the creatures were observed at this time on potatoes, milkweed, timothy, roses, dahlias and grapes, but apparently they did not feed on these plants. The insects obtained their subsistence from cherries and peaches, preferring sour cher- ries and peaches. Sweet cherries escaped with little damage to foiliage. Young plantings of sour cherries as well as of peaches suffered the most, and in these the trees often sustained con- siderable defoliation. Serious injuries were occasionally detected on old sour cherry trees, but with these the damage was usually confined to the lower limbs. However, at Jamestown a large isolated cherry tree was noted on June 8 with the foliage almost riddled; while many of the green cherries had been eaten by bettles. Extensive feeding of foliage was also observed on mature peach trees. On the station grounds at Geneva the insect showed a decided preference for the Mahaleb cherry; and, while the entire foliage of trees of this variety was much eaten, the common sweet and sour cherries suffered relatively little harm. This is an inter- esting fact as sour cherries of such sorts as Montmorency and English Morello are usually worked on Mahaleb stock; and the occurrence of extreme injuries to shoots and suckers of cherry trees, as reported by some correspondents, is probably explained by the partiality of the pest for the above species of cherry. This is of European origin and has escaped from cultivation, being com- monly found in the neighborhood of nursery centers. The insect was observed by Mr. Hartzell feeding on the red or bird cherry (Prunus pennsylvanica), and its attack on this plant were similar in nature and extent as recorded for cultivated cherries. No evidence of the insect securing subsistence on the choke cherry (P. virginiana) or the wild black cherry (P. serotina) came to’ our attention. II—9 258 Rerort oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES The first eggs observed to be deposited by the beetles were found June 11. These were placed either singly or in clusters in the soil at the base of the tree, although some were observed ad- hering to the bark as if glued by the female. The eggs were lemon yellow in color and measured about .75 mm by .5 mm. The egg- laying period continued until about July 1. In the laboratory eges hatched in twelve days. In the soil about the bases of the trees, the egg stage averaged between two and three weeks. ‘The larvae resembled those of the grape flea-beetle in size and colora- tions and were observed during the month of July. They found their subsistence on the foliage, especially that of the shoots which sprung from the base of the tree. Pupae were not observed and no observations were made on this stage. There is yet much to be learned as regards the life history and habits of the insect. It appears that the insect hibernates in the adult stage, the beetles coming forth and feeding on the leaves of the wild bird cherry. In the absence of this host they seek cultivated cherries and peaches. Experiments conducted under the direction of Mr. Hartzell at the Fredonia laboratory showed that arsenate of lead or arsenate of lime, at the rate of eight pounds of the arsenical to one hun- dred gallons of water, afforded efficient protection to the trees if the lower as well as the upper surfaces of the leaves were well sprayed. With cherries the most satisfactory results were ob- tained when the poison was combined with bordeaux mixture. Arsenate of lead produced some defoliation of peaches. Because of these injuries tests were conducted with nicotine solution, which proved entirely safe to the trees and destructive to the beetles that happened to be on the foilage at the time of spraying. This treatment, however, will not prevent reinfestation. For small cherries that are infested with large numbers of beetles, jarring the trees is advised. The beetles should be caught in pans containing a small quantity of kerosene. This operation, if repeated several times, will prove very effective and not cost any more than spraying. It possesses one advantage over spray- ing in that it affords immediate protection. As it requires some time for-an arsenical to exert its toxic properties many beetles on a small tree may do considerable harm before they succumb to the poison. PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NORMAL INSTITUTE 259 DUSTING METHODS IN ORCHARDS Proressor C. R. Crossy The experiments in dusting apple orchards the past season have confirmed the results of previous years that arsenate of lead ap- plied in the form of dust in combination with finely ground sul- phur, gives as good or better results in the control of codling moth than does the usual liquid applications. The detailed results of these experiments will soon be published in a bulletin of the Cornell Experiment Station. The dusting method of treating apple trees is more rapid and convenient, and is of especial value to growers, who, because of large acreage, are unable to cover their orchards at the proper time. Growers are not advised to discard their spraying machines, but under certain circumstances will find the dusting method of distinct advantage. As yet no method has been devised of using dust for the control of scale, plant-lice or red bug. 260 Report oF FarMERS’ INSTITUTES PLANT DISEASES F. C. Stewart and M. F. Barrus APPLE SCAB The past season has been exceptionally favorable for the de velopment of scab, and the disease as a result has been abundant. It has been controlled in a satisfactory manner where applica- tions of lime-sulphur solution or of sulphur dust have been made during the summer. The late July application was very helpful not only in keeping the fruit from becoming affected with scab late in the season, but also in keeping it free from sooty blotch, the name applied to a superficial blemish resembling scab, occur- ring on the skin of the fruit, and caused by a fungus that develops during moist weather. This disease has prevented many other- wise good apples from classifying in grade A. POWDERED SULPHUR The applications with powdered sulphur have proved to be as successful this year as in the past, and there seems to be no good reason why the method should not continue to give as good con- trol measures as the spraying method and at no greater expense. It has the advantage of being more rapid and more convenient. It has at the present time the disadvantage of being ineffectual as a dormant application and as a measure to control aphis. While there is no reason why these growers now completely equipped with spraying machines should discard them for dusting machines, there are growers now unable to cover their entire orchard rapidly enough who could dust to advantage. . The dust- ing method will also enable those having a small number of trees to provide themselves at slight expense with means of controlling fruit and foilage diseases and biting insects. PEACH LEAF CURL Recent experiments have clearly indicated that this disease, so common during the past two vears, can be as readily controlled by fall applications of lime-sulphur solutions as by spring appli- cations. In fact, the application can be made at any time after PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Norma INSTITUTE 261 the leaves have dropped and before the buds have started in the spring, although, of course, no applications should be made dur- ing freezing weather. This is welcome news to the peach grower as it will enable him to relieve the pressure of spring work by disposing of some of it during the fall or winter. It also gives him an opportunity to spray when the ground is solid enough to hold up while driv- ing over it with a heavy machine. PEAR BLIGHT There is nothing new of practical value to present about this disease. No new varieties of economic importance have been discovered to be resistant to the disease, nor has any method of preventing the bight by injecting chemical substances or viruses into the tree been devised. The same methods of control as have been advocated in the past are recommended today. These methods, if carefully carried out, will keep the disease in check, but will not prevent new infections from taking place. The secret of success in the control of fire blight consists in the clean- ing out of hold-over cankers and twigs, in the removal of new in- fections as soon as they are observed, and in the disinfection of wounds. Most growers are not prepared to do this and, there- fore, do not succeed in the attempts they make. This method can most effectively be applied by one familiar with the details of the work. ‘Large growers or a group of smaller ones could profitably employ such a man to fight fire blight for them. OAT SMUT Many thousands of dollars were saved to farmers of the state this year by their treating oat seed with formaldehyde solution, yet only a small fraction of the oat seed used was treated. In every community oat smut was much in evidence and in some fields the loss amounted to one-half of the crop. With the knowledge of control at everyone’s command there should be no loss from this disease. A few farmers who treated their seed this year reported a partial failure inasmuch as there was some smut found in their grain. Failures of this kind may result from using a solution 262 Report oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES that is less than 87 per cent formaldehyde; by not diluting prop- erly (1 pint formaldehyde to 45 or 50 gallons of water) ; by not using enough solution (at least 4 gallons to every 5 bushels) ; by uot cleaning the seed before treatment to remove smutted kernels (if these are too numerous cleaner seed should be secured) ; by not treating all the seed (the seed under foot should be taken care of); by not covering the seed well enough after treatment, nor leaving it covered long enough (4 or more hours) ; by permit- ting the treated grain to come into contact with contaminated sacks, floors, bins, drills, etc. (the sacks may be disinfected by soaking 10 minutes in the same solution used for the seed and they may then be used in covering the pile, while floors, bins, drills, etc., may be washed or sprayed with a stronger solution. ) A new method of treating oat seed with formaldehyde for the control of smut has been devised by Mr. R. J. Haskell of the College of Agriculture in which fifty bushels of seed is sprayed with one pint of 40-per-cent formaldehyde without dilution. The oats are spread out on the floor and the formaldehyde applied with a hand-sprayer or atomizer, after which they are shoveled into a pile, covered well with canvas or blankets, and left for several hours. ‘This method has given very satisfactory control without injuring the grain, in tests at the College and also with about twelve farmers who used the method this year. It has the advantage over other methods of leaving the grain dry and ready to sow as soon as treatment is completed. However, when the formaldehyde was diluted with water enough to appreciably wet the grain, but in smaller quantities than is recommended, con- siderable injury to the grain resulted. It is inadvisable to treat the seed with formaldehyde longer than a month in advance of sowing, because of danger of injur- ing its germinative power. STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT This disease is becoming quite generally prevalent in New York State and often occurs in large percentages. Not only is the grain affected a total loss, but the remaining healthy grain is reduced in value as it is unfit for flour and must be used for other purposes. PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH Norma INstiruTe 263 The treatment with formaldehyde is cheap, convenient, and effective. When grain containing smutted kernels is to be used for seed, it should, after being cleaned, be dipped in a solution made by diluting 1 pint of 40-per-cent formaldehyde in 45 gal- lons of water. A tub or half barrel is best for dipping, about a half bushel being immersed at a time. After skimming off smutted kernels on the surface, the immersed grain should be stirred to release other smutted kernels imprisoned there. When no smutted kernels can be secured, the grain may be removed and dried. kK OK * OK OK * * _ S Ba * x ok K KOK kK OK & OK a — * 284 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES 12. The sums required to pay the bounties authorized by resolution of the Board of Supervisors for the destruction of wild animals and noxious weeds, unless the supervisors by resolution direct that such bounties shall be town charges. Page 4242 Chapter 63 of the Laws of 1909— Town Law — being chapter 62 of the Consolidated Laws. Article IV, Section 43 — Powers of Town Meeting The electors of each town may, at their biennial town meeting: Tee ER op 9 * «© * Gy ge ta Ake eB i) . Make provisions and allow rewards for the destruction of noxious weeds and animals, as they may deem necessary, and raise money therefor; Page 3286 The Railroad Law, Chapter 39 of the General Laws Article II, Section 52 Canada thistles to be cut. Every railroad corporation doing business within this state, shall cause all Canada thistles, white and yellow daisies and other noxious weeds growing on any lands owned or occupied by it, to be cut down twice in each and every year, once between the fifteenth day of June and the twenty-fifth day of June, and once between the fifteenth day of August and the twenty-fifth day of August. If any such corporation shall neglect to cause the same to be cut down, any person may cut the same, between the twenty- fifth day of June and the fifth day of July inclusive, and between the twenty-fifth day of August and the fifth day of September inclusive in each year, at the expense of the corporation on whose lands the same shall be so cut, at the rate of three dollars per day for the time occupied in cutting. Section 54 of the Highway Law, as amended by chapter 151 of the Laws of 19: Section 54. Removal of noxious weeds and brush within the highways, and of obstructions caused by snow. It shall be the duty of the owner or occupant of lands situated along the highway to cut and remove the noxious weeds growing within the bounds of the highway, fronting such lands, at least twice in each year, once in the month of June, and once in the month of August. It shall be the duty of such owner or occupant to cut and remove all briers and brush, growing within the bounds of the highway, fronting such lands, once in the month of August in each year. It shall also be the duty of such owner or occupant to remove brush, shrubbery and other obstructions within the bounds of the highway, causing the drifting of snow upon said highway, before the first day of November in each year. If such owner or occupant fails to cut or remove such weeds or brush, or to remove such brush, shrub- bery or other obstructions, causing the drifting of snow, as provided herein, the town superintendent of the town in which said lands are situated shall cause the same to be done, and the expense thereby incurred shall be paid in the first instance out of moneys levied and collected and available therefor, * PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NorRMAL INSTITUTE 285 and the amount thereof shall be charged against such owner or occupant, and levied and collected, as provided in section fifty-five. The town board of any town may, by resolution, determine that the work required by this section to be done by the owner or occupant of lands situated along the highway shall be done by the town superintendent. If such resolution be adopted such work shall be done by the town superintendent at the times prescribed by this section, the cost thereof shall not be charged or assessed against the owner or occupant but shall be a town charge, and there shall be annually raised in such town in addition to other moneys raised for highway purposes a sum sufficient to pay such expense. 286 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES THE PASTEURIZATION OF DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS IN NEW YORK STATE W. D. DorrEerRer Bacteriologist, New York State Commission for the Investigation of Bovine Tuberculosis The work summarized here is the result of an investigation undertaken under the direction of the Bacteriological Department of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station on the methods, efficiency and effects of pasteurizing dairy by-products. In the course of the investigation visits were made to seven American cheddar factories and one skimming station where pas- teurization was being carried out. According to the 1915 report of the New York State Department of Agriculture there are about 950 cheese factories in the state. Of these, forty-eight are definitely known to be pasteurizing the whey. Twenty-four of the latter make American cheddar, thirteen make Swiss, nine make limburg and two make brick cheese. At only one of the factories visited were the temperatures used in pasteurization high enough to meet the lowest temperature (178°) usually required in those states which have laws on the subject, and at this factory such temperatures were reached only occasionally. The Penn- sylvania law requires 178° F., Iowa 185, Minnesota 180 and Michigan 185, with the option of 145 for thirty minutes. All of the factories except two, however, were using temperatures high enough to meet the requirements of the option allowed by the Michigan law. These two factories were also losing a great part of the value of pasteurization by adding separator slop and water after the whey was too cool to kill bacteria. One other factory followed this same practice so that pasteurization, which otherwise would have been effective, was rendered unsatisfactory. The temperatures necessary to kill disease germs have been studied by a number of men. The work has been summarized by Rosenau,* who verifies the conclusions by work of his own. As low a temperature as 140° F. for 20 minutes has been found to * Rosenau, M. J. The Thermal Death Point of Pathogenic Microorganisms in Milk. U.S. Public Health and Marine Hospital Service, Hygienic Labora- tory Bul. 42, 1908. PROCEEDINGS OF SEVENTEENTH NORMAL INSTITUTE 287 render tubercle bacilli unable to produce tuberculosis, but this margin of safety is narrow. A temperature of 178° F. will kill disease-producing bacteria almost instantly, and when whey is held at that temperature for some time there is a wide margin of safety. This temperature also produces chemical changes in the whey which are detectable by the use of a simple chemical test. In addition to destroying disease-producing bacteria, pasteuri- zation greatly improves the feeding value of whey by killing yeasts and bacteria which produce undesirable changes in the whey. Pasteurization prevents the separation and consequent loss of butter fat, and saves a large part of the milk sugar that is lost by souring in unpasteurized whey. There is a feeling that pasteurization of whey improves the quality of cheese because the patrons’ cans are not seeded with undesirable bacteria when taking whey back to the farm. At the places where pasteurization is in use, neither the cheese men or the farmers would be willing to discontinue the practice. Practically the entire bacterial flora of pasteurized whey was found to consist of Bacillus bulgaricus. This is the long ‘rod form of lactic acid organism. The ordinary sour milk bac- teria are short rods or even spherical in shape. B. bulgaricus develops in large numbers in the warm whey as it cools over night, but never produces as much acid as it would if the whey were not pasteurized. 5.5.4.. DEB ALNES Testers «ae toasts Jan. 19 3 280 93 Shortviracts-... 2. S. B. Luckey, Fillmore....... Jan. 13 3 304 101 Stanardsaeeek oh ee W. U. Rixford, R. D. 1, Wells- pial chee a ae aan mene = mea Jan. 20 3 250 83 West Clarksville..... GA. Goss, R. D: 2) ‘Cuba: - |) Jan. 17 3 185 62 Whitesville.......... Genwi MeKeen ns. cee. Jan. 24 3 445 148 BROOME: . 13 655 50 Beep iseville: ....| C. D. Wasson, Nineveh....... Mar. 15 1 30 30 VESTN BL 7 eet. Bee ID RS Vincente: sty eee Teb. 23 3 134 45 North Colesville... .. S. A. Holcomb, R. D., Tunnel.| Mar. 14 2 145 73 West Chenango...... lal ie Johnson, R. D. 1, John- BOUUC Thy elec one Feb. 24 3 159 53 Whitney Point...... WieebDiVialentines 06-6 oo cee Feb. 26 2 58 29 WiANGSORS ote... shies A. B. Griffen, R. D. 6, Susque- HANNA EAM et eee ee Jan. 8 2 129 65 CaTTARAUGUS: 23 2014 88 ASHOrdh nc Reece ee C. L. Hughey, R. D., West alley were ae. baste. core Jan. 10 2 200 100 Mlicdalert ie. oe. Mecies E. N iles, R. D. 1, Sala- ar SSA tower S, Sores: ramen Jan 5 3 138 46 Ellicottville......... AGI OU eps A enero Jan. 6 3 283 94 Farmersville Station..| M. R. Wilder............... Jan. 11 3 356 119 imsdaleteys*. se. oes GouMesBrownerare: hese Jan. 15 3 281 94 Wrachias: 5. 2. :. be - rankresbrgness a, fee ener). Jan. 8 3 365 122 INDO Secon s Gchieo « C. E. Van Aken, Little Valley. ae 4 3 268 89 Rerry spurge.) 2h ae: Gharles Cowden... :....6.2.- Dec. 10 3 123 41 CayuGa: 1916 20 1 566 78 @onquesti is ot. E. 8. Wilcox, R. D. 39, Port ESV LOL ene eee oe ee Mar. 14 3 186 62 Dresserville......... R. R. Lawrence, Moravia... .| Jan. 14 3 163 54 Bast Venice......... Chas. E. Stanton, R. D. 18, WMiOrayiae ey eee eke Cet ee Mar. 3 2 95 48 Rar ayens. 2. i: ay. Me Caiiinnerses etn bee Jan. 20 3 303 101 ocke tt 2b rch riences Havas Cruthens nee ss aoe Jan. 13 3 287 96 Wwascotiaes osu. ces James! Si Keny ones hse: Jan. 15 3 215 72 Weedsport.......... George B. Goodell..... Pee Mar. 4 3 317 106 CHAUTAUQUA: 1915 36 PHBE) 76 FASMVALLe rma act. yes Marle We Gages ue ee ceo: Dec. i7/ 3 220 73 IBroclLone ono a ie Walcox Portland)... sce Dec. 11 3 265 88 ID Cloned B AAE Deere a J. W-. Sanbury, R. D: 79, JAMeEstOwH Ste ie soe Dec. 18 3 275 92 @assadacar si. ostscis's @harlestBardp aes cee Dec. 20 3 185 62 Cherry Creek....... AWE Blaisdelltty ep ee, Dec. 23 3 176 59 Ch yan Ore tite. c,-/oleletete C. W. Vrooman, R. D. 61, North Clymers er ae se Dec. 13 3 374 125 Findley Lake........| Chas. H. Smith, R. D. 51, Sherman eee oe ee Dec. 15 3 326 109 rewasburgs. < <-c)-o..: RAH) Casares heels, eae ais ae Bee r 22 3 224 75 191 Wennedy,= «0s ccc on, Henny baw Harrisses sen. tec Jan. 3 3 106 35 Misa Vallee sc). klieis ole A. S. Harrington, R. D. 25, 1915 Maywillenins Pe aoe ae Dec. 16 3 258 86 PIMELINAW Sac, hs ose oe ChasiD> Virooman ci. oe Dec. 14 3 125 42 Stockton... 5 ......... eM Hamimonden qs os Dec. 21 3 205 68 314 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES InstituTE Work, JuNE 15, 1915, ro June 30, 1916, INcLUsivE — (Continued) ReGuLAR INSTITUTES : i ate AT- AVER- COUNTY AND PLACE LOCAL CORRESPONDENT DATE TEND- | AGE PER SIONS | AncEe | SESSION CHEMUNG: 1916 15 1 074 72 BigsRlAts yee sieht e HA ANSHIAVENS|? steic sree ce tak Feb. 5 3 203 68 ldjub es Saito pres oe LDA DA VOUS AB ee ay SS oer Feb. 16 3 323 108 hicksiseie ete eee Allison Loomis, Lockwood....| Feb. 17 3 166 55 Sullivanville......... Ja He Maliony Ur, eRe iD: 13: Horseheads yi sere a eee Feb. 15 3 238 79 Veteran Grange..... Geo. E. Rundle, Horseheads. .} Feb. 14 3 144 48 CHENANGO: 1915 14 863 62 Beaver Meadow..... Wasa. Webb s.cd.ch atin. Bee. ‘5 21 3 223 74 191 New tBerling:...ace ss Hed, Vaile + 3. oxic Mar. 14 2 205 103 Smithville Flats..... Eee okallmamenyetece oe ser ee ie 25 3 202 67 1 DSMYIN Ae erieieos cies GAG Tunkerseis caccs ctoeetee «c Dee é 20 3 160 53 191 South New Berlin....| H. H. Goodenow............ Mar. 15 2 52 26 West Bainbridge.... . H. H. Lyon, Bainbridge...... Mar. 16 1 21 21 CLINTON: : 1915 16 954 60 Al Gonabietee Sonn set REN bachapelle: .). ee. ne es Dec. 10 3 81 27 @hurubusco.......... Thomas F. Looby..........- Dec. 11 3 125 42 Ellenburg’Center. .:.| C. Di Watson. ....22 220.222. Dec. 14 2 92 46 INTOoers saan. neue James Davidson, Mooers'Forks| Dec. 9 3 84 28 Morrisonville........ W. H. Banker, R. D. 4, Platts- LE Pes is oxeyste at sd StATee ee Dec. 8 3 216 72 Baranae’sstovcr ssn ley: Wag AALS Jeb secpedaye IDR ak Cadyvilles 00. Fo garners oe Dec 7 2 356 178 CoLuMBIA: 1916 21 1 295 62 @laverack*.c.i0s 25s ever UR x res re Feb. 12 3 199 66 @opake? iad. ks Shue & rankiShermant < oe.jenie cle eee Jan. 31 3 242 81 East Chatham....... RMR Sari Grercts/aciecrcna ence ine Feb. 15 3 185 62 Germantown........ ienny. Win gan leer). stein Feb. 10 33 242 81 Tivingston.<. «16a GP atria: .) 45,2 suc apeet ayers Feb. 11 33 202 67 New Lebanon....... B. H. Richmond, New Leb- anon Center. fa cen iae ao oe Feb. 16 3 129 43 Spencertown........ F. C. Goodrich, East Chatham.} Feb. 14 3 96 32 CorTLAND: 20 1 342 67 Cincinnatus......... Ae Mpa Coole rant wtece a tanes ee Mar. 1 3 421 140 @oxrtland:-e +. noe INE eed shu BID scree carte Mar. 11 2 123 62 @uiyler een). cekcek: Gab Milam ay De ae. Mar. 8 1 72 72 Freetown Corners....| Emory Cobb, R. D. 3, Mara- HOM eee ee os cia. te Mar. 2 2 93 47 FTOMERS fore sie, eee 1D oul Drei a ibd al 22 DP Ge Mar. 10 2 121 61 WViarat hones nie oie B. E. Botting / 3 3 193 64 IPreplovecec cee ote oe WW SRootar tao meee bess 9 2 50 25 Taylor Center....... A. H. Loope, R. D., Cincin- MAtUS ee reesei Feb. 29 2 106 53 Texas Valley........ F. G. Carter, R. D. 1, Mara- Phony... Mathes tes ass Mar. 3-4 3 163 54 DELAWARE: 1915 18 915 51 ‘Bloomvilles. ......-- Chas:'O2 Coantarctins cans ocals Dec. 10 3 148 49 Davenport.......... C. G. Maynard, Fergusonville.} Dec 11 3 159 53 Rirarniclin eeepc cre ‘A.W. Rowellewaoe sone Dec 13 3 146 49 Halcottsville........ A. IR: Sanford 2 ttsisey-e.a ciets Dec. v4 3 142 47 (aimden yi 0 «te nie BiCheErylonereecicmiersicice.ee Dec. 15 3 185 62 18 Re) ohne ane oeae Ji: AL Miahallkoiyeccins oles accnscers Dec 9 3 135 45 DutTcHEss: 1916 21 1186 56 Beekman rie. c stews Oscar Shaffer, Hopewell Jct..| Jan. 26 3 187 62 Clinton Corners..... M. E. Knapp, Millbrook..... Feb. 1 3 199 66 Moores Mills........ James Skidmore, Pleasant Val- Uy eee re aad Ce amet Feb. 4 3 164 55 Myers Corners...... H. J. Smith, New Hackensack.| Feb. 3 3 114 33 Pleasant Plains...... F. M. Barker, Staatsburg.....] Feb. 5 3 280 93 Pleasant Valley...... @hasaS Tanner cian sence Feb. 2 3 71 24 Upper Red Hook....| Curtis Fraleigh, Red Hook....| Feb. 9 3 171 a¥i Req@uuagk Instirute Work 315 Institute Work, JuNE 15, 1915, ro June 30, 1916, INcLUstvE — (Continued) REGULAR INSTITUTES erie AT- AVER- COUNTY AND PLACE LOCAL CORRESPONDENT DATE sions | TEND- | AGE PER ANCE | SESSION ERIE 1915 27 2109 78 INS TOES Se CIC Bein Stricklandiscn,- aac ae as Dec. 4 3 269 90 Angola... EP Aar atten Chas. E. Backus, Derby......| Dec. 8 3 207 69 Clarence....... a LOhmMSeyiangs tan. Seaeiacedecce Dec. 3 3 207 69 @rittenden 04... Gre Se Aviersivtt i tiys.4is faye these ete Dec. 2 3 187 62 Hden Center. .....5- WA. Clark dens soc. ieee Dec. 9 3 200 67 Griffins Mills........ R. C. Grover, West Falls..... Noy. 29 3 162 54 Misia aes oe We Be Taylors oe tet toe caiiaons Dee. 1 3 296 99 Swormvalle.s.......-- RO VetA SH Vel trccis, rere ees, c1- Dec. 6 3 400 133 Williamsville........ W. H. Beach, Forks......... Nov. 30 3 181 60 Essex: 19 1614 85 Crown Pomt:. >. -.5: Wisi. Greens ....screcitts ot Nov. 30 3 195 65 Vir cpavabeadines a rotin1 a, wis Francis D. Lennon.......... Dec. 6 3 484 161 Keeseville........... Se He Rhompsonyae eee Dee. 4 3 170 57 Moriah iscsi G. W. Witherbee, Moriah Ctr.| Dec. 1 3 280 93 Olmstedville........ F. M. LaBar, Minerva....... Oct. 20 2 169 85 Reberkt ae eisioetecie ss. 3. GESH Westiccis: chp tase eis.sie Dec. 3 3 213 71 Wadhamsivvers «5-0. GGeommke Mrenchs onesies <2 Dec 2 2 103 52 FRANKLIN: 16 921 58 IBarigeOben iets acters teers W. D. Taylor, North Bangor..| Dec. 15 2 Z(t 36 L3forralolhyn tno OO CUO Geot-Rockwood®.: ....2. 3-2: Dec. 17 3 128 43 IBrushtontseeme see George DeLong! .......:..:. Dec. 20 3 208 69 Dickinson Center....| Lewis P. Peets.............. Dec. 21 2 147 74 Gabriela tics dace J.J. FitzGerald, Harrietstown.| Dec. 13 3 156 52 Westville Corners....| H. E. Hoyt, Constable....... Dec. 16 3 211 70 GENESEE: 1916 26 2 367 91 BarlKaddera = sf! E fo) © s foal < ° 4 > o oO fo) to to Wo to o a sor] © 316 Report oF FarMeErs’ INSTITUTES INSTITUTE Worx, June 15, 1915, to June 30, 1916, IncLustvE — (Continued) Reeuuar INSTITUTES COUNTY AND PLACE LOCAL CORRESPONDENT DATE SS = SIONS LEwIs: il7/ Barnes Corners...... Cs Bs iGreenley. . 56:6) ce ek Dec. 8 3 Copenhagen......... A. M. Seymour... tee al Dee: 9 3 Croghanteeen ss oe P. J. Ulrich, R. De eee Dec. 3-4 5 Glenfield: 22. 5... 4). AMES testa coset k ee eer Dec. 6 3 Harrisburg. ......... F. J. Grupe, R. D. 2, Lowville.| Dec. i 3 LIVINGSTON: 1916 20 @aledoniat. cn... tans Merton helps. pce bene ee ce | Feb. 3 G@onesis se oa aoe Charles McGinty..2..05 558 Feb. 8 S Greigsville. .. 2... 4... Ker OhnSOn. Apssee ere Feb. 10 3 Groveland.........- E. W. Kinney, Groveland Sta.| Feb. 11 3 Nand ae ties erde es H. F. Collister, Mt. Morris...| Jan. 26 3 Sparta Center....... Rev. W. A. Brown, Dansville.| Feb. 12 2 Springwater......... Scott owartss-¢. pole eee Feb. vi 3 Maptson: 34 Brookheld= ies ee C. W. Caminga, R. D., West Hdmestontn. -kekae ences Mar. 13-14 5 : 1915 WaZENOVIA secs--scacte CaGuKentfeoe-o eats Dec. ‘ 14 3 1916 DevRuyiteraa = er Rev. A. L. Briddon......... Mar. 7-8 4 1915 IBrieville ss foes jaccvse ee nS Am Warners.+.c anyone Dec. 16 3 Henners = fom sce oe @;) SAS ‘Colemant Re Diet, Chittenangor +5.) lane Dec. 13 3 Mamiltons nce ose Wie Slap alsin Bs abe eecra cue ore & Dec.° 18 2 1916 Hubbardsville....... Fay I. Rhoades, R. D., Hub- bardsvilles. cheek tite. Mar. 10 2 1915 ebanoniones. ¢- 3/4552 ASH a Coletermrre piece cern Dec. ile 3 Miaidisonts see cos dot W. T. Taylor, Solsville....... Dec. 23 3 New Woodstock..... A. L. LaMunion, R. D., New 1916 Woodstock nce cna Mar. 6 3 1915 Stockbridge......... C. E. Love, Munnsville...... Dec. 22 3 MONROE: 1916 31 Churchville......... LGsy le blll Ae ea Ae ae Oe lelS Feb. 3 3 SIDER he bes ener: s cis dieters J.C. Curry, Jr., Lincoln Park.| Feb. 2 3 IGTEECER EE tease ius soteretay J. S. Kenyon, Barnard....... Feb. 18 3 isimlanmeyeepe cee ae C. H. Kenyon, Morton.. ..| Beb. 16 3 1a lthoy nes Sols omitted c iB Seoldenss bret ecm Lee Feb. 17 3 Mendonk 198. ...5.24 PN Oieela Hie WArgvoyeds See sooo Feb. 28 2 Rentield ee cic. sna toe Ja HO Avanionts Senha ise: Feb. 12 3 Pittston dss aetescsce cycle JeeMEnlodd yey tase ce hee Jan. 24 3 Webster mieiicccec cs Geos We Duinni Soe toca oe Feb. 25-26 5 West Henrietta...... ETE AU cellar tiivacy. b rotohereteietetecxeveks Jan 25 3 MOoNnrTGoMERY: 1915 15 Canajoharie (Seeber’s Lane Grange)..... C. L. St. John, Canajoharie...| Dec. 3 3 Charleston-Four- Corners...... ek Sa: O; (A. “Dillapaugh, Re Ds 1, Slosusyillesey peers Dec. 1 3 Hallsyille seer. ae Grant Moyer, R. D. 2, Fort PLATT en. geht eceshc ne Dec. 4 3 Manavailles sc. tee Jas \eed s Uhh ea eee eee en Nov 29 3 Rural (Grove... soe A. H. Diefendorf, Sprakers Dec 2 3 NAssav: 1916 4 Mamneola). 5 /c)ss screlec De IRE SUM ONISEt eecketele eokcressrorels Jan. 25-26 4 NIAGARA: 26 Gasport iis estos ois s E. ee ca R. D. 8, Lock- Bnei tae een ae Feb. 5 3 Johnson’s Creek..... w we Prudom, Senor by Feb. a 3 INewianeico 2). :sle cece EK. J. Lapham, Burt.. Feb. 4 3 Rekiniey.factamrercstci econ A. J. Bridgeman, ROD. 173 WSADDOLD ae Geimieeaias Mates Feb. 1 3 AT- | AVER- TEND- | AGE PER ANCE SESSION 1,491 88 184 61 200 67 819 164 113 38 175 58 1,427 71 226 75 270 90 167 56 206 69 241 80 105 53 212 ql 1,893 56 342 68 121 40 400 100 135 45 243 81 72 36 78 39 121 40 108 36 140 47 133 44 2,660 86 178 59 179 60 199 66 184 61 313 104 93 47 202 67 297 99 756 151 259 86 765 51 186 62 136 45 204 68 119 40 120 40 192 48 192 48 2,440 94 298 99 290 97 207 69 151 Requiar Instirvtre Work Institute Work, June 15, 1915, tro June 30, 1916, Inctustve — (Continued) REGULAR INSTITUTES : AT- AVER- COUNTY AND PLACE LOCAL CORRESPONDENT DATE eee TEND- | AGE PER ANCE | SESSION Nracara — Continued 1916 Pendleton Center....| L. J. P. Richards, R. D. 4, MOCK MOLES Pate acne Ao ee ee Feb. 12 3 268 89 Ransomville......... PD Wasnen- fas. se oaes te Feb. 2 3 242 81 IRapidsiecnicses csc oc C. = Burdick, R. D. 6, Lock- 1915 = Te 4 a eae Dec. 7 3 364 121 Tuscarora Reservation) S. Be Cae R. D. 18, Lewiston Nova 19 g 117 59 WWalsOnisicc netics cece ReMaHarleys Burt...22--. 2s Feb. 3 3 202 67 ONEIDA: 1915 17 1,070 63 Boonvillesag 4: ee. DME Bluemascrs teas re eer aa ee 2 3 114 38 1 Bridgewater......... H. H. Fitch, West Winfield Man 11 2 97 49 OVP iteravere.cus oe os Wm. G. Smith, Stittville..... Dec 1 3 154 51 [bee 4 So Sana ae B. F. Ranney, Taberg........ Dec. 10 3 155 52 Vernon Center...... Richard’beenstra.. s+) see ec Sia 11 3 285 95 1 WVICLONA eA = 2c ee slave Judson Davis, Verona Station.| Jan 27 3 265 88 ONONDAGA: Poi 1,601 59 Baldwinsville........ ORT Browse 4.5 fa een Jan il”) 3 276 92 @anmlluissecis acco ALS BI, IMMER AS obec sae oooe Jan 28 3 96 32 Cicera mate e oe ke HNC: Hazard! Clay... 3. .5.-: Jan 24 3 291 97 damesvilley. . Sots. 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C Jaouedg uoRG YIAON panuyury —VdOLJ, HOVId GNV ALNNOO penuyuog — GAISOTONT ‘OT6T ‘OE ANOGL Ox ‘eT 6] ‘GT ANOLE ‘sUTMUOM ALALILGSNT NGWO\\ Ad GASSHUdGY SONILAAJ TIVIOddg ANV SNOISSUQ ALALILSNT UVINOAY ANV ‘SNOISSAY $,NAWO AM TVIOGdg JO GUOORY DNIMOHY aay, M ‘ 5 L +1 9 ) LAR InstituTE Work +U Ree | Oe ee Boe ih oe oe —r DO ee ee oe tare enn LO ee ee oe oe —r Ween etn Ce OO coe I oo | 9T6I ‘OT OIGL ‘8% OI6L ‘IT OIGI ‘2% OT6I ‘2 OI6L ‘FZ OT6I ‘61 OT6I ‘SZ OI6L ‘LT OI6L ‘St-#z OI6T ‘61 9161 9IGL ‘ST 9I6I “EZ OL6L ‘ZS CI6I’ 6 OT6I ‘9% OT6I ‘T 9161 ‘SZ 961% 9T6I ‘T O16I ‘TZ 9161 ‘FZ SI6I 1S ST6I ‘ST CI6I ‘61 yuasaid aq 0} a,qeun 19yeeds $10} POSUBIIG BUIII x “qayy Siva) loli oir elv abel ra) A /s)a/talveltaiteltei\es/aitwine TEquryy AB IN SSITNI Cine NOL Gorter BAC YON ‘ur Tr a\ Tow eilebevreverety ‘ay [Asoutesy ‘IO[AR OnoGe SLING Swireres aes OSB} IEPT TY fl uIoTOYy oNgey ‘sap | a][TASOTMOD, O19 pal | een Cie SCREEN CaM ‘Jon RUG SLIAIN | oa Saw es oe a]iysBO ‘ues wire fei tsi feierts eh Aysnpueg ‘UBUIMO NT oti Te) “SIJAL ais pare a] bicahs) a staatenta/l eter eine apRoly >DNINOAM SU Cae Somes hes THs420d ‘Sor, eur ssi, |° °° asuesy ypueys109 . [UALSAHOLSA A OC Ol qIeIO ppne sayy [ot 410910 MA ‘qaq [oct syunquieg “Yd sa [oc WOSUITTEAA saep [oro r ett eee TeHCee AN SEI ee royng yNog inyt, ses enper arent $1,274,765 There is also a union of credit societies called ‘* Wurtemberg Societies,” having 1,141 societies; another at Baden, with 416 societies; and another, called the “‘ Rhenish Prussian Auditing Credit Union,” with 345 societies. Besides the above, there are also 1,598 societies belonging to the Urban Industrial Credit Unions. ee Sprctat LECTURES 361 As soon as the cooperative credit unions are more developed and understood in this country, and once they are federated into state leagues and then into national or federal leagues, I am sure that they could be made as useful and popular in this country as they are in Germany and other European countries. AGRICULTURAL CREDIT We shall now consider the other form of rural credit — the so-called long-term or agricultural credit. When the New York State Legislature passed the Land Bank Law in 1914, the first group of farmers to take advantage of it were the Jewish farmers residing in Sullivan and Ulster counties, who, with the help of their national organization, the Federation of Jewish Farmers of America, organized the First Farmers’ Sav- ings and Loan Association. This association is recognized as the first and only farmers’ organization by the Superintendent of Banks of the State of New York, Hon. E. L. Richards. As I said before, I shall not give you the theory of the need of agricul- tural credit, but will try to tell you how we went about organizing it, and of what benefit it has been to us. A large number of Jews have settled in Sullivan and Ulster counties within the last eleven to twelve years, and a number of them have built on their farms large boarding houses or hotels in which they accommodate summer boarders. As many of the Jews who settled there came with a rather small capital, and as the building of these boarding houses or hotels, together with other necessary buildings, required a large amount of capital, the farm- ers were obliged to go to private individuals; these individuals took advantage of the need of capital, with the result that bonuses of from 20 to 35 per cent were not unusual. In addition to these heavy bonuses, most of these loans were made for a short period, of five to seven years. As time went on the periods became shorter, so that many of these mortgages are now made for three to four years. The result was that the farmers, in addition to paying heavy bonuses, were also obliged every year to pay heavy legal expenses ; besides, they were constantly worrying about losing their property 362 Report oF FarMers’ INSTITUTES by not being able to meet the payments. Recognizing what a great help a financial institution to remedy the situation would be to these people, a preliminary meeting was held at ‘Centerville Station, June 4, 1914, at which, with the help of several officials interested in the Land Bank, the First Farmers’ Savings and Loan Association was organized. Any savings and loan association incorporated under the laws of New York State can become a member of the Land Bank of the State of New York on payment of a share of $1,000; there- fore, the First Farmers’ Savings and Loan Association at once became a member. About one month ago we received our first installment of $5,000 from the sale of the debenture bonds issued by the Land Bank. In order to secure these loans, we were obliged to place with the Land Bank mortgages amounting to a little over $6,000. All these mortgages are deposited for safe keeping with the State Comptroller’s office in Albany. We just received a notice from the Land Bank to file an additional applica- tion for money. According to law we are entitled to $15,000 more, provided, of course, we will give them the. necessary mortgages. On account of the present financial condition, it was not deemed advisable for the Land Bank directors to issue these bonds for longer than ten years. They have sold them for 41% per cent, charging us 14 per cent additional for expenses, so that our association gets them for 5 per cent; we lend out this money, as well as our-own, at 6 per cent interest. While this may appear rather a high rate of interest, you must remember that all the profits belong to the shareholders of the association, and that we expect in the near future to get money on more advantageous terms from the Land Bank, when we shall be able in turn to reduce our rates of interest to the farmers. Our savings and loan association recently held its second annual meeting in Centerville Station, and I can give you the following interesting data from the annual report: We made altogether five loans on farms as follows: $800, $1,700, $3,200, $3,500, and $3,000, making a total of $12,200. The law permits us to grant loans up to 60 or 70 per cent, but we have SprciaL LEcTURES 363 in all cases granted less than 50 per cent, as the following table will show: Amount Value Percentage of of of Loan Acres Farm Mortgage $800 100 $7000 11 1700 62 4950 35 3200 108 8900 36 3500 48 6700 41 3000 170 8500 35 From the above table you will see that we were very careful and conservative in making our loans. It may interest you to know that on the few loans mentioned above we have saved two farmers from losing their farms entirely, one of which has paid in the last ten years nearly $2,000 in bonuses. One of the men, to whom we gave a loan of $3,200, was offered a loan for five years, but he would have to pay bonuses of $800. On a loan of $1,700 we saved a man a bonus of $150, and on a small loan of $800 we saved a bonus of $80. We now have on hand applications from farmers for loans amounting to nearly $80,000; and, had we sufficient funds, we should have no difficulty in placing ten times that amount on first mortgages in the territory in which we are operating. It is a very easy matter for any group of farmers to organize a savings and loan association and become a member of the Land Bank and thus be able to serve their community. The savings and loan associations of this state are under the supervision of the Banking Department. They have been in existence for a large number of years and are conducted in a conservative and economic way. None of them pay large salaries to officers; in fact, their expenses are circumscribed by the statutes. I cannot understand why a large number of farmers in this state have not taken advantage of them. It is true that the savings and loan associations, as originally planned, are better adapted for city employees, who receive a regular monthly or weekly wage, and who are thus afforded an opportunity for saving money and acquiring homes on easy payments; but there is abso- lutely no reason why farmers of every state—particularly farmers residing within comparatively short distances from New York City—cannot organize savings and loan associations in their midst. 364 Report oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES The local banks, the business man, the retired capitalists that live in your village, the commuters that work in the nearby cities, your son and daughter, and you yourself — be you gardener, dairy- man, or fruit grower — could use this savings and loan association for putting away a certain definite amount every week or month, for investing your savings in larger sums in shares of the savings and loan association, or in any other way prescribed by law the savings and loan association could be used as an institution for savings and thrift. As soon as your capital reaches $10,000 or over, you can buy a share in the Land Bank for $1,000, send your mortgages to the Land ‘Bank and get 80 per cent of their value, and reinvest that money in other mortgages. This will certainly help to develop your community, attract more people to your village, and in general help the prosperity of your farmers, as well as all residents of your district. Just now our Sixty-Fourth Congress is in session, and I under- stand 118 bills have already been introduced for the improvement of rural credit.* Undoubtedly some rural credit legislation will be passed at this session, and it may afford a better opportunity for the improvement of rural credit; but in the meantime every farming community, particularly in New York State, should get busy and take advantage of the excellent Land Bank already in existence. I hope that the local, state, and national granges, as well as other national farmers’ organizations, our State Department of Agri- culture, all our extension departments, and the agricultural col- | leges, will bring the problem of rural credit to the farmers. The problem of production of crops has been discussed for years by these institutions, and the time has come when the proper financing, which includes also marketing, should be developed. Every one interested in the promotion of agriculture in this country should make every possible effort to familiarize every farmer with this subject. * The bill known as “ The Federal Farm Loan Act” was approved July 17, 1916. 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Oo cucen yonoig ae | SET MONON TICE Oto GuOwnio’ sIoMog ‘Ww SST] Biosci af ‘uouese AA UBA porer Sinica coed ou A4sTV UvA PIBVMPT donosison¢ sdjoyg ‘dq tug *SITAT aieifaieWarcie te U0} SULIIG FT Sg ‘TI “SITAT Aritubameiccie ouAys[Y UBA PIMP] JOM “A bette JO|PULYO "HM “JOld shelites® AIOWIOSUOP “4 “HT “JOIg eas “eu Aqs[y UBA PIBAPT OST 0€ O9T at GES SFI ST OOT OF g¢ 006 LT £66 SAG OST are are Ate GI6I ‘9 9161 ‘9 9I6I ‘9 9I6I ‘S 9T6I ‘8Z-Lz SI6I ‘8 SI6I 'Z 9T6I ‘ST SI6I ‘8 9T6T ‘GT SI6I ‘OT 9I6I ‘€ SI6I ‘OI-8 GI6I ‘ST SIG ‘SZ a0UBIOJUOD JI] [ean], “AON Ol (elte ‘mj MUYie| stele) wel eé: eral sie WOYVYSTY Avy Sirelje}atie’/oitpastie/iehe Joyua¢) d[[LAuee ry IB] Site} wi4) 18114) s/veljereivelts telisiq ites a] [[AUsery) ICN ty Cad neon tc Oso ok wie weying 4seqy :ONGGTUL) oune SACO MOMS Ter OVO My artconnce BIARe /GASANAY) ‘2a(q vifel eye OS. ee dele ve (este lellel/eheie SUIBYPE AA :Xassq 20] Siceieiiul ules Umla,aliel@lalalie! pile YOOIQTTAL aune sVeNelewenetatanene Ag|S1ourUIe F] ayeT :SSHHOLAC 20 Oo OOO OAD OG 4YS119105] Y4AON Judy Da Oech elu DOL Ja}Ua¢) 44,0078 FT /GUVAVTEC any girefuinelat an@corelies whwie fer ei ckeice puvy}109 SANVTILUOS) oune Ce OCHO lc Oo) OO an) uoueqe'T MON “AON Shy) wileiie 6st lelTewiey\ei_a’ep lia Sani en ete uospny{ adag we) a0 Ge a elute a Ove 6a ¢; on =) i 018 88 ‘sny RAchoholerend eye Te terewe WAV 1109/7], Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES dISNAT so1do} auloyy UO}YvIysUOUIap Suryooo ‘sordo} euox] UOeIJsSUOWIAp Suryood ‘soido} auox{ SISO[NIIOQN} BULAO JO [OIWUOD so1d0} suloyzy sordoy otIox] so1d0} oul0;T sordoy owoz{ s01d04 auloFT dISNT sjooyos [Bini Axyunoo uedo pue yoyo UOI}eI{SUOUIAp — SOSIO}] SRE heciteet dois Avy UVUL B SULYR IN, drysuez1410 yeinyy sulunid puv Surseids ‘se0yey0d poas PUB S}¥O pods SUI}ve14 — U0T}R.14SUOUIEC suiunid puv Sursevids ‘so0yej0d poas puv $380 poas SuIyve14 — UOIZBAysUOUIEd Logrdas Sooo o.coro oo 4 yny ‘g BIBS SSTP/AT Somat td sdjoyd ‘d PQ ‘SIj eParsunishey ce UOPSULLIV YY *S “[ “SIP Too o ome 5 sdjeyg fall B1IO ‘SIT Prous | “UoTOSe AA ueA pores TOON OG Oa So sdpoug “al C1IO “SIAL nononoaa o sdjoyg oT B1IO “SIT VO OOnN GO 5 sdjoyd Pal e110 “SIT Co eto rn o sdjoud “al e110 “SIT coo onoOnAa a sdjoug Cal B1IO ‘SIT eae uesouly ‘WY SBUIOUT, “Iq OOD Om Ootito WO 4 Aaleg ‘H ahi “Ad panes ouAys[y UGA PILAPK | hl oe ou AST Vy UvA PIVBMPH Bimielaenelavels.é iste soryduin yy ‘Vv 9) SO cerry Ont Curetir x SuT[e}OP] UIC ye eae COR SUSVeUIS EE VO OW OY Choe i td Sul[eyO TT TIBI] MA. 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On account of the abundance of war news, it was impossible to obtain the newspaper notices of this work that had been given in previous years. Nevertheless, the attendance was good, and the interest was never better. This is doubtless due to two reasons — the practical, conservative nature of the work, and the additional fact that Professor O. S. Morgan, dean of the Agricultural School, has established a place for himself among the agricultural teachers of the state. Located as he is in the great metropolis, his con- servatism and honesty, as well as his practicability, are becoming widely appreciated at a time when the public is suffering from a horde of would-be agricultural leaders, conspicuous because of their vagaries and wonder-tales as well as their impractical ideas. It had been our intention to publish the entire list of lectures in this report, but it has been impossible to secure all the manu- script. Professor Morgan’s statement as to the work is given below, followed by several of the lectures given at the University during the past year. INSTITUTE FOR CITY-DWELLING FARMERS O. S. Morean Dean, Agricultural School, Columbia University, New York City The work of the third year of the institute has been satisfac- torily closed. The cooperation of the State Department of Agri- culture has been appreciated by many persons coming to the Institute, as well as by Columbia University. The object of the work is to give as nearly as possible practical advice on matters agricultural to all people of New York City who are interested in farming and agriculture and who desire such help from us. The institute has no axe, large or small, to grind — unless the desire on the part of its sponsors to be of constructive service to a number of citizens may be so considered. It is not [373 | RS’ INSTITUTES = ) 4 Report or Farm 2 AUVUAl'T GH], — ALISUAAIN() VIAWAI0D — OGG “DIA CoopPpERATIVE Work witH Cotumpra UNIVERSITY 315 the agitator of a “forward” or “ back-to-the-farm ” movement. In being the expositor of practical farming, its distinct tendency is to dampen the enthusiasm for farming that too often charac- terizes the city man with a hobby for farming. It has a wholesome tendency to prevent suicidal plunging into farming by the ‘* tired- of-city-life ” scientific knowledge and experience requisite to the successful management of a farm of reasonable acreage, diversification, and capital. We have distributed about 2,000 farm subject bulletins during the year. These have been willingly contributed by the New York State Department of Agriculture, the New York State College of Agriculture, the New York Experiment Station, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, ete. We have set apart a small, but convenient, conference room for the institute. Last year there seemed to be some eall for such a man or woman, through its frequent reference to the place. Experience this year indicates that generally there is little need for such accommodations, as most inquirers are better satis- fied with the brief replies to their questions made at the close of the lectures and with the correspondence resulting from the plan out- lined in the next paragraph. Through a simple blank calling for address and subject of inquiry, it has been possible to help many persons attending the institute in a very definite way. The work of answering the 400 to 500 inquiries resulting from the blank has fallen on the cooperating office at Columbia University. This phase of the work seems to do more than supplant the conference room with its demand for attention one day a week during the course of the institute. The approximate attendance for each lecture and the total is given below: DATE 1915 SUBJECT AND SPEAKER ATTENDANCE Dec. 3 “Abandoned Farms and the City Man’s Opportuni- ties in Farming”—E. van Alstyne, Director of Harmers:) Institutes; Albany, Ni. Yi. 2258.25... 135 Dec. 10 “Building Up the Dairy Herd Through Breeding ”— Dr. O. C. Bowes, Columbia University............ 65 Dec. 17 “ Peach Growing in the East ”—A. T. Henry, Walling- POT Pe © OME spp eee rer etn ee reais sical ater che tian d) re prebese'e 45 376 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES DATE 1916 SUBJECT AND SPEAKER ATTENDANCE Jan. 7 “Profitable Feeding Practices for the Dairy Herd ”— Dr. O. C. Bowes, Columbia University............ 45 Jan. 14 “Clean Milk; Its Production and Importance to Pro- ducer and Consumer ”— Prof. C. W. Larson, Colum- 1a WMIVETSUGY Ase Swank: Mei ne eC ey aoe neo eters OE 107 Jan. 21 “Greenhouse Gardening ”—W. B. Nissley, School of Aernguiligeds, IWprmamineekle, We Wo oassconucoboagene 82 Jan. 28 “ Amateur and Commercial Flower Production ”— Prof. H. A. White, Cornell University.--...--.--.....- 100 Feb. 4 “Beekeeping in the East ’”’—J. H. M. Cook, Caldwell, TIS Restated sehen Sikcy Cra ach hci ORC cere PORNO 85 Feb. 11 “Beef and Veal Production in the East ”—Dr. O. C. Bowes; Columbia Umiversityee tee) ee ao eee 50 Feb. 18 “ Farm Manures vs. Commercial Fertilizers ”— Dr. T. H. Haton, ColumbiasUmiversitivare eee een: Oo: 60 Feb. 25 “Vegetable Gardening”— Paul Work, Cornell Uni- WETSULY Ltt ako arene eee ee eee ey eee 70 March 3 “Importance and Outlook of Apple Orcharding in the East ”— Edward van Alstyne, Director of Farmers’ Institutes; Albaniy.oN WY Aer) bee acr rine ee ae ete 60 March 10 “ The Central Packing House and the Importance of Grading and Packing pe ”__¥', S. Welsh, Agri- culturist, N. Y. C. vate ae Tae 50 March 17 “ Agricultural Law as Rae Producer and Consumer in New York ”— George L. Flanders, State Depart- ment of Agriculture; Albamy,uNE Youee sec cee eieins 50 March 24 “Farm Accounts and Farm Management ”— A. J. Nicoll, State Department of Agriculture, Albany, Y. a tala A ho OO UPC Oe ee Oa 62 March 31 “ Agricultural Education ; the Interrelation of Theory and Practice”— Jared Van Wagenen, jr., State Department of Agriculture, Albany, IN; Vee: 60 April 7 “ Marketing; the Paramount Problem in Farming ”— C. R. White, State Department of Agriculture, Alp aim ys ING PVG a crcite oso. ebe ce =! sito! getcuewsl Stoeeyout is nemeusrobone 50 April 14 “The Outlook for Farmers in the East ”*— Dr. B. T. Galloway, Dean, N. Y. State College of Agricul- tures. Cornell SUmivercsiiyacc1eumrtoeiceerie te oie 60 Total “attenGdancew. o = cis. ota Cie oe eee carte 1236 This does not signify that there were 1,236 different persons in attendance. From the partial list made up from address slips handed in, it is concluded that from six to eight hundred different persons came to the lectures during the course. The subjects that most often raise questions are such as tie up with farm management, marketing, fruit growing, poultry, and hog production. The coming year, therefore, should look to the provision of lectures and conferences by experts along these lines. EE ae CooPpERATIVE WorK witH CoLuMBIA UNIVERSITY OTT. ABANDONED FARMS AND THE CITY MAN’S OPPORTUNITIES IN FARMING EpWaArD VAN ALSTYNE New York State Director of Farmers’ Institutes My subject, as the title indicates, is a dual one, with just enough interrelation to justify presenting it as one. First, I give you the underlying facts, and, if you will accept them, we shall be in a position to draw conclusions, which I hope may be helpful. So antagonistic are the pictures held up depicting our New York farm conditions that it is no wonder, when the western man thinks of them, that too frequently he thinks of a land of aban- doned, worn-out farms, a fit habitation only for serpents, where agriculture is on the decline, overwhelmed by manufacture and commerce. Another picture, with a somewhat different back- ground, conveys the idea that great areas of farm land, well- watered and fertile, are crying for a purchaser, at prices less than the cost of the buildings; while the land is only waiting for a touch of the magic wand of an occupant — no matter how slight his knowledge may be of matters of earth earthly — which will cause it to bud and blossom like Aaron’s rod, and yield “ seed to the sower and bread to the eater.” Both extremes are erroneous. Underneath them lies a grain of truth, most misleading and therefore harmful, both to the indi- vidual and to the state. A partial truth is always more dangerous than an outright le. The latter is bound to die of its own weight ; the former, with the earmarks of truth, lives and continues to exert an evil influence. In this case the truth is found between the two extremes. LAND AREAS A few figures from the last federal census are worthy of con- sideration. There were in 1900, 226,720 farms in the state; in 1910, 215,597 — a decrease of 11,123. This may be accounted for by a few farms being abandoned, or, more often, attached to other farms. Some have been absorbed by commercial concerns ; others taken into municipalities for building purposes, parks, or for public utilities; and others by eleemosynary or penal institu- tions, several farms being taken together in one large tract. Such 8 Report or Farmers’ INstTirures is the case at Yorktown, Westchester County, where what in 1900 was four farms now comprises the four-hundred-acre tract where eventually the boys from Blackwell’s Island are to be located. In not a few instances wealthy men have combined a number of farms into a great estate. This latter is to be deplored, for such agricul- ture has usually been unprofitable from an economic standpoint, however alluring the scheme may appear on paper — even more deplorable from the fact that citizenship is destroyed. Where there were a dozen or more farm owners — citizens more or less vitally interested in all that concerns the best interests of the community — their places have been taken by transients, or hire- lings, who have little thought other than to eat and drink and draw their stipend. The total land area of the state consists of 30,498,560 acres.. In 1900 there were in farms, 22,648,109 acres; in 1910, a decrease of 617,742 acres. The above 22,030,367 acres figures prove the truth of the reasons given for the decrease in farms. In 1900, the size of the average farm was slightly less than 100 acres; in 1910, somewhat over 102 acres. If we divide the decrease in acres by the decrease in farms, the average would be 551% acres as the size of the absorbed farms. More important is the number of acres reckoned as improved farm land. In 1900 it was 15,599,986 acres; in 1910, 14,844,039 acres — a decrease of 755,947. This decrease is accounted for by the fact that many of the lands listed as improved in 1900 are no longer being used for farm purposes. I am very sure a fuller knowledge of the facts would show that, in the economic evolution during the last decade in agricultural conditions, not a few acres considered worth counting as improved land at the beginning of the century were not so considered ten years later. Probably in some cases this was because of bad farming — for it is bad farming in the last analysis so to handle land as to decrease its productive value — and in more cases because men have seen the wisdom of putting their efforts on their best lands, which are more economically tilled nearer centers of population, letting the less desirable literally go to grass or to woodlands, of which more anon. —————e CooPpERATIVE WorRK WITH CoLUMBIA UNIVERSITY aLyL§ MYOX MAN NI Ny adooy No doug NYoQO— TES ‘sy AR aE VARA bs ora nt + eats oe Ry 4. ey ¥ Ly m AE. 380 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES Here are some figures which to my mind are very significant: As shown by the last census there were 15,824,840 acres operated by owners; by managers, 838,476 acres — nearly nineteen times as many owners as managers. In 1900, there were 6,119,706 acres occupied by tenants; in 1910, 5,367,051 acres — a decrease in acres of 752,655. Why are these figures significant? Because they show that more than four-fifths of New York acres are farmed by owners rather than managers, and that in the last ten years three quarters of a million acres less are farmed by tenants than in the previous decade. With all respect to the many excellent managers and the large number of good tenant farmers, the fact is patent that a system of second-hand, absent-ownership farming means a decline in production and consequently in land values, and, as a further consequence, in citizenship — more deplorable than either. There can be no really successful agriculture without permanency on the land. The tenant system of Great Britain, which some of you may cite to refute my statement, proves it, for that system is based on leases descending from father to son — from generation to generation— and it recognizes permanent improvement. Where the reverse is true, agricultural conditions are most deplorable. A few years ago I sent out a questionnaire over the state, asking among other things as to the number of rented farms. I found that with one exception the counties with the largest proportion of tenants were the least prosperous. The longer the system had been in vogue, the smaller the production and the lower the standard of citizenship. The system as usually followed results in skinning the land, the transient population having no interest beyond the present, and those long-time investments which mean so much are never made. Ditches are stopped; weeds and briers come by the fence corners and gradually encroach into the field; fences and buildings are not repaired; no thought exists as to maintaining the productivity of the land. Then the tenant moves on to repeat the process on the land of some good farmer who has moved to town, and, for lack of occupation and because he has earried his individualism with him, has become a most “ undesir- able citizen.” Such men, either owners or tenants, commit a greater crime against the community than he who commits arson CooPERATIVE WorK wiTH CoLtumMBIA UNIVERSITY 381 or robbery. The latter affect only a few individuals and can be repaired with only a temporary loss. He who burns up the vegetable matter and robs the soil commits a crime against the com- monwealth which a generation will not repair. The exceptional county is that in the Genesee Valley, where large areas of land are owned by my friends, the Wadsworths, who have a system of tenantry not unlike that in England, which is based on building up the land. Most admirably does it succeed, but, alas! it does not make for citizenship. After a man has inhaled the air of America, if he has any vision, he wants to become a landowner, an integral part of the great commonwealth —a most laudable ambition. Here where the land is owned by the few he cannot expect to become an owner, hence as he prospers he must turn his steps to some other region; therefore, his roots never sink very deep into the soil, and he does not become the factor in the community life that he should, for his eyes are always fixed beyond the bounds of his line fences. This decrease in managers and tenants indicates that the state of things outlined is becoming appreciated and that the odium attaching itself to the tiller of the soil, which pictured him as a “rube” with his pants in his boots and hayseed in his hair —a natural victim for any sort of confidence man — is passing away. Such an individual rarely existed. The farmer is appreciating the dignity of his calling and that it is more honorable to follow the plow than the bulls and bears, also that they who follow the latter quite often become shorn lambs. MORTGAGED FARMS Much has been said about mortgaged farms. What are the facts? There are 72,311 farms mortgaged — 35,487 less than half the total number. The sum of farm mortgages is $97,309,848, or an average of $1,346 for each farm mortgaged — surely not an alarming amount. This does not indicate poverty, but rather thrift. The man who purchases a farm—if he has no other resources — must raise his money on his land, just as the merchant must raise his, under like conditions, on his stock of goods. Pay- ing off the mortgage has been the making of many a man. It has stimulated him to secure a home for himself, and has taught him 382 Report oF FarMers’ INSTITUTES lessons of thrift and economy, worth in themselves many times the effort. Of course, there are instances where the mortgage has been as a millstone about the neck and has brought gray hairs with sorrow to an untimely grave; but these were the results of poor judgment, overconfidence, or unforeseen economic changes, such as took place after the opening of the virgin prairies of the West, easy now to understand from a backward look, but not so easily foreseen a half-century ago. The song often sung in our granges —“‘ Do Not Mortgage the Farm ”’— is one of those dan- gerous half-truths to which I have alluded and. unqualified, is not good advice. UNPRODUCTIVE LANDS Much cheap sentiment has been indulged in relating to the so-called abandoned farms of New York and New England. As a matter of fact, of those really abandoned in the sense that nothing is done with the land, there are comparatively few. Many such ought to have been abandoned a generation ago. If one stops to consider, it will be seen that, had this country been settled from the Pacific eastward, thousands of acres that were taken up because of their accessibility by the early settlers in the East would never have been touched by the plow. It is a sign of intelligence and progress when men come to realize that to spend their energies in wringing a scanty living from a naturally sterile soil on the hill- sides, away from markets and the refinements and advantages of the centers, is a useless waste of energy and a deprivation of those things that make life worth while, when less effort would bring manifold more returns if expended in the valleys, which are erying for workmen. At best, on these back hill farms, they can only exist, nor can they expect the succeeding generation to remain there unless such are deficient in vision. A region peopled with this sort of folk soon deteriorates into a condition of things both degrading and pagan. ar better let such land lie idle or be attached to fertile lands in the valley as pasture or woodlands. When the. time comes that there is an increase of population and the better lands are utilized to their full measure of production — which as yet has not come to be approached — such lands may again be profitably farmed, but not now. ts AITIVA Nosda}y{ AHL NI GNW] Wavy —'zee ‘DI Work witH CotumeBia UNIVERSITY E CooPERATIV 384 Report oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES PROSPECTS FOR FORESTRY This naturally brings us to the matter of forestry, something well worth the attention of every one interested in the develop- ment and conservation of our state resources and of those who have funds to invest, but not calling for an immediate income. According to figures recently presented by Dean Baker of the State College of Forestry, the present average income from New York agricultural lands is from four to six dollars per acre. The Black Forests of Germany return from two to four dollars per acre; Saxony receives as high as six dollars per acre from her forest lands. New York shows an area of idle lands greater than the combined area of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. There are nearly two million acres in the Adirondacks and Catskills. A recent survey of forest conditions in four hill counties in the southern part of the state showed half of their area covered with woodland, yet the farmers’were paying a high price for lumber from the Pacific coast and other territory nearly as remote. The lessons and deductions are obvious. NEW YORK’S REAL PLACE IN AGRICULTURE Thus far we have contemplated the less pleasing side of the picture, yet one most necessary to have very clearly defined. Hav- ing this as a background, it is pleasant to consider other facts much more attractive. In the past decade there has been an increase of 35.7 per cent in the value of farm property. Land shows an increase of 28.4 per cent and buildings 41.6 per cent, indicating ‘that farmers have the funds to make improvements. Even more significant is the increase in the value of implements and machinery, of 49.3 per cent. Domestic animals show an increase of 45.8 per cent. The value of all property per farm is $6,732, an increase of 42.7 per cent. New York ranks first in the value of hay and forage — $77,- 360,645. New York ranks first in the production of potatoes, with 48,597,701 bushels, valued at $20,338,766 years in value of $5,319,631, or 35.4 per cent. New York ranks first in the value of vegetables (excluding pota- toes), with $15,963,384. an increase in ten ee) io 0) On CooPERATIVE WorkK witH CoLuMBIA UNIVERSITY New York ranks first in the value of small fruits produced — $2,875,495. New York ranks first in the number of bushels of apples pro- duced — 25,409,324 bushels. New York ranks first in the value of flowers and plants — $5,148,949. New York ranks first in nursery products — $2,750,957. New York ranks first in the dairy industry. An increasing pro- portion of its dairy products is sold as market milk. New York ranks second in acres among the states in the pro- duction of hay and forage. The amount reported in 1910 was 7,055,429 tons, valued at $77,360,645. New York ranks second in the value of pears produced — $1,418,218. New York ranks second in the value of grapes — $3,961,677. New York ranks second among the states in the amount ex- pended for labor — $41,312,014, exceeded only by California. New York ranks second in value of forest products of farms — $10,365,651. New York ranks third among the states in the production of beans, having 115,698 acres, valued at $3,689,064. New York ranks third in the number of orchard trees of bear- ing age — 17,625,093; the trees not bearing, 7,363,614. Number of bushels produced is 29,456,291, valued at $17,988,894. New York ranks third in the value of peaches produced — | $2,014,088. New York ranks fourth in the value of plums and prunes pro- duced — $519,192. New York ranks fifth in the value of cherries produced — $544,508. New York ranks fifth in the value of nuts — $74,420. New York State ranks eighth in a list of nine states producing a value of crops over $200,000,000 each. The following table shows the acreage and value of crops reported by acres, and the total value of all crops: 1i—13 386 Report oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES Value of crops Acreage reported by Value of all Rank State of crops acres crops ep IMOIS see ac boise choke aheveus 20,273,916 $362,464,951 $372, 270, 470 2 SOWA Me. fete tec eee ate oe ieee 20, 374, 925 304, 491, 033 314, 666, 298 Se ORAS (Sosxavovereva er curcaet nore 18,389, 092 287, 295, 880 298, 133, 466 Ae MONIOM faites Oars sO eysiere 11,431, 610 215, 250, 975 230,337,981 §) (CGO eS yeoloou ao oodbloc 9, 662, 383 214, 463, 237 226, 595, 436 Gil OMiSSOUTIN Acer eh oe oe ee 14, 335,588 204 ,286, 256 220, 663, 724 [m MMANSAS.. S.6. ae see eee oe ele 19,900, 750 211, 485, 723 214, 859, 597 SiNew Mork. (as eee 8, 387, 731 174, 475, 689 209,168,236 Oe Mn diana. : acactoereee crs WI sale9p 193, 395, 392 204, 209, 812 From the above figures may be found that New York stands second in the value of product per acre of such crops as are reported by acres, the states ranking as follows: Value of Value of product product Rank State peracre Rank State per acre 1 Georgia mele eee $22 20 6 Texas) 4.) hes eee $15 62 2 INeWwieViOTkt! = Acwiecore. 20 80 7 VOWS pe aoe tne reno sore 14 94 3 QhHiOLERS ate ee eee 18 83 8 IMISSOUMIMRCteSe. Chea 14 25 4 INOS Hees ieee 17 88 9 Keanisascct *2isa ce coe 10 63 a indiana esse eneetuee eT The above presents a correct statement as to New York’s agri- cultural conditions. I have tried to make it plain that many of the low-priced lands, over which so much sentiment has been and is being wasted, are not an important factor in present-day agricul- ture — that these low-priced lands are not cheap lands. The real measure of land value is its productive power. We have not begun to touch the capacity of our real agricultural lands. As fast as compensation warrants— and no faster — will their products increase. In 1910, I was invited to a so-called conference of the Board of Trade of this city. Mr. Brown, then president of the New York Central Railroad, delivered an address on our danger from a lack of production. By a chart he showed that by 1913 we should have absolutely nothing to export, and according to the figures displayed we should soon not be able to feed our own people, unless the ignorant, thoughtless farmers took lessons from mighty men of valor like himself, whose farming is purely academic. Yet, behold, 1913 is past, our own people have had abundance, and the products of our fruitful fields have gone to feed the armies of the Old World. The year past has witnessed the greatest wheat crop ever known, and all without a ripple of excitement or of apparent r~ oO iS) CooPpERATIVE WorK WITH CoLUMBIA UNIVERSITY cet ees Udd LVAHA\, AO STANSOG XIS-ALIOS —"P CG GAA ‘DIT 388 Report oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES effort. The demand was great. This — as always — enhanced the price, and consequently the farmers were ready and able to supply the demand. THE CITY MAN’S HUNGER FOR LAND This brings me to the second part of my theme. Without doubt, there is inherent in every man a desire to possess a portion of the earth of which he shall be the lord and master. Coupled with this, there is in most of us a delight in watching the development of plant and animal. This is nothing new, for from the time when “the Lord God planted a garden eastward and set man to dress and to keep it,’ down through the ages when Horace was glad to return to his Sabine farm, and in the time of Virgil and Nero, when men talked in the market place of soils and plants, this feel- ing has existed. In the last decade this eternal lure of the land has been brought to the surface by present-day conditions. Owing to changed econo- mic conditions, men everywhere have begun to lock at agriculture from a different standpoint. ‘“ The stone [of agriculture] which formerly the builders rejected has now become the headstone of the corner.” The farmers as a class have prospered, although they have not grown rich in money, and they have brought into their lives as never before those things that go to make abundant life. Men have come to weigh values and to realize that real riches do not consist in stocks and bonds and costly dwelling places.. As the life in the city has become more complex and the struggles more keen, and the rewards for such struggle have been found to be inadequate, what wonder that men cooped within brick walls and following a treadmill existence should long to break these bonds asunder and cast away these cords from them, and long for the ‘“oreen pastures beside the still waters” 4 A while ago I met such a man by appointment in this city. He told me of his successful business career; of the salary he was getting — it seemed large to a farmer; of his work taking him far afield for long periods; of his home in an uptown flat, not knowing who were above or below him, on his right hand or his left; and of his privilege, if he wanted air or sunshine, of opening a window to let in such homeopathic quantities as overhanging brick walls permitted. He told how he must procure his food from day to day, CooPpERATIVE Work witH CotumBIA UNIVERSITY 389 as the children of Israel gathered the manna, without its fresh- ness, summing it all up by the pathetic exclamation — “ What do I get for my money compared with what you do for yours!” Verily, there is a hunger not satisfied with bread. As in olden times, men may have their heart’s desire, but with it a leanness of soul. As these things begin to be realized there comes a voice telling of the “fat of the land,” of “ cattle on a thousand hills,” and of “trees bearing all manner of fruit”; of green fields and ripening harvests, and of a life of independence. ‘There are also marvelous wonder tales — alas, some of them in our agricultural papers — such as of a man and his son in poor health with a little capital, who invested in a few hens, these soon growing into thousands, making a profit of $4.96 per hen; of melons at 25 cents per pound; and of certified milk at from 16 to 20 cents per quart — all tales of such munificence that “ imagination’s utmost stretch in wonder dies away.” All of this apparently grows without effort while the farmer sleeps; all he has to do is to read a few books, listen to a few lectures, buy some land, secure an hireling, and he will be able to “ sit and sing himself away to everlasting bliss.” The above is not overpainted. It is not serious for the indi- vidual if he has sufficient means to pay for his imagination’s lead- ings and his expected bliss; but, oh, the pathos of it when a man, utterly ignorant of even the elementary principles of agriculture, leaves a good position and ventures his little all on a farm, the victim too often of some land shark, and again the victim of the men whom he employs. How utterly absurd to expect respect or service from an employee, when the employer is the servant be- cause of his lack of knowledge concerning the business of which he assumes to be the head! Would anyone but a fool undertake such in any other calling? Neither is this a fancy picture. I could more than one tale unfold, which, if it it did not harrow up your blood, would incite your laughter and your pity. Think of the man wanting to buy sixty bushels of clover seed to sow on sixty acres at ten dollars per bushel! Fortunately, he struck an honest dealer who sold him only ten. Had he consulted his neighbors, who knew the conditions, he would have sowed none and saved his hundred dollars. Enough of this! I have 390 Report oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES drawn the line sharply, not with the thought of discouraging any- one who is consumed with land hunger, but that by such sharply drawn lines I may point out the absurdity of one not country- bred or farm-minded, utterly devoid of knowledge of the most complex business on earth — of what I may call farm etiquette, for there is such — to expect to succeed from an economic stand- point when one to the manor born rarely makes more than a good living. . WHO SHOULD FARM As already stated, the man who has the means to gratify his agricultural desires may buy land and play at farming, but let him not call himself a farmer until he has demonstrated his ability to live from his farm. Occasionally, some do. More often the toy proves too costly and annoying, consequently there is a real, aban- doned farm, left in such condition that no real farmer wants it. There is also the man who is farm-minded, in that -he knows farm conditions, is willing to work and devote himself to his busi- ness as any successful man must do in the city, who has enough money for his investment and a working capital over, and who is not wise in his own conceit, realizing that the practices of the neighborhood are usually the outgrowth of years of experience, and, while susceptible of improvement, should not be lightly ignored. } The young man with very little capital or farm experience who thinks at the beginning of his career that he would like to be a farmer may make a success if he will gain his experience as the employee of a real farmer, being willing to work for what he is really worth, which at the outset will not be much. By so doing, he can determine without financial loss whether he. really wants to pay the price of being a farmer. All things worth while have a price, and the more intrinsic worth they have the higher is the price — most often not in dollars. He can gain an experience that he must have and that cannot be obtained from any text book or school. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION Unfortunately, an opinion seems to obtain that if a man takes an agricultural course — short or long — he is bound to come out a full-fledged farmer. No one holds an agricultural education in CooPERATIVE WorRK wiTH CoLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 391 higher esteem than the speaker, but how absurd to expect to take a course of few weeks or months and get any more than the rudi- ments! Many have an idea that an agricultural college graduate is the beau ideal farmer. He may be, if such course has followed an apprenticeship on the farm. To expect proficiency after only a technical training is to expect the impossible; as in law, med- icine, engineering, or any other science, there must go with the technical training the practical experience before men will engage the services of such students. THE FARM TO BUY I cannot refrain from saying a word before closing as to the character of the farm. Remember, I have said that the low-priced lands are not usually the cheap lands; the value of land depends upon its earning power. Here is a real case to illustrate: A young man came to me for information concerning a certain farm of about 150 acres, the purchase-price being $7,500. It was several miles from market, on a byway, a quarter of a mile from the highway. At least $1,000 should have been expended on the house and barn. There were about eighty apple trees on it, but it was not orchard land. It is a fair farm for hay and grass, or stock, but it had been leased for several years, the owner being too old to work it longer. Under his management, produce from it had sold for as much as $1,500 gross in good years. I had diff- culty in making the young man see that he, a novice, could scarcely expect to obtain as much at the same outlay; and that, when he estimated interest, taxes, upkeep, and labor, he might expect to work at least ten years for his board. I asked him if there were no other farms about —for he liked the neighborhood and he cited one a httle larger for $15,000. It had much better buildings, it was only a half-mile from an electric railroad carrying both freight and passengers, and it was within four miles of a boat landing on the Hudson River and the New York Central Railroad. On it were not less than 500 bearing apple trees and as many pear trees, all good varieties and in good con- dition. Besides, about ten acres of alfalfa had been established. This farm would produce fully three times as much as the other, and in fruit years much more, and was really a cheap farm at 392 Report oF FarMeErs’ INSTITUTES rar r 96° Coreen = pee mee. Fic. 554.— Type or House anp BARN oN CHEAP LAND IN NEW YORK STATE CooPERATIVE WorkK witH CotumpBia UNIVERSITY 393 double the price of the other. Had I been loaning money I should have expected a good farmer on the latter land to repay the $15,000 soon, while on the other I should have been satisfied to obtain my interest. Much has been written about bringing up poor land, all of which is true, but to take run-down land and build it up when obliged to live from it is a task I would not wish on my worst Fic. 555.— Typr or BUILDINGS on Goop Farms IN New York STATE enemy. It is a case of “hope deferred maketh the heart sick.” In any event, one can far better afford to pay much more for land in good condition, even if one has the means to build the poor land up, for in the end the latter will cost much more than the good. Of course, I refer to land from which the vegetable matter and available plant food has been farmed out — not to productive, undrained land, full of fertility if properly handled. 394 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES LOCATION AND CHARACTER OF SOIL A farm is one’s home; therefore, a desirable location as to schools, churches, and social centers, as well as to beauty of situa- tion, are matters wholly apart front production, and are of inesti- mable value, in even a single lifetime. Nearness to markets and good roads are always economic factors. Hill land may be pic- turesque and sometimes productive, but it is hard to work. The character and depth of the subsoil is as important as the surface. It is always desirable to have heavy and light soil on the same farm. This admits of a greater diversity of crops and enables one better to meet extreme conditions of drought or over-abundant rainfall, besides allowing for much greater freedom in the hand- ling of both soil and crop. SIZE Many surveys have shown that under average conditions a farm of 200 acres is most desirable. The same house and comparatively little more capacity in buildings will serve as on a farm of half the size. This is true of farm machinery and, to a less extent, of horses. One can diversify much better on a larger farm. With now and then a notable exception, diversified farming is and has been most profitable. Labor can be employed by the year. A good farmer should be able to make a profit on his laborers, as many tasks can be done much better by two or three men than by one. The farmer himself will not have to labor so hard as when he is obliged to do most of the work himself. Of course, there are some men, who, as an old uncle of mine used to say, ‘“ are only fit to tread in a half-bushel.” Such men would be out of place on a large farm. Blessed is the man who has found his eapacity. I have spent more time in presenting the subject than I had intended, but it is hard to crowd the experience, observation, and ? philosophy, gained in forty years’ contact with the soil and men and things, into a half-hour. To those of you who have the land hunger, I can do no better than quote the lines of Kipling, with three aie Ne added: If you can keep your head when all about you Are losing theirs and blaming it on you; Tf you can trust yourself when all men doubt you, But make allowance for their doubting, too; If you can wait and not be tired by waiting Or being lied about — don’t deal in lies — Or being hated — don’t give way to hating, And yet don’t look too good nor talk too wise; CooPERATIVE WorK witH CoLumpBpria UNIVERSITY 395 If you can dream — and not make dreams your master; If you can think — and not make thoughts your aim; If you can meet with triumph and disaster And treat these two impostors just the same; If you can bear to hear the truth you’ve spoken Twisted by knaves to make a trap for fools, Or watch the things you gave your life to broken, And stoop and build them up with worn-out tools; If you can make one heap of all your winnings And risk it on one turn of pitch-and-toss, And lose and start again at your beginnings, And never breathe a word about your loss; If you can force your heart and nerve and sinew To serve your turn long after they are gone, And so hold on when there is nothing in you Except the will which says to them, “ Hold on! ” If you can talk with crowds and keep your virtue, Or walk with kings —nor lose the common touch; If neither foes nor loving friends can hurt you; If all men count with you, but none too much; If you can fill the unforgiving minute With sixty seconds’ worth of distance run, Yours is the earth and everything that’s in it, And — which is more — you'll be a man, my son. — and ean farm. BUILDING UP THE DAIRY HERD THROUGH BREEDING O. C. Bowrs Agricultural Department, Columbia University In any discussion of animal breeding, it is interesting to con- trast the theoretical phase of the subject, which has been taken up by the geneticists, with the more practical aspect, represented by the empirical findings of the animal breeder for several genera- tions. Much of the material from the science of genetics is of too recent finding to be properly correlated and to be generally ap- plicable to practical breeding operations, Much has already been done which offers explanation for some of the disappointments of animal breeding in the past. In this paper, most emphasis will be placed upon the findings of practical breeders. One of the early writers on dairy cattle breeding, Thomas Bates, emphasized as early as 1807 the great practical value of cattle tests. Milk, butter, and cheese were in his opinion of equal import- ance with beef in the selection of a breed of cattle. Their func- tion was to yield milk in the first place and then make a handsome residue for the butcher. The history of the ‘‘ milking shorthorn ” has demonstrated the correctness of his views. 396 Report oF FarMERS’ INSTITUTES The modern tendency in dairy cattle breeding has been decidedly away from the Bates or dual-purpose type of dairy cow. Expe rience has demonstrated fully that with exceptional care the specialized dairy cow is more efficient in the production of food products than the intermediate dwal-purpose cow. While a few geneticists maintain that it is possible to obtain both maximum milk secretion and beef production from the same animal, I believe the recent knowledge obtained .regarding milk secretion will show the fallacy of this contention. We have in this country several well-defined and specialized dairy breeds, and the improvement in their production has been very rapid indeed. Probably much of this improvement has been due to our knowledge of feeding and care, but a great deal also has been accomplished by breeding. Our systems of breeding have been largely based on the principle of “‘ mass selection,” that is, selecting our breeding stock from the high-producing animals. This is apparent from our methods of keeping records, our cow- testing associations, our selection by means of the score card, and the high prices paid for high-producing females and_ their offspring. The work of Johannsen pointed pretty definitely to the limits and possibilities of improvement by selection — that it is only a screen by which the poorer animals of a breed may be eliminated and the good ones kept; that it is not possible to obtain any added improvement by this method. This is in accord with the records of many of our experiment station herds all over the world. These records show that the average production of cows through a series of years fluctuates, and may or may not be better after several years’ breeding where all possible care has been exercised in the selection of breeding sires. We now recognize that mass selection not only does not give added improvement to a breed, but does not permit of the maximum improvement that is possible in animal selection. While it is not possible to isolate lines of inheritance and to insure their transmission with such certainty in dairy cattle as it may be with some plants, it is possible to apply those principles to a much larger degree than we have applied them in the past. Owing “I CooPERATIVE WorK witH CotumBriaA UNIVERSITY 39 to the bisexual reproduction, a dairy cow that will “ breed abso- lutely true” is practically impossible to obtain; but that we can approach much nearer to this ideal than we have in the past has been demonstrated in the last few years. To illustrate this principle by a practical example of what we should strive for in the selection of our breeding cows and sires, it is easiest to consider the animal’s pedigree. It is not enough that her sire has produced good offspring or that her dam pro- duced a large amount of milk, but we should also know what her sisters are producing, and what the ancestry for several generations Fig. 556.— Tur DAtry TYPE have produced. This is no longer impossible, since we have the advanced registry records. If the production has been uniformly good throughout a number of generations, we have much more reason to expect that the individual we are considering will be a good one than if she-came from a high-producing animal whose relatives were poor producers. We should not overlook in a discussion of animal breeding the great improvement that has been accomplished by what we know as “ grading,” that is, by the use of pure-bred sires on grade or 398 Report oF FarMErs’ [INSTITUTES mixed cattle. While this latter conception of grading is the one that is generally meant, we should remember that when in pure- bred herds we use sires that are inbred we are still employing the same principle. The Mendelian explanation of grading and the improvement that is possible by this method of breeding depends upon the purity of the reproductive cells. The fact that a pure- bred sire can fix his characters, and consequently those of his ancestry, upon a grade herd is due to the greater purity of those characters in his germ cells. By using the first method outlined in this discussion for the production of breeding stock and by then using pure-bred sires to improve our grade cows, we can hope for the best improvement in our dairy cattle. PROFITABLE FEEDING PRACTICES FOR THE DAIRY HERD O. C. Bowss Agricultural Department, Columbia University It has been customary in recent years to point out the dairy cow as an efficient machine for converting rough feed on the farm into marketable human food products. It has been shown that she is more than twice as efficient in the production of dry matter as the beef steer. When beginning to feed dairy cows for the first time, people are usually impressed with the great capacity for food possessed by them. Beginners will be more likely to under- feed than the reverse. This capacity to handle large amounts of food is perhaps the most valuable asset of the dairy cow; it enables her to have a large reserve food, supply above her maintenance requirement for production of milk. The ability and knowledge of the feeder to feed so as to allow the cow full use of her capabili- ties will be the determining factor in the economical production of milk. In this country a great deal of effort has been devoted to elim- ination of the ‘‘ boarder cow ” from our herds, apparently without realizing that this is only a relative term, and that the “ boarder * will be with us in the future as she has been in the past. While it may be highly advantageous to have cows of great capac- cow’ ity excessively fat when they freshen, for the mediocre cow it is not necessary and may not be economical, CoorERATIVE WorkK witH CotumMBiA UNIVERSITY 399 Fundamentally considered, attention is directed to the study of eattle feeding to cheapen the cost of production. Most of us will agree that the farmer plays a minor part in determining the sell- ing price of his milk. He can, however, materially cheapen the cost of producing it by taking advantage of market conditions as to feed. It has been demonstrated by exhaustive experiments that when grain is high in price the average cow can be fed abnormally large amounts of roughage to advantage. During the present winter some dairymen have fed large amounts of alfalfa and reduced the grain ration. Experiments have shown that eleven pounds of alfalfa hay will replace eight pounds of wheat bran in the daily ration of a cow that is not producing an excessively large amount of milk. The same can be said regarding the feeding of roughage in developing the dairy heifer. While the general effect of feeding a large amount of roughage and a small amount of grain may retard, to a slight extent, the maturity of the heifer, the physiological effect will be good in accustoming the alimentary tract to handling rough feed and consequently in developing large stomachs. Almost the reverse situation seems to take place when a high grain ration is fed to the developing heifer. In this case the heifer grows rapidly and matures earlier than when less grain is fed. It is not always economical, however, to feed a high grain ration. The modern system of feeding dairy cows always presupposes the feeding of large amounts of roughages; and, as a rule, the more of this that can be grown at home the more economical it will be for the farmer. In almost all cases silage is the principal roughage fed with other forages such as alfalfa, mixed hay, soy beans, cow peas, oats and barley, ete. In many cases silage is fed both summer and winter where pasture is likely to be deficient. Soiling — that is, cutting feeds while still green and hauling directly to the barn to be fed while still in a succulent condition — while not practiced to such an extent as it was before the silo came into such general use, is still sometimes advantageous for short periods during the summer when the cows may be tiring of the silage or when the silage is short in quantity. The astonishing results of Detrick, who was able to raise all the roughage needed for thirty head of cattle — seventeen of which 400 Report oF FarMERS’ INSTITUTES were cows in milk — on seventeen acres, may some day prove to be a very practical plan for many farmers. Under conditions gen- eral at that time, also at present, such intensive methods are not necessary nor are they generally profitable. The feeding of grain to cows in order to get maximum milk production is necessary, both summer and winter. While there may be times when the pasture is so good that it is less economical to feed grain, an addition of a small amount of grain will cause an increase in the flow of milk. On many farms most of the grain fed to cows has to be pur- chased, and on some successful dairy farms all the grain is pur- _ chased. On the average dairy farm too much of the proceeds from the sale of milk is spent in purchasing feeds. When a dairyman has gross receipts of $2,000 a year and a feed bill of $1,400 to $1,600, it is not hard to see that milk is produced at the expense of some other part of the farm. Many farmers have reduced this cost of purchased feeds by growing better grades of roughage and by weeding out unprefitable cows in their herds. Milk production, when looked at from a farm-management point of view, does not differ from any other business of pro- duction; and the business principles relating it are readily learned by the man who applies himself. The art of feeding is not so easily learned; and to some, who are temperamentally not fitted.to be feeders of animals, it will always remain a stumbling block to success. CLEAN MILK; ITS PRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE TO PRODUCER AND CONSUMER Pror. C. W. Larson Columbia University Milk is a food product, and it should be produced and handled as such. Because of its nature, it is very easily contaminated with disease germs, and for this reason every person in any way con- nected with the handling of milk should be scrupulously clean in his methods. It forms the entire diet of tens of thousands of infants, children, and sick and convalescent persons, who are least able to resist the effects of unclean milk. CooPpERATIVE Work witH CotumBIA UNIVERSITY < > & va (Sj o yw fe) Lom! = = =I M is) y | = 1 Lol 64 5 ey 4 4 E is 4 i=) oO Ll [==] oS = E iS M B 4 g = fg —_ CHAD thine he: Peet | mae way Fig. 557.— SAnrraAry 8S 402 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES Milk is a cheap, complete, and easily digested food. In food value, a quart of milk is equivalent to three-quarters of a pound of sirloin. It contains all the essential elements for a complete and balanced ration. CLEAN MILK Clean milk contains few living organisms, or “ bacteria,’ as they are called, and little or no visible dirt. Milk as it comes from healthy cows is pure, so that the secret of producing clean milk is simply to prevent as completely as possible all chances for dirt and bacteria to find their way into the milk, and then to keep the milk cold so that those that do get in will not multiply. It is dirt and bacteria in milk that cause it to spoil. Milk that is pro- duced by clean methods and kept cold will remain sweet for many days. CLEAN STABLES Milk readily absorbs odors and flavors; therefore, a stable in which cows are kept should be clean, especially during milking time. If silage is fed, it should be given after milking and should be cleaned up before the next milking period. The stable should be so constructed as to afford little chance for dirt to lodge. Floors that can be easily cleaned and that will not absorb liquid manure should be used. Cows should not be fed hay or other dusty feeds, nor should bedding be distributed during milking time. The dust thus raised falls into the milk and carries bacteria with it. Abun- dance of light and fresh air are essential in a dairy barn. CLEAN COWS Most of the dirt that finds its way into the milk falls from the bodies of the cows. It is essential, therefore, that the cows be kept clean. The platform on which the cows stand should be short enough to allow the manure to drop into the gutter; an adjustable stanchion will naturally assist. This is important in keeping the cows clean. Cows that are kept in the stable need to be groomed, but this must be done sufficiently long before milk- ing to permit the dust to settle. Wipe the cows’ udders and flanks with a damp cloth; this requires only a short time and will do CooPERATIVE WORK WITH CoLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 403 COMMONLY RECOMMENDED aed 558.— DIFFERENT Types or SANITARY Mirk Parts —Countinc From tue Lert, THE THIRD TYPE IS Most oT Te Fx 404 Report oF Farmers’ [nstrrutTEs much to remove dirt that would otherwise fall into the milk. The practice of clipping the hair on the udders, flanks, and thighs occasionally lessens the difficulty of keeping cows clean. CLEAN, DRY HANDS The milkers’ hands must be clean in order to produce clean milk. Too often, milkers clean up the stable and do other work and then sit down to milk without washing their hands. The practice of first wetting the hands with milk is deplorable. It is unnecessary and one of the most unclean practices. SMALL-TOP MILK PAIL To many producers the small-top milk pail seems impractica- ble and unnecessary ; but on the contrary it has been thoroughly demonstrated that with a httle practice this style of pail can be used as easily as the open one, and will exclude much dirt. Most of the dirt that gets into the pail falls from the cows during the milking. ‘Therefore, if, for instance, the top of a pail is covered so that only one-sixth of the surface is open to catch the falling dirt, only one-sixth as much dirt will get into the milk. CLEAN TINWARE All pails and cans used for milk should be of metal, with all corners and joints completely filled with solder. Every crevice makes a place for milk to lodge and contaminates the next milk that goes into the vessel. In washing tinware, it should first be rinsed with lukewarm water, then thoroughly scrubbed with a brush, and finally either steamed or rinsed with boiling hot water. Cloths should never be used for either the washing or the drying of tinware. MILK ROOM As soon as it is drawn, milk should be removed to a clean, well- lighted room. It should not be left in the stable. STRAINERS A strainer will remove particles of hair or large pieces of dirt, but will not strain out bacteria. The ordinary cheesecloth strainer that is used day after day usually contaminates milk instead of en ee ee ee ee ee ee CooPERATIVE WorkK witH CotumpBra UNIVERSITY 405 purifying it. What is considered by most people to be good wash- ing does not make such strainers sufliciently clean to pass milk through them. The metal strainers, or the cotton strainer made especially for the purpose and used only once, are better. Where milk can be produced by clean methods, no strainer is necessary. KEEP MILK COLD The sooner milk can be cooled, the better. It is almost impos- sible to produce milk without some bacteria in it, so that the problem now is to prevent these bacteria from increasing in num- ber. At a temperature of seventy degrees, one bacterium may increase to two in twenty minutes; while at fifty degrees it requires a very much longer period. One bacterium in milk at fifty degrees may increase in twelve hours to six or seven, while at seventy degrees it may increase to 600 or 700. When, there- fore, it is remembered that much apparently good milk contains many thousands of bacteria per cubic centimeter, which is about thirty drops, it is readily seen how soon millions of bacteria will develop when the milk is warm. Milk should be cooled as soon as possible to fifty degrees or lower, and kept at that temperature. The following table prepared by Professor Stocking shows the importance of keeping milk cool. The milk used in this experi- ment was clean and of high quality. EFFECT OF DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES UPON THE DEVELOPMENT OF BACTERIA IN MILK Temperature Bacteria per c.e. maintained at end of 12 for 12 hours hours AQ eridepreestHa dk. «ia. x > LUMI O 1 Work wITH C CooPERATIVE “A ‘N ‘LIONOGGNOUL LV SaOLVNOJ, dO doug. asnou BNEC ICE: vy V ES ‘OL 4192 Report oF FarMERsS’ INSTITUTES Means of Ventilation Ventilation is so managed as to keep the air pure and in lesser degree to aid in the control of temperature. Under proper ventila- tion, plants are more hardy and healthy. GREENHOUSE CROPS The leading greenhouse crops are lettuce, cucumbers, and tomatoes. Others are grown to lesser extent, among them being radishes, parsley, melons, beets (both roots and greens), rhubarb, witloof chicory, and others. Ordinarily, lettuce is the backbone of the cropping plan, being grown throughout the winter months. As it requires a lower temperature than cucumbers and tomatoes, it fits in well with the colder season. The cucumber yields good profits, even well into the summer, but thrives under warmer conditions. The tomato fits in a similar place, but is not quite so widely grown. Both of the latter crops may also be grown in the fall, but it is necessary to gain an early start with them if the results are to be of the best. Each crop has its own specific requirements that must be observed to secure the best results, and time does not permit us to go into the almost innumerable details that are involved. COMMERCIAL AND AMATEUR FLOWER PRODUCTION Epwarp A. WHITE Professor, Department of Floriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 1 have been asked to speak this afternoon regarding the flower growing industry, and it gives me pleasure,— for my interests for many years have been centered around this important branch of horticulture. I have been somewhat undecided as to what phases of the subject I had best consider in this talk, for the general subject is a broad one for one lecture. I have decided, therefore, to omit cultural details and speak more especially of flower grow- ing 1m a general way. In our consideration of flower growing, the subject shapes itself into a few topics that are clearly defined. The first division is commercial floriculture; other divisions are the growing of plants in conservatories for ornamentation, and the last phase of the CooPERATIVE Work witH CotumMBiIA UNIVERSITY 413 subject is amateur floriculture. This relates more especially to home culture of garden flowers or house plants, which work is -usually done for pleasure, but occasionally is developed for its remunerative value. This afternoon I shall speak more especially of the flower grow- ing industry as it is practiced in New York State, and shall show a few slides to illustrate the various factors in culture. THE UPLIFTING EFFECT OF FLOWERS ON ALL CLASSES For years, flowers have played an important part in the life of our American people. They add a distinct charm to any home. We are naturally influenced to a considerable degree by our environment, and when we are placed in surroundings that are destitute of the beautiful we become morbid and depressed; when we are in cheerful environments our mental mood responds in a remarkable degree. ‘So it is that flowers in the sickroom cheer, and flowers on the breakfast table prepare us pleasantly for the day’s work. The development of ornamental features about the home — and flower growing deals distinctly with that — follows step by step the increasing wealth and prosperity of a people. I think you will agree with me that our early colonists paid little attention to home ornamentation. They were too busily engaged in establishing the home and in getting the necessities of life to interest themselves in these things, but with the increasing prosperity that has followed the American people since the Revolutionary War, and more particularly since the Civil War, there has developed an increasing interest in these features; and I think I am right in saying that the present period shows the greatest interest in all lines of ornamental work. To me, one of the most pleasant features of the subject is that all classes of people are interested in flower growing. The wealthy man has his country estate with its broad acres, its greenhouses, formal gardens, and lawns; in the so-called middle class, the business man owns his suburban home with its acre or half-acre surrounding it, which is often laid out with shrubbery and flower gardens; the working man has his backyard plot; and we must not exclude the tenement dweller, with the geranium in the old tin can. Plant life in some form appeals to all classes of people. 414 Report oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES THE FLOWER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK STATE The production of ornamental plants and cut flowers is an industry that has always centered around the more densely popu- lated sections; hence it is that states having the largest number of large cities lead in this industry. New York State holds the leading place in this respect, the annual production of flowers and plants, as estimated in the census of 1910, being valued at $5,148,949. There were 1,398 growers who reported an income of more than $250 on glass-house products of ornamental plants and flowers. The products were grown in an area of 13,876,857 square feet of glass. Other states foremost in flower production are, Pennsylvania with a value of $3,803,418; Illinois, $3,694,- 801; New Jersey, $2,857,709; and Massachusetts, $2,455,467. In New York State the industry centers about New York City. Other large cities are so distributed over the state that the busi- ness is not wholly localized in that section, as is true in states having but one or two large cities. Rochester has the distinction of being called the “ Flower City of the United States,” while Buffalo, Syracuse, Utica, Albany, and several other cities produce and dispose of quantities of flowers and plants. The present tendency among flower and plant producers is towards specialization. An important limiting factor in special- ization, however, is the character of the soil. The ability of an individual to produce some one crop better than anyone else is also an important factor. VIOLETS The soil factor has been largely responsible for localizing violet production about Rhinebeck and that section of the Hudson River valley. A few growers made so pronounced a success of the busi- ness that it was entered into by a large number of men in that vicinity, many of whom had had little or no experience in flower growing. There are no large greenhouses devoted to this crop, but there are approximately eighty-five growers who have ranges covering from one to three thousand square feet. Only double violets are grown, and they are shipped to all parts of the state, ae a” Fae a ee | ee SS Sse ————— a CooPERATIVE WorK wiITH CotuMBIA UNIVERSITY 415 especially to western New York, where violet growing is not suc- cessful. They are also shipped to other states. ROSES Rose growing has come to be a specialized industry. The cultural demands of the crop are somewhat peculiar. Roses require soil and sunlight conditions that are found only in certain sections of the state. The American Beauty roses are especially dificult to grow unless there is maximum sunlight, which is essential to produce a clear, rich tint. If the variety 1s grown under inferior soil conditions, the growth will be weak and the stems short and spindling. If there is a lack of sunhght, the petals will be purple in color, thus diminishing the value of the variety for cut flowers. The largest grower of American Beauty roses is Paul Pierson of Scarborough and Briarcliff. The Briarcliff establishment is a large one, and the houses are of modern construction. The output of American Beauty roses from this range supphes a large number of New York flower stores, and is of an excellent quality. F. R. Pierson, of Scarborough, also grows this variety, but not so exten~ sively. The majority of American Beauty rose growers, however, are located in Northern New Jersey and Eastern Pennsylvania, where excellent light conditions, combined with good soil and marketing facilities, make the crop a remunerative one. Among the largest growers of tea and hybrid tea roses may be mentioned F. R. Pierson, at Scarborough. Mr. Pierson has a modern range of approximately three hundred thousand square feet of glass devoted exclusively to roses. There are few other establishments in the state where the crop so nearly approaches perfection. While a large number of varieties are grown, the principal ones are Ophelia, Mrs. Francis Scott Key, White Kil- larney, Killarney Brilliant, Lady Hillingdon, and Richmond. Many of the smaller cluster roses, like Cecile Brunner, are also grown in large quantities. Other large-producing establishments in the state are the Lake View Rose Garden, Inc., at Jamestown, and the United States Cut Flower Company, of Elmira. 416 Report oF FarMERS’ INSTITUTES CARNATIONS Carnation growing is more generally distributed over the state, but the industry is considerably localized on the eastern section ‘of Long Island. Carnations thrive best in a medium light soil, and in a section where the climate in summer is comparatively cool. These conditions are found on Long Island, and excellent carna- tions have for many years been produced there. In fact, Long Island was the place where the first carnations were grown in America. The firm of Dailledouze, Zeller & Gard, at Flatbush, which is now the firm of Dailledouze Brothers, was among the first to grow carnations in America. This was in 1858. The firm now has about one hundred thousand square feet of glass and grows some of the finest carnations sent into the New York market. ) Among other large carnation growers are the Cottage Gardens Company, Queens, and James Cockcroft, Northport, L. L. ORCHIDS AND SWEET PEAS Orchid specialists are not numerous in New York State, the New York market being supplied largely from growers located in Northern New Jersey. There are also comparatively few sweet pea specialists. POTTED PLANTS Within a comparatively few years there has been a revival of interest in growing potted plants. These were at one time the principal product of glass houses ; but, with improved construction and methods of culture, the cut flower business has become more important. A well-grown potted plant is a thing of beauty and admiration, but when poorly grown it is of little value. A few men in New York have seen the value of these plants from the commercial viewpoint and have aimed to produce them to perfec- tion. The demand for potted plants is greatest at Christmas and at Easter, but well-grown flowering plants will sell at almost any season of the year, buyers often preferring a potted plant to cut flowers, because, as a rule, they have better keeping qualities. The potted flowering plants most generally grown are azaleas, cyclamens, primroses, ericas or heaths, hydrangeas, genistas, calcco- larias, cinerarias, begonias, Easter lilies, and other bulbous plants. CooPERATIVE Work witH CotumMBiA UNIVERSITY 41% Fic. 562.—“ MATCHLESS ” CARNATIONS, ORIGINATED BY CoTTAGE GARDENS Co., INC. 418 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES One of the largest specialists in growing this type of plants is Antoine Schultheis, of College Point, who has approximately sixty thousand square feet of glass area devoted to their production. Mr. Schultheis grows a larger number of ericas than of other species. His range, however, has a splendidly-grown representa- tion of most species of potted plants. Louis Duprey, of White- stone, is another large grower, and his remarkable plants have won many prizes at flower exhibitions. PALMS AND FERNS There are no establishments in New York that grow palms and other exotics on a large scale, the New York market being supplied largely by Connecticut, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. F. R. Pierson of Tarrytown, however, makes a specialty of growing ferns of the Nephrolepis type, and his houses are filled with many varieties, from the coarse-fronded “ Boston” type to the finely divided “ elegantissima.”’ They are in all stages of development, from the newly-formed runner to the splendidly “ finished ” speci- men plant. BEEKEEPING IN THE EAST J. H. M. Coox, Caldwell, N. J. Beekeeping in any particular locality differs from any other locality only as different climatic conditions prevail and cause the bloom to occur at different seasons. The difference is in local- ity and not in bees. BEES, READILY ADAPT THEMSELVES TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT The beekeeper must consider well the environments and natural conditions of his locality and bring his efforts to conform to those conditions, knowing that the bees will faithfully do their part. Bees are most accommodating creatures, and they will adapt themselves to the conditions in which Nature has placed them. They live and thrive wherever honey-producing plants abouud. When their lot is cast in this wintry zone, upon the approach of cold weather they cluster in a compact mass, thus conserving the heat generated by the consumption of the honey they have stored, and maintaining living conditions until the advent of spring, when they again pursue their hfe work of gathering nectar and rearing young bees to replenish the depleting colony. CoopPpERATIVE WorK wiTH CoLuMBIA UNIVERSITY 419 In the South, where a warm temperature prevails the year around, they pursue their daily round of toil with one instinctive purpose — that of propagating the species. In any locality they can gather stores only during the flowering season and favorable weather. LIFE HABITS OF BEES SHOULD BE STUDIED The science of beekeeping consists in a knowledge of the natural laws and life habits of bees, and success depends upon an intelli- gent application of those laws to our peculiar location and environ- ment. Fig. 563.— EXAMINING THE BrRoop FRAMES — A HousEetrop CoLony We must consider the flora and the time of its bloom in our locality and have our colonies of bees in the proper condition to gather the supply of nectar when it is in the flowers. “ We must have our dish right side up when it rains porridge.” This can be done by manipulating our colonies so as to have a large force of working bees ready for work at the proper time. It is as natural for bees to gather stores and produce honey when conditions are favorable as it is for grass to grow or water to run. As the cow produces milk to feed the growing calf; as the hen lays the egg for the purpose of producing chicks; as trees, plants, 420 Report oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES and vegetables mature crops from which their own kind is repro- duced, according to natural law; so the bees gather and store honey for its hfe-sustaining and reproducing results: and, when properly utilized, all these natural products contribute to the happiness of humanity. The animal and vegetable creation generously respond to man’s efforts, and the honey bee will yield a liberal reward for intelligent care and culture. Since the science of bee culture is now so far advanced, our labor in this direction is certain of its reward. The devotee of rural life and nature studies, when living in the city, will find that a colony of bees in the back yard or on the housetop will add much pleasure and enjoyment and furnish the table with an abundance of Nature’s choicest luxury. We shall gain much practical knowledge of the natural laws and life habits of bees by observing the various changes ana developments transpiring in a colony during the year and noting the causes that produce these changes, which are constantly going on during the season of activity. THE MAKE-UP OF THE COLONY A colony of bees in normal condition has one mother bee, called the “ queen bee,” which is the only fully-developed female bee in the colony. She lays all the eggs and is truly a parent, imparting her peculiar characteristics and personality to all the others. She is honored and reverenced by all, and her loss is the greatest calamity that can befall the realm of the hive. There is nothing that the bees desire more than a queen, and the knowledge of her presence is their greatest inspiration. There are several thousand abortive female bees, called “ worker bees,” the number varying with the different seasons. They are all the progeny of the queen. They live a short and strenuous life —longer or shorter in proportion in their activity — averaging from sixty to ninety days. They gather the stores, build the comb, hatch the eggs, and do all the work. During the summer there are several hundred male bees, called “drones.” ‘Their number can be limited by proper management. Their only useful function is to fertilize the young queens, and CoopERATIVE WorkK wiTH CoLuMBIA UNIVERSITY 491 at the end of the breeding season they are driven out and destroyed by the workers. They are consumers — not producers — and are never tolerated during a drought or a famine. WORK AND HABITS OF THE QUEEN At the approach of spring — in this climate about the middle of March — the queen begins her work of laying eggs; the workers look for the first opening buds on the willows and the maples and bring in the pollen with which to prepare food to nourish the little larvae as soon as hatched. Day by day as warm weather ap- proaches, their activity increases, each day beholding the birth of thousands of little workers ready to buckle on the armor and assume the duties of the old bees, which are now rapidly dying away. Fie. 564.— QUEEN WORKER DRONE In a few weeks we have an entirely new population in the hive, the queen being the only one remaining from the previous year. At the opening of fruit bloom and clover, the hive has become so densely crowded that it is quite impractical for the family circle longer to remain in one house, hence what is called the “ swarm- ing impulse” pervades the colony. Preparations for this great event are accordingly made, which consists in rearing young queen bees to succeed the old mother, who will leave the hive with the first swarm. The eggs for the young queens are laid in specially prepared cells, called ‘“* queen cells.”” When hatched, the larva is fed upon special food called “ royal jelly,” and it becomes a fully-developed female bee. SWARMING During the process of maturing the young queen and before it emerges from its cell, a large part of the bees, inspired by the 499, Report oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES swarming impulse, leave the hive, never to return, and, accom- panied by the old queen, depart in a mass to seek another home. This is called “ swarming.” It is a very peculiar phenomenon in the history of the hive, and is the natural and instinctive method of propagating the species. ten e 22 ee & ek eh ae eeuee x “ 4, blacks dissolveds 1 ase... - SPREE CISSONV EC terre tt tan nee Bone meal, steamed............ ‘ “ from glue-making... . ¢ Cottonseed) meall;..)..... 240 on. Fish, dried and ground MenhaAdeneeease Ae. eS acidulated@y onan ace ornate dog-fish scrap............. witaleiserapr etn one ce ait eee hie eae a a eae INICHUISCLADS Haan emer eee ee Muriate of potash (see potassium chloride) Nitrate of soda (see sodium ni- trate.) Nitrate of potash (see potassium nitrate.) Phosphates Hlondavhardirock)-s)..2e2 4. Florida land pebble........ Peace River pebble........ South Carolina land........ Tennessee blue............ Tennessee domestic........ Potassium chloride, 80 to 85%... MS carbonate, 90 to 95%. sf 96 to 98%. nitrate: . Fie ae é sulphate, 90 to 95%. . double manure salt, AS it OOo auch ders keeo eee Potassium manure salt, 20%.... SoOditimiynitrave: sess ae eee Tankage, general range......... . concentrated......... Crushed 2 He cer wee PATDALE hin secre ee “ “ Nitrogen 13 to 14 15 to 16 4 to 10 10 to 12 4to 9 Il inay @ POUNDS IN 100 Phosphoric Acid (P:0s) Total 23 to 25 3 to 18 Available tee 44 ee as cole 11 Potash ( K:0) 12 to 16 ) 12 to 14 12 to 14 ) 50 to 53 61 to 64.5 65 to 66.5 48 to 51 26 to 29 CooPERATIVE WorK wiTH CoLuMBIA UNIVERSITY 435 CoMPARATIVE PLANT Foop VALUE OF NITROGEN IN ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE MATERIALS AVAILA- BILITY OR CROP- MATERIAL CONTAINING NITROGEN PRODUCING VALUE SS OCUUITINETANE AUC meta 7 ey MaRS Renan Shc, ean UM Rae CUM oben cir act = ans Shoe ese fod ie 100 AMIN ONIN SULPHAte ree EMA aA te eae ee Ee Le ELS Re Eee 1, 418, 218 00 Ita ® cee Parana oke ee Eval ee eins, Stik Neen ny S 519, 192 00 CHEETIEs? aAaPF oe te ON nye ec EN eee oe ee 544, 508 00 (QADUDACEISITS Ses oy Ack Aten baorere ated ae mae A renee See WD hie SAHER = Bry) Lie =F 135, 345 00 ADTICOLS Wientnome eee ir oct Seoe ORIEL toners CXS 14,490 00 otalavalwvesotmorchardstnlts yeecee ee eet $17, 988, 894 00 Viale sof: smaaill ir uiteey ia stray vc) tate epee a een 2,875, 495 00 Wale iol STapeseiec ceria Sa. in. laste oeelD cet 3, 961, 677 00 (Se | The value of all fruits produced in New York State exceeds the value of the tropical and sub-tropical fruits produced in the United States by $119,818. New York ranks second in bushels of orchard fruits produced, exceeded by California by 645,216 bushels because of her immense prune industry. New York ranks first in the value of apples, first in bushels produced, and second 443 WorkK witH CoLuMBIA UNIVERSIT CooOPERATIVE INOWMSA SLOTaLsSIq LIN] ONIMOHY ALvLg 10 ) soNzUR Ss A 135. OLNITD \NITMNVY4 A MAN 40 dvW— Plo “Sl TALVLS WYOA MAN JO SLOINLSIG LINYA 444 Report oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES in number of trees. New York ranks third in value of peaches, about equal to Georgia, and less than half the value produced in California. New York ranks fourth in value of prunes and plums, exceeded by the states of California, Oregon, and Washington. New York produces about one-fourth of the quinces raised in the United States. New York ranks second in number, production, and value of grapevines, California ranking first with a produc- tion valued at $10,846,812. New York has 22,496 acres in small fruits, producing 37,857,829 quarts, ranking second and closely following New Jersey, which is first in small fruits. New York ranks first with 11,057 acres of raspberries, and first in currants with 2,557 acres. HORTICULTURAL SECTIONS 1. The east side of the Hudson, those parts lying nearest the river, beginning.with a small section in Westchester County, northern Dutchess, and Columbia. About Germantown in the last-named county, in addition to the tree fruits, there are grown many small fruits and grapes. Tree fruits are grown extensively also in southern Rensselaer County, three to five miles back from the river. 2. West side of the Hudson river, including a small portion of Rockland County, with Orange and Ulster along the river. In the counties in the highlands there is one of the most favorable peach sections in the state. For eleven years there has not been an entire crop failure in either Orange or Ulster County. This sec- tion is the seat of a large area devoted to small fruits. In Greene and Albany counties there is much fruit grown, and in both counties there are great possibilities for future development. 3. To the north, the Lake Champlain country — on the Vermont as well as the New York side of the lake. There is also a small section in the Schoharie valley. 4. Central New York, commencing with Onondaga County and extending south and west of Syracuse, also a portion of Cayuga County on the extreme north as well as about the city of Auburn. Seneca, Schuyler, and Yates counties are well adapted to fruit, particularly about the Finger Lakes. This section also embraces o dt CooprpERATIVE Work witH CoLtumMBriA UNIVERSITY AINQOOD VIAIWATOD NI auVHOUD AAG AALLOAGoug —e 446 Report oF FarMERS’ INSTITUTES much of Ontario County and extends into northern Livingston and northern Wyoming and Genesee. 5. New York’s most favorable fruit section is what is known as the Ontario shore. This embraces Niagara, Orleans, Monroe, and Wayne, with the portion of Oswego County lying nearest the lake. Not only are soil conditions well adapted to fruit growing, but the influence of the lake upon the climate makes it, all things considered, the fruit region of the state, the first four counties producing more fruit than any four states in the Middle West. GENERAL CONDITIONS In order that we may get a clear idea of the industry as a whole, I present to you the following figures taken from the last census, which shows a decrease in bearing trees in the United States since the census of 1900 of 23.4 per cent. The 1900 census does not show trees under bearing age. In the last census 23.6 per cent of the farms reported showed 65,792,000 trees not of bearing age, indicating heavy plantings during the decade. If we assume that the 1900 census includes all trees, whether of bearing age or not, we have an increase in the decade of 7.5 per cent. ‘ The Government divides the country into nine different sections. The six where horticulture is of any importance are: 1. East North Central, including Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michi- gan, and Wisconsin. These states show an increase in the decade of 14,000,000 trees. 2. West North Central, including Iowa, Missouri, North and South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas. In this section the trees decreased approximately 11,500,000. 3. South Atlantic section, including Delaware, Maryland, Dis- trict of Columbia, the two Virginias, North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. This section fell off nearly 5,000,000 trees. 4. Middle Atlantic section, made up of three states—NewY ork, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Here the bearing trees decreased over 8,000,000 — New York about 3,500,000. Much of this was due to the going out of many old trees on account of age and the ravages of the San Jiosé scale. Prior to 1900, there was a long period where very few trees were planted. Nevertheless, this’ division, with a much smaller area, reported nearly as many trees CoorpERATIVE WorkK witH CoLtumMBtiA UNIVERSITY 447 as that including the Virginias, Maryland, and Delaware and pro- duced more apples than any other division by over twelve millions of bushels. New York produced more than twice as many apples as any state in the Union and 17.3 per cent of the whole. 5. New England states. Every one of these except Maine showed a decrease in the number of trees, the average of which was 9 per cent, Vermont showing a decrease of 16 per cent. 6. Pacific Slope states — Washington, Oregon, and California. These three states combined had about the same number of bear- Fic. 576.— BALDWIN TrEES, 15 YEARS OLD, AND THE PRODUCT OF A SINGLE TREE, IN ORCHARD OF EDWARD VAN ALSTYNE, KINDERHOOK, N. Y. ing trees as all New England — about two-thirds as many as New York; of those not of bearing age, about four times as many as New England and about the same number more than New York. The product was about equal to that of New England and two- fifths of that of New York. In the twenty-six states east of the Mississippi there were nearly 314 millions less trees than in 1900, a decrease of 2.5 per cent. In the twenty-two states west of the Mississippi there was an increase of 27.2 per cent, yet the total number of trees is 448 Report oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES greater in the eastern part of the country, separated by the Missis- sippl, by over 42,000,000, although the planting has been very much larger in the West. In the eastern half, 73.8 per cent are in bearing; in the western half, 63.7 per cent. Canada also is an important factor in the production of apples. COST OF GROWING AN ORCHARD In order to get a correct idea of possible profits it is essential that we know the cost of production. This is not always easy to ascertain and conclusions should never be drawn from a single year or from the products of a bearing orchard. One must con- sider the cost of growing the orchard up to the time of production, which may be anywhere from ten to fifteen years. The following are the actual expenses of the orchard of Mr. M. C. Burritt, of Monroe County: The orchard is one of apple trees twelve years old, set 36 by 36 feet, with plums and pears set between as fillers. The total cost for the twelve years was $210.60 per acre, and the gross sales of all crops, $205.13 per acre, leaving a deficit of $5.47 per acre after paying all costs, including interest at 5 per cent. This was more than offset by the increased value of the land, now worth $225 per acre—an increase of $125 per acre. There was no income from fruit until the seventh year — then only $41.90 from 7% acres. The income from this source was slightly less for the next three years. The eleventh year it amounted to $229.28; the twelfth, $252.63. The total value of the income from the orchard for the twelve years was $631.02; to this should be added the income from intercrops of $907.53. This, subtracted from the cost of the care of the 7% acres of orchard for the twelve years, which, including 5 per cent interest, amounts to $1,579.50, leaves a net loss of $40.95, or $5.46 per acre. From these figures it will be readily seen that a man without other sources of income would have lost out during this period, as the increase in the value of nis property was not an available asset unless he parted with it. THE COST OF GROWING A BARREL OF APPLES The above will give a very correct idea of the expense of bring- ing an orchard into bearing. An exact estimate of growing a barrel of apples on a mature orchard is given below. Some years 449 Work witH CotuMsiA UNIVERSITY ERATIVE Coop AOY V NI DONAQ-AINGM], GNV ONINGGE ‘[ “Yo ALVNYALIY — davHOYO ALNNOD ANAVAA —'JIG ‘DIT 15 Iv 450 Report oF FarMeErs’ INSTITUTES ago the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, in order to determine the advantages or disadvantages of the sod-mulch method compared with tillage, leased a Baldwin orchard of ten acres, the trees being 30 years old. This orchard was in excellent condition and typical of the best orchards of that age in the state * The total average annual yield per acre was 116.8 barrels. Of this number, 79.2 were barreled stock ; the remaining 37.6 barrels were culls. The average price received for the ten years, including package, was $2.60 per barrel. The interest was figured on an investment of land values at $500 per acre, for which amount the orchard was actually sold after the completion of the experiment. The following shows the actual cost of growing a barrel of apples: Per barrel MCE TES bree rer eters PAR MR MNES O Ns ssl: 4 sh Shau'sus Bice) esenciie eda ER Ros $0.21 AD AROS MAO eis cictieyajerdeve eieie teeter yate_b tic. 5 ste nee es a Es Bart .012 ARB UGVEZey Sortie, tenes clei noleee ere cs, Ge atc emcee AIRES REL OMAN 12 fr EPR SS 0 063 (PIAUIMIM ON eles erent oe, As aay chess aa ales bigs PETS ae Rae 03 SIGE Ali ed, Aah aas ieee Coke) cc CARRERE at MEA SEE eo Oe: . 096 SEedEOr COVErECrO Papeete me ci © 60 sec a et Sls el ogee ae eye cee 023 SUPCCINGEN CIN OMe Ieee rere lers fs lela vaio feats (ave cevedetone chataee ge store .25 Catherine wand Gmarkenime gery. els 1). lesions 244 MOG AD A ernejetous eed ates eV ne) bi tack be eacpe pu aceie ogevvane shah teee $0.93 BYES bey ks ches a clin ete 6 St a eee APR ne A EO FeR Teen creat . 36 Total cost of growing and marketing a barrel of mer- chantabletappleste sper ah. csi = = cite cer an. Gee $1.29 Deducting the cost from the selling price, $2.60, leaves $1.31 profit. The seventy-nine barrels brought a profit of $103.49 per acre. Deducting from this $7.89, the loss on growing 37.6 barrels of culls over cost of production, we have a net income of $95.60 per acre —a most excellent business enterprise. One must not, however, lose sight of the fact that, were the selling price reduced to $2 or below, the income would be materially reduced and orcharding wculd be no more profitable than many other lines of farm crops. DEDUCTIONS There are in the foregoing some factors of decided advantage to the fruit grower, among which are the following: 1. Decreased number of bearing trees. * Those interested in the details of this experiment will find it in Depart- ment of Agriculture Bulletin 79, pp. 803-810. CoorERATIVE WorxK witH CotumBia University 451 2. The reduction of both trees and crops, because of insects and diseases. The ravages of both are bound to be greater where orchard plantings are abundant, just as malignant diseases are more prevalent in the densely settled than in the sparsely settled communities. 3. Cold storage, which prevents the crop being put on the market within a short period and extends the time of marketing practically over the whole year. This is very important. 4. Better transportation facilities, which enable the fruit grower to reach distant markets at a minimum of cost. Rie. 5 78.— Youne OrcHARD, ABOUT TO REACH THE BEARING AGE, INTERPLANTED WITH BEANS 5. New outlets in regions not hitherto consuming fruit because of their inability to obtain it at’ reasonable prices and in good condition. 6. The continued increase in population will of course absorb a corresponding increase in production. 7. The better utilization of the by-products in the way of evapo- rated fruits, jellies, and the like, all are in favor of the grower. Opposed to this are some disadvantages: | 1. The multitude of young trees that will come into bearing in the next decade. The majority of these are in the hands of orchardists rather than the general farmer, hence the trees will receive better care on the part of those who may be termed special- 459 Report oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES ists. A larger proportion of young trees than ever before will bear fruit that will be a factor in the market. 2. A more complete knowledge and hence better control of in- sects and diseases will again swell the product, because of more trees that will bear more and better fruit. 3. The better transportation facilities referred to above make it easier to supply all markets in years of small production in certain sections, thus tending to reduce the price. 4. Another very important factor is the probable increase of labor on the Pacific slope, due to the opening of the Panama Canal. These states have not developed as they might because of lack of workmen. No doubt they decided wisely against Asiatic labor. The major portion of the large number of immigrants that have come to this country in the last half-century have settled east of the Mississippi River. For such to journey across the continent from our eastern seaports meant nearly as large expenditure as to bring them from their homes across the sea. With the opening of the Panama Canal, an immigrant from Southern Europe can reach the Golden Gate at an expenditure of about ten dollars more than it costs to reach the ports of Boston or New York. In view of these facts, and with the climate of the Pacific slope — not dissimilar to that in the native country of the immigrant — there would seem to be little doubt that after the close of the war California and her sister states will absorb an increasing number of the immigrants to this country, thus enabling them to increase their planting as well as their production. An additional fact should not be lost sight of in this connection — that such migration will mean an increased scarcity of labor in the East, in view of which men should carefully consider extending to too great an extent their operations here. The chief factor in successful orcharding would seem to be a wide distribution of the product. This can only be obtained at a moderate price; for the great consumers of the products of our orchards are not families of great wealth, but those of the artisans, obtaining only a fair wage. CooPERATIVE ‘WorK wiTH CoLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 453 CONCLUSIONS I would therefore advise medium-sized orchards in connection with mixed farming, as thus the farm can maintain itself and sup- port the occupant in non-bearing years. Labor for the orchard ean be had at less cost where it can be employed the entire year or at times when orchard operations cannot be carried on. This is particularly true as regards that of horses. A careful grower in western New York recently told the writer that when he was growing fruit exclusively his horse labor cost more than thirty cents an hour; combining with it the growing of alfalfa and other farm crops, where the horses could be employed for a longer period, he had reduced the cost per hour to eighteen cents. It is evident that we cannot expect much above two dollars per barrel, including package for apples. A greater price materfally reduces consumption. Realizing and acting on these things it will evidently be wise in moderation for men with apple land to sing with Bryant: Come, let us plant the apple tree, Cleave the tough greensward with the spade, Wide let its hollow bed be made; Then gently lay the roots, and there Sift the dark mould with kindly care And press it round them tenderly, As round the sleeping infant’s feet We softly fold the cradle sheet, So plant we the apple tree. The fruitage of this apple tree Winds and our flag of stripes and star Shall bear to coasts that lie afar, When men shall wonder at the view And ask in what fair land it grew; And sojourners beyond the sea Shall think of childhood’s careless day And long; long hours of summer play In the shade of the apple tree. 454 Report oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES CENTRAL PACKING HOUSES FOR NEW YORK FRUIT F. 8S. WeEtsze Agriculturist, New York Central Railroad, New York City The enactment of the New York Apple Grading Law has raised a question in the minds of many growers as to whether it might not be desirable to use central packing houses in packing fruit in order to comply with the requirements of the law. With a view to obtaining information that might bear on this question, the writer has collected data as to methods of operation of central packing houses as they exist in the eastern part of the United State and especially in Canada, where apples are packed in barrels under a compulsory apple packing law similar in many respects to the New York law. It was not thought that all of the methods employed would prove practicable under New York conditions, but it seemed that where there was a great similarity in methods of production and in the kinds of packages used, the same principles should apply in New York State as in the other sections, and that at any rate, since these sections were competitors of New York State, it might be desirable for New York growers to know what their competitors were doing, and. planning to do, in the important matter of packing and marketing their crop. The Canadian apple packing law antedates the New York law by several years, and has now been in operation long enough to produce results. Two very apparent developments have fol- lowed the enforcement of this law: First, orchard packing has decreased and a great many central packing houses have been put in operation, and, secondly, the quantity of Canadian apples exported has increased very rapidly in proportion to the total crop. The second development, Canadians believe, is caused to a large extent by the first. : WHY THE CENTRAL PACKING HOUSE CAME INTO BEING The reason for the establishment of central packing houses was a general dissatisfaction with methods of orchard packing, CooPpERATIVE Work witH CotuMBIA UNIVERSITY 455 and a belief that these methods did not allow due consideration for certain features essential to the successful marketing of fruit. The requisites for successful marketing, Canadian growers be- lieved, were: First, the securing of large quantities of fruit that should be marketed under one brand; secondly, the uniform pack- ing and standardization of this fruit so that each package was as nearly as practicable like every other package of the same grade; and, thirdly, the securing and utilizing of a knowledge of market requirements and conditions. The methods of orchard packing used in Canada previous to the passage of their “ Fruit Marks Act” were similar to those commonly used at the present time in New York State, and an analysis of them certainly shows that they did not permit of the fulfillment of the market fundamentals just mentioned. By the first of these methods the grower picks and packs his own crop in the orchard, a method that does not bring a large quantity of fruit together for marketing under one brand, even if the grower produced from five to ten thousand barrels of fruit. At the present time, when organizations are putting on the market from 50,000 to 450,000 barrels of fruit under one brand, it will be seen that even ten thousand barrels make a comparatively small impression on a market receiving approximately 2,000,000 barrels of apples a year, as does the New York market. Neither does this first method fulfill the second requisite — that of uniform packing — for, aside from the variation that is certain to result from barreling an orchard tree by tree, the grower is always a biased judge of the quality of his own fruit, and the crop that he has labored to produce always seems a little better to him than his neighbor’s, or one in which he has no personal interest. And thus, because they belong to him, he will often permit apples to go into a better grade than that in which they would be placed it he were grading his neighbor’s fruit. During the operation of the apple-packing train, this point was well illustrated by the testimony of a western New York grower, who stated that he had shipped a car of “ orchard-packed ”’ apples to the New York market and followed it to New York in order to supervise its selling. Describing his experience, he said: “When I saw those apples in New York City, if my name had not 456 Report oF Farmers’ [NSTITUTES Fig. 579.— EXTERIOR VIEW OF CENTRAL PACKING House SHOWN BELOW Fic. 580.— IntTERIOR OF CENTRAL PACKING HOUSE, Wuicu Is EQUIPPED WITH SEVEN MECHANICAL GRADERS DRIVEN By 214-HORSE-POWER GASOLINE ENGINE. CApactty, 200 BUSHELS OF PEACHES Per Hour, PER MACHINE CooPERATIVE WorK witTH CotuMBIA UNIVERSITY 457 been on the barrel, I should have sworn that I never had packed them, for they certainly did not look nearly so good to me there as they did in my own orchard.” By a second method in common use, the grower sold his fruit to a dealer or speculator, the grower picking and the dealer pack- ing and paying by the barrel for the various grades that packed out. In this case the dealer had difficulty in satisfactorily super- vising packing operations, which went on simultaneously in sev- eral orchards, and generally a dispute arose with the grower as to the quality of fruit to be put in the various grades. As it frequently worked out, the buyer’s packer would be in “ hot water ” most of the time trying to follow his employer’s instructions, at the same time deferring to the grower’s ideas and maintaining friendly relations. Consequently, even if the dealer secured a large quantity of fruit that he marked under one brand, it was very seldom uniformly packed and standardized. Under the third common method of orchard packing, the grower sold his fruit by the orchard, the dealer doing the picking and the packing, or the grower doing the picking and the dealer doing the packing. Neither of these two methods satisfactorily standard- ized the pack, because the dealer was now a biased judge of the quality of the fruit. He owned it and naturally wished to pack out as many “A” and “ B.” grade apples as possible, and was not therefore careful to set a high standard for his grade, nor to main- tain that standard during the packing operations. Since none of the methods of orchard packing fulfilled the requi- sites for the successful marketing of a large quantity of fruit, uniformly packed, the central packing house came into use. It has not only accomplished its chief functions but also has furnished a method whereby the grower is relieved of the responsibility of supervising unreliable labor during the busy packing season, and has avoided personal interference on the part of grower or buyer in the endeavor to place his fruit in the better grades. TYPES OF PACKING HOUSES Two types of packing houses are in use. The one most com- monly used in Nova Scotia, where the central packing house idea is extensively developed, is a frost-proof (common) storage with a packing room added. 458 Report or Farmers’ [NstTiruTes The storehouse is erected either by a local buyer or by a cooper- ative company. ‘The type of building is shown in the pictures and diagrams. The warehouse is so arranged that delivery from wagons can be made on one side and shipment by rail on the other. The apples are hauled to the packing house in barrels, unheaded or loosely headed without grading, except that culls are separated so far as possible in picking. Latform for tear delivery, Fie. 581.— Car Track Fic, 581.— UsuaL FLooR PLAN oF PACKING HOUSES. ARROWS SHOW HANDLING OF APPLES IN PACKING. PACKING ROOM GENERALLY PLACED WITH SOUTH OR SOUTHEAST EXPOSURE TO SECURE GREATEST AMOUNT *6§ LIGHT The second type of central packing house is that in which the fruit is packed for immediate shipment to storage or market, as soon as possible after being received, instead of being held at the packing house for any appreciable length of time. Fig. 582.— Fie. 582.— ARRANGEMENT OF GRADERS IN PACKING Houskr WHEN APPLES ARE TO BE IMMEDIATELY PACKED AND SHIPPED. ARROWS SHOW MOVEMENT or APPLES. In this manner small quantities of fruit may be packed in cheaply constructed packing sheds without mechanical graders. The accompanying cuts show a type of shed used for this purpose by a Canadian growers’ cooperative company, three thousand barrels of fruit being received, packed, and shipped to storage in this shed annually. CooPERATIVE WorK witH CotumMBiA University 459 Another type of packing house well adapted to the packing of fruit with a mechanical grader is shown in the accompanying euts and diagrams. The special feature to be observed in its construction is the provision of a clear, bright light over the grader and convenient facilities for delivering the fruit to the grading machine. The building shown in the cut was used especially for pack- ing peaches, with the details of construction adapted to a peach- grading machine, but these could easily be changed to suit the type of apple grader to be used. Even now, apples are graded to some extent in this house. METHODS OF HANDLING FRUIT The apples are hauled on wagons with springs, or on hay racks containing a quantity of straw, to packing houses at various dis- tances up to eight miles, the estimated cost of such hauling being about five cents a barrel for a three-mile haul. The grower is given a receipt for the number of barrels he delivers. ‘The apples are stored, each barrel bearing the grower’s name or number and the variety. Later they.are packed, generally just preceding shipment, by a gang of expert packers who have no knowledge of whose apples they are packing. In this manner the fruit of all the growers delivering to the packing house is standardized and bears the same label. After packing, the grower receives a statement from the packing house manager as to the number of barrels and the grades that packed out. In cooperative associations no eredit is given for culls. Those found in packing are sold, and the receipts are credited to the general packing ex- pense. The expense of packing is then prorated according to the number of barrels delivered to the central packing house, and not according to the number of barrels that pack out, this arrange- ment being made in order to minimize the handling of culls and the delivery of slack barrels. The grading and packing in these houses is generally done with- out mechanical graders on a padded sorting table, from which the apples are packed into baskets and then put into barrels. The packers generally work in gangs of six or seven men — a foreman, two sorters, a man to face the barrels, one to rack down and head 460 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTE Fig. 583.— SKYLIGHT DrrREcTLY OVER GRADERS Fic. 584.—No Posts To INTERFERE WITH TEAM DELIVERY CooPpERATIVE WorK witH CotuMBIA UNIVERSITY 461 the barrels, and another to deliver apples to the grading table, take away packed barrels, and place empties. The foreman helps wher- ever necessary. Such a gang working ten hours a day, it is said,. will pack from ninety to one hundred and fifty barrels, depending on the quality, size, and uniformity of the fruit, and the number of varieties on which they work. The cost of packing under this system is given as from nine to seventeen cents per barrel. An additional charge of from three to ten cents a barrel is made in plants with a storage capacity of 10,000 barrels and upwards in order to cover storage, manager’s salary, interest, and repairs on warehouse, and expenses of handling incidental to loading on ears. The managers, however, are sometimes paid by the barrel, or, where cooperative selling is practiced, they receive a percentage of the returns obtained from sales. Such a method of operation as has been described is, of course, especially practicable for cooperative associations of small growers who expect to use only common (not refrigerator) storage and desire to standardize and market their fruit under a common label. In such organizations the common practice is to pool the fruit, sell it, and return to the grower the season’s average price on the different varieties and grades. When large amounts of fruit are to be handled, however, much more rapid grading is necessary, and a mechanical grader must be employed. The type of grader to be used depends on the capacity desired and individual preference for the principle of operation. Mechanical graders with a capacity of two hundred and fifty to four hundred barrels a day are being operated in houses similar in type at a packing cost of from six to twelve cents per barrel, by using a gang of from eight or ten men. Those using mechanical graders assert that the most desirable method is to pick into crates in the orchard and haul directly to the packing house, the apples being dumped from the crates on the table of the grader or its conveyor. Each grower is given a receipt on delivery. A small book is kept in the office for each grower, in which each load is entered as it packs out. The cost of packing is apportioned to the number of bushels delivered, and the culls are sold and credited to the general packing expense account. 462 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES PRACTICABILITY DEMONSTRATED BY INCREASE The increasing use of central packing houses in Canada, both by dealers’ and farmers’ cooperative companies, would seem to prove the practicability of the central packing-house system under a compulsory apply packing law, and should, therefore, prove suc- cessful under New York State conditions. The central packing houses makes it possible to pack uniformly a larger quantity of fruit under one label and facilitates marketing by enabling the packer or packing company to acquire a reputation for their brand, and to refill repeat orders from satisfied customers before this brand is forgotten. In the Annapolis Valley in Nova Scotia, where the central packing-house system is extensively developed, nearly ninety per cent of the fruit grown is packed in central packing houses, either in the packing house of the dealer or that of a cooperative com- pany, the reason for this being that the better and more uniformly packed fruit from these houses will bring better average prices than orchard-packed fruit. Now that they have secured through the central packing house the uniform grading of a large quantity of apples to be sold under one label, it is interesting to see how the fruit growers of Nova Scotia are attacking the question of selling their product, and the further question of securing and utilizing a knowledge of market conditions, which they, believe is the third requisite for successful marketing. COMBINATION OF PACKING HOUSES Several years ago, some thirteen of these central packing houses decided to pack the same grades of fruit, pool it, and sell it through a central organization. The following year thirty-three companies followed this plan, and last year there were forty-three subordinate packing houses that marketed their fruit through the central office of what is now known as the United Fruit Com- panies, Ltd., of Nova Seotia. The central office representing these companies controlled approximately 450,000 barrels of fruit, packed as uniformly as possible by the subordinate packing houses; and, because the company handled so large a quantity of fruit, it was able to accomplish in the way of systematic market- ing what separate companies could not have done. CooPpERATIVE WorK witH CotumMBIA UNIvErRsITY 463 They have representatives abroad and on the Pacific Coast, who in addition to soliciting business, inspect the condition of fruit on arrival and see that it is not misrepresented and that carting charges are not duplicated. They also keep the central office advised as to the condition of the various markets and the quantities of fruit en route to them. If it appears that the Liverpool market, for example, is likely to be oversupplied, the United Fruit Companies route a shipment to London or to Glas- gow, Scotland, or time a consignment to arrive at Liverpool about the time that the glut should be cleared up and better prices prevail. By this system the United Companies of Nova Scotia claim to receive better average prices for the season on their fruit than are obtained for fruit of similar quality. They have also built up a reputation for their brand, so that retailers and distributors in the English markets have expressed a preference for it. The remarkable part of the whole organization ‘is that this entire system of marketing was accomplished at rela- tively little expense. The average sales expense of a barrel of apples is approximately only four cents, an item that takes the place of the commission charge they previously paid. It is in this way that these fruit growers are endeavoring to comply with the apple-marketing fundamentals; first, a large quantity of fruit under one brand; secondly, a uniform package, and, thirdly, a utilization of knowledge of market conditions. PLAN WELL ADAPTED TO NEW YORK STATE There are ample facilities for the establishing of central pack- ing houses in New York State. A dealer may easily establish such an institution in connection with the warehouse that he uses and insist that all fruit that he purchases must be delivered to him at the packing house and there be packed under his brands. It may be that he will eventually pack fruit that he does not buy, charging a specified price for each barrel, but insisting that fruit so packed shall be packed under his labels, and that he shall receive a commission for selling it. A second method that will probably come into use will be the formation of packing companies in connection with cold, or com- mon, storage warehouses. These companies will charge a specified 464 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES price by the barrel for the packing, and assume the responsibility for complying with the requirements of the New York Apple Grading Law. They will place on the barrel the individual farmer’s brand, in addition to the marking required by the Apple Grading Law. The third method, practicable in New York State, is one that has resulted in the establishment of so many packing houses in Canada and parts of the eastern United States; namely, the for- mation of cooperative associations among growers. These organi- zations either erect or rent packing and storage space, employ their Fig. 585— PAckING HousrE oF THE KINDERHOOK FRuIT COMPANY, RECENTLY ERECTED own manager, pack under an association brand, and sell their fruit through their manager, or through an affiliation of similar organi- zations. In New York State, the use of certain packing houses estab- lished under any of these methods is certain to result in an im- provement of the package over the orchard-packed fruit, and will be the first step that must be taken by growers if they are success- fully to meet competition in the apple markets of the world and to obtain prices that will enable them to grow fruit with profit. CoopERATIVE WorkK witH CotumBrIA University 465 FARM ACCOUNTS AND FARM MANAGEMENT A. J. Nicoiu Farmers’ Institute Lecturer Many centuries ago Xenophen is credited with having said: “Farming is very profitable to the man who understands it, but it brings the greatest trouble and misery to the man who undertakes it without knowledge.” This statement will apply to our time as well as to his. ESSENTIALS TO SUCCESS The first essential to good farming is a good farm, and the second is a good farmer. In the selection of a’ farm one should make sure that the soil is fertile and either naturally or artificially drained; that there is a good supply of pure water from never- failing springs or wells; and that the buildings are commodious, comfortable, and attractive. As a rule, it is much cheaper to buy the buildings with the farm than to erect them after the farm is purchased. It should be situ- ated on a good road and near a good market, a good school, and a good church. Its size should be adapted to the kind of farming to be done and the ability of the farmer as a manager. Other things being equal, larger farms are the more profitable. On a small farm the family must be housed and supported, a team and an equip- ment of implements and machines must be maintained and housed, while on a larger area of land with small addition to the equip- ment and some extra help a much larger labor income can be returned to the owner. I do not mean to say that every man who operates a large farm will make a larger labor income than if his farm were smaller; but that if he is capable of managing the larger area he will be handicapped without it. If, on the other hand, he is a man who cannot successfully keep and manage help and who cannot economically produce and market large quantities of prod- uce, he will be far better off with the smaller farm. Unfortunately, many farmers find themselves in possession of farms that are not just what they would have selected had they been given the opportunity; and but few can sell and locate else- where. This is also true of the city man who owns a farm. Some 466 Report oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES times it is the old homestead, or the farm may have come into the hands of the present owner through an investment made when conditions were entirely different than they are now. The problem for each of us is how to manage the farm we have so as to increase not only the profits from the investment but also the fertility of the soil. BUSINESS MANAGEMENT OF THE FARM AND FARM ACCOUNTS We sometimes hear the farmer compared to the business man. Why is the farmer not generally recognized as a business man ? Fig. 586.— MUTTON SHEEP, A VALUABLE PRODUCT OF NEW YORK STATE FARMS He is engaged in the business that was first established on the earth, the business that has the largest investment, the business that is of the greatest importance to the world, and the business | of all others that needs the most careful use of the best business methods that are adapted to it. Yet we find few farmers who can tell how much eapital they have invested in their business, the net profit or loss on the investment, or the cost of production of any CooPpERATIVE WorxK witH CoLtumMBrIA UNIVERSITY 467 of the products of the farm. May it not be true that the reason that the farmer is not recognized as a business man is because of his lack of proper business methods 4 We wonder at the lack of business methods on the farm; but we must remember that it is not so long ago that there was little need for any system of bookkeeping. If we go back a generation or two in almost any locality, we shall find a time when there was a smal! investment in the land and very little in buildings, stock, and equipment. Little was sold from the farm for which cash was received and almost nothing came to the farm for which cash was paid. Farm produce was exchanged for what was not produced ; if no books were kept, it made little difference to the farm income. We have gradually progressed from that time to the present, when we find ourselves with a large investment in farm buildings, stock, and equipment, on which we are paying high taxes and insurance. We are buying largely the things needed on the farm, for which cash is paid, and selling for cash large quantities of products, ob- tained at a high cost of material and labor. While this change has been going on, many farmers have failed to adopt the business methods that are considered necessary in any other industry. Every farmer should have a safe place to keep all valuable papers, and a convenient place for all correspondence. A safety deposit box can be rented in any country bank at small cost, and letter and bill files, which can be bought for twenty-five cents each, make convenient receptacles for business letters and papers. The farm inventory should be taken at least once a year and as near the same time of the year as posstble. The farm inventory consists of a complete list of all real and personal property, includ- in all amounts due, cash on hand, and cash in bank, which added together constitute the resources of the farm. Another list of the debts, which includes all mortgages, notes, and accounts, constitutes the liabilities. The difference between the resources and the lia- bilities is called the present worth, and is what the farmer would have if his business were closed up at the time the inventory is taken. The inventory shows the farmer the amount of his invest- ment; it gives him a complete list of his personal property, a list of all his bills payable and bills receivable, and tells him what he is worth at the time the inventory is taken. The list of personal 468 Report oF FarMers’ INSTITUTES property, which should include all household goods, will be found of great value in adjusting loss in case of fire. Insurance ad- justers tell us that in most cases the list of the property destroyed has to be made up entirely from memory. A careful cash account should be kept by every farmer, and it should be balanced at least once a week. Most farmers keep a cash account, but very few of them balance it at regular times. The following form will show how a cash account can be kept and balanced: Cash Received * Cash Paid Aug., 1916 Aug., 1916 15, Cash on hand. 2.05.7. ~.- $25 00 5. For 10 hundredweight fes@asht immbanikesey se: 140 00 brant pie eee eee $14 00 PBEM Gillis ga odouegs 12 75 6. For horseshoeing ..... 2 50 6. For 15 pounds butter at 8. Cash ton hand or ee ane 23 00 OCR eh rete scctak he 4 50 Ss Cashyingpankes seer 142 75 $182 25 $182 25 The account is balanced by adding the cash on hand and the cash in the bank at the end of the week to the “ cash paid ” side of the account. Every farmer should have a working capital that will enable him to pay cash on all ordinary occasions. By doing this he will be likely to save more than the interest for a year. Records of the cost of production should be kept of all crops grown to be sold from the farm. If animals are kept, records of the cost of all feed consumed, and in the case of dairy cows of the products sold, should be carefully kept and balanced at regular intervals. The milk should be weighed at each milking, and butter-fat tests should be made at least once a month and a careful record kept of all food consumed by the cow. By doing this the owner will be able at the end of the year to cull out all unprofitable animals, and will also have in his records a basis for intelligent feeding and profitable breeding. THE MANAGEMENT OF THE SOIL Lawyers tell us that it is a principle of Blackstone that no man owns the soil — that all one owns is the right to use it. No man has a moral right to rob the soil of its fertility. Job recognized this when he defended his integrity before his Maker and said: “Tf my land ery against me, or if the furrows likewise thereof CooPERATIVE Work witH CoLtumMBIA University 469 complain; if I have eaten the fruits thereof without money, or have caused the owners thereof to lose their life: let thistles grow instead of wheat, and cockle instead of barley.” Good soil management is producing profitable crops, and at the same time adding fertility to the soil. If the land needs drainage, this should be given first attention. A good system of tile drain- age often doubles the yield and improves the quality of the crop. It will lengthen the growing season, raise the temperature of the Fic. 587.— CLOVER STUBBLE, SHOWING CROWNS AND ROOTS OF PLANTS THAT May PropucE HumMuUsS WHEN PLOWED UNDER soil, admit the air, and encourage a deep growth of roots, thus enabling the plant better to withstand the dry weather. If the farmer can have just enough, and not too much, moisture in his soil, he has one of the main factors in the production of a good crop. This can often be accomplished by drainage and by deep and thorough tillage. So far as possible, deep tillage at first, followed by more shallow tillage through the growing season, is best. In its virgin state the soil contained a large quantity of decayed organic matter, commonly called humus, which retained the mois- 470 Report oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES ture as a sponge holds water and gave it off as the plant needed it. This decayed organic matter also furnished food for the plants. At present most soils are very deficient in humus. Good soil management not only keeps up the supply of humus in the soil, but increases it, and thus helps to restore the soil to its former condition. ‘This can be done by the use of stable manure and by Fig. 588.— GREEN-MANURE CROPS SHOULD BE PLOWED UNpbER As SOON AS THEY HAVE ATTAINED THE DESIRED GROWTH. PLOWING SHOULD BE DEEP AND THOROUGH plowing under crops grown on the land. If the crops that are grown to plow under are of the nitrogen-gathering varieties, such as clover, vetch, or soy beans, the plant food added will be much greater, and if these nitrogen-gathering plants are inoculated by the proper bacteria being applied to the seed or to the soil, their value as soil builders will be still further increased. By the long-continued growing of plants and by the action of water, the soil has lost some of its original mineral elements. CooPERATIVE WorK witH CotumBiA University 471 Good soil management restores these, and we often find that an application of lime insures a crop of clover, where without it the crop would be an entire failure. Good soil management entails frequent and light, rather than heavy, applications of stable man- ure and supplements it with a careful use of commercial fertili- zers. Good soil management also practices a regular rotation of crops and includes in the rotation some of the nitrogen-gathering plants, properly inoculated. The plowing should be deep and thorough, the furrows being set on their edge rather than turned over flat. A gradual increase of the depth of plowing will in many cases improve the crop. ‘The land should be well fitted for the crop by tillage begun as early as possible after plowing and: continued at frequent intervals until the crop is planted. Frequent tillage begun early saves moisture, kills weeds, and pulverizes the soil. MANAGEMENT OF THE CROPS The variety of the crop should be adapted to the locality where it is grown and to the market for which it is produced. ‘The areas to be planted should be rectangular rather than square so as to give the longest rows possible, and thus loss of time may be avoided in turning the team. The seed should be true to name, should as a rule be grown in the locality where it is to be planted, and should always be tested for purity and germination. The germination test can easily be made by the farmer at home and should be attended to before the busy season of planting comes on. A shallow box filled with rich, moist soil may be used for the larger seeds. In testing corn each ear should be tested separately, and only the ears that send strong sprouts from nearly every kernel should be saved for seed. ‘The testing box can be divided into squares for testing individual ears by stretching cords across the top of the box two inches apart. Six kernels should be taken from each ear, each kernel from a sep- arate part of the ear, and deposited in its proper check in the test- ing box. At the Iowa Experiment Station, it was found that those ears from which all six kernels gave strong sprouts yielded at the rate of 75 bushels an acre; while the yield from ears that had one A472 Report oF FarMeErs’ INSTITUTES weak and one dead kernel dropped in average to 63 bushels an acre. Seeds of the different grains can be tested in the same way. Each year a great loss is sustained by the farmers of New York State from sowing seed grain of poor germination. A few years ago a dealer in my own locality sold to the farmers 1,600 bushels of seed oats that when sown failed to show a good stand. A ger- mination test showed that 80 per cent of this amount would not grow. ‘epi ey ip “A Ohi CY NTO ier iar ye I Cen enyosy TOMB ‘d “y Good Ono Ot OO te) a uoyAvq eH “M wud) ‘9'd ‘Y “Bg ‘euuvyonbsng ‘uygWy ‘g “vy Situnrors qed Fol qulog AouytTy MA ‘pjoury yUuely LINadisdud OT6I ‘22 edy ZIGI ‘IT “AON TI61 ‘1 ABW TI61 ‘T [dy IGT IT oune VG Tace 1 eure SI6T 2 “Te GIGI ‘8 “AON SI6L 1 API FIGI ‘OT tady TI61 ‘T Wdy ZI6I al fiudy GI6I ‘T INdy Dar OS errr) Ch Ct CF ce ab tet YO Oo AIMQXOy wae Ec ee ooscas ne euIAOg-Ty]aqq s/s .60e 46 ae sia ee sa 6 yisodaq xv oy[tAsuouue) :GUVMVTIG a and! ave (op alaule Ae uietie) ba’ (opie yynog OQ) puey109 Cart ooo nO Oo ao [eayuag ‘0D pueyyto0y :ONVILYUOR Ob 6 TOTO Om Oe Peery Onc Aer osuvusyy) 489 CO ORNS 6 OOO One OT AG osuvusyy) YON ie ters enor eho OSes a as unplag Many :ODNVNGHO Sein) (0) Gh Riis) w 6) \4)/e leita Gace) 8, ace sunuley) U19Y}1I0 N :DNOWGHO yjoureg :VADAVLAVHD ome’ te’ alinleae oid give Leute witerelnel alin avalie) ale. 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Ory MBSIB AA :DNIWOX AA WOIG9F{-P10 J, 18 FT HOM OREOAPONS Hua Cad eed Crane AoyIe A espluquieg :NOLONIHSV A MRE RON El SRS OA cP oe THEA ‘UaLST() OO Ta OOO TR OY Or OO (][2U4109) Bovey] :SNIMdWOT, OOTY OSI A CeCED ONS TOTO HA Oha BSOLy, 4SIy :VDOL], nisl isslei elie) (e).e) (shel si eie si aumliailsilelisiisiia) sileltsiells Aq aoqvy :NVAITIOG AMoOvUd OOOO ODOOnO ooo 4 AoyTeA muo0z,IOYORD :NGGAGLY ©. \8).0, 0).6 eee 0\.0 0 ¢ellene)egene 616 biases OT[TASIOA MOT aIYVHOHOG NOILVIOOSSVY GNV ALNONOO pepnjp»uUoQ—SNOILVIDOSSY LNANAAOUMN]T AUIV(T ALVLG WUOX MAN Cow Trstina AssocIATIONS 507 The following is an extract from an article printed in a recent copy of the “* Montgomery County Farm Bureau News”: SUCCESSFUL COW-TESTING ASSOCIATION WORK Grorce Brainarp, Canajoharie, N. Y. With the cow-testing association on a sound working basis, the results are becoming more and more apparent each month. These results are visible, not theoretical or imaginary. I will endeavor to cite several instances to show that the work has in a measure been successful. 1. A short time ago a dairyman wished to dispose of a calf. He was about to make way with one, when it occurred to him that he would see what the dam had been doing. In looking over her record, he saw that the dam was a good cow, paying him a fair profit each month. Consequently, another calf, whose dam’s record was not so good, was disposed of instead. Were it not for an association record on his herd, he would not have known which was the better calf to keep. 2. Another man, in looking over his cow-testing record, decided that some five or six of his cows were a poor business proposition. He at once began investigating to find why these cows were not paying. In the majority of instances, the cows’ teeth were found to be almost entirely gone; one cow was nearly dry, with no signs of freshening this season. The result was that they were sold and other stock were put in their places. 3. Late in the spring, when some farmers were beginning to look over the silage and hay on hand, one man decided he could not get all his herd through the season in the stable and give them the usual ration. As he therefore figured that four cows must go, he sold the four poorest —those which from the time of freshening had netted him little or nothing for the feed they con- sumed and the labor he had put on them. How did he know which were his four poorest cows? He simply referred to his record book, and a few minutes’ study told the story. 4, A herd which had about a six months’ association record on it was recently sold at auction. One of the prospective buyers hesitated to purchase without knowing the cows’ records at the 508 Report or Farmers’ INSTITUTES pail. He secured the records of the cows, which gave him the desired information, and when he bid these animals in he did not feel as if a long chance had been taken. ‘This instance shows where an association record helped in the sale of cattle. The owner had the figures, and they tell a story better than any words the auctioneer or seller can give. . In cases where other men have been interested in the feeding proposition, the association record has told them to feed less grain where a cow had not been paying for her keep and to increase where a cow could make profitable use of the feed. One man who did not feed to advantage was asked why he did not feed more grain; the answer was, “At the present price of milk, the increase in flow would only cover the cost of the extra feed.” Perhaps he was correct; but did he figure that if he did only break even on the extra cost of grain, his cows would be in enough better condition to have fully warranted the extra expendi- ture, not to mention the pleasure of at least handling the extra money ¢ . Several men have weighed the feeds for individual cows and have admitted that the cows gained where they fed for production. A saving was made in feed, and a saving in feed is a saving in money. Would these men have known which cows they were keep- ing at a loss and which at a profit, were it not for the association record? Perhaps they would, but cows are very deceiving in their milk supply during the season, and the association records often prove a surprise and a help to those who have them. EXHIBIT AT STATE FAIR For the third time a booth was maintained at the State Fair, located as in the previous year in the west wing of the Liberal Arts Building. As the horticultural exhibit was in the main part of this building, many more farmers were brought in contact with the exhibit than a year ago. As in previous years, much literature was distributed and many names taken for information on a variety of subjects, and more or less of a continuous farmers’ institute was held. The director’s assistant, Mr. W. F. McDonough, was in charge, assisted by three of the institute workers — Messrs. Witter, Van Wagenen, and McPherson. Owing to sickness in his family, the director was unable to be present. The cow-testing associations were represented on the opposite side of the aisle by Messrs. Nicoll and Ennis. 1509] FARM BUREAUS The close relations with the farm bureaus has been maintained. In every county but one maintaining a farm bureau, the institute conferences have been held under the auspices of the farm bureau manager. The managers have been very helpful, not only in assisting to locate institutes, but in indicating the subjects that shall be considered, and in awakening an interest and assisting at the meetings. The various county projects have had a con- spicuous place on the program, and the managers have done much to give the institute workers the true local viewpoint. As related in connection with cow-testing associations, the cooperation of the farm bureaus has made possible the advance work along this line. Five new bureaus have beer organized during the year. The complete list is given below: ORGANIZED FARM BUREAUS IN NEw YORK STATE, JULY 1, 1916 M. C. Burritt, State Director, Ithaca. H. EK. Babeock, Asst. State Director, Ithaca. County Manager Headquarters Albany. 2.2... H. H.Crouch= 2. :.2: Court House, Albany. Allegany soos. a9. Ca iSmithe 220. Belmont. BATON 5 5 son Ga Its WS EMEIN, oooc6 Chamber of Commerce, Binghamton. Cattaraugus ... H. K. Crofoot...... Olean. CENAEH oo Gace Ws It Ateeill pecs ooo. Auburn. Chautauqua ESB hoc ensas esa. Chautauqua. Chemung .... M. E. Chubbuck.... Chamber of Commerce, Elmira. Chenango . 5 Wh 12 Shit eg 6 aoc Norwich. Climtonweyey cern Cs Sone years Plattsburgh. Cortland . . HE. H. Forristall..... Cortland. Delaware .... HE. R. Eastman...... Walton Dutchess, < vo. sock. i Macys.oe.... Poughkeepsie. [Byer 4 . W. L. Markham.... Chamber of Commerce, Buffalo. IDES 5 2 Gaara, We lak lemlbhose ss. 5 Essex. Franklin . ~ (OMIM: vAustinig etc. Malone. Herkimer.) CAS lay lone ea. Herkimer. Jefferson ..... F. E. Robertson.... Watertown. [510] County Mion Oe Newser. er. . Montgomery ... INPYEN Ss 5 occ INDRIGEWED, oo oco oe Oneidameeee s. Onondaga . ... Orange . . Oswego .. .... Otsecoumyiaa St. Lawrence.. Saratoga ..... Schoharie . .... Suillivamleeaenr tee dhioga Aa tees « Tompkins . . Wilstereaneens Warren) 5). Westchester Wyoming . ... Farm Bureaus 511 Manager Headquarters Ibe ANS SICH sb oawcaoor Chamber of Commerce, Rochester, A. S. Merchant..... Canajoharie. PRVERAW eliyireiaersnas Mineola. INE Reece, cave ctsciste Lockport. OW HAMROSS a nacie tomate Chamber of Commerce, Utica. SAG Martine casey. 112 Court House, Syracuse. It; 1B, WGublinemeN AS 55 bo Middletown. EK. V. Underwood... Oswego. IMs tes leemellenes goucos Cooperstown. @..S. Pel psirseccrcre: Canton. yea: ue = Ko) GI} =) ae Saratoga Springs. Rates eollandameee ae Cobleskill. J. A. Richardson.... Liberty. Hy Ra Zimmer: 5.2 Owego. V. B. Blatchley.:2. - Ithaca. WVo> Jal, Lei@alles Ba s5 ce Kingston. HE. W. Cleeves...... Warrensburg. JeiGaOurtisee se. ae Chamber of Commerce, White Plains. H. M. Bowen...... Warsaw. NEW WORK IN CONJUNCTION WITH H. E. CROUCH, MANAGER OF ALBANY FARM BUREAU Naturally, the relation between the Albany Farm Bureau and the Bureau of Farmers’ Institutes is very close. As may be noted in the following table, Mr. William Hotaling spent six days in Albany County in demonstration work in orchards. DEMONSTRATION WORK IN ORCHARDS Place Date Sessions Attendance iBethilehientag Centerwearr-icuqorncrrcisc April 5, 1916 1 8 CORN AUENNE os dee. ovadwo doco oo Gx Jpop “fe, USE 1 12 iDargerk nas ailley TA soi porcininieie hain Bi innate April 12, 1916 1 26 IDNA VANIKE! 4g omoubaoague bacon soee April 13, 1916 1 16 Gaanilldler adhe ee eee tert ere ele April 6, 1916 il 8 indians Miclds* yeoeok.. eee sen April 12, 1916 1 14 Wathame Conners sires cre eter April 6, 1916 1 8 IRV ENA E perarcterise cystic aienels: latcierenss see April 7, 1916 1 8 Souths Bethlehem lee cee. April; 5; 1916 1 25 WEL? SHARE ato doo puGndooooOuer April 10, 1916 1 15 Motalss: js fee ae 3s 10 140 An entirely new line of work was taken up in Albany and Greene counties. Instead of the demonstration train, which has ss, ‘ e S33NL LINUA JO ONINNYd GNV: DNIAVEdS. INSTITUTES b) Ww fa GaSVASIC NOs SIOLVLOd O39S LNAWLVYL | a inws wos -Sivo 9339S -1NaWivaut ee Ce SNOILVYULSNOWAG 2 Nnvsung WUV4.ALNNOD ANVETY ; Bs SALALILSN] SUaWUYy JO NuSuNG 77 co fe FUNLINIIBOY 40 INS WLUW, BLWLS | eat gs fA ae : Se roe = oa eS Farm Bureaus 513 been much in evidence, an auto truck was used. This was fur- nished with a barrel spray pump, a tub for soaking seed potatoes with formalin solution for scab, a platform on which oats could be treated for smut, and a full set of pruning tools. The work was in charge of Messrs. Hotaling and Crouch. The purpose was to reach small places, more or less remote, which had not had agricultural meetings. Owing to the bad condition of the roads, the trip was delayed, and most farmers were afield. Nevertheless, at every place, representative men were present and gladly availed themselves of the information given. Several who came out of curiosity expressed their appreciation of the practicability of the work. Two hamlets were visited each day, four days being spent in Albany County and two in Greene County. The list of places and record of attendance is given below: DEMONSTRATIONS wWiTH AuTO TRUCK Place Date Attendance Albany: la {eri tivia 58 Ae Re Pe Oy ee retin hs ee Oe Pe eS ee May 2, 1916 14 Chestenvillewe= sae those £:. {6s Tes tees oki oh May 3, 1916 8 Cunidenlande@enterys 4. steht bers Stes syle, ols oo: May | 1, 1916 8 LEO TERS G5! 5 Be OR RCEIG oa IC Cae Ie ern en gee aa May 1, 1916 12 NIG waSalemiieeys craters ciara sraieia ois cists a atte teeters May 2, 1916 8 PEesror LOMOWHAAe Plas A tal. ele IG gfe. May 4, 1916 18 Rensselaervilllereyarcpek. spshs sha besye sua bagecusiels «Ss adate May 3, 1916 8 SOME VVGSGOT Om erase cicyaie es daisies’ cia « slieve ayers op oy2 May 4, 1916 30 Greene: LSEVSTE vel DOUG NH TAs cachet cuca uti Rictas ch Oeeea eRe May 5, 1916 12 Greenville} Centetyy {: 8a. tht ayy ets bye sears May 6, 1916 30 News Ballbimore ys. \.).)- acts esis cisin 9 3:3 30,86 oboe May 6, 1916 33 CC) sa ee ET UM eo ogeyestet sys tata, shot caer oles al atta over et overed sy oie Ciarol-8 sys May 5, 11916 25 Motalcsect as - 206 COUNTY CONFERENCES These have become so thoroughly established that their pur- pose is understood and they are looked for by the people. For two reasons, this year’s work is deserving of special mention: First, most of the traveling was done by automobile instead of by train, thus making it possible to visit two counties each day, and making a valuable saving of time to the director. This method also affords an opportunity to observe the farming and agricultural conditions in the different counties, and the first-hand knowledge thus obtained enables the director to serve the people more effectively than ever before. In June, 1915, the eastern and northern portions of the state were visited; the following August, the middle and western por- tions. In June, 1916, the entire state was gone over, except the northern portion, which will be visited in August. By this change in time, opportunity has been afforded’ for the study of conditions both at seed-time and harvest. The second notable point was the participation in these con- ferences by Professor D, J. Crosby, who is in charge of the exten- sion work at Cornell University. So mutually satisfactory was this cooperation in August, 1915, that this year the joint work extended over every county in the state. The call for confer- ences was signed by both the director of farmers’ institutes and Professor Crosby, and it stated that both farmers’ institutes and extension schools would be located at the conference. The plan is a most excellent one. The moral effect is fine, show- ing that both these agencies for agricultural advancement are work- ing in unison. Time is saved on the part of those attending. With a limited number of both institutes and schools, more equit- able and mutually satisfactory assignments can be made than would be possible in any other way. People are given to under- stand that they cannot have an institute and a school at the same place in the same year. Frequently, one will serve a community [514] — County CoNFERENCES 515 better than the other. The conference usually brings out this fact, and thus a satisfactory arrangement is made. Never have the conferences been so well attended. People are learning that the interest manifested by a personal attendance — often at a sacrifice of valuable time — goes a long way to secure them a meeting, and the personal interchange of facts does much to make the meetings what they should be. This year Chautau- qua County bears the banner for interest and attendance, there being thirty-six persons present, who asked for twice as many days as the number assigned and for seven more meetings. Four places voluntarily withdrew their applications; to these institutes were promised a year hence. One day of institutes is allotted on the basis of 600 farms. PUBLICATIONS This part of the work of the Bureau of Farmers’ Institutes has been kept well to the front. No portion of the work is more far- reaching, for these publications go not only to all parts of our own state, but over the United States and far beyond the seas. The many voluntary expressions of appreciation that come from near and far assure us that the work is helpful and that it is appreciated. In September, 1915, Bulletin 75 was issued —“ What Shall the Farmer Read?” by F. H. Hall, editor and librarian, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. Besides a discussion on the need for good reading, it consists of an extensive list of desirable books for the farmer, classified in groups according to subject. In October, 1915, there was issued Bulletin 76, “ The Horse Industry in New York State,” which covers 278 pages, and cou- sists of 36 articles by 27 different writers, all of whom are author- ities in their special lines. It contains 80 illustrations, a number of which were from Belgium, showing places and horses that have since been destroyed by the war. The table of contents and writers follows: Introduction. Evolution and History of the Horse, M. W. Harper. Principles of Horse Breeding, M. W. Harper. The Standardbred Horse, Carl W. Gay. The Arab Horse, H. K. Bush-Brown. The Thoroughbred, Lieut. N. C. Shiverick. The American Saddle Horse, Elise Castleman Railey. The Hunter, Frank S. Peer. The Shetland Pony, Julia M. Wade. The Welsh Pony, Julia M. Wade. The Draft Breeds of France, E. S. Akin. The Belgian, E. S. Akin. The Draft Breeds of Great Britain, E. S. Akin. Hackney Breeding in America, Reginald C. Vanderbilt. Coach Horses, DeVoe Meade. [516] PUBLICATIONS 517 Asses and Mules, Dr. C. W. Brodhead. The Horse on New York State Farms, Dr. M. Hamilton. The Best Horse for the Farmer to Breed, J. H. S. Johnstone. Care of the Stallion, J. Gelder. Care of the Brood Mare and Her Colt, Lowell Roudebush. Fall Versus Spring Colts, Edward van Alstyne. Training the Colt, H. E. Hopkins. The Horses’ Feet and Their Care, Dr. C. W. Brodhead. Care of Horses’ Teeth, Dr. C. W. Brodhead. Feed and Care of the Horse, F. C. Minkler. Horses at the New York State Fair, Dr. H. 8. Wende. The Need of a Stallion Law, Dr. W. G. Hollingworth. Effects of the Wisconsin Stallion Law, Dr. A. S. Alexander. Stallion Enrollment Law, E. 8. Akin. Community Effort in Draft Horse Breeding, J. L. Edmonds. Horse Breeding in the West and East, Forest Henry. Glanders or Farey, Dr. Charles Linch. Diseases of the Limbs and Bony Structure, Dr. J. F. DeVine. Distemper and Diseases of the Respiratory Organs, Dr. E. L. Volgenau. Colic and Azaturea, Dr. M. Hamilton. Horse Companionship, Frank §S. Peer. New York State Draft Horse Breeders’ Club. Statistics. Index. Bulletin 77, ‘ Potato Growing in New York State,” was reissued in November, 1915, with the addition of a symposium on stand- ardization of seed potatoes, by Messrs. F. C. Stewart, EK. H. Forris- tall, C. B. Tillson, and O. F. Ross. It contains 34 illustrations and 22 articles, covering 142 pages. The table of contents and writers is given below: Introduction. History of the Potato, Edward van Alstyne. Potato Soils and Their Preparation, Alva Agee. Seed Selection and Breeding, C. H. Myers. Some Causes of Poor Stands of Potatoes, F. A. Sirrine. New European Potato Diseases, G. G. Atwood. Fertilizers and Manures for Potatoes, Edward van Alstyne. Planting and Cultural Methods, Daniel Dean. Potato Insects, Bentley B. Fulton. Potato Diseases in New York State, M. F. Barrus. Spraying, F. C. Stewart. Essentials in Marketing, R. H. Cooper. Successful Cooperative Marketing, W. H. Ingling. Cortland County Potato Growers’ Association, EH. H. Forristall. Potato Machinery, C. R. White. 518 Report or Farmers’ InstirutTes Potato Growing on Long Island, H. R. Talmage. The Potato Situation in Western New York, C. R. White. Potato Growing in Northern New York, C. B. Tillson. Standardization of Seed Potatoes: F. C. Stewart. E. H. Forristall. C. B. Tillson. O. F. Ross. The Potato as a Food, Ida 8. Harrington. Statistics. Index. In January, 1916, Bulletin 79 was issued, “ The Fruit Indus- try of New York State,” in two volumes, all in all the most com- prehensive and voluminous of all the institute bulletins, with the possible exception of Bulletin 44. Volume I contains 354 pages, and takes up the industry as a whole, especially that relating to the apple. Volume II contains 452 pages, and is devoted to pears and other varieties of fruit grown in the state. There are altogether 79 articles with 313 illustrations. The tables of con- tents and writers follow: VoLuME I Introduction. The Fruit Districts of New York, U. P. Hedrick. The Nursery Industry in New York, Samuel Fraser. Various Methods of Refrigeration and Its Advantage to the Public, George H. McKay. The Apple Grading Law, B. D. Van Buren. The Apple-packing Train, F. ‘8S. Welsh. Inspection Work of the Department of Agriculture in Relation to Horticulture, George G. Atwood. History of Fruit Exhibits at State Fair, H. B. Knapp. Horticultural Exhibits and What They Mean to the Fruit Interests of the State of New York. Exhibit of New York Fruit at the Columbian Exposition, Edward van Alstyne. New York Fruit at the Pan-American Exposition in 1901, F. E. Dawley. New York Fruit at the Land Shows and San Francisco Exposition, Charles G. Porter. The Western New York Horticultural Society, John Hall. The New York State Fruit Growers’ Association, E. C. Gillett. Hudson River Fruit Exchange, W. Y. Velie. PUBLICATIONS 519 The Apple: Introduction of the Apple into America and New York State, Charles 8. Wilson. The Apples of New York, 8S. A. Beach. Soil Types for Varieties of Apples, H. J. Wilder. Tillage, W. H. Chandler. Cover Crops, R. D. Anthony. Intercropping the Young Orchard — From an Economic Standpoint, M. C. Burritt. Sod Mulch vs. Tillage for Apple Orchards, W. D. Auchter. Fertilizers for Fruits, U. P. Hedrick. Care of Young Trees, William Hotaling. Care of the Old Orchard, Roy P. McPherson. Pruning, Edward van Alstyne. Insects Particularly Affecting the Apple, E. P. Felt. Some of Our Most Common Apple Diseases, H. H. Whetzel and Lex R. Hesler. Dwarf Apples, U. P. Hedrick. The Profits on a Barrel of Apples, U. P. Hedrick. Central Packing Houses for New York Fruit, I’. 8S. Welsh. Selling on Commission and Buying Direct from Producers, J. H. Killough. Exporting Apples, C. W. Kimball. Auction Houses as Distributors of Fruits and Vegetables, Victor K. McElheny, jr. Receipts and Prices of Apples in New York City and Exports of Apples from United States and Canada, H. B. Knapp. The Evaporated Fruit Industry in New York State, E. W. Catchpole. Grafting and Budding, George G. Atwood. Physical Injuries to Trees, B. D. Van Buren. Statistics. Index. The The VotumE II. Pear: Varieties of Pears for Eastern New York, J. R. Cornell. Varieties of Pears for Western New York, Ira Pease. Cultural Methods for Pears, Ira Pease. Pruning Pear Trees, Arthur Farrand. Some Insects Attacking the Pear, and Their Control, P. J. Parrott. Diseases of Pears, M. F. Barrus. Packing and Marketing Pears, Arthur Farrand. Statistics. Peach: Peaches in Eastern New York, P. L. Huested. Peaches in Western New York, E. H. Anderson. Cultural Methods for the Peach, and Marketing, A. T. Henry. Pruning the Peach, M. A. Blake. Insects and Diseases of the Peach, L. F. Strickland. Packing and Marketing the Peach, A. G. Gulley. Statistics. 520 Report or Farmers’ INstirutTes The Cherry: Varieties of Cherries, U. P. Hedrick. Cultural Methods in Growing the Cherry, W. L. McKay. Cherry Insects, C. R. Crosby. Diseases of the Cherry, L. R. Hesler. Marketing Cherries, C. K. Scoon. Statistics. The Plum and Prune: Varieties of Plums, U. P. Hedrick. Cultural Methods and Pruning for Plums and Prunes, G. H. Howe. The Common Insect Enemies of the Plum, F. H. Lathrop. Diseases of the Plum, L. R. Hesler. Marketing Plums and Prunes, G. H. Howe. Statistics. The Quince: Quinces, H. L. Brown. Statistics. The Grape: A Look Backward on the Grape, L. H. Bailey. Varieties of Grapes, U. P. Hedrick. Grape-growing Sections of New York, F. E. Gladwin. The New York Wine Industry, L. J. Vance. The Grape Juice Industry, Gerald Frey. Cultural Methods for the Grape in New York, F. E. Gladwin. Control of Insects Injurious to the Grape, F. Z. Hartzell. Diseases of Grapes, Donald Reddick. Production and Marketing of Grapes in the Chautauqua Belt, S. J. Lowell. Hybrid Grapes at Geneva, R. D. Anthony. Statistics. The Strawberry: Strawberries, William Palmer. Statistics. The Raspberry: Raspberries, O. M. Taylor. Red Raspberries. Black Raspberries. Purple Raspberries. Statistics. The Blackberry and Dewberry: Blackberries and Dewberries, O. M. Taylor. The Currant: Currants, O. M. Taylor. The Gooseberry: Gooseberries, O. M. Taylor. Statistics of Small Fruits. Fruits in the Home: The Dietetic Value of Fruit, I. S. Harrington. Index. PUBLICATIONS 521 In June, 1916, there was published Bulletin 85, “ Dairy Improvement Associations of New York State,” by Mr. A. J. ~ Nicoll. This contains 57 pages, and consists of a history of the cow-testing work in the state with tables showing accomplishment. The table of contents and the list of contributors follow: Introduction. Early History of the Cow-Testing Association, A. J. Nicoll. Need of Dairy Improvement Association Work in New York State, A. J. Nicoll. Plans for the Future, A. J. Nicoll. The Dairy Improvement Association. Wyoming County’s Dairy Improvement Associations, H. M. Bowen. Fundamentals in Dairying, Edward van Alstyne. A new question leaflet was printed for use in the institutes, of which the following is a copy: GRAPES F, K. GLADWIN, Associate Horticulturist, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Fredonia, N. Y. SOILS 1. What are the requirements of a good grape soil? 2.‘What are the advantages of a gravelly soil; the disadvantages? 3. What are the advantages of a clay soil; the disadvantages? 4. Does the character of the soil influence the sugar content of grapes? 5. Is there any difference in the keeping quality of grapes from various soils? 6. Is it good practice to set grapes on land that has been heavily cropped right up to the time of planting? 7. Is sub-soiling desirable before setting the vineyard? 8. Is tile drainage necessary for the growing of grapes? 9. In a regular system of drainage, how far apart should the laterals be located ? 10. What size tile should be used? 1l. Do side hills require drainage? 12. Is there a relationship between poor drainage and winter injury? 13. Do grapes varieties show a soil preference? V ARIETIES 14. Is there a demand for varieties other than the Concord? 15. Name two commercial varieties: (a) black; (b) red; (ce) white. 16. Are any of the newer varieties desirable from a commercial stand- point? 17. How are new varieties obtained? 18. Do grape varieties require cross-pollination? 19. Is it advisable to set solid blocks of little-known varieties without knowing whether they are self fertile or not? 20. 21. 22. 23. 24, Report or Farmers’ Institutes Can the originator’s statement of a new variety be taken as reliable? In what respects is it desired to improve the Concord? Does it follow that because a variety dues well in one locality it will in another? Is the planting of wine grapes to be recommended ? Name some of the principal wine varieties used ia New York? PLANTING 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 3. 32. When is the best time to plant? What distances apart should grapes be set? How deep should grapevines be planted? How should the vines be pruned at planting? What fertilization should be given at this time? Which is the better pian, to set in holes or furrows? Can grapes be successfully planted in crowbar holes? What grade vines should be planted? What age vines? CULTIVATION 33. 34, 35. 36. 37. 38. Why is it essential that thorough tillage be given? What kind of cultivators should be used? Which is the more essential in cultivation, the killing of weeds or the maintaining of a dust mulch? When should the vineyard be plowed? How deep? Does the cutting away of roots in a well-cared-for vineyard seriously injure it? . Is the diamond-tooth cultivator a good tool to use in the vineyard? . Is fall plowing advisable? . Is it good practice to leave the freshly turned furrows for some : SAE s time aiter plowing? . When should horse-hoeing be done? . Can a vineyard that is plowed up to the vines each spring be kept level through subsequent cultivation? . How often should the vineyard be cultivated after plowing? . When should cultivation be stopped? Why? . Is it necessary to plow up to the vines in the fall? . Can a vineyard be profitably maintained without plowing? . How would the later plowing affect such a vineyard? 9. Is it possible to maintain a vineyard through the sod-mulch method? . How large a vineyard can a good team keep in good tillage? CovER Crops AND GREEN MANURES dl. 52. 53, 54. 55. 56. What are the benefits to be derived from their use? When should they be sowed? What are the best vineyard cover crops? In what amount should each be sown? When should they be plowed under? Are cover crops ever injurious? FERTILIZERS 57. What fertilizers are the best for vineyards? In what amounts? When applied? 68 PRUNING 69. 70. ils 2k eX 74. dee 76. dale 78. 79. PUBLICATIONS 593 . Can a vineyard be maintained through the use of commercial fer- tilizers? . Of how much value is two forks of stable manure per hill? . Is it profitable to use car manure? . Do fertilizers favor maturity of fruit and wood? . How should manure be applied? When? . How can manure be kept to the best advantage to retain the plant food? . Which is the more economical fertilizer to buy —the low grade or the high? . Is it possible to use too much manure in the vineyard? . Can fertilizers or manure take the place of cultivation in the vine- yard? . Is it more economical to buy mixed fertilizers or practice home mixing? Of what value is lime in the vineyard? What kind, and how much should be applied? »When should grapes be pruned? How many canes should be left? Is the cane and spur renewal method to be recommended? What are its advantages? How often should the old stems and arms be renewed? How should the renewal stem be cared for the first two years? What are some of the objections to the Chautauqua or arm system? Are there other desirable methods of putting up the vines? Describe the single-stem, two-cane Kniffen method of training? Describe the umbrella Kniffen system. What are their advantages? 80. Should all varieties be trained the same? 81. How should the young vineyard be pruned the first two years after planting ? 82. Is summer pruning a profitable practice with commercial Concord vineyards? DISEASES 83. What is the cause of dead arm? How should it be treated? 84. What is powdery mildew? What conditions favor it? How may it be controlled? 85. What causes “shelling”? Can it be controlled? 86. Are these diseases carried through cutting wood? 87. What is the cause of the leaves drying out and dying, and the check- ing of ripening of fruit and wood? 88. What conditions favor winter injury? How is such injury mani- 89. fested? How should winter-injured vines be treated? MISCELLANEOUS 90. le Is there danger of an overproduction of table grapes? Is the growing of other fruits more profitable than grape growing? INSECTS 92. 93. . What is the best method of controlling the rose chafer? . What effect has the environment of a vineyard on the severity of SPRAYING 109. 110. 111. 112: 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. Kerport or Farmers’ INSTITUTES Describe the rose chafer? What is the life history of the rose chafer? rose chafer attack? . What is the life history of the steely beetle? . What is the best method of controlling the steely beetle? . What surroundings are most favorable for attack by steely beetle? ). What is the life history of the grape root-worm? . What is the best method of controlling the grape root-worm? - Why do the number of grape root-worms fluctuate so markedly certain years? . What is the cause and remedy for “ wormy ” grapes? . Give the life history of the grape-berry moth? . Why are there usually more wormy grapes near woodland or waste land? . Give the life history of the grape leaf hopper? . What is the best remedy for the grape leaf hopper? . What effect have overwintering weeds and grass upon the grape leaf hopper ? . Will cover crops cause vineyards to be more severely attacked by leaf hoppers? Give directions for the annual spraying of a vineyard that will keep the grapes in the healthiest state and yet be of minimum expense. Is powdered arsenate of lead better than the paste form? Is arsenite of zinc a safe insecticide for grapes? What do you know about Kiltone? What is the best fungicide for grapes? How should bordeaux mixture be prepared? Can soluble sulphur or lime-sulphur be used on grapes? What is the best type of sprayer for vineyards? What are the essentials of good spraying? NEW MATTER ON BACKS OF PROGRAMS FACTS WORTH REMEMBERING An inch of rainfall means 3,630 cubic feet per acre, or 101.1 tons. A 3-in. pipe will discharge, under pressure, 100 gals. of water per minute. Nominal horse power required for a 10-ft. lift — 1. CARRYING CAPACITY OF PIPES, GALLONS PER MINUTE 1 in. fall | 2 in. fall 3 in. fall | 6 in. fall 1 ft. fall Size of pipe per 100 ft. | per 100 ft. | per 100 ft. | per 100 ft. | per 100 ft. MA yoxcnager ene te tche and oeaeted cian: 13 19 23 32 46 Bes (Ades, is oe RN EAN RY nD 75 105 129 183 258 PUBLICATIONS 525 CAPACITY OF CISTERNS ) Barrels Barrels Gallons Size per feet | per 5 feet | per 5 feet in depth | indepth | in depth ESRI eKA DAU ee ace bet svcns ya cave, «her sv clissia} Maya ecci’er avalah aver snci's"a) sisi Mchshevs ays cue 5.92 29.60 947.2 (Dilip SACI, & cos Odd Oo AOC DOO Goen Gata: HOOD COT ou dcbice c 8.54 42.70 1,366.4 7 ting Sein Coa Se BRIGe DEC OOO OSS Uohcdeb OS acoda Jb aeolld Bae 11.63 58.15 1,860.8 fa} Ti om -C te) tle CRANES ORE Oh OIE ct IEG CAT RRC Ree eee hs IS CES 15.19 75.95 2,430.4 GOVERNMENT RECIPE FOR WHITEWASH Slake half a bushel of unslaked lime with boiling water, cover during the process to keep in steam, strain the liquid through a fine sieve or strainer, and add to it a peck of salt previously dissolved in warm water, three pounds of ground rice boiled to a thin paste and stirred in while hot, half a pound of Spanish whiting, and one pound of clear glue, previously dissolved by soaking in cold water and then hanging over a slow fire in a small pot hung in a larger one filled with water. Add five gallons of hot water to the mixture, stir well and let it stand a few days, covered from dirt. It should be applied hot. A pint of this wash mixture, if properly applied, will cover one square yard, and will be almost as serviceable as paint for wood, brick, or stone, and is much cheaper than the cheapest paint. NUMBER, WEIGHT, AVERAGE COST OF SEED, AND QUANTITY TO SOW Number Amount Wiehe of grains of| to sow per Cost of seed Name of seed. pure seed acre of Besar per acre. per lb. pure seed an NB: Lbs. Lbs. FUCUNCOD cee clot eis ave cistae alee aire arin ote tere tienes 603 , 000 v4 32 $1 45 OrcharGleragstecicctcheceveec ctl otis erase aera 579,500 35 16 5 60 A DrheaVohil oh ;paoes eee ines bet cto Ricac OIG Pr olor cree 1,170,500 10 45 60c. to 1 00 PAST RCNCLOV EI = cnerereterstesnityn a eeasceocteh olor sectsvar ook: 707 , 000 5 to 10 60 85c. tol 75 Riedielaweriers « sates ahaa ers ciate cls tieis) a okt evalaahers 279, 000 10 to 15 60 $1 70 to2 50 /ALETURSS dheis Baa oro nieeain a Rien ENCORE meme 209, 500 15 to 20 60 3 00 to4 00 New YorkK Strate LEGAL WEIGHT PER BUSHEL OF FARM PRODUCTS ime oniconumon saliterc cv. sierra 70 lbs. | Barley, apples, buckwheat............ 48 lbs. Wheat, peas, potatoes, cloverseed, beans 60 “ Timothy, herd’s-grass seed........... Adin S OOS enact ne ree Gace sieintia aunter eouane ine Drredineaches'.vtaccascs sian emis anc oe Indian corn, rye, fine salt............ Bis Oats Seine heheh oseue Sei seedeie race Bye Rilaxmecdiee nr ricerccnveeta saeco ccaetemiateye oie Gis. © ID yale lich) ol kos Noire ano aSiG DROME ICO tar eet). We Sweetipotatoess.< i asics « eietalseusianre ie « jae Bran BHOLts astral a nore eeaie Cote 205 Corn meal, rye meal, carrots......... 50 RULES FOR MAKING CONCRETE EQUIPMENT Wooden measuring box: 2 feet long, 1 foot wide, 1 foot high, without bottom, holding 2 cubic feet. Nail a l-inch by 3-inch board, 5 feet long, at the top on each side for handles. 526 Report oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES Platform: 8 feet by 12 feet, of l-inch matched lumber, four 2-inch by 4- inch scantling. Sand screen: Mesh 14-inch by 5 or 6 inches, nailed to a wooden frame 2 feet by 5 feet and set at an angle of 45 degrees. MATERIAL Gravel, sand, cement, water. When screening what is called ‘ bank-run gravel,” that is, gravel running from a fine sand to stones 144 inches in diameter, all stones passing through the screen will be 14-inch or less in diameter, and are classified as sand. All other stones not passing through the screen are classified as gravel. Crushed hard stones may be used in place of gravel. PROPORTIONS A 1-3-5 mixture, that is, 1 cubic foot of cement (1 sack of cement), 3 cubic feet of sand and 5 cubic feet of gravel, will make about 5 cubic feet of concrete. For engine foundations, fence posts, silos, troughs, and foundation walls use a 1-2144-4 mixture. MIXING Thorough mixing together of the sand, gravel, and cement, before adding the water, is necessary. After mixing, form the dry materials into a crater, pouring the water on the board in the center, and shoveling the mixture into the water from the inside. Continue this method until the mixture is soft and mushy. GENERAL RULES 1. Concrete should not be mixed ahead. 2. To unite new concrete to concrete already hardened, wet the surface of the hardened concrete thoroughly and cover with grout, made of water and cement to the consistency of cream; apply the new concrete at once. 3. Large stones may be used in concrete foundations provided the stones are wet thoroughly before placing in the wall. 4. Salt is injurious to concrete. STATE OF NEW YORK DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE CHARLES S. WILSON, Commissioner Bulletin 87 Grasses and Leguminous Crops in New York State Issued by the Bureau of Farmers’ Institutes and Compiled under the Supervision of the Director A tice dias aaltene a HA seen AG. Tyan SMT AGE PARE Uhlan : bas Muse hoa ahaa oa era Ne tas awe. nei “nee ea “ ES MN TR Ae e lcs “ah ha it tag Vr.) nt eas ci} % f it im), iy Pathe yar EOL) Flite. CAniia tS iSok Seg Pek va dane re Meg ol afin pia Ns a rw et th Oe ee Peles | ate a + Tigo ti Ay Bat ry tuetom! Nb , i 1 ’ 4 Pay, Maia)! pit eee piakiyy KE stall we eM) hy Ne hae a cr” bret: inne a BAGH 1. ra ) -vihy +P Ty aor We ; iad: whats Bo tly one ee nates he, WD Tae alivedy dacenual witiehe Rye Lintalened tint nate Pipsengltry, Cire ecunt WEA Prey rans pb? ; ROMO at sey cy ary, ap ee es ee ae | ie Ce ie eyhy tan foes MS AE OLN, Buln ery eank: rir net wear Phveeutnih iy hein phaptiaye lable a ey, ; Ben! ae abit te eeraeiand nal caer ‘ . Ba ae 2 he ai oe { f : pak i, 8 rx =~ af eee Ne A Lh Pa ane " fal sgh anc > sy te: . * hed i! Y Sail ak pe cz , : We oes -_ CONTENTS PAGE SPSS ON ETL CEO TAasta haba oe clete n. Sait Sht'2 ear ope te Wai detest ky Sea's Sp 5 ots aunts) e045 537 History and Characteristics of Timothy, Jared Van Wagenen, Jr......... 540 BeeceineGigiamothy, Cnet Myersis.. nde a. or ain es wit Cawaies Aevaa wok 543 Sollasion Linothy m-eNew York, HAO? Pippin. 64.5.2 eo tek ee ek we 557 Grass iusects, ©: Crosby and M.D: Leonard): 6. ae foes sce ose detete oe 565 Miseasessonluimothy Charles "Grecony aa ss creis Jeanie esas sisson he d77 Seeding Timothy Without a Grain Crop, Edward van Alstyne........... 585 Henimlizenspors lim othyeyh6O eka pine -ecere ieetecea aie ain see okie nies eee 591 Barnyard. ManuretAlmost Doubles the Hay Crop... 0.22... 0%...0. 00.025 600 Cost of Production of Timothy and Clover Hay on Some New York Farms. 601 Evarvesinme the: Hav Crop bl. B., IMicGMine. 3... A avere-crsen eleie eats! «sea ais aye eos 604 GCradessoteLaysanda SGCawe spa alee os sieclsuae ater aeie eae clasts a sistone cha tnrete e 616 EUS HUG te LN IANGMOAE TICE 5.9 cits Wi «alley ole na 3 eo dielde-e as 3d areas A are iw oi fee eens 618 OrnchardsGrass@, MBeEnitchison= Fetes oes en i oe YTS 2 oe eos eine oe 622 The Blue Grasses in New York, State, O. W. Dynes..................... 628 The Millets — Their Culture and Utilization in New York, H. N. Vinall.. 632 The Sorghums — Their Use as Forage and Grain Crops in New York, TB lee IN ie Say alaten NMR ct ides Otoesani6 os Aicks CLA cecRes RC Le er Rea ci ti ci koa eM Oe 652 GOV erat Aver bal CLOTS 25 spocap tenet oraiord oars Atty a STE Te a eh sea ities nae 674 Glover Imseciss jk Crosby-and* Me) Di eonard: <= 22. accel seas crete 684 Wellin: ort Clore Fismsiioas Iheailk IDA WWANtSce Baie gion do boods db ona anBeoee 695 Causes of Clover Watlure, Edward vam Alstyne... ....'......0---ss20+-- 698 Abcalta;— Beh GbertSonbhyaysca cro ek cette Tho Sor chen a wrehes cu aeia ech.s Sear 749 ICR ESE MBN tihy SMC LINIS. vo Stele ete Mosel Mende chases a ak cele Dave avelalere «aig ole cea 758 Comnpence brs tee NINES. esti oe he age mares. syaretn simulic ds 2 Ue ai ane Seow o HER 765 Sweets Glover: Ee. Os OG oar taas cpr ncten seer nte ere eeeRencuns sues sy facto Dlaicqe. > aoe 769 SMARCOSINGE! s-2,<.cnctene ove ee ee ais c bitic ob ced ORO IO ene eons 781 REL Ms Te aaa dase ldo as Caines aedeagal scaly ows oss ne od ado MAS oa 783 PasturesmnyNewanork, Hs Hib onshecls suecrin sre... 05 alas e dn hereon. 784 Fitting and Putting Down Land to Permanent Pastures and Pasture (Ghabiss Wilib-< iors Jas I SET A ROY NTS ONnes a ly he Orla eae OOOO BOOS cinid a mciaiee 795 Hollow-up Work ou. Grads Deeds: vias sos 2 Fe jet eee senses 802 mire YEO; iy ehe hau & ih} ie wed baw wie te Wht Wis a a pag: The hehe on Mt lat, aces si 5 feria ly van me Vr uphielerthathlt frie | anya t dia e IA yr 4 ete eS ag art Wwe, ah nGieontiets ind ayscitaty aight Zag re wen ab ET? inhi Huse, peniite pee Ad: thi nee Sai Rs thea, suite, see cma rine Peeler at Pe teeaien than eee wat i ine ene ripe cat bP, be * se , catty Bade wex> evnlé PP kal bisa yam Sry e a) ee, Hh we, cel anode as “ivan ll! 16 fang lent) So sercacnin? ape pls Wyo ras Meu? wl eel ee Sti. inne Danes oe pub ve) og Soyveeld PE ed termi Re nlqgie, Sd A edtoankt wie a tae, wath, vel). ection’ pratt hs oennate, tearing yell Mende Gini dd ait iaieet ret la: i qr otal baile ate WA <2 arept bi (att te @ eS Sol nee, RR + ogee hey. AA ies 7 ) eve a | Y fe mse ah ot 1 nf “ ° 1: 6 ok Pe re iL 2 wa es sboebomik Ri tw Wa Dale bs IEE: SL, Bee laa 1a‘ ie sidecaiden oneal ALAS. fully Rae ~ a. dts wie fens aa . : St of ila ' * rap dat pnb reg @ ong se Bs 4 ae iam on es ee ee da 08 08 ag 98 98 08 de’ de° da" da" da ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE pag, simple, Hloret of Timothy . (Mnlarged))) 2 sac csxeyes aete % oeed hse veh 544 598. Leafy, Erect, Good-Yielding Type of Timothy................ 045 599. Variety of Timothy with Nodding Head::...:............... 546 6002 Lowm-Spreading: “F ype: of: Timothy). G2 apyae. cs setae. ayess, 4hhs sou 546 601. Spreading but Light-Yielding Type of Timothy................ 547 602, AS Low-Wwelding Dwarii Ty petri. 'speiae(id.< 3 4s) ots elsl sheis) lois eave! « 1a aus 548 603. Covering, Plants: toiObtain! Inbred, Seed ..<.sy- je.a4. - ctehe ig he ee 549 G04, Different Vanieties of Pimothiy:! 2... ts e]- Fapeye «-<)8 malo mjcpeserst sl oo ets 551 605) three Varieties Growing an lami HROW Se. 1 s-))-l-lep- aa eee 552 606) Variation ing Ea bitots Gnowtlisers sash tis serie 3) 4a eres 5538 607. General View of Isolated Plats for Seed..................:.- 554 OOS eBroad Cast seats aati cise hotties scr slons c clevelsbeleqeh are) veyete« crete c By) COO Av Vilniibey Gar pes Vaya tatecaes aeheeys oh such awo cls chor oicth seclataiceys cls eysr eure: s menoms 566 CLOT Ay une (BGebLe Ss 150 vari arve) deme ont eect corer eyeplot cheeses seap ad yeyizha ve jaeh--chepe 567 BUTE Ae Ine NOD sme tey cn seteen ptt, yotclaoyetat 3) s)he Raal[s/arch oy ehaysj eee sie 569 Ol2 eagiine DWestroyveds bys eAcImy=VViOMS et -facn-)tarte eel tie seh ols 570 GilS PAremi y= Won mane Mio Ga sigiye, Oars er pera chtcaa tee S82 sah ewe, oT Yorchayee, aicpoyae lets) cserers 571 614. Army-Worms, Showing Color Variations..................... OL 615. Furrow to Stop Invasion of Army-Worms...................- 572 616. Grasshopper Feeding on a Wheat Head..................-+.- 574 617. Sandy Field Showing Spots in Which Grasshopper Eggs are rea cigar a Bae Se pen Ae | RNR eps a dy ee eases gy och eta Sach: scat utetgl Sica iodt 574 Oillisk, Camagelnoyajner, Ieee Ios a ouacocoupopticoncotpgooc cme bc oeua: 575 Gls Ss TimobhyadOMG-WWiOrmte. tcp laiie)s okt hay hes ea eed ven apt he, Sirs etal 576 620. Young Timothy Plants Showing Striae on Leaf Blades and Deas Gerckenaeteas aac ke eaescee te veaets seop he abe kL of by anette es abattoir rege 578 621. Old Timothy Plants Having Badly Diseased Leaf Blades and Shea this epee cucu ccs Le RA ee lewd hey ope GRY Gh uel. case, 579 622. Timothy Plant Showing Shredding of Leaves Due to Smut.... 580 623. Diseased and Healthy Plants of Orchard Grass............... 581 624. Head of Festuca Elatoir Affected with C. Purpurea........... 582 625. Heads of Orchard Grass Showing Ergots.................... 583 G2Geihey Broots |G erniimatimop yer scl s\o1s)1-)s uniedelenstateyaagieke stsice re -is 583 62i(Peliomo thy, Cropy im) Columbiag@ oun yen ss 0-2 oft P 6 et 586 628. Seventh Year Seeding Without a Grain Crop. Three Tons of Cured Hay Per Acre, Farm of Edward van Alstyne, eindenhooksi Ne Vee tet ewisracet-n yout hem: scoyns sy ish ay tio, ches cess 589 629. Showing Result of Application of Manure on Hay, Farm of Stanley, Wverson), Miobangic iN oY tes - a0 32,450,906 oa 0 4) 3.00. che oh sea 600 GBT, Wikthoey WEN BEN IDCR Cro os ook che ocbooduuconbmodgse eo on coe eae 605 631. Brnping in Hay with a Sweep-Rake: . «= 5. iy. piey «2m oman ei aue ae 606 632. Loading, om Wagon by Hands x. ioe o(2 2 2.5.8 sietege oie ce al eye chaym s ini 607 633. Raking with. Side-Delivery Rake-:.....-..-.-0-+-se2-e+e-+- 609 634. Stacking with Sweep-Rake and Stacker...................... 611 G95. Curing Hay, Under Hay Capsicnass recs. ses angie ann seme ae 612 [531] ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE 636:; Unloading May thy (ilanG Ae) Sti tasdens 22s eae seen eae 613 637. Cheapest and Quickest Way of Baling Hay................. 614 besnvilead on mhedtopircvemete ere he ot ere es oe eee 619 G30n Mieldiorewoxtanl Millets. yrs aie Lo 6 earn see pore aia ak ase A 634 640; Plant of Commion: Millet tits: bo Sys OMe Lt lay, Sate ata ee Ore 635 CA1k Plant coteGerman i viillete as sce icon ater The ch Ole halt 637 642! yPlant ot lungarian’ Viillet wes 5 tae oe es ote eae 4 eee 638 643 Plant oft Siberian Millets yee acute eee ee eee ee 639 644. Seed Head or Panicle of Barnyard or Japanese Millet........ 646 6459 Plantrot Prosovor Broom Com™Millehees: ase sore eee eee 648 646" Seed EHeads ior Paniclevor earl aMalletay seen ene eee eerie 650 647.) Dwart Katirvand: Red Amber Sorgoas.- eer eee eee 655 643s iiypical Heads Of Soreh ums: mes cee eis teeta tertile iets eee 659 649. Root of Sudan Grass Showing Absence of Rootstocks........ 664 650. Bundles of Sudan Grass Showing Growth During Various IPEriOd Sane teh th) aus de wie dane cenk sail ee eae ee A A epee 665 651. Dakota Amber Sorgo Seeded with Grain Drill............... 666 652. Harvesting Sorghum with Row Binder...........:.......... 668 6535 Sorghume Hodder sCurine sini Shocks sae. cet eee eee eee 670 6544 Plant of (Crimson= Cloverass, (20 it... ein. en eteeok. eae iciee sear 675 655. Young Red Clover Plant Showing Tubercles on Root.......... 678 656. Soil Honeycombed by Frost and in” Proper Condition for Seeding Clover Mita \iekts tse AMER SRG re conr. SPO ee ene 680 657. Red Clover Field Showing Effect of Top-Dressing with Manne inti, Seen Pl tS, SR WRONG s SRE o aye 682 658. Clover Root, Showing Work of the Borer.................... 685 659, The “Clover ‘Root-Borer Beetle. 4... 2he4. yl. een a neoee 686 6605, Whe ‘Clover: Weaf-Weevil- 2.226602 4.. deans eee eee oe ne 687 661. Clover Leaves Showing Injury of Leaf-Weevil............... 688 6622 "The “Cloyer-Seed’ Chaleide: iess.cc a. sacs s quun-> Aero © Se ee 690 6635 he ‘Clover Wlower-Mideenehemalear eretis. yon ete 4 eee ee 692 GG45 MhetClover Seed-Caterpilllantens - pen ac einla +o eee ie ere 693 665. Red Clover on Limed and Unlimed Land.................... 701 666. Alfalfa on Long Island Railroad Demonstration Farm....... 709 667. Alfalfa on Farm of Wesley Stewart, near Newburgh.......... ul 668. Second Growth of Alfalfa on Farm of A. G. Weller, Town of Stockbridge yy ct.) «5 suka. cic sre Bedarra RE co RG Aue ee 714 Io ZN Meany oe Seve Oi vNbilieys sboddedoucgaboboocuuaccads ic 716 670; eat Spot on" Alfalta:. &. TAPAS EDA VarS VERe cab teeete ee 718 Oj Leat Spot von Clover: V0 t ia Wek. Aakoc eae ein wey ne 719 672. Harly Stages of Development of Leaf Spot on Alfalfa........ (2) 673. Advanced Stages of Leaf Spot on Alfalfa............ i: ae 022 O74 Mearlino Roots of ‘Ordinary eAlfallitar cris te ean eer 729 675. Typical Grimm Alfalfa Plant ........ Mids Ss E atk ae 730 G76) ‘Baltie’ Alfal ia ston VPC k Aa Aee Me SEES See Ae eta e OF o kae 731 Gitis “Mehioh Y MAlfaltat 20s ty. Gr Cae A: AACA si (es ger eRe cae 732 678) Eruiting (Branch of tay Mield=Pea Vanes. oa0. se tiee leks ene 735 679. Seeds of Several Varieties of Field Peas........5............ 737 4 ag 0g 09’ ug =) ey gq’ 92 oq" Levant _ gg 9° de" de’ da" _e ee eas ere we dQ og «08 OR aq 0g OR at 09 ‘ig. 681. g. 682. roo ILLUSTRATIONS 533 PAGE . 680. Mower, Showing Attachment to Raise Vines from Ground..... 740 Mower swith Windrow Attachments: 0.22 5) .ccle. 4s. acces oe ee 741 Coneave Plates Adjusted for Threshing Field Peas............ 742 MUSE RESCACK On Lema V INE: RENUSE «2. ohs arava on sls ies esas ose 2 br3 0 ere aiailel 745 Cos eliwoustalicsxor Winter Wet chissten seam asics elias «ate aictarena ya ties 750 68a canvesune Croprot Veuch and @lover Maly: .- 04. .0.0+-. ae ae 753 CS6y Winters Vierchnelant iShowamowseedPodsiyycrracle ties ee or 79d 687. Medium Green Soy Beans Planted in Hills of Corn............ 761 688. First Crop of Soy-Bean Hay Grown on Poor Hill Land........ 763 689. White Sweet Clover Plant Ten Weeks After Seeding........... 770 690. Root of White Sweet Clover and of Biennial Yellow Sweet CHICK AOE ecto orORcke Bt Bie OSS IED Ore Cre OR OEE een CRE aPRER ae ep EL (Al Gol, Eileet or Vime onuSweet Clover? : .'i6.b.0% i's wacie weiter etletys oto 773 6925 HorssPastumnne on White Sweet) Glovers. 5. 9.2... ssee as see 777 693. Type of Level Upland Pasture in Western New York.......... 785 694. Woodland with Fringe of Cleared Land Around it........... 787 695. Rolling Pasture, Rather Stony for Cultivation............... 789 GOore Dy pick mouse siden PS CUre rit. cectsee. mil atv els ‘ COVERED TO OBTAIN INBI SHOWING How PLANTS ARE . 603. oT 7 1 IG 550 GRassEs AND Lecuminous Crops 1n New York are now in progress to determine the amount of this variation. But in general, the clons (cuttings) from a single parental plant are quite uniform, and they furnish an excellent means for a more complete study than can be made of one individual plant. Environment is a very important factor in the development of any plant. Considerable variation may be produced by changing the environment. Such variation is not inherited and is of no practical value to the plant breeder. On the other hand, there are variations that are inherited, or, as we sometimes say, that come true to seed. In order to make intelligent selections, the experi- menter must determine which variations are transmitted to the offspring. In order to study the transmission of these different types, inbred seed was obtained by covering a bunch of heads with a paper bag before blooming time (Fig. 603). This inbred seed was carefully germinated in plats of sterilized soil, and the young seedlings were transplanted to the field. Twelve or fifteen seed- lings from each parental plant were planted in a single row. The rows were three feet apart and the plants were thirty inches apart in the row. By thus comparing the plants of a single row with the parent plant and with each other, it was possible to observe to what extent the characters in question were transmitted. In this test were included a large number of promising hay types, as well as many others of no apparent value, the latter. being included for their scientific interest. Not all of the varying characters observed in the original selec- tions were inherited, but there have been more than two hundred definite types of timothy isolated. Figs. 604, 605, and 606 are reproduced from photographs of some of these individual rows. The uniformity of the plants within the same row is striking, but not more so than the differences between the individual rows. In these instances we know that the differences are due to the nature of the variety or type and not to variations in soil or treatment, for the treatment was uniform for all the rows and between any two neighboring rows there was only a space of three feet. Yet the type of plants is remarkably different. As soon as the seed transmission of desirable types was deter- mined, the next thing in order was to increase the seed of the BreEpInG or TIMoTHY ‘AHIOWIY, JO ALGIUVA UNAYEIAIG] V 4O SI MOY HOV _ v09 “< Crops 1n New Yort S GRASSES AND LEGUMINO ‘SMOY LNVId FHL NI Mas) AGH], SV SHILAINVA YAHLO ALUHT ONIMOHY “GO9 ‘DIY Breepina or TIMoTHY ‘AUNLOIG SINL NI NMOHY SAILAIUVA YAOT AHL FO HLMONH AO LIAGV]] AHL NI NOILVIUVA FHL ALON ‘909 “DIY 554 GRASSES AND Leauminous Crops In New York promising types in order that they could be tested in broadcast plats in comparison with each other and with commercial seed. To do this, either inbred seed or cuttings from the desired types were planted in isolated beds. Such beds should be, at least, two hundred feet apart, and it is still better if they can be surrounded by some tall-growing crop, such as rye. (See Fig. 607.) In these beds the plants were placed eighteen inches apart each way in order to allow of some cultivation. Such a bed, containing four to five hundred plants, under proper conditions, furnishes from Fic. 607. A GENERAL VIEW OF THE ISOLATED PLATS WHICH FURNISH SEED FOR BROADCAST TESTS AND FOR DISTRIBUTION. two to three bushels of seed, and with some care can be maintained for a number of years, thus furnishing a constant pure supply. . These isolated beds produce the seed that is used for broad- cast plats, which are one rod by four rods, constituting one- fortieth acre. (See Fig. 608) Every fourth plat is a check sown to a good brand of commercial seed. The same amount of seed is sown on each plat, at the rate of 16 pounds per acre. As many duplicate plats as possible of each variety are sown. Alto- gether, there are some 75 varieties in these broadcast tests at the present time. BREEDING oF TIMOTHY 5D Fic. 608. A Frew oF THE Broapcast Prats In the table below are shown the results of the comparisons of four of the earher selections with their corresponding checks. Two of these selections have been tested for five years, while the other two have been tested for four years. There is an average gain for the four selections of 2,072 pounds per acre. ReEsutt oF Broapcast TEST COMPARISON OF FOUR NEW SELECTIONS WITH CHECKS Selection, Check, pounds pounds per acre per acre IN Kays tI aaa cs ge een Sep 2 ON a *9 088 7,584 INO Foe eas eee aa ine eet a MRA PER MS SESED eT. | *8 ,768 3,950 ING SR eee eat la ace coil i yh a, an NE 18 , 845 7,944 IN OP SRE ee ite ache oecitae | Le eR DRE me ete 19,190 8,126 8,973 6,901 * 5-year average. { 4-year average 556 GRaAssEs AND LEGUMINOUS CRops IN NEW YorK Results from other selections might be included in the above table, but a broadcast test should be run from three to five years before reliable conclusions can be drawn. Results of other series of tests will be published at a later date. The next problem in this work is a further test of these new varieties under other conditions, and the increasing of the seed so that it may be available in commercial quantities. This is being accomplished by cooperative tests and by the distribution of small amounts of seed to applicants that are willing to handle it carefully. Only a beginning has been made in this work, but so far it gives promise of excellent results. It is expected that within a comparatively short time the best of these new varieties will be available in commercial quantities for general use. SOILS FOR TIMOTHY IN NEW YORK Emer O. Fiprin, Ithaca, N. Y. Professor of Soil Technology, Cornell University Soils that are good for timothy must meet the needs of the timothy plant. They must fit the structural characters and the physiological requirements of the timothy plant. We shall first re- view these requirements of the plant with which the soils of the state are to be compared. SOIL CHARACTERISTIC OF THE TIMOTHY PLANT Timothy is a forage plant that is valuable for its large leafy erowth and palatable nutritious quality. It is a grass and is therefore dependent for its nitrogen supply on suitable compounds of that element in the soil. A generous supply makes for good quality. This suggests a soil rich in organic matter, which is the prime storehouse of nitrogen in the soil. The root system is fibrous and penetrates rather deeply into the soil. Roughly, its depth of penetration may be measured by the height of the mature plants, which is three to four feet. The bulk of the roots is near the surface — within ten inches, per- haps. This suggests the importance of a friable soil and fair drainage. The fine, fibrous nature of the roots adapts them to the heavier soils — the clays, clay loams, and loam soils. No studies seem to have been made of the water requirements of the timothy plant. It may be assumed to be like wheat, which belongs to the same family, and has the same type of root system and similar adaptations to climate. This would make the water requirements medium to high. A structural peculiarity of the plant— the corms on the stems — suggest its ability to with- stand periods of rather dry weather. Some of the traditions of [557] 558 GrRassEs AND LEGuMINOUS CRops IN NEw YorK its origin suggest a preference for a rather moist to wet soil. John Herd, from whom the synonym of timothy, herd’s-grass, is derived, is reported to have found the plant growing wild in a New Hampshire swamp. Certainly it is known to make its largest growth in moist, cool situations. Finally, the plant is known not to be tolerant of a very acid condition of soil. Rather, it thrives on soil moderately well sup- plied with lime. A neutral to slightly alkaline soil may be set down as best adapted for its growth. However, it is not so sensi- tive as red clover and alfalfa, but it readily shows the effects of the conditions from which they fail. THE GROUPS OF SOIL FOR TIMOTHY These characteristics mark out the soils on which timothy will thrive. We shall next consider where such soils may be found in New York State, and examine their further characters and mode of occurrence. The requirements enumerated, as well as the results of rather extensive observation of the growth of timothy on the various soils of the state, enable us to divide the soils adapted to timothy into four main groups; namely, muck and swamp soils, alluvial bottom soils, clay and clay loam, and upland loams and sandy loams. The success of the crop on the several groups of soil from the viewpoint of yield, but not necessarily of quality, may be placed in the order given. The swamp and muck soils will give the largest yield when reasonably drained, although not so much drainage is required as for vegetable crops. This fact, together with the success of the crop on such soil, makes it one of the best to put on such land when first cleared. Swamp and Muck Soils The area of muck and swamp soils in the state is between two and three thousand square miles. Of this area the muck and peat soils constitute about one-third. The remainder is made up of areas of soil that now are, or originally were, in a more or less swampy condition and have accumulated sufficient organic matter to have a very dark or black color. Many of these areas have Sorts For Trmotuy 1n New York 559 been drained and are under cultivation. They may range in tex- ture from heavy clay, such as those in southern Niagara County, to loam and sandy loam character, which is the prevailing texture of such areas in the state. The moist condition of all these soils, particularly of the more sandy types, makes them especially well suited to the crop. Soils of the group generally occur in small bodies widely scat- tered over the state. They range from spots of a few rods or acres to a few areas that are hundreds of acres in extent. They are most numerous in that part of western New York south of Lake Ontario where the topography is relatively flat and the drainage systems are poorly developed. The larger bodies of muck soil are the Oak Orchard swamp in northern Genesee County, the Montezuma marshes near the foot of Cayuga Lake, the Cicero and Rome swamps around Oneida Lake, several considerable areas up the St. Lawrence Valley, and the Florida marshes m southern Orange County. Much of this area has not been drained and developed. Much of the muck soil that has been drained has been devoted to vegetable crops, to which it is also well suited. Farmers do not seem to have given much thought to the drainage of such soils for timothy, probably because the promised returns are not. so spectacular, although they are more certain. The large supply of organic matter in such soils makes it possible to con- tinue to produce crops of timothy for many years without much nitrogenous fertilizer. While they are not so numerous, there are, nevertheless, many important areas of swampy soil in the hill and mountain regions and in the larger valleys. Many of these may be located by reference to the soil and topographic maps. Some of them, especially in the eastern part of the state, may be rather stony — a condition that tends to make tillage difficult. Such areas are frequently devoted to pasture, but, by the methods that are recog- nized as effective to improve pastures without plowing, it is pos- sible to improve their stand of hay grasses. On very few of these areas will timothy fail because of lack of lime, although an appli- cation may often be helpful, especially in the southern and eastern districts. 560 GRASSES AND LEGUMINOUS CRops IN NEW YorRK The decay of the organic matter in these soils leaves the ash constituent behind. The ash elements are largely lime and have a marked predominance of alkaline material that naturally aids in keeping such land in proper condition for timothy. Alluvial Sovls The second group of soils suited to the growth of timothy are the alluvial bottom soils along the streams, which have many characteristics that make them desirable. They are generally moist — may be subject to overflow — are usually friable and deep, and have a good stock of organic matter reaching to a depth of several feet. While inclined to be damp or wet in spring, they generally drain off and warm up in early summer about the time the crop 1s making its maximum development. The permanent character of timothy, which makes unnecessary the early spring seeding, renders it particularly adapted to overflow land. Only the larger streams have a considerable development of these alluvial soils. The most notable areas are those along the Genesee River and tributary, along the Mohawk, and in some of the larger valleys of the eastern and southern parts of the state. The Middleburg Valley along the Schoharie River is good, although it probably does not excel smaller areas of similar soil along the streams in northern Delaware County, all of which have a dark brown to red color, due to association with the red soils of the uplands. Along the Susquehanna and Hoosic and other rivers and streams, there are loops of this alluvial soil, generally cf a dark color, shading to gray or brown, owing to the presence of organic matter. The material has been washed from the soils of the upland and deposited during periods of overflow. Organic matter is deeply incorporated. It is predominantly of a silty to fine sandy texture. Very seldom does it run to a clay or a light sandy tex- ture. In the Canaseraga and the Conewango valleys, it reaches the latter texture in a few small bodies. The Pawling Valley through Dutchess County has some good stretches of the soil. In northern New York it has a small development. After a period of years of cultivation to hay, alluvial soils are likely to need a supply of nitrogen, from either fertilizers Sorts For Trmotuy 1n New York 561 or legumes or both, unless it is subject to regular overflow. The use of lime is frequently a factor in the best success on these soils, but is seldom essential to a moderate growth. Clay and Clay Loam Soils The third group of timothy soils are the clay and clay loam lands. The fibrous root system of the plant, the difficulty of keep- ing such soil in a short rotation, and the difficulty from heaving, with which is coupled the prevailing tendency to poor drainage, make hay farming, especially timothy farming, desirable on clay soil. When, in addition to their fine texture, these soils are naturally well supplied with lime, they make an excellent basis for the growth of timothy, and on such soil the plants are un- usually long-lived. In southern Niagara County and the adjacent territory, where such soils are extensively developed, excellent timothy meadows six and seven years old have been observed. The clay and clay loam soils of the state are developed chiefly around the Great Lakes, up the St. Lawrence, and through the Champlain and Hudson valleys. In these regions extensive lake conditions formerly prevailed in which these clays were deposited in quiet water as very fine sediment. These lakes were of glacial origin and lay along the edge of the ice sheet during its retreat. They were very irregular and much drawn out. They were formed at different levels as the water of the lakes receded with the retreat of the ice. Consequently, they seldom form large continuous areas, and do not occur much above an elevation of one thousand feet, extending from this down to one or two hundred feet. In addition to forming a more or Jess continuous rim around the Great Lakes, they swing well to the south in the larger valleys of western New York, notably those of the Genesee and the Finger Lakes. In the Hudson Valley, they reach in scattered bodies down to Newburg. The more important developments are the following: in Niagara and Erie counties; considerable bodies in central Livingston, Monroe, Ontario, and Cayuga counties; an extensive development around the southern side of Oneida Lake and around the nead of Lake Ontario in Jefferson County ; the bench lands along Lake Champlain and the terrace levels through the Hudson Valley from near Fort Edward to Rhinecliff. 562 GRASSES AND Leqguminous Crops 1n New York A considerable part of the farms of both the Geneva and the Cornell experiment stations are made tp of these soils. The clay Joam and silty clay loam, rather than heavy clay, predominate. The subsoil is rather more intractable. The heavier soils occur northeast of Buffalo. The Dunkirk series in the western part of the state and the Vergennes series in the northern and eastern parts are dominant in this group. They are predominantly of a dark brown to gray- brown color and, especially in the subsoil, are calcareous to a notable degree. This is probably due to the association of these lake areas with the outcrops of limestone throughout the state and the calcareous deposits derived from those rocks. The topsoil is frequently deficient in lime for the best growth of timothy, but the subsoil at one, two, or three feet is usually well stocked with that material. This fact emphasizes the import- ance of thorough drainage and fairly deep plowing in preparation for the crop, in order that use may be made of the lime in the subsoil. Better drainage — tile drainage —is perhaps the most im- portant need of these soils. Shallow surface ditches are too much depended on and are not only of small benefit to the crop, but are damaging to the machinery and the good temper of the men who work over them. One serious result of the lack of drainage is heaving of the soil in winter and spring, which kills many plants in the lower parts and patches up the fields with areas of plantain and other weeds. The supply of organic matter is not large and, consequently, the stock of available nitrogen is not especially large. Without means to maintain this element, the yield is likely to dwindle quickly in practice. It is best supplemented by legumes, stock manure, and chemicals, according to conditions. Top-dressing with chemicals is particularly effective on this soil. Upland Loam The fourth group of soils are a miscellaneous lot, made up of many types in a number of series and distributed widely through the state outside of the group already mentioned. They are not notably productive of the crop, but under careful handling very Sorts For Trmotuy 1n New YorxK 563 good results may be secured. ‘Two factors come in prominently to influence the results. ‘These are the lime supply in the soil and and the rainfall of the region. The better soils ef this group belong to the Ontario, Honeoye, and Mohawk series, which are above the average in their supply of lime, especially in the subsoil. These soils are of glacial origin and are related to the limestone exposures of the state. They lie on and to the southward of the limestone outcrops, hav- ing been seraped along by the ice in its southward course. Con- sequently they are feund with a more or less hilly surface on the higher lands, facing the Great Lakes and the Mohawk River and in a similar position through the St. Lawrence Valley. There is also a small body of similar soil in northern New York fringing Lake Champlain. The soil is some grade of loam with a heavier and more com- pact subsoil, both rather stony. Drainage is uneven and often could be improved by tile, to the marked profit of the owner. The supply of organic matter is moderate and the success of legumes on these soils makes it generally desirable to couple those plants with timothy because of both the larger growth and the better nitrogen supply. Timothy is not long-lived on these soils, generally thinning out after three or four years from seeding. RELATION OF RAINFALL TO SOIL AND TIMOTHY PRODUCTION Rainfall is largest in that district centering on Utica and reaching out over a radius of forty fo fifty miles. Both annual and summer rainfall are large in this region and favor forage development on soils hghter than are typically suited to the crop. The general effect of increased rainfall and moisture supply is to make crops that are best suited to heavy soils succeed on relatively lighter soils because of the changes in soil climate that are induced. To a degree, soil and climate variations may compensate each other. OTHER SOILS Outside of the primary groups of soil best suited to the pro- duction of timothy and occupying perhaps half of the cultivated area of the state, there are extensive areas of soil where timothy 564 GrassEs aNnp Leguminovus Crops In New York can be made to grow in a very creditable manner. The soils lying on the edge of the fourth group, the calcareous glacial soils, make fairly good timothy land. Further south, in the region of the Volusia soils and in the Hudson Valley on the Dutchess soils, still more difficulty is experienced to secure the best yields. ° The same is true of many areas of sandy loam soil. And on the light gravel and sandy soils, timothy is not to be recommended as a commer- cial crop unless very unusual moisture and commercial conditions prevail. The area of soils suited to the growth of timothy is ade- quate to increase the production greatly. GRASS INSECTS C. R. Crossy Extension Professor of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. and M. D. Lreonarp Extension Assistant in Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y C. R. CrRosBy. M. D. LEONARD. As has been pointed out by the late Professor F. M. Webster, the control of forage crop insects must differ fundamentally in method from the control of the insects of the orchard and garden. The gardener and the orchardist are able to give individual attention to their plants or trees, while the grower of forage crops must have recourse to more wholesale methods of destruction or prevent attack by such adjustments of his farm practices as will least inter- fere with the growing of a regular succession of crops of the desired kind. In practice this end is to be attained by a proper arrangement of the rotation, by shortening the rotation, and in some cases by plowing at the proper time for the destruction of underground insects. While the losses to forage crops from insect attack are usually not so apparent as those experienced by the fruit grower, they are none the less real. Much of the loss is caused by insects that work in the soil, where they rarely attract the farmer’s attention until after the damage is done. Although we hear comparatively [565] 566 GRaAssEs aNnp Leaumtnovus Crops In New YorxK ttle complaint about insect injury to the hay crop it is an undoubted fact that the total loss to forage crops in New York State is much greater than that suffered by the fruit interests. It would certainly pay hay growers to give closer attention to the insect enemies of their crops. Feeding a forage crop to a host of hungry insects is even poorer economy than feeding it out to a herd of “ robber ” cows. WHITE GRUBS Several species of Lachnosterna Among the most serious enemies of grasses are the large white, curved grubs that feed on their roots. These grubs (Fig. 609) are the larval form of the large brown June beetles or June bugs (Fig. 610) that come blundering around our lights on summer evenings. In New York State there are over a score of species, but it is quite probable that the greater part of the injury is caused by a much smaller number. The parent beetles are most abundant in May and June. Fie. 609. A Wuitr Grus, Twice They feed at night on the NaTURAL SIZE. leaves of various trees, which at daybreak they desert and return to the fields. The females burrow into the soil to a depth of two or three inches and there deposit their eggs singly or in small groups. Each female is capable of laying from fifty to one hundred eggs. The eggs are oval, white, and have a diameter of about one-twelfth inch. They lie in small cells composed of soil particles glued together with a sticky sub- stance secreted by the beetle. The eggs hatch in from ten days to several weeks. The young grubs feed throughout the remainder of that season on the roots of grasses a short distance below the surface of the ground. With the approach of cold weather they burrow deeper into the soil and hibernate at a depth of ten or twelve inches. The following spring they return to the grass roots Grass INSECTS 56 on which they feed throughout the season. The grubs of some species reach maturity at the end of the second summer, but in the case of our more common species the grubs are not full grown at that time. In the latter case the grubs again descend into the soil for hibernation and return to the grass roots in the spring of the third year. After feeding for a period they become full grown in June or July. The grub then constructs an oval earthen cocoon in which it transforms to a delicate whitish pupa. The insect remains in this condition until the latter part of the summer and then transforms into a beetle. In this condition it remains in the earthen cell until the following spring, when it emerges (Slingerland photo) Fig. 610. A JUNE BEETLE WITH WINGS EXPANDED, NATURAL SIZE. from the ground. While certain species emerge the second spring after the eggs are laid, and a few do not emerge until the fourth spring, the greater number of our injurious species do not emerge until the third spring. For instance, in the last case the young grubs that hatch from eggs laid in the spring of 1917, feed until the fall of that year, hibernate during the winter of 1917-18, feed again through the summer of 1918, hibernate again as grubs during the winter of 1918-19, complete their growth, pupate, and transform to beetles that season and hibernate as beetles during the winter of 1919-20; the beetles emerge in the spring of 1920. It will be seen from the foregoing account that the grubs are most destructive during the second season, because it is then that they feed for the longest period and make their greatest growth. The first year the grubs feed only during the latter part of the season and are very small. The third summer they feed only during the early part of the season and only enough to prepare themselves for pupation. 568 GrassEs ANp Lecuminovus Crops 1n New York Control. White grub injury to grasses may be avoided in large measure by practicing a proper rotation of crops. As previously stated, the grubs do the greatest injury during the season follow- ing that in which the eggs are laid. Observations in Illinois have shown that the beetles prefer to lay their eggs in ground that is well covered with vegetation. Pasture land, wheat, and oats are chosen in the order named. Clover is a relatively immune crop, very few eggs being laid in fields where there is a heavy stand. The measures for preventing white grub injury to grasses are based on the above facts. Unfortunately it is not possible to take advantage of the fact that the beetles avoid laying eggs on comparatively clean fields, because experience has shown that as a rule in New York the best results are to be obtained by sowing timothy with clover after wheat. But, since the clover predominates in the first year’s seeding, it has a tendency to keep the beetles from choosing such fields for egg-laying and thus delays the infestation of the field for a year. This practice of sowing timothy with clover would there fore appear to be justified from the standpoint of the prevention of white grub injury. In the second year’s seeding, however, grasses predominate owing to the fact that most of the clover has been killed by the attacks of the clover root-borer. Such fields are then very attractive to the beetles for egg-laying and conse- quently the longer a field is left in grass the more seriouly will it become infested with white grubs. This indicates the impor- tance of adopting a rotation of crops in which fields are not left in grass more than two or at most three years. These measures are in line with the best agricultural practice and if adopted will not only in a large measure prevent white grub injury, but will also encourage the growing of clover, one of the most important factors in successful farming under New York conditions. WIREWORMS Several species of Elateridae The size and value of the grass crop in New York State is annually lessened to a much greater degree than is usually sup- posed by the attacks of wireworms. Wireworms are elongate, hard-shelled, brownish larvee (Fig. 611), the immature stages of Grass InsEcts 569 medium-sized, dull-colored, snapping beetles or click beetles. They are underground insects that injure the plants by feeding on their roots. ‘There are several species that injure grass in the state, the most important of which are, the wheat wireworm (Agriotes mancus Say), the corn wireworm (Melanotus communis Gyllenhal), Drastertus elegans Fabricius, and several others. The beetles appear in May and June and the females deposit their eggs in the soil. The beetles are from one-third to one-half inch in length, dull grayish-brown in color, and have the peculiar habit of snapping themselves into the air when laid on their backs. The young wireworms feed on the grass roots for several seasons, the various species differing in the length of their life cycle from three to six years. The wireworm larvae reach maturity early Fig. 611. A Wireworm, Two AND ONE- Har Times NaTuRAL Size. in July. They are then from one-half to one and one-half inches in length, depending on the species. They transform to delicate whitish pupae in earthen cells within six inches of the surface of the ground. Transformation to the beetle takes place in from three weeks to a month, the beetles remaining within the earthen cell until the following spring. Control.. Clover and buckwheat are not so subject to wireworm attacks as most other crops. When these crops are grown their presence tends to decrease the number of wireworms in the field. In grass land the amount of wireworm infestation usually increases with the length of time during which the field is left in sod. An excessive wireworm infestation may be avoided by not leaving fields in grass for more than two or three years, a measure also recommended for the prevention of white grub injury and one in line with good agricultural practice. THE ARMY-WORM Heliophila unipuncta Haworth Although army-worm outbreaks occur only at intervals of sev- eral years the insect is present in our meadows every season. 570 GRASSES AND Leguminous Crops In New York The army-worm caterpillars are most abundant in low, neglected meadows. Here they live in greater or less abundance and attract very little attention until some year when conditions become unusually favorable for their increase. They then become so numerous that the food supply is quickly exhausted and the caterpillars migrate in armies devouring practically every green thing in their path (Fig. 612). Fic. 612. PASTURE DESTROYED By ARMyY-WORMS. Under New York conditions, the army-worm passes the winter in the caterpillar stage, usually partly grown but sometimes nearly mature. These caterpillars conrplete their growth in the spring and when mature burrow an inch or two into the soil and there transform to brownish pupae about three-quarters of an inch in length. The spring brood of moths emerge during June. The moth (Fig. 613) has an expanse of about one and three-quarters inches. The fore wings are clay or fawn-colored and have a dis- tinct white spot near the center. The hind wings are brownish with black veins. The female deposits her eggs in rows of from ten to sixty on the inner side of the sheath at the base of grass or 4 (Knight photo) —alerd Grass INsEcTS 571 grain leaves. The eggs are covered with a white substance which fastens them together and folds the edge of the leaf around them. The eggs hatch in from six to ten days. This summer brood of (Knight photo) Fie. 613. ARmy-WormM MOTHS. caterpillars is destructive during July. The full grown army- worm (Fig. 614) is about one and one-half inches in length, of a general greenish black color, much lighter below. There are several distinct stripes on each side of the body. The caterpillars of the summer brood become mature the last of July and the first of August and give rise to a fall brood of moths that appear from the middle of August to the last of September. Caterpillars hatching from eggs laid by these moths continue feeding until (Knight photo) Fic. 614. Arswty-Worms SuowinGc COLOR VARIATIONS. i GrRaAssEs AND LeGumtnous Crops In New York the advent of cold weather when they go into hibernation among the roots of grasses. Control. As a grass pest the army-worm is more likely to become injurious in fields that have been for several years in sod. Trouble may be avoided by adopting a system of crop rotation by which the land is not left in sod for more than two or three years. In case the caterpillars have assumed the army-worm habit, their advance may be stopped by plowing a furrow across their line of march with the vertical side of the furrow toward Tite Se (Knight paoto) Fic. 615. A FurRRow ALONG THE EDGE OF A CORN FIELD TO STOP AN INVASION OF ARMY WORMS. the crop to be protected (Fig. 615). Post holes should be dug at intervals in the bottom of the furrow into which the caterpillars will fall as they crawl along while attempting to climb out of the furrow. Here they may be crushed or killed with kerosene oil. Army-worms may also be destroyed by using a poison bait made according to the following formula: Bran, 20 pounds; paris green, 1 pound; molasses, 2 quarts; oranges or lemons, 3 fruits; water, about 31% gallons. Grass INSECTS 573 The dry bran and paris green are thoroughly mixed in a tub or similar receptacle. The juice of the oranges or lemons is squeezed into the water; the remaining pulp and peel is chopped into fine bits and added to the water. The molasses is dissolved in the water and the bran and poison wet with it, the mixture being constantly stirred so as to dampen the mash thoroughly. Only just enough water should be used to moisten the mash, but not enough to make it sloppy. This quantity of bait will treat about three acres. The material should be scattered broadcast evenly over the infested area at night- fall. If applied during the day it dries out and is not then attrac- tive to the caterpillars. CUTWORMS Several species of Noctuidae There are several species of caterpillars closely related to the army-worm that live in grass land and which, in the aggregate, cause an enormous amount of injury. They are known as cut- worms from the habit that many of them possess of eating off plants at or just below the surface of the ground. Cutworms are most abundant in old sod land and attract most attention from their injuries to crops immediately following old sod. Cutworm injury to grass crops and to crops following grass can be in large measure prevented by not leaving land in sod for more than two or three years. When attacking other crops than grass use may be made of the sweetened poisoned bait recommended for the army-worm. GRASSHOPPERS Melanoplus atlanis Riley (Fig. 616), and other species While grasshoppers are widely distributed throughout the state, they do not attract attention by their injuries except in certain years in those regions where there are large areas of sandy land. Grasshoppers are more abundant in such regions because the light sandy soil furnishes ideal conditions for the laying and preserva- tion of their eggs. The insect passes the winter in the ege-stage in the ground. The eggs hatch in April or May and the young grasshoppers feed on the scanty vegetation, growing in such sandy fields (Fig. 617). 574 GRASSES AND Leauminovus Crops 1n New Yorx (Fadlcy y hoto) Fic. 616. GRASSHOPPER FEEDING ON A WHEAT HEAD. the latter part of July. her abdomen its full length into the ground. to 18, arranged in several overlap- The egg-mass is covered with a frothy substance laid in masses of from 5 ping layers. which hardens and protects the eggs from moisture. They pass through five im- mature stages and wings at the fifth molt. of the grasshoppers reach ma- turity about the middle of June but others do not acquire wings until about the first of July. Whenever the food supply becomes exhausted the acquire Some grasshoppers gradually spread out to new feeding grounds. Grasses, corn, oats, rye, clover, crops often either completely destroyed or seriously damaged. The grasshoppers continue to feed until the advent of cool weather, but egg-laying begins and other are In deposting her eggs the female inserts The eggs are Small particles of soil adhere to the egg-mass forming a curved pod Fie. 617. SAnpy FIELD (Hadley photo) SHow1InG BARE Spots IN WHICH GRASSHOPPER EGGS ARE LAID. Grass INSECTS 575 three-quarters to over an inch in length and from one-eighth to one-quarter inch in diameter (Fig. 618). Each female usually deposits two ege-masses. The egg-laying period lasts six weeks or more. Control. -An effective and practical method of destroying erasshoppers is by the use of a poison bait as described under the army-worm. Fall and early spring plowing of the fields in which the eges are deposited is also of great value and is the most impor- tant method of permanently controlling grasshoppers in New York. If the ground is also harrowed or disced the larger proportion of the ege-masses will be exposed to the elements and destroyed. In case it is found that a larger number of grasshoppers have recently hatehed in a field it would often pay to plow the field at once in order to prevent their spreading to adjoining fields. Many of them will be buried and most of those that are not will be unable to cross the plowed land and will die of starvation. (Hadley photo) Fie. 618. Grassnoprper Eca Pops; ONE BROKEN OPEN TO SHOW THE EGGS. SPITTLE INSECTS In May or June one’s attention is often drawn to curious masses of froth on the stems of various grasses. If the froth is carefully removed a small greenish immature insect will be found resting on the stem. ' These insects are provided with a sucking beak by means of which they feed on the juices of the plant. More sap is taken in than can be assimilated by the insect. The excess is excreted at the tip of the abdomen as a thin, watery liquid; it there unites 76 GRASSES AND LEGuMINOoUS Crops In NEw YorK Or with a sticky substance secreted by special glands and the fluid is then mixed with air and worked into a frothy mass by a pair of appendages at the tip of the body. The frothy mass is supposed to serve as a protection for the insect against its enemies. While these curious spittle insects often attract attention and provoke inquiry they really do very little harm and remedial measures are not necessary. TIMOTHY JOINT WORM Isosoma species if one splits a timothy culm lengthwise he is likely to find a small white larva one-twelfth inch in length lying in the central cavity just above one of the lower nodes (Fig. 619). Sometimes the infested stems are _ slightly dwarfed but more often they are the largest and rankest arising from the stool. The insect really does not injure the hay crop to any appreciable extent. Timothy grass along fences and in waste places is more lable to infesta- tion; one-year-old seeding is in- fested only to a slight extent. The insect winters in the larval state either in grass stems left along the edge of the field or those cut for hay. The insect trans- forms to a pupa in the stem in May and the small, black, four- winged flies emerge the last of the 7; month. The -female fly inserts ea a see eee her eggs in the tender stems of SreM, GREATLY ENLARGED. the growing timothy plants and the young larvae feed on the pith just above a joint. There is only one brood annually. No remedial measures are necessary. DISEASES OF TIMOTHY Cuartes Grecory, Ithaca, N. Y. Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology, Cornell University In Bulletin 70 Professor Jagger has given a general discussion of the various control methods to be employed against the diseases of vegetables. These should be carefully read by the general farmer —particularly crop rotation, clean seed and seed treatment, and resistant varie- ties — because in these lies our only hope of controlling the diseases of the hay crops. In general, spraying is highly impracticable, if not impossible, because of the dense growth of the crops in question and because the entire plant is later to be eaten by animals. Although timothy is one of the most important crops, the diseases affecting it have been little studied. SMUT There are several grasses other than timothy on which smut, Ustilago striaeformis (West.) Niessl, occurs. A few of these are: red top, meadow foxtail, brome grass, orchard grass, wild rye, meadow fescues, Kentucky blue grass, and other Poas. The diseased plants are much dwarfed. On the stems, the leaves, and sometimes on the heads, are long, black pustules or striae which contain a considerable amount of dark-brown powder, the spores of the fungus. The final result is a splitting or shred- ding and curling of the leaves. The fungus lives over winter in three possible ways; namely, as mycelium in the bulbs and rootstocks of the perennial plant, as mycelium in the seed, and as spores in the old striae on the leaves and stems. Once a plant becomes diseased, it remains so. [577] II—19 é GRASSES AND LEGumiInous Crops 1n New York Each year the mycelium follows up in the growing tip of the plant and produces its spores in the leaves and stems. Since the fungus hibernates as mycelium in the seed and pos- sibly as spores on the seed, the only feasible control measure, so ! \ Fie. 620. Youne Timormy PLANTS SHOWING THE STRIAE ON THE LEAF BLADES AND SHEATHS. far as is known at present, is the hot-water treat- ment. Experiments indi- cate that the best method is to soak the seed 6 hours in cold water, then dip it in water heated to 52 de- grees C. (126 degrees F.) for 15 minutes, or 54 de- grees C. (129 degrees F.) for 10 minutes. The two conditions absolutely necessary for this treat- ment are that the tem- perature of the water re- main constant and that the time of treatment be exact. More than one or two pecks ought not to be treated at once, so as to avoid too great cooling of the water when the seed is dipped and to allow rapid and ready permea- tion of the seed mass. In this way all seeds will be treated uniformly. The seed may be placed in a bag and suspended in the hot water, but the bag should be made of loosely woven cloth, like burlap, and the seed should lie loosely in it. During the treatment, the water should be continually stirred and the seed shaken from time to time. Since this process is somewhat laborious and delicate, it is rather DisEasrEs oF TiMOTHY 579 a community cooperative proposition than one for the individual grower. The methods to be employed are those used in the treat- ment of wheat for loose smut. Fig. 621. OLp Timorny PLAants HAv- ING BADLY DISEASED LEAF BLADES AND SHEATHS. IN A FEW CASES IT WILL BE NOTED THAT THE BLADES ARE BEGINNING TO SPLIT. RUST The rust fungus, Puccinia Phlei-pratensis Eriks. & Henn., occurs on the leaves, stems, and heads of timothy, meadow fescue, orchard grass, and few other grasses. The pustules are long and yellowish-brown or black. The fungus is disseminated rapidly from plant to plant by the yellow uredospores. It winters over as uredospores and teleutospores, hence it developes abundantly each year. There is no practical control of this disease except by the development of resistant varieties. It has been shown that, in the 580 GRASSES AND LEguminous Crops 1n New YorK field, plants vary in resistance from nothing to 98 per cent. The selection of seed from these resistant plants will lead to the development of a resistant strain of the timothy. It is necessary, however, to do this locally rather than to depend on such seed sent in from some other region, because plants that are resistant in one locality may not be in another. Fic. 622. A TimotHy PLANT SHOWING THE SHREDDING OF THE LEAVES DUE TO THE LEAF-SMUT. ERGOT Ergot, Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul., occurs on a large num- ber of grasses, including cereals, like rye and wheat. It is not the actual losses in the crop that make the disease important, but Disrases oF TIMOTHY “a t a Hi , Sy. » ~ eee OS 7 4 ir eae ‘ | Fig. 623. DISEASED AND HEALTHY PLANTS OF ORCHARD GRASS. NOTE THE EXCESSIVE DWARFING OF THE DISEASED PLANT ON THE LEFT. t CE bo — GRASSES AND LEGuMINOUS Crops In NEw York A Heap or Festuca ELAToIR AFFECTED Fie. 624. Wir C. Purpurea DuRING THE EARLY STAGES NOTE THE NUMEROUS WHITE THIS OF DEVELOPMENT. GLOBULES OOZING FROM THE SPIKELETS. IS THE So-cALLED HONEY-DEW STAGE. Diseases oF TIMOTHY 583 the very serious effect of the fungus poison on eee Ree es animals. The consump- tion of a small amount of ergot will cause the animal disease known as ergotism or hoof-ail. Hence great care should be taken to keep the fungus from pastures and hay. The symptoms on the grass are rather obscure in the younger stages, but become very marked later. At first a yellow- ish, sticky substance oozes out from between — the glumes and, on dry- . Ira. 625. HEADS oF ORCHARD GRASS IN : Wuich A Large Number or BLACK Later there will be seen Ercots May Br SEEN. long black bodies grow- ing out in place of the grain. These are the ergots in which the ing, becomes brown. poison is located. The only control is to cut the grass before the ergots become abundant. Fic. 626. THe Ercots GERMINATING. THESE FALL FROM THE Riper HEADS OF THE GRASS TO THE GROUND AND WILL GERMINATE IN THIS WAY IN THE SPRING. THE SPORES ARE PRODUCED IN THE GLOBOSE HEADS AT THE ENDS OF THE STALKS. 584 GrassEs anp Lecuminous Crops 1n New York ' LEAF STREAK OR BLIGHT Leaf streak or blight, Scolecotrichum graminis Fckl., causes leaf spots, which are at first reddish-brown to purple, finally becoming ashen in the center. The spots may involve all or only a portion of the leaf.- It may become exceptionally severe on timothy and orchard grass. The life history of the fungus is not known and no control has been devised. SEEDING TIMOTHY WITHOUT A GRAIN CROP* Epwarp Van ALSTYNE Director of Farmers’ Institutes What I have to say on this subject relates wholly to land best adapted to hay, not to cases where the crop is grown in a short rotation chiefly for the benefit ob- tained from the eclover,— which unfor- tunately often fails to materialize—under which conditions a grain crop will usually give a greater return. I have a number of acres of this kind of land. I have also many acres of natural grass land on which hay pays better than any other crop. On such land I have found it much better to seed with grass alone rather than in combination with a grain crop. There is no question but that on this kind of land an acre of hay will return a larger net income than an acre of wheat or rye, both of which will require much more labor and expensive machinery.} In such cases, unless the straw is needed on the farm, I can see no object in growing the grain as a money crop; furthermore, no land will give as high yields of hay where a grain crop has eaten at the first table. In seeding with spring grain, such as oats or barley, there is an advantage in the labor saved, an item not to be ignored. Nevertheless, if hay is the object, an extra fitting and seeding, as I shall outline, will give ample return for labor expended. What I shall say is based on personal experience; hence I may be excused from what may seem too much of personal method, as this is a sort of heart-to-heart talk, or experience meeting. My experience in seeding with spring grain has been very unsatisfactory. There are likely to be a good many weeds, * Address given at Farmers’ Day Meeting, Fort Edward, March 22, 1916. tThis statement would not be true with present war prices for grain. Nevertheless, under normal conditions it is good advice. 58D] 586 GRASSES AND LEquminous Crops In New York which prevent the growth of grass and later spoil the hay. If the season is at all dry, the moisture and plant food taken by the grain in midsummer usually results in a poor seeding. Few farmers appreciate the possibilities of an acre of hay when grown according to the laws of grass. Clark, of Connecticut, though working on a small scale, and in many things impractical, did demonstrate these possibilities and thereby conferred a boon on hay growers. PERSONAL EXPERIENCES On the hay land referred to, I tried various methods of seeding. When sown with spring grain either ‘“‘ the weeds sprang up and choked the seed,” or “when the sun arose it withered away because it had no depth of root.” Then I tried winter grain, which was better so far as the seed was concerned; but, when I put the land in condition to grow a large crop of grass, the grain lodged and failed to fill, and the Christianity of the man who ran the binder was sorely tried. The failure of a wheat crop through freezing out, and the late but fine crop of grass instead, led me to ask the question, ‘‘ Why the grain crop at all if one can Fic. 627. A Timotuy Crop In CoLumBiA County. THREE TONS TO THE ACRE, SECOND YEAR’S CuTTinec. Sowrp WITHOUT A NURSE Crop. Srepine Timotuy Wirnout A Grain Crop 587 get such good grass after the wheat has occupied the first place during the fall? Would there not be even a better crop when grass has sole possession of the field?” More than fifteen years’ experience since has justified my conclusion. PRESENT-DAY ROTATION These hay lands I keep in grass as long as they will cut a profitable crop, one ton per acre being the minimum. The average stand is five years, yet I have held them thirteen. After being broken, the land is planted to corn, commercial fertilizer being used. Following the corn, whenever possible, the land is plowed in the fall, and the oats are sowed as early in spring as possible. The oat crop is needed for both the grain and straw. With the oats I sow from 200 to 300 pounds of acid phosphate to the acre; this increases the yield and hastens maturity, the latter being very 1m- portant in order to get the land properly fitted after the oats are off. The stubble is cut high in order to supply humus. FITTING THE SOIL As soon as the oats are removed, plowing is begun. I have found this method more satisfactory than to fit without breaking. The land is plowed at least eight inches deep, a jointer being used to take off the edge of the furrow and to turn under the stubble. It is very important that a lap furrow be turned; this leaves the stubble between the furrows where it will quickly decay and help to hold moisture. The stubble should not be put in the bottom of the furrow where it will be a long time decaying, and will prevent the rise of water from the subsoil. This, too, is very important, as is the immediate going over of the land with a harrow, plank drag, or roller. The former should be used if the land is wet; either of the others according to the dryness, in the order named. After this the cutaway is employed until] seeding time.’ Three or four fittings with an interval between will be much more effective than to put on all of this work at one time. The ground is thus made solid, evaporation is pre- vented, the connection between the subsoil and the bottom of the furrow is established, weeds are killed, and the land is made fine and mellow. 588 GRASSES AND LEGumiInovus Crops In New York FERTILIZING Nothing does more to insure a crop after thorough fitting than a dressing of stable manure. Six or seven tons an acre, applied with a spreader, will do wonders. With this, I use 350 pounds an acre of a fertilizer made up of nine parts of acid phosphate to one of muriate of potash. For the past two years, the latter has been unobtainable, and the acid phosphate has had to suffice. Manure is not always available, of course, and, this failing, I have found the following mixture to serve well: 500 pounds of nitrate of soda, 500 of high-grade tankage, 800 of acid phosphate, and, when obtainable, 200 pounds of muriate of potash — applied at the rate of 500 pounds to each acre. One thousand pounds of burned lime or 2,000 pounds of ground limestone to the acre has always given marked results, even with timothy. I can stand on my lawn today and look over a field a quarter of a mile away and see in the stubble where the lime stopped, as plainly as though a line had been drawn across the field. The lime should be applied immediately after plowing, and should be thoroughly incorporated with the soil. SEEDING Seeding should be done the last week in August or the first in September. I have had a splendid stand from seed put in as late as September 20 when conditions were favorable, but ordi- narily this is too late. Much depends on the rainfall and the condition of the soil. Certain it is that it is unwise to seed until the land has been compacted and the surface made fine; this is vital in a dry season. I have had but two failures in fifteen years; both of these occurred when the seed was sowed before the land was made firm. I use fourteen quarts of the best timothy and two of recleaned redtop. The latter amount will not harm the quality of the hay and will materially increase the yield to the acre. — more will This is thick seeding, but my object is to have every inch of ground covered by a grass plant, thus preventing, to a great extent, the growth of weeds. My heaviest yields of hay have been from a thick stand on the bottom, rather than from tall grass not so close. I have sowed about two quarts of alsike at time of seed- ing, or in the spring; at both times it has given good results. JROP Sreping Timotuy Wiruovut Aa Grain aquvMay 40 Wavy ‘auOVW Tad ‘K ‘(N ‘MOOHYFINIY “ANALSTY NVA AV] GadaQ, do SNOY, AAU, ‘d0UD NIVUY V LAOHIIA\ ONIGAAG YUVA HINAATS—gzg “oly P er 590 GRASSES AND LEGuMINoUs Crops In New York While the alsike adds to the volume and to the feeding value of the hay, it detracts from the selling value, and on rich land is likely to remain for several years. When the hay is grown for city markets, I find it better to leave out the alsike. We put half of the seed in the drill with the fertilizer; this saves labor. The other half is sown the opposite way with a weeder, seeder, or by hand, whichever is most convenient. In the latter case, a slant-tooth harrow is used to cover the seed and fine the land; then the roller — one with a corrugated surface — is best. CONCLUSION ““A lot of work,” someone says. Yes, a little more than with a winter grain crop properly put in, but the results justify the expense. I could tell, and have my statements verified by my neighbors, of some marvellous crops; suttice to say that we expect and obtain at the first cutting fully three tons to the acre of clean, first-class hay. In years like the past, of abundant rainfall, we sometimes cut a second crop, but usually it is wiser to let this go back as humus. Such a crop nets more than an acre of wheat or rye and is more certain, since there is little danger of winter-kill- ing. Also, the meadow can be held fully a year longer than if the seed had been put in with a grain crop. By the application of commercial fertilizers, as described on page 2768, a profitable yield can be maintained, and the life of the meadow prolonged. When manure is at hand, we top-dress the third or fourth year. Tn a word, this is the Clark method brought down to farm prac- tice. FERTILIZERS FOR TIMOTHY Eimer O. Firrrn, Ithaca, N. Y. Professor of Soil Technology, Cornell University The fertilization of the soil for timothy follows no simple, fixed rules any more than does the fertilization of any- other crop. In deciding on the need of the plant for applications of nutrients, many factors must be taken into account, such as its composition, habit of growth, root system, and physiological properties. In addition, the soil has certain characteristics that vary in different places. The fertilizer for timothy should be selected in view of the requirements of the plant and also with due consideration for the properties and composition of the soil on which the crop is to be grown. The fertilizer that gives best results in one place may not give best results on a different soil or on the same soil that has been differently treated. At the same time the characteristics of the plant suggest the main line of treatment. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TIMOTHY PLANT Timothy hay is a nonlegume. As a forage plant, it is expected to make a large, leafy, vegetative growth. Such a growth draws heavily on nitrogen, and a generous supply, therefore, promotes vegetative development and leads to the formation of loose, soft tissues and large green weight. If other conditions are favorable, there is a corresponding gain in total dry weight. In New York, the crop matures for hay about the first of July and makes an early spring growth. This period is in advance of the largest develop- ment of nitrates in the soil. In addition the further fact must be considered that the plant is a grass and is therefore dependent on available nitrogen compounds in the soil. These points would indicate the relatively large importance of readily available nitro- genous fertilizer. Phosphorus, potassium, lime, and sulphur cannot be overlooked, however, because the plant makes a corresponding draft on those constituents. Rather woody stems are formed toward maturity [591] 592 GRASSES AND Lecuminous Crops 1n New York that call particularly for potassium and lime and the elaboration of starch, sugar, and fat constituents. These contribute to the feeding value of the plant, which is largely dependent on those elements of food. Phosphorous, which enters most largely into the seed and is absorbed most actively towards maturity, especially when the seed begins to form, is also required in the vital activity of every living cell and is particularly effective in promoting the large development of the root system. This element cannot be over- looked, therefore, if there is any possibility of a deficient supply from the soil. - In addition, enough alkaline material to keep the soil in the neighborhood of a neutral reaction is also essential. The plant will not telerate a strongly acid condition although it will thrive on a soil containing less lime than is essential for red clover. COMPOSITION OF TIMOTHY HAY As reported in the various analyses the composition of the timothy plant differs as does the composition of every other plant, according to the character of the soil, the conditions of growth, and the stage of maturity. These variations should always be kept in mind in examining figures on composition, since the varia- tion may be as much as 50 per cent from the average for the same stage of development. The following table gives the composition of the plant in per- centage and in pounds on each acre for a yield of two tons of dried hay carrying from 10 to 12 per cent of moisture: TABLE [| COMPOSITION OF TIMOTHY HAY Potas- | Phos- | Sul- | Cal- | Mag-| So- sium | phorus | phur | cium |nesium/ dium Composition of timothy hay in percentage... . 10 0.95 0.8 0.18; ]-0.12; |. 0.2). .0:24 70z85 Pounds for each acre with yield of two tons...} 400 38.00 | 32.00 7.2 | 4.8 8.0] 4.0} 14.00 Phos- —..-——— phoric Equivalent....} .... |(Ammonia)|(Potash)) acid) Lime 45.00 | 38.5 16.00 18.00 FERTILIZERS FoR TIMOTHY 59 Oo As compared with legumes, timothy does not make a heavy draft on nitrogen, the former crops using from two to three times as large a proportion. The fact must be considered that timothy is not a legume and, therefore, cannot secure its nitrogen direct from the atmosphere through the aid of bacteria in nodules on the roots. TIMOTHY INTERFERES WITH NITRIFICATION Another point to be considered is the fact that the roots of timothy interfere with the formation of nitrates in the soil.* The investigations of Lyon and Bizzell indicate that timothy, more than any other crop commonly grown on the farm, interferes with the formation of nitrates. This interference extends beyond the time when the crop has been cut and the roots plowed under. The effect extends to the nitrification of materials added to the soil, such as dried blood. This means that nitrogen fertilizers for timothy should be very largely in forms immediately available to the plant. It also suggests the importance of available nitrogen fertilizers on crops growing with timothy, such as orchard trees. NITROGEN FERTILIZERS ESSENTIAL In view of the facts presented, it may be laid down as a general proposition that nitrogenous fertilizers are particularly beneficial to the timothy crop. If the soil is not heavily stocked with organic matter and in an active condition, the use of some form of nitrogenous fertilizer will largely increase the yield. This point may be considered in connection with the statement in the article on “Soils for Timothy” (page 2738), namely, that the soils of swamp and muck and those of recent alluvial origin are best suited to the production of the crop. EXPERIMENTS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Investigations and experience show that the crop will respond to any of the soluble forms of nitrogen. The use of mineral forms has been extensively practiced. For ten years a series of plots devoted to timothy for three-year periods in rotation with corn, oats, and wheat one year each, has been in progress at the * Lyon, T. L. and Bizzell, J. A. (1913). Some relations of certain higher plants to the forma- tion of nitrates in soils. Cornell University Agr. Exp. Sta. Memoir No. 1, 1913. 594 GRASSES AND LegumiInotms Crops In New YorK Cornell Experiment ‘Station on the silty Dunkirk clay loam, which was originally rather low in organic matter and nitrogen. The primary part of the study has been the effect of fertilizers apphed to the timothy on succeeding grain crops. The unit appli- eation of fertilizers is as follows: 160 pounds nitrate of soda, 320 pounds acid phosphate, 80 pounds muriate of potash, 10 tons stable manure. In the columns headed ‘ ‘nitrogen,’ “ phos- phorus,” and ‘ potassium,” in the table below, the unit amount of fertilizer just mentioned is represented by “1,” while “2” indicates twice that amount. These materials are used on the twenty-two tenth-acre plots in different combinations and different amounts.* The following table gives a summary of the results: TABLE II EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS ON TIMOTHY Pactilvonstredtinent First Ree years in Second three years in ay hay S oes ey = Total | Per- Total Per- 5 Nitro- | Phos- | Potas- | pounds| cent- Soe, pounds | centage yan 2 gen | phorus] sium | to each | age in- 3 ea to each in- 3 eae 5 acre | crease y acre crease y Z 712 0 1 Q | 4,233) 21:9 | $5 56) 35143 8.1 $1 76 713 0 0 1 | 4,490 | 30.8) 12 26) 3,123 6.0 1 93 715 1 0 0 | 4,530 | 38.9 SAN ap Aaa, 65.6 20 36 716 il 1 0 | 4,797 | 53.5 8 90 | 4,443 68 .2 11 56 718 0 1 1 | 4,127 | 34.2 6 88 | 3,393 37.8 4 64 719 1 0 1 | 5,127) 69.8} 18 52] 4,643 95.1 21 95 721 1 1 125; MOON Sh. 5) | 23291 | Ar OOM 2783 24 10 722 1 2 IL | Dn e47kO) |) Al x) 6 89 | 4,913 | 139.6 18 60 724 2 2 1 | 6,923 | 128.2 | 24 71] 6,140) 225.6 18 67 725 2 1 1 | 7,103 | 145.1 | 36 24] 6,073 | 222.6 36 14 (le 2 1 1 | 6,223 | 135.8 | {86.72 | 6,383 | 237.4 37 O1 728 4 i 1 | 6,073 |1184.5 | 125 62} 6,230 | 224.2 8 46 731 10 tons manure 5,093 | 254.5 | 23 55) 5,050] 252.5 23 09 732 20 tons manure 7,293 | 364.6 | 3315) 7,057 | 352.8 31 14 * Different treatments during part of period. + Based on two years’ data. { Average for two years. The data here presented show that chemical manures will largely increase the yield of timothy. These fertilizers were * Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Buls. 232, 241, 261, 273, 339. These bulletins report the results of the timothy fertilizer experiments from time to time. FEertiuizers ror TIMoTHy 595 applied broadeast as a top-dressing on the sod each spring about the time growth started, April 10 to May 1. No fertilizer was applied to the grain crops that intervened between the two periods of timothy. These results show that under the soil conditions here prevail- ing nitrogen is most effective to increase the yield. On this soil nitrogen alone as nitrate is not effective to maintain the yield from year to year. These results are supported by the experience of farmers that nitrogen alone will often give a large increase in hay the first year, but a decrease in succeeding years. This, of course, is related to the need for other elements. The use of nitrate alone would be advisable on an old sod that is to be plowed up the next season. The mineral elements, phosphorous and potassium, alone have a relatively small effect that dwindles with the lengthening of the period of growth. It should be remembered that the soil is natur- ally well stocked with total phosphorous and potassium. When coupled with the mineral elements, the effect of nitrogen is cumu- lative and is greater in the second than in the first, period. Doubling the phosphorous on this soil appears to decrease the yield, although the result in the second period shows some doubt on that conclusion. On most soils in the state it is not believed any such effect need be anticipated. There is a regular increase in yield with increase in the nitrogen added along with a standard amount of minerals. This increase appears to be cumulative, as it is greater in the second than in the first period. As a result of the fertilizer treatment, a normally larger development of roots and stubble leaves a larger residue of organic matter, which has a double effect on the soil and the crop, as will be explained later. GENERAL FERTILIZER SUGGESTED FOR TIMOTHY As a result of this and other data, a commercial fertilizer top- dressing to be applied in early spring is recommended for timothy meadows. As has been indicated, the best mixture will vary with the soils, but for the average upland deficient in organic matter the following mixture is suggested: nitrate of soda 200 pounds, acid phosphate 100 pounds, muriate or sulphate of potash, 50 pounds. The suggestion of potash is based on normal prices that prevailed 596 GRASSES AND LEGuMINOUS CRops IN NEw YorK before war conditions developed and should not be included at present prices. This mixture is particularly effective to increase the growth of established timothy meadows. Many farmers have tried out the treatment on different soils and have found it profitable. As an example may be mentioned a field purchased by Cornell University and made up of the same grade of clay loam as that on which the experiment is conducted.* The field of six acres has been cut three years and was giving a yield estimated at one and one-fourth tons. The foregoing fertilizer treatment gave yields as follows: SIAM es eS Rents Siete el Aart Ae ee ee Oe atin i af, nails Seat Sitch teen Are £6 3.34 tons AO SLE ei cence A cel es > Rho Sas. Wart ome Aes. Fah oh Peis, See Se aa a Ni Pind 29 gel eds 2..62 tons LISS. Screeners CaS eRe ee Mires aot SOA Raines SERS eae ary af 3.00 tons RON Sere ete Lire ee clear ere Ree SPIRE Leh Sr mT ee 2.86 tons MANURE AS A FERTILIZER FOR TIMOTHY In Table I, the largest increase in yield is produced by stable manure and is to some degree proportionate to the application. The net return is not.so large as that from a complete fertilizer with a double application of nitrogen because of the large cost of the material. This was rated at $1.50 a ton on the land, which is not an unreasonable figure. The manure added every two years would carry a quarter more nitrogen and potassium than the fer- tilizers for the three-year period. The result bears out the state- ment above, that with a moderate supply of minerals the yield is roughly proportionate to the nitrogen applied. The same result was secured at the Ohio station, where timothy appears in a five- year rotation preceded by clover. At the Massachusetts station, a 4 per cent larger yield of timothy with some clover was secured from a spring application of manure, which had stood in a pile during the winter, than from fall and winter applications. The result is not conclusive, since only one year’s yield is reported. In practice, under average conditions, such a result is hardly to be expected. Many farmers have realized from experience the profits to be derived from the use of manure on their new grass seeding rather than on old sod for grain. In the experiment at Cornell Univer- sity mentioned previously, an application of the manure to the * E. G. Montgomery, Cornell Reading Course, Bul. No. 65. Meadows in New York. Yin Fertitizers ror Timoruy 597 hay increased the grain nearly as much as when applied to the old sod and also gave a larger net profit. The root residues from the sod have a very considerable value. ORGANIC FORMS OF NITROGEN DESIRABLE There is some indication that nitrogenous fertilizer in organic form is congenial to the timothy plant. Whether there is a spe cific preference for organic nitrogen does not appear to have been studied. That the timothy plant will use organic nitrogen com- pounds is suggested by the effect of legumes growing with timothy on its composition and yield. At the Cornell station,* it has been found that legumes, in general, largely benefit the nonlegume with which they grow by supplying available nitrogen. Timothy grown with alfalfa had from % to nearly 3 per cent more protein than when grown alone. When grown with red clover, it had 7 per cent more protein. When oats were grown with field peas there was not only an improvement in composition, but the yield was increased by about one-third over the oats alongside, without association with peas. Although no figures are at hand, observa- tions suggest the same relation of timothy to clover. These data, together with the fact now well established that plants do use their nitrogenous, as well as nonnitrogenous, food in the form of rather complexly organized organic compounds, suggest the importance of keeping the soil as largely stocked as possible with fresh, actively decaying organic material, whether it be from organic fertilizers, stock manure, or leguminous stubble. Dr. I. P. Roberts} suggests from his wide range of observation the importance of keeping clover plants among the timothy to feed the latter on the decay of the clover plant. Certainly, in so far as possible, the maintenance of a moderate stand of leguminous plants with the timothy, especially at the start, is to be recom- mended for the largest total yield of hay. The net returns from the quadruple application of nitrogen as nitrate of soda, given in Table II, shows that while the total yield increased, the profit decreased over a double application. Of course, the exact amount * Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 294. T. L. Lyon and J. A. Bizzell. A heretofore unnoted bene- fit fr_m the growth of legumes. T Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 280, (1910). Pastures in New York. 598 .GrRassEs ANp LegumiInous Crops 1n New York of nitrogen or any other element that will give most profitable returns can be determined only by trial in the particular field. FERTILIZERS ON THE NURSE CROP The use of commercial fertilizers and manure on the nurse crops for grass must be practiced with great caution. As a general principle, it may be stated that applications that bring the nurse crop up to a medium stand are likely to be beneficial to the grass seeding; but applications beyond that, or where the growth of the nurse crop is already good, are likely to benefit the nurse crop at the expense of the grass seeding. A moderate application of fer- tilizer with the grain at seeding time, especially in fall, is hkely to help in maintaining the stand of plants against the exigencies of winter. LIME NEEDED BY TIMOTHY On many soils, lime has a beneficial effect on timothy. At both the Cornell and Ohio stations, lime showed marked benefit to timothy on soils requiring liming for legumes, but timothy is rather less sensitive to a shortage of lime than is red clover or alfalfa. No data are at hand showing any distinction between the caustic or carbonate forms of lime for timothy. The amount to be applied must, of course, be related to the soil. It should be applied in advance, preferably to a tilled crop, to insure its deep and thorough incorporation into the soil. IMPORTANCE OF THOROUGHLY FITTING THE SOIL As a final word the importance of having the soil in good physi- eal condition, well stocked with organic matter and well supplied with available plant food to a considerable depth, cannot be too strongly emphasized. While top-dressing gives marked benefit, the incorporation of the fertilizer with the soil is still better; the system of farming must dictate the practice in this matter. Thor- ough fitting is possible where the grass mixture is seeded alone. Thorough tillage of the soil also contributes its mite. In a very literal sense, ‘‘ Tillage is manure,” and it is especially the sanitary agent that puts the soil in a fresh, healthy condition through thorough aeration. The Clark method, which has been effective to obtain enormous yields of grass in which timothy was FERTILIZERS FOR TIMOTHY 599 dominant, puts heavy emphasis on deep and very thorough fitting, along with heavy fertilization and heavy seeding. The key of these lines of treatment is the large draft a good yield makes on nitrogen and the peculiar relation the plant bears to that element. SUMMARY The points in the fertilization of timothy may be summarized as follows: The soil should be heavily and deeply stocked with organic matter. Nitrogenous fertilizers, especially those of an organic nature, should be used. Stable manure will usually give more profit applied to the established timothy meadow than to the old sod for corn. A mineral nitrogen fertilizer alone is not likely to main- tain the yield. A small amount of mineral elements — phosphorous and potassium — aids the nitrogen to maintain or increase the yield. Mineral elements alone are not effective unless the soil is rich in organic matter. Top-dressing established fields in early spring with a ecom- plete commercial fertilizer is often profitable. Legumes growing with timothy are desirable from the view- point of yield and composition wherever practicable. Timothy responds to lime on some soils, especially those deficient in organic matter. Thorough fitting of the seed bed and deep incorporation of the fertilizer are very effective in increasing the yield. BARNYARD MANURE ALMOST DOUBLES THE HAY CROP In August, 1916, the Montgomery County Farm Bureaw News printed the following: In the town of Mohawk, Montgomery County, Stanley Everson carried on a field test to determine the value of stable manure in top-dressing hay fields. Last fall after oat harvest, he top-dressed a portion of a field of new seeding at the rate of eight loads of stable manure to the acre, applied with a manure spreader. The field was mowed on July 19, and on July 20 the farm bureau manager assisted Mr. Everson in taking weights of production on equal areas where manure had been applied and where no manure was applied, to determine the amount of increased yield of hay due to the application of manure. Fig. 629. COMPARATIVE RESULT OF FIELD TEST ON FARM OF STANLEY EVERSON, MONTGOMERY COUNTY. Where the manure had been applied the yield of hay was 7,184 pounds per acre; while in the same field, with quality of soil and seeding equally as good, the yield without manure was only 3,840 pounds. Eight loads of stable manure per acre gave an increased yield of 87 per cent. Mr. Everson makes a practice of hauling manure direct from the stable to the field, whenever practicable. He believes in getting his stable manure on the ground as quickly as possible, to grow increased crops, to feed more stock, to make more manure, to grow more crops. [600j COST OF PRODUCTION OF TIMOTHY AND CLOVER HAY ON SOME NEW YORK FARMS (The following article is taken from Cornell Bulletin 377 — Cost Accounts on Some New York Farms, by C. E. Ladd, Instructor and Investigator in Farm Management.) In its climate, soils, and markets, New York State is well adapted for hay production. Nearly all the farms in the state raise hay. Of the total area in crops on cooperating farms, 38 per cent in 1912, and 34 per cent in 1913, was in timothy and clover. This percentage varied from 9 to 62 on individual farms. Only one farm with which accounts have been kept did not raise timothy and clover; this farm raised alfalfa. On several farms the hay account included small fields of alfalfa or oat and pea hay. These farms were not included in the tabulation. The average yield of timothy and clover hay for New York State was 1.25 tons per acre in 1912, and 1.14 tons per acre in 1913.* The average yield on the cooperating farms was slightly higher than the average for the state. One farm had an average yield of 2.5 tons per acre, while on one farm the yield was 0.66 tons per acre. Both these farms, however, made a profit in producing hay. The data concerning the production of timothy and clover hay are given in the following table. Very little of this hay was mar- keted during the year. AVERAGES FOR TIMOTHY AND CLover Hay 1912 1913 Number of farms? cecy. 27h. Pele or icy Th Sheena he feng ae: 12 23 SG talemumn er OleAChes st wike oem Ne chi ees ti ee a 487 .5 823.7 otalivieldiim: tons ee) sy. VTE N Reels kes | SESE OD 679.5 1185.9 Nile GR pPEIEACLe TM RGONS 4,4 creas Moe Moi oc Cae ee a tee Oh oe ee 1.39 1.44 © Waltiesperpacreas shri retake atts. Sek ie. ee Aye $15.53 $16.34 Cost DELJACLO Mate pe. 2: eee ees hPa ome Sea 12.58 12.31 IProninperrmerota tte), MRE eA 4) 2a 3 Shh det, 4 2.95 4.03 *U.S. Agr, Dept. Year book 1913:418. [601] 602 GRASSES AND LEGumMINous Crops 1n New York AVERAGES FoR TimoTHy AND CLoverR Hay — Continued 1912 1913 Waluiesper Gomis « when's tne hehe tas bearish te creen eke ae aes ee $11.15 $11.35 Costner tony att ty. stake tee bs, cota osteo seh ieee eta a 9.03 8.55 IBrohityper GON eee es are SOC eo erecta ore noe eee es 2.12 2.80 Protitipersmanehounsen sy ater coca ate einai. ee meee oe $0. 27 $0.37 iNanthours wer acre ence yy eee oe ts iene aks eee pe rare 11.03 10.80 iHorseshoursiperiacreii-s,.. sit shay oh eevee el meee ee rates ct oh cveeny hh Pecans 5.21 Averazeuhaultimpmilessacnt, 46). seeiaeets weet Sere pete serenity crd s'= Sefss els ces 3.00 NiamelaborrcostypergbOmenaces | petae 4 Arson ht asatet ewes eatin arene Ness ete $1.14 orseulaboncosti pel tones -caGek oA oy a etemtacs a eoter ascites sleeves ae. 0.72 NG UIpmMent COs PEL COMA: Mel. st Say ha eer sore ooarota ean, aon dias = ee 0.23 Ro talkcost,perstone ee . eget per eax chee, eset een Betcha Peet yee $2.09 The average distribution of the cost of producing hay in 1912 and in 1913 is shown in the table below. The hay crop has a smaller proportion of its total cost in labor than has any other crop grown on these farms. Labor (man, horse, and equipment) amounted to over 30 per cent of the total cost. Use of land, and manure and fertilizer, were the next most important costs. | AVERAGES FOR Hay 1912 1913 Average Per cent Average Per cent cost per of total cost per of total acre cost acre cost See Oey Seater ort cc eae es $0.98 8 $1.07 9 Fertilizer and manure.......... 3.03 24 2.78 22, Niamtla pork ies oeciae. cra: tee 1.67 13 1.80 15 Horses lADOMs +. eaten ree 1.70 13 1.47 1p Hguipment labor.........:...-- 0.58 5 0.51 4 Wiseromlande re teries yoo te er 3.61 29 3.67 30 Wserotsbulldinesemce ces see ce 1.00 8 1.00 8 IMiscellaneoustys 225 2s eerie OM OLMIRS sone OOM I eee ob ee ROtalkcostises ec Aah SIZ ROSu eee SILZ2S1y Minders HARVESTING THE HAY CROP H. B. McCuiureE Agriculturist, Office of Farm Management, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. TIME TO CUT HAY Hay should be cut when the greatest quantity of that which is palatable can be secured per acre. Unfortunately, how- ever, there are factors that often prevent this; namely, rainy weather, necessary work on other crops, and an insufficient amount of help. The latter apphes particularly to farms growing a consider- able acreage of hay. Timothy should be cut when just com- ing into full bloom to secure the largest amount of nutrients and yield. Hay cut at the beginning of the blooming season is much more difficult to cure than that cut after the seeds have formed and the plant is getting “ ripe.” TeRVER OH SDAY OV eueE On the average eastern farm where a comparatively small acreage of hay is grown, it is the custom to haul in hay during the afternoon only. If the weather is favorable, hay cut in the after- noon and put into the barn the next afternoon will produce a crop having an excellent color, and without overexposure to the sun. The objection to this method is that cutting in the afternoon requires one more man and team than when the cutting is done in the morning. The amount of hay cut down at any one time . should never be more than can be handled in one day; or, in other, words, the mower should be only one day ahead of the crew put- ting the hay into the barn. [604] » 60 HarvestTine THE Hay Crop ‘CS SI UGdVO'T AV], NAW A\ MAUD FIM ALALIESNOG sOg V GNV NaN OAT, ‘089 “SIN 606 GRassEs AND LEGUMINOUS CRops IN NEW YorK MACHINERY FOR EASTERN CONDITIONS Mower The size of mower needed should depend somewhat on the amount of hay to be cut per day. Roughly speaking, a five-foot mower will cut 10 acres per day of 10 hours; a six-foot mower will eut 12 acres, and a seven-foot mower, 14; or, in other words, a mower will cut two acres per lineal foot per day. This will vary somewhat, depending on the size of the team and the character of the ground, as well as on the yield and variety of grass. Fic. 631. Bringing IN Hay Witru A SWEEP-RAKE. THE HORSES DO ALL OF THE HrAvy WORK. When the five-foot mower is used, it is often necessary to employ a second mower at least part of the time in order to cut the a necessity that might be obviated by desired quantity per day the use of one seven- or eight-foot mower. Loaders The hay loader, Fig. 630, if properly used, saves time and gathers in the hay faster than pitching it on by hand. To attain the most efficient use of a loader, the men on the wagon should be pre- pared to work and work hard; this is not a lazy man’s job. Investi- Harvestine THE Hay Crop 607 gations have shown that when the farm owner works on the wagon, more hay will be handled per day than when hired help work alone, as is also true when the pitching is done by hand. If two men work together — one taking the hay from the loader, the other driving and placing the front corners— and change places every other load, the work is no harder than continuous hand pitching. Sweep-rake It is believed that the sweep-rake, Fig. 631, can be used advan- tageously under certain conditions. If hay is to be stacked in the field, the sweep-rake and stacker will be found to be the most Fic. 632. LoAbpING ONTO A WAGON BY HAND, ONE OF THE OLDEST AND Most EXPENSIVE METHODS IN Common USE. efficient implements for putting up hay. The sweep-rake may also be used to bring hay to the barn, provided the haul is not over a quarter of a mile, the ground is not too rough, and the barn has gable doors large enough to allow the use of the hay sling. CREW MANAGEMENT The season during which a good grade of tame hay can be harvested is short at best, and is often shortened by rainy weather 608 GRASSES AND LEGuMINOoUsS Crops 1n New York and other farm work. When the farmer has a chance to make hay, he should arrange his crew so that it will work to the very best advantage. There is a considerable difference in the quantity of hay that crews of the same size will put up ma day. A com- parison of two small two-man crews will illustrate this and show the value of the loader. Crew No. 1 Crew No. 1, Fig. 632, is composed of two men and four horses. After the first day, one man and team mows from nine until twelve, cutting down three acres, or four and a half tons. The other man starts tedding at eight o’clock and by noon has tedded and raked the hay that was cut the day before. In the afternoon, starting at one o’clock, both men begin hauling, one man pitching on the wagon with a hand fork and the other building the load. Both go to the barn and unload. The second team is used only to haul hay up into the mow in the afternoon. This crew will cut, ted, rake, and put into the barn three acres, or four and a half tons per day. Total man-hours, 17; horse-hours, 34; cost for labor (man-labor, $0.15, and horse-labor, $0.08, per hour), $1.17 per ton. Crew No. 2 Crew No. 2, Fig. 633, is composed of two men and four horses. By using a side-delivery rake and hay loader, they will cut, rake, and put into barn six acres, or nine tons per day. One man and team mows from seven-thirty until noon, cutting down six acres. The second man does not work in the hay in the forenoon. In the afternoon, one man rakes with the side-delivery rake while the other man puts on a load with the loader, the team needing no driver. By the time the first load is on the wagon, two loads have been raked. Both men go to the barn to unload, one working in the mow and the other sticking the fork and driving the team to hoist the hay. The team on the rake is left standing in the field while the hay is unloaded. Both men work on the wagon putting on the second load. The third and every other load there- after is put on by one man, the other raking. The men change places every other load. Total man-hours, 16.5; horse-hours, 33 ; cost per ton, $0.56. HArveEstTine THE Hay Crop 609 Tt will be noted that the man and horse-hours are practically the same for each crew, while the cost of labor is just about half when the loader is used. The main point to be remembered is that this is a short-handed crew, and both men work hard, doing more than the average crew. When there is plenty of help, this crew will consist of three men and one boy. One man rakes from one until three o’clock; two men load the hay, and the boy drives the team while the load is being put on. The man-hours (counting boy- labor as one-half a man’s labor) amounts to 22.5 hours and horse- labor to 27 hours per day, making the cost per ton for labor $0.61 per ton. Fic. 633. RAKING WITH~ SIDE-DELIVERY RAKE. A Goop IMPLEMENT TO Usk, aS LITTLE TIME IS Lost BY THE HAULING CREW WAITING FOR EnovuGH TO BE RAKED TO START HAULING. AS THE HAy IS LEFT IN AN ELEVATED WINDROW, IT Dries Mucu Faster THAN WHEN IN THE SWATH, oR WHEN RAKED WITH A DUMP RAKE. Crew No. 3 Crew No. 3 consists of three men and four horses. This is a very common method in the Central States and is recommended where the hay area is not over 60 acres. The hay is pitched on the wagon by hand. One man mows from 8:30 until noon; the second rakes from 9:30 until noon. The third man does not work in the forenoon, but can plow corn or do other farm work. In the afternoon two men pitch onto the wagon by hand, the third building the load. At the barn one man works in the mow, one on the wagon, and the third drives the team to hoist. This Il —20 610 GRassEs AND Lecuminovs Crops in New Yorx crew will put up six tons per day. ‘The objection to this method is that two men are idle while the wagon is being taken to and from the field; and, if the haul is more than a quarter of mile, cousiderable time will be lost. Labor cost for this method is $0.95 per ton. Crew No. 4 Crew No. 4 consists of three men and one boy. The method used is common for New York State. Two mowers run from 8:30 until noon. In the afternoon one man rakes with a side delivery rake, two men build the load, using a loader, and a boy drives the team. All three go to the barn to unload. This crew puts up eight acres, or twelve tons per day. Total man-hours per day are 27; horse-hours, 36; cost per ton, $0.57, from standing grass to hay put away in the barn. The cost of putting hay into the stack with the sweep and stacker, Fig. 634, is about the same as putting hay into the barn, using the loader, when the crew works hard and loses no time. The advantage of using the sweep and stacker is that nearly all of the hard work is done by horses, the only hand labor being that of building the stack. The systems used as illustrations are a little above the average. On most farms but little thought is given to using the crew to best advantage, and the above illustrations show that there is a great variation in the cost of making hay, depending largely on how the crew works. The United States Department of Agriculture has made an extensive study of crew management in hay-making throughout the eastern half of this country, and is prepared to furnish infor- mation in regard to crew management for all kinds of hay, and the advantage of using different kinds of hay machinery. It is impossible in this short article to do more than touch on the importance of the proper organization of labor in haying; the point I am trying to bring out is that each hay grower should study the conditions on his own farm and try to use his labor to best advantage. It will be found a very interesting study to draw diagrams of labor arrangements and find out the man and horse-hours per ton, Harvestine THE Hay Crop 611 G@ HAY INTO TIE STack WiTH SWEEP-RAKE AND STACKER PUTTIN MIG. 634. 612 GrassEs AND Lecuminovus Crops 1n New York total working hours, and quantity of hay made per day by different arrangements of the crew. Every farmer knows about how much hay his mower will cut per day or hour, also the quantity that can be raked, and that can be pitched on by hand, as well as the number of men necessary if hay is mowed in the morning or in the afternoon. Our investigations have shown that very little thought is given by the average hay grower to this important prob- lem, and it is usually only when there is a rush of farm work and a shortage of help that circumstances force a farmer here and there to work out an economical and efficient method for getting in his hay. Fig. 635. CurInc Hay UNDER Hay Caps. THIS IS THE SAFEST WAY TO MAKE Hay DuRING UNFAVORABLE WEATHER; BUT LABOR CosT IS Hian. The following illustrations show a very easy and simple method of plotting the hours of labor for a crew, and how, by a slight change in arrangement, the number of men in the crew may be reduced without reducing the quantity of hay put up per Harvesting THE Hay Crop 613 day. The first arrangement of the crew, consisting of five men and six horses, is as follows: Mower operated from 1:00 to 5:00 Pp. M. Rake operated from 1:00 to 3:30 Pp. M. Two men pitch and one man and team hauls in afternoon from 1:00 to 6:00. Hay harvested, six tons, or four acres, per day. By rearranging the work, only three men and four horses are used: Mower operated from 8:30 a. M. until noon. Rake operated from 9:30 a. m. until noon. Fic. 636. Untoapine Hay By HAND ONTO THE STACK. A SLOW AND Ex- PENSIVE METHOD SUITED ONLY TO A VERY SMALL ACREAGE. In the afternoon three men haul in the hay, putting in six tons, or four acres per day. Man-hours, 3.5, and team-hours, 2.66 per ton. Labor cost per ton, .$0.95. The objection to the first arrangement is that it requires a larger crew than the second arrangement; the mower stops at 5:00 o’clock, the rake at 3:30 vp. M., and as these two men are, 614 GRASSES AND LEGguMINoUs Crops In NEw York not needed to haul in hay they will have to find some other farm work for the balance of the afternoon. The second arrangement furnishes work for the balance of the day after each man begins. The mower is started after the dew is off, and the rake in time to get all raked by noon. The third man has the entire morning for plowing corn or for other work. Thus it will be seen that by rearrangement of the crew three men put away the same quantity of hay that five handie under the first arrangement. Fic. 637. Tur CHEAPEST AND QUICKEST WAY OF GETTING HAY INTO THE BALES. BALING IN THE FIELD USING SWEEP-RAKES TO BRING HAY TO THE PRESSES. Eprror’s Nore.— On large farms, where a number of men and teams are employed and much hay is made, the writer has found the following plan most economical: As soon as the dew is off, two teams mow until the requisite quantity is cut; the third team is put on the tedder (if the hay is heavy) on the previous day’s mowing, then on the side-delivery rake. ‘Two wagons are taken to the field as the teams go out, which are loaded in time to draw to the barn when the teams HARVESTING THE Hay Crop ' 615 return at noon. An extra man is frequently needed in the field to mow about the fences; he can assist in loading, thus keeping all of the teams busy. These loads are unloaded by the barn gang, which consists of two men, a boy, and a team, after dinner, while the field gang goes out and loads the first load. The hay is put on with a loader, two men being employed. A man (preferably the farmer, who can then keep things moving at both ends) takes the third wagon and team to the field, bringing back the first load to be unloaded by the gang at tke barn, return- ing to-the field with an empty wagon. Thus no time is lost run- ning back and forth. Our afternoon stunt is a load every twenty minutes. The three wagons may be left unloaded over night, allowing the barn gang to milk or do other chores, and affording work in the morning before the hay is fit to cut. One heavy horse will serve to unload the hay. The other, driven by a boy, may then be employed on a rake to clean up the scatterings. GRADES OF HAY AND STRAW * ApopTep BY THE Nationa Hay Association at RocHESTER, ING SuLYoT, sole WAY No. 1 Timothy Hay — Shall be timothy, with not more than one-eighth (14) mixed with clover or other tame grasses, may contain some brown blades, properly cured, good color, sound and well baled. No. 2 Timothy Hay —— Shall be timothy, not good enough for No. 1, not over one-fourth (14,) mixed with clover or other tame grasses, fair color, sound and well baled. . No. 8 Timothy Hay—Shall include all timothy not good enough for other grades, sound and reasonably well baled. Light Clover Mixed Hay — Shall be timothy mixed with clover. The clover mixture not over one-third (14), properly cured, sound, good color and well baled. No. 1 Clover Mixed Hay — Shall be timothy and clover mixed, with at least one-half (144) timothy, good color, sound and well baled. No. 2 Clover Mixed Hay — Shall be timothy and clover mixed, with at least one-fourth (14) timothy, reasonably sound and well baled. No. 1 Clover Hay —Shall be medium clover, not over one- twentieth (20) other grasses properly cured, sound and well baled. No. 2 Clover ay — Shall be clover, sound and reasonably well baled, not good enough for No. 1. Sample Hay — Shall be sound, reasonably well baled, mixed grasses, threshed, or hay not covered by other grades. No Grade Hay — Shall include all hay, musty, or in any way unsound. Alfalfa Choice Alfalfa — Shall be reasonably fine leafy. alfalfa of bright green color, properly cured, sound, sweet, and well baled. * Montgomery County Farm Bureau News, Vol. 2, No. 8, May, 1916, [616] GrapEs oF Hay anp Srraw 617 No. 1 Alfalfa — Shall be reasonably coarse alfalfa of a bright green color, or reasonably fine leafy alfalfa of a good color and may contain 2 per cent of foreign grasses; 5 per cent of air- bleached hay on outside of bale allowed, but must be sound and well baled. Standard Alfalfa — May be of green color, of coarse or medium texture, and may contain 5 per cent foreign matter; or it may be of green color, of coarse or medium texture, 20 per cent bleached and 2 per cent foreign matter; or it may be of greenish cast, of fine stem and clinging foliage, and may contain 5 per cent foreign matter. All to be sound, sweet and well baled. No. 2 Alfalfa—Shall be any sound, sweet, and well-cured alfalfa, not good enough for standard, and may contain 10 per cent foreign matter. | No. 3 Alfalfa— May contain 25 per cent stack-spotted hay but must be dry and not contain more than 8 per cent of foreign matter; or it may be of a green color and may contain 50 per cent of foreign matter; or it may be set alfalfa and may contain 5 per cent foreign matter. All to be reasonably well baled. No Grade Alfalfa — Shall include all alfalfa not good enough for No. 3. STRAW No. 1 Straight Rye Straw — Shall be in large bales, clean, bright, long rye straw, pressed in bundles, sound and well baled. No. 2 Straight Rye Straw — Shall be in large bales, long rye straw, pressed in bundles, sound and well baled, not good enough for No. 1. No. 1 Tangled Rye Straw —Shall be reasonably clean rye straw, good color, sound and well baled. No. 2 Tangled Rye Straw — Shall be reasonably clean, may be some stained, not good enough for No. 1. No. 1 Wheat Straw — Shall be reasonably clean wheat straw, sound and well baled. No. 2 Wheat Straw — Shall be reasonably clean; may be some stained, not good enough for No. 1. No. 1 Oat Straw — Shall be reasonably clean oat straw, sound and well baled. No. 2 Oat Straw — Shall be reasonably clean; may be some stained, not good enough for No. 1. REDTOP Lyman Carrier, Washington, D. C. Agronomist in Charge of Pasture Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture HISTORY The early history of redtop (Agrostis alba) is obscure. There are several reasons for this. The common name redtop was first applied in New England to Poa pratensis, now commonly known as June grass or Ken- tucky blue grass. Many of the early refer- ences were too indefinite to enable one to be sure just what species of grass were meant. Redtop is undoubtedly a native of Europe, but it‘did not interest agricultural writers previous to the beginning of the nineteenth century, either in Europe or America. It was probably introduced into the United States at a much earlier date than any references to it occur in literature. It was also confused quite generally with Rhode _ Island Bent, a much smaller and inferior hay plant. BOTANY The botanical classifications of the genus Agrostis, to which redtop belongs, has been badly confounded. ‘There are several species of Agrostis that differ considerably in habit of growth and general appearance, yet are nearly alike when the common botanical characters are compared. There are also wide varia- tions in each species, one species blending into another without a clear line of demarcation. . It is not surprising that much confusion has occurred in identi- fying these different species. Some botanists have classified as distinct species, plants which others consider as varieties of other species. It is impossible in all cases now to state what were the. plants to which the original names were applied. This is of [618] | | Rep Top | 619 | | | | | } Fic. 638. Hrap or RED Top. : 620 GRASSES AND LEGuMINOUS CRops In NEw YorK small importance provided all could agree on the use of one classi- fication. There are four of these grasses of some commercial importance. Three of these, Rhode Island Bent (Agrostis vul- garis), Creeping Bent (Agrostis stolonifera), and Velvet Bent (Agrostis canina), are valuable lawn grasses, but of little value for hay or grazing. Redtop (Agrostis alba) is the most valuable grass belonging to this group from the standpoint of a farm crop. Redtop is a perennial, with slender, erect, smooth stems, one to two feet high, arising from creeping rootstocks. The leaves are flat, narrow, and slightly rough, and two to three inches long. VALUE To many farmers redtop is considered a valuable grass, while others look on it as worthless and in some cases as a pest. It may be well to look at the good qualities of the plant first, and then take up its objectionable features. Redtop will grow on a great variety of soils and under a wide range of climatic conditions. It is the best wet land grass among the economic species. Lands that are too wet for redtop are hopeless as far as growing tame hay is concerned. On the other hand, redtop is often used to cover banks and terraces that are too dry for blue grass and most other lawn grasses. It has considerable value as a sand binder and is often used for that purpose. Redtop grows in every state of the Union, but is of greatest value in the eastern half of the United States. It survives the coldest winters of the northern states and the hottest summers of the South, provided conditions of moisture are favorable. As previously stated, it is not very particular in regard to moisture conditions. Add to these qualifications the facts that it will thrive on soils so sour that timothy and red clover fail; that it makes a fair yield; that it makes good pasture and will with- stand heavy trampling; and that it lasts for many years when once seeded: it is then easy to see that there is a place for redtop in American agriculture, and that it is worthy of careful con- sideration. The chief objections to redtop are that it makes a smaller yield of hay than timothy or clover; that the hay is wiry and not Rep Top 621 especially palatable to stock; and that it may become under favor- able conditions a weed pest in cultivated fields. Hay buyers objeet to redtop in timothy hay, and, as it will volunteer for many years when once established on a farm, it may in some cases become quite troublesome. It will add somewhat to the total yield of hay produced when combined with clover and timothy. At the Virginia experiment station redtop alone yielded at the rate of 3,307 pounds per acre; timothy, 3,857 pounds; timothy and redtop, 4,460 pounds; and timothy, redtop, and clover, 5,440 pounds. (Bull. 198, Virginia Exp. Sta.) An addition of redtop to the hay mixture is probably advisable in all cases under New York State conditions, except where the farmer is producing a fancy grade of timothy for market. CULTURE In most cases redtop should not be seeded alone. It may be combined with meadow fescue and alsike clover for wet lands, and with timothy and red clover for those that are better drained. The seed is very small and if not over two years old usually ger- minates well. A less amount of seed of redtop is needed per acre than is required of timothy or clover. Three or four pounds of good redtop seed per acre are usually sufficient when seeding in mixture and twice those amounts will do where it is seeded alone. The seeding may be done at any time when it is safe to seed timothy. A common practice is to mix the redtop with the timothy seed and sow along with wheat in the fall, or with oats in the spring. A stand may be obtained with a greater degree of certainty by preparing a fine, mellow seed bed and seeding the grass about the middle of August without a grain crop. In that case the clover may be seeded with the grass instead of waiting until early spring, as is commonly practiced. In conclusion it may be stated that redtop is recommended for soils needing lime, for wet soils, for holding banks and terraces, and in hay mixtures under general farm conditions, ORCHARD GRASS C. b. Hurcutson, Columbia, Missouri Professor of Farm Crops, University of Missouri Orchard grass, Dactylis glomerata, is native throughout most of Europe and portions of central Asia and northern Africa. There are a number of culti- vated species, but the common form is the cnly one that has come to be of economic importance. Just when it was brought to this country is not definitely known, but probably in early colonial times, as it was cultivated in Virginia before 1760. Like timothy, orchard grass was first cultivated in America, and its culture in Europe did not become important until long after it was well known here. At the present time, it is of relatively more importance in Europe than in this country. - DESCRIPTION Orchard grass is commonly known in England and. New Zealand as “ Cocksfoot,’” because of a fancied resemblance of its spreading. one-sided panicle to a cock’s foot, a character that is very distinet and which makes the grass easily recognized. It grows in bunches or tussocks, producing few stolons and spreading very little. It does not form a dense sod as does blue grass or redtop. For this reason it is not suitable for seeding alone for hay or pasture, but it is usually sown in mixtures with other grasses or with clovers. It is one of the earliest grasses to start in spring and continues its growth until very late in the fall. It is also able to grow during the hot, dry weather of midsummer in the southern and western part of the blue-grass belt, thus excelling blue grass as a midsummer pasture grass in those regions. It grows well in shaded places and makes a desirable grass for woods pasture. [622 OrcHARD GRASS 623 Orchard grass furnishes abundant forage and, if harvested promptly after full bloom, makes a very palatable hay. The stems become rather coarse and woody, however, as they mature, and unless cut at the proper time it makes a rather coarse hay. A heavy leaf growth is made near the ground, and, when the stems are kept down by close cropping or frequent clipping, an abund- ance of nutritious herbage for pasture is produced. CLIMATIC AND SOIL ADAPTATIONS Orchard grass will grow farther south and in warmer and drier regions than will timothy and blue grass. It is more easily injured by winter freezing and late frosts than either of these grasses and is most useful in those regions toward the south of the timothy and blue-grass belt. Its ability to grow well on dry hill lands makes it of especial value in those regions where timothy and blue grass are liable to be destroyed by the hot, dry weather of mid- summer. In the cooler regions, particularly in the North Atlantic and New England states, it is not regarded as valuable as timothy for hay or as blue grass for pasture, although it may be used profit- ably in mixtures with these grasses. It is cultivated most extensively in the United States along the southern border of the timothy region, particularly in Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, southern Missouri, and northern Arkansas. This distribution is apparently due to competition with timothy and blue grass. ‘Toward the north of this region timothy and blue grass are better than orchard grass, but here the summers are too hot and dry for timothy and blue grass to succeed well. In fact, in these regions timothy is usually confined to the better and more moist valley and bottom lands, while orchard grass replaces it on the higher and drier lands. Orchard grass has rather wide soil adaptations, growing well on fairly sandy soils to heavy clays. While it prefers a moderate amount of moisture, it is one of the best grasses for thin, dry, and stony lands. This characteristic makes it well suited for both hay and pasture on the dry hill lands of the Virginias, Kentucky, Tennessee, and southern Missouri. In direct contrast with its adaptation to dry hill lands is its ability to grow in cool, wet, G24 GRASSES AND LEGumMiINous Crops In New York shady places and on bottom lands subject to overflow. It is appar- ently better able to withstand overflows than is timothy, and fully as able as redtop or blue grass. METHODS OF CULTURE Seeding Orchard grass is very slow in starting and, until it is well estab- lished, is easily injured by frosts and winter freezing. For this reason it is best seeded in spring. Toward the south it may be seeded in the fall with wheat or rye, but the usual practice is to delay seeding until the following February or March. It is seeded both alone and in mixtures of grasses and clovers.. In the seed- growing regions it is usually seeded alone at the rate of one bushel or fourteen pounds of seed to the acre. Where it is grown for hay, a heavier rate of seeding is employed — twenty to twenty-five pounds — but the thinner rate is better for seed production. The seed is very chaffy and light and does not readily feed through an ordinary drill. It is, therefore, usually sown broadeast with a wheelbarrow or other seeder and covered shallow with a light harrowing. Orchard grass is also sown in spring with oats or barley as a nurse crop. In this case the oats or barley should be drilled in on a well-prepared seedbed and the orchard grass seeded later, usually without covering the seed. Care should always be taken not to cover the seed too deeply, as this interferes seriously with germination and may result in a poor stand. Wheat or rye are better nurse crops for orchard grass than oats or barley, except in the more northern sections, as they mature earlier, and the shade that the crop causes is removed before the hot, dry weather of midsummer comes on. If allowed to mature grain, oats and barley usually dry the soil out more than wheat or rye, and the grass plants suffer from a lack of moisture, especially in dry regions. If seeded thinly, however, and cut early for hay when the grain is in the soft dough stage, they make very satisfactory nurse crops. Orchard grass is sometimes seeded alone on a specially prepared seedbed without a nurse crop, but when this is done weeds some- times come in before the slow-growing grass becomes well estab- OrcHARD GRASS 625 lished and smothers it. In dry seasons and on thin lands, however, better stands may usually be had by seeding alone than by using a nurse crop. If seeded alone, a light cutting of hay is usually secured the first year, but if a nurse crop is used, the grass is not cut until the following year. Mixtures for Hay On account of its bunching habit of growth, orchard grass is seldom seeded alone except where grown for seed. Even in the seed-producing sections it is sometimes seeded with red or alsike clover. The latter is perhaps best, since is does not grow so tall, and the orchard grass can be cut above the alsike, leaving the stubble and most of the leaves of the grass with the alsike for pasture or hay. Red clover, however, grows so tall that much of it is cut with the orchard grass and the presence of the leaves: in the seed is objectionable. If red clover is used with orchard grass, the first crop is frequently cut for hay and the second crop for seed. In subsequent years the red clover largely disappears, and either crop may be cut for seed without difficulty. Toward the southern part of the timothy region, orchard grass frequently replaces timothy for hay. Here, a mixture of twenty pounds of orchard grass and eight or ten pounds of red or mam- moth clover will make an excellent meadow; usually two cuttings may be had and both are used for hay. In those sections of the East where the practice of using general mixtures of clovers and grasses for hay is more common than in the Central West, orchard grass should be included in such mix- tures. A mixture of ten pounds of orchard grass, six pounds of timothy, four pounds of redtop, five pounds of red clover, and three pounds of alsike clover to the acre will make an excellent meadow. Tall meadow oat grass and meadow fescue also are sometimes mixed with orchard grass. A mixture of such grasses not only improves the palatability of the hay, but also increases the yield over seeding any one grass alone. The practice of mixing grasses both for meadow and for pasture is much more common in Europe than in this country, but it is gaining in importance here. 626 GRASSES AND Lecuminous Crops In New York Mixtures for Pasture For pasture, a mixture of eight pounds of orchard grass, ten pounds of blue grass, four pounds of timothy, three pounds of redtop, two pounds of red clover, and a pound each of alsike and white clover will give good results, especially on lands in the northeastern United States where the rainfall is abundant. On thin, dry, stony lands the proportion of orchard grass in such a mixture should be increased and the blue grass decreased, since orchard grass will withstand droughty conditions much better than blue grass. In these mixtures orchard grass will not become prominent for two or three years, as its development is very slow as ecmpared with other grasses. The quicker growing grasses and clovers in such mixtures will furnish most of the pasture for the first year or two. Orchard grass, however, is a long-lived and persistent grass, and ultimately under favorable conditions will dominate and furnish the bulk of the permanent pasturage. Seed If it is grown for seed, it is usually seeded alone; or, if mixed with clover, the first crop is made into hay and the following crops used for seed. It is harvested with a binder set to cut the grass high so as to leave as much of the leaf growth on the ground as possible and to escape the low-growing weeds or clover. The remaining growth may then be pastured off or cut later for hay. The bundles are set up in small shocks and after curing are threshed with an ordinary grain thresher, equipped with special riddles and using little air. Yields of twelve to fifteen bushels to the acre are usually obtained. HAY Most farmers in the timothy region prefer timothy to orchard grass for hay. Its chemical analysis shows it to be about equal to timothy in feeding value, but in practice timothy usually makes a better hay. This is doubtless due to the fact that orchard grass loses its palatability rapidly as it matures. Unless cut within a very short time after bloom, it makes a coarse, woody hay. If, on the other hand, it is cut at the proper time, an excellent hay can be made. There is, however, little market OrcuarpD GRAss 627 demand for it, and this is doubtless an important reason why farmers have not made more use ot it. VALUE OF CROP Orchard grass does not seem to be able to compete with timothy as a hay crop in the main part of the timothy region. It has no advantages over timothy and apparently several disadvantages. In this region, its chief value is in mixtures of various grasses and clovers for hay. Toward the south of the timothy region, it may take the place of timothy or supplement it in mixtures and thus inerease the yield and improve the quality of the hay crop in those regions. It has a much more important place in general mixtures for pastures than for hay. In the South its value as a pasture grass on the dry, stony, hill lands is especially great. In the North, its ability to grow in cool weather, and also during the midsummer months when the growth of blue grass slackens, will enable it to increase the pasture throughout the season materially. THE BLUE GRASSES IN NEW YORK STATE O. W. Dynes, Ithaca, N. Y. Instructor in Farm Crops, New York State College of Agriculture Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis) and Canada blue grass (Poa compressa) are among the most valuable grasses in New York State. The first named has long been recognized as the premier pasture and lawn grass of the northern United States. Farmers in New York have been slow to recognize its value, partly due to the fact that this grass does best in soils of high lime content and many of the soils of this state are deficient in lime. How- ever, it is safe to assume that very few localities in the state show the absence of either of these blue grasses. The object of this article is to point out their value to the farmers of the state, together with some of their characteristics and easy methods of identification. KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS Synonyms of Kentucky blue grass are blue grass, June grass, green grass, spear grass, and smooth-stalked meadow grass. Description The culms are erect and from one to three feet in height. The stems are round, smooth, finer than timothy or orchard grass, and of a dark green color. The leaf sheath has a short, obtuse ligule and the leaf has a round, concave tip. The inflorescence shows as an open, spreading, pyramidal panicle with three- to five-flowered spikelets. The rough outer glumes are shorter than the awnless keeled lemma, and the rachilla is usually hairy or pubescent. When fully headed, the panicle of Kentucky blue grass shows varying shades of color from green to purple. The seed is firmly enclosed in the lemma and palea and does not come free at the time of threshing. A good pasture grass must be a turf-forming grass and should be able to reproduce itself vegetatively as well as by its seed. The 1628] Tuer Briur Grasses In New York STATE 629 blue grasses are strongly stoloniferous; that is, they send out rhi- zomes or underground stems which reproduce new culms or plants, which in turn send out their roots into the soil. This type of grass may be pastured closely and never reseed itself; yet, under favorable conditions, it will live indefinitely. These rhizomes are difficult to eradicate, especially in the heavier soils. In general, Kentucky blue grass is not a deep-rooted plant and it suffers in protracted periods of dry, hot weather. Adaptation This grass reaches its best development on fertile, well-drained limestone soils. Soils that have grown hardwood forests seem adapted to its growth. It grows better on clay and clay loams than on sandy soils. Much of the land in New York State is too acid for the best growth of Kentucky blue grass, and its shallow roots cause it to be readily affected by a lack of moisture, espe- elally during July and August. Seeding Kentucky blue grass seed comes chiefly from a limited area near Lexington, Kentucky. Because of the methods of harvesting, the germinating quality of the seed is often low, the usual stand- ard of germination being only about 50 per cent. The purity of the seed, however, is usually good, the most common adulterant being seed of Canada blue. This grass should not be planted alone for permanent pasture, because of its slowness in starting. When twenty-five years old, pastures of Kentucky blue grass are more efficient than when only five years old. As it forms a sod slowly, for the first two or three yeays it is necessary to grow with it the more rapidly growing, shorter-lived grasses and clovers. It may be seeded in a mixture in late summer or early fall, alone, or with a nurse crop of wheat or rye. Spring seeding is often resorted to, using oats or barley as a nurse crop. In this,case, however, a light seeding of the nurse crop should be made to prevent the coarser-growing annuals from choking out the more delicate grass and clover plants. 630 ‘GrRrassEs AND LeaumiInous Crops In New York A permanent pasture mixture for good land in New York State in which Kentucky blue grass will in time become the dominant grass is as follows: Pounds per acre TINO LAY ese asso Ba Bret c bela d 2 oo Sig Re Ne cle eee oe ee 10 iendncky lie ce et Pipe eee Ack cae Bo esis oak es ae 4 Mesdopadescie 6 hae Sghic oe Uwe St ee urea tae 2 Orchard Oras ii. cessash > Pipes ys arc ete ey Ciel ons Rana 2 ed HClO OT os 2, Lewes SoNol one Ba cei ais ERA ae nea 6 Wyihite telovier.; ABA ue ie deseo) ace, Resets eee eat h 2 1 STKE AClOVET ya. AiG jos bachin cre sereer tiers Ci ah eee eRe Ce 2 27 This mixture will not only give immediate results but will improve ‘with age. or the first two or three years timothy, orchard grass, and red and alsike clover will furnish the main part of the pasturage. The hlue grass, meadow fescue, and white clover will gradually become dominant. Finally, after seven or eight years, the blue grasses will form the chief element in the pasture. As a Lawn Grass Kentucky blue grass is the favorite lawn grass for the northern states. A complex mixture is not desirable for lawns and no coarse, Semipermanent grass should be added. A mixture of three parts by weight of Kentucky blue grass and one part of white clover is commonly used. Heavy seeding is advisable. The soil should have garden bed tilth, and a nurse crop is not to be recom- mended. On very poor soils it may be necessary to mix Canada blue or redtop with the seed. Fall seeding is preferable to any other period of the year. Summary Summarized briefly, the advantages of Kentucky blue grass are as follows: It starts growth early in the spring and grows late in the fall. It is very nutritious and palatable for all classes of live stock. A compact sod is formed, which stands trampling well and may be grazed closely without injury. Close, continued clipping on lawns improves the stand. _ Tuer Buiur Grasses In New York State 631 Kentucky blue grass has some weaknesses as a forage plant, however, and these should be recognized. Commercial seed is usually low in germinating power. It will not grow well on acid soil, and even under good soil conditions takes possession of the ground slowly. During protracted dry weather in July and August, growth is likely to be seriously checked; and in regions where such droughts are common the pasture must be supple- mented with some other form of forage. CANADA BLUE GRASS As compared with Kentucky blue this grass is characterized by a greenish blue color; shorter, flattened culms with nearly sold, zigzag stems; short, narrow panicles with three to nine seeds to a spikelet. Seed differences are microscopical. Kentucky blue has a more pointed lemma and is usually fivenerved, while Canada blue has a shorter seed and the nerves have a tendency to be mar- ginal. Canada blue grass is generally looked upon in New York State as complementary to Kentucky blue grass. On poor, strongly acid, or extremely dry soils it may be grown to the exclusion of Kentucky blue. On fertile soils of high hme content it should not be sown. There are large areas, however, where a mixture of the two is not only profitable but desirable. Like Kentucky blue, it should be sown in a mixture of other grasses and clovers. The following combination will be found desirable for the poorer lands of New York State: Pounds per acre “LEDSEIS Lap ele maroc oper nein of Seas coma Be they Aaa et 10 REO COs ek ose vn eA settee Re, 1 ackha, «io, cid ad Wa 6 pad ara Olile rade prrt ae ee gk Ne yoo (ds ata ein, 5 os AONE ets 4 IST cle (I GST ES awe PER ce ARE RL DL es a An BO 4. White clover ...... PN FRU SB AE. eye aay NPD irl SEN SIRS. 2 26 Within a few years the chief herbage on land sown to this mix- ture will be redtop and Canada blue grass. THE MILLETS — THEIR CULTURE AND UTILIZATION IN NEW YORK H. N. Vinay, Washington, D. C. Agronomist, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture The term millet commonly refers to those annual grasses, other than corn, sorghum, rice, and the small grains, which are cultivated for their edible seeds or for forage purposes. In New York the millets are considered almost entirely as forage crops and the acreage harvested for seed is negligible, not being sufficient in most cases to supply enough seed for the following year’s sowing. Much of the millet seed used in New York is produced in the states farther south and west. In Asia and certain parts of Europe, especially Russia, the millets are grown almost entirely as grain crops, and in some of these countries they make up a considerable percentage of the food consumed by the people. Only the proso, or broom-corn millet, is looked on as a grain crop in the United States, and it is not grown to any extent in New York. Those grasses that are usually classed as millets are listed below with their common and botanical names: Common names* Botanical names* iBoxtailtmilletc se aeente sents cities Chaetochloa italica (L.) Scribner talianimillet {pete See eee ee Setaria italica Beauv. PLOSOW EAs ee LEER E ee ee iIBroom-cornemilletee sae eee ee eae Pani li L Hog allots Ae ek ee cone Aba ge tt es ait xe Ussian millet © ae Meee tee Barnyard milletay peice ee en ae nee Japaneseumilleheme eee ee es Echinochloa frumentacea (Roxb.) Link. Samwanmilletuceys. 52) weeeare. Sera Panicum frumentaceum Roxb. Penicillanay cs sce Seem tee Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. Pennisetum typhoideum Rich. Tuer MILuets 63: Common names* Botanical names* LOI cece OCI era Lae aan wa Hin eer millet werd) =, eerie ve a eee ees Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. CCOTACH Ta cticisia eran fetna ch rete lean Shama millet RE See ates tie ste \ efencerinalcatonn (li) Link: RIAITIPIO RICE teeters: sates che os ahh cite ae ee: Mex asemilletre patter reir eiersl cb: esta \ Pan Eee Buck: Woloradoyerass sss misc oeiet on seas J Krbkajmilletee sels teem (aks a ato bate Panicum psilopodium Trin. Kodarmitletiqnn... Scho ona ae ean fies Paspalum scrobiculatum L. Hittlermilleterye tis wo ees eae Panicum miliare Lamarck * In the case of synonyms the preferable name is given first, both in the common and botanical names. Only the first four are of any importance in the United States. The Texas millet, or Colorado grass, is cultivated sparingly in Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado, and the ragi, or finger millet, is of some importance in India and northern Africa ; but the others, Shama, Kutki, Koda, and Little millet, are grown only as famine crops in India, and are not valued in other countries where better crop plants are available. The sorghums are referred to in India, Korea, and certain parts of China as “ giant millet,” or “ tall millet,” but fortunately this practice has not spread to the United States. The foxtail millets are the only ones that are of any importance in New York, and it is only this group, therefore, that will be discussed in detail. FOXTAIL MILLETS The foxtail millets are among the oldest of cultivated crops, their cultivation being recorded in China as early as 2700 8B. oc. They are supposed to be natives of ‘southeastern Asia and to have spread from there westward to Europe. In the United States they are grown very largely as catch crops, and are suited to a wide range of climates and soil. (Fig. 639.) The quality of hay pro- duced is rather inferior, especially if allowed to become too ripe before it is cut. It is both laxative and diuretic, especially in its effect on horses, and when fed continuously frequently produces GrassEs anpD Lecuminous Crops in New YorK 634 Tue Miuets 635 deleterious results. It is also reported to produce physiological disturbances when fed continuously to lambs, but in the case of cattle and sheep such effects are apparently not serious. These millets have a comparatively low water requirement, but cannot endure long periods of drought, probably because of their rather shallow root system. They are much grown in the semiarid regions, and their ability to make a crop in such localities seems largely due to their short season of growth, which often allows them to escape dry spells. Foxtail millet is said to be “ hard on the soil,” and the following crop, especially if it is small grain, will in most cases be less productive than if grown following corn or the small grains. This effect arises largely from the fact that millet has an inten- sive root system and feeds very heavily on the upper eight or twelve inches of soil, leaving the supply of available plant food and moisture greatly depleted in this area. Only the more prominent varieties are described in this article. Several of these are so closely related that it is im- possible to distin- guish between them by an examination of the seed alone, but when the crop is ex- amined in the field the differences be- ° 4s Fic, 640.— SINGLE PLANT OF COMMON tween the varieties winerent are apparent. 636 GrassEs AND LequmMinous Crops 1n New York Common Millet This variety is the best known, and perhaps the most widely grown, of any of the foxtail millets. It is fine-stemmed and leafy with a close, compact head tapering slightly towards the upper end, the lower part of the head usually being looser than the middle and upper part. (Fig. 640.) The individual seed is yellow to straw-color, oval to elliptical in outline, and flattened on one side. Common millet is characterized by a short season of growth, being one of the earliest of the foxtail millets. Tests in the central states show that under average conditions it can be cut 69 days after the date when sown, and in many eases only 50 days are required for it to mature sufliciently for hay. Under favorable conditions it produces from one to two tons of hay per acre, and this hay is of first-class quality on account of the slender stem and abundant leaves. California and Gold-mine Millets The California and Gold-mine millets are leafy, heavy-yielding varieties that are closely related to common millet. Neither. of these varieties is very well known, but the Gold-mine especially deserves a wider utilization and should be planted by farmers in preference to common millet in sections where its seed is available. German Millet Several writers have confused this variety with the Hungarian millet, which came to the United States under the technical name of Panicum germanicum and was locally grown for several years as “German millet.” German millet, on the other hand, was known in early days as “‘ Bengal grass,” but just how this name originated cannot be determined. German millet first became important in the central valley of Tennessee, and this locality has continued to be the center of its distribution, many farmers in the vicinity of Franklin, Tenn., making a specialty of the pro- duction of German millet seed. This variety has almost entirely supplanted other-foxtail millets in the southern states, and besides is perhaps the principal millet in the central states, since it is handled by more seedsmen than any other variety. In many places where it is grown, the season is not long enough to mature a seed Tur MILuets 637 crop, but it does become sufficiently mature for hay and makes larger yields than the earlier kinds. German millet has heavy stems with broad leaves and a dis- tinctly lobed head, nearly twice the diameter of that of common millet, but only slightly longer and not so compact. (Fig. 641.) The individual seeds are smaller and more nearly round in outline, Fic. 641.—A SINGLE PLANT OF GERMAN MILLET. and the surface is rougher and does not have the shiny appearance ‘that is characteristic of the seed of common millet. Considerable difficulty is encountered in distinguishing between the seed of these two varieties. This diffieulty is partly due to the frequency with which the two varieties are found mixed, and the fact that 638 Grasses AND Leauminous Crops In New York no recognized type of seed has been described and established for German millet. German millet is a long-season variety, requiring on the average about 87 days, although under favorable conditions 65 days are sufticient for a hay crop. The hay yield is larger than that of common millet, but the quality of the hay is not so good. Golden Wonder Millet This variety has a heavy stem and broad leaves very much like those of the German millet, but the head, although distinctly lobed, is more compact, longer, and more slender than that of the latter variety, and the bristles are so short as to be scarcely notice- able. It makes good yields of both forage and seed, and for a time was widely advertised as a new millet of very desirable qualities, but it was found to be more easily harmed by dry weather than other well- known varieties. This, together with the difficulty of obtaining reliable seed of it, has prevented its wide utilization. Hungarian Millet Hungarian millet is characterized by its slen- der stems and small, com- pact head, which in size and shape very closely re- sembles that of common millet. (Fig. 642.) The bristles, | however, are usually purple in color, which, with the intermix- ture of dark-colored seeds, give the head a darker ap- pearance than that of com- mon millet. The indi- vidual seeds are perhaps a Fic. 642.—A SINGLE PLANT OF HUN- ; GARIAN MILLET. trifle smaller, but have the Tur MILuets same oval to elliptical outline as those of the common millet. The color of the seed varies from pale yellow to dark purple, seeds of both colors being found in one head, but the colors are not mixed in a single seed. The season of maturity is about the same as that of the common, averaging 69 days in the central states, but it will mature for hay in 54 days when soil and climatic conditions are right. Hungarian millet is not so well adapted to the dry climates as is common millet, and the yield in such localities ts likely to be small, but in the eastern states, where rainfall is greater, Hungarian millet does well and is rather widely grown. The quality of the hay is first-class, and chemical analyses seem to indicate a slightly higher protein value for it than for the hay of other millets. The main objection to Hun- garian millet in_ the humid regions has been its tendency to volunteer and persist on the ground whenever it was allowed to produce seed. Siberian Mullet This variety was ob- tained from Russia about 1895, and was handled by the seed trade under this name for many years be- fore the other two orange- seeded varieties, Kursk and Turkestan, were in- troduced by the United States Department of Agriculture. Siberian mil- Jet is a hardy and drought- Fic. 643.—A SINGLE PLANT OF SIBERIAN MILLET. resistant type suited to Minnesota, the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, western Nebraska, and western Kansas. In 639 640 GRASSES AND LeaumMinovus Crops 1n New York habit of growth and vegetative characters generally it is similar to common millet, but is a trifle more vigorous and the head is somewhat larger. (Fig. 643.) The seeds, although usually similar in shape to those of common millet, are a pale orange in color, and this character provides an easy method of identifying the Siberian millet when seed is being purchased. The season of growth is slightly longer than that of common millet, and the vield is somewhat larger, the hay being about the same as that of common millet in quality and feeding value. Kursk Millet This is a selected variety of the Siberian group of millets, which was introduced by the United States Department of Agriculture and has been bred in South Dakota for earliness, drought resistance, hardiness, and uniformity... It was given the name “ Kursk” from the province of Russia where it was obtained. It is a depend- able millet for the dry situations and is adapted to the same region as the Siberian variety. SEEDING AND HARVESTING Recommendations in regard to seeding, harvesting, and feeding apply to all the varieties in this group. Seeding The short season of growth permits considerable latitude in respect to the time of seeding. Millet should not be sown, how- ever, until the ground is warm. This means, ordinarily, about two or three weeks after corn-planting time, which in New York would place the earliest planting from about May 20 to 30. It can be sown any time between this date and August 1; the last seeding, however, should allow 60 to 70 days of growing season before the normal date of the first killing frost, which in central New York is October 15. The seed bed for millet should be prepared by plowing and repeated harrowing. It can be seeded on cornstalk ground, but Tue MiILiets 641 the best results are obtained by seeding on spring plowing, espe- cially if care is used to level and compact the seed bed. Millet can be sown broadeast and harrowed in or planted with a grain drill. When good seed is used, 20 to 25 pounds an acre is sufficient. It is‘often possible to grow a crop of millet after another crop, such as oats, barley, or wheat, has been removed from the land. In such cases the ground may be prepared for seeding by disking, but plowing is preferable. Such double cropping, however, is not good practice, since it is hard on the land, both crops being surface feeders to a large extent. One feature that should be borne in mind is to have the ground level after seeding, so that clods and other rough places will not interfere with the mowing machine. This smoothing may be accomplished by rolling or planking the field after it is seeded. Harvesting The foxtail millets cure easily and are handled in the same way as any other hay crop. If the hay is designed for general use — namely, for feeding both cattle and horses — it should be cut just after blooming; if it is intended for cattle or sheep exclusively, it may be allowed to become somewhat more mature and can then be cut when the seed is in the late milk stage. If a seed crop is the object, the millet should be allowed to stand until seed can be shelled from the earlier heads by rubbing them in the hand. When it has attained this degree of ripeness, it is best har- vested with a grain binder, placed in shocks like bundle grain, and thrashed in the same way. In some sections where millet is being grown for seed the farmers plant it in rows sufficiently far apart to cultivate. This practice gives an especially good quality of seed, but, of course, requires more labor. FEEDING VALUE OF THE HAY Millet hay is usually considered inferior to that of timothy and some of the other tame grasses. To some extent, this is due to its lesser palatability, but also to the injurious effect that it often has on horses when fed continuously as the sole roughage. Il— 21 642 GRASSES AND Lreguminous Crors 1xn New Yorr Chemical analyses show that millet compares favorably in digestible nutrients with timothy and Johnson grass. The follow- ing analyses are taken from Henry and Morrison’s Feeds and Feeding: TABLE [ DiGEsTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN 100 Pounps oF THE Dry Matter oF MILuet, Trmortuy, AND JOHNSON GRASS CRUDE CARBO- Crop PROTEIN | HYDRATES Fat Toran Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds SS cEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEET | Mie tes oor kun as Spe sartacee a eee ee 5.0 46.0 1.8 55.0 pb O thy, hep este ee eye cae 320) 42.8 i 48.5 Johnsonienass eee eee cnet te 2.9 45.0 1.0 50.1 The Connecticut (Storrs) Experiment Station found Hun- garian millet inferior to red clover hay when it was fed to dairy cows. Not only the amount of milk, but the percentage of butter fat, was increased by a change from millet to red clover hay. The general opinion among feeders is that millet hay is some- what more effective than prairie hay as a roughage for growing stock, especially cattle and sheep, but inferior to alfalfa or clover hay. The injurious effect of a continuous ration of millet hay on horses was studied in 1896 by Dr. T. D. Hinebauch* of the North Dakota Experiment Station. He found that when a horse was fed millet exclusively as a roughage for any considerable period, a general debility was evident which later developed into a soft- ening of the bones and inability to stand. Cessation of the use of the millet hay resulted almost immediately in improvement in the condition of the horse, while a resumption of the millet feeding was followed by a relapse. Dr. E. F. Ladd later found that the injury was caused by a glucoside called setarian, whieh is present in millet hay whether mature or not. The belief is general that millet cut before seed has formed is much less injurious to horses, but the North Dakota experiments * Hinebauch, T. D. North Dakota Experiment Station, Bulle+in No. 26, November, 1896. Tuer MI.Luets 643: showed that cutting it before the seed has formed will not prevent injury. This injurious effect is noted first as producing an _ Inereased action of the kidneys; secondly, in causing lameness and swelling of the joints; thirdly, in producing infusion of blood into the joints; and, fourthly, in destroying the texture of the bone, rendering it softer and less tenacious so that the ligaments are often torn loose from the bone and the bones themselves break easily. These results were verified by a post-mortem examination of two horses that had been fed millet as their sole roughage, and ean scarcely be subject to doubt, even though many newspaper articles deny that there is any danger in feeding millet hay to horses. When fed sparingly in connection with other kinds of hay, there is little danger of injury and it can be used in this way with good effect to augment a roughage ration for horses. USE AS A GRAIN CROP Foxtaii millet has never been utilized to any great extent as a grain crop in the United States; and so long as corn and the small grains can be produced successfully in New York there will be little of the proso, or broom-corn millet, grown in the state, and almost none of the foxtail millet that is grown there will be har- vested for grain purposes. In hog-feeding experiments, the South Dakota Experiment Station found that it required about 8 per cent more proso than it did barley to produce a pound of gain, and from this basis it would be about 16 per cent less efficient than corn as a hog feed. For feeding steers it required 37 per cent more millet than corn to produce a pound of gain, 29 per cent more than oats, and 22 per cent more than spelt. Other trials indicated that the seed of the foxtail millets was practically equal to that of proso in value when both were crushed before feeding. The seed of millet should always be crushed before feeding to animals other than poultry or birds, otherwise much of it passes through undi- gested. Large quantities of millet seed are used as chicken feed and in prepared bird-feeds. Both foxtail and proso can be used very effectively in this way without grinding. An analysis of one pre- pared bird seed showed about 50 per cent to be common millet seed, which was the cheapest of all the constituents. 644 GRASSES AND LEGUMINOUS Crops In NEw York The legal weight per bushel for seed of the foxtail millets is 50 pounds in most states, and well-cleaned seed will weigh between 45 and 50 pounds to the bushel very consistently. USE AS A PASTURE Most of the millets are not suitable for pasture purposes, and this is especially true of the foxtail varieties. The main difficulty lies in the shallow root system, which allows the plants to be pulled up very easily. Another weakness of millet as a pasture plant is that it does not renew its growth very quickly after being cropped off; the common and Hungarian varieties are best in this respect. It is not to be recommended, therefore, as a pasture plant except to supply a limited amount of pasture in an emergency to young stock, such as calves or colts, and even for such animals some other annual hay plant might be used to much better advan- tage. Winter rye or spring oats will furnish more and better pasture than will millet. VALUE OF MILLET IN ROTATIONS Being annual crops, the millets can be used in almost any rotation where a spring-sown crop is required. Most farmers who have grown millet believe it to be rather exhaustive on soil fertility. It has been proved that no more plant food is removed from the soil by millet than by other crops, where a like tonnage of hay was produced. It is more likely that the effect on the following crop comes through the rapid depletion of available plant food and moisture in the upper six or eight inches of soil. Another way in which millet might have a bad effect on the following crop is because of the slight amount of vegetable matter which is left on the soil by a crop of millet which has been harvested for hay. Considering all of these points, it is likely that there is some foundation for the belief that a crop following millet will be less than one that follows a crop of small grain or corn, even though these other crops are not classed as -soil builders. Mullet can not be recommended, therefore, as a regular constituent in any rotation. Tue MILuets 645 USE OF FERTILIZERS ON MILLET Fertilizer tests with millet have given conflicting results, as they have with most other crops. It has been found, however, that a nitrate fertilizer is more likely to be profitable than either phosphate or potash. The crop on soils low in available plant food can be considerably increased by applications of nitrates and phosphates, or of barnyard manure, but it will usually be found more profitable to apply these fertilizers to the land when occupied by some other crop. DISEASES OF FOXTAIL MILLET The foxtail millets are very free from any destructive plant diseases. In some cases there is a slight tendency to smut, but this difficulty does not seriously affect the hay crop, and in the semiarid regions the extent of the damage to the crop of grain is very slight. The common smut of the foxtail millets is tech- nically known as Ustilago crameri Korn, and it ean be controlled by treating the seed with hot water or formalin, according to the published rules for treating the seed of the small grains for smut, page 2758. The formalin treatment is simpler and is recommended over the other method. . BARNYARD OR JAPANESE MILLET Next to the foxtail millets the Barnyard, or Japanese, millet is of most importance in New York. This millet, as noted in the introduction, is known also as Sanwa millet and as Billion-dollar grass. The former name is the one used in India, while the latter originated with a certain seed firm here in the United States, supposedly being apphed to Barnyard millet on account of its large yields of hay and seed. Dr. C. C. Georgeson, now agronomist- in-charge of the Alaska Experiment Stations, who spent. several years in Japan as professor of agriculture in the Imperial Agri- cultural College at Tokio, says that the Japanese name for this millet is “ Hie,” and continues:* “This is a very common crop in all parts of Japan, especially in the hilly districts where there is no suitable rice land, or where water is not available for irriga- tion. It is grown entirely for its seed, which, when thrashed out and cleaned, is ground and used for human food, being eaten * Crozier, A. A. Michigan Experiment Station Bulletin 117, p. 47 (1894). 646 GrassEs AND LeEGuMiInous Crops In NEw York mostly as porridge. Like all other crops in that country, it is cultivated in rows two feet apart, the seed being scattered in a continuous drill, or more commonly in little bunches, a foot apart in the row. It produces in good soil a vast amount of forage.” Fic. 644—A SrEEpD HEAD or PANICLE OF BARNYARD OR JAPANESE MILLET. SCALE ON THE LEFT GRADUATED TO INCHES AND FRACTIONS THEREOF. This millet probably originated from the common barnyard grass (Mchinochloa crus-galli), which is a weed in cultivated fields and along watercourses in the tropics and warm temperate regions. Barnyard millet differs from the weed in its more erect habit of Tue MILLETs 647 growth, the more compact panicle, the greater-turgidity of its seeds and in being uniformly awnless. (Fig. 644.) Both Hchinochloa crus-galli and frumentacea have been sold as Billion-dollar grass, | but for cultivation as a millet the awnless form Hchinochloa frumentacea is preferable, and the farmer is justified in insisting on this form when purchasing seed of Barnyard, or Japanese, millet. The methods of seeding and harvesting are the same with barn- yard millet as with the foxtail millets. The time required for maturing a crop of hay is as long and in most cases longer than that needed for the German millet, so that this millet is not so well suited for a catch crop as are the common and Hungarian millets. The stems of the barnyard millet are rather coarse, and, as it is more succulent than the foxtail millets, it does not cure so readily into hay; however, it is better suited for soiling or silage pur- poses than the latter, and the yields are larger on rich soils when the rainfall is fairly abundant. At the Massachusetts Experi- ment Station,* yields of 6 tons of hay and 67 bushels of seed to the acre are reported, while 20 tons an acre of green feed is not uncommon. Barnyard millet was more easily grown there than corn and made equally good silage. The New Jersey Experi- ment Station+ found that an addition of 160 pounds of nitrate of soda to the acre not only produced a profitable increase in the total yield, but also increased the percentage of protein in the crop. This application should be made after the crop is well started, since in such form the nitrate is readily available and leaches out of the soil rapidly. To obtain the best results, Barnyard millet should be seeded by the end of May. The seed ordinarily weighs 45 to 48 pounds a bushel and germinates well so that 16 to 24 pounds of seed an acre will give a good stand. Barnyard millet deserves a wider use in New York State under conditions similar to those in Massachusetts. It does not do well on poor soil nor in dry situations, but on poorly drained land and on rich soils it is preferable to the foxtail millets or the prosos. * Massachusetts State Bd. of Agr., 46th Ann. Rept. 1898, p. 329. t+ Voorhees, E. B. New Jersey Exp. Sta, Bul. 164. pp. 10-13 (1903). 645 GRaAssES AND LeGumMrnous Crops In New York PROSO OR BROOM-CORN MILLET This millet is probably native in Central Asia, but it has been grown under cultivation in Europe from prehistoric times and is considered in that coun- try as the let.” =A loose-panicled form of it is shown in “common mil- Fig. 645. The prosos can be logically divided into three botanical groups:* (1) effusum, with very loose panicles; (2) con- tractum, with medium- loose panicles; and (3) compactum, with dense panicles. These forms may be agriculturally described as (1) panicle prosos; (2) brush prosos; and (3) club prosos. There are many agri- cultural varieties avail- able in the United States, among the most impor- tant of which are the Black Veronezh, Red Orenburg, Tambov, Manitoba, Early Fic. 645.—A Srnerr PLant or Proso or Fortune, Red Russian, SORE SD Sh. Ta ted Veronezh, Red Lump, and Turghai. Tests made by the U. 8. Department of Agricul- ture have shown the Black Veronezh, Tambov, and Red Oren- burg to be about the most reliable varieties. In Asia and Europe, especially in Russia, proso is grown as a cereal crop, being very seldom used for forage. In America it is most important in North Dakota, South Dakota, eastern Montana, and Manitoba, but can be produced successfully farther south in Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, and Wyoming, and east in Minne- * Piper, C. V. Forage plants and their culture, p, 295 (1914), Tuer MILLETs 649 sota and Iowa. It has never been popular in New York or other parts of eastern United States. - Its value is greatest as a substitute for corn in regions too dry or too cold to produce the latter crop successfully. Proso has been utilized as a forage crop to a much greater extent in the United States than it has in Europe or Asia, but it is recognized here as the one distinctly grain millet. Yields of 15 to 30 bushels of seed an acre are normally obtained in the states where it is most largely grown. For forage, proso is not so desirable as the foxtail millets, the yield being less as a rule and the hay inferior in quality. The plants are not so leafy and the rough, hairy leaf sheaths make the hay less palatable. In New York it cannot be recommended except for the driest hillsides, where other crops will not thrive. A limited amount of seed grown in such situations might be dis- posed of at a profit to manufacturers of poultry and bird feeds in the larger cities. The low freight rates from Europe, however, enable these manufacturers to import seed at a very reasonable cost and much of the seed used in such prepared feeds is obtained in that way. The culture of proso is essentially the same as that of foxtail millet. In the dry climates of the Northwest 10 to 15 pounds of seed an acre is the customary amount sown, but in New York 20 to 25 pounds an acre would not be too much, PEARL MILLET OR PENICILLARIA This millet is probably native of Africa, for numerous varieties of it were found by the earliest travelers under cultivation there. In India, though second in rank to the sorghums, it is grown extensively under the native name of “ bajra.”” In 1882-83 India had 12,382,939 acres of pearl millet as against 16,740,439 acres of sorghum and 18,524,704 acres of wheat. Pearl millet is a tall, erect-growing annual grass, 6 to 15 feet high, with rather slender stems and numerous long, narrow leaves. It stools freely from the basal joints and also branches from the upper internodes, producing heads (Fig. 646) on the branches as well as the main stem. In general appearance pearl millet resem- bles the sorghums and corn more than it does the other millets. This crop is adapted to the same climate as the sorghums and does best in the southern states because no early varieties of it have 650° GRASSES AND LeGuMInNous Crops 1n New York Fic. 646.—A SEED HEAD oR PANICLE OF PEARL MILLET. SCALE ON THE RIGHT GRADUATED TO INCHES AND FRACTIONS THEREOF, Tue MILuets 651 yet been developed. It is best suited to rich, moist soils and under such conditions will produce enormous yields of forage. When harvested as a soiling crop, cutting it from three to six times dur- ing a season, yields of 10 to 40 tons an acre of green material are reported. When cut and cured as a fodder or hay crop the yields recorded are from 3 to 10 tons an acre. Such high yields can only be obtained, of course, under the most favorable conditions of soil and climate. The culture of pearl millet is very similar to that of corn or sorghum. It is most commonly planted in rows 3 to 314 feet apart; when the crop is to be used for soiling purposes, the plants are best spaced 3 to 6 inches apart in the row, but if it is to be cut for hay or fodder, it is better to drill thickly in the rows. When planted thinly, it stools abundantly. The seed usually does not germinate strongly, and 3 to 4 pounds an acre are required for the thinner plantings, and 6 to 8 pounds an acre when drilled thickly in the row. In some cases pearl millet is drilled or broadcasted like the fox- tail millets and harvested for hay with a mower and rake. For such seedings 30 to 35 pounds of seed an acre are required ; which- ever method of seeding is used, care must be observed not to plant the seed too deeply. Unless the soil is very loose and sandy, one- half inch is deep enough to cover the seed. The seed of pearl millet weighs from 48 to 56 pounds a bushel, therefore the average weight for each bushel runs about the same as for the other millets. Good seed yields are not often obtained in this country because for some reason a large percentage of the flowers prove sterile and do not form seed. Birds are very fond of the seed, and it is almost useless to attempt seed production in localities where the English sparrow or the reed birds are numerous. In feeding value the stover of pearl millet has been found inferior to that of the sorghums or corn, and analyses show the mature plant to contain a high percentage of crude fibre, hence it is probably less valuable for silage purposes also. There is little to recommend pearl millet to the New York farmer because he has better soiling crops, and there is no other capacity in which the pearl millet can compete with corn, tim- othy, foxtail millet, and other standard crops of the state. THE SORGHUMS—THEIR USE AS FORAGE AND GRAIN CROPS IN NEW YORK H. N. Vinari Agronomist, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. INTRODUCTION The group of plants included under the botanical name, Andropogon sorghum (L.) Brot. or Holcus sorghum L, is one of immense importance in the Cld World, and, on account of their ability to withstand drought, will become a leading crop in the semiarid regions of the United States where it is too dry for Indian corn. Many botanists have considered Johnson grass (Andropogon halepensis), a perennial plant with rootstocks, as the original type of our cultivated sorghums that are annuals. However, wild forms of sorghums have been found in Africa that are annual and are without rootstocks. Examples of these are Sudan grass and Tunis grass, two forage plants lately introduced into the United States. Several other wild grasses similar to these are known to exist in Afriea. Sudan grass and Tunis grass cross very freely with the cultivated sorghums, while it is rather difficult to make a cross between Johnson grass and sorghum. It is reasonable to suppose, therefore, that these annual forms are at least the immediate pro- genitors of our cultivated sorghums. The culture of sorghum is prehistoric. Figures representing some variety of sorghum were found on Egyptian ruins dating from about 2200 B. c., and they are known to have been grown in China and India at almost the beginning of the Christian era. The sorghums very likely originated in Africa and spread from there to Asia and Europe, a great diversity of forms develop- ing through cross-pollination and selection. Sorghum was brought to the West Indies under the name “Guinea corn,” and is reported * to have been under cultivation in the Carolina Colony * Lawson, John. A History of Carolina, p. 76 (1718). [652] = > Or Co Tue SorcHums in 1700, having been brought there by traders from the West Indies. Broom corn was grown in colonial times, and “ Chinese sor- ghum,” a sweet variety much like the Black Ambers that we now have, was introduced from France in 1853 and widely dis- tributed by the United States Patent Office in 1857. Since 1857 numerous varieties have been introduced into this country — mainly by the United States Department of Agriculture — and the crop has become of considerable importance, especially in the semiarid regions. — The statistics regarding the acreage of sorghums in the United States are very incomplete because almost all of the sweet sor- ghums harvested for fodder are reported under “ coarse forage,” which includes corn fedder and other coarse forage plants, as well as the sweet sorghums. The Thirteenth U. S. Census (1909) gives the acreage of sorghums not included under “ coarse forage ” as follows: SV: LOT SUEU teks cea) yeh cake “yey 444,089 acres PD ROOMINCOMM poet weet. ed ts ok cate, 22, 326,102 “ HESa tae An ILO: eee Shy od ee oes sy tach res te 1G35515 aie 2,405,344 acres Very few states report in detail the sorghum acreage through their State Board of Agriculture. Where this is done, as it is in Kansas, the importance of the sweet sorghums in comparison with the other groups is apparent. In 1910 the sorghum acreage in Kansas was as follows: sorgo, 512,621; kafir, 636,201; milo, 100,- 700. Only 12,879 acres of the sorgo were used for sirup purposes. In New York the sorghums have never been popular and they can be recommended only for forage purposes. As a grain crop they cannot compete in this rather cool and humid climate with corn, wheat, and oats. They can be utilized profitably, perhaps, on some of the drier soils when a soiling or quick-growing hay crop is needed. For this purpose some of the earlier-maturing varieties of sorgo are best. Sorghum is probably the most variable of any of the cultivated field crops. Several attempts at classification have been made, but the continued cross-pollination that takes place when the 654 GRASSES AND LEGumMiINous Crops 1N New YorxK different groups or varieties are grown in close proximity to each other sets at naught all such work. The commonly cultivated varieties may be placed in groups that are fairly distinct, but when all the available forms are brought together, these groups are found to overlap or merge into each other through a multitude of intermediate forms. In the following discussion only the well- known varieties are considered and these are treated under their customary classes, which are sorgo or sweet sorghum, kafir, milo, durra, kaoliang, broom corn, and grass sorghum. SORGO OR SWEET SORGHUM This group described in many publications as the saccharine or sweet sorghums, is usually referred to by farmers as “ cane,” a term that has been applied to the sugar canes of the tropics for many years. In the southern states, where the sweet sorghums and the sugar cane are both commonly grown, the application of the term “cane” to both crops leads to confusion. ‘ Sorgo ” has, therefore, been suggested as a class name for the sweet sorghums. The sorgos are characterized by their sweet, juicy stems, which fit them primarily for forage and sirup purposes. The seeds in this group have considerable tannin, a property which lessens their feeding value. Black Amber This variety seems to have originated in China. It was brought to the United States from France under the name “ Chinese sorghum.” It is characterized by its tall stems; rather narrow leaves; loose, pyramidal head; and large, flattened, reddish-yellow seeds, which are almost covered by the black, shiny glumes. Black Amber sorgo is found on the market under the names Minnesota Amber, Early Amber, and Dakota Amber. These are distinct strains which have been developed from the original Black Amber or Chinese sorghum by selection principally for earliness. Minnesota Amber, the best known of these strains, matures in from 75 to 90 days, and is adapted to the northern states, being one of the safest varieties to plant in New York. Tur Sorauums HT, TWO VARIETIES WHICH WILL MATURE IN x O ON THE Ric ] 1 Sorc " 647. DWARF KAFIR ON THE LEFT, AND RED AMBEI Fie. w YORK, NE 656 GRASSES AND LEGuMINOUS Crops In NEw YorK Dakota Amber is even earlier than the preceding variety. It is dwarf, seldom attaining a height of more than five or six feet, and is of especial value in the northern Great Plains. Red Amber This variety was introduced in the United States in 1903 from Australia, where it is called ‘“‘ Karly Orange.” It is characterized by slender stems, numerous leaves, and medium louse head about intermediate in compactness between that of the Black Amber and the Orange varieties. The seeds resemble those of Black Amber in size and color, but are somewhat narrower. The glumes, which are dark red, nearly cover the seed, giving the head a red color. This variety is a trifle later than Minnesota Amber, requir- ing from 80 to 100 days for maturity. It yields well and makes an excellent quality of fodder. (Fig. 647.) Red Amber can be recommended for planting in New York along with Minnesota Amber and Orange, but seed of that variety is difficult to obtain. Orange Orange sorgo was one of the forms introduced from Natal, South Africa, in 1857. It has a stout stem and rather broad leaves, but is not so leafy as Sumac sorgo. The heads are more compact than those of the Black or Red Amber varieties, and reddish brown in color. The seeds are large and flattened like those of the Black Amber, but protrude much farther from the glumes, which vary in color from reddish brown to black. Orange sorgo requires about the same or a little longer season for maturity than Red Amber, being from one to two weeks later than Minne- sota Amber. It is a good fodder variety and can be matured in New York in the average season, but will sometimes be caught by frost. Sumac This variety, which is often called Redtop, was also introduced © from Natal, South Africa, in-1857. It is one of the sweetest and leafiest of the sorgos and is more uniform than most other varieties, varying little in appearance from year to year. The stem is rather stout, of medium height, and very leafy, bearing from four- teen to sixteen leaves. The head is very compact, stiffly erect, seo THE SorGHUMS 657 and brownish red in color. The seeds are rather small, extruded more than 50 per cent, and brownish red on the exposed por- tion. The glumes vary in color from red to black. Sumac sorgo requires 108 to 120 days for maturity and is of value only in the southern half of the United States. It should not be planted in New York. Honey The origin of this variety, which is known also as “ Japanese Cane” and “ Japanese Seeded Ribbon Cane,” is unknown. It is tall, leafy, very juicy, and very sweet. Both in quality and in amount of juice it ranks as one of the best sirup sorghums. The head is erect, but quite open and spreading in habit and ght red in color. The seed are elliptical in shape and are nearly enclosed by the shiny red glumes. Honey sorgo requires a longer period for maturity than Sumac, and should be planted only in the southern states. ; (rooseneck This variety has also been sold as “‘ Texas Seeded Ribbon Cane.” It is very likely one of the varieties obtained from Natal, South Africa, in 1857, but the records are clear only as far back as 1876. The stems are juicy, stout, and very tall, it being about the largest of the commercial varieties. None of the other sorgos will make as high yields of silage as the Gooseneck. In large fields the stems often average 12 feet in height and from 1 to 11% inches in diameter. The heads are rather compact and shaped much like those of milo. Many, though not all, of the heads are recurved or inclined at maturity. The seeds are yellowish brown and almost enclosed by the black glumes. Gooseneck is later than Sumac, maturing in about the same season as Honey. It is valued more for sirup than for forage except in making silage. It is too late in maturing to be of any value in New York. Planter This variety is known also as “ Planter’s Friend” and as “ Sourless.” It is quite popular in Australia, but has not been very well liked in the United States. It resembles Orange sorgo more than the other varieties described, but can be distinguished from the latter variety by its straw-colored seed and glumes. It is x 658 GRASSES AND LEGuMINoUS Crops In NEw York also less sweet and juicy than the Orange, and, as it lodges badly in storms, it is not so valuable a variety. The heads are fairly compact, but often spreading at the tip. The glumes are pale brown or straw color and very pointed, and they about half enclose the straw-colored grains. There are several other varieties that are offered by the seeds- men from time to time, but none are of much importance. Among those that may be named are the Collier, McLean, Colman, Freed, Sapling, Dwarf Ashburn, and Florida. The Collier is a very dis- tinct variety with a head like a very small broom-corn panicle. In stem, leaf, and season of maturity it resembles the Orange. The McLean resembles Minnesota Amber, but is considerably later in maturing. Colman is much like the Orange in both plant char- acters and maturity. The Freed is a very early, dwarf, white- seeded sorgo, resembling Dakota Amber in type of plant, but less leafy. Sapling sorgo resembles the Planter in color of the head and seed, but is otherwise more like Orange. | KAFIR This group of sorghums is unfortunately referred to in many eases as ‘‘ kafir corn.”’ They are stout-stemmed, very leafy sorg- hums, with stiffly erect, rather compact, cylindrical heads. (Fig. 648.) The stems are medium juicy and slightly sweet; the seeds are small, round in outline, rather hard and flinty in texture, and in most varieties comparatively free from tannin. This combina- tion of characters makes kafir quite valuable for both forage and grain. Blackhull This is by far the most valuable variety of kafir. It is distin- euished..by its rather dwarf stem; very broad, dark green leaves ; and the black glumes or hulls on the seeds. The seeds are white in color, marked with scattering red and black spots on the exposed portion. Blackhull kafir matures in from 114 to 120 days. Red Next to Blackhull kafir this variety is perhaps the most popular. The heads are longer and more slender than those of Blackhull Ture Sorcuums : MMMVY TIONMOVIg GNV ‘OTIJT JNVMQ ‘avy, aay ‘opNoS uaswy day ‘opuo0S wIAWwV VLOSANNIJT ‘ODIOS AAINVIG ‘ODNOS ANNVYO ‘ODHOY OVWAN AO SAGVA_{[ IVOIdAL ‘LHOIY OL LaayT Woy “SFO ° old 660 Grasses AND Leqguminous Crors 1n New York kafir, and the seeds are brownish red on the exposed portion, giv- ing the heads a red appearance. The glumes or hulls are a dull, yellowish gray and cover not more than one-fourth to one-third of the seed. Red kafir matures eight to twelve days earlier than Blackhull, and is usually a little taller. It is considered by some to be more drought-resistant, although there is very little difference in this respect. White Some writers call this variety Whitehull to indicate more exactly its relation to Blackhull kafir. The stem and leaf characters are similar to those of Blackhull and the seeds are almost identical in appearance, but the glumes are greenish gray instead of black. The chief weakness of White kafir is the failure of the head to free itself entirely from the boot, or last leaf sheath. Remaining thus enclosed by the boot, the base of the head is often moldy and it also provides a breeding place for the green aphis. It is a trifle earlier in maturity than Blackhull kafir. Pink This variety perhaps originated as a cross between the Red and Blackhull kafir or between the Red and White varieties. It was only recently introduced from South Africa. Although in plat tests it usually outyields the other varieties, still, the difference in this respect is so slight that the Pink kafir is not likely to replace the better-known sorts. In habit of growth it is somewhat more vigorous than the Blackhull and the head is larger ‘and looser, especially at the upper end. The seeds are of a delicate pink - color and the glumes are dull, greenish gray like those of the White kafir. In date of maturity it is as late or later than the Blackhull. Dwarf This variety originated as a selection from Blackhull and is identical with that variety in all characters except its smaller size and its shorter season of maturity. It usually matures at a height of from 314 to 4 feet, and is almost two weeks earlher than the parent variety. For New York conditions, Dwarf kafir is prefer- able to any of the other varieties. Tue SorcHuMsS 661 MILO This group of sorghums, often called “ milo maize” and by some simply “maize,” is characterized by rather slender, dry, pithy stems which are usually sparsely leaved. The heads are very compact and are oblong or broadly ovate in shape, the longi- tudinal diameter frequently being but little greater than the trans- verse diameter. Most of the heads are recurved, although many remain erect. The seeds are large, round in outline but decidedly flattened, and yellowish red or white in color. The glumes vary in color from greenish gray to reddish brown and black, and enclose not more than half of the seed. Milo is very closely related to durra in all its essential characters, and is valuable chiefly for erain purposes. " Dwarf milo This is a selected leafy milo, which under ordinary conditions grows to a height of 314 to 4% feet. Dwarf milo is very popular in the southern half of the Great Plains on account of its ability to make a reasonable crop of grain in years of drought when other crops fail. The stover is often used for roughage or pasture after the grain crop has been harvested. Dwarf milo is, however, only of minor importance as a forage crop and can not be recommended for New York conditions. White milo This is a white-seeded variety of milo which seems to have orig- inated in India. It is almost identical with the yellow milos except that it has white seeds and either gray or black glumes. White milo seems to possess to even greater degree than Dwarf milo the ability to mature crops of grain under conditions of scanty rainfall. Besides the two above varieties, considerable seed of the Tall or Standard milo is handled by seedsmen. This variety is not so desirable, however, as the Dwarf milo. Milo is practically immune from both kernel smut and head smut, but is injured more than any other sorghum by chinch bugs. DURRA This group, like the milo, has dry, pithy stems and compara- tively few leaves. The lower four or five usually become dry and GRASSES AND Leaguminous Crops In New York mr iS) fall off before the plant matures. The heads, in most eases, are very compact, in shape resembling those of the milo. The seeds of most varieties grown in the United States are white, but there are brown and red-seeded varieties in Africa and India. The glumes are usually gray and somewhat pubescent; black-glumed forms are also common. ; The first varieties of durra to be grown in this country were all white-seeded forms with recurved heads. One of these, which became of some importance in Kansas and other central states, was known as “ Jerusalem corn.” Others were called “ Egyptian durra” and “ White durra.”’ None of these forms are of any value in comparison with Blackhull kafir, Dwarf milo, and Feterita. Feterita : This variety, which has also been ealled “ Sudan durra,” 3s about the only variety of any importance in the United States, and it 1s so different from the other durras that there is reason to feel that it should be placed in a separate group. It was brought to the United States in 1906, from the Sudan region of Africa. In Feterita the heads are erect and the stems slightly sweet, although scarcely juicy. The seeds are bluish white, larger than those of milo, and also softer. The glumes may be either greenish gray or black. Feterita is noted for its earliness and drought resistance, and is valuable as a grain and silage crop, but can not compete with kafir as a fodder plant. Shallu This sorghum is usually classed with the durras, although quite distinct. It is grown quite extensively in southern California and other parts of the Southwest under the names, ‘“ Egyptian wheat,” “vice corn,” “ California rice-corn,” ete. Shallu has tall, pithy stems, lacking both juice and sweetness. It is fairly leafy and the head is loose and drooping. The seeds are quite hard and yellowish white or buff in color, held loosely by the spreading and involute glumes. The seeds shatter freely when ripe. This sorg- hum is of little value for forage and very few sorghum growers prefer it to kafir and milo for grain production. THE SorRGHUMS 663 KAOLIANG This group of sorghums, which: has been developed in Man- churia, Korea, and northern China, is found described in litera- ee ture under the names “ kaoliang,”’ ‘“ kowliang,”’ and “ gaolan.”’ They are dry-stemmed sorghums, rather sparsely leaved, with widely varying colors in the glumes and seeds. The heads are quite compact in some varieties and very loose in others. The glumes are thin and papery and usually distinctly veined. The seeds have a curved point or hook at the apex, which somewhat resembles that on the seeds of the sweet sorghum, although more pronounced. The koaliangs are primarily grain sorghums and seem likely to be ot value only in the northern Great Plains where other sorghums wiil not mature and where it is too dry for corn. Numerous varieties of kaoliang have been introduced by the United States Department of Agriculture, but none of them prom- ise to become valuable in New York. Twenty-seven varieties have been described and classified by Mr. C. R. Ball in United States Department of Agriculture Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 253. This bulletin gives a very complete discussion of this group of sorghums. . The most valuable koaliang varieties for the United States are the Manchu Brown, a rather dwarf, early variety, maturing in 85 to 105 days, and the Valley Brown of medium height, alse early, maturing in 95 to 105 days. These are both brown-seeded varieties. The Barchet Blackhull is one of the best of the white- seeded varieties. BROOM CORN This group of sorghums, on account of its special use, is not often considered among the sorghums by farmers. It differs little from the kaoliangs, however, except in the head or panicle, which has a very short central axis and very elongated branches, thus providing a “ brush” which is suitable for the manufacture of brooms. Broom corn was grown at a very early date by the colonists along the Atlantic coast, but is now most important in the Central West. There are three principal varieties of broom corn — Standard, Dwarf-standard, and Dwarf. These, as the names indicate, are 664 GRaAssEs AND LeaumMinous Crops In New YorK respectively tall, medium, and low-growing varieties. The culture of broom corn is the same as that of sorghum. The harvesting or topping is usually done by hand, but in some cases with machin- ery. Thrashing or cleaning of the straw is accomplished by means of special machines, after which the brush or broom straw is baled and sold to broom manufacturers. After topping, the stalks furnish considerable pasture. GRASS SORGHUMS The only member of this group of sorghums that is now import- ant in the United States is Sudan grass. This new field crop was introduced into the United States from Su- dan, Africa, in 1909, and very few other plant introductions have sprung into such instant popularity. It is of most importance in the southern states, but can be grown sue- cessfully as far north as central New York. Sudan grass resem- bles very closely the Johnson grass that is so abundant in_ the southern states, — but does not have the un- derground rootstocks of the latter plant. (Fig. 649.) It grows to a height of six to ten feet Fie. 649. Roor or SUDAN GRASS SHOWING i ‘ THE ENTIRE ABSENCE OF ROOTSTOCKS. in cultivated rows, but when broadcast thickly it is usually not more than four or five feet high and can be handled like any other hay plant, except that it is quite succulent and when cut for hay more time is required for curing it than for THE SorGHUMS 665 timothy or millet. The yield should average about two tons an acre and the hay is of better quality than that of the foxtail mil- lets. Sudan grass will never be as popular in New York as it is in the South and Central West, but where a quick-growing catch crop is desired to overcome an indicated shortage of hay, Sudan grass is recommended for trial. (Fig. 650.) Additional informa- tion regarding this grass will be found in United States Depart- ment of Agriculture Farmers’ Bulletin 605. Fic. 650. BUNDLES oF SUDAN Grass SHOWING GROWTH AT 70, 55, 42, 27, AND 13 DAYS FROM THE DATE OF SEEDING. PLANTING Sorghum should not be seeded until the soil is thoroughly warm in the spring. This is usually a week or more after corn has been planted. When seeded earlier imperfect stands often result, because sorghum seed does not germinate readily in cold soils, much of it decaying under such conditions. Later seedings 666 GRASSES AND LEGuUMINOUS CRops In NEw YorK can be made at any time during the summer when moisture con- ditions are favorable and there is time enough for the crop to mature before frost. Sorghum is best planted with an ordinary corn planter in rows 36 to 44 inches apart on land which has been given the same preparation as for corn. Special: plates with holes arranged to drop the required amount of seed can be obtained for most corn planters. In rows this distance apart, 4 to 6 pounds of seed will be found ample unless it is very low in germination. Fic. 651. Dakota AMBER SoRGO SEEDED WITH A GRAIN DRILL FOR USE AS A HAy CROP. Sorghum intended for a grain crop should be planted thinner than when intended for forage. Planting in furrows with a lister” is recommended only fer the semiarid regions. The sorgos, or sweet sorghums, are sometimes sown broadeast or with a grain drill. (Fig. 651.) For such seedings it is best to use 1 to 114 bushels of seed to the acre so that the stand will be suffi- ciently thick to make the stems of the plants slender. When fine- stemmed, the crop can be handled with a mower and rake much ~ better than if allowed to become coarse. THE SorcHuMs 667 Sudan grass should be planted in New York at about the same time as the other sorghums. For hay purposes it is best sown broadeast or with a grain drill at the rate of 25 pounds of seed > per acre. In the drier climates it is often planted in rows 3% feet apart and cultivated like corn. This method is best in all cases when a seed crop is desired. HARVESTING Sorghum intended for fodder should not be cut until the seed has ‘reached the early dough stage; if cut earlier than this, the greatest value of the crop is not obtained. When the crop is to be used for silage, it should be allowed to stand until the seeds become hard. Mature sorghum makes good silage, very little, if any, more acid than corn silage, but if cut too soon it is apt to sour in the silo. Most of the unfavorable results with sorghum silage arise from this failure to allow the crop to ripen sufficiently before cutting. When the seed only is desired and it is gathered by topping the plants in the field, the crop must be allowed to stand until the stem just below the head becomes dry. If the seed crop is cut with a row binder or other machine after the manner of barvesting for fodder, it can be cut as soon as the seed becomes hard enough to crack in the teeth. Handled in this way, the stover is of considerable value for roughage after the seed has been removed. | Sorghum grown in cultivated rows can be harvested for fodder with an ordinary row binder such as is used in cutting corn. (Fig. 652.) Where this tool is not available and the acreage is small, the corn knife can be used. The same methods are applicable when the crop is being harvested for silage purposes, and a seed crop can be saved in this way by topping the bundles after they have cured in the shocks. The fodder, on account of its suceulence, must be allowed to cure for some time in the field lke corn fodder before it is stacked or stored in the barn. (Fig. 653.) Sorghum, either in bundles or as loose hay, turns the water well, hence there is little loss from spoiling in the stack. When sown broadeast or in close drills, sorghum is usually cut with a mower and cured like other hays. In the dry climates of Grasses AND Leguminous Crors 1n New Yorxk 668 ‘sasoadung UWIAdOT AOA UAGNIG MOY V WLI WAHDYOY ONILSTAUVH “ZOO “OT Tuer SorcuumMs 669 the West, however, many farmers cut their broadcast sorghum with a grain binder. This method is preferable whenever it can be cured in bundles, as it is much easier to handle. In New York, sorghum ean be cut only once for fodder or hay; but in the southern states two, and sometimes three, cuttings are obtained in a season, as new shoots develop quickly from the stubble and make a rapid growth. This feature makes sorghum rather valuable as a crop to be used for soiling purposes. [or green feed it can be cut at any time after it is two or three feet high, but it is better not to cut until after the plants are in head. The average yield of green forage is no doubt above 15 tons to the acre, although no accurate figures are available. A considerable part of the sorghum acreage harvested for grain alone was formerly topped in the field by cutting the heads off with a knife. Several machines designed to facilitate this pro- cess have been developed, some of which can be attached directly to an ordinary wagon box. The most effective way of gathering the heads of grain sorghums, especially where they are erect in growth, is to raise the platform of an ordinary grain header to the proper height and cut the crop with that machine. Care must be used when the heads are gathered separate from the stalk to prevent them from heating in the granary or cribs, otherwise the germinating power of the seed will be lowered or destroyed entirely. It is necessary to store the seed heads in narrow ricks under cover, or in cribs having open sides with venti- lators at frequent intervals underneath. The seed can be thrashed in an ordinary grain separator by removing part of the concaves and decreasing the speed of the cylinder. If these adjustments are not made, a great many seeds will be cracked ; and, while this does not injure their feeding value, it does lower their germination. ‘Cracked and poorly cleaned seed is much more apt to heat dur- ing shipment than is that which has been properly thrashed. The varieties of sorghum more especially adapted to grain production, such as kafir, milo, feterita, and kaoliang, commonly yield 20 to 30 bushels an acre, but yields of 80 and 90 bushels an acre are frequently reported. The sweet sorghums which have not been developed for grain production ordinarily yield less seed. The seed of sorghum varies in weight from 55 to 60 pounds a 670 GRASSES AND Lecumrnous Crops 1xn New York bushel, probably averaging 56 to 58 pounds, although the legal weight in many states is only 50 pounds a bushel, and in a few states it is as low as 30 pounds. FEEDING VALUE Sorghum fodder has about the same feeding value as corn fod- der, but is usually to be preferred on account of the greater per- centage of leaves and the higher sugar content of the stems. It is a very effective roughage for stock cattle, even though some of the stems are left by the stock. The hay produced from broadeast seedings is rather coarse, but very palatable, and has a chemical composition about the same as that of timothy. For work horses Fic. 653. SorenHum FoppER CURING IN THE SHOCK. it is not so good as timothy or prairie hay, because it has a slightly laxative effect. The seed of kafir, milo, and feterita has been used as a grain feed with good results for all classes of live stock. The general opinion among practical feeders is that sorghum grain is about 90 per cent as valuable as corn when used for fattening cattle or hogs, and feeding tests carried on at experiment stations seem to sub- stantiate this opinion fairly well. The protein content is some- what higher in sorghum grain than in corn, hence the difference in Tur SorcHuMs 671 the effectiveness of the two feeds is probably due to the less amount of fat in the sorghum grain. POISONING Sorghum is used very little as a pasture on account of the danger of prussic acid poisoning. This poison seems more apt to form in the leaves of sorghum when the growth of the plant has been checked for any reason, as by frost or an acute spell of drought. Many cases of poisoning are reported in pasturing second-growth sorghum —in fact any abnormality in the growth of sorghum seems to increase the danger of poisoning. On the whole it is not safe to pasture immature sorghum, and care should be used in feeding it green. The mature plant, especially when the growth is normal, is rarely dangerous; and sorghum from which a seed crop has been harvested can usually be pastured with perfect safety. Curing the plant either as fodder or hay also appears to eliminate the poison. Only one or two well-authenticated cases of poisoning from the use of sorghum fodder are known, and these hardly seem sufficient to warrant any restraint in feeding the cured plant. DISEASES There are three diseases that cause more or less damage to sorghums, and no adequate remedy for two of these has yet been discovered. Kernel smut This disease afiects the individual grains of the sorghum head. The general appearance of the head is very little changed, but most of the seeds in an affected head are destroyed. It can be controlled by treating the seed with formalin or hot water before planting, page 2758. Head smut This disease destroys the entire head of sorghum in much the same way as ear smut does the ear of corn. When the head emerges from the sheath it is a mass of spores covered by a whitish membrane. No effective way of preventing this smut has been found. 672 GRASSES AND Lecuminous Crops 1n New Yorx Red-spot or blight This disease is characterized by somewhat circular or elongated red spots on the leaves and leaf sheaths. These spots appear much like rust spots to the ordinary observer and when abundant the affected leaf dies prematurely. This disease is most prevalent in humid regions and is especially destructive to Sudan grass. Selection of resistant varieties is the only method of control known at the present time. INSECT PESTS The most important insect pests of sorghum are the sorghum midge, the chinch bug, the grasshopper, and the fall army worm. Sorghum midge This minute reddish fly lays its eggs in the sorghum flower when it is in bloom and the young larvae feed on the juices of the developing ovary, thus preventing the formation of the seed. The sorghum midge is abundant only in the warm, humid portion of the United States from Texas east to Florida. In this section it renders the production of profitable seed crops very nearly impos- sible. Very early or very late planting, thus causing the sorghum to reach the blossoming stage at a time when the midge is not abundant, are the most practical ways known to escape the ravages of this insect. Chinch bug These bugs, when abundant, do considerable damage to young sorghum plants. They are especially fond of milo and often leave kafir and the sweet sorghums almost untouched while they devour an adjacent field of milo. The methods used to prevent attacks of chinch bugs on the small grains can be used to protect the sor- ghum crop.* * The chinch bug, only about one-fifth of an inch long, stout, black and with white wings, is one of the most serious insect enemies of grasses, small grains, and corn in the Central States, especially in the somewhat dry climate of Kansas. It produces two generations annually, the second frequently invading adjacent culti- vated fields and attacking sorghum as well as corn and other grains in August or September. Injury by this pest in New York State is occasional and confined largely to timothy meadows, this being especially true in the St. Lawrence and upper Hudson valleys. The bugs may become so abundant as practically to destroy the timothy late in the season, and portions of fields producing heavy crops one summer may be almost barren the next. Slow burning when the vegetation is dry will destroy most of the hibernating bugs at the base of the grasses and is advisable for roadsides and fence-side thickets, Burning of timothy meadows is not recommended because there is danger of injur- ing the grass. A moderately frequent rotation will do much to keep the pest from becoming excessively abundanf. Chinch bugs spread by crawling to nearby fields, and consequently some care may well be exercised not to plant near grassy land those crops likely to be injured, as such land is frequently badly infested with this pest. However, it is not difficult to protect fields from invasion by the use of bar- riers, such as dusty furrows, trips of tar, or similar gevices.— Dr. EH. P. Felt, New York State Entomologist. “ THE SorcHuMs 675 Grasshopper These insects are not apt to be destructive to sorghum in New York and other eastern states, but they sometimes do considerable damage in the Great Plains, stripping the leaves from the plant and preventing its further development. Scattering poisoned bran is the best method of destroying grasshoppers. Fall army worm This insect, when abundant, may do serious damage. The larvae feed on the young leaves while they are still coiled, per- forating them so badly in some eases that they break off when they are expanding. The sorghum aphis and the corn worm both attack sorghums, but neither do any great damage. CONCLUSIONS Sorghum is not a crop of any importance in New York, chiefly because climatic conditions are not so well suited to it as to other crops like corn and the small grains. It may be grown to advantage as an emergency forage crop in the drier locations, and for this purpose the earlier varieties ot sweet sorghum, such as Minnesota Amber, Red Amber, and Orange, are recommended for fodder, and ‘Sudan grass for hay. Norre.—Additicnal information regarding sorghum can_ be obtained from the following bulletins of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture: Saccharine Sorghums for Forage, by Carleton R. Ball. Farmers’ Bulletin 246 (1906). The Best Two Sweet Sorghums for Forage, by A. B. Conner. Farmers’ Bulletin 458 (1911). Sorghum Strup Manufacture, by A. Hugh Bryan. Farmers’ Bulletin 477 (1913). The Nonsaccharine Sorghums, by C. W. Warburton. Farmers’ Bulletin 288 (1907). Milo as a Dry-Lond Grain Crop, by Carleton R. Ball and Arthur H. Leidigh. Farmers’ Bulletin 322 (1908). Kafir as a Grain Crop, by Carleton R. Ball and Benton E. Rothgeb. Farmers’ Bulletin 552 (1913). Uses of Sorghum Grain, by Carleton R. Ball and Benton EF. Rothgeb. Farmers’ Bulletin 686 (1915). Tie 95 CLOVER A. J. PIETERS Bureau of Plant Industry, U. 8S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The term “clover” is somewhat loosely used and popularly includes not only the true clovers, but also such plants as sweet clover, bur clover, and Japan clover, which, while botanically quite distinct from them, have habits and agricultural value very similar to that of the true clovers. BOTANICAL CHARACTERS The true clovers belong to the genus Trifolium, one of the genera of the pea or bean family of plants. This family is characterized, among other things, by having flowers that are formed of a standard, two wings, and a keel — a type well known in the pea. Along with other genera, as those to which alfalfa and sweet clover belong, the true clovers have three-parted leaves ; but they differ from these near relatives in having the flowers in heads and the seed in small, straight pods. All members of this genus are herbs; that is, they have no woody stems. Many of the species are annuals; others, as white and alsike clovers, are peren- nials; while some, as red clover, may be biennial or perennial, de- pending on the method of handling and the conditions under which they are grown. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION There are at present some 275 known species of Trifolium; fourteen of these grow wild in the northeastern states, while many more are found in the West and South, the extreme West being especially rich in species. The clovers are essentially plants of the temperate region, most of them being found in the North Temperate Zone, with a few in South America and in North and South Africa. Of the fourteen species found growing wild in the [674] CLOVER 6 Fie. 654. A SINGLE PLANT OF CRIMSON CLOVER. 676 GrRassEs AND Leauminous Crops 1n New YorxK northeastern states, at least half have been introduced from Europe and have become naturalized in our fields and along our roadsides. Among these are the four species of economic impor- tance in the United States —red clover (Trifolium pratense), searlet or crimson clover (7. incarnatum), alsike or Swedish clover (T. hybridum), and white clover (7. repens). AGRICULTURAL HISTORY The clovers were not cultivated by the ancients, so far as known, first coming into prominence in Europe during the late Middle Ages. Red clover was carried from Flanders to England in 1645 and was doubtless brought to America by early settlers, though there is no record of the fact. Jared Eliot wrote that it was grown in Massachusetts in 1747. The same writer says that white clover was common in Massachusetts at that time and it soon spread, so that in 1794 Strickland wrote that it was found “ in every part of America — from New Hampshire to Carolina, from the sea to the mountains.” * ; Alsike and crimson clover have not been known so long in the United States, but are known to have been cultivated in Europe since the middle of the eighteenth century. Alsike clover is said to be a native of Sweden and to take its name from a place of that name. The United States Patent Office distributed seeds in 1854, but this is probably not the earliest introduction. Crimson clover is a native of Southern Europe, but is now grown from Italy to Germany, and also in England. The earliest record for the United States is 1818, “but its eulture did not assume much importance till about 1880.”* Today alsike clover is grown more or less throughout the northern states and to some extent west of the Rocky Mountains. It is of little importance in the South, where crimson clover has rapidly become the most important mem- ber of the genvs. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION In common with all legumes, the clovers are especially rich in proteins and hence make a valuable feed. The table below, com- piled from Henry and Morrison’s Feeds and Feeding,+ shows how clover hay compares with timothy. pag eS ea eo * Piper, C. V— Forage Plants and Their Culture, p. 412. + Henry and Morrison.— Feeds and Feeding, 15th edition, p. 660. fon) “I “NI CLOVER DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZER CONSTITUENTS IN 100 Pounps or Hay Nutri- iF Phos- Dry | Crude} q, : Nitro- : Clover matter | protein Carbon Fat Total ane ;, gen piore Potash Alsike...... 87.7 7.9 36.9 1.1 47.3 5.0 2.05 atl 1.74 Crimson....| 89.4 9.7 36.8 1.0 48.7 4.0 2.26 -61 2.24 Mammoth..| 81.3 6.4 BY (er 1.8 47.6 6.4 is .63 .87 Ried es cncrts 87.1 7.6 39.3 1.8 50.9 5.0 2.05 .39 1.63 White......| 91.9 11.8 43.3 125 58.5 7.4 2.59 -52 2.00 Timothy... 88.4 3.0 42.8 1.2 48.5 15.2 .99 -OL 1.36 The above figures are averages and it must not be forgotten that there may be wide divergences from these. It has been shown that the fertility of the soil has much to do with the chemical composition, more nitrogen-free extract having been found, for instance, in clover raised on land heavily fertilized with potash. The time when the hay is cut also has an effect; red clover has been shown to contain most crude protein before bloom and least after bloom. BIOLOGICAL RELATIONS The relations of the clovers to their environment, that is, the soil and climate, vary somewhat with the species. Crimson clover is an annual and will not endure extreme cold or extreme heat. It is a plant that thrives in the cool weather of late summer and fall and early spring, hence it should never be seeded in spring, as it will promptly go to seed on the advent of warm weather; also, it can be successfully grown only where the winters are not too severe. In New York State, therefore, it is used but little, although it is planted as a cover crop in orchards and vineyards to a limited extent. Red and alsike clovers are perennials, but the former is com- monly treated as a biennial. Under otherwise favorable con- ditions they endure the winter well and are not seriously affected by the heat of a northern summer. They prefer relatively cool weather, however, and in the northern parts of Maine red clover thrives even on soils that would be considered unfavorable further south. Although both red and alsike clover will grow on a variety of soils, they must be well drained for red clover, while alsike is GRASSES AND Leaguminous Crops 1n New York CES Sees — Fig. 655. Youna Rep Clover PLANT, SHOWING ‘TUBERCLES ON ROOTS. CLOVER 679 especially adapted to wet soils. All clovers require some lime, but it is most necessary for red clover and least necessary for alsike. This means that alsike can be grown on land too sour for red clover, and in many places it is replacing red clover for this reason. There is relatively more alsike grown in New York State than in any other. White clover seenis adapted to the widest range of soils and climate, growing more or less luxuriantly in all parts of the country, but this, too, does best on soils containing plenty of lime. NITROGEN-FIXING One of the important characteristics of all legumes is the power they have, through the association of certain bacteria, to take nitrogen from the air. One strain of bacteria is believed to be responsible for the nodules found on the roots of all true clovers, and, therefore, if one kind of clover has been grown on a certain field and has had nodules on the roots, other true clovers will also be inoculated. Sweet clover and bur clover, however, require a different strain — the same as is found in the nodules on the roots of alfalfa. Not all of the nitrogen found in clover hay or roots comes from the supply in the air. It has been estimated that about one-third is taken from the soil and the remainder from the air. Since this is nearly the proportion which the roots bear to the tops, it follows that when all the leaves and stems are removed as hay the soil is neither materially richer nor poorer in nitrogen. USES The clovers are used for forage, and as cover and green manure -erops. Under favorable conditions red clover will yield from one to three tons of excellent hay per acre, while the yield of alsike is generally smaller. Alsike hay is fine, however, and on wet or sour land it does better than red. Crimson clover is used more for a cover and green manure crop than for hay, though it makes good hay if cut early. Red clover is commonly cut for hay when the heads of the first crop are half brown. When in full bloom the hay contains more nutritive matter, but the later cutting is easier to cure. The second crop of red clover may be made into 680 GrassEs AND LEGuMiINoUS Crops 1n New YorK hay or left for seed. The seed is commonly saved from this second crop. Mammoth clover, which is a late variety of red, makes but one crop. It is ready for hay at the same time as timothy, and is hence often preferred to sow with that grass. Alsike clover also makes but one crop in a season; this may be cut for hay or for seed. IN ROTATIONS ted clover is seldom used as a green manure, but it is the standard legume in the North for use in rotations. As such it is used either with or without timothy, and is the basis for maintain- ing the fertility of the soil. Corn and potatoes are planted on the turned-under clover sod, and this sod furnishes nitrogen for the hoed crop. Fic. 656. CLos— View or Som HoNEYCcOMED By FROST AND IN PROPER CONDITION FOR SEEDING CLOVER. THE NUMEROUS IRREGULARITIES BE- COME LEVELED WHEN THE GROUND THAWS, RESULTING IN A NATURAL COVERING OF THE CLOVER SEED BY THE SOIL. SEED PRODUCTION The seed of red clover is taken from the second crop and is gathered in nearly all of the northern states, but chiefly in those of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys and in Idaho and Oregon. The yield of seed is extremely variable; a wet season is commonly a CLOVER 681 poor one for seed and the attacks of insects may reduce the crop to almost nothing. To determine whether a seed crop is worth harvesting, the seeds in a number of heads may be counted. If an average of 20 to 25 seeds are found per head and the stand is fair to good, the yield will probably be one to two bushels per aere. The crop should be cut when all the heads are brown and the seeds hard. In about four days, if the weather is favorable, the crop is ready to hull. It is not necessary to allow the straw to rot before hulling, as is often done. In the South crimson clover seed is often sown in the hull. The yield of red clover in the eastern part of the United States averages about one to two bushels per acre, although yields of five bushels have been recorded. In Idaho yields of five or more bushels are the rule. Much is also imported from Europe. Alsike clover seed is harvested in relatively few northern states, New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Idaho, and the Canadian prov- inces producing most. Crimson clover seed. is very largely im- ported but is also raised in Delaware and various southern states. White clover seed is harvested in Wisconsin, Louisiana, and Idaho, and to a small extent in other places. Much of our supply comes from Europe. POLLINATION The red clover flower must be cross-pollinated to produce seed. Why the pollen from a given plant is sterile on the stigmas of flowers from the same plant we do not know, but many experiments have shown that seed is almost never set in self-pollinated flowers. Bees, especially bumblebees, are the main agents in cross- pollination, and this is perhaps one reason why a better crop of seed is set in a clear, dry season, when these insects are plentiful and active, than in a wet one. GETTING AND KEEPING A STAND In New York and other northern states, red clover is commonly seeded in spring on winter wheat or with oats-—ten or twelve pounds of seed being used. If seeded on wheat the seed should be harrowed in; this will not hurt the wheat. In an average season the success of the seeding will depend on using good seed, on the care in working it in, and on the nurse crop not being too 682 Grasses anD Leguminous Crors 1n New York thick. A nurse crop helps the clover only by keeping the weeds down, and if too thick it will have the same effect on the young clover. On sour or run-down soils, lime or manure may be needed to give the plants a healthy start. If the season is dry just after harvest, there is sure to be heavy mortality among the young plants and they can withstand the drought better if on land well supplied with lime or humus. To keep a stand the plants must have a chance to grow strong and thrifty before winter. If the first season’s growth is very heavy, as it may be in a wet season, the clover may be lightly pastured or clipped. It should not be allowed to bloom nor should it be pastured or cut close. To endure the winter the clover must have a fair growth to act as a mulch, but this must not be so heavy as to smother the plants. On prae- tically all New York lands, lime is either necessary or helpful, and the application of stable manure will be found generally beneficial. : Fic. 657: Rep CLOVER FIELD, SHOWING THE EFFECT OF TopP-DRESSING Witu MANURE. THE AREA IN THE IMMEDIATE FOREGROUND RECEIVED No MANURE; THE AREA IMMEDIATELY BEHIND RECEIVED A LigHT APPLICA- TION, RESULTING IN A VERY VIGOROUS STAND OF CLOVER. WINTERKILLING, DISEASES, INSECTS Winterkilling is usually caused by the heaving of the ground; a good mulch of the leaves and stems will go far to prevent this. CLOVER 683 Winterkilling may also occur on land devoid of lime, on which land clover does not make a healthy growth. There are several clover diseases but none are more than locally injurious, and when present there is nothing to do but cut what clover there is or pasture it and plow the field for another crop. Of all the clover insects the root borer is perhaps the worst, and it is very generally prevalent in New York. This small beetle deposits eges from which hatch small larvae and these enter the root and crown of the plant. When the injury is bad the clover wilts and dies. The attack is usually on the second season’s clover and hence in New York State it seldom pays to try to keep red clover more than two seasons. Some leaf-eating insects may be locally serious and, if so, the crop should be cut or pastured at once. The greatest enemies to the seed crop are the clover flower midge and the clover seed chaleid. These are minute wasp-like insects which deposit eggs in the buds or in the young seeds. They are commonly present in both the first and second crop of bloom and the only remedy is to cut the first crop a week or two earlier than usual — that is, before full bloom. At this time the maggots are in the flowers but are killed by the drying of the hay, and there will be few mature flies to lay eggs in the second crop. Norre.— For treatment of clover diseases, see article entitled “ Diseases of Alfalfa and Clover,” p. 2898. CLOVER INSECTS C. R. Crossy fireasica Neds in Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. AND M. D. Leonarp Extension Assistant in Entomology, Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y. While over a hundred species of insects attack the clover plant, the greater part of the injury is caused by the seven treated in this paper. No part of the plant is exempt from attack: the roots are riddled by the burrows of the root-borer; the stem-borer tunnels the stems; the leaves are devoured by several weevils and caterpillars; plant-lice suck the juices from the plant above ground and mealy bugs cause a similar injury to the roots; a maggot destroys the ovary of the unopened flower and a grub devours the kernel of the seed; and even clover hay is often injured to a considerable extent by the clover hay-worm. While insect injury to clover does not often attract the grower’s attention it is none the less real and constant. If it were possible to exclude the injurious species from our clover fields not only would the crop of hay and seed be greatly increased but it would also be possible to keep the fields in clover for several successive years. The root- borer has made the clover plant for all practical purposes a biennial instead of a perennial. Many clover insects also attack alfalfa, vetch, peas, and other plants of the same family. THE CLOVER ROOT-BORER Hylastinus obscurus Marsham Undoubtedly the most serious insect enemy of clover in New York State is this small brownish-black beetle which in both the larval and adult stages burrows in the roots of the plant. The insect is a native of Europe where it has been known as a clover pest for over a century, It was probably introduced into New [684] CLovER INSECTS 685 York State in the late seventies and first attracted attention by its destructive work in Yates County in 1878. The introduction of this pest has had an important effect on clover-growing in the state because where the insect is present it has not been found practicable to keep fields in clover longer than the second summer after seeding. In addition to red clover, the clover root-borer also attacks mammoth clover, alsike, and to some extent alfalfa and peas. If one digs up a two-year-old clover root in late fall or early spring it will be found hollowed out by the longitudinal burrows of a small brownish-black beetle about one-tenth inch in length. (Figs. 658 and 659.) The insect passes the winter mostly in the beetle stage although occasionally a few of the grubs are found. In May or June the beetles leave the roots and fly to other clover plants, preferably those just beginning their second year of growth. The beetles usually burrow down through the crown, but they may occasionally enter the root from the side. The female deposits her minute, white, elliptical eggs along the side of her bur- row, covering them with bits of refuse. The eggs hatch in a few days and the young grubs burrow lengthwise through the root, most of them becoming full Fic. 658. CLOVER Root, grown the last of July, although some do Snowrne Work oF THE not reach maturity until September. The BORER. full-grown grub is about one-eighth inch ROR Mae in length, white, with a yellowish head and brown jaws. It trans- forms to a white pupa at the end of its burrow. Most of the pupae change to beetles before the first of October. There is only one generation annually. When the root is badly infested the plant is severely injured, and if dry weather ensues the top 686 Grasses AND Leguminous Crops 1n New York will wither and die. Even under the most favorable conditions the growth is badly stunted and the quantity of seed produced is greatly decreased. Control. Under the system of clover growing practiced in New York little can be done to prevent injury by the root- borer. Something may be gained, how- ever, by adopting a short rotation, by keeping the soil in good tilth, by main- Fic. 659. Tue Crover taining a high state of fertility, and by ee ie UE underdraining wherever necessary. (Redrawn after Webster) THE CLOVER LEAF-WEEVIL Hypera punctata Fabricius While capable of doing serious injury under favorable condi- tions the clover leaf-weevil does not as a rule cause as much loss as the clover root-borer. This beetle is a native of Europe and was apparently introduced into North America about the middle of the nineteenth century, but did not attract attention by its injuries to clover until the early eighties when it was reported as destructive in Yates County, N. Y. It is now widely dis- tributed throughout the state and every year causes more or less loss, although serious outbreaks are usually local in extent and rarely continue from year to year in the same locality. The insect passes the winter in the larval condition, most of the larvae being in the earlier stages. With the advent of warm weather in the spring these grubs begin feeding on the clover leaves and complete their growth by about the middle of June. The full-grown larva is one-third to one-half inch in length, green in color with a hght stripe down the middle of the back; the head is brownish. The grubs feed mostly at night and during the day can be found curled up under the rubbish around the base of the plant. The younger grubs eat small holes through the leaves and the older ones devour larger areas, beginning at the edge of the leaf. When full-grown, the grubs spin curious open-work cocoons of yellowish to brownish silk within which, -_ CLoveR INSECTS 687 after a few days of preparation, they transform to greenish pupae with black eyes and yellowish legs and wing-pads. The cocoons are found just under the surface of the soil or occasionally at the base of the green stems. Most of the beetles emerge during the latter part of June. The beetle is about one-half inch in length, brownish in color; the prothorax is marked with three pale lines and the wing-covers with small black spots; along the outer edge is a pale yellowish stripe and occasionally one along the middle. During the daytime the beetles remain sluggish under Fig. 660. THe CtLover LeAr-WEEVIL: (a) Ecce; (b) DLArvar FEEDING; (c) RECENTLY HATCHED LARVA; (f) Cocoon; (fh) Pupa; (i) BEETLE; (kk) SAME, Dorsat View. (Redrawn after Riley) débris on the ground. At night they feed on the clover leaves, beginning at the margin and eating toward the middle, usually leaving only the bases of the larger veins, but often, in cases of severe infestation, devouring the whole plant down to the ground. Ege-laying does not begin until the latter part of August and it takes place usually at night. At this time the beetles insert their 685 GRASSES AND LeGumMinous Crops 1n New YorxK elongate oval eggs about one-twenty-fifth inch in length into the clover stems; occasionally they are placed between the stems at the base of the plant. A female is capable of laying forty or more eggs. The eggs hatch in about four weeks and the young erubs spend the winter in rubbish about the base of the plants. Rarely: the insect spends the winter in the egg stage and some- times as a beetle, but these beetles are so weakened by spring that they die without laying eggs. There is but one generation annually. Control. Fortunately the clover leaf-weevil is in large measure held in check by a parasitic fungus which attacks the young larvae and kills them in great numbers. No practicable method of artificial control has been devised. THE LESSER CLOVER LEAF-WEEVIL Sitona flavescens Marsham The destructive work of the clover leaf-weevil last treated is augmented by a related species of similar habits. This lesser clover leaf-weevil occurs abundantly throughout New York State where it attacks red clover and alsike. It is said to have a special fondness for white clover. The insect passes the winter in the larval state, either in the stems close to the crown or in the roots. Most of the grubs become only partially grown in the fall Pie. 661. Crover Leaves and complete their growth in the spring. SHOWING THE CHARACTER- 2: : : istic Insury oF THE Les- The mature larva is one-fifth inch in Ste ead eee length, yellowish white in color; the head is yellowish brown with whitish lines. The larvae become full-grown during the latter part of May and transform to delicate, pale yellowish pupae in small earthen cells in the ground near the base of the plant. The beetles emerge in from two to three weeks but do not lay their eggs until September. The adult insect is a small dark brown or rusty brown snout-beetle, slightly over one-fifth inch in length. In feeding, the beetle eats out a semi-circular area either on the edge of the unopened leaflet or on the midrib; when the leaf unfolds the injury appears either as a circular hole CLover INSEcTS 689 in the center of the leaflet, or as symmetrical notches along the edge. (Fig. 661.) The eggs are about one-sixteenth inch in length, white to blackish in color, and are deposited by the female at the base of the stems or among the roots. The eggs hatch in from two weeks to a month and the young grubs become partly grown before the advent of cold weather. In addition to the injury to the foliage done by the feeding of the beetles the grubs injure the roots and the base of the stems so as often to cause the wilting of the plant. While the lesser clover leaf-weevil is generally distributed and occurs in considerable abundance, its injuries have never been of such a nature as to call for special remedial measures. THE CLOVER STEM-BORER Languria mozardi Latreille The stems of mammoth and of medium red clover are often hol- lowed out by a yellowish grub that feeds on the pith. While the presence of this larva does not kill the stem outright, it does weaken the plant to a considerable extent, increasing the tendency to lodge and decreasing the quantity of seed produced. The parent insect is a beautiful, slender, reddish beetle with dark blue wing-covers frem one-sixth to one-third inch in length. The beetles pass the winter hidden away under rubbish. In May and June the females deposit their eggs in the stems of clover plants more than one year old. When preparing to oviposit the female first eats a small hole into the stem, and then forces the egg down into the pith. The egg is about one-fifteenth inch in length, pale yellowish in color, elliptic oval in outline and slightly curved. The eggs hatch in from three to five days and the young grubs burrow through the stem, eating only the pith. The full-grown larva is yellowish in color and about one-third inch in length. Most of the larvae become mature during late July and early August. They pupate in their burrows and the beetles emerge the same season, going into hibernation with the advent of cold weather. The clover stem-borer is not restricted to clovers, but also attacks many common weeds. It is most abundant in volunteer clover plants growing in neglected fields and along roadsides. 690 GrassEs AND Leaguminous Crops In New York Remedial measures have never been found necessary for this pest since the grubs are destroyed in great numbers wherever clover is cut at the proper time. THE CLOVER-SEED CHALCID Brucophagus funebris Howard The depredations of three insects—the clover-seed chalcid, the clover flower-midge, and the clover-seed caterpillar — render the production of clover seed very uncertain, and consequently (Seb Fic. 662. THE CLOVER-SEED CHALCID: (a) ApuLT; (b) LARVA; (c) Pura. (U.S. Department of Agriculture) greatly increase the cost of raising this crop. The first of these is probably, on the whole, the most injurious, although it often happens that the second is more destructive. The clover-seed chalcid is abundant throughout the state. The adult insect is a small four-winged fly (Fig. 662, a), slightly less than one-twelfth inch in length, black in color with parts of the CLovEeR INSEcTsS 691 legs yellowish brown. At least fifty per cent of the crop is, on the average, annually destroyed by this pest. The clover-seed chalcid is also the most serious pest with which the grower of alfalfa seed has to contend. On close examination the flies will be found on the clover heads throughout the season. The female is provided with a sharp needle-like ovipositor with which she inserts an egg through the floral envelope directly into the kernel of the unripe seed. This minute egg has a remarkable shape, being broadly ovate and pro- vided with a long slender pedicel or handle about twice as long as the ege. From the egg there hatches a small grub that devours the entire contents of the seed and when mature (Fig. 662, 6) occupies nearly the whole cavity. Pupation takes place within the seed and the adult fly emerges by gnawing a small, round hole through the seed-coat. Infested seeds have an abnormal appear- ance, being dull brown, often misshapen, and a little undersized. The insect may reach maturity and the adults emerge from the seeds within three weeks after the eggs are laid, but the period is usually much longer. Emergence is very irregular, depending in large measure on the conditions of temperature and moisture. It has been found that the adults appear in maximum abundance in June and again in August. From eggs laid by the June brood of flies adults will continue to emerge from July through- out the remainder of the season and some will hold over until the following May and June. The greater proportion, however, emerge during August of the same year. From eggs laid in August some adults will emerge the same season, but most of them do not emerge until the following spring and a few may not emerge until the following August. Control. If the grower intends to harvest a crop of clover seed the first crop should be cut rather early, as soon as the field comes into bloom, so as to prevent the development of a large pro- portion of the early brood of insects and thus decrease the size of the second brood. If the newly seeded clover has a heavy bloom it would pay either to cut or pasture this off in the fall in order to reduce the number of chalcis flies emerging in the field the following spring. 692 GRASSES AND LegumMrnous Crops 1xn New York THE CLOVER FLOWER-MIDGE Dasyneura leguminicola Lintner The clover-midge is generally distributed throughout New York, where it is one of the most important causes for the failure of the seed crop. It was first discovered in the vicinity of Albany in the late seventies. This pest is usually associated with the clover-seed chalcid and it is often difficult to determine which is responsible for the greater part of the damage. The parent insect is a minute, delicate, two-winged fly about one-twelfth inch in length. The head and thorax are black and the abdomen reddish. The flies appear in the clover fields when the Fie. 663. Tor CLOVER FLOWER-MIDGE, FEMALE. Eee (Renan ation Webwieh plants are beginning to head. The female (Fig. 663) is provided with an extensile ovipositor at the tip of the abdomen by means of which she is enabled to insert her minute yellowish to orange eggs down into the flower-head, where they are glued to the -hairs of the calyx tube. The eggs hatch in about three days and the young maggot works its way between the petals of the unopened flower, enters the ovary, and devours its contents. The infested flower-buds remain aborted and the corolia usually does not open. Where a large proportion of the flower buds are infested the head remains green or becomes distorted. The larvae feed during June and emerge from the heads about the first of July. The mature maggots are about one-twentieth inch in length and white to orange in color. On leaving the heads they descend to the ground where most of them spin cocoons within which they pupate. The insect remains in the pupal state for about three weeks. The flies of the second brood are most abun- dant during the last week of July and the first half of August. Crover INsEcTs 693 A large proportion of the larvae of the second brood leave the heads and hibernate in the ground, but some of them remain in the clover heads. There are two full generations annually in New York and there is thought to be a partial third brood in some years. Control. In case the grower desires to harvest a crop of seed the hay crop should be cut rather early, by the middle of June. This will destroy a large proportion of the first brood of the clover blossom-midge and will cause the second crop of clover to mature earlier and thus be past the susceptible stage when the second brood of flies appears during the last of July. Fortunately the early cutting of the hay crop is a good practice for other reasons. THE CLOVER SEED-CATERPILLAR Enarmonia interstinctana Clemens Another serious enemy of clover seed is a small dirty white caterpillar that feeds in the flower-heads, the clover seed-cater- pillar. (Fig. 664.) This pest is widely distributed in New York State, is usually abundant and occasionally very destructive. The parent moths appear in our fields during the latter part of May, remaining on the wing for about a month. The moth has an expanse of about one-third inch. The fore wings are brownish in color and each has along its front margin eight oblique silvery 4. 664. Tae-Crover Suep-CATER- white marks. On the posterior PILLAR. (@) LARVA; (b) PUPA; hate ‘ : i (c) Morn (f&NLARGED); (d) margin are two nearly parallel NATURAL SIZE. curved marks which, when the (After Osborn) wings are closed, form, with those on the other side, two con- spicuous silvery crescents. The female deposits her nearly cir- cular, slightly flattened, greenish eggs on the green flower heads. On hatching, the young caterpillar eats its way into the head where it feeds upon the unopened flower buds and the tender green seeds, usually spoiling the whole head. The full-grown 694 GrassEs AND Leqguminous Crops In New York caterpillar is about one-third inch in length, dirty white in color, and is often tinged with greenish or orange. The caterpillar reaches maturity in about a month and transforms into a small brownish pupa within a silken cocoon in its burrow. A second brood of moths fly during the latter part of July and a third brood appears in September. There are therefore three genera- tions annually. The insect usually hibernates in the pupal stage. Control. ‘The principal injury to the seed crop is caused by the second brood of caterpillars working in the green heads. Since the flight of the second brood of moths occurs at the time when the greatest number of clover-seed midges are on the wing, the same measures will be found effective for the control of both. VALUE OF CLOVER AS STOCK FEED D. P. Wrrtrr, Berkshire, N. Y. Farmers’ Institute Lecturer THE FUNCTIONS OF FOOD The value of any one article of food depends to some extent upon what is desired to be accomplished, with what other foods it is to be fed, its digestibility, palatability, and many other conditions. As all animals need certain elements to maintain life, if growth, production, or labor are performed, additional food will be required to meet these needs. All plants contain all of the elements neces- sary to maintain life and the added re- quirements of growth, labor, and production; but the different plants contain these elements in greatly varying amounts. This fact necessarily makes one plant worth much more than some other plants for feeding. Generally speaking, we may say the plants that contain the elements we desire in largest proportion, and, if fed alone as a roughage, come nearest to being a balanced ration, are most valu- able. The cost of production and condition of soil after the crop has been removed should also be taken into consideration, but a treatise on growing clover may be found elsewhere in this bulletin, therefore that phase of the subject will not be considered in this article. (See page 2854.) VALUE OF CLOVER AS A SOURCE OF PROTEIN OR NITROGEN It is very fortunate for the farmer that the plants containing the most expensive elements of food in greatest amount also leave most in the roots to rot and enrich the soil. The most expensive element in food, for both plants and animals, is nitrogen. This is found to greater extent in clover than in most other plants, about one-sixth of the protein being nitrogen. [695] 696 GrassEs anD Lecumrinous Crops 1n New York Rations for milch cows — growing or laboring animals — should be combined in about the same manner, and should contain about one part of digestible protein to five or six parts of the digestible materials that furnish heat and energy, with sufficient mineral to meet the needs of the animal. CLOVER HIGH IN MINERAL MATTER Many times the mineral in a ration is not considered, but this should be done for several reasons, as follows: the bones are built and maintained largely from mineral matter; if milk is being produced, young developed, or both, additional mineral is required ; a full supply of digestible mineral in the food also aids digestion. The exact amount of mineral required by an animal for any given work has never been determined, but we know that when animals are fed timothy hay, straw, cornstalks, gluten feed, and the like, all of which are deficient in mineral content, they soon show a lack cf mineral. Their desire to chew bones and to obtain mineral in other ways, and in some cases premature dropping of their offspring, are indications that their food is deficient in this element. We also know when animals are being fed for any length of time on clover hay, alfalfa, cottonseed meal, oil meal, and other foods rich in ash these conditions do not prevail very long. The wise feeder will therefore see that some of either or both of these grasses or grains that he feeds contain a good supply of mineral. ; COMPARATIVE VALUE OF CLOVER We naturally fix the value of one plant by the value of other plants that can be grown in the same locality and with the same ease. Let us consider the composition and digestibility of a few of the plants most commonly. grown on New York farms for roughage. POUNDS OF DIGESTIBLE MATERIAL IN 1,000 PounDs Ash Protein Total Ratio Cloverjhay ewe Abe ee ee 66 T1905 10" sees Mimaothyehiay: Wee eens te 4 44 28 481 LGD 1-16.22 Oatistiraw Wie Sa ie Sess: 51 138 426 1-381.8 Wornstalls is eic ohio ene 12 14 342 1-23.4 VALUE oF CLOVER As Stock FEED 697 From the above table it will be seen that clover hay carries considerably more ash, from more than double to over five times as much digestible protein, and a greater amount of total digestible nutrients. The protein being the most expensive element, it makes clover hay considerably more valuable than any of the other foods mentioned. Clover hay cut at the proper time, which is during full bloom, is eaten by stock with a good relish; this adds to its digestibility. At a price for the digestible nutrients in clover hay based on the cost of these elements in concentrated feeds, it is worth $17.82 a ton. At the same price for the nutrients in good oat straw, the straw is worth $9 a ton. This does not mean that the prices men- tioned would be relatively correct if both were fed alone. It might be true with clover hay, which is practically a balanced ration of itself; but oat straw is so low in elements required to feed and nourish the muscles and nerves that an animal would starve to death in time if fed on it alone. If we mix one ton of good oat straw with one ton of clover hay, the mixture will be quite equal in feeding value to two tons of meadow hay, and in that case the straw would be worth #9 a ton. In any way we turn the question of the value of clover as a food, its great superiority over any plant that is so generally grown in New York state is apparent. As a food for horses it has not been considered very safe, except when fed in small amounts ; however, for cows, sheep, hogs, and all growing animals it has no equal except alfalfa and some other legumes, which are and probably ever will be grown here only in hmited quantities. The nutritive ratio of clover is about right for milk production. As it contains a high percentage of mineral, animals fed on it, either as pasture or hay, will develop strong bones. Every part of the body will also be well nourished and satisfactory results will follow. CAUSES OF CLOVER FAILURE Epwarp van Austryng, Kinderhook, N. Y. Director of Farmers’ Institutes If clover were a plant that had not been previously grown in. New York State, the verdict of farmers based on the results of a series of years prior to 1915 would probably be that clover is not adapted to our soil. Based on the evidence of 1915 and up to the fall of 1916, an entirely different verdict would be rendered, to the effect that clover would grow almost anywhere. Neither opinion would be a just one, and the latter may need revision before the harvest of 1917. The reason for the successes now so much in evidence is chiefly an abundance of moisture; given this, and even “ the desert will blossom as the rose.” In addition there was a winter blanket cf snow, with very little frost beneath, which continued nearly or quite until April 1, and consequently no alternate freezing and thawing, so fatal to the finest stands in the fall. The wise man in any line of endeavor is not he who looks chiefly for the successes, but he who seeks out reasons for possible failure. With these understood and overcome or prevented, success is insured. Therefore, my purpose is to point out causes of failure, that suitable measures may be taken to prevent their recurrence. In this connection I wish to emphasize two or three fundamental facts. First, I would reiterate the oft-repeated statement that he who can grow a crop of clover, no matter what his line of farming, is well on his way to success as a farmer. Therefore, every effort put forth to secure a stand is in the line of good farming. Secondly, it is unwise and uneconomical to sow expensive clover seed on land too poor to grow a decent crop of rye — preeminently the poor-land crop — or on land otherwise unsuited for any one or more of the reasons given below. Were the money available that has been spent for clover seed and waster becaus it was sown where the chances were all against it, it would be enough to pay [698 ] CausrEs or CLovER FAILURE 699 for necessary drainage and suflicient lime to have overcome these too frequent handicaps, not to speak of manure and fertilizer. This caution is very important at this time when clover has grown so luxuriantly that many will be inclined to sow it with a lavish hand, forgetting past failures and that the favorable conditions existing for the past two seasons are unlikely to be repeated immediately. A young man of my acquaintance purchased a run-down farm of naturally light land, devoid of vegetable matter. He was handi- capped for lack of funds, but for three years in succession he spent $60 annually for clover seed, and during that entire period he harvested four loads of what might be termed clover hay. When I advised him not to sow clover, he expressed surprise. After I had pointed out what: that $180 might have done for him in other lines and the almost certainty that like failure would result from a similar expenditure unless humus were restored, he saw my point and has since been giving attention to other more certain and less expensive methods of soil improvement. After this rather lengthy but necessary introduction, I will take up in order of their importance some causes of failure with very brief suggestions as to remedy. LACK OF MOISTURE That abundant rainfall has been chiefly responsible for the growth of clover referred to warrants my placing lack of moisture first. Note, I do not say rainfall, but moisture, for we can in no possible way control the falling water, in either the early or later rain, but we can control the fallen water to a much greater extent than we do—by surface tillage, thus preventing evaporation ; by vegetable matter in the soil; and by drainage, all of which will receive notice under different heads and are emphasized in other parts of this bulletin. A brief summary of the functions of water emphasizes its vital importance. There will be required 4,100 pounds of water to produce the dry matter in a ton of clover hay. Moisture is neces- sary to make plant food soluble, either applied food or that latent in the soil. I heard an eminent chemist questioned as to why phosphoric acid gave no returns on a certain area of land. He 700 GRASSES AND LEGUMINOUS CRoPps In NEw YorK inquired what was the average vield of grain and on being told asked, ‘‘And you get no increase when you apply sufficient phos- phorie acid to grow trom three to five bushels more?’ Being again answered in the negative, he said: ‘‘ Evidently you have sufficient phosphoric acid and enough water to grow the first-named amount. It is as necessary to increase the water to obtain an increased yield as it is the plant food.” The illustration is illuminative. Again, moisture is necessary for the development of soil bacteria. POOR DRAINAGE At. first glance this might seem like a contradiction. There is a great difference between a soil saturated with water and one with a film of water surrounding the soil particles. The former is waterlogged; air and heat — both vital to plant growth and soil activities — are shut out; it becomes sour. Plants are shallow- rooted on such soil, and are therefore easily thrown out by the spring frost. When the surface becomes dry later in the season, they wither and die. Such land remains cold a long time, and nitrification cannot take place. It is a well-established fact that a well-drained soil is not only dryer in a wet time, but that it con- tains more moisture in a dry one. Many a dollar spent for clover seed is almost certain to be lost when the seed is sown on undrained, water-saturated soil, while money laid out for drains would return manifold and certain returns for years to come. ACIDITY OF SOIL It matters not how fertile is the soil and how full of necessary bacteria — if it is acid, clover will not grow. It took me thirty years to learn this lesson, and the loss of many dollars through clover failure — and this on rich, well-drained land, because it was acid. Lime solved the problem; in this case half a ton of caustic lime or one ton of ground limestone was sufficient. ‘Two years’ experiments on other fields of a different character indicate that twice this amount is necessary for a satisfactory growth of clover. A tester costing about $5, known as “Dr. Truog’s soil acidity tester”, made by the Central Scientific Company, 420 Orleans St., Chicago, will very accurately determine the amount of lime needed. Many of the farm bureau managers have this tester; all should have it. TOL CavusEs OF CLOVER FAILURE GNV] daWIIN a da NV dqdawi TT No umaor1g aay — G99 dL 702 GRASSES AND LEGuMINOUS Crops In New YorxK Lime is a necessary plant food for clover. Each ton of clover hay contains from 45 to 65 pounds of lime. In many soils there is not enough available lime to supply this need, and the crop suffers both in quality and quantity. It may not be out of place, after emphasizing the importance of lime in clover production, to say emphatically that it will not furnish moisture, provide other kinds of plant food, drain the land, nor fit the soil. LACK OF AVAILABLE PLANT FOOD Clover turned under, or clover sod, will increase the nitrogen and the vegetable matter in the soil, but it will return only what mineral matter it took from the soil, hence the necessity of adding potash and phosphorie acid. While clover will help build up soil, it is useless to sow it on land too poor to grow less-exacting crops ; yet how often we hear or read the advice given in answer to the question, ‘“ How shall I restore my poor soil?” “ Sow clover and plow it under.” To sow it is easy — but expensive. On such land, however, there will be little opportunity to plow it under. No applied fertilizer is so certain to give returns in growing clover as manure. It not only contains plant food, but supplies humus-making material of the very best sort. It acts as a mulch and is an important and often necessary medium for the spread of clover bacteria. I know of no place where manure will bring greater and more lasting returns than when applied to clover, either at time of seeding or in late summer or fall. Six or seven tons per acre applied with a spreader has more than once made the difference between a large and a poor crop. After the former, the land was naturally better for the clover crop. | Next to manure, potash usually pays best on clover. The present high price for this commodity is prohibitive. Wood ashes are a good source of this element and contain a small amount of phos- phorie acid and considerable lime. One can usually purchase the last two in other forms at less cost. Much of the so-called “ wood ash”? of commerce contains very little potash or anything else of value. Such should always be purchased under a guaranteed analysis of potash and other plant foods contained. Real ash wil! show an average analysis of about 5 or 6 per cent potash and 1% Causes oF CLOVER FAILURE 703 per cent phosphoric acid, although I have purchased that which ran as high as 8 per cent potash. A half-ton of 5 per cent ash applied to an acre would contain only 50 pounds of potash, or as much as is contained in 100 pounds of muriate. Phosphoric acid is also a very necessary factor. Usually this can be most economically supplied in aeid phosphate, in which form it is quickly available— most important for the young clover. While clover is a nitrogen gatherer, it cannot do this until it has attained size and considerable leaf growth. For this reason nitrogenous manures show good effects, as has been stated. If there is an abundance of nitrogen in the soil, the evidence is that the plant will take little from the air; therefore, it is unwise to give the clover an excess of this element when it is well grown. Nevertheless, it is absolutely necessary for its best growth that it should have enough to give it a start. I have used from 75 to 100 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre with marked results. Being quickly soluble in cold weather, this is the most economical form in which to buy nitrogen. VEGETABLE MATTER This is closely allied to the question of fertility, for the amount of nitrogen in any soil is always commensurate with the quantity of vegetable matter 1t contains. Decaying vegetable matter produces an acid that liberates locked-up mineral matter in the soil, of which we are told there is an abundant supply. It also acts as a sponge to retain moisture. As I am writing, there has been a period of about two weeks with- out rain. A field of corn just west of the highway is curling for lack of moisture, the soil being deficient in vegetable matter. In two fields across the road belonging to different men there is corn with a much more abundant growth, making a greater demand for moisture, but there is not a sign of curl. There, the soil is full of humus. Again, vegetable matter, ike manure, is a necessary breeding place for soil bacteria. There are usually clover bacteria in land where clover has been previously grown; but, unless there is decaying vegetable matter present in fair amount, these’ cannot 704 GRASSES AND Lecuminous Crops In New YorkK multiply. In this connection I would say that usually it is not necessary to sow the bacteria of red clover. It is true, however, that occasionally good results are obtained by inoculation, as with alfalfa. A soil may be so acid as to have destroyed all bacteria ; or so long a period may have elapsed since clover was grown on the land, or manure from clover-fed stock applied, that the bacteria are no longer present. When other conditions seem right and clover still fails, I should recommend an application of bacteria, either in soil from an old clover field or in a prepared culture applied to the seed. It will, however, be of no use to sow bacteria unless there is moisture enough and soil conditions are such as to keep it alive and allow it to multiply. POORLY PREPARED LAND While it is true that for the past two years we have seen clover grow on the poor earth along the highway and other like places, we must keep in mind that only an abundance of water has made this possible. Many a crop failure is due to soil so poorly fitted that the tiny plant roots cannot penetrate, even when there is enough soil to cover them. is eh (Zite) > sien! = | on | <4) tes I a pe EH HH -. = Vom Ss AUS Os a) Hea FE ey Dp sal nN, 474 i a oS =) Belvidere; Nw Yorass a5 2. Borden’s Farm Product Division, New York City Bennettisuvic SWaaccvsicieciecccirenec Angelica, N. Y., R. F. D.| Arkport Creamery Co., Arkport, Nee Birdsalli@ep svn acieyetesevewicts-otieieete Birdsall, N. Y...........| C. Nusbickel, Dalton, N. Y. Black ‘Creek, Mi S..:..-6,c006 5 ore Black C@reelkes. ies. <1. ms Borden’s Farm Product Division, New York City. IB rOOKSIG EH Cra ger ey ool na.ckeraissakerons/ exe RushtordsNe is oc.iej- «- Geo. N. Caner. Brown & Bailey, Cond........... PANIC OVE ING WY civeie sere oe - Brown & Bailey, Brooklyn, N. Y. [807] DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ALLEGANY County — (Continued ) NAME OF PLANT Caneadea, C. & M.S...... Centerville, CG Bier oo... ClarksyallewiC nee ee ese ColdiSpringa@t eases eee cee Crawford! Creek, /@.. 22). 5+ «cee Cryderi Creek Canina selsenee cen e GrystaliSpring vB esseect sees Cuba niCond ey navea yee recon Cuba Ice Cream Plant, I. C....... Cuba;Summit, MoS) obese. cee HlmAVialley,e Nis Sieaes ke chee cles Fillmore, Cond. & M.S.......... BiverCormers, Co. 2th eee: oe ordss*Brook, |\@ikis.toeic. geen. os Green’s Corners; (C2ise 6. soe Frallsport iG $0 Meee ee tictokes Haltlsport, Ms) see ree Aa de ee Hardysi Corners; Can vse aoe eee ce Houghton, C. & M.S............ Ima vale sn Gerrit cxs,cievese a cana os DELSCYV MEM A teveurkelpeisiapeiaie octets fe arr eVialley Gee ate rereteteys) sasyctence © SEEMS YG rcteperexacs co oietovene a cueieselencints Keystone. Ga ae ere Cece ts Meat ert yin Ogee peso epevelons arole Jones syste 42 Iortile! Genesee, (Cvs iis eveicin slereistes MeGrawvillen( cre acsisies eiseingas Mots Monroe Geen cys aieers cislets one New. Union, ©)pits acceye wore ceietejopoe Parker Gyo beGs arspe telsbews teegene valerie Petrolia sCincie epee ieee ee IPOGONGUE NC ces tieiicane ot torenoner P. O. ADDRESS @aneadeaswNewYim. cess Genteryalles IN; Yn... Clarksville, N. Y........ Angelica, N. Y.,R. F.D.1 Caneadea, N. Y., R. F. D. Almond; Ne Yeees see see Guba; (NOY ape Cuba Navas hace eee Cuba; Ni ¥4; Re BD. 2s Wellsville, N. Y., R. F. D. bilities INig YC555 5465545 Almond, N. Y., R. F. D. 1 Wellsville, N. Y., R. F. D. Hiriendship,, Nawaeeece ss Andover, N. Y., R. FD... Wellsville, N. Y., R. F. D. Cuba, N.WieaRt PDs. 2: Houghton, Ne Y<.--sey- oe Friendship, N. Y., R. F. D Arkport, Nac, Eve. De Almond, N2Y.) RB Ds. Whitney Crossing, N. Y., Cuba, No Ye; Robe Drs). Caneadea, N. Y., R. F. D. AngelicawiNin Vere niee te Cuban Ne Woke Dee Little Genesee, N. Y..... Black Creek, N. Y. Rushford, N. Y., R. Fillmore, N. Y., R. F. Black Creek, = id} 1D), @larksvaillescN: Wessock Oramel TINee View eiicisieeeie Dalton eNeayo «ck nee Wellsville, N. Y., R. F. D. Rushford Ne Ys aces NAMR OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Richardson—Beebe Co., rora. Richardson—Beebe Co., East Au- rora. M. M. Congdon. A. S. Phinney. East Au- James Murdough. F. B. Boyce, Wellsville. C. M. Kaple. Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., New York City. W.N. Pettit & Co. Borden’s Farm Product Division, New York City. Borden’s Farm Product Division, New York City. Richardson-Beebe Co., East Au- rora. Efner E. Potter. Mark Costello, Wellsville. Borden’s Farm Product Division, New York City. John Costello. Mark Costello, Wellsville. Borden’s Farm Product Division, New York City. C. E. Pettit. Richardson—Beebe Co., East Au- rora. B. C. Pierce. Daniel Manning. B. C. Brasted. C. H. Perkus. E. 8S. Moses. F, W. Hogue, Cuba. John McCubbin. W.N. Pettit, Cuba. J. E. Case. F. W. Hogue, Cuba. F. W. Hogue, Cuba. T. Eberhart. John Boller. C. C. Hull, Wellsville. Chas. Nusbickel. M. M. Congdon. Richardson-Beebe Co., rora. Chas. Lockwood. Wm. Costello, Wellsville. P. B. Loftis, Houghton. East Au- Darry Srarions AND FAcTORIES 809 ALLEGANY County — (Concluded) _ | NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS PrattiseValisnC@s . ersise:.< 3a0...4 Fillmore, N. Y., R. F. D..| Wm. Harris, Rushford. Rawson C oss.0c;. bra Mca ae Cuba, N. Y., R. F. D....| F. W. Hogue, Cuba. Richburg Gey..ci.» ssa 28 Soeeek & Richbung Nee ete Milo Babbett. Rockvilley dso, aa eaceeore | eevockcvalle: WN). Ue... 2 ay acres Richardson-Beebe Co., East Au- rora. Rossburgs|© hr; ead. Ailes ee Le piree unis NV EAS Be Boo eae R. Davis. Rushford iGe no nseccR ae aoe oe RushiGrdeyNigevin sh. cess a F. W. Hogue, Cuba. Scion Cond ati Messe ys -ierieise SClO; New Yee reteraarit-te epee = Borden’s Farm Product Division, New York City. Shongon@¥ <2 4acanwes eet as: Sinoveroy Nis Mosseercnpor E. J. Johnson. ShoLpwelrackssC one atoee cee: Fillmore, N. Y., R. F. D.| Richardson-Beebe Co., East Au- rora. Silners’ Ice Cream Plant......... Belfastrcca.mre misctantians R. H. Silners. platen|@reelkiGrss.. 4. Soe ee eee Canaseraga, N. Y.......] John Swain. : Southi@ubaniGis cies beeteds. Cubay NAYenRaE eS Dase..| ES. Moses. South Pacles Gey $< tee oe @enterville; N; ¥........ Wm. Harris, Rushford. South Valley, C..... ety SAGs 4 oo Ae Canaseraga, N. Y....... Mary Moore. Standard Corners, M.S.......... WiellsvilleyNawYiasssaeee - Borden’s Farm Product Division, ; New York City. SEAT IC Me 3 45 TAMA ae cts os Hilimore: Nese Wm. Harris, Rushford. DY aA 6) 0) ( O53 ee ane i er ptert Ciera Alfred Station, N. Y..... A. C. Baker. Vandermark;) Nol, (Chast). Selos NEVA. sae eae L. G. Tucker. Wadsworthvbll | @Atyaee nae: SclO; Nig Dee. F. W. Brasted. Wrelisville; Wit Sint se Soe. WrellsvillesiN: Yia-.-2 <0... Borden’s Farm Product Division, New York City. Wellsville Dairy Products, C......| Wellsville, N. Y......... Geo. M. Horner. WiestfAlmond, Cy veuelasti. eee <.): Almond, N. Y., R. F. D. 1.) A. A. Raymond. Wied tyr eG oe x <2 ya. et eee Caneadea, N. Y., R. F. D.| F. W. Hogue, Cuba. West: ‘Branch? 'C. 1. ase etc he Franklinville, N. Y., R. F. Die aes Ase tae. F. W. James. WiestuNiWles iC oia carer eters AS See Ss Nes INE NS A eee eel. Henry Wyant. Wihite Creekai@ab cnet... tsk: Black Creek, N. Y., R. F. aD IKE, eR eroe cin oOo F.S. Guilford. Whitesville Dairy Co., C......... Whitesville, N. Y........ Whitesville Dairy Co. Wallet BataterCrsek «hte Seitolee. < « Belmonte. Vossacn sce Willet Estate. Wilsons. Cit. frttd cits de tees. Black Creek, N.Y...... E. S. Moses, Cuba, R. D. WartiCenter, Cars. «seer ees Ba oe: INDIG ING crib Dyin aa Henry Wyant, Nile. BROOME CouUNTY ATOM SHES Ste dish avd alah aic.scyd a ee ARE THislemINe pxhewsy sere ist hea Jesse Arnold. BAL KEP IVES ccietey ockorneitioc emeeet [etre ie BN Sa Ce Re mee a Hudson Milk & Cream Co., 170 Sixth st., Hoboken, N. J. Barnum Via Seas aoe ee Johnson City, N. Y...... Chas. W. Barnum. Binghamton Ice Cream Co., M.S..! Binghamton, N. Y....... Binghamton Ice Cream Co. Broome County, M.S........... Binghamton, N. Y.......| Binghamton Ice Cream Co. Center-Lisle-Borden, M.S........ Center Lisle, N. Y....... Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Center Lisle-High Ground, M.S8...| Center Lisle, N. Y....... High Ground Dairy Co., 447 Madison Ave., Brooklyn, N.Y. Center Village: Mi.) 3/5 .ve<< oe sels Center Village, N. Y..... Sheffield Farms Slawson Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Ciadwieksr Me Siar. opsrecayaroyst aor - Binghamton, N. Y....... C. E. Chadwick, 239 Vestal ave. 810 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Broome Country — (Continued) NAME OF PLANT Cloughs Corner, B. & C Clover Farms, M.S Conklin, M. 8 Crowley, M.S Deposit-Borden, M.S Deposit-Mutual, M.S8...... East Windsor, M.S Endicott, M.S Endicott-Borden, M. 8 Evergreen; IM: 'S). 2. (Siok oe sh. GulfiSummiut, Mi. Sie eeeee es. aa: Halls, M.S Harpersville, M.S Honey Bee Farms, M.S8.......... Jones, M.S Killawog, M.S Kirkwood, M.S Langdon, M.S Lisle-Borden, M.S Lisle-High Ground, M.S Mian: SB eat Ben ep eceeesrkes oe Mattoon, M.S McClure, M.S McNamara & Hickey, M.S...... Nanticoke): BY ccs ce cis ee eee North Fenton, M.S Ouaquaga, C Robinson, M.S Sanataria Springs, M.S eee ewe er eee rere sense Sanford, B | |NAMR OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS P. O. ADDRESS | .. F. W. Janssen, 316 Garden st. | Hoboken, N. J. Clover Farms Co., 60 Exchange st. Sheffield Farms, Slawson Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. | Crowley Milk Co. | Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York i . City. | Mutual McDermott Dairy Co., 214 East 22nd st., New York City. | Sheffield Farms, Slawson Decker | Co., 524 West 57th st., New | York City. Endicott Creamery Co. Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Lee & Heath, Winding Way. Alex. Campbell Milk Co., 802 Fulton st., Brooklyn, N. Y. Hall & Co., 33 Court st. Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., Whitney’s Point, N. Y.. Binghamton, N. Y Corbettsville, N. Y Binghamton, N. Y Deposit, N. Y Deposits wNwxeicictoce East Windsor, N. Y Endicott, N. Y Endicott, N. Y Binghamton, N. Y....... Gulf‘Summit, No Yo-o2=- Binghamton, N. Y Harpersville, N. Y 108 Hudson st., New York City. Port Dickinson, N. Y....| F. W. Parsons. Binghamton, N. Y.......| Levi W. Jones. Kallawogs Neve cise eer C. D. Stretch. Kirkwood, N. Y.........| N. Y. Dairy Produce Co., 388- 392 Oakland st., Brooklyn,N.Y. KarkwoodsiNeaeccmisieie Alex. Campbell Milk Co., 802 Fulton st., Brooklyn, N. Y. Daisey SNR A aviscte aletelerete Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. ‘aisles NSA: tc 2c Cte High Ground Dairy Co., 447 Madison st., Brooklyn, N- Y. Maine; NOY eer elereterecchecc rac Kinney Bros. Hndicott; INeNee ae cece: Miller & Sturges. IMic@luresyNioVc seem Ideal Dairy Co., 203 West 20th st., New York City. McNamara & Hickey, 238} Clin- ton st. H. R. Hurley, Hope, N. Y. Binghamton, N. Y....... Nanticoke, N. Y Chenango Forks, N. John F. Wildi, Evap. Milk Co., Columbus, Ohio. W. J. Peach, Pulaski, N. Y. W. Hotaling, 22 Edwards st. Meyer Zausner, 1504 Park ave., New York City. C. D. Eldred. Ouaquaga, N. Y Binghamton, N. Y Binghamton, N. Y....... Sanford, N. Y Datry Stations AND FACTORIES 811 Broome County — (Concluded) NAME OF PLANT Schoonover Minis emetic Arising les Bode saikiai ee cin, fae Munnell Station; Cisaece cece Tunnell-Borden, M.S........ Tunnell-Stevens, M.S....... Wnion Center, Bacitk ee Walloniatebtorcnicctinerteielesreicvee Wandsore MEI Szpee,. ters) levornie cr Apbotter NO: 21G seer tecteree soe Ashford Hollow, ©....5 <1.) Ashford Junction, C......... Arcola t Gte ete. teetcte co tetoser terete Bakerstanda© sere evict Bedford Corners, C.........- Bellows @ian mate oclewrs ae er Brosdwiy,. Os. Sore secens » Bucktoothy ©? .miee-s ee on UlOckiG neers sisted cetete loiepete @WanadanFiills'C nae cretevctentcrlelete C@antaraupis, Chraactscre ete cha Cattaraurus) ME. Se eect ve City Milk Depot, M.S....... Conewango, B. & M.S....... Daytons, Miz Stereeveet clevsias's, 6 Melavan’) Case. ss ae} e NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS P. O. ADDRESS aE Jdobnson City Ne Wace. W. T. Schoonover. wero ebriangle Niwot sient = F. W. Janssen, 316 Garden st., Hoboken, N. J. Hee abummnells Ne Woscrcrenecralece Vito Villeceo. eee etiam ely Nin srertaveternlorarete Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. ical (sud Gildas eas cola coco’ R. F. Stevens Co., 94 Third ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. Sean liUinion! Genter wNe We ckras Binghamton Ice Cream Co., Binghamton, N. Y. ....|' Whitney Point, N. Y:.... Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Nineveh, N. Y., R. F. D.| Brown & Root Co., 167 Reade st., New York City. Anoall Nrainckiae, INoeeooacoal0s¢ Empire State Dairy Co., 502 Broadway, Brooklyn, N. Y. ....| Whitney Point, N. Y..... Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. F. W. Janssen, 316 Garden st., Hoboken, N. J. Whitney Point, N. Y.... CATTARAUGUS COUNTY Franklinville, N. Y., R. F.| Ae ke 5 he eee George Nix, Ischua. ....| West Valley, N. Y., R. F 1) Sp ayrehepetntin Comers eS = Pare Clifford Bond, Springville. aoe | PAshtord:sNigays. E. L. Jones, Delevan. ....| Conewango Valier N. a [et OND, pees oir b Bois H. S. Sweetland, South Dayton Machias, N. Y. R. F. D E. L. Jones, Delevan. eee eortvalles ING Wieky. iki D. E. L: Jones, Delevan. ....| West Valley, N. Y., R. F. 1D Rn Ae iin aera Isaac Neff. ...-| Delevan, N. Y., R. D.1..| E. L. Jones, Delevan. @lean:, Ni. Ws ame ete H. K. Brooks, 127 Bavey st. G@owandan ON Vics cer ete). J. F. Hanson. Little Valley, N. Y., R. F. DS ee chs. yaks s Ses Ira Marsh. ....| Franklinville, N. Y., R. F. iD eet yey eit nll 2 Oe erg Geo. E. Hogue, Areade, N. Y. ».)..| South Dayton) Nei... 2. F. T. Bush. ....| Ellicottville, N. Y., R. F 1 DER a aeter: Gis Acco iol G. C. Wulff. Machias, N. Y., R. F.D.. Cattaraugus, N. Y....... Cattaraugus, N. Y....... Salamanca, N. Y........ Conewango Valley, N. Y., E. L. Jones, Delevan. Rich Jersey Creamery Co. Queen City Dairy Co., Buffalo. Samuel 8. Nelson. [oad deg Die tears mires ees Rich Jersey Creamery Co., Cat- taraugus. Rae |) Daycon, UNE ON. a eerate Rich Jersey Creamery Co., Cat- taraugus. Delevan; iN: iM fac. che- E. L. Jones, Delevan. 812 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Carraraucus Country — (Continued) NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Mast OttosNor liGas enw wets ees: Bast OctoiNeeynmeeree a Gibby & Evans, Cattaraugus. Hast Otton Nov 2 Cw. cee test Bast OvLo; Ne ee aee eee Gibby & Evans, Cattaraugus. Hasti@tto Nous Ce ee ees ete BastiOttos NowWe.weseiee te. Gibby & Evans, Cattaraugus. HastiOttonNoraiGinvet. & tee tees Hast Oitiio; Nie. seer oe Gibby & Evans, Cattaraugus. . Hast iOtto,INo.ol re see cers sere er LET OM RINE Maaco ao bees Gibby & Evans, Cattaraugus. Hast OptomNowolGs. sinewoner st New Berlin Cooperative Creamery Nineveh Junction, M.S.......... Norwich MG ne wt se ron d. Norwich @ondiyste.) ..6.- Marathon: NaiY) oe. anes 5- McGraw,.N. Y., R. F. D.. MicGrawiNis Xiclouts oc .cicie Messengerville, N. Y..... Prebles Ne, Ne. atPaieacineys2ic« Prabley iN a cars staleloteyeiels,< DCOCt AINE VOL 5 cere oa. diese are Solon; Ne Ye ej teseccaes: Cincinnatus, N. Y., R. F. Reid Ice Cream Co., 524 Waverly ave., Brooklyn. Cincinnatus Dairy Co., Cin- cinnatus, N. Y. Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Geo. F. Davis, McGraw, N. Y. Standard Dairy Co., 611 East 12th st., New York City. Beakes Dairy Co., 206 East 12th st., New York City. Levy Dairy Co., 19th st. and Avenue B, New York City. Henry Rauch, 127 Garden st., Brooklyn. Model Dairy Co., 246 Eighth ave., New York City. The Ekenburg Co. High Ground Dairy Co., 447 Madison st., Brooklyn. Seiler Bros., 272 Plain st.,n Newark, N. J. John Blumers & Bros., 535 East 75th st., New York City. Standard Dairy Co., 611 East 12th st., New York City. R. F. Stevens Co., 94 Third ave., Brooklyn. C. G. Stretch, Killawog, N. Y. Clover Farms, Inc., 534 West 48th st., New York City. C. G. Stretch, Killawog, N. Y. F. W. Janssen, 316 Garden st., Hoboken, N. J. R. F. Stevens Co., 82 Third ave., Brooklyn. R. F. Stevens Co., 82 Third ave., Brooklyn. Otto Gruhn, 223 Borum st., Brooklyn. High Ground Dairy Co., 447 Madison st., Brooklyn. Hudson Milk & Cream Co., 170 Sixth st., Hoboken, N. J. Clover Farms, Inc., 534 West 48th st., New York City. Newark Milk & Cream Co., 22 Bridge st., Newark, N. J. Clover Farms, Inc., 534 West 48th st., New York City. Clover Farms, Inc., 534 West 48th st., New York City. A. H. Loop, Cincinnatus, N. Y. 829 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE CorTLANnp County — (Concluded) NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Paylors Ct ew Mele iae toe ste ‘ayloriNeWceeee eens: Antonio Cueomo, 42 Spring st., : New York City. NaylorsValley;sbe ids Coase sesh. Cincinnatus, N. Y., R. F. 1D On es A aR Dana White, Cincinnatus. MexasiValleysBedi@2 =... see ce oe Marathon, N. Y.........] Cincinnatus Dairy Co., Cin- cinnatus, N. Y. Truxton—Levy, M.S............ Rruxton aN We eee eee Levy Dairy Co., 19th st. and Avenue B, Brooklyn. Truxton—Sheffield, M.S......... Truxton, Ne Wie oe Sheffield Farms, Slawson Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. . Waghtmantsi@in starrer: ceria cis WiarathousiNeeyeeecieieiers or Homer Wightman. WalletttBirds Cian ic oe ete cet. Wallett; INE Woe ser. eee. Beardsley Cooperative *Cream- ery Co. Youngs Crossing, M.S........... Eriaxton Ne pane eee ei Otto Gruhn, 223 Borum st., Brooklyn. DELAWARE COUNTY Andes Creamery, M.S........... AndegmiNenyea ee eters Andes Creamery Co., Inc. Andes Cooperative Creamery, B...| Andes, N. Y............ Andes Cooperative Dairy Co., Ine. ATEN IVES =c.epciscee erste oreiors es OF: ATEN AMIN) Mists bisrlstelss laren Andes Creamery Co., Inc. Ayer & McKinney Creamery, B...| Arctic, N. Y............ Ayer & McKinney, Meridale, IN WY Ayer & McKinney Creamery, B...| Delhi, N. Y............. Ayer & McKinney, Meridale, INRYS Ayer & McKinney Creamery, B...| Elk Creek, N. Y.........| Ayer & McKinney, Meridale, INGaN4 Ayer & McKinney Creamery, B...| Franklin, N. Y.......... Ayer & McKinney, Meridale, NERY? Ayer & McKinney Creamery, B...| Hotaling Hollow, N. Y...| Ayer & McKinney, Meridale, N. Y Ayer & McKinney Creamery, B...| Leonta, N. Y............ Ayer & McKinney, Meridale, NESYS Ayer & McKinney Creamery, B...| Meridale, N. Y.......... Ayer & McKinney, Meridale, N. Y Ayer & McKinney Creamery, B...| South Franklin, N. Y....| Ayer & McKinney, Meridale, . INES Ayer & McKinney Creamery, B...| Treadwell, N. Y......... Ayer & McKinney, Meridale, NEY Ayer & McKinney Creamery, B...| West Davenport, N. Y...| Ayer & McKinney, Meridale, Ney Ayer & McKinney Creamery, B...| West Meredith, N. Y....| Ayer & McKinney, Meridale, INAOYG: Bordens, MASie.c.te ec ener iBloomyailles Nees eee Bordens Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York : City. Bordenss Mims ie oe cheno etter I) elinieeNGSY soe cea Bordens Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York’ City. iBordensy MM. ‘Stee one cee on cote Downsville, N. Y........ Bordens Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Datry Stations AND FAcTOoRIES 823 DetawarE Country — (Continued) NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Bordens# MiiSins2 ayact aes Hamden; NesYieeecneeen Bordens Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. BordensMaiStect. acne Pepacton, N. Y......... Bordens Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York = City. Bordens; MEIS:e Charles H. Helmers. Hamden Cooperative Creamery, B.| Hamden, N. Y.......... Hamden Cooperative Creamery Co. Kortright Creamery, B........... Bloomville, N. Y........ Luke Blake, 99 Sixth ave., New York, City. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Detaware Country — (Continued) NAME OF PLANT Margaretsville, M.S............. Wasonvalle sits, mieten) tena Mierrickvalle, Mi Sano. .2 2 ae te. Moores Crossing, M.S.....:..... Mountainside, M.S.............. Mundale Creamery, B Mutual-McDermott, M.S........ New Kingston Cooperative Creamery, B Ouleout Valley Creamery, B Ouleout Valley Creamery, B Pepacton Creamery Co..........- Phoenix Cheese Co., ©....-....-. Pollis, C. F Sands’ @reelk, UMeiSwaeey. « felon Sheffield Farms, Co., Brookdale, Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker (Of EDS) A eon A ee aoe Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker COoRRNINS RAR neal Sei Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Gos, MES. Perr. 2. tees Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Cos MASS eS ne eee: = Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Cos; Mi SURSRE eof ot me ote: Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Cone MLAS See roel Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Gor VES Saesicms cites tire ere P. O. ADDRESS Margaretsville, N. Y..... Masonville, N. Y........ Merrickville, N. Y....... South Gilboa, N. Y...... Shavertown, N. Y....... Waltons sNOey ces. 26 cake Delancey, N. Y New Kingston, N. Y..... Meridale, N. Y........-. North Franklin, N. Y.... Pepacton, N, Y Sidney, N. Y De Lancey, N. Y........ Hancock, Ne Yec.ne se - Roxbunyee Newer cise a Davenport Center, N. Y.} East Davenport, N. Y.... | Grand Gorge, N. Y...... Halewiddy. Ni. Yi. = « Halcottsville, N. Y.......) NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Hudson Valley Dairy Co., New- burgh, N. Y. Masonville Creamery Co. Beakes Dairy Co., 206 East 12th st., New York City. W. M. Evans Dairy Co., 32 Lex- ington ave., Brooklyn. Mountainside Dairy Co. Mundale Creamery Co. Mutual-McDermott Dairy Cor- poration, 214 East 22d st., New York City. New Kingston Cooperative Creamery Co., Inc. Ouleout Valley Creamery Co, Delhi. Ouleout Valley Creamery Co., Delhi. Breakstone Brothers, 344 Green- wich st., New York City. L. E. Carpenter, 345 Greenwich st., New York City. Pollis Brothers. Chas. H. Helmers. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Dairy Srations AND Facrorires 825 DeLawarEe County — (Concluded) NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Shefheld Farms, Slawson-Decker CoRsMi Sac cots cote cerereie see ob arteINe ays 1 saree ies Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Goris cciersie ve cree ee eietel ee North Harpersfield, N. Y.| Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Comrie See cae oe eee) 2 Ioxburynn Neen aie ae Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker ConiMeS, sacra te eee aoe: Stamford Naor soe cee Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Com VUN Or eente ate cinvaistestarrere crete West Harpersfield, N. Y.|. Sheffield: Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. South Kortright, M.S........... South Kortgight, N. Y...| T. O. Smiths Sons, New York City. IWiesteD lh Ske Stace dete sy sechs Delhi, N. Y., R, F. D. 2..} Delhi Cooperative Dairy Co. 2. West Hanson Brook Creamery....! Franklin, N. Y.,R.F.D.1} West Hanson Creamery Co., 84 Delaware st., Walton, N. Y. West Kortright, M.S......... -..| West Kortright, N. Y....} T. O. Smiths Sons, New York City. DuTcuHess County Billingse Vie Sees. tots sees Meee BillingssNUSYaee eee ee Locust Farms Co., 458 Tenth ave., New York City. Bordense Mics nccscecce ce nae Hopewell Junction N. Y..| Bordens Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. IBOLAenS WENO es cin Po ote eoens Millerton; N. YW... .-..m- Bordens Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. BOVGeNS Viel Sule. sere sie cle marclsto aie ‘Pine PlainsyNevieen o- oe. Bordens Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. IBordensyMiaS sy ivsccsecstrctowmtaa stele Red Hooks Ni, Yis5 «20 Bordens Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Borders ee Sieve cic cna Nertersrotevers Stanfordville, N. Y...... Bordens Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Bordensy Me S.i. ccscs cee vee cues iWassalo, SNP Nae ss tas 322 Bordens Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Bordens;, MES io. one ccccce ce ona) WangdalewNaYuee. ... Bordens Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Briar Cliff Farms, M.S........... PinewPlaingyy IN Wisner. cae Walter W. Law, Briar Cliff Manor, N. Y. 826 DeEpPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Dutcuess County — (Continued) NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Brinekerhofts Misuse sate le Brinckerhoff, N. Y...... Hudson Valley Dairy Co., New- burgh, N. Y. Clinton Corners, M.S...........| Clinton Corners, N. Y...| Beakes Dairy Co., 206 East 12th st., New York City. Cooperative, M. B. & C.......... Poughkeepsie, N. Y......| Farmers Cooperative Association. DoverLlams Vin Seem ee eeeierte- Dover Plains, N. Y...... Mutual-McDermott Dairy Cor- poration, 127 West 42d st., New York City. jDe elo’ Wh Baa eondsconoc Hopewell Junction, N. Y., Rt BaD. pees Hudson Valley Dairy Co., New- burgh, N. Y. Fishkill Plains, M.S.......... ..-| Hopewell Junction, N. Y., RED). siesor ens R. F. Stevens Co., 82 Third ave. Brooklyn. Fitchett Brothers, M.S.......... Poughkeepsie, N. Y......| Fitchett. Brothers. Greentilavent Minis acne -eetelemicee Stormville, N. Y.,R.F.D.|} Central Dairy Co., 326 East 103d st., New York City. Veloce ii Shae s Gogo ec apo o0o OOS Holmes Ni ic se faa ee Central Dairy Co., 326 East 103d st., New York City. La Grange Creamery, B.......... Arlington, N. Y., R. F. D.| Henry R. Hoyt, 31 Market st., ‘ Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Isa Grangeyallendvisrsr ere emtetetel sects La Grangeville, N. Y....| Beakes Dairy Co., 206 East 12th st., New York City. Nitllbrook=(Cond> sence cieieieuciete oe Millbrook, N. Y.........| Mutual-MecDermott Dairy Cor- poration, 127 West 42d st., New York City. IN ental Isiaee Gide eebOo Oo OD Om DIC Millerton, N. Y., R. D...| Bryant & Chapman, Hartford, Conn. IRGCLISI@ ic, WE Slo 4 Sondooc05ac0dd Red Hook, N. Y........| Beakes Dairy Co., 206 East 12th st., New York City. Shillin Letesvah yl (is Mne.s mee Om OE-Boe Salt PointelNe yaoi R. F. Stevens Co., 82 Third ave. Brooklyn. Salt hoint: Bac ommcies eters Salt Point; NeeYee oe er Salt Point Cooperative Assoc. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Gor Me $1.5... sasaicteus acess os ACmentiaw Neate feces Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 542 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker CostMiShc ach rice eoorn ee Colemans Station, N. Y..| Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 542 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., Dover Furnace, M.S......| Dover Plains, N. Y., R. BR Disereceew cerns Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 542 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker CosuMieiSu oc baask secretes Pawling, Nig scien che ss Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker : Co., 542 West 57th st., New York City. ShekomekosMisSiaeae ans as eleueieieens Shekomeko, N. Y....... Clover Farms, Inc., 534 West 48th st., New York City. Silver Lake Cooperative, B....... Clinton Corners, N. Y. READ). 4 ee ee Silver Lake Cooperative Cream- ery Association. Dairy STATIONS AND FAcToRIES Durcurss County — (Concluded) NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS Stormville, M.S Stormivilles Newve.. semen WEEDS AVIS or-.cro aisle conn ecieiaes Verbank, N. Y Wappingers Falls, M.S.......... Wappingers Falls, N. Y.. Wappingers Falls, M.S.......... Wappingers Falls, N. Y.. ERIE County Alden Creamery, M.S........... IAG Est Sa area Boston Creamery Association, B. QIN Si rete enace aie oe ey FR OSGOTN es, caee ie eks (avers Snes 2 fe Bigstoun NOs2 Gis enotasele ca Eden, Ne Ws... Hs Des. Brookside, (Croc 2. s\s sssuiaaa ss '8 © Collins’ Centers oo. 2. Borden Con spe oye cteia/aeloqesessto rare Springville, N. Y........ Chaffee Creamery, M.S.......... @hatffee; Nt Yi secs sks. cere @larence Center, Bes. oesccaaee ac Clarence Center, N. Y... @Mlsrences Berea: oe seis egeihe eee ese Colden Creamery, B. & M.S..... @ollins:Genters Minna cae ck ce Collins Center Cooperative Dairy Association, C Crittenden, Creamery, B Clarence, Ni. cy as. ecko - Colden, N. Y Collins Center, N. Y..... Collins Center, N. Y..... @rittendens Nevis. eee Glarences NO: 2. Dts s els cnn slelecsrere = 2 South Newstead, N. Y... @oldentGenters MaS re sclelelciclcrer Glenwood, N. Y......... Gloveriteatn Caan .1telstetetrrctelers a « North Collins, N. Y., ReBLD i ie Meeaer. Glover leat Dairy 7 ose aco © o Butislom Neves see esse Dyer Coe eae occa ae rete dele Springville, N. Y.,R. F. D. rie NOs ls Coo. sas orcetaicre devel es CollinssN.wxeet fee Fs Hast Ooncores Girne, aracretersiey ote avaiele East Concord, N. Y..... iDFciAEwMIbnCh Gregson aopacospece Holland, N. Y., R. F. D. Farmer’s Favorite, C...........- North Collins, N. Y., j 8 eee 13) ©) le pears a Rod Oe aaa edes Sacco Gourie Sardinia, RB; FY Dot. 5.2: Grade A Creamery, M.S......... Jamison Road, N. Y..... Hasselback No. 2, C.........-..-- Derby, N. Y., KR. E. D- Hasselback No. 13, C............ Springville, N. Y., R. F. D. Hasselback No. 18, C............ Marilla, N. Y., R. F. D. Haices Bridger Cae apa ateletreceroet = Sardinia, N. Y., R. F. D. Hayes Elolow, Cri + tele serene Glenwood, N. Y., R. F. D. letilrch, Bie oesteroo sp soadee Hose efolland oNaiNen cha ae etne Wiarshfeld INOS lec ster creistererstatere Lawtons, N. Y., R. F. D. Marshfield No. 29C a... nos eects Lawtons, N. Y., R. F. D. Marilla No. 1, M. S. & Sk. Sta... Miliproview ree acticin ss asia Maple Creamery, B.............. News Orewous Coa a aolae oon atts MarllayNi isc seas ask - Millgrove, N. Y......... Akron, N. Y., R. F. Springville, N. Y., R. NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Central Dairy Co., 326 East 103d st., New York City. Locust Farms Co., 458 Tenth ave., New York City. Farmer’s Cooperative Associa- tion, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Crowley Brothers. Wheat Ice Cream Co., Buffalo. Howard Cobb. C. J. Gaylord. John A. Vance, Lawtons, R. F. D. Borden Condensed Milk Co., New York City. J. F. Wing. E. & E. Weinauge, INeaye Edmund Weinauge & Son. W. H. Rich Estate. Queen City Dairy Co., Buffalo. Clarence, Monroe Grimm. Harry S. Smith. Edmund Weinauge & Son, Clarence. Richardson-Beebe Co., East Aurora. Joseph Bantle. R. & J. Burney, 18 Fifteenth st. Earl Johnson, North Boston. F. A. Brigham. Fred W. Domes. Richardson-Beebe Aurora. Co., East Peter Sheets. E. L. Jones, Delevan. Charles Zapf. _ Hasselback Cheese Co., Hasselback Cheese Co., | Hasselback Cheese Co., E. L. Jones, Delevan. Jacob Imboden. Richardson-Beebe Aurora. John A. Vance. John A. Vance. Adams & Shearing Dairy Co. Godfrey Enkerly. William Barre. Buffalo. Buffalo. Buffalo. Co., East “D. J. A. Vance, Lawtons, R. F. D. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Erie County — (Concluded) NAME OF PLANT North Boston, C Peerless Creamery, Cond........ Ian CASaew ne aioe Cope doodor Prairie Queen, C Perrins brook Ose -ciscreye oisiceperare Protections pHs Sta. eirpele)eleleleueney 2 PinesBroolkis Geis ve nisvs oteieioetes i Porterville, No. 2, Sk. Sta....... Queen’ City, SK. Sta: =... o.-5 Queen City No. 4, M.S......... Sardinia, (Gir Sas fe oe mieten South Colden, Sk. Sta........... South Wales, Sk. Sta........... Wales Center, Cond., B......... IWiestaltill Sk. Sta melissa: Wiest boston Gn cteici crests ietere ¥ : WWOHIBUEGEE Gre cre cic stalets\sicls'eroteus WVOOGELAG AIG ic ccm elotereie sehetnieletersic Adirondack Creamery, B........ Essex Cooperative Creamery..... Farmers Cooperative Creamery... JayA@reamMerryar.'/jeiveriicke eile « Westport Creamery..........-+- Adirondack Creamery, M. & B.... Alburgh Creamery, B..........: Alder Spring Creamery, B....... Belmont Center Creamery, B Brookside Creamery, B......... Brushton Creamery, B..........- Brushton, M.S i ie Burke, M.S Burnap Creamery, B.....2....-- Chateaugay, B...... aisle Chatesugay: Masi ecuiecisierierrs Clover Leaf Creamery Co., B..... Cold Spring Creamery, B........ Columbia Creamery Co., C...... .| North Boston, N. Y BeAllcrons gNie eV ac rac asuecsqe tere .| Angola, N. Y., .| Collin Center, N. Y .| Gowanda, N. Y., R. F. D. .| Protection, N. Y .| South Wales, N. Y .| Whallonsburg, N. Y eee P. O. ADDRESS R. .| Gowanda, N. Y., R. F. D. .| Porterville, N. Y filisbast Aurora, Ni Yis.- cr E|| hawtons, (Ne Meeek nee .| Sardinia, N. Y .| Glenwood, N. Y. R. F. D. : Wales Centers Nix. wae .| Holland, N. Y., R. F. D. A Gent Nie eor eye sD) ar cae ie@oldenwNe wee. vH 0) .a6 .| Springville, N. Y., R. F. DY TS cies ecusisiss @.5 Soe .| Springville, N. Y., R. F. Essex County ol SBoquet,y Nis Yack okies = ae Crown Point, N. Y FRANKLIN COUNTY Bangor, ING Yin. «sc. ncrae .| Brushton, N. Y .| Chateaugay, N. Y....... .| Malone, N. Y. R. F. D... =o) Moira. a. Bs IDE, INeiaia cir) 6 .| Brushton, N. Y .| Brushton, N. Y a} sett Gs INE NGS Salad wa a< Brushton, R. F.D,1, N.Y. I, Chateaugay, Ni. Y.... =. .| Chateaugay, N. Y....... .| North Bangor, N. Y..... .| West Bangor, N. Y...... NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Earl Johnson. Wheat Ice Cream Co., Buffalo. Sebastian Lograsso. Clark White & Son. Merrit Bull. Richardson-Beebe Aurora. I. A. M. Skuse. Adams & Shearing Dairy Co., Marilla. Queen City Dairy Co., Buffalo. Queen City Dairy Co., Buffalo. E. L. Jones, Delevan. Co., BHast Richardson-Beebe Co., East Aurora. Richardson-Beebe Co., East Aurora. Richardson-Beebe Co., East Aurora. Richardson-Beebe Co., East Aurora. Robert Fuller. George Wohlhueter. Edwin H. Russell. William G. Fatty. Charles Grimm. Adirondack Creamery Co. G. H. Kelley, Essex, N. Y. W.S. Green. F. R. Wilmarth. J. H. Low. Norman Wilson, Skerry, N. Y. S. P. & W. B. Knapp. J. E. Leach. Reynolds & Chase, Brainards- ville, N. Y. C. F. Tryon. F. L. Richards. Teitjen Bros., 506 East 118th st., New York City. Mutual McDermott Dairy Co., New York City. Edward Burnett. Chateaugay Cooperative Cream- ery Association. Sheffield Farms, Slawson Decker Co., New York City. F. M. Aldrich. Barber & Fish. Mutual McDermott Dairy Co., New York City. Darry STATIONS AND FAcToRIES. 8 bo wo) Frankurn County — (Concluded) ] | } NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Constable Creamery, B........... Constable, N. Y.........]| Wm. Stebbins. Constables ME Seuss accorhine ce Constable, N. Y.........| Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., New York City. Crystal Spring Creamery, M. S....} Constable, R.F.D.,N. Y.| Franklin County Creamery & Condensed Milk Co., North Bangor, N. Y. AID Te TGs) AS le Geet SeL Ie OREO AIO eS cic Fort Covington, N. Y....| Fort Covington Cooperative Creamery Co. East Dickinson Creamery, B...... Brushtons Nevers soe oe Sandy Ross. Hay: Creamery, Bx... 0034255520 4 Burkes Ne Yes sae cio ess A. H. Fay. Fort Covington Condensary, B...| Ft. Covington, N. Y.....| Franklin County Creamery & Condensed Milk Co., North Bangor, N. Y. Franklin County Creamery & Cond) Mille Cow 52 eee ncesc. North Bangor, N. Y.....| Franklin County Creamery & Condensed Milk Co. Gilt Edge Creamery, B........... Moira NS No.0. ee eras Stiles & Erwin. Gold Coin Creamery, M.S....... Ft. Covington, N. Y.....} Northern Creamery Co., Madrid, IN=PYe GTO WAKA OLA Voyehts es avesilvet Bombayn Neves sche Franklin County Creamery & : Condensed Milk Co., North Bangor, N. Y. Harwood Creamery, M.S........ BrishtonseNeavicieciers eee Franklin County Creamery & Condensed Milk Co., North Bangor, N. Y. Hutchinson, Sk. Sta............-- North Bangor, R. F. D., INE oni erche Sai ee aa Frank B. Allen, Longmeadow, Mass. Keeler Creamery, B..........+-- MalonesNis Vienace cane > T. J. Shields. Malone Creamery, B...........-- INEs ones IN ays. contre oe Kk. H. Walbridge. Wialone;y, Me Ses: cccjon cciclreseutioteke Malones Nig Yi ccisiiere c.-ye Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., New York City. Maple Creamery, B.............- Moras Nia No2i.5.0 cesses Jas. O’Connor. Maple Leaf Creamery, B......... Bangors NG Y. sta: nopsiack te G. C. & C. E.. Walker, North : Bangor, N. Y. Maple Street Creamery, B........ Chateaugay, N. Y., R. 1D ES Ls a ae hee Wills Bros., Chateaugay, N. Y. Wore hy Se BR Coa dco a DOr Cac Moira NE Ne aoe ee ae Levy Dairy Co., New York Citys Mountain Creamery, B.......... Chasm PalisyiNa We. -' = ..5 U. W. Killam. Mountain, ‘Sk: Sta, .cies ie5,-f- «<2 Whippleville, N. Y..:... U. W. Killam. Silver Spring Creamery, B........ Brushton, N. Y., R. D.2.| F. L. Richards, Brushton, N. Ye Skerry Creamery, B............. Skerry stIN aN eterna a etters Norman Wilson. Springdale Creamery, B.........- Dickinson Center, N. Y..| Henry La May. Springfield Creamery......... , 2-2) South Bangor, N.Y... .: Frank B. Allen, Longmeadow, Mass. St. Lawrence Valley Creamery....| Bombay, N. Y.......... Franklin County Creamery & Condensed Milk Co., North A Bangor, N. Y. St. Regis River Creamery, B......| Hogansburg, N. Y....... E. H. Totman. Trout River Creamery, B......... Trout. River, N. Y.......| Franklin County Creamery & Condensed Milk Co., North Bangor, N. Y. West Blemont Creamery, B.......| Malone, N. Y........... J. M. Hapgood. Westville Center Creamery, B..... Westville Center, N. Y...| Franklin County Creamery & Condensed Milk Co., North Bangor, N. Y. 830 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FULTON CouUNTY NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS G@rowniCreamery., «cvs emucke cus ous. Johnstown, N. Y........ Beck & Saltsman. Hagle( Creamery. - os sec se oe a. Gloversville, N. Y....... E. W. Mills, 145 No. Main st. Empire | @reamenry;.. i. sci es oe Gloversville, N. Y....... Wm. Rockwell, 81 East Ful- ton st. Wp hrsa bays | Cieceis weicvsjs le ssc aterspenele st iphrataby Nevin sseeiecc Norman Getman, Johnstown, ING YG Fulton County Milk Co., B....... Johnstown Ne Soe e Rupert & Gross, 8 Water st. WenziCreamerys ace eicn cee Gloversville, N. Y....... W. 4H. Lenz. Sammonsvillen Ca neeoereter nee Johnstown R. F. D. 2, INT BY san css evans oft cae Stsue) = Byron Martin. Wihitlockar © ie.e vs atcicvatcrerec ren torah St.- Johnsville, R. F. D., UN aoc aeceee wate Ne elaeus Ira Whitlock. Wallows@reelk,:C..cnjccsls sie os Ephratahy aNeeXe ee sail A. C. Richard. Beechnut Creamery, B. & C...... Whe Royeioe re chiar len onan J. F. Hager. iBytonl@reamenyarSrereeriieieeair Byronseacccre teenie ome A. G. Steele. arco) DairyasVinise- pe soce oe ee Bata viaerony ere cerceereioe Warren Fargo, 206 Main st. FivzenicsDainyaVie suse sire se Batavias Reb Dees. ccc Augustus Branton. Incdranwbalistiister-teeercenteciccin Indianwballshmemacmescee Samuel Schlegern. Rawillion eBicek is cereale coeents eects Pawallionyeweestetoremiee F. M. Van Buren. GREENE COUNTY Ashland Creamery, M.S......... Ashland siNeey erences ce Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New ‘York City. Farmers’ Creamery Co..........- East Durham, N. Y..... Farmers’ Cooperative Creamery Co. Haleott Center Creamery, B...... Halcott Center, N. Y....| Halcott Center Creamery Co., Walton. Hensonville Cooperative Cream- : Gas 1Binigis otic Meee tit ist kerma eran me Hensonville, N. Y....... Windham Elgin Creamery Co. Windham. Hunter GCreamery.nnsceriecr eects cie Efuntern Ns Woes eieee Max Blum, 146 Reade st., New York City. Lexington Creamery, M.S....... Weexing toms ING Wis ciecie ete ie Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Locust Grove Creamery, B....... Geile ish INL was adiocboao Locust Grove Creamery Co. PrattsvallewDairy! Comber comes ecatts valleniNee Yen errerares Prattsville Dairy Co. Prattsville Creamery, M.S8....... Prattsville, N. Y........| Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Windham Elgin Creamery, B..... iWandham*) NepYeneeneer Windham Elgin Creamery Co. HERKIMER COUNTY BartovHall? Chic teterecis fe coeeeeehs Little Falls, R. F..D..... W. M. Ford. B. & H. Cheese Factory.......... Mohawk, NaYiinoccaene Charles Shout. Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., MieSi resis RBnCclbinooticonnid p HiranktontseNen xen Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., . 108 Hudson st., New York city. Dartry Stations AND Factories S23] Herkimer Country — (Continued) | NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., M. Sis este ater eusisthle tle Seietee a yates Newport, N-DYannsclasen- Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. BuriiGroves;.Ctmes . cece eereem ce Herkimer, R. F. D. 1, IN Men og Oe TOE Ward Wakeman. Bushi@eanctesinae ce vistacee monateee Mohawk, R. F. D. 2, N. Y.| L. Springer. Garpenterti@y 70>. .atiss..oc cece Poland, R. F.D.1, N. Y..| E. W. Coon, Philadelphia, Pa. CaveNSamuel J@s0y hid cee: Cold Brook, R. F. D. 1, INE YS ae ea eal: Jas. P. Nellis. Cedarville’ MS: S555. ease West Winfield, N. Y.....| Levy Dairy Co., New York City. Cedarville Milk and Cream Co....| Cedarville, N. Y........ Phenix Cheese Co., 345-7 Green- wich st., New York City. ColdiBrooka@rn. acacia ColdsBrooks NieYeranee a: F. D. Fox. CWoldi@regks C2 rss ees Dolgeville, N. Y., R. F. D.| Isaac Fox. Cold Spring Dairy Products Co.,C.| Mohawk, N. Y.......... Cold Spring Dairy Products Co. Cramers Corners Cheese Factory ASHOCIATIONE: See eee ae Hort Plain Rens Desc. Cramers Corners Factory Asso- ciation. Crystalispring bee eee ee HerkimeniyNs Ye teases Wm. McKerron. CullenyiGii sca Sere. lest Richfield Springs, R. F. DS 28 Re Paes Aas eis C. Garline. }O fret CRor ie Gan nec Boas born are Mohawk, R. F. D.3..... John D. Cramer. DickerspDairy., Cosas selene eens Cold Brook, R. F. D. 1...| Mrs. C. M. Dicker. Dolgeville Mas? eres... Dolgeville; N.Y:.2.22..- Empire State Dairy Co., New York City. Blasthawantields Niles Ssaee ise aioe West Winfield, R. F. D...| Standard Dairy Co., 611-612 East 12th st., New York City. Hatonyilles C44) astra cls = ate: Little Falls, N. Y........ W. J. Eaton. Fairfield Dairy Association, C.....| Little Falls, N. Y........ T. Atkins. BisherieEay eur. ews) be Cold Brook, R. F. D. 1...| F. J. Fisher. GravesvillesMaSi oceania. Gravesville, N. Y........ Max Blum 146 Reade st., New York City. Pnghamie Ma Sty: ao. ochre. Little Falls, N. Y., R. F. TER a Wak cratatoc ovtvoheroravatiavatone Empire State Dairy Co., New York City. International Milk Products Co., 10 (al Snes MeO? EPRI Aah tee Middleville, N. Y........ International Milk Products Co., Cooperstown, N. Y. Jacksonburg, Ma Ssaeeee eo IWrolraylcsiNie esa i ae Clover Farms, 534-536 West 48th st., New York City. Jordanville Milk & Cream Co.....| Jordanville, N. Y........ Jordanville Milk & Cream Co. IKaste Bridge w Meise aaa meee Herkimer, R. F. D.:2....| T. O. Smith’s Sons. Keller: pAvr@i sir. vicina ibittle Walls; INewYice ic ce. Willard Keller. Keystone Dairy, M.S............ West Winfield, N. Y.....| Keystone Dairy Co., 622 Madi- son st., Hoboken, N. J. HeintaSi Pen Cart .28 eisence oe cae Frankfort, R. F. D.1....| S. P. Lints. Litchfield Milk Co., Inc.......... Dron Near ci. & ones Litchfield Milk Co., Ine., 115 115 Genesee st., Utica, N. Y. LittlostsalsiMamrysed. aeeieeee - sc Little MallayiNe Vers... Modern Dairy Co., 609 West 49th st., New York City. Little Falls, M. S. (Farmers)..... Little:Falls; Ni. Yor.oo.. Little Falls Dairy Co. 832 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Herkimer County — (Concluded) NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS MittlevballsHGs tee reece slau: TetblepHisussiNes Wi. 5 cme T. Atkins. Tittle Walls WMESia ton. ae eeieee LattlesBallss Ne Wace ee: Levy Dairy Co., 19th st. and avenue B, New York City. DP MeArthury Cs. .5- 556. shee oe ColdbBrook-mNiaay seen D. McArthur. IMc@GredyotanOe acta. cssscees Mohawk NS Y c2eeeiine. Willowbrook Dairy Co., New York, N. Y. McKoons Crossing, M.8......... Richfield Springs, R. F. 1D a1: 9 ae Ratan errs ie Brooklyn Milk Co., 262 Bond st., Brooklyn, N. Y. Mace Creamery, M.S............ MiontiN Nivciean eee Ralph Mace. Maiddlevalle, MES 42.75.2524. eee. Middleville, N. Y....... Levy Dairy Co., New York City. IMillerseVinlisse Vien S aie as eeeieernets Millers Mills, N. Y...... Modern Dairy Co., Newark, INGENG Mound @reels, |G... 55-7 ete re Cold Brook, N. Y., R. F. Dvd)... vain eee Eugene Hemstreet. Murphy’s Home Dairy, C........ Salisbury, e Niece eeeee C. H. Murphy. INE wpOLtyVES:aehere ere teats tice ele Newport, INMXnnesice tee Modern Dairy Co.,609 West 49th st., New York City. North Litchfield, M.S............] North Litchfield, N. Y...]| Newark Milk & Cream Co, Newark, N. J. INonthwNionwayn Camaneetiee eie Gray. NY ae eee. Sylvester Stanley. North Winfield, M.S............ West Winfield, R. F. D...| Newark Milk & Cream Co., Newark, N. J. Old! Manheim) (@iaanty. seit eee. Little Falls, .N. Y. R. Be ID ecstevta SARE TINS Old Manheim Cheese Associa- tion. O’Ryan Home Dairy, C.......... Little Falls, N. Y., R. F. ADD gos Nidvcg tevene evens see zrolote Daniel O’Ryan. OldiSalishunyayG@.n = eae es aoe LittlesballssiNenys wees M. C. Burrell, South st., Utica, INFRYE ; Teta) Evaro, tsi chore Bota csi aa ene etiain Poland yNeeYieeenies eee J. E. Rosasco, 138 Morton st., New York City. Putnam & DeVere Creamery, M. RRC eee ipeke ote cihicitioxeee Mferkimer;WNeWices sisters. - Putnam & DeVere, Herkimer, INERYS RansomsiC owas. setae eee as Little Falls, N. Y., R. F. A eters Grie Geist Sisteeeva C. W. Ransom, Little Falls, INSP YS Schuyler Centennial, C........... Frankfort, N. Y., R. F. DS ea ate. Elmer Farrington. Schuyler Junction, M.S.......... Hrankfort, INceX ene niee cok Alex. Campbell Milk Co., 802 Fulton St., Brooklyn, N. Y. Shells BushVG epee ee otc es Herkimer, N. Y., R. F. D.| Samuel Gordon, Herkimer, N. Y. Snyder Brothers Home Dairy..... Cold Brook, N. Y., R. F. Dia el. Jaan ae Sane. Henry Snyder. South Columbia, M.S........... Richfield Springs, N. Y...| F. N. Bunger, Newark, N. J. Starlcvillessok-stance eee eee. Fort Plain, N. Y., R. F. 10 ROR A A et Scie ols Fort Plain Dairy Kitchen. Van Hornesvilley ©aen een eine Van Hornesville, N. Y...] Van Hornesville Cheese & Milk : Products Association, Ine. West Winfield, M.S............. West Winfield, N. Y....] Bordens Condensed Milk Co., 3 New York City. Dairy STATIONS AND Factories NAME OF PLANT Adams! C@enter,MaiSt ence ncas ss Antwerp Factory, B. & C........ AG Wood © acters sere evs Stareietercisys) exces Bacon Citys aciqecieicjere Batcnictet sk: BaltzHactory,) ©ijcj.cicleiceec vee Ba yaVilewss Crarelecsoccterere sieeciere6-<13 Beckwith ia cveysc)sis.c.sre sate coo e oes BellvallewDairy7 Coons aes conse. A. Bickelhaupt, No. 2 Factory... A. Bickelhaupt, No. 3 Factory... A. Bickelhaupt, No. 5 Factory... A. Bickelhaupt, No. 7 Factory... A. Bickelhaupt, No. 8 Factory... A. Bickelhaupt, No. 9 Factory... A. Bickelhaupt, No. 10 Factory... A. Bickelhaupt, No. 12 Factory... A. Bickelhaupt, No. 13 Factory. . . A. Bickelhaupt, No. 15 Factory... A. Bickelhaupt, No. 16 Factory... A. Bickelhaupt, No. 18 Factory... . A. Bickelhaupt, No. 20 Factory... A. Bickelhaupt, No. 21 Factory... A. Bickelhaupt, No. 22 Factory... A. Bickelhaupt, No. 23 Factory. . . IBlackwRiverwie Seeckcacdace ae IBrooksidenG sax.ce cae e ere Brownsvilles Mis iSs ce oeeersrer a Buckminster Factory, C.......... Campis) Malls MiSs .ccrae oct ae Garthage;IMiAS:,. co a-2 Henry Dolfinger, Philadelphia, Pa. Ballina, M.S Beaver Creek, C Bingley, M.S Blakslee-Cohen, M.S Blakslee-Clover Farms, M.S...... Blanding, C Bouckville, M.S Brookfield, B. & C Brooklyn, M.S ‘Bridgeport, C Canastota, Cond Canastota, M.S Cazenovia, M.S Chittenango, M.S Clockville, M.S Mapison County Cazenovia, N. Y. R. F. D) Ullman & Hauk, 513 West 131st st., New York City. Waterville, N. Y Beaver Creek Cheese Co. Cazenovia, N. Y.,R.F.D.|} Louis Edelstein, 48 Seigel st., Brooklyn. I. Cohen, 16 Moore st., Brooklyn. Clover Farms Incorporated, 534 West 48th st., New York City. Perryville, N. Y Perryville, N. Y Brookfield, N. Y........| Excelsior Dairy Co. . Bouckville. N. Y........ Borden’s Condensed Milk Co. 108 Hudson st., New York City. Brookticld@eees sete > C. O. York. P. A. Flannagan. Bridgeport Milk Producers Asso- Cazenovia, N. Y Bridgeport, N. Y ciation. Ganastota,mNes, Haas 2: Middle States Creamery Co. Canastota, INV Y vi: ces. Levy Dairy Co., 19th st. and Avenue B, Brooklyn, N. Y. Cazenovia, N. Yossie... E. G. Haviland, 367 Seventh ave., Brooklyn. Chittenango Station, N. Y.| Levy Dairy Co., 19th st. and Avenue B, Brooklyn, N. Y. Levy Dairy Co., 19th st. and Avenue B, Brooklyn, N. Y. Clockville, N. Y 840 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Maptson County ( Continued ) NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS ID OR rae IY BS wenincta oe alae coat De wMRuytere Ne Nasco E. G. Haviland, 367 Seventh avenue, Brooklyn. lator, BNDs 1S acts caeeva asierele lorepeyiot vette -« Biaton Na Ware lteter Giciste = Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. HrievallesiVcs Stems. py casarencrus nick rs Diels, PRS. goes e.sc D. P. Maynard. Georgetown Station, M.S........ Georgetown Station, N. Y.| Central Dairy Co., 322 East 103d st., New York City. Georgetown Village, M.S........ Georgetown, N. Y....... B. Fred Saunders. lath WSs 5 oueue Cocco a6 FamtltonepNe Yoo ceiee oe Herman Stuthring, 322 West 48th st., New York City. Hermitage Farm, M.S........... C@anastotan Ne Yieeemacs- Chapman & Son, 324 East Fayette st., Syracuse. Hubbardsville, M.S............. Hubbardsville, N. Y..... Empire State Dairy Co., 502 Broadway, Brooklyn. Kenwood eviensinrceicereciteeiercicree Kenwood. Nip Yesrcseceie Wm. Jorden, Guilford Center, INGoaYe Ibakeporty vie Sean tts cels iss Chittenango Station, N. Y.| Standard Dairy Co., 611 East 12th st., New York City. Lebanon-Central, M.S........... Mebanon. Ne Vier wee cc ce Central Dairy Co., 322 East 103d, New York City. Lebanon-Farmers, M. 8.......... WebanonseNe Vee iererretec Louis Edelstein, 48 Seigel st., : Brooklyn. enoxmMurnacerC* se css ssclaicslers « Canastota, N. Y., R. F. 1D | Noe 5 ans, er eee ee Zeller Bros., Inc., 37 Montrose ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. Leonardsville, M.S.............. Leonardsville, N. Y......] Phenix Cheese Co., 345 Green- wich st., New York City. Mloyd VOWS occ cot vettorsiaus tenes ocaretons Oneida Ni SYS. 5 <0s,c/ethepee Lloyd Creamery Co. Morrisville Station, M.S......... Morrisville Station, N. Y.| Levy Dairy Co., 19th st. and Avenue B, Brooklyn. Morrisville Village, M.S......... Morrisville, N. Y.o....... Elsworth G. Franklin. Mrunns: MESS peat mycrsec i aicerentte Munnsville, N. Y........ J. H. Muller, 513 West 55th st.; New York City. Nelson; Bade G@rnnem crooks tealews INEGI UND. aaasenosans Samuel Fieldman, 618 East 9th st., New York City. Newton et euiiee as semua Cazenovia, N. Y., R. F. DDE rec beac opeiteienclaneienecess Warren Newton. New. Woodstock, Gs 5..<)ccic o:0 oes « New Woodstock, N. Y...] R. F. Stevens Co., 82 Third ave., Brooklyn. New Woodstock, M.S........... New Woodstock, N. Y...| R. F. Stevens Co., 82 Third ave., Brooklyn. North Brookfield (©. fiaaee «ee =e North Brookfield, N. Y..} Samuel Kappler, Lee Center, INES: North Brookfield, M.S.......... North Brookfield, N. Y...} High Ground Dairy Co., 447 Madison st., Brooklyn. OneidaiCastlei@iy pte seen Oneida Castle, N. Y..... Central New York Butter, Cheese and Cream Associa- tion. Peterboro, M.S...... Sb omGoartc.o Peterboro, Ni Nice mmiesic Middle States Creamery Co., Canastota, N. Y. Poolville-MiaSs. neo aaeck ease. RoolvillesNe Yasaeoeeneee Levy Dairy Co., 19th st., and Avenue B, Brooklyn. Pratts WVEASs ss). ses'cfoldishicn See Pratts Hollow, N. Y..... J. H. Dosher, 343 West 38th st., New York City. Datry STaTIONS AND FacTortrs S41 Maprson Country — (Concluded ) NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS RandallsvillenMoS: . 22. .225..20. | Randallsville, N. Y...... Fred Wolpmann, 586 Hudson boulevard, West Hoboken, } Wie We Riversborks) ME Soot eee puktiver. < Frederick R. Ziegler, 47 Judson st. DEPARTMENT oF AGRICULTURE Monror Country — (Concluded) NAME OF PLANT Kleehammer Creamery........... Mertz, L. A Mertz Creamery Muhs Brothers Creamery Ritter Creamery Rochester Ice Cream Co Rosewood )Dairy... -seer bec ore Thompson’s Creamery 20th Ward Creamery P. O. ADDRESS Rochester, N. Y Rochester, N. Rochester, N. Rochester, N. Rochester, N. Rochester, N. Rochester, N. Rochester, N. Rochester, iN: ic erckinee NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. ADDRESS WHEN DIFFEREN | FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Albert Kleehammer, 857 Port- land ave. L. A. Mertz, 47 Fulton ave. August Mertz, 419 Hawley st. Muhs Brothers Creamery, Conkey ave. Ritter Bros., 20 Harris st.. Rochester Ice Cream Co., Clit SU:5 A. J. Campbell, 47 Rosewood Terrace. George E. Thompson, 164 Cham- plain st. Martin T. May, 562 Maple’st. 82 MontTGOMERY COUNTY Canajoharie; Conds, since wee ce C@ayadetta Factory, Gao... . oe. Charleston Factory, C............ Flat Creek Creamery HorteEluateny Wie DS eccrieioe tener Fort Plain—Borden’s M.S....... Fort Plain—Dairy Kitchen, M.S.. Hort) Plaini@reamery..... «> ee els BultonvallewC ond src. +) siete seiner « GetmaniBactory, Cxkiocie. ae cient Glen Creamery, B. & C Hallsville, M.S Maple Grove Factory, C......... Marshville Factory, C............ Mohawk Factory, C Nadler Creamery, M.S Palatine Malki Gots @ eae «tere lectes Randall MiuiSieitticw Se oe erieee ..-.- Delphi Falls, Cond BUCH dC cost ae cele Oe eae Eureka, B Fabius, B Fabius-National, M.S Fayetteville, B Hart Lot, B Jacksonville, Sk. Sta...........:. JamesvillesVIGiSsan ence ae ee Johnson's, M.S Vordan we were eee coe eee ote ee Kirkville, M.S tIMAROM eV Lee Serie terete unis Grice ahete een Lysander, B Memphis peer cic einer cer aie NavarinomB smc ence ae ere Netherlands Farms, M.S Onativia, M.S Oran, M.S Otisco*. Bee ae ete Otiseo Valley, Sk-Stals.--. soe. Owasco Sk ita. sein sm tege eee iAiniber: PNEGY Aa ok scsi aoe Agotiliias MINER YE errr eer od Baldwinsville, N. Y...... Baldwinsville, N. Y...... iBelarameaNeeVin soe eee EomerwNiey ee Ee Dare; Skaneateles, N. Y Brewerton, N. Y Camillus, N. Y.... WiceroswNewYicnie sea ake CiceroNY Meee Ok Marcellus Nios eee. DYLACUSE Nc DYe oer ie ae Delphi Falls, N. Y....... ICI HIN ES Yee rereeet ee Marcellus, N. HabiussNe Vote cee oe oe cs MabiusiiNe Vn oes. Fayetteville, N. Y....... Etartatot. Nips one ee Baldwinsville, N. Y...... Jamesville; N.Y¥.22-2. .. Syracuse; Nae oes ee ce 2: Jordank Nese. soe ae KarkayvalletsNeeWen tee see. TAM SOV MN NY eye eee eee Lysander, N. Y Memphis, N. Y Navarino, N. Y Syracuse, N. Y La BayettesiNatXises secre Oran, N. Y Otisco, (Ni Vines ate SpattordyiNe Yass see ne Skaneateles, N. Y L. J. Edinger. Alex. Campbell Milk Co., 802 Fulton st., New York City. Kelley & Scriber. Seiler Brothers, 472 Plain st., Newark, N. J. H. C. Stebbins. C. H. Bennett. Borodino Creamery Co. Brewerton Cheese Factory Asso- ciation. ' Camillus Cooperative Creamery Co. C. J. Buckley. C. J. Buckley. HevaClark. sre Samuel Fieldman, 623 East 9th st., New Yerk City. Hawkins & Son, 250 Lincoln ave. Borden's Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. W. B. Blanchard. I. D. Gillette. Alex. Campbell Milk Co., 802 Fulton st., New York City. National Milk Sugar Co. Fayetteville Milk Producers Co. Cottle Brothers, Skaneateles Junction, N. Y. Kelley & Scriber. Levy Dairy Co., 19th st., and Avenue B, Brooklyn. 241 Tremont st. J. H. Lewis. Standard Dairy Co., 611 East 12th st., New York City. Clover Farms, Inc., 534 Westn 48th st., New York City. Kelley & Scriber, Baldwinsville, INE YS W. J. Savage. Clyde Harter. Netherlands Farms Dairy, 328 Clifford st. Seiler Brothers, 472 Plain st., Newark, N. J. Tietjen Bros., Incorporated, 506 East 118th st., New York City. E. T. Harter. Spafford Creamery Association. Skaneateles Creamery Co. Datry STaTions AND Facrorirs $49 Ononpaca County — (Concluded) NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Plainville a Biesmcnce cose tee. Plaimivalles Ne vaaeeenet oe Kelley & Scriber, Baldwinsville. BOmMpe yaw. .-.-...- 108 Hudson st., New York City. Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Phenix Cheese Co., 345 Green- wich st., New York City. E. W. Wright. Briar Creek Creamery Co., Inc. 84 Delaware st., Walton, N. Ye George T. Brockway. Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. C. P. Root’s Sons, Gilbertsville NERY: : L. D. Young, Warren, N. Y. H. C. McRorie. C. P. Root’s Sons, Gilbertsville, INS Ye Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Levy Dairy Co., 19th st. and Avenue B, New York City. Hiram Gilmore. Chas. M. Freer. Otsego Creamery Co. Farmers’ Cooporative,Co., Mt. Vision, N. Y., R. D. A. C. Haith. International Milk Produce Co. Burlington Flats Cheese Co. Walter A. Kiley, Cooperstown. Laemmle Dairy Co., Ine., 316 East 167th st., New York City. Datry Srations AND Factories 855 Orseco Country — (Continued ) NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FYROM FACTORY ADDRESS TSE Oh, tard Oh: Rew cieie Misra areas Hartwick, N. Y., R. D...| E. R. Hunt, Morris, N. Y. MapnleiGroven@ 226 eed sank Gilbertsville, N. Y.......] J. H. Gilbert & Cc. Maple Valleyi@ ssn... seca son: Wiestiord, NeYeruss.. .- P. B. Roseboom. Norns was Caeccsn eee noes MiorrissiNignisteen. aera ae oe Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Mt. Vision Cooperative Creamery, 12) a ed erp Roe a ecient F INTESAVABIONNY. cforerctee-e'shooee Mt. Vision Cooperative Creamery Co. Mutual-McDermott, M.S........| Unadilla, N. Y.......... Mutual-McDermott Dairy Cor- poration, 214 East 22d st., New York City. OrWonnell Caricchrccsioiee boots See Cooperstown, N. Y., R. D.| Thomas F. O’Connell. Oneonta Dairy Co.,M.S.&B..... Oneontay Neen eee Oneonta Dairy Co. Rashloysyi Cunt cee ee oe Burlington, IN. Yen doe E. W. Coon, 29 South Water st., Philadelphia, Pa. Patentn Cancers Acie to aa fees Hart wickw Neves seers Farmers’: Cooperative Creamery Co. Phoenix Mills, B.C. & M.S...... Cooperstown, N. Y., R. D.| Max Blum, 142 Reade st., New York City. RinevAppleyi Gee esa nos ae Milford S NESYenne eee O. A. Weatherly & Co. Plainhela Unions Carers en West Winfield, N. Y., R. : 1 ey 1 DOR eo ee ae Phenix Cheese Co., 345 Green- wich st., New York City. Pleasant brook, Genesee eee Pleasant Brook, N. Y....| C. P. Root’s Sons, Gilbertsville NYE Pleasant Valley; Grn. seen aa: Hartwick, N. Y., R. F. D.| Geo. T. Brockway, Richfield, Ney f Portlandville, M.S. 00%... ...52.: Portlandville, N. Y......| R. F. Stevens Co., 82 Third ave., Brooklyn. Hidert Chey mente ae ee ee Schuyler Lake, N. Y..... Geo. L. Rider. River Meadow Farm, C..... 2 Pes Portlandville, N. Y....-. McLaury Bros. RockiSpringy) Cr sneer eerste East Springfield, N. Y....| A. C. Haith. UOGOtSEELOMe gr re ce tt are te eats Gilbertsville, N. Y....... C. P. Root’s Sons. Sand Hill Creamery, B. & C...... Wells Bridge, N. Y......| Briar Creek Creamery Co., inc., 84 Delevan st., Walton, N. Y. tS Hil dep stan) DJs Choy WY TS a te awe Be Colliersville, N. Y....... Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sah. Sb Cor Miao ata ees East Worcester, N. Y....| Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. S2R Sas Con Mase sate ecere nt QOneontan Ne Naeen eee Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. 8. F.S. D. Con MES earorcrcoetnn South Valley, N. Y......] Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Snyders Gi hate eens soa Cherry Valley, N. Y..... Elmer Snyder. South Edmeston, B.C. & M.S...| South Edmeston, N. Y...| Phenix Cheese Co., 345 Green- wich st.. New York City. Springfield Farms, C............. Springfield Center, N. Y..| Springfield Farms Co. Stanleyy Owe tae senses ce ee sees Cherry Valley, N. Y., R. 1D a UR ieee ty heat oar William Shipway. S56 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Orseco Country — (Concluded ) NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. 0. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Stevens) Corners;\@- 220205.) a. Mt. Vision, N. Y., R. F. 1D ate BS 5 Gres 3s ee a aE C. V. Stevens. Unadilla'@reameryee pense eee Wnadilis Nye ect. = Knott & Southworth. Wells Bridge, MiaSic 8 aakece: - Wells Bridgét ve. .nanca-: Mutual McDermott Dairy Cor- poration, 214 East 22d St., New York City. West Exeter Creamery, B.C. & M.S.) West Exeter, N. Y...... | Phenix Cheese Co., 345 Green- wich st , New York City. Wiestiord Cis). Stet a ee Westiord. N:; Y........--+| ©). McRorie: West Laurens Creamery, C....... West Laurens, N. Y......| C. P. Root’s Sons, Gilbertsville, INeOYe iWestville;'©> prc sora os oe Schenevus, N. Y., R. F. D.| C. P. Root’s Sons, Gilbertsville, Nese White House © ser oe nee .../| Hartwick, N. Y.........] Farmers Cooperative Cheese Co. Walonanth)Cipre. te onic. ees ee Richfield Springs, N. Y...| Geo. T. Brockway. ZolleritactorywS ieee libWearnen-sNiepYecuine eee T. J. Zoller, Little Falls, N. Y. Putnam County Baldwin Place — Certified, M.S. .| Baldwin Place, N. Y.....| Willow Brook Dairy Co., Mt. Vernon, N. Y. Baldwin Place; MaiSi. 5.5 6s55.-ee | Baldwin Place, N. Y.....| Willow Brook Dairy Co., Mt. Vernon, N. Y. Brewster MiS 6 sont aeclaeee oe Brewster Nee ccer ner eke Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Brewster! |C a.teeokte® acto ese Brewster, N. Y..........| Jerome Corrao & Co., 22 Har- rison st., New York City. Carmel WMS criti. es ee Carmel Nieves beck Edwin Shoemaker, 615 East 134th st., New York City. Carmel — Borden’s, M.S........ Carmel wiNigy tina ace Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Dykemans: WVU. |Site yee secs Dykemans} Nes ceeeinn - Henry Arnstein, New York City. MahopacaiVin Sime sic Ssedacc MahopacwNis Yoru ates. - Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Mahopac Falls, M.S............. Mahopae Falls, N. Y.....| Borden’s Condensed Milk Co. | 108 Hudson st., New York | City. Oreron gS A 4) 0 eRe ee eas Peekskill, N. Y., R. D....; James W. Husted, Peekskill, NGOS Pattersons aMiiS:. pices eeioaere Pattersons NeeY eens | Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Towners; Mis Sine sores wate teretetentesest TownersNueVictt asic = Central Dairy Co., 326 East 103d st., New York City. RENSSELAER COUNTY Berlin, Cond........ Salers storeys ests Berlimeap Ney Wiccan coe J. H. Satterlee. Buskirk, MiSs .cseseroiieew sere erete: ¢ Buskirk ssNiyyerictuvetreretess D. Whiting & Sons, Boston, Mass. BagleiBridge, Mu Since cciccee ios Eagle Bridge, N. Y...... H. P. Hood & Sons, Boston, Mass. Datry STaTIons AND Factories 85 RenssELAER County — (Concluded) NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Hoosic Elgin System Creamery. ..| Hoosick, N. Y........... A. Hawks. Johnsonville MieiSjoces ceric se Johnsonville, N. Y....... D. Whiting & Sons, Boston, ‘ Mass. Nassau, M.S........ Me eo iakehotolohalets INASSAIIN INGOs -yecisieiaera aor Locust Farms Co., 551 East 35th st., New York City. Retersburzh yy MEe Sas aiicieniclecieee ee meetersburgin, Ne Yoon). 5 Springfield Cooperative Co., Springfield, Mass. Stephentown, M.S..............| Stephentown, N. Y...... Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. West Hoosick, M.S..............| West Hoosick, N. Y..... Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New DS) York ‘City Str. LAWRENCE CouNTY IN Volek nl 8 Eat ol Clans = OCIA OIC ORIG Lisbon, R. F. D. 3.......] Clayton Todd. Apple Grove, B! & ©... ......-- Canton, N. Y., R. F. D.5.| W. O. Goodison, Morley, N. Y. Avrmont airy COs Bis elcie «siecle Fort Jackson, N. Y...... Ayrmont Dairy Co., 220 North Delaware ave., Philadelphia, Pa. PAIMESsEsardor Oustereieiersieters Aimar Canton Nioyereriecneec Lalove & Smith. Beakes Dairy Co., M.S. & Cond...| Massena Springs, N. Y...| Beakes Dairy Co., 206 East 12th st., New York City. BeechiGrove, BY aC... ee lefsocom ING So os oge4don 4 David Harmer. Bell Creamery, B. & C........... Brasher Falls, N. Y......| W.E. Bell. leeiihsllte Nees Ow sid bGudodasoes Eermon, Ne aor ae ret L. E. Collier. BiekelhanptyArs) INO: iteleevelcieleer South Hammond, N. Y...| A. Bickelhaupt, Redwood, N. Y. Bordens, M.S...... seeeeevese.«| De Kalb Junction, N. Y..| Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., New York City. IBordens Vi Sisco ancles eee tee Gouverneur, N. Y....... Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., New York City. Boston Jersey Creamery, B.......| Norfolk, N. Y........... J. G. Turnbull, Orleans, Vt. Brandy Brook Creamery, B...... Waddington, N. Y...... W. E. Griffith, Madrid, N. Y. Brasher Center, M. S.....:...... Brasher Falls, N. Y......}] W. E. Bell. Brasher Settlement, M.S......... Brasher Falls, N. Y...... W. E. Bell. Brasie Corners, B. & C.......... Brasie Corners, N. Y....| Weatherup & McCadam. Brier) eal ein sin oieeieisisreials ate rkeists IBSmier Eile Nise \aecmunc teres A. Koster, 438 West 58th st., New York City. Brookdale Receiver, M.S........ North Stockholm, N. Y..! H. A. Bullard, Winthrop, N. Y. Brown & Bailey, B. C. & Cond...| Potsdam, N. Y..........]| Brown & Bailey, 88-94, 3d ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. Buckton Creamery, B............ Wanthropy Nia Yee see The Buckton Creamery Co. Galaboras'Cy... ctercctercchoistetnatetere cots South Hammond, N. Y...| Floyd Hill, Hammond, N. Y. Cslifornigs Bends Cesc tee natant Gouverneur, N. Y....... J. W. Reed. @edariGrove, BU @'C.0 7-25 so: Morristown, N. Y....... John F. Greeley. Centergh GC oo cactan cxcrometacern et Morristown, N. Y....... Leon Overacker. Centennial Creamery, B.......... Ogdensburg, N. Y....... Leo E. Murphy. Champion Creamery, B.......... Madrids, Neovermcactnrce Thos. F. Rutherford. Chase Mills, M.S........ eevee es enase: IMGs IN Ye. ri,06< Hamilton Dairy Co., New York City. Cheshirer BG Gack. sic. once oe De Kalbi Jet:, NOY... . Jas. L. Wood, Rensselaer Falls, N.Y. Glarey Birt Cheater caine. cients wns @larey aN ae Yeecremieie meteor H. H. Gill. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE St. Lawrence County — (Continued) NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS Popes Mills, N. Y Harrisville, N. Y Gouverneur, N. Y CloverrliT) Big: Clee eerie te cr ColdiSprinrhCh-n ee ce en stared ColdtSprings BeeiCae eee eee ee Colton Receiver, M.S........... ColtonNe vice one @ooks Corners) Cites seo eee colton Ne ence eae fee Cottaze! Grover oma Cee ae. bee |pelermon. IN Yon acne eee Cream of the Valley, B. & C...... Gouverneur, N. Y....... Grescent Wie Siw wc ee ee Wanton, NeaY ss .oeo ee North Stockholm, N. Y.. Gouverneur, N. Y De Kalb Junction, N. Y.. De Kalb Junction, N. Y.. Depeyster, N. Y Depeyster, N. Y Crystal) Sprung ves eee sete one Crystal’ Spring, Be & ©s.5- ee aoe ae DMerskalbs Nosdep Buds Gate eee se DewkalbaiNone ba aCe meee Depeyster No. 1 Depeyster No. 2........ Diamond Creamery Co., Station A, Massena, N. Y...... Sen South Hammond, N.Y. . Nickleville, N. Y De Kalb Junction, N. Y.. Gouverneur, N. Y Rensselaer Falls, N.Y... Canton Nuovo one Dnpontvaille; BY& Cay waaaeecr o> Eagle Creamery, B East De Kalb, B. & C East Gouverneur, B. & C IBA Ibitsjoyorne, 186 tes (Clas 5 as dos ae Edwards Village, B. & C Bdwards MS) .05 anthes obeaee Bdiwardss Nee versaneinse dwardss Nie ey. anente ee Hermon, N. Y Gouverneur, N. Y Ogdensburg, N. Y RuchifieldseNe Mieaeee secs e Lisbon, N. Y HimiG@reeks Badal ne aeennateee Elmdale, B. & C Hm) Groves Bs &AGie soe ebete - Bim Grover: Giro. apie ee Excelsior MES doi Canacies ae ek Hair Views Cecascce eettode ioe Heuvelton, N. Y Farmers Cooperative Creamery, B.}| Parishville, N. Y West Stockholm, N.Y... @anton-NenYenee sae Heuvelton, N. Y Farmers Creamery Co., B. & C... Ravalley BiG ee, he ee aa ene Pishy Creek; BirdiGi nn ac ws aniee Five Corners Creamery, M.S.....] Potsdam, N. Y.......... PackvillewBi& Cl hase eee Howlers, 0c) se biee aoe Frontier, M.S. & C Ogdensburg, N. Y....... Fowler, N. Y Ogdensburg, N. Y Geers:|Corners;C@..24:98: Se eee Harrisville, N. Y Guilt Edge Creamery, B........... Gilt Edge Receiver, M.S......... Gouverneur, No. 1, B. & C....... GrassCreekjC@ oi 2e. cee ee eee IN Ee bin (o aN CSA ies Go Bik, Mad ridiINeiVs ct. a5) chan Gouverneur, N. Y....... South Hammond, N. Y... NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Gerald Thornhill. Clarence Hutt. Ellsworth Stevenson. Brown & Bailey, 88-94 Third ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. Edwin Cook. Westurn Brothers. Jas. Wood & Son. South Canton Creamery Co., Canton, N. Y. H. A. Bullard, Winthrop, N. Y. E. J. Stevenson. U. E. Sayers. U. E. Sayers. C. E. Griffin. C. E. Griffin. J. G. Turnbull, Orleans, Vt. Allen Putnam. H. A. Bullard, Winthrop, N. Y. Mrs. C. E. Wood. W. A. Freeman. John F. Henry. Brown & Bailey, 88-94 Third ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. Geo. Young. Levy Dairy Co., 19th st., and Avenue B, New York City. W. C. Smith. Fred M. Campbell. John Cooper. Rickett & Chandler. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. W. F. Thornhill. Farmers Cooperative Creamery Co. Farmers Creamery Co. Earl H. Wood. Griffin & Gilson, Heuvelton, N. Y., ‘‘ Star Route.” Brown & Bailey, 88-94 Third ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. G. L. Fuller. Farmers Cooperative Co. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., New York City. Willis Ackerman, Philadelphia, INeaYS A. E. Fisher. A. E. Fisher. Jesse Wood. Mrs. Geo. Petrie. Dairy Srations anno Factories 859 St. Lawrence Country — (Continued ) NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENN FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Grass River Creamery, B. & C....| Bucks Bridge, N. Y...... Morris L. Speer, Madrid Springs, Nee YE Griffiths Bingci@. aertiacie a oetleicere Heuvelton, N. Y., Star ROWtes si.) 2 ees: Lloyd Wilson. Hajlsboro, Bi & Cavitecescics «clad: ETavisboroy Nemvaayeset ite Frank Goodison. Hammond sis = ae trees ete een Hammond e Never sec ee T. O. Smith’s Sons, 872 6th ave., New York City. Helena Mer Shcush st dace aes fielenasIN@ Yao seo h te W.E. Griffith, Madrid, N. Y. eTelen a wMIAN Ss Wt.tecva Moreectottohearclat: Massena, N. Y., R. F. D.| Beakes Dairy Co., 206 East 12th st., New York City. Henvelton Berd: Oneemeriae sete ileuveltom Namen steers ese Dr. Jason Turner. iHeuveltons Mer smekvierasc ane HMeuveltons Navasero oe Model Dairy Co., Inc., 246 8th ave., New York City. Hickory Wakes By ii@ene cele oats de Heuvelton, N. Y., Star Route We seee soe se ee Griffin & Overacker. Jabiedalleierel 18s tea One wigan cnae adage e CantonsiNe Ye. seek oe Highland Cheese Co. Hires Condensed Milk Co......... lainey INE SedogoosdGe Hires Condensed Milk Co., 10 Chestnut st., Philadelphia, Pa. Horton, J. M., Ice Cream Co..... Richvitle, N. Y..........| J. M. Horton Ice Cream Co-, 205 : E. 24th st., New York City. ETOWAH siGok Gare. Senate nine oh: Rensselaer Falls, N. Y...| Jas. Wood. Ideal Creamery, B. & C.......... TisbonswNenMnterseccases ae Wood & Mayne. International St. Lawrence Farms.| Gouverneur, N. Y....... International Milk Products Co. Cooperstown, N. Y. Island Glen, Long Salt Island, C..} Massena, N. Y.......... I. S. Hopson. Jeunys Gresko Gi.) wield. ila Harrisville, N. Y...:.... R. O. Stearns. Veruediem- be) Gy © ee, De Kalb Junction, N. Y..| Lee H. Young. Johnstown, Sk. Sta. & B......... Gouverneur, N. Y....... A. N. Freeman. Keystone Creamery, B. & C...... IsponwN. wires. 4: Robert Dawley. Keystone Receiver, No.1, M.S...} Lisbon, N. Y........... Robert Dawley. Keystone Receiver, No. 2, M.S...; Lisbon, N. Y........... Robert Dawley. Karappseieiseen scare Meee. atc | North Stockholm, N. Y..| Levy Dairy Co., New York City. Knapps Receiver, M.S.......... No. Stockholm, N. Y....| J. G. Turnbull, Orleans, Vt. ake Shores BS &i@9e.22/4.eea. a. IEFammond Nie ene eee W. J. Townsend. Langdon Spring Creamery, B..... Canton nN aYisee eee So. Canton Creamery Co., Can- tOn,sIN eyes Lawrenceville Creamery, B....... Lawrenceville, N. Y..... Clarence Irwin. IGHOM IVI Sieh orcas ere oe eee ce TaisboniNMY ekee. oe. a. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., New York City. MitplesRiver, (Gace arers noche siciets ots Fine, N. Y..............| Elmer Simonds, Oswegatchie, NX : hong Rapids; Baidse'@ as .2---h <0: IonleyiNes ven aeciene ice W. O. Goodison. BOursvilles Mo Sito cteate cian tet oe Louisville; IN-Yen oe Beakes Dairy Co., 206 E. 12th st., New York City. Louisville Landing, M.S......... ThoulsvaillenINeeves sere ee J. G. Turnbull, Orleans, Vt. Tbyde Brook, M.iSi is. faces sc. Hopkinton, Ne Yess... Ayrmont Dairy Co., 222 North Delaware ave., Philadelphia, Pa, Madrid Springs, M.S. & B....... Madrid Springs, N. Y....| W. E. Griffith, Madrid, N. Y. Madrid Springs, M.S............ Madrid Springs, N. Y....| Central Dairy Co., 322 East 103d st., New York City. Maple City Dairy Co., M.S. & B.| Ogdensburg, N. Y., river- POG eeho oe pic oerer sue ete Maple City Dairy Co. Maple Ridge Receiver, M.S...... Massena, IN: Woe eater ay J. G. Turnbull, Orleans, Vt. $60 St. Lawrencre County — DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE (Continued ) NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS Massena Center Receiver, M.S... Massena Point, M.8.. aa Mayflower, Barnharts iad Cc. ie Meadow Side Creamery, B. & C... Meadow SidewMaiS) (85:00 322.62. Morning Star, B. & C.. : Mutual-McDermott aay on New, Century, Bar&iC pees. seen e Newheld CA. iat. Suet: Paes E North Lawrence Creamery M. S. North Lawrence, M.S........... North Lisbon Gilt Edge Creamery . NorthiRussell 15. caCnemernies ak OxkiValesMe"Sist%. seyaeeht. Joh -4, 4 Ogdensburg Creamery, M.S. & B. OsborneWMake BiG (\Gs.neceace. - ; Osweratehie: Ba &iC-ee- een. oe Pierrepont Center, M.S.......... lero B iil ey CalOe Sooo cuededoune Pleasant Valley i@ et) Peer Pleasant Valley, M.S............ PliumbsBrookjeViuSescnaen ame... e Rackett River, Station C, M.S... RediStariGs... eee aseeee ee Rensselaer alas: -rv.)1.1. dao aes cy: Rensselaer Falls, B.C. & M.S.... Raymondville, M.S. & C........ Red Rock WM. S scihak ccc cua ck Riverside Creamery, M.S. & C... Rocks Bottoms Basi C.-neseeeee ee Rosebud WB & Cec atemiaeh os cle RGsie MBS
E. D. Thompson, Potsdam, Nei) be Eee Spaulding Creamery, B.......... Madrid Springs, N. Y....| J. L. Mack. Spraguevillew Be Gi@ua. sas & SteeliCornerssG 26 spin rc se Sunrisesbsd&, Ciecyee |: tans - melt hiatinl BEM (ca Operegee AA Siete oo a ee Tanner'Creek. Be di€ so. casos ‘Thousandwslands) G24 4.- -ce-k- John H. Berry. John H. Berry. Robert Creighton. D. E. Parker, Gouverneur, N. Y. W. E. Fairbanks. Rhode Babeock. Spragueville, N. Y....... Spragueville, N. Y....... Ogdensburg, N. Y....... Spragueville, N. Y....... De Kalb Junction, N. Y.. Chippewa Bay. N.Y... rout WakehC-.. sc,9. eciidarhees ss Hermon, Ne Yaracen) aecen H. G. Chandler, Ogdensburg, INeOYS Uniquer Bs GiC socses.. Kae «ok IAs, DE, We poem sc Geo. Woodrick. Waddington Creamery, C........ Waddington, N. Y....... W. E. Griffith, Madrid. Waddington, M.S. & Cond...... Waddinetome jee ae oe Hamilton Dairy Co., New York City. Albert Salmon. Geo. Griffith, De Kalb Junction, Wierstchiet Crs So. 5. psu reais on Wiest Canton y Bs iGiCs.) 32.06. be Gouverneur, N. Y....... Canton Naavieee eee ee INE DYe Wiestibienmon: Boa 9 ase ee = De Kalb Junction, N. Y..| Fairbanks & Benjamin. Wiest Howard) Ba @iGrn sscsc ses Rensselaer Falls, N. Y...| Jesse Wood. C. J. McNeil. . Brown & Bailey, 88-94 -Third ave, Brooklyn, N. Y. Chas. Montroy. O. S. Russell. Levy Dairy Co., New York City. West Pierrepont, B. & C......... Wiest, Potsdam), Me 'S. 2c.beberas..< West Pierrepont, N. Y... Potsdam Ne o¥s. ts. m Wihite! Clover, B: & ©...) sabe. Wildwood \ Gs ees 0) seer 2 WinthropwVintS ated sie sletaea ese SaRATOGA CouNTY Ballston Spa, Creamery.........- Gansevoort; Mass erste ore thn er Saratoga Creamery Association... Ballston Spa, N. Y...... Gansevoort, Nu Yee es ae Schuylerville, N. Y., R. F. C. S. Gilbert. Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Saratoga Creamery Association. Kangsi@reamery.20 2 ne see Seis ell N. G. Woodard. SCHENECTADY COUNTY Delanson, N.Y... 2.2... .- Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Pattersonville, N. Y..... | John D. Patterson. Delanson Creamery.............- Pattersonville Creamery.......... 562 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE SCHOHARIE COUNTY NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Arcusvilles|Cies oe cee ee ce nee ArgnsvilleviINe@Yice. cee. 6 C. P. Root’s Sons, Gilbertsville. Borden's; MiSs. coche cieeieiee Middleburgh, N. Y...... Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Borden's; Me S.t Ae se ate cates Schoharie, N. Y..:...... Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Bord enrages Sas ciscincte inet Sharon Hall IN. Vio. Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. IBOrden’s MIS eee ets ios Sharon Springs, N. Y....| Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., Breakabeen, SE. Sta....--+.+.---- Broome Center Creamery, B Carlisle Creamery, B Charlotteville Elgin Creamery, B.. @onesvilley Sk. Sta. .o ose ees esc Fairlands, Sk. Sta Gallupville Creamery, B.......... Gilboa Creamery, B Huntersland Cooperative Creamery, Jerome, Sk. Sta Manorkill Creamery, B Mutual McDermott, M.S........ North Blenheim Creamery....... Rose Creamery Sheffield Farms, Co. Grade-A, NIMS 2: ooce eee Sheffield Farms, Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Slawson-Decker .| Cobleskill, N. ¥ Slawson-Decker Breakabeen, N. Y Gilboa, N. Y., R. F. D... Carlisle, N. Y Charlotteville, N. Y Manorkill, N. Y West Fulton, N. Y Gallupville, N. Y Gulbos Nae erie eer Middleburgh, N. Y., Manorkill, N. Y South Gilboa, N. Y | North Blenheim, N. Y... | Cobleskill, N. Y......... | see een eee Gobleslall iINieVecemeceiss Central Bridge, N. Y... 108 Hudson st., City. Broome Center Coop. Creamery Co., Gilboa, N. Y., R. F. D. Broome Center Cooperative Creamery Co. Carlisle Coop. Creamery Co. Charlotteville Elgin Cooperative Creamery Co. Manorkill Cooperative Cream- ery Co., Gilboa, N. Y. West Fulton Cooperative Cream- ery Co. Gallupville Cooperative Cream- ery Co. Mutual McDermott Dairy Co., 214 East 22d st., New York City. : New York. Huntersland Cooperative Cream- ery Co. Summit Cooperative Creamery Co. Manorkill Cooperative Cream- ery Co., Gilboa, N. Y. Mutual McDermott Dairy Cor- poration, 214 East 22d st., New York City. Albert Parker, 554 Grand st., New York City. Chas. Rose. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524, West 57th st., New York City. ‘ Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Datry Stations anv Facrories ay» oO S¢ SCHOHARIE County — (Concluded) NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker ConmeMn Sie tcc s oo Soe teers Howes Cave, N. Y...... Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Gore Seiehra cick tts cre ce: Hyndsville, N. Y........ Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Corn MES ae eretetsiee ceo ees Jefferson, IN: Viyeos ss oe Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker COPE VIS mer traces cnc ae Richmondville, N. Y..... Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker CarmVin Sera ers ctarrnneeo einnra ae Seward. Nin Yiorwreertee: Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker WOM Sis eas eae cesses eres Sloansville, N. Y........ Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker ComnVinsertnck aie teint tes: : W. Richmondville, N. Y.. Summit Cooperative Creamery B..| Summit, N. Y........... West Fulton Cooperative Creamery, Beate aie a eieuer ners 2 have mie eencters © West Fulton, N. Y...... SCHUYLER COUNTY / Nabi Dh Comite ee cto br de Alpine Ne Nictecelasunnaron FA piney Mis 5 oo, Weyohietaisecis, athe ce tctene lo Alpines (Ne Nosda «aot Bennettsburg, N. Y Bennettsburg Logan Co., C CayutadtMeS sco concen sie @ayitta,; Nei cc Cayutavilleeicce cease eee Cayutaville, INR Sanit Odessa MIS iy, sleaceov-jasayel-fe arora Odessag NG Vorteparya alc ae. Wey (Co boacouconeROve las occa Hector, Nj We ate nirtese stars - Townsend) © Sevea «sy-s sseiels)< aes oes Watlans, Ne Yas. saccr « NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Sheffield Farms, Slawson-Decker Co., 524 West 57th st., New York City. Summit Cooperative Creamery Co. West Fulton Cooperative Cream- ery Co. | Nathan Abramson, 752 West 125th st., New York City. Beakes Dairy Co., 206 East 12th st., New York City. W. & I. Mekeel, Jacksonville, INESYS J. Max, 195 Livingston st., New- ark, N. J. W. & I. Mekeel, Jacksonville NERS Halpin Bros., 74 Samoset st., Newark, N. J. W. & I. Mekeel, Jacksonville, INEpY Townsend Cheese Association. SENECA CouUNTY NAME OF PLANT @Woventysks stare wo Gece he Imterlakeny Mie iSis, sae ceteris a ate ews; aNAS oe Aros ct ce cistasueic clerete Mace DougealliMieeSiy cries crt eee Warteles Mie Sve icic, siete Gearevre cezerscets Addison Min. eicchntsier cia chee Arkport Creamery, C............ AvocaHactorys; Gi... eceschices » => Ba ilies lVieupeveteteyarctcte cienskore wifehel ster ste Bennetts) Creek, ©) cisreccmselsis es «= Bios @reeksi@ eletat. fe emstemiticieusieatecee BrastedDist.. (Gia. iemie ceric oelece Browaies Circiseitene veh ouster a cletekoleiensteleve Brownlow Gane ic aisls ele reivierslerets (ERM IS EX OM ee Sta acobc obec GampbelliMi iS: o.cc.. o.ciels ateioiiees @anisteowmbiheerian ste ceieioleisicicmtelcies @aton CenteriG-.ccierocmieener Gentralwbactory. Crecente dace Clover Dale Factory, B.......... @oldispring}(Cx.7y.). eee Wry cdenwhicdger Cz. a crewtieretecrersier utehwstreety Cs. ctestctes crew ciere Pilgimi@ream eryje icc <0 sete eccre seers IB mMpOise MCs eee ee Rieti Good yearialVie iS) -prieverte eietevern sei Greenwood iB. anc apne eereetecise ° Hartsvalle\Center;;Croceecnicieee & Haskinsville;'@i 2. sncsten selec labredsytye Ossie tore aoteco ae 6 Sais cc HMedzesviller Ge. voetctore rete erieren torr TOD DEN iG eave cnstohe revokes leker ver seerverr ELOTM Dy. 1G caters tecetetelafels viele ieleiisre tenets ETO WATG ne UE trie ielsniene ts Wire DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE P. O. ADDRESS CovertNeWe tec. soc. - imterlalcents Nee vate ne NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS W. & I. Mekeel, Jacksonville. Frank Rogow, 119 West 28th st., Bayonne, N. J. Helen 8. Lewis, 207 Willow ave. Frank Rogow, 119 West 28tn st., Bayonne, N. J. Geneva, N. Y., R. F. D., 5) Mt. Vernon Dairy Co., 87 Ches- STEUBEN CoUNTY Addisons Nip Yirisctes ae ‘Arkport,) IN. BY) o28 le. cle ere = AV OCR "NN sacetioete ese Bath; Na siicien access Canisteo, N. Y., R. D.1.. Hornell "Newer sees Efornell Nee Yeeaoee cece Andover, IN, Yoocts cot ont indley, N.Y, R: D1... And overyNe ics kis len Campbell Ne Mice cee oe @anisteo sNews rato: @orning, N. Y., RoE. D: 2: Lindley, Ne Yc be eee ee South Canisteo, N. Y.... onnellsNe veers Canisteo, IN. Yan... se Cohocton yNEgYe-e see ee Alfred Station, N. Y..... Greenwood, N. Y........ Evormel le Nip yacienicicieieisierar: Savona eNeRYee econ me ce Prattsburg, N. Y........ Campbell INGY isn... 4: Addisons Ne Naaru Corning INYe ee eee Greenwood, N. Y........ arts yale soNe insets eee Haskinsville, N. Y....... MrowpsOuLe ING ic eee « Woodhull, N. Y., R. D... Droupsburg, NaY-...)... iKiornbys Nearer eclec ee HO WATG Nin OX ameter crete ter ave., Irvington, N. Y. M. H. Renken, 131 Emerson pl., Brooklyn, N. Y. Horseheads Creamery Horseheads, N. Y. Louis U. Coffin. Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., Hudson st., New York City. W.C. Bassett. C. M. Burdette. H. D. Stratton, Hornell, N. Y., Ris Wm. FE. Green, Andover, N. Y., 1g¢, 1D ey Brown Town Cheese Co. D. A. Oakes, 14 Alley, Hornell, New: R. F. Stevens & Co., 82 Third Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. E. L. Stephens. A. C. Lewis. L. A. Wheeler. Clover Dale Butter Co., Canis- teo, N. Y. Seymour Bridge. W.C. Kellogg. Wetmiller Bros. George M. Grow. J. J. Stooks. Bert Helmer. Elgin Creamery Co. Ernest Peltham. Rising Bros. F. E. Zimmer. Clair Goodyear 379 Third st. Coston Co. C. M. Haynes, Hornell, N. Y., 185 105 1D), F. L. Jones, Cohocton, N. Y. F. E. Zimmer, Addison, N. Y. C. R. Perry. F. E. Zimmer, Addison, N. Y. E. M. Cady, Beaver Dams, N. Y. R. F. Stevens & Co., 82 Third ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. Go:; Dairy Sratrions AND Factrories 865 STEUBEN County — (Concluded) |NAME OF PROPRIETOR AND P. O. NAME OF PLANT P. O. ADDRESS ADDRESS WHEN DIFFERENT FROM FACTORY ADDRESS EVO WwelsVMiE S)-2 citi siceas ales sereer eres Addison Ney acecie sears: Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., New York City. ASEM Ee: Go) Cred ciaieis.M-S: 5: 22.s3-650.s 5 Waverly Nise. csc ae + Waverly Creamery Co. Newark Valley, M.S............ Newark Valley, N. Y....| Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Nichols; Ms. Siereeh28 eae cee INicholaNepyess smite. Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., y 108 Hudson st., New York City. North) Spencer; Ma'S). ti... 2... North Spencer, N. Y..... Modern Dairy Co., 609 West 49th st., New York City. Owego MieS \< antrrereeeiderne aie OwegzowNiesvite descents Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Richtord MONS esses. tes oe: Ritehfords Nese ore ce. Borden’s Condensed Milk Co., 108 Hudson st., New York City. Smithboro: vin Sats eee oe Syrbideloyy Wh NEA Ang one R. F. Stevens Co., 82 Third ave., Brooklyn. Spencer; Condes - Svc ete ahs Spencer, N. Y...........| Empire Creamery Co. Spencer wMeiS: a. srssan Mecha hae Spencers Nayvinsceareeske R. F. Stevens Co., 82 Third ave., Brooklyn. ‘Tioga Center-Erie, M.S.......... Morea Center, Nase Georgianna G. Martin, 572 Greenwich st., New York City. Tioga Center Lehigh Valley, M. S.| Tioga Center, N. Y...... Levi Smith, 620 South 10th st., Newark, N. J. IWiAlts Oki Sbaic.«< cuneate ane Wralts: sNGevis ee ma octah Sayre Creamery & Cold Storage Co., Sayre, Pa. Waverly, Me Sis. eee ie sc. cc WeaverlysiNieg ic. cene sneer. Waverly Creamery Co. Wiesti@andory Ma ‘Si Poass aeciae cs West Candor, N. Y...... E. G:; Haviland, 367 Seventh ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. ToMPKINS COUNTY @Warolines | Gaslt 22. sauce eee ee Brookton, N. Y......... W. W. Conrad, Brookton, R. D. ‘ 2 NON. Cornell Dairy School, M.S....... Ider Wl RN Ee Sa natto geo 8 Department of Dairy Industry, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. @rystaljhountain, By sec aun one Slaterville Springs, N. Y.| Hires Condensed Milk Co., Arch st., Philadelphia, Pa. DavisMis S..a5.-etee elhete CMe apart 6 Ithaca, N. Y., R. F. D...| Department of Dairy Industry, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYS Dryden-Borden, M.S............ Dryden; Nai Xie setsite ctsy "sy. re vee re HaukeD sing Cor! 2: Sate ee aren Havaland yEilberG'Gesa se ee eee Helmers.\@harles:Hs:4. 52-04. "0. 8022 Hessrat Bement. sinners cee [Ekeierse Othoreess ty rcrclmre s iee reer ee High-Ground Dairy Co............... Hires Condensed Milk Co............ Hoeflerice'Gream'Co-. >> Jo.20 00 ee Hogue, George BAIS ee nr Oe ee Hollandevohnnib ss: sh soa ee ee ood He Psd SONS). 7. eee eee Hoosick, N. Y., Elgin System Creamery HOoVer sha SOnke et ee | Horseheads Creamery Co...... ey aay Horton, J. M., Ice Cream Co......... Hudson Condensed Milk Co., Inc... .. Hudson Milk & Cream Co............ Hudson Valley Dairy Co............. EMM rian SONYANeg. tots cic: dete cet oo es Husted i Jamestitcnte nce. cece tee IdealfDairyi@or-are tee ne JATISHED ERM, serch ee eas Jefferson County Creamery Co........ JettersC@ lrisuians esas ee ae oe Joey lana: o12 See toe Ce nee MODES GrEOree anol. Sern Pele Solos oko ee FORMEN AW iietEl. nee es ae ees June vel arvey Les anc ee Kadans souwiss 2. sae eee Cee ee KapplertSamuels tees eee ak Karlen sDavid. . fc on ss eco oe ae Karlen Biranices.... 15.0 sate ek ee eee Karlene William HY. ts Nore) te ee Katches Dairy Coz 4550 oed ae IGG AONtt iG oReens SPOR oe Seek Keystone Dairy Co:, The...--2.0..-.. inne yBrounersirct seer ee moar Knauer Andrew: specs ot to ee KoestersAnton strc ssstete cee: ve Laemmies Dairy Gowe, sn. toe ILAWwrencet Dheo Un | na eee: eG raLCAtin-# ot teen Teeter eh ere Beonhardts, Henry... 4252 eso ee ae Levy Wangs Cons «curse ert ion.c omega chee Libby, McNeill & Libby............. Liebertiligaaketr: cryita. cus eee LaVermore EaAmry BD fa. sea nen sete Locust Warmey@0Mss... 0.8: sca os sos THORTASHOW SEDASUIAN ss ocr fo. chee tee we Individual. . Individual. Corporation... . Corporation.. . Individual... . Corporation... Individual... . Individual... . Partnership... Corporation... Corporation.. . | Corporation... | Individual... : | Individual... . | Corporation... Corporation.. . Partnership... Corporation... Corporation.. . Corporation... Individual.... Corporation... Individual... . Individual... . Corporation.. . Individual.... Corporation... Individual... . Individual.... Individual... . | Individual... . Individual... . Individual... . Individual... . Individual... . Individual... . Corporation.. . Individual... . Corporation... Corporation... Individual... . Individual... . Corporation... Individual... . Partnership... Individual... . Corporation... Corporation... Individual... . Individual... . Corporation.. . Individual... . Low, John H. (The Westport Creamery)! Individual... . 620-622 West 131st st., New York City. 596-606 Jefferson st., Buffalo, N. Y. 105 West 46th st., New York City. Riverside ave., Yonkers, N. Y. 367 7th ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. Cassville, N. Y.. 1342 E. Ferry st., Buffalo, N. Y. Earlville, N. Y. 443 Madison st., Brooklyn, N. Y. 913 Arch st., Philadelphia, Pa. 256 Connecticut st., Buffalo, N. Y. Arcade, N. Y. Plattsburgh, N. Y. 494 Rutherford ave., Boston, Mass. Hoosick, N. Y. Sterlingville, N. Y. Eleanor st., Horseheads, N. Y. 205 East 24th st., New York City. 913 Arch st., Philadelphia, Pa. 170 Sixth st., Hoboken, N. J. Front & First sts., Newburgh, N. Y. 173 W. Main st., Middletown, N. Y. 1001 Park st., Peekskill, N. Y. 203 20th st., New York City. 109 Grand st., Hoboken N. J. 100 Hudson st., New York City. 43 Perry st., New York City. 14 East 114th st., New York City. Mayville, N. Y. Union Hill, N. J. 305 Main st., Hornell, N.Y. 306 Greenwich st., New York City. Lee Center, N. Y. Boonville, N. Y. West Branch, N. Y. Boonville, N. Y. 544 Grand st., New York City. Mayville, N. Y. 622 Madison st., Hoboken, N. J. 243 Water st., Binghamton, N. Y. 351 Columbia st., Utica, N. Y. 438 West 58th st., New York City. 316 East 157th st., New York City. Chester, N. Y. 37 Winding Way, Binghamton, N. Y. Redwood, N. Y., R. F. D. 19th st. & Avenue B, New York City. Union Stock Yards, Chicago, Ill. 16 East 107th st., New York City. Moravia, N. Y. 458-460 Tenth ave., New York City. R. F. D., Angola, N. Y. Westport, N. Y. S76 NAME Macedon Creamery Co............... MalonesDainys Cogs. sea ekiat oceans Marks, Benjamin H. (Amity Dairy)... Martin, \Georgina\Gay 203 eo Merrell-Soule Co., Inc............./. Millers) awid 58 2euS Sar ee aie tek ee Model Dury, (Col; Ine). se see cee Moderna airy Co: inane afi Mohawk Condensed Milk Co......... IMonroe\Cheese|@o:,, The. = 21>... 5.28 Mountain Side Dairy Co., Inc......... Mount Wernon Dain. cei tee Morlkain Ora Oe ie tedohint 08 octets es oe Muller Mobnuiy ce we. 1 eRe as Bye ae Mundale Creamery Co............... Munphiy.Jamesveic ei seeeh opt eee Mutual McDermott Dairy Corp....... INestleisst ood Cotes aert os kes fies ote Netherland Farms Dairy, Inc......... Newark Cheese)Co., Ine.:2-. 5. sco. Newark Creamery Co., Inc........... Newark Milk & Cream Co...... : New England Creamery Co...........- New York Dairy Produce Co......... Normandie Dairy Products Co., Inc. . . Norton, Robert & Co. (Eugene P. Nor- LEO) 0) oat RANI O REE aT Aen .ochuyler. seen ee reene. 949 tom schoharies “4AStiRensselaer=. . 22.25. 4,719 SON ASSAU 6s. 5 ao oy-.o ate ee e052 AQketenkamier |e a. = ase. 4,318 SOMmOCHONATICN 1 aon eeraee IQRSS3§& OO RISSexan A Maharastra 3,844 SPR OAULACTUCUS 2 eee I2NO27A pr oleepihaltomie see ce Skit sts as. al Deol SOM aAShin oon. seer OF O94 524 Delawarem sii. 2,052 SOMIGreeNnes..o5 seamen eee OR AMD OO mee WIS Satire a te ae tee 1,957 Aly Cortlands.! +. ~:.\efaaeees SROSOM mod Sullivan eeeier rere 1,650 AlesC@olumbia:. =. ssnceeas. oUOm moos ocklandt@e sens eee 1,455 ADM OESCLO «20:56. oxcete amet ner (Haier. GoPhone os ooadssseoas 1,107 Ase @henango.s ../. ae ateeee Hes Gio Jeb eé os nabeoadee 95 AAMBETOOMES: <0: 5s customs 5,589 An examination of the figures upon the following pages will show by counties the result of this census, and will indicate where improvement can undoubtedly be made by the agricultural interests of the state. It is evident that the growth in agriculture is not keeping pace with the increase in population in this state. | CHagLes W. Larmon, Chief, Bureau of Statistics, State Department of Agriculture Datry Cows County County LeStildawrence:-7.1- sass: 967 3020S Sullivantee yee sean 16,190 DWDelawares.s. 2240 cee ne ors Ole SALALO RA ee ele ene 14,920 SHIeHerSONe aes eee. a HSNO pols Nlonroe.. 2 Hem ae ae ee 14,803 ASS ONCIGAR At. ox) tes HANI S47 Rossmlensselacn. 95.25.4565 545.. 14,751 Om Cattaraugus)... seme AT SOS LOL SELIOL A eye ee eee ee. 14,433 Gr Chenango) h. 5.4.4 bees A3803') oo. Columbia=. 4,-5.2... 4.4- 13,898 (en@hautaugquan+ sce eee | - ALS 20a oOy GTEeNG e082 Pies ss 13 ,068 SAO tsevore nk shower SOOO ROM PALDANVar aos ones © aes 12,707 ONSBINe eas. a kee 31502 soso MLOmpkKIns shan. eee 12,695 (OM Gewiser sch. Shenae x0 SA AUS 7 HS9 4Genesee: 20. 5... nc ae 11,830 ER OSWer Onan, <5 teeters, Sub Atgnl AL) liabatsiforile BG son on one 11,501 12 Orange h.):24 see eb Do ADO mall MO NGATIO? 0.0 faye ce, ae a 10,959 See SteUeMs W545 0s) ee suet: SOUGH m4 2 eaNi agian sey 48 era oe 10,647 (4mellorkimer= 24830 sae SOS SHSM AS Sse xy Ua ne ios 9,680 5a Alles anyviaanont: + essai BONGoDe R44-a@hemungeey ya 3 ee 9,186 GOS Broomeneye st eee ree 24,582 46. Westchester: |. i+... .- 8,755 if Onond arta wees ee Di ATA PAG aE UIbMe pea sree: 8,701 1S Wivyomings, (ee 2OFA0Gw BAdeRE boners eee eat te 7,506 LOR Viadisonty 4. eee aa 2OR0S9R AS eS UOlMKest were cave ae 6,918 2) Dutchess) 4.2 oh eee ae DO oNE 49:5 Orleansise tv esos 6,311 Zils Washington: =. tees asa. Paya) ilh Saawhy ease es ane nen eee 5,149 2oaotranklines... co. Means: ne 25,280 5: Schenectady............ 5,063 DSaClintone ss. 5. sehr ae 2A> HOON base Viatesy 3 ot eon see oe 5,035 DAM SCHONATICN A... kennel 2 Oboa MOOS SeNeCA. 2-156. s.r setae 4,992 Dora OAV URE en ose ncheeicle ae SOO) Oa sm ART CI Jon gases. as 4,908 268 Cortlandee ry... tees ZUEO4S TA moo eRocKlands 450) 55.55 546 2,194 27. Montgomery........... UG 684 se oOm Niassa eae cies ens 1,693 Pe EN AI). 23> 5 Ce ERR OEE Ee IGS Paik slevenlhvos bot Ganee bene 907 2OSsUISter! See 6 oe 16;199 838 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Horses, SHEEP AND. SwINE oN Hanp January 1, 1916 — New York State — By Countiss COUNTY FAD ATIV PUR Nes hays cotter syes eh one ee IBTOOMER ae tors. ke oe Caylee ieee icles cic oieuereeieiete = Chemung 25 ose esses seem avin estonh-n% mole biel cleus een NUR OISON ne aru bcranic ttre nee INIASSS UG. Sek ehexetarslobe henner ere INTRO RTA ocr hers Cie comiet ds miaer cters Oneidarrcran ie eke Grs ee OnOnd ag aycrc.n a cine. ee OTA ela oie Sess aateseiy oo OSWEPO! aie ert kere QuUCENS cyan Wheel toe eee Horses Colts Sheep (over 3 | (3 years | (1 year Lambs ; years and old and | (under | Swine of age) | under) over) 1 year) 8,052 714 7,447 1,907 12,093 10,073 1,909 8,765 2,628 9,980 8,004 917 4,366 1,107 6,042 10,383 1,604 3,303 sie ye || iis} 11s 12,564 AY, vel 6,930 2,597 16,928 12,811 2,128 4,167 1,459 | 14,459 4,130 531 3,234 907 3,791 9 502 ei? 2,400 718 8,616 8,896 2,473 6,070 2,075 | 10,672 7,945 625 8 , 232 2e2oe | 1Oe2ai 5,309 622 1,446 524 3,930 10,852 979 Pasties 15209) 115697 9,001 756 5,266 2,244 | 12,404 15,808 1,809 3,024 1,034 | 20,000 5,389 903 | 10,048 2,121 4,820 6,808 1,587 2,430 815 8,749 3,490 400 630 213 3,740 8,957 1,209 |} 14,201 15,445 , 11,301 4,920 400 4,073 1,270 6,949 584 52 974 633 440 7,031 659 955 304 6,652 14,844 2,249 4 272 1,224 | 18,635 7,266 1,090 1,244 649 | 10,422 8,490 1,561 | 22,529 9,810 | 10,701 7,189 955 1,899 829 7,910 15,279 1,886 8,225 3,332 | 19,795 6 , 226 751 985 414 7,606 3,858 214 250 122 3,369 10, 400 1,526 7,429 3,892 | 16,452 14,047 1,426 3,495 1,324 | 16,349 13,241 1,381 5,789 2,141 16,590 11,558 1,627 | 24,622 | 10,558} 17,3138 8,079 635 1,100 478 8,581 8,652 1,191 } 22,040] 10,949 | 138,124 11,673 1,567 2,092 986 | 12,056 10,562 1,024 6,232 2,017 | 11,266 2,633 115 437 154 2,401 Ale eh. oes hee LE ead see |, Seaton 103 7,839 576 8,188 2,377 8,905 2,434 89 295 204 2,364 19,739 3,792 7,299 3,061 | 27,120 A Farm JENSUS IN THE RuRAL ScHooLs 889 Horses, SHEEP AND Swine on Hanp January 1, 1916 — New York Starr — By Countres — (Continued) Horses Colts Sheep Tae (over 3 | (3 years | (1 year oe : : COUNTY years and old and ss er | Swine of age) under) over) year) AEATOR A )..te . whe Meee Ean 7,584 766 4,775 1,185 9,581 Schenectadyse, » .a4s8 Wee 2,857 396 1,082 397 4,646 Senonarios ji ch. odode ease 6,306 622 4,262 1,142 dealt SS GHILVLCT REAR ISEN 0 cy ene eee 4,372 486 | 10,900 3, 807 5,218 Senccanpeee son. ~ lo aie dlanaes 5,307 826 4,692 1,741 8,108 BIGUMEUE RRO. as \ay ct dee not 15,4385 2,339 | 19,768 9,440 | 16,283 UGH er es. S, hee ae o, 9,581 522 2,917 976 | 10,170 SU Cir 2 nr is eek a 5,697 558 507 708 5,800 Migcme eet... eee es 5,668 746 4,713 1,155 3,946 ROMpGEON Ee Ps 5 5. 2b Se ak 6,857 975 7,348 2,972 6,871 Wistemeeaanns sh, 5 iat okt ot 8,515 622 2,581 1,416 | 11,377 Wiartenrrmre.. ©... 5 eek os 2,988 412 6,244 2,054 3,250 Wisshinetonine 2.520065. Secu. 9,227 133a"| 113,262 4,043 | 10,832 Wayne ee Recent? so86 15. 12,544 1,569 8,280 2 6177") 19al37 Wiestchestermee sy. isd oes sie me 4,752 240 ian 447 5,603 Wyorminge ta 2. t.880.5.... 10,036 1,572 9,954 6,705 | 11,972 WiatesPeee yess... AEA) 5,718 797 | 17,952 7,049 | 18,076 Potalionvfarms: 4.14024. )4 478,558 | 61,536 | 349,439 | 144,971 | 585,759 Estimated number not on farms.| 303,256 | ....... PAD MEH | Se socor 32,316 Grand total for state....... 781,814 | 61,536 | 375,570 | 144,971 | 618,075 —————————— eee ees 890 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Darry CaTTLe on Hanp January 1, 1916 — New Yorx Strate — By Counties COUNTY NOE dR ot ee co-nthchcdons EAMES eA, ¢ IBTOOME: foe te eee eee Cayiiga, Bakeaws es pees hteee @hemung, Sef oe See So: Hivanestone lr eetse kee tee Miadisoneecr tis cee oe. coe INTASS Ace 23 Ace nts inven Ree Ontanoncn Sok eee See WALalOt Assi. anit hacto Schenectady serene SChoOhAanierne. en hess ccna Schuylerts wth actress saoen WONCCA se ce aero wie ae ce eee Dairy cows (2 years and over) 12,707 30,655 27 ,582 47 , 383 21,390 41,526 9,186 43,803 24,509 13,898 20, 947 73,440 25,572 37 , 302 9,680 25 , 280 7,506 11,830 13,068 907 30,858 58 , 959 34,408 11,501 26,039 14,803 17,684 1,693 10,647 54,184 27 474 10,959 32,496 6,311 34,401 39,566 8,701 14,751 2,194 96 , 802 14,920 5, 063 22,063 Yearling heifers Calves (raised in 1915) 28 , 465 3,791 1,081 6,288 1,816 1,681 All other | All cattle, cattle total 704} 13,259 1,445 | 23,115 311 3, 665 612 7,654 1,983 | 35,229 665 9,012 976 | 8,967 A Farm Census In THE RuRAL ScHOOLS 891 Dairy CatTLe on Hann January 1, 1916—New York Statre— By Countirs — (Continued ) COUNTY Wityne sake: secs. tp ees Total on farms......:... Estimated number not on Grand total for state..... Dairy cows (2 years and over) 1,270,836 32,225 1,303,061 Yearling heifers 292 , 468 Calves (raised | All other in cattle 1915) 1,866 987 5,486 | 2,411 4,514 | 1,346 F861 || 41,310 B13 ly 13404 2,144 741 6,010! 2,264 3,369 | 2,300 1,892 742 7,501 | 2,721 2,208 | 2,053 343,782 | 133,201 dened Whe 15,283 All cattle, total 52,672 10,823 28 , 842 24 604 21,378 29,759 9,078 39,185 27 063 13,453 42,682 10,789 2,040,287 47 ,508 343,782 | 148,484 |2,087,795 892 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Pouttry on Hanp January 1, 1916 — New York State — By Countries COUNTY Cayce. bee de oc thee ees: Cortland att oe Ree eee WD Slt wiare ot ecece tna varheesesy eta sectors i IMadisonee oR oe ees e INASS [DS Peres tay Cmca colo cao SATAbOPA SAT Bice Ronen omer mee Schenectadyersnewrtecee eee Schobariens 45. porte eee NuMBER PouLTRY Chickens | Turkeys Geese 254,746 1,698 1,286 200 , 329 3,303 597 189 , 206 918 458 248 , 468 3,929 694 346 , 680 3,895 1,574 377,779 2,021 1,227 103 ,725 286 391 335,793 3,562 445 134,938 4,744 814 201,748 2,207 1,013 141,067 | 1,358 304 318,214 4,706 562 282,518 4,077 853 394, 040 1,929 3,704 83 , 564 1,319 355 109 , 494 3,028 537 86,618 768 328 142,511 2,765 880 149 , 037 967 315 11,694 158 | - 7 157, 251 2,358 406 256 , 668 11,674 932 112,033 3, 282 410 153 , 660 3,295 728 180, 947 2,294 601 334,099 | 3,284] 2,810 149 , 523 1,536 614 230, 305 994 1,686 237 , 589 2,003 2,016 310,040 6,073 1,545 318, 380 3, 166 2,948 253 , 274 1,946 1,320 290, 895 2,023 1,057 144,910 1,812 947 298 , 542 5,210 1,209 403 , 621 4,766 674 86 , 628 435 254 252,516 1,807 1,025 128, 186 201 903 399 , 023 2 atk 2,431 244 , 293 2,337 852 89 , 645 700 620 221, 488 2,793 553 98 , 001 1,248 214 119, 130 710 738 | Ducks A Farm Census IN THE RuRAL ScHOOLS 893 Pouttry on Hanp January 1, 1916— New York STATE = By Countres — (Continued ) COUNTY Suffolk BAO) iy ies ORR. Washington, <.)2encer eee oe ar Wi Vier 52.5 ARM Are A sce detains cia Westchester BE ADA toe Acne, a eee NuMBER POULTRY Total on New York farms.... Chickens Turkeys Geese | Ducks | 328 ,014 4,881 1,347 6,703 488 , 391 973 4,048 116,323 265 , 806 1,563 616 4,108 191,290 801 465 2,836 206 , 589 2,208 817 3,775 377 , 766 2,252 1,227 6,559 82, 409 2,081 131 506 221 , 634 3,109 632 2,227 367 , 778 2,043 1,712 6,581 217,981 623 1,209 4,804 192 , 394 4,377 892 3,055 133 , 996 1,321 521 2,202 | 12,656,664 | 167,753 57,514 356 , 004 894 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ENSILAGE FOR YEAR PRECEDING JANUARY 1, 1916 — New Yorx ; Sratre — By Counttss Silos Ensilage COUNTY (number) (tons) INV Saye e Pa oe ee a chet ees oA Re er Bee ee 207 14,584 (Allepanyevsat ioc at eee Besta ee eer ease 1,194 51,428 BLOOM eters turin cicisihe ceo hers OE eR ae zeros he 995 49,789 CERT IES TT) (lea ed ree Mea HIRI cop Satie ight cade aura ee 1,289 70,899 MOUNTS heheh ke oe ele cee PEC Te pete ae «8 ites okt s 1,068 62 , 356 CHautaugquas: arco ele Le ee Pires 8 Ss ecm 1,984 109 , 421 @hemuney eres Le ere ee rr oe ee Davee 429 25,045 CHEN 20. ppg es i OE QE EE apegeen 1,426 76,437 Olin tO ie Sen tees eels oe eae 474 35,507 (Gial bree oR Bs gee tees aero GaSe eA eae Men en oe eae wees oa IR ke 276 24,457 Coad [iets HOS Seep gene ning Sa kD sm oe, Oe 691 44,795 Dela wATe Ate tee be cree te aiaas RC eee me Meee ee 1,661 82,441 MD UtCHESS here Oe = out ree ee ee ee 2) ee tet 829 Cieelit ETC Meat the PN Goh eae Rn ee Gel ella oe Nin as 1,774 90,732 ISSO NRE rh ee eT eer ae dine A cece eee eae te 229 12,156 ranlclineg Wess cco ine caer ot te ee EP ee Sree 625 50, 294 MGOD Oe Cee Oe ore ohn Ee Le 247 14,381 (CeneRGe hn ie Oe ae ene a i. Ba te 646 41,872 (GENO he Se ROC Ie ea EL: roe ee 167 8,187 LATICO M aes caunerecre ere CLUE ees be os 2 120 JERSaabtE (sy eee OA nh at ode, clas cet eden a Benn eee e245 62 , 658 LQTS ESOT is RINE ee ot a china ch Oe" Ratoe hare Be ace, Spe nie gem 2,362 178 , 486 IDPERTAESIES & | ieee PR Ree arte tae eS wd CO ENS 7 al Oli Baw ga 829 58,601 hiya estou ceils cists es ee ces De re eee 470 31,917 IVIEACISOTE oie Oe oe ose ee te he ee ee eee 1,340 78,400 INTOMROCM ae 22 oo ook Gaerne ee OE See 492 36, 129 Monte OMMeryvasisn csi: oneieisicdasacton. Picac de eta Ree 777 53,136 EN RISS SLU ss Nie 2 1 ets pS ene hake Com ott Sek Re RR 37 1,725 INAS ATE eho hope, Nous ice SARUM I eh eee = ee ee yee 263 18,397 (OTS se PaO Oe OS ty aie ORLA ERE aie eee ane, 1,954 125 ,696 Onond ag aherte oe er hci ees. 1,243 88 , 980 CONG ATIO renee eee Oe re Ee Ee. ih a 282 ‘18,878 ORT ee SA ee ve Ee RRR Rie 18S, 540 43,518 OTT GATIS HAE esos ie ogee EC ERE REPRE re he ts 309 17,441 OB WEZOM ere erie oto lene RNC ete OE eee 1,600 90,759 OTSES ORM tice oe Oe EN et et: ss ek eee eee 15514 67 , 205 LEAT a Y:"10 1 AEP Ra pare aa Us Pins RNs cee, SURON OBR ICs Frees cn Silos 196 ~ 18,842 FRRENSSELACT DS. Geoteee ET en: 458 30,385 TEX GTA TT Cs kg Mee omrereecn 2s ARIA La oaRe Jaman’ A ra Sao a he 28 2,074 StwlgawrencGer cate ico ie icine SST ee ee 2,763 220 , 922 SArato ran ores ac kale aioe eis She ete Se ea beiee 601 32,618 Schenectady tog hs 0is ee kee is tek ei ee wo PE es 111 9,476 SGHOHATIGE pe Mae eiatik set eke Ree ERIS ete Sener 648 37 , 752 Sehuyler. ccetspcdac th sis oad sien We eds Oe FER eee 127 4,327 SeneCAne senha e/a ks ob eR Eten nine 182 7,727 A Farm Crnsvs In THE Rurat ScHoous 895. ENSILAGE FOR YEAR Precepine January 1, 1916 — New Yorx Stare — By Counties — (Continued ) Silos Ensilage COUNTY (number) (tons) SGeubenerrany 1. oc. srs atx ese er a ea OAS achat tke 1,207 57,425 SUSOLK reser. 6 atk Aa cote tae ee ets, aot kee 126 12,700 Sullivans e.4 sissies ore ae PR as, A, 451 Pf OPT ORAM eed hs ac kG Se Rae ae raat e eatets 792 41,523 FROMM REMS HE hie ese Ska aie OAT UN SPORT sc SER 582 31,294 NUNTSCIGT? $1 coh 2 ie aaa ts SEE 2 2a ee a 274 19,690 Wiarnermepee et ih: > Secs nee eRe es ROMER Bis cet Aa 111 8,357 WiSSnIN GD bOT gists oda RE eee 6 Sa ora ce 1,185 85,353 \Wisiyiicmerarrt ete «Soe Snr Mee eany 2h Speen ete (Oy ofa Gh 762 46,495 Westchester si}! 2h pan hairiness. sha eRe gt ea 245 25,113 Wav omni ganna? <0. er eae tae ne a ete tne 1,251 82,050 SEES Ag Big. Oe AAR RELA o Eccl En OR Sean hs oot Seabaparean Meas, 62 3,293 MotalkongNewaVork farms oh esses eee oe ae | 43 , 629 2,718,581 896 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE EnsiLace For YEAR Precepine January 1, 1916 — New Yorx Stare — By Counriss Hay | Alfalfa Alfalfa Red clover | Other forage COUNTY (tons) | (tons) | (acres) (tons) - (tons) | Wibanyese ener ee 116,140 1,758 1,360 6,595 14,028 Allewanyiere.. 6 ot 99 , 640 2,344 913 8,141 26,990 Broome wer 77,793 560 239 6,213 12,043 Cattaraugus...... 135,676 3,951 1,304 5,897 30,589 @ayliga. -. = Ie: 84,888 19,762 9 , 247 13,626 19,324 Chautauqua...... 123,916 3,022 901 6,530 29 ,821 @hemunge eee 25,970 1,084 397 4,279 4,908 Chenango........ 129 , 356 4,323 OX 7,977 13,271 Clintones- eee re 62,597 2,016 2,151 2,730 24,154 Columbia seme se 45 , 864 1,256 530 4,760 13 , 687 Wortland==-).2 4-5 - 69, 681 2,862 1,288 12,018 9 , 263 Delawares------ 165, 461 522 166 12,314 19,719 Dutchess......... 62,761 1,929 1,384 5,164 13,914 Erie pace eases 45 108 , 631 4,982 2Eotd. 10,726 22,452 Bssexke cee mene 32,009 1,309 1,588 1,889 9,070 Braniklineeee ree 60,951 289 801 5,948 21,067 INK 6 e5cacdo- 28 , 153 2,469 266 2,690 6,297 Genesee.......... 34,492 11,260 4,506 6,822, 16,759 Greene. 2.2 sectes 32,187 752 639 1,368 9,076 ifamilton)..... 0. -- 4,004 2 2 121 307 Herkimer........ 86,119 2,849 1,469 PA 21,504 Jefiersoniens --)5-.42 145 , 695 2,964 1,846 18,268 36,817 , NeewiStee icon a. a: 108,975 1,067 1,114 5,329 15,731 Livingston....... 45 , 500 9,715 4,215 8,632 17 ,596 Madison......... 78, 260 33,108 14,314 8, 367 9,712 IMIG. Jase gees 46,217 13,776 5,657 4,846 28 , 588 Montgomery ..... 52,192 3,025 1,759 10,316 28 , 302 INGSSaUE ee clmcens 4,074 290 366 261 1,692 INTAG ALA ee occ s - 43,715 1,539 987 7,497 28 , 322 Oneidanncns a4 0e 5 ee 145,710 16,500 CalG7 10,227 23,012 Onondaga........ 92,759 63 , 564 25,741 14,213 42 ,627 Orntarion sec: ee.ee 590,498 16,174 9,050 9,783 17,545 Orancerrcces ao ss: 76,214 8 ,322 2,225 2,880 11,096 OrleansSneas ae ae 27,319 2,413 1,244 3,834 20 , 569 OSWERO dae -m sree 73 , 652 2,142 884 6,002 29 ,668 Oiserors.scicse cee 114,960 3,006 1,569 12,642 33,750 putnam eee ee 20,904 307 104 589 1,652 Rensselaer........ 32,196 625 867 5,361 12,654 Rockland........ 7,938 205 125 458 2,407 St. Lawrence..... 215,428 1,222 3,124 33,195 87,539 Saratogaie a. os). 49 592 900 925 6,599 15,212 Schenectady...... 18,174 510 214 4,270 5,636 Schoharie........ (Alsat 3,986 1,965 9 , 487 21,122 SERUVICT Ne ry-\- =< 34,396 949 644 6,106 8,628 RGHGEE vie co vis 215.5 34, 269 3,699 2,150 6,517 7,917 A Farm Census In THE Rurat ScHooLs S97 EnsILaGE For YEAR PRecEDING January 1, 1916 — New Yorx Srare — By Countirs — (Continued ) Hay COUNTY (tons) Steuben. lack. 25 126,503 Sunollon.: 25. See 25,218 Sullivan....... 222 37 , 366 NO GAHAN. scxtcm) See 40,448 Tompkins? 3.) sor 60,389 (UU1S (21a aire 47 , 257 Waren. ss. oe 16,986 Washington...... 64,415 Wityner eee. ae. 45 , 872 Westchester...... 22 , 352 Wivominge sf... 77,920 BVER OSes ce Fe ek aoe: 38,758 Total on New York farms.) 4,319,761 Alfalfa (tons) 3,287 2,387 627 580 3,917 3,069 442 1,752 6,821 1,019 4,704 4,495 292, 409 (tons) 16,596 3,736 26 , 600 31,563 3,313 18,938 8,751 985 , 297 Alfalfa Red clover | Other forage (acres) (tons) 2,030 14,890 874 1,088 727 1,627 252 4,682 2,967 11,457 977 3,380 987 727 845 9,799 4,141 5,918 504 932 2,512 8,532 2,243 8,795 139 , 480 398 , 941 | ‘898 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Oars, Corn, AND WuHEaT FoR YEAR PrRecEpDING January 1, 1916 — New Yoxr Statr — By Counties Oats COUNTY (bushels) Ailbanygr en ea eee nee ses 564, 259 NMemaniyee se. ciledetts aks oot ae ckeieks ene ec 1,108,097 STOGMC CRE a. oe ees dol eere Be 397 ,077 Cattaraucus. eect) oo eobar 1,022 , 264 C@ayiga te 52 heb ob tson si sohhe oeee 1,096 , 945 @hautaugquarsk sate se os. aces 918,706 Cer ee Hoe. co ace rere genase 242 , 629 @hen'angon ee: 5 She eyes Soke a tc 480, 100 GlintonPe res 2 2k eae eee eins oe 768 , 640 Columbiak sos etek oer ee ce ae 458 , 785 @ortlandee so eee ects ae 378 ,098 De Feaware recs ay vaste Gi astewt hadith tapayareret A88 , 570 WD WECHESS ae aia Eee ee aeasetes 489 , 162 1 DiC eR RRR IA. 3 RR Ren Lies 1321243 1 DISCS aoc i eens ORL AER 3 ce er 268 , 318 Brankling es: ttn covet tone ies 908 , 910 ultowsere nhs. Seek oe ee nate 301 , 602 CRENESCE et Se eee eee: 515, 396 (Greene fo eh Ame ie So eee ee 197 , 702 Eammltonw isos. sin cereite tree 125235 Iter kimensteerc.. 6s ras eee ee 508 , 680 JerkersOmpeet sy. ssc. cet eaeeeoweer 2,858, 316 Mewist et rae eh eae ae 867 , 423 Ibavinestome yt oes cate se oe eee 703 , 537 WMiadisonvan tn: sh: ceisler tock 534,837 INV ONTOC Re ne fee tees eer ee torte 1,250,976 WIDOT Eh ew oa noo din’ Hos chad 6 682,109 INTASSAU ener ee Sas cpt nee re rene eet 10, 653 INNS a eee acces econ Cote cased were ate Ts 814, 055 Oneidare tere. cece aa nce ce ta: 829,745 Onongdaraeeerc ics. cre esta are ae 863 , 835 Q@ntariopennee-. 6 Moores. seas 979 , 354 OTANI Cte ses 5 5 actor ache ere Te 154, 369 OTIC ATS ee ee ioe a oe crete coe aes 534, 853 Osweras en Sse hs Gene oe ee 771,640 Otago oo era nae iie sore or 853 , 523 Putname teste co eae eiee cess a 32,077 Rensselaer’ coe. cicsiae Doreen: 439 , 359 Rockland)... eon ok he eee 18 , 064 Stolawrences 1.'5 5... cs cere ee: 2,478,798 Saratoga. ci cc oclacs.c seicnis se histene yer: 536, 754 Schenectady..0 5%... o0-.des wom aceel 278 , 450 Schoharie. (2 Sec eben osaus eae 600 , 617 Schuyylersese tes seen he tohen hoe 285 , 635 SENECA Cae ice ee Oye ioe oe 515, 303 Corn (shelled) (bushels) 102,638 18, 342 20, 500 47,404 431,341 104,995 28 , 088 36 , 397 117,378 190, 368 17,350 12, 637 267,515 298 , 320 67 , 127 59 , 334 39, 706 200 , 102 100 , 267 1,387 49 , 842 M1; 81 12,070 185 , 628 59 , 682 511,118 116,786 80, 644 383 , 727 97 , 461 308 , 903 434 , 909 219 , 223 234 , 268 205 , 162 52,986 39, 189 154,917 27 , 024 141, 604 199 , 683 37, 392 63 , 808 66, 358 210, 289 Wheat (bushels) 22 , 467 29 , 802 5,589 12,627 498 , 626 25,523 29 , 808 5,943 17,782 7,509 8,036 2,052 33,770 420,447 3,844 21,568 2,331 637 ,279 9 254 95 4,318 25,881 1,957 556,421 39 , 835 1,012,984 27, 106 13,052 673,088 38 ,573 259 , 866 694 , 305 28 , 204 635 , 197 16,107 6,373 1,107 4,719 1,455 23,055 140 , 683 5,027 12,888 86,890 388 , 675 A Farm Census In THE RurAL ScHOOLS 899 Oats, Corn, anD WwHeEatT FoR YEAR PRECEDING January 1, 1916 — New Yorx State — By Countirs — (Continued ) Corn (shelled) Oats Wheat COUNTY (bushels) (bushels) (bushels) Dlembenter ses 4: [nckcey laa aes 1,544 471 117,405 169,177 SRUUEIC) Uke Ae RR NS PE rected) oe 74, 069 415,541 66 , 492 ULL AT serie el tee ha DRE ios oe 191 , 222 59, 627 1,650 RIO Damage sce ctor ep nnie, ugha 410,357 25, 167 18,847 BOTA KINGS 04 5 2's". coy ap soe ec ei 544,315 96,301 159 , 260 Wisteria ety. lark ce ae ee 247 , 524. 195 , 234 27,909 \Wiaitreneyaee k=). sr eet. oa ete putes! 52,327 46,738 4,858 Washing toners. twas a or aut eee 727, 875 408 , 248 9,694 Wayne teert ae <8 os 5 5 ee Ce ae 1,075, 288 532 , 536 467 ,070 Wiestchestertenct:: oo sanian astute: foe 49,814 71,243 5,424 AW Grain ate fm 2 eed ey ate a ae ate 992 , 257 32,817 318 , 720 DYER OSPR ee: acti rae cc dN a EN 358 , O77 189, 460 293 , 605 Total on New York farms....... | =—36, 609, 246 8 , 356 , 003 8,034 , 824 ————————— ey aN 900 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Baruey, Ryze anp BuckwHkraT FoR YEAR PRECEDING J ANUARY 1, 1916 — New York State — By Countries COUNTY IBROGMehiseise te re 6 i ee C@attaLAUgUsasee oo eas me Cee Cayiipar. s: San a rer ahs nh tees (Qo (cial h ape ay ae Siraat eerieee Rie 8 at WHeNaANGO Nees eset oe ect RE ae (Cl iia oy RRR eenien MiG iG entoee-alg Haken pci Colambia.. Aneesh Uh ee Wortlandee sts eee oe Ce Delaware ces cer imete te he on DTG CE See t,o) OR eR heal: Eh Lege a (GiT;Gen Glare: «ntti ee eee epee Eliaminliton "7. 2) bytes Se ee Tita SLOWS estes ot tere ene INaCISOTI ee the sce eee eee nee IMOmT OC Rhee :3-. eae eee eee a ee Montgomery ioe ieee eee ae oe ee NASSA Ui tee eC ee CR bake ein eee J. INI SCAT ANC Pen. 5st ee ene A es Oneida tssnre.:cparects set ede ee Onondaratn ns enccepeis stick Set choke Ontantomrmet out ein oat ee ee Orange nee es eects oc. er Ee @rlesinsvanw by Nes oa ta cha Nee OBwWerOrria Lene cal ce ae Saratoga te. cee come tone eae Schenectady...) sie accesa. ee go ee DScHOMATIGr ares Seren oer ere ree Schulylerss Sci) Moar Sarat aes een Benecai i toa Sele asic one Se eee ee Barley (bushels) 12,303 87,910 2,135 17,855 288 , 077 26 , 992 16,078 8,385 44,520 3,707 20,281 4,998 2,614 3,372 10,210 54,883 3, 697 74,231 1,725 25 22,116 69, 460 peal 79,012 64,808 114,972 26 , 941 1,525 60,312 40 , 669 168 ,578 206 , 961 51,191 Rye (bushels) 135,790 6,636 9,778 4,427 18 ,522 7,235 29 ,971 2,316 5,083 238 , 445 2,003 5,214 61,760 45 164 1,883 12,064 4,714 30, 285 51,851 162 2,414 3,913 1,183 47 ,981 2,699 80,884 5,931 11,060 25 , 821 6,859 15,445 42,996 43,185 15,904 14,841 5,272 4,250 177, 403 6,353 5,911 90,058 37,125 33, 287 29,576 10, 650 Buckwheat (bushels) 147,713 112,451 58,543 121,703 208 , 400 110,719 75,812 46 , 354 50,385 61,420 40 , 436 75,586 86, 468 130 , 892 20,116 24 265 21,501 11,796 55, 885 1,197 13,425 23,499 7,077 33,452 39,815 19,962 101,494 1,192 24,797 27 ,604 40,223 24,145 14,774 13,550 65,247 86,483 3,362 58,102 1,740 28,392 58,296 68, 537 143,998 68,763 60,474 A Farm Censts In THE RurAaL ScHoots 901 Baritey, Ryr anp BuckwHeatT ror YEAR PRECEDING JANUARY 1, 1916 — New York Starr — By Countirs — (Continued ) Barley COUNTY (bushels) Sfelbenmers utr; .< tokpoashern eee eer 129 , 451 SOLTELO Le as Sos. ss Seaews cuacctee net 2,03 SSUUU N97 ala) ota ee die ete ars Rt 305 STOR Bie ei oy 5, 2,« siebogs dt ones nee eee 10,012 ROMP RAS 6 2 :3.: A Reo nee ee ae | 71,560 WISEI mere ees: « cetaeeeke «tee Sees 2, 101 Waren ieuepare 5 0. Se Reese ee «NAL en ee 304 Weiskinip tone a)! ti irencwe < heteen | 8,395 Way nema as 2S tne ee Pee 82,915 WIESUCHESUCEeES . ». ee yon eaten ater 572 Wiviourin genes’. pli acne Cea ta | 60,707 RYUCCS OEE 9%. c sM ads RRC OE Gon abbas Apres Ome Total on New York Farms....... 2,338 , 894 Rye (bushels) 62,336 26 , 826 22,972 13,992 16,970 65,596 2,933 71, 605 34, 129 13,780 11,301 36 , 728 1,773,472 Buckwheat (bushels) 195,846 11,448 38, 693 124,742 107 ,820 3,247 , 162 ——SSE——— a | 902 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE MisceLLanrous Crops For YEAR PRECEDING JANuARyY 1, 1916 — New York Strats — By Counties Apples Potatoes COUNTY (bushels) (bushels) AWANY 5156 foes a eras 307 , 388 107 ,574 Alleranyzgi ieee ecie 28,741 351 , 697 IBTLOOME HA: eee aa ree 46,739 218 , 631 Watiaraugus-e ep cee. 30,101 235 , 003 @ayurar oni een eee 491 , 469 302,774 Chautaugquanes-soeeee 155,817 291 , 844 Chemuncow eee ee 45,019 102 , 371 Chenango one noe. 45,051 233 , 860 Clintons #f3fe cee 58,946 818 , 532 Columbia: + .ctss oes 827 , 802 153,773 Cortlandicre heehee 40, 308 210,326 Delawarevse oo otc. t eee 98 , 226 229 , 284 Dutchess. fe erat toe 616 , 612 191,131 [DTH ReA teed eo kamead 5 Ae 69 , 625 906 , 468 INSSOxs peice e et coiten 42,490 214,081 prankdinte eee ere 8,991 786 , 329 ultoneers eee eco 43 ,935 119,121 CENESEE sc: wee eee 210,168 463 , 040 (CRG eee ety een nT 406 , 957 82 , 425 Hieamultoni ss eeeeneee 2,240 21,913 lerkamer, 24. j2c.6.¢ om ee: 52,336 161,310 Jeflersonise. cae oe 54,418 329 , 253 We wAS erties oe cere 18,540 254 , 802 Bivinestones sce eee 95, 196 387 , 495 Miadisonmern. seer 93 , 653 139,708 Monroekrnccestacck or 1,655,702 | 1,066,657 Montzomery, 1414-42000 92 , 526 88 , 210 INASS AL ae @chen kc aereeeets eo 23,126 596 , 666 INI Ap ana pee 5 ee 1,041 , 384 202,166 Oneid agree eee 110,928 438 , 836 QOnondacawenese eee. 241,755 592 ,675 Omtarionete twee seed vane 1,216, 484 542,780 Oranges ee ese 257 , 900 182,370 Orleanshenn een ee Le 1,133 , 636 350 , 456 OSWeZOmry nae aed ete 207 ,908 381, 465 @tsevoy, cetera 106 , 284 285 , 624 EUG pyar ee ote one 7all 49,725 Rensselaer: sic cen ss sok 166,598 468 , 022 Rocklande 4s so.oeeee 68 , 989 42 ,448 Sto Wawnencennrnc ae se 30,049 568 , 636 SHEMET sigs on cnabeR ow 173,413 259 , 364 Schenectadyeeene. eee 54,782 31,548 Scholiarie. oAeeeie ra eee 163,412 126,745 Schuylenere seer 115,229 80,079 Senecar dt Mterceerecc, eee 336, 167 74,858 Dry beans (bushels) Onions Cabbage (bushels) 17,314 2,503 5,803 4,693 34,160 36, 872 4,744 1,733 10, 367 9,102 1,011 1,131 10,677 46, 269 5,278 5, 026 2,419 11,808 4,566 150 6,134 9 221 5, 967 47,653 424 333 54,077 5,088 3,341 680 ,546 12,013 60,012 24, 352 858 , 630 19,747 69 , 348 2,141 2,994 13,009 2,850 13,829 21,084 4,332 2,661 2,981 19,892 (tons) A Farm Census IN THE RurAt ScHOOLS 903 MiscELLANEous Crops ror YEAR PREcEpDING January 1, 1916 —New York State— By Counties — (Continued) Apples Potatoes | Dry beans! Onions | Cabbage COUNTY (bushels) (bushels) (bushels) | (bushels) | (tons) MG aes Me. . See OISterte ti. ss oe ee Wieshingtonpee scenes Wfaaneme® — on ee eontar - Westchester’... 22.4252: Wyoming..... ete eee ce NCE HOS). oe reer lta 435, 476 100, 499 50, 686 93,475 52,689 117,536 475,998 4€ , 723 139 ,578 3,036, 162 169,785 205 , 294 16,956, 662 762,828 3,110,136 118 , 382 165 , 069 138,734 165, 225 109, 451 609 , 758 391 , 695 104, 555 580, 188 71,397 20,069, 443 60,723 27,012 9,086 1,361 2,924 24,402 4,513 2,529 7,259 101, 907 2,202 211,540 1,654,776 13,830 17,754 1,448 1,939 4,306 31,372 3,673 8,077 543 , 099 5,309 Til Gol 2,361 3,226,970 1,331 11,214 583 9C+ DerarrMENT or AGRICULTURE PLAN OF TAKING THE CENSUS On February 1, 1916, plans for taking the census were put in operation. Blanks in duplicate to the number of 10,500 were sent out to all teachers in the rural schools, one to be filled in and returned to the Department, the other to be retained for future reference as a school record. A facsimile of the blank is shown on page 27. At the same time the following detailed letter was sent out to district superintendeats of schools: Strate or New Yorxk DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Aupany, February 1, 1916. To the District Superintendent of Schools: Dear Srr.—It is proposed to take a Farm Census of the domestic animals, forage, grain and other farm products of the state through the assistance of the public schools. The Education Department has kindly consented to cooperate with this Depart- ment in this work, and full instructions to the principals and teachers are given in the University Bulletin for February 1. The data to be obtained through this census are of great importance to this department and to the state, and the work in collecting the same by the pupils of the public schools will be of considerable educational value to them. Many farmers dishke to make public the details of their farm- ing operations, fearing that such knowledge might affect the assessed value of their property and increase their taxes. We wish you would correct this impression as far as possible and would suggest it can be done through the teachers. We are making an effort through the public press to reach the farmers and assure them that they will not in any way be injured by giving the desired information. The blanks are now being mailed to the schools with return postal cards to be signed by teachers, in order that a record may be kept of each district. If for any reason it is found impossible to secure the data, the teachers are requested to notify the district superintendent at once, and in case he is unable to suggest to the teacher a solution of the difficulty, he should immediately notify this department, in which case a representative of the department will be sent to the district to assist in the work. A Farm Crnsus IN THE RuRAL SCHOOLS 995 STATE OF NEW YORK FARM CENSUS OF LIVE STOCK AND CROPS, 1915 Department of Agriculture in co-operation with Education Department CCHARLES S. WILSON, Dr. JOHN H. FINLEY, Commissioner of Agriculture Commissioner of Education SeHOO URIS tee N Ono nescence eee een 24 (CO) Se Peete eee aateee STC WV see eeenenras Co22 See Name of Principal \ P.O Taya Co or Teacher | Scene che hae 7S Uipaeeen Pee Tey ey oe oe tee ee PERT. Ae Name of Dist. Supt. | at Sehoola foster PQ ear ee oS ownt=5 4.23 SS Corse (On hand Dee. 31, 1915) (Produced during 1915) Number Horses over 3 years of age..... MOMS POTS APO cae eked =) = lele) «nisl! elerahekelats onm = Number Colts, 3 years and under....... INSIST 5 Once God COR S DOC COORKO 4.00 : : Aaya Ube Bind zeae ena 0 OOD diods 00 Om Number Dairy Cows, 2 years and over.... ACreMeAballhaw 2 oie ccs tere tity sielate olaye ole Mel chen Number Yearling Heifers............- j Mons’ Red *ClOVEeLR ae.ctieists ket he siete «cients Number Calves raised in 1915......... ingnsvOtherNoramesc. aco. oh: . skeen Number All Other Cattle.............- Bushels’ Oats pease sits eet eke Number obeall @attie, totale... «mel Bushels Corn (shelled)..........-..-- Number Sheep, 1 year old and over..... Bushels WHEaAt ()s oi 55 jeer e wie wh. 2 oslo Number Lambs, under 1 year.......... EO a a Sak te aE SUSHI S IRV Cn aps. oko weitere a aus rine galas: poWele hen > Number Swine ....: Sickonetetererekebol chon steret one Bushels Buckwheat. 2s on «iat skene) = eevee Chickens.........-. Bushelsu rye Beans ae oleae rete aR Ta RAS min Choma: ¢ ee Re . Number Poultry SIESINCLS = ONMOWS ee ci ocegersdaiarsiadaue tele eas uo al GeCSEAT Aik. oe ech BENE oe PUSNEISMEOLACOCS! ..c.0.s de a 6 wldte ome elie ers= Ducks......----+-. Be USHEISA DIGS niseictel Lorie tei tantoieyenetoicrie Wumber Silos? 2002.2 «ic. ssss sunte metetaterele le ane NONE (Gali SG Ae @ Apis bid o Enoloo tne Bro ule Names and addresses of owners of registered horses, cattle, sheep, hogs and poultry — the number of each and breed: Name Address Breed No. Animals C. W. LARMON, Statistician, Department of Agriculture 906 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE As soon as the data are secured, teachers are requested to for- ward the same to their district superintendent, and as soon as reports from all districts are received, he should forward them to this department by first-class mail. For this purpose we enclose a 10-cent postage stamp. The excess postage, if any, will be paid at this end of the line. We are anxious to get this work completed as soon as possible and will thank you for your prompt attention to it. Please address all communications to the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Agriculture, Albany, New York. Yours truly, Cuar_es 8S. WILson, Commissioner of Agriculture. Approved JoHN H. FIN Ey, Commissioner of Education. On the same day, was issued by the Education Department to all teachers, the University of the State of New York Bulletin to the Schools for February 1, 1916, containing a thorough explana- tion of the census and directions for making the enumeration. From time to time further notices were included in the bulletin, and these are reprinted in full below: Frepruary 1, 1916 A FARM CENSUS TAKEN BY THE CHILDREN IN THE RURAL SCHOOLS Abraham Lincoln said once, in an address before a state agri- cultural society: ‘ No other human occupation opens so wide a field for the profitable and agreeable combination of labor with cultivated thought, as agriculture. I know nothing so pleasant to the mind as the discovery of anything that is at once new and valuable — nothing that so lightens and sweetens toil as the hope- ful pursuit of such discovery. And how vast and how varied a field is agriculture for such discovery! ~The mind, already trained to thought in the country school, or higher school, can not fail to find there an exhaustless source of enjoyment. Every blade of grass is a study; and to produce two where there was but one is both a profit and a pleasure. And not grass alone, but soils, seeds, and seasons — hedges, ditches, and fences — draining, droughts, _ A Farm Crnsus In THE RuRAL SCHOOLS 907 and irrigation — plowing, hoeing, and harrowing — reaping, mow- ing, and threshing — saving crops, pests of crops, diseases of crops, and what will prevent or cure them — implements, utensils, and machines, their relative merits, and how to improve them — hogs, horses, and cattle — sheep, goats, and poultry — trees, shrubs, fruits, plants, and flowers — the thousand things of which these are specimens — each a world of study within itself.” The children and their teachers in the schools of the state are to have an opportunity to give a special service to the state in “exhaustless sources of enjoyment,” of making a census of the “the thousand things” — “ each a world of study within itself.” It is a service that will not interfere with the regular work of the school. Indeed, it should be indirectly helpful to every school, but the value of it to the state will depend upon the cooperation of every school in districts where these things are to be found. The State Department of Agriculture has requested the coopera- tion of this department in making an enumeration or census of domestic live stock, the quantity of hay and grain, and, to a lim- ited extent, of fruit and vegetables produced in the state during the year 1915. Such a census is considered desirable in order to show the agricultural resources of the state, the progress being made along agricultural lines, and as an indication to the various educa- tional agencies, the sections of the state in which their activities are particularly needed. A census of the United States has been taken for each ten-year | period since 1790, at which time the population of the country was only 4,000,000, to that of 1910 when the population of the coun- try had grown to a total of 93,402,151, an annual increase of 750,000 people. A state census is taken at the five-year period between each Federal Census, but does not include agricultural data. Such a census was taken in June last year and shows a population in the state of 9,687,458. The population of the cities, and a large proportion of the villages in the state, has been increas- ing much faster than that of the rural districts, and the state is becoming more and more dependent upon sources beyond its own limits for food products to supply the people. The rapid growth and development of the country makes it desirable to have aceu- rate knowledge of all matter pertaining to agriculture, oftener than 908 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE the ten-year period provides, and it is hoped that the experiment of securing such information through the pupils of the public schools of the state will be so successful and so accurate that we can depend upon that source each year for the information desired along that line. Many of the states of the Union provide for tak- ing such a census annually, but the work is performed by enumer- ators in the employ of the state, or other public officials. Since the census of 1910, prices of practically all agricultural products, especially those of live stock, show a very material increase and the cost of living has increased at a corresponding rate. The information in relation to registered stock will indicate the sections where greater interest should be taken in raising bet- ter, and consequently more profitable, animals. It is also hoped that through the public schools, reports on the acreage and condi- tions of growing crops of grain, hay, fruit and vegetables may also be secured, from time to time, during the growing period, and as the boys and girls become better acquainted with, and more profi- cient in the work, information covering a wider range will be asked for. It will be interesting to the people of each school district to know the number of horses, cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry, and the quantity of produce raised in the district each year, and to note the increase and improvement from year to year. Blanks similar to that shown in this issue of the bulletin (page 27) have been sent to every school. Directions For Taking CENsus 1 Copy on the blackboard the census blank printed here. 2 Have one representative of each farm family copy the blank and take it home to be filled out with the answers as nearly correet as possible, 3 When a farm family is not represented by children in school, appoint a committee of one or more pupils to secure the data from such family. 4 Take care to include all the farms in your school, district. 5 In villages and the smaller cities of the state plan the work by streets, portions of streets, or blocks in order that no portion may be missed or duplicated. 6 Corporation limits of many cities and villages include farms and truck gardens. Take care that none of these is omitted. A Farm Census iN THE RuraL ScHOOLS 909 7 The names of the owners of all the articles enumerated on the blank should be reported by the enumerator in order to check up the result carefully. Preserve these reports for reference. 8 As reports are made by the enumerators, enter them under the proper headings on the blackboard. When complete reports have been received, make footing and enter the totals upon the census blanks. 9 If there are portions of two or more counties in your district, make returns separately for each county as the county will be the unit in the complete report. 10. Fill out and forward the census blank to the district super- intendent of schools by March 1, or as soon thereafter as possible. 11 Keep on file in the district a copy of the complete report. {t will be interesting to know the changes occurring from year to year. 12 In case it is inipossible to collect the data within a reason- able time, notify the district superintendent in order that some one may be designated to carry on the work. 13 Two blanks have been sent to each school. If they are needed, additional blanks may be secured from the State Depamt, ment of Agriculture, at Albany. Marcu 1, 1916 THE FARM CENSUS A large number of school districts of the state have made very prompt response to the request for cooperation in obtaining a farm census of the state. Reports that have been received show pains- taking care in collecting and reporting the information. The result so far is gratifying. A few superintendents, principals, and teachers have written to ask if the farm census is supposed to cover villages and small cities. It is intended that the enumeration shall be made in these places. Where necessary, the Department of. Agriculture will assist In making these enumerations. The Commissioner of Agriculture assures superintendents, prin- cipals and teachers that they may make emphatic denial of any statement indicating that this census has anything whatever to do with the present of any future rate of taxation. 910 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE May 1, 1916 A PIECE OF GOOD WORK FOR THE STATE BY THE SCHOOL CHILDREN This department has cooperated with the Department of Agri- culture in the making of the farm census. The work in the main has been completed in the 10,500 schools, and it is hoped that the second week in May will see it finished. I have been greatly pleased that the boys and girls of the schools have tried to perform this specific service for the state, and am grateful to the superin- tendents, principals, and teachers for their part in it. It is par- ticularly gratifying to hear from the Commissioner of Agriculture that what has been done by them has been well done. JUNE 1, 1916 THE FARM CENSUS Before the year closes I wish to report to the schools that the Commissioner of Agriculture regards the census when completed as the most valuable one of the kind ever taken in this state, cov- ering as it does all the live stock of the state, crops raised during the past year, number and capacity of silos, and names and addresses of all owners of registered stock. It is gratifying to be able to add that a representative of the United States Department of Agriculture recently examined the reports and was enthusiastic in his praise of the excellent work done by the public schools in this undertaking. Joun H. Fintey. nay iN ia ae PE Xt * - . 4 ie ate ed ee eM DLL LMR oki Me Ve cabs tsa Ru inf cule ey ' i f i ek BAG ue, TT a Am WP ; oh) 3 ae ole ; wire: Bhatt ; j nh ie: Pt gt y ii ih ii . R ie rh Aa 7 Prive ee RY eas i f