opal ; at ELEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT , OB SAVEGE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION \ : \ OF THE . UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. Fiscal Year July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1908. ST. PAUL, MINN.: THE PIONEER PRESS COMPANY, 1904. UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. BOARD OF REGENTS. Term Expires hes ELON. OAMUBE Ra” VAN SANT Winona: .....s%sas 5 >. sane ne e-ONICIO The Governor of the State. CruRUSeNORTHROP, 117. Di. Mianneapolis = -1--4.-00.- nae eres Ex-Officio The President of the University. MeiresladlONe AOLING Wien OUSON: WA bert lyeaee saree rice em acl sco Ex-Officio The State Superintendent of Public Instruction. ite TON, EUMBR E.-AmAms:.B. A., Pereus- Pallse.. e520. .s 02 1908 ies One. hHOMWASS WILSON; ot. shall aac oe sone oe ce eee 1909 ee lone sin ETA IVE Se 1GerT St. Anthony ieabke. cee aces a2 LOO Eiir eee lstONKE Aaa coun CE se Woilllitmartyaesususs steer etc seneote ota atten vor 1gOQ hiemlONN GREE NEARS CmARKe ViwArne Gt (Pails cts atnvan tesco sins 1904 dive a Lone solo. SCHURMEDER | Statics. - Ee Se errno ae 1904 The Hon. STEPHEN Manoney, B. A., Minneapolis.................1907 ieslOnem@ Go SPRICKIE ERs Mee Ds New: Ulin. sn. sense omc LOOT ie melOn a ANE S lle WVcvavnANe | Minimeapolism. sass ints ae cee eae 1907 THE AGRICULTURAL COMMITTEE. The Hon. WiiitiamM M. Liccrerr, Chairman. The Hon. Exmer E. ADAms, The Hon. J. T. Wyman, The Hon. A. E. RIck, The Hon. T. L. ScHURMEIER. STATION OFFICERS. Wits INI. TDA ISEGD a ati as oe OA a in ce i ee eee eet Ue Ue eae ee Director Ties- DNS NASI Sg igs eee Oe CCN ce CN ee ee ee Secretary EXPERIMENT CORPS. ANETTETE Toa TINT WAS gen SY Mie a7 foc) rc er ee eer Agriculturist CS TG DIL, BU OHSU a BS a Horticulturist EER ga SNIDER eg ae Sep tiye shat cas oye, p vicars icin. stoner Sime Poe eee tee Chemist TNS [bey TESS GETS Ry I 5 a a ea a EEN Dairy Husbandry NESE IE VIN OD See Vie Dee Vie NIA Wiis itn ccchisk ras See cy sieledparecrere Veterinarian ANDREW Boss, Associate Agriculturist........ in Charge of Live Stock BrREepERICK I. WASHBURN, M.'A....0.0..... is.c.0 ess -. Entomologist Dine ap Ooh RS DAD Me EUAN Ota era eaee eons acre. Superintendent, Crookston H. H. Cuapman, B. S.; B. Agr...........Superintendent, Grand Rapids Clete rere OSVINGR sn sES AoA Sis cts ePs esreniais 6a vine care oe Sloe Assistant Chemist Contr cule seine BAN ores eee sc acyels sen deacons role Asst. in Agriculture Guta SELOMRS ON BAO ES ioe 28 cohen. cine seskes ceeebee ees Asst. in Agriculture *=The bulletins of this Station are ma‘led free to all residents of the State who make application for them. 7 - = 7 ~ MINNEAPOLIS, TE italy ce OO st le ee ae To His Excellency, Samuel R. Van Sant, Governor of Minnesota: key I have the honor to transmit to you herewith the annual report of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Min- . ___ nesota for the fiscal year ending Jtne 30, 1903. So es A oy oe | GREENLEAF CLARK, ; President Board of Regents. ; List of bulletins published during the fiscal year ending iuitde. 30) 1903: Pages. Class Bulletin No. 13—Growing Field Peas for Seed............ Precsw olen No 16— her Criddles Mixture. sc iss..- s+. cess. Bulletin No. 77—Division of Entomology—Insects Notably In- FUTONS: S100) SOO otk eotcns mateo clo a iemobbintG Rada See ae OI Ree pita AE 7 (9) Bulletin 78—Division of Animal Husbandry—Experiments in See peesluisbamcinyaraee eye tors anicte ck kainate nates inca eagileems cece 71-88 Bulletin 79—Division of Dairy Husbandry—Investigation in Milk IP E@yalneriG@tan AS, Seears Ss Sib Oa Oe wee a EET I a 89-148 Bulletin 80—Cheinical Division—1, Alfalfa, Its Chemical Develop- ment, Feeding Value and Digestibility; 2, the Digestibility of HHellcy ome Vien Le temarenrenec ee tateceseci ae cite tls soit iese eS aD ccs hee nets 149-180 Bulletin 81—Agricultural Division—Review of the Work of the Northeast Experiment Farm since its organization in May, TUCSSOLOY. 6a cd c5 thos ORNL nos SC NC RSC EU a io encarta aera 181-248 Bulletin 82—Veterinary Division—Hzmorrhagic Septicemia....249-280 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION. To the President of the Board of Regents: I have the honor to transmit herewith the eleventh annual report of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the Univer- sity of Minnesota, in accordance with the act of congress of March 2, 1887, establishing the station, giving somewhat in detail the work accomplished here, and at the farm of O. C. Gregg, superintendent of the Farmers’ Institute of Minnesota, near Lynd, Lyon county; also of the stations established by an act of the legislature in 1895—one located near Crookston and one near Grand Rapids. This report includes bulletins 77, 78, 79, 80, 8t and 82, published during the government fiscal year, July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903, inclusive; and a full account of the disposition of the annual appropriation from the U. S. government, as well as of the amount received from the current expense fund of the University. In carrying on the experiment work the Hatch fund of $15,000, received from the United States government, has been supplemented by $33,882.06 from the current fund of the Uni- versity. Following this report is a financial statement of the Northeast and Northwest farms that are maintained by special appropriations made by the legislature. 5 ELEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE The Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, In account with The United States Appropriation, 1902-1903. Dr. To receipts from the treasurer of the United States, as per ap- propriation for fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, as per ACtOMCOneTessmappromedeNlanch 2 loo 72m eer eee eree $15,000.00 Cr. BY. WalArles ye yaks $22 2 oe Moe nc Mant Ciera cie ne eee cree $10,507.38 ab OTS oes. ee nee Ca ee 2,129.00 Bublicationss.) ocr) ease Ge erste cae certo 607.70 POstacemalldestablOneiy eee eee ee eee 95-21 Kreight and expressic.soe week Se eee ee oy eee Eleat. light. water andupowetsnecr merece 48.53 Chemicalzsuppliesnece. eee eee eee Eee cst Seeds, plants and sundry supplies..........-. 236.38 Bertilizerst 7.524204 sas et er ee Bs Pe ae Beedingrstutis tc an, ele ee coe 1,120.55 [Pilih Pon, eee ee eraser Beis Gass noe aos + dn. Tools, implements and machinery............ 60.25 Pugniturerand hxtunes..1...csn see nese ee Scientinic apparatus) so) sce yee fais, Servet ee siege eee es WIV esstOck tas. syiwed.. Ven ore eee 186.00 Traveliip-ExpenSesy so. ils aienine oy each alee heae eee eee Contingent expenses..e 404. eke eee ean Ne Buildings sand repairseero-eesier ivecen ae Balaticesrmerenic PSone Ss Pah $15,000.00 $15,000.00 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 9 FINANCIAL STATEMENT. Statement of disbursements and receipts of the Minnesota Experiment Station for the twelve months beginning July 1, 1902, and ending June 30, 1903, inclusive. Disbursements. Receipts. Cash Outlay. SEU BIO) at og sae naa $15,374.88 $666.65 $14,708.23 NOTCH ILCmrEt eee eee ease se TARA Oo 1,720.34 12,618.66 Ori Guiltier ces crte sa aciorcn say owen 3,787.07 1,102.90 2,684.17 MGieniisen ve cag eter cok ao cate ee mals 3,059.81 5.70 3,054.11 ETHOMIO MOONEE ar. Ulicken sidan dacs 6 ee 1,270.38 GAR AG 1,270.38 WAGGA OE atc ene eee cic re Pere 2,070.00 279.29 1.790.71 IDBHIAG 6 58-055.6 re baa SCR ORI Cie ea 1,200.00 EP ed ot 1,200.00 /rouvinleul Jeli oewoalhe 55h oou550n ooo ete 16,522.33 5,488.94 11,033.39 A@ Ofeaileree tee een te a ie oe 522.41 kay eee 522.41 AERO OKSLOMa ta Ret hs ecient dee 7,499.88 2,485.67 5,014.21 Grand Rapids 5,521.03 1,398.16 4,122.87 $13,020.91 $3,883.83 $9,137.08 DIVISION .OF AGRICULTURE. In’ 1903 the weather conditions were not so favorable as usual for field and crop experiments. Storms during and after harvest made it very difficult to properly save part of the grain and forage crops under experiment. Chinch-bugs very seriously interfered with the breeding nursery, and with field variety tests of spring wheats, also with the wheat experi- ments on the general theory of breeding. The cold, wet sea- son and the early frosts resulted in loss in some of the experi- ments with corn, but in some ways assisted in the selection of corn suited to our northern conditions. On the whole, the work with breeding, farm management, statistical investiga- tions and devising new methods of teaching farm management, and of cooperative breeding is progressing most satisfactorily. 10 ELEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Experiments on the introduction of agriculture into the rural schools are also progressing in a promising manner. Bulletins on seed wheat, alfalfa, corn, bromus and farm management are being prepared for publication. Under the cooperative ar- rangement with the United States Department of Agriculture, results have accumulated which justify the preparation of a bulletin on statistical methods in plant breeding, and another on statistical investigations in farm management, for publica- tion by the national department. The experiments in breeding all the leading fieid crops of Minnesota, and the investigations in methods of breeding plants are progressing most satisfactorily. Some of the meth- ods and machinery devised for breeding these crops are being adopted by other stations and by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, thus giving evidence of the value of this work. The varieties of corn, spring and winter wheat, flax seed, also fiber, peas, oats, alfalfa, barley, millet and other crops which are being originated by selection and by hybridizing, followed by selection, are giving abundant evidence that this work is already adding annually thousands of dollars to the crops of the state, and will soon be adding millions. The development of breeding upon a basis comparable with modern manufac- turing is an achievement which the station can properly claim as a result of its investigations along this line. The knowl- edge of how to breed plants is being rapidly acquired. In- vestigations long since begun in the study of animal breeding promise as important results along that line as are being reached in plant breeding. Cooperation in breeding plants has been begun with farmers throughout the state, as well as with experiment stations of the surrounding states and the U. S. Department of Agriculture. There is in the hands of Minnesota farmers sufficient seed of Minnesota No. 169 wheat and of Minnesota No. 163 wheat to sow thousands of acres in 1904. Since these wheats add two or three bushels per acre to the yields produced by the old varieties they are already contributing large sums to the value of the annual wheat crop. Minnesota No. 13 corn and some of the varieties of oats and barley, which have been tested for years and dis- tributed by the station, are also widely used throughout the AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 11 state, and the total increased annual product already ap- proaches a million dollars in value. Numerous former stu- dents of this department and other farmers are beginning to cooperate in the breeding of corn.. The investments intelli- gently made in breeding certainly pay to the state a very large dividend, and lands and other equipment needed to enlarge this work should be supplied. The U.S. Department of Agri- culture is encouraging the state to enlarge its breeding opera- tions by meeting any increase on the station’s part with fur- ther assistance from the appropriations made by the national congress. The cooperative statistical invesigations begun in 1902 by this division and the Bureau of Statistics of the United States Department of Agriculture in Rice, Lyon and Norman counties have progressed most satisfactorily. From simply collecting data on the cost of growing field crops, the work has developed and now includes collecting all available facts concerning the production, marketing and sale of products, the expenses of the family, and the general profits of the entire farm enter- prise. To enable the route men to broaden the scope of the data secured, the number of farms on each route has been reduced from fifteen to eight. The United States Department of Agriculture shows its appreciation of this work by paying its share of the expenses, including a small fee to each farmer and to each farmer’s wife for their assistance in weighing food stuffs, produce used in the household, etc. These investiga- tions are a part of a general attempt begun by this institution ten years ago, to develop the facts necessary to use in effec- tively teaching farm management in schools for farmers. The first ten years of the experiments dealing with the rota- tion of crops has now been about completed and the results are being compiled for publication. Experiments at Coteau Farm, in Lyon County, | South- western Minnesota, during the ten years, 1894 to 1903 inclu- sive, developed the fact that experiments are needed to work out systems of crop rotation and farm management suited to the drier areas of our country. In dry years in Minnesota, securing the entrance of water into the soil and its conserva- tion for use by crops, are of far greater importance than the 2 ELEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE question of fertility. Since the problems of dry land agricul- ture can be better worked out in states more uniformly drouthy, these investigations have been closed with the tenth year. Since the publication of the last report, Rural School Agri- culture Bulletin No. 1, a bound book of 200 pages, containing exercises relating to agriculture and home economics has been published, and a copy presented through the county superin- tendents to every rural school in the state. This bulletin has been received with high commendations by educators every- where, and there has been some demand for them by teachers outside the state. The last legislature appropriated $5,000, which became available August Ist, 1903, for the construction of a building to house the machinery of the experiment station. DIVISION OF HORTICULTURE: The work of the Division of Horticulture during the past year has proceeded in much the same lines as for several years previous. Mr. R. S. Mackintosh, who had been an assistant in this department for seven years, resigned to take the position of Professor of Horticulture in the Alabama Polytechnic Insti- tute, and his place was filled by the appointment of Le Roy Cady. One bulletin, No. &3, entitled “Apples and Apple Growing in Minnesota,” has been published by this division, during the past year. This comprises eighty pages, describes sixty-seven varieties, and contains forty-nine full page illustrations of apples. The grounds about the new chemical laboratory have been graded, and a new road leading to it laid out. The crop of apples was unusually large the past year, and about three hundred bushels were harvested. Much interest is now being taken in our seedling apple orchard, which was planted twelve years ago. One hundred twenty-five of these trees fruited this year, and some of them are of much promise. Work of special interest with seedling wild fruits has been continued. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 13 The raising of hardier apple seedlings has been carried on and about twelve thousand have been grown this year. The forest garden, which has been planted fourteen years, is full of interesting object lessons to teachers and students Gf-this subject: It 1s one of the few forest. gardens in’ this country. The care of the campus has been unusually heavy this year, which has required much attention, owing to the rank growth of grass and the roads being badly washed during the heavy rains. An appropriation should be made for the purpose of paving the gutters and putting our roads in better shape. The crop of potatoes was considerably lessened by rot, which was especially bad this season. The sample hedges which were started several years ago make a fine appearance, affording a very interesting object lesson. They will be maintained from now on with very little expense. Our orchards are in good condition and the outlook is very promising for the successful growing of apples in this section, which was thought incredible but a few years ago. CHEMICAL, DIVISION. Bulletin No. 80 has been issued during the last year by the Division of Agricultural Chemistry, on “‘Alfalfa, Its Chemical Development, Feeding Value and Digestibility. The Digesti- bility of Hog Millet.” Bulletin No. 126, “Studies on the Digestibility and Nutri- tive Value of Bread,” has been published by the United States. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Washington, D. C. A text book of 425 pages, for use in the School of Agricul- ture, entitled “Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life,” has been prepared by Prof. Harry Snyder. An article by Professor Snyder was read before the Inter- national Congress of Applied Chemists at Berlin, entitled ““The Testing of Wheat and Flour for Commercial Purposes.” wueAtiucies on \.bread and Breadmaking,’ ~ Flour’ and “Wheat” have been prepared for the forthcoming Encyclo- pedia Americana, published by the Scientific American Pub- lishing Co. 14 ELEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE An illustrated address on the “Nutritive Value of Bread,” was delivered before the Millers’ National Federation at Detroit. Other articles, of a more popular nature, dealing with the chemistry of soils and foods, have been published in different periodicals, as Colfier’s Weekly, Harpers’ Weekly, and the Northwestern Miller. The following bulletins have been prepared and are ready for publication: ‘The Food Value of Sugar” and “The Diges- tive Action of Milk, Wheat, Flour and Bread Investigations,” including the study of glutinous and starchy wheats, the influ- ence of storage on the keeping qualities of flour, the effect of bleaching of Hours, the nutritive value of flour, a study of the composition of the different streams of flour. During the year the Division of Agricultural Chemistry has moved from the quarters which it has occupied for the past twelve years to the new laboratory which was com- pleted in the fall of 1902. The new quarters provide more adequate facilities for both instruction and analytical work. In planning the laboratory, particular attention was given to construction and equipment, that the work might be carried on with the least expense, having due regard to rapidity and accuracy. A prominent feature of the new building is the laboratory for instruction in farm chemistry. Prior to the construction of the laboratory, the plans of a number of the more recently constructed chemical laboratories were critically examined. Particular attention has been given to the lighting and ventilation of the building, which is plain but of substantial construction. It is about 60x90 feet, two stories high, with a high basement. The building cost $25,co0. The equipment authorized by the last legislature to cost $5,000, is now being installed. There have been no changes among the assistants during the past year, and no increase in the working force, although the instruction and other work have materially increased. Among the advanced and special students, some have secured responsible and remunerative positions. Mr. M. A. Grey, a special student, has been placed in charge of the testing labora- tory of The Ogilvie Flouring Mill Co. of Montreal, and Miss AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 15 Moxness, a post-graduate student, has been appointed labora- tory assistant at the Michigan Experiment Station. Chemical analyses have been made for nearly all of the other divisions of the Experiment Station, as milk, fodders, forage and root crops, paris green, etc. In cases where the chemical analyses have formed a prominent feature of the work, and the conclusions have been based largely upon chem- ical data, the work has been done on a cooperative basis, each division doing its share of the work and receiving due credit for the work performed, and bearing its portion of the ex- pense. A large amount of free analytical work has been done for the farmers of the state; numerous samples of miscellane- ous materials having been received from time to time. ‘This feature of the work of the Division of Agricultural Chemistry has, it is believed, given quite satisfactory results, and has been maintained at comparatively little expense. DAIRY DIVISION. In this division systematic records have been kept from the time it was organized of all food stuffs consumed by each animal, the composition of same, the daily yield of milk, butter fat and other solids in the milk, the daily consumption of feed by young stock from time of birth, and weekly gain in growth. In earlier years these data were used in determining the kind of cows that make best return in the dairy, the cost of milk and butter production, the cost of rearing the young and best methods of feeding for the production of stock intended for the ‘dairy. During later years the data have been used in a study of the fundamental principles bearing upon animal nutrition. Since the publication of bulletin 71, referred to in the last report, a supplementary report has been made in bulletin 79, treating on the “Food of Maintenance, Nutrient Requirements in Milk Production, Protein Requirements and the Influence of the Stage of Lactation on Nutrient Requirements.” These subjects are presented by Professor Haecker, under new and improved methods, showing that the standards for food of maintenance and for milk production, in general use, are not reliable guides in feeding practice. In this bulletin new stand- 16 ELEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE ards are tentatively formulated, based upon the actual per- formance of the animals under experiment, giving in detail the amount of each nutrient and total nutriment required by animals in the production of milk of various grades. This is. the first work demonstrating that the nutriment required in: milk production depends upon the quality of the milk and that the cows should be fed according to the quantity and quality of milk yielded, and not according to the weight of the cow— which has been the basis of the standards in general use. Since economy of production depends upon the knowledge of the needs of the animal for its own use and for milk production, these findings are of great value to the practical feeder. Experiments in this division are bringing to light the fact that the feed stuffs grown on our western farms come nearer providing the constituents actually needed in milk production than had generally been supposed; that the amount of protein prescribed in the feeding standards is greatly in excess of the amount actually needed, and that by the use of the new standards suggested a marked saving may be made in pre- paring rations for dairy cows. Further experiments are being made to determine more definitely the minimum amount of protein with which a normal yield of milk may be obtained and still maintain the cow and her offspring in full vigor. The experiment referred to in the last report, of rearing dairy bred and cross bred steers, is still in progress and pro- mises satisfactory results. Accurate records are being kept on cost of rearing, gain in weight, comparative value of pro- duct; and as soon as definite results are obtained, the matter will be submitted for publication in codperation with other divisions. The data will also give valuable information bear- ing upon milk production, which cannot be fully determined by the employment of cows only. Experiments in calf rearing have been conducted for several years, with gratifying results as to cost and nutriment required through the various stages, of growth. This is an exceedingly difficult problem, but from-the large number that are still being raised in the dairy herd, calculations can be made which will give the information desired. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. LG In the dairy laboratory daily determinations are made in regard to the per cent. of fat content and solids not fat in the milk from the different cows of the herd, which is now being analzed periodically by the chemical division to show the per cent. of the various constituents in the milk. This gives valu- able additional information in regard to the needs of the cow in milk production. The demand made upon the dairy division for addresses before farmers’ meetings is constantly increasing. The barn accommodations, for the character of the experi- mental work that is now being done, are inadequate. Cows that are subjected to fixed rations for a series of winters in trials of returns made for digestible matter consumed should have quiet, comfortable quarters, thoroughly lighted and venti- lated. They should be kept separate from the members of the herd not employed in nutrition investigation, and should not ‘be used in connection with class work in the study of the breeds and in live stock judging; because if used in connec- tion with class work abnormal shrinkage in milk takes place and the value of the experiment is lessened if.not wholly destroyed. Calf rearing is an industry that is constantly demanding more attention, and heavy losses are sustained every year for want of comfortable, well lighted and ventilated quarters. Many of our prominent experiment stations have built separate barns for the dairy herds, provided with ample stall rooms, judging and lecture rooms, milk rooms and quarters for the sstock foreman, feeders and milkers. VETERINARY DIVISION. During the past year the health of our farm stock has heen as good as usual. There have been a few losses from various causes. Among these I must report a continuance of hemor- rhagic septicaemia, and a few cases of tuberculosis. The cases of hemorrhagic septicemia have been confined to young calves of from four to six weeks of age, the infection evidently having lost so much in virulence, that the older cattle have been able -to resist it. Our herds have been tested for tuberculosis twice, 2 18 ELEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE spring and fall, a few cases appearing at each test. Most of those reacting during last fall, were of animals that had pre- viously reacted and had been isolated. ‘There has been one outbreak of hog cholera, which was promptly checked by isola- tion, disinfection and the use of our contagious ward stalls in the veterinary hospital. Infectious abortion has also con- tinued to a rather limited extent in the dairy herd. It seems very difficult to get rid of this infection when once it has obtained foothold. Two cases of lumpy jaw appeared in our herd during the past year, but no serious trouble is anticipated. About 200 lantern slides have been prepared for class demonstration work, and the museum has been developed, until it has become quite an important teaching feature. Publications —Dr. Reynolds has published a text book, “Vet- erinary Studies,” for use in the veterinary classes of the farm school, and the short course work. This book has been very well received by agricultural colleges and agricultural college students, twenty-two agricultural colleges having already adopted it as a text book, or signified their intention of doing SO. sulletin No. 82, on Hemorrhagic Septicemia, containing about 30 pages, was published from this department, and was very favorably received by the agricultural public, by the veterinary profession, and the agricultural papers. The in- vestigations and other work reported in this bulletin deal with the practical features of this serious disease. ‘This bulletin dis- cusses the practical bearing of the disease upon the live stock interests of Minnesota, and shows that it is a very serious problem. The peculiar feature in connection with the cause of the disease, is that the rod-shaped germ which is now rec- ognized as the specific cause is apparently identical with the swine plague bacillus, and very similar to the chicken cholera germ. ‘The history and development of cases are given at con- siderable length from actual field observations. The veterin- arian had opportunity to study quite a number of cases throughout their entire course, and has put these data on record in Bulletin No. 8&2. Attention is drawn especially to the fact, that ante-mortem symptoms are as a rule unsatisfactory, the acute cases dying AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 19 very suddenly. Symptoms by which stockmen may recognize the disease, especially on examination post-mortem, are given quite fully; also statistics concerning the extent of the spread of this disease in Minnesota and estimated losses. An outbreak of the disease which appeared on the University Experimental Farm was quite serious, on account of its financial loss, but it gave us almost ideal opportunities for studying the disease. Attention is drawn to the fact that certain cases of hemorrhagic septicemia very closely resemble cases of milk fever, and may be easily mistaken for such in cases of disease developed within a few days after calving. A carefully prepared table is presented, which offers a very complete comparative study of hemorrhagic septicemia, an- thrax, symptomatic anthrax and infectious cerebro-spinal men- ingitis. This was deemed important, because these diseases were very easily confused by stock men, and often in obscure cases by veterinarians. The diagnosis is especially important for anthrax, symptomatic anthrax and black-leg. Proposed Station Work.—Quite extensive plans are under way for the station work in this division during the coming year. One series of proposed experiments deats with a practi- cal study of ventilation problems from a physiology stand- point. Another series of experiments has been outlined with a view of determining the relative desirablity of various methods of disinfecting large stables, the following points to be especially considered: Rapidity, expense, difficulties or technicalities involved and efficiency. A pasture experiment with tuberculosis has been under way, since the early spring of 1903. The purpose of this experiment is to determine approximately the risk of outdoor infection, when tuberculous and non-tuberculous cattle are pastured together. This experi- ment involves two phases, the first an actual field trial by pasturing some tuberculous cows with two yearling steers that were not tuberculous. The second proposes to spread cultures of bovine tubercle bacilli over a small plot of grass and then keep record of climatic conditions, determine how long the grass remains infectious to laboratory animals, and possibly later to cattle. 20 ELEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT. OF THE DIVISION OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. The policy established a year ago, of requiring daily reports, has proved to be a valuable method of regulating the work of this division and will be continued. The feed records of individual beef animals and of litters of pigs kept during the last year, have furnished much information on the cost of production, and will be further perfected and extended until the record of every animal grown on the farm is obtained in detail. The beef herd has been built up by the purchase of a few breeding animals, and a few pure bred calves have been raised, though an outbreak of hemorrhagic septicemia last spring caused the death of a number of calves. The flock of sheep has been strengthened by the purchase of typical specimens of the breeds not represented heretofore, and a number of home bred sheep have been considered good enough to keep for breeding purposes. The new piggery has proven well adapted to the growth of young pigs, and has enabled us to raise a large number of pigs with very little loss from disease. Sales of stock have been good throughout the year, and farmers obtaining it have expressed themselves as well pleased with the quality of the animals obtained. The sales for the year exceed the purchases by $393.98. There is also an increase in value of the live stock inventory of $2,095.00, making a total increase in the value of the live stock of $2,488.98. The experiments in forage crops for sheep and swine have been continued through the year. Only mature sheep were used for pasture work, as it was believed that more reliable data could thus be secured. A number of plots of tame grass have been seeded for comparison with annual crops—as sheep pasture—and the fields have been partly re-fenced with a view to furnishing more economical methods of pasturage. The yards adjoining the piggery have encroached somewhat upon the land formerly used for producing winter forage, and small fields for swine pasture have farther reduced the land avail- AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 21 able for sheep foods. ‘The health of the herds and flocks has made necessary the change, and it is not believed that the work done will be any less efficient than in the past. More atten- tion will be given in the future to soiling and pasture crops for swine, and to discovering crops suited to short rotations for hog food. The steer feeding experiment in progress a year ago was completed in June, and the figures are at hand for compilation, The results show great variation in the capacity of different individuals to make use of the food consumed and in the econ- omy of production. Measurements and photographs have been carefully preserved for illustrative purposes. More steers have been purchased for the purpose of con- tinuing the study of the influence of individuality on cost of growth, and the records of several home bred calves are being carefully kept for the same purpose. No extensive experiments have been undertaken with sheep except in forage work. Digestion tests of macaroni wheat and alfalfa have been made in codperation with the chemical division and minor tests of speltz, corn, barley and oats as sheep foods have been completed. The experiments with pigs have been confined to cross- breeding and to recording the growth of litters of pigs of the various breeds. As far as possible each litter has been kept intact and fed liberally. When finished the plan is to slaugh- ter the whole litter and observe the variation in growth made and in the quality of meat. Pigs of the cross-bred parentage were again sent to the International Exposition, where they compared favorably with other breeds, getting 2nd and 3rd prizes in their class. As soon as funds can be had for the purpose, cooperative work should be started with men who are feeding stock, for the purpose of securing data on the methods employed, and the feeds used and to enable us to suggest more economical feeding of farm stock. Statistics should be secured of cost of production on farms, and comparative feeding tests made under various farm conditions. A man who is familiar with all phases of stock feeding, could well be employed by the station for this purpose. 22 ELEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE ht ed DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY. The entomologist was called to Ottertail County in June, 1902, on account of an outbreak of grasshoppers, the county commissioners urging that he come at once to do what he could to remedy the evil. He found stubble fields filled with thousands of the lesser migratory or White Mountain locusts (M. atlanis). For the most part they were well along past the fourth moult, although some were found considerably younger. It is to be noted that these grasshoppers hatched in the old stubble. The most threatened area in this vicinity was a tract of unplowed stubble containing 240 acres, owned largely by non-residents who will not plow. Some farmers were plowing thoroughly, but all were very much alarmed at the near pres- ence of such a large tract of unplowed land. The situation was so serious that, upon consultation with the governor of the state and director of the station, it was determined to plow this tract at the expense of the state, and thus not only avert immediate loss but also reduce, if posible, the number of grasshoppers that would otherwise be on hand to do damage next year. Accordingly the most threatened tracts, about 200 acres, were plowed, and it is believed that the result was satisfactory, for since that time no complaint has come from that part of the county because of grasshoppers. On June 26 the entomologist was summoned to Gentilly, a town in Pope County, about ten miles from Crookston, where the same variety of locust was found, causing injury upon all well drained sandy ridges. On one farm it was found that the wheat next the old stubble, and beans, barley, and young flax, were eaten clean. From Gentilly the entomologist went to the Hill River district, rear Lindsay postoffice east of Crookston, at the re- quest of the county commissioners, where by far the most seri- ous conditions found in the state prevailed. Flax, grass, wheat, barley and oats were found mowed down by the grass- hoppers. At the date of his visit, June 26th, the farmers were complaining bitterly of a 300-acre piece of stubble, which had been allowed to lie fallow for two years or more. Here the grasshoppers were working toward the south, AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 23 In all about twelve hundred gallons of oil were distributed free of cost, through the county commisioners, to help the farmers combat the pest. This oil was judiciously used, but as the insects were so numerous the loss to the farmers was severe, although bushels of the grasshoppers were killed. With these two exceptions, and a slight outbreak near Twin Valley, and an early and limited attack near Glyndon, in Clay County, grasshoppers caused no loss in the state, so far as is known. In July another trip was made to the Hill River district, where hoppers were found by the thousands, feeding upon the wheat heads. The last trip to this region was made in Sep- tember, when consultations were held with the farmers as to the best means of proceeding the following year. Almost all united in the expression of a desire for some law which would compel the plowing of stubble land infested with eggs. Complaints of chinch bugs began to arrive at the station in July and during the summer Stearns, Isanti, Chisago, Dakota, Sherburne, Meeker, Kennebec, Lyon, Anoka, Hen- nepin, Wright and Waseca counties suffered from this persis- tent pest. Stearns, Isanti and Meeker were the worst suffer- ers. ‘These counties were visited and the farmers shown the best means of preventing the chinch bug from entering the corn, and given what help was possible under existing condi- tions. Demonstrations were resorted to in explanation of the dust furrow and tar line, and farmers were urged to kill as many of the bugs as possible, while they were migrating from the wheat to the corn, thus lessening the crop of bugs for the following year. The Hessian Fly has spread over the entire wheat raising area of our state. It well deserves to head the list of injuri- ous insects in 1902. The following counties were affected: ©ttertail, Kennebec, Pope, Clay, Becker, Douglas, Meeker, Marshall, Rock, Isanti, Lyon and Morrison. Many infested farms were visited and it was found that the loss from this pest reached all the way from a fraction of one per cent to as high as fifty per cent. in a few localities. Many farmers not familiar with the Hessian Fly and its work ascribed the fallen wheat heads to the work of the chinch bug or of hail. The 24. ELEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE “flax seed” stage of the insect on the wheat plants was shown to the farmers so that they might easily recognize this pest.. The life history of the insect was given in brief talks, and the importance of cooperation in plowing the stubble in the fall was urged as being the most effective way of keeping the pest in check. The value of rotation of crops was also dwelt upon. 3esides the work mentioned above, experiments have been conducted as to the best methods of combating the horn fly of cattle and the white grub which infests lawns. In May a trip was made into the lumber sections of Lake County to study and collect insects affecting our timber interests. Many nurseries throughout the state have been inspected during the year and have been found fairly free from insect pests and fungous diseases. POULTRY DIVISION. The work for the past year in this division, has been mainly a study of best conditions and management of farm flocks. The problem of winter egg production is receiving especial attention. Experiments with natural and artificial incubation have been continued. Owing to lack of room, two breeds only are kept—Plymouth Rocks for general purpose fowls and White Leghorns for layers. As was mentioned in the last report, it is still thought that a number of small houses, each to illustrate a different method of building a farm poultry house, would be a valuable object lesson and would help to relieve the crowded condition of the poultry quarters. NORTHWEST EXPERIMENT FARM. On this farm the experimental work which was being carried on in much the same lines as formerly, was seriously interfered with by a hail storm on July 15th, 1902, which destroyed the standing crops and rendered nearly valueless the work in the trial plots.. After the storm the most of the grain was cut for hay. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 25 During the year a barn to accommodate fifty head of stock, containing a root room, silo and feed grinding room was begun; also an incubator house and about seven miles of woven wire fence built. Pipes for supplying water to the different buildings were also laid. A large field has been seeded to grass, using those varieties which have given promise of usefulness in the trial plots of former years. This is to be a part of a study of the rotation of crops best adapted to this section of the state. A herd of Galloway cattle has been purchased and other pure bred cattle are being secured as opportunities offer. Specialists have been placed in charge of the live stock and poultry. In trying to solve the question of fruit for the Red River Valley, the work is confined mostly to seedlings. Several thousand apple, plum and other seedling trees are now grow- ing on the grounds. The superintendent has devoted considerable time to insti- tute work and to aiding in the organization of creameries and cheese factories in-the Red River Valley. NORTHEAST EXPERIMENT FARM. The equipment of the Northeast Experiment Farm in buildings and machinery is now fairly complete. The farm house is sufficiently large to accommodate the hired help, kitchen help and superintendent. It would not make a suit- able dwelling for the superintendent if he were married, as its capacity is only equal to present conditions. Up to this year the house has been poorly heated by stoves. A wood- burning, brick furnace has now been put in, and a drain and a bathroom, greatly improving the comfort and sanitary con- ditions, especially during the winter. The house contains four bedrooms on the second floor, and two on the first, with office, sitting and dining rooms, and kitchen. ‘There is also a good cellar. A wagon shed was built in 1902, 16x40 feet. The buildings now consist of a dairy barn 30x58 feet, horse barn with two sheds for machinery, wagon shed, sheep pen, hog 26 ELEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE pen, stone root cellar, hot house, blacksmith shop, ice house, stone milk house and well, with water to all the buildings. There are 2,276 rods of fencing on the farm, and the amount of land under cultivation in 1903 is 11234 acres, of which 60% acres were cleared when the farm was acquired and 52%4 acres since the state has managed it. In 1903, about four acres additional was stumped and planted to potatoes. The system of hog pastures was completed and fenced with woven wire. This, with the sheep pasture lots, gives a complete rotation of pastures for hogs and sheep. Field experiments are giving more and more useful results each year. The twenty-four permanent rotation plots, which illustrate the effect upon the soil of as many different plans of cropping, both good and poor, are beginning to show effects in yields, which will become more and more pronounced from now on. The station is doing a valuable work with potatoes, of which nearly one hundred varieties were tested in 1903, both for yield and quality. Strains of the same variety from differ- ent sources were also planted, and showed great difference in yield. An original method by Herman H. Chapman, of cor- rection of the yields of potato plots, so as to eliminate the difference caused by varying soil conditions among the plots was followed with good results. The new variety test of oats for the selection of a new kind for distribution is in its third year. Oats are by far the most important grain crop, and yield is the chief point considered. Variety tests of clovers and grasses for meadow and pasture, and tests of the absolute and relative amount of timothy and clover seed to sow, gave instructive results. A new experiment in changing seed oats from one locality to another is in its second year, and is planned in such a way as to secure accurate and effectual knowledge on this subject. lodder for stock feeding again demonstrated its usefulness, and the test made as to time of sowing, kinds, amounts and methods of sowing, clearly indicated the proper course to pur- sue for this locality. Corn for ears did not ripen. Many other but less important lines of experiment work were conducted, as tests of wheat and barley, millet, peas and beans, and garden vegetables. Small fruits were uniformly AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, Path successful, and progress was made in determining the best kinds to recommend for planting. Native plums again gave a good crop from orchard trees set in 1899. Apples have not -succeeded, due to poor location of orchard in sandy sub-soil as well as severity of winters. The hedges of ornamental shrubs are doing well. The flock of grade Oxford sheep are now being bred to a Shropshire buck, and continue to give valuable illustrations of their proper use in clearing land. The herd of cattle bred to a red polled bull is in good con- dition, and the dairy work is now capable of very satisfactory development. The ten acre plantation of young white and Norway pine set at intervals of 4, 6 and Io feet, on cut over land in 1900, is thriving, and will soon be one of the most interesting features of the Experiment Farm. In the winter of 1902-1903, a bulletin containing 69 pages, No. 81 of the Experiment Station, was published and distri- buted throughout Northeastern Minnesota. This bulletin contains a full review and summary of the work of the North- east Farm since it was established. BULLETINS. The bulletins are sent free to about seventeen thousand subscribers. Requests from out of the state for our bulletins are increasing rapidly. Many of our files, especially those on special subjects, are exhausted. Readers of our bulletins are showing their appreciation more each year by thousands of personal letters received here during the year relative to our school and experiment station work. Six bulletins, comprising 280 pages, with many illustra- ticns, have been issued during the year, as well as one press bulletin, “The Criddle Mixture,’ and one class bulletin, “Growing Field Peas for Seed.” Bulletins are issued for gratuitous distribution to the citizens of Minnesota who apply for them. Respectfully submitted, WINE Vi DIG GE IT: A. Page. ING VS Pale K=a 1 Pee oe Ie Race eS Ouro dd auc Coumono Mo euddGoboduodqo D0 dGCC 45 Alfalfa, Chemical Development, Feeding Value and Digestibility.. 149 PNATUTOST ean coee, cvciere nites cokes ork ouai Colores lover oe belouelone, a feveten eae talatoF oRePaccke tet Momeni ERR aire MANENTCNUS SCTODINWIATLGE» cece cle ciairs eta nys eel tele tole) cei chemerokonsieten mse eaens 56, 69: INjOIICIS oa) UNIIGKEIGs Sey eGo eo cK be Decca Hobe acd bo oUn UNO o ON SC 45, NUNC Cro GN ydonsoote soos duoo psec a ould dGoS con onoodo0009 41, 68 PANN MIGEE Ciel DIbiN, -AeesoaoooUD Re oaUO UCU OOO OO dO dCD DOCU CU0.0 200050000 45. AMhidsswEVvemMIe dies LOT cs aces cyencusiolerleroere the © eucre che tenets tetera tet teNs 43 FAM TAS me CUCUNUCTIUS™ wise weet wie. ous is ovsyer Scie lewevevor® oreiel sh = ehepeoNeopenenepons eben meIRCI 63 AMNWAS. NUQULGEUS kaw. ois alexa wiews: To) Steve Gielen Sussetace) obs aloiie cetenei maaan eRe NCL Moene nee 63 B. Blackbirdsshatine "Grasshoppersame acco oe coerce ier: 26 BUGUGO AO CKINGNUCH ais os cinisa wicks elatale efor Glos SIS Die Sha ae Lute Sore ree 56 BUUSSUS LEM COMUCTAUS Sia wits ere svsv's) a eXe, aiesSre exes, 6) sy sls) a) Sel aon ovaie rareasesymehenemeren nS fi IBIistber Weebless pez. wisi: toss wists Sales tore oucieits sells eysirshouesotee ateesuctaler ee emegeten 59 1BtOp< IBMGEI IB IE soo econ odaoa6 oc Soyo asiayalienis e eheste O51 0 Naa Co eRe le one te ten aper aOR 66 Bia Or MOSS i 5 srssc sci aa eters enetenels evsie sie: oie ouch oleicichek tole Ser RIE ee 56, 69 BuitalomMothis! Remedies! Tonasesces nencddec. oot eee 58 Bug he MarmishersPlantenas.c ccs 2c lhe on oan C ne ere 62 C. Cabbare’ Worn: ihc ¢c.ce aS ole Hoes tose bess ie Rie ee eee 66 Carbon: PBismlpnidet oi.7.eieecrcrs scarerese eres eee oineo te Eerie eee 41 Carpet Beeblesi iy sec nic wees e)cle speite PAT G. CHOP UTOUS” is 26 OE SO OPE O05 Ce eR: ROCA POC CS rr ee ORT a Ee AS 28 CCRDF ELT HUGE NET acs Oe haere 8 EES aOR CA ORONO To ee CRC OE tera oie 46 GRASSO DD CUS Es crarforis deh cesksr a ofakekel sick coc aterele ceana ares savel ebakarctore Sone areola ore ere iL Grasshoppers, Colored Plate Explanations of.................... 3 Crasshopperss Natural: Hmemies! Of-cace asckcles “ete oe ewes ee 26, 27, 28 ErassnopveTss =k CMeCUICS a 1OIs. eves ee cess cpanel aio) corel veuehe chalet lanai cnet he 29 CLASS OP PSUS US estes swore cqeter ave isi ev elay erste, tia Graues Oe ISOS eee a soll este eaene 30 MEU Sep tante enya ete versio) Sr edeuab ewenerekc ites geass vocersl guaran es slecs Woh orate noha tera hebs care 40 Girls hI aol, 1Mp-qoyeiibonerl cs} iplillen on gooenouboooo be bee Ono os Job Gc 40) CUD Sein wayne yit CES CORV2 Olay deecscia sscichoterania ot otensr sree esi ones 40 CCU Specialy hem CAiESs tOIvor ork: stoielcrartiacenoneleri tere xt eee eee 40, 41 30) INDEX. ae Page FEGCIMEEOOLG SCTUGLO = © cictero icicle a elcleloielais eyielekejevievcliods elataves\telloMelereeloNeNeholfene Haemorrhagie septicaemiad........-.---.2se+es seers error sneer 252-280 JE EOL Sine on, RG a IBISLG oe ord polo dian LIU ola BOOM Ud Did Uob aO10 GOLGI 0105.00.00 28 FIGrPGlus CAWUGNOSUS. ©. oe eee melee vee eile #14 1 ore) one oe oe) meee aie Bo FOrpQUus PeNNSYWCANICUS:. . 22. 0. owe ve eee te reese me eerie 37 (1A NAS PO/CUMIUS due gite oe ba065 0 FOOD ODO a dbOoOb OW DON DUONG 0CONF 39 Islessieey Mh eesindena ciGo yee coo Oagns.d¢ oc cloMoco ao Gno6 c0d.000 0000000 il, 5 a Hessian Fly, Appearance and Life History of.................... 6 aiesgiain, IMby, IPOS sao og oon hs a0 7S 5555 Dad DDADOD OOO DDoS DODDS % RIGS IMby, IBEW) Cita oo co oaocooan sno dG DDOOU DD SUGOUGEOODDDS 4,6 lnleRcienay Ib, 1eveanecbes Wolo acco so0aoebogdQNd LO ObQDD DCD OOO GDUDODS 4 (EO USEUS. THORUGROUUTHSs 5 05506 ooo ob coOD Dano DOOD DODO OD OD DOOD DONO DOC Sil IS (oo oe IDOVAIO GoGoacsodopasAauasmodcoaMoConoD oO Mo 0G0O OC UGDGDO0NSC 23 TS [oye aed dh hig Me Ret Merce RAMI eminem ora Gaol. doo a6 dd oC 0 BL ore Hlye Experiments swathiaersem cite euler clereesiess enencieicmens Bn BO, BID, BF, 397 Horn Ely. (Rem ediGsiss sictieiene aise sfarelclia Serotec osteo die erent CRG eRe 33, 34 Hydroecia NLM Soo eee oe ee ene a eee 46 I. EGHY CETUS NOCCDOT CENSUS. wr Beotn eae leven coke. eae Seno etal oe cheek enon oR eR eee 65, 69 di clEENS} SIU Shik peree iP aE en ESE RR ee Ph eR TAG RAR es oa 5 6 65 K. Kerosene: Hm ul SiON: 2250 sists chet ae caste che Rie aie ea rE Ee ily/ Kerosene Oil. Prices "OL sa siccuys ied oishoare ec Ohere oe A ees 24, 25 ee LLOCHNGSTEHNG -TUy O8@... 5 cea oteane Hilsicie s a hen en ae 40 AMGEN. TNA. ariydis sears hie Sacre Oe sos) eaatas Bee 48 Lawnse injured: bysiGrubs-. cose. ceiies ode cane eon eee 40) Beaker TODDELS : ct ace ka cen @ Gen ces Oe eee 65 LCNLOCOTISM UrIUittola.. 44-2 eee Sih Mer Ne 66 TOCUSE, Carolinas.) iisccs ¢ sare cho dete oe aae e PAL SL bocust:. Coral-winged) 2:..2..0 s. wot se ee eee 3 Mocust;, Green-striped:>. Ai ico. sek cer ak Pe Pee eee 31 ocust,. Lesser -Mircratory:.,.. sass on nee ee ee aLT/ TBO CISTI Ci AB aio. PS ceteris cis Seco ereh OR Ce 28 Bocust wRed-legseeds is siiec 5 bch eee Se Zila MoOCUst, HRocky Mountain 20). te. seo Ce ee nS. Sal Locusts INDEX. dl Page Hocusts; Colored: Plate, and Explanations. 420 sosco:50s. cose eck ol HAOCUS ES aS S21 ch vol Sas O hee tne ai acer wanes cere meta Ee ee er ee oe 22), 67 Ocustsh -caNiacstor rocks Mountainerie ee ae nee 29 FOCUSES RUN UTE Se inom ere os eects Sto ee LS SON 2OF Zila ocustsy Naturale nmemiles! ote cases cite. oer eee eee 26, 27, 28 HOCUSES WE rOLeCLion trom and Remedies fobseeee eee eeeten eee 29 MWOCUSESSS SCVEDLE CHEM CA Te tie act irate Melee Cal a ac a I RT pang 30 WEOCWUS UaeEWO-9 UPI Cerri, Seperate sisi o ie hear esto ate ese ee en ose eer 21 OCUST AVAIL CmIVTO UNbAIME Sema prcecentecrcns cute onsen ie ee ican iets 17 SOUS CWOME COTES tee igor saree eel cops cee cleats aE eee 3 UCU ACECO GIUGUN Cia ecouerteiny aeons ot eons Naas eRe RSE ee A Ee 3! WEA GUUSISUGUGUUS Sree see torches eke ha eos Gaal es te toes SA aeee SS TL eae 66 NEY CUTEAUS MRO UOO OSUUS reeks Onerecet Raley Perec oes Lk ee leo ee eS ah pe ear 47 EUG USED GOLCTUSUS sae, aah sete Minre he ea ToL cp ORE eau Slee SEAS SIAN Sa oe ene en 62 M. WMOERDOTSES WHOL COMOR GO cers, 0.5 CO EC OO DORE CREO S ORO AGE IG ae 59 AE CLORLOPUUSRA CULL CTU Stoners apetaratsts) sastincicheietere lars ‘ess Paieinin etelenenele wtsrera ciotontte one ile VECUCTODUUSHIOUDUCCUGEUS in teletove raletencietebeasre.cuccclsiefocere @ vo releterohe/o) enere ntiete bevel ee lero WACO NMS EMAC RUT. adore oo ooo OOO U Doo Cond 6 Soaaooneoed 21, 31 MC UOTLODUUSEASDTEUUSS , seis sie ehslisiete sisc Nevenalichel ater nieve rasal cS cusre. «ike WaeraGhonr wera 24, 31 IWIRETGOUGIAGY ens o) SGieeis les eure OD TECK ORRIN Cae ORCC ATCA ea mec eee See 60 IVIL OTieeANT I Seve secectcr crete crsraver once veut otek en cscioieomiers worse valeveie le wunere-oteronereamicierate 63 NICO MMI OMS Carenar tor cer. sche en eMicre se eince erie Gleshol ohne trisl shovOrecheeieus oie cco wher bis 63 MLCT USUSMOCSUTULCEO Tekerotey oe oh horeksiooe ese se: eo cite ore, Ria hala Ve salar e's oils veteyare ove.) aanalehesens 6 Mike IimMVyeStiea tion sini Io nO CU CIO. cre sis) tel ehelelers sreleleiaicle clerererchaiere 89 Miailikeieroonchion MOoodmoh WialmveMm anc Crys cis ecieelc eae cielo oe ciel 89-97 Milk Production, Influence of Stage of Lactation on Nutriment VS CME ITEMS Ee eeeetenenericraisicenrs lecciahn Sievers oka sitaie avait vale euat Slevsuéieps 128-148 MAINS. RC ChiIG HO, INfoinekeyone levee ibwoRe ne kise oso oooeaapoanodbuacoo4s 98-112 MilkesProduction, Protein Requirements. a... >. ccc cle clcce soe. s 113-127 MOSQUHOGS fn cic cee = ete ee le eee see Resin cee e piats: Her sverers 49 MoGSGuIbOesy HixperimlemtSie witli 1 se ocelot so chee 3) <1 ois Lavon pictshavtieherekete 3 MoOsScIitoecss hacia leAppliCGaclOnstOnyr vie = velit tsieyrerceoletiens intact i> 54 NOS CULO CSHpplVeTING Gl Spe O Wyesey ences ice) ofaie crs Sake o)o¥els owiciicl'sy tel si Hel aiero's oretere 51 N. Northeast Experiment Farm, Review of Work.................. 181-248 oO. Oilkeo fee GitrOMmeayals weeucsckaeco stoke saci eee etal aoe Net eich cave toneuslieeaette evel anny s 54 Oiler @ fees NT © GAS ceils Sa ee oecreac See aaee cho Sie terabeyre tenegauedeahs Sioa devsvee emacs lenolens 54 P. Paris Green BO ie, Ben cet Rates PO RCP E CE SCRE EROT GER NT EDED PIRI aI 60 TIC eats OI ae Ayer ee casos eemeceic ac aa tkaices OA oks eect esane, tnesal aici, Siehoutolen duewehenadeserens 54 INDEX. 32 Page. PRAUGCOV OMIA GELNULTUUCH | rerckds Aaieratereiehenenclaciolcaeneesieleloneletenetetctot-tl- tot ier- 55 JE thea CXo\bt 22) DAA Ad cement iron aa OTe Gerad coc 6 Oo DOs O00 60 BiumsGougzer Remedies! fone across cieieenctee eke sereieno terion ao 61 POU GONUT DCTUUSTUGCNLGCUM Ucn ilete ceelereteicicitersicieishen aia teieieier einen etal 35 IPGL. flea oo pad OG OOO DHDOOOOOSOUO CSU UO OUD ODODE OOC ODDO SOODOOUODGS 66 R. PUASWiC Ci 5 ar ekeval tis ic staveretaresecatere wusToNeieic ouetave taiecastoue lo leu “ol oratetctairenereneceie enekenene pats 351 TFUCUOIMEIEG™ eoiceerg ios SK oicce Sie slatche, Sisllevec’ oto laveiseGlcusdeweconetarcel ovea overs cenchamea shore botees 28 USS Tima ie WEDS Bessa oyictos ste eyes ROR ae. Siok GRE eare Ta osioae Sala Bealls TA TcTetts ce eae owone noes 43 18k) 021i oes RO eC GI ID HORII rOre Gio Grcio an a ora oi Gio Gaeic ld G16. 55 VOACHIES. REMEMIES SPOT. 3. Fe cus-cceets co cnetelaa cre ce tele teteravey oye] ob eenerst el suerehtererene 56 S. SO DCHEG = CF CEGUG ee po ais rae Rope eee 6 sar awd eae Si ohe oF ecerele ious CACC TOR 66 ISO RAD UA (COMCN Po bc ol ORO OB OOOO OD Onl boo S OnSo ODOC Oo CON OOS 34 SCHiZONCULG \CNIVENLCUNG oc © oc oie eisveiens cit Oe iein hoe ISCO OR eeae 45 SCRAZONEUNG INLOTTCOU roc was c rste sie coo )e i Bie or slve tse cLeustede oireReee cues aaron otersioae 46 ISG OGURA DOU GAC EP AOC GS CnC OD AOD can cla'G boos 6S 41 SGHLONCUTG:. LESSELAEDs .tenajstare a iauee wie icvw siakaroiene = aue 8 MOG eres Oe ern 45 SCOlytiGaAes Fleiss a. oycteaisie ocsce sae Gre dys lave, Siaiteva avait erepaced tues ae eee TN 65 IS GOTLES" SPONGLOS Ws). are chests Shc... oval enticucnereeialeuste Rhotsiehemtehe Nee CEE erate 44, 46 Sheep =aBreedin= sHabit, Chansinge 4 a-sialon ein eee 71 Sheep; sHoods: anid! Feeding ss... cicietscorn oleceeswiee te bevel oleate rte reer 76 Sheep, Pasturing Wethers with and without Grain............. as 81 Sheep teProrenivs, Hint ys ctcte ore ci mS culo lobes aoe uals ote eee eee TR SIMATE WiC sa cajere sie fo atecisieleunfacerGne Os Mie bene Goh See ee oe 35 SPOD Sy HUMMUS) Weis ifeve rie -ateyerensils cous ce eyo ielereke aon yewer ene yer ROR ee CIE Rete 44,46 Sta IBOLT: Beery aid seas s ines wcsne ieconrs Wop areeeettel she eect Ceres ore area eee 46 SLOMOLYSINGAICUMANS 5 ooR soles ie athe Hea eines CEE Dn oReErc 34 surawberry, A: New Pest: of thie. 3c:.-.cccsec co cleraiel sesrsio clore cee eee 3 Strawberry, A New Pest of the, Remedies for..................-- ~ 39 alee Marnishe di Plamit, VB WS ec a. sveua.c ccstersteye 0 apeuctaiee hieresoe eee an eee 62 LT AD OWN \CONFUSUIND Fsrcvers, ccortioeeese eels Cowie hi hie ie oo i ee 66 Ww. Windsor Beans, Injured by Blister Beetles...................... 59 WOOD] Y: ANTS 5, 5)51 2) = sisreretcestte eres ie os ae ee OE ee 41, 68 WVOOlly “Aphids: 'on GALdeR : <1 je Ghete nee bore ee ee 45 Wioolly-Aphids ontApples., cca. ceiseaslon arc aoe Pare ee 41 WVOolly cA ids sOm init, ssc stro crsre coat ener wae eee 45 Woolly sAphidss Remedies for. .2 cern rake crore eee 3 NVOOllY Aphis; Root WOLm.j:2).%. wets ciremac eee te ee ee 68 INSECTS NOTABLY INJURIOUS. IN 1902. F. L. WASHBURN. iE ES SVAING EY: Cecidomyia destructor, Say. This pest well deserves to head the list as I found it alarm- ingly abundant over the southern, southwestern and the entire western part of Minnesota. Complaints began to come in about Aug. 5, and from that time on increased in numbers until after Aug. 11, when every mail brought letters relative to this insect. It has been a very favorable year for the fly, an abundance of moisture being highly favorable for its development. The result of its attacks appears most serious where grain is on sandy soil, evidently because, on account of thinner growth, the stalks fall more easily, while on richer soils the ranker growth helps to keep up the weaker plants. Reports of injury have come from: Perham, Mora, Fergus Falls, Little Falls, Crookston, Moorhead, Lake Park, Hawley, Pelican, McIntosh, Alexandria, Beltrami, Litchfield, Maine, War- ren, Luverne, Cambridge, Kensington, Stodt, Oswell, Forest City, Glyndon, Gentilly, Liberty, Lynd and Garfield; representing the following counties: Otter Tail, Kennebec, Polk, Clay, Becker, Douglas, Meeker, Marshall, Rock, Isanti, Lyon and Morrison. Personal investigation upon the farms of G. E. Pratt near Mc- Intosh, Eli Benoit near Gentilly, E. J. Grover near Glyndon and _ Mr. North and G. S. Barnes in Clay county ; James Hanna, Forest City, E. J. Scott near Fergus, E. S. Wemple and Eli Dewey same place; Mr. Gruett, Clay county, Henry Bausman, Fergus, A. J. Letson, Philip Rutter, L. Bartlett, A. J. Thompson, J. M. Whigh- ton, George Renzell and W. H. Mitchell all near Alexandria, re- vealed the fact that loss from this pest ranged from a fraction of one per cent to as high as fifty per cent in a few localities or parts of farms, and Mr. Keefe of Maine stated that his wheat 1 2 INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. ~ crop only averaged sixteen to seventeen bushel per acre owing to the Hessian Fly. Mr. G. E. Pratt states that in 1896 he lost almost his entire crop on account of this pest. In order to give a general idea of the loss caused by this in- sect I counted upon one field not badly infested, twenty straws down as a result of Hessian Fly injury, in one square yard. In this case the straws standing on the same square yard represent- ing the yield were not counted ; but upon another field only slightly injured I obtained a full count, and upon one square yard 423 up- right straws were counted, that is, so many heads were harvested. In this area 20 straws were down from other causes than the Hes- sian Fly injury and 6 straws were picked up containing “flax seeds.” This puts the loss in that square yard between one and two per cent which is hardly appreciable. It is true this field was but slightly affected and other portions may have given a much greater count, the North farm for instance, (see Fig. 1) where over fifty per cent of the wheat was down at the time of my visit. To give a further idea of the havoc this pest can cause, I quote from the report by C. L. Marlatt of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, in which he states that the loss in the Ohio Valley upon the winter wheat of 1899-1900 amounted to from thirty-five to forty million dollars. The minimum annual damage due to Hessian Fly is estimated at about ten per cent of the product in the chief wheat growing sections of this country, which indicates an annual loss of forty million bushels. The worst field visited was on the North farm near Glyndon above referred to, where quite fifty per cent of the wheat crop was lost. I believe an average loss of eight per cent for all counties in this state where wheat is raised to be a conservative estimate for this year. The grain has not been universally attacked over the portions mentioned above but, as indicated, almost every lo- cality has suffered a little and some individual fields excessively. The Red River Valley is particularly afflicted and all along the line of the Great Northern Railroad from Alexandria to Moor- head and beyond, fallen wheat could be seen from the train and in such abundance as to indicate great numbers of this pest. In 1901 the first report of injury came from Otter Tail county where a local miller placed the loss at fifty per cent. It was also reported from St. Peter, St. James, Worthington, Pipestone, Mar- INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. 3 shall, Willmar, Wadena and Beaver Falls in 1895 and 1896 when the flies were abundant, the loss on the entire crop being estimated at from five to ten per cent and in individual cases as high as twenty-five per cent. Mr. Forbes reports it present conspicuously Fig. 2.—Three straws showing work of the Hessian Fly; ‘“‘flaxseeds’’ exposed in two straws on right. Original. in 1897 and 1898, which is evidence that it is on the increase in the state and that it calls for radical remedial or preventive meas- ures. It is all the more insidious as a foe to our farmers from the 4 INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. fact that its presence is not revealed to them until the injury has been done and the grain is down, and from the further fact that a large number of our farmers are unfamiliar with its work and have been accounting for the falling grain as the result of hail. In fact, I am creditably informed that some sought and obtained hail insurance for grain injured by the Hessian Fly. It is weil worth noting that although it is generally on the increase ana bids fair to cause much greater injury in the future, its increase like that of many anoiher pest is marked by periods of decrease. It is wave-like, if I may use that expression, for as its numbers expand favorable conditions are created for parasites which infest it, causing them to increase in enormous numbers and temporarily get the upper hand. But their victory is necessarily of short dura- tion and only leads to their own destruction for as they destroy their food supply their own numbers decrease, and again their host, the Hessian Fly, takes another bound forward, for the time at least not much hampered by parasites. Although the parasites of the Hessian Fly are largely common in all localities of the state where the fly is found, the writer having noted their presence in many specimens secured from different points, the farmer cannot afford to neglect certain preventive measures which lie ready at hand in keeping down the pest which bids fair to very materially reduce our output of wheat. In mentioning these measures I wish as a preliminary to state that the individual farmer must use his judgment in their application. He should be guided by the pe- culiar conditions of his surroundings, conditions which might not occur in the case of another farmer. 1. Burn the stubble when possible. This is particularly desira- ble when, from any reason, shallow plowing is unavoidable. If the stubble is left long it will burn easier. Some farmers are willing to go to the trouble of spreading straw from threshing over the stubble, thus insuring the burning and at the same time getting rid of some “flax seeds” which may have lodged on the surface of the straw pile at the time of threshing. 2. Fall plowing of the stubble in such a way that tlie straw is completely turned under. 3. All screenings and litter about the threshing machine should be cleaned up and either fed immediately or burned, leaving no INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. 5 litter from the threshing on the field. There is no absolute need of burning the straw pile. The flies emerging from ‘‘flax seeds” in the center of the pile will never reach the surface. 4, Since the fly lays its eggs as a rule near the locality where it emerges from the “flax seed’ it is best not to plant wheat on the same ground two years in succession where rotation is possi- ble. Varieties of wheat that produce a stout stalk are the least affected by this pest. 5. Co-operation is absolutely necessary, for, however careful one Fig. 3.—Cecidomyia destructor (Hessian fly): (a) male; (b) enlarged anal seg- ment; (c) head of female; (d) head of male; (e) scale from leg of male; (f) scale from wing; all greatly en- larged. C. L. Marlatt, U. S. Dept. of Agr. Div. of Entomology. man may be, if his neighbor is not equally so the latter’s fields will afford a supply of this pest for the former. Since this pest issues from the ‘flax seed” early in May, a stubble field left for corn land and not plowed up to the 10th of May or later has prob- ably discharged its quota of flies ready for mischief before plow- ing. 6 INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. APPEARANCE AND LIFE HISTORY OF THE HESSIAN FLY. The fly is dark colored, much smaller than an average sized mosquito which it somewhat resembles. Each female lays on an average over 200 eggs (generally early in May in this latitude) on the upper surface, usually, of the leaves of the wheat. It is known to also infest to a slight extent barley and rye but I have found its presence hardly appreciable in barley in Minnesota. The eggs are reddish, very small and hatch in about four days, the maggots crawling down the leaf until they get between the leaf and stalk where they feed upon the latter. After a few weeks Fig. 4—Female of Merisus destructor Say. Enlarged. Lugger. each maggot changes into the so-called “flax seed.” In this stage, in Minnesota, the insect passes the winter and emerges as a fly in the spring. To the best of our knowledge there is but one brood in this state though this question is a problem the entomologist has promised himself to endeavor to solve next season.* Ex- cessive dryness and heat during the “flax seed” stage is highly in- jurious, the development being aided by dampness, this pest thus radically differing from the Chinch Bug. At least seven parasites are found in America affecting this pest; about as many in Russia and ten are quoted in England. The principal parasite is a minute four winged fly Merisus de- *Since writing the above I have been creditably informed that “flax seeds” were found in abundance on wheat five inches high in the latter part of last June on the farm of C. Johnson, near Warren, Marshall county. INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. 7 structor, Say. (see fig. 4), which so far as we know lays its eggs upon the young larva of the Hessian Fly and emerges a full grown insect from the so-called “flax seed.” Minute holes in the sheath at joints infested by the Hessian Fly show where this parasite has emerged, but unfortunately a minute secondary parasite (a species of Tetrastichus) reduces the numbers of our little friend Merisus. In a breeding jar kept under natural conditions one species Fig. 5—Cecidomyia destructor (Hessian fly); (a) female fly; (b) flaxseed pupa ; (c) larva; (d) head and breast bone of same; (e) puparium; (f) cocoon ; (g) infested wheat stem showing emergence of pupae and adults. Cc. L. Mar’att, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Div. of Entomology. of Merisus emerged from “flax seeds” in straw Aug. 15th, and more later. See also Fig. 57 on page 67 at end of this report. Tt CHINCH BUG: Blissus leucopterus, Say. In view of all the previous publications from this office rela- tive to this pest, which well deserves second place in the year’s list of injurious insects, it is surprising that the entomologist should 8 INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. have been called upon so often this season to demonstrate the sim- ple and effective means of preventing injury to corn and in some cases to describe such a generally well known insect. It has been reported this season from Belgrade, St. Augusta, Luxemburg, Carmody, Kimball, Wyoming, Hedrum, Haven Prai- rie, Big Lake, Forest City, Litchfield, Cambridge, St. Francis, Osseo, Anoka, Farmington, Cedar Mills, Elk River, Mora, Brad- ford and Lynd, representing the following counties: Stearns, Isanti, Chisago, Dakota, Sherburne, Meeker, Kennebec, Lyon, Anoka, Hennepin, Wright and Waseca. The majority of com- plaints came from the counties of Stearns, Isanti and Meeker in Fig. 6.—Chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus) adults of short-winged form—much enlarged (adapted from Webster): C. L. Marlatt, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Div. of Entomology. the order given. A line starting at Mora and running southwest to Benson and then south to the Iowa boundary would appear to mark the northern and western limit of affected localities in this state. I have not this season (barring an unsubstantiated rumor that a few occurred in the sandy portions of Douglas county) been able to detect it north or west of the above mentioned line, though doubtless there were many affected localities from which I did not hear. Consulting the late Dr. Lugger’s reports of 95 and ’96 I note that he claims that in 1887, besides many other places, they also occurred in Pine, Crow Wing, Hubbard, Wadena, Todd, Morri- son and in ’95 and ’96 in Morrison, Otter Tail and Douglas coun- ties lying to the west or north of the boundary I have indicated. In 1895 also it is given as “reported” at Vermilion Lake. INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. 9 In a map contained in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 132 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture on page 8, we are startled to see it is given as occurring over the entire state of Minnesota, but as this is really Vig. 7.—Map of Minnesota, showing distribution of chinch bugs in 1887. 1894, and 1895. Also the distribution of pine forests, of deciduous trees, of prairies with timber, and open prairies. Lugger. a map indicating its range over the United States it is probably intended to convey in a general way its occurrence over a large part of this state and must not be taken too literally. It certainly 10 INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. seems to be very scarce or lacking along our entire western border from south to north. I looked for it carefully in the counties of Clay, Otter Tail, Douglas, Polk and Itasca and found no trace of it, and met with the statement everywhere in these counties (with the exception of the rumor mentioned above in Douglas) that it was not known to occur. It will be seen then from observations made by both Dr. Lugger and the writer that it is a pest of south- ern distribution in this state and it is further to be noted that it is found more conspicuously in that part of the state which has become more or less wooded; in other words, in localities where farms are interspersed with woodland affording better chances for hibernation and less likelihood of destruction through burning. Years ago, it seems, this rolling country which is now fairly wood- ed, was subject to annual burnings. These have ceased allowing the growth of timber and at the same time the increase of this pest. The Chinch Bug, a native of this country and first living upon wild grasses before grains were placed before it, probably causes greater loss than any other one pest. To give some idea of the extensive injury to be laid at the door of such an insignificant looking insect, hardly more than an eighth of an inch long, we quote from a government report recently issued, “the loss for single States in one season have been estimated at from ten to twenty millions of dollars; that for single years throughout its range at above one hundred million dollars. Large as these fig- ures are, when the actual estimate of shrinkage in the yield of wheat and other grains, not to mention forage crops is made, it will be seen that they are reasonable and probably within the true amount.” In 1871 Illinois is said to have lost $10,000,000, while that State with Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Wisconsin and In- diana in 1871 lost $30,000,000. In 1874 the loss of above seven States was estimated at $60,000,000. Missouri alone losing $19,- 000,000. In 1887 Minnesota alone lost over $6,000,000 in the counties affected. ITS APPEARANCE AND LIFE HISTORY. [he Chinch Bug has been so frequently described that it hardly seems necessary to go into details and we will merely give INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. ill Fig. 8.—Different stages of the chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus) enlarged and natural size; (a) egg; (b, c, d, e) young stages; (f) adult. Lugger. 19 INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. a brief description which with the pictures should be sufficient for those not acquainted with it. The full grown insect is about % of an inch long; black with whitish wing covers; a prominent black spot marks the outer edge of each wing cover (a casual observer would call these wings) at about the center. There is, too, a form with short wings and individuals are found between these two extremes, that is with wings of various lengths. The female lays her whitish eggs, one individual depositing nearly 500, but not all in one batch, at base of plant, for the main part on the roots. From two to four weeks are occupied in egg laying. The eggs hatch in about two weeks but may hatch sooner and may take longer. The young larva is reddish and extremely active. As it grows it becomes darker colored and more like adult. In about two months it becomes full grown like its parent. During this two months it is sucking the vitality of wheat, barley, if there is any in its neighborhood, and swarming on the roots of pigeon grass and millet if it is for- tunate enough to find it. Oats do not meet with favor unless there is lack of other feed. Millet appears to be its preference, a fact which will be further commented upon later, and even if on the corn it will leave that succulent plant to gather by the thousands about a piece of pigeon grass. It loves warm sunshine, and cold and wet are disastrous, which latter fact may account for the comparative scarcity of the pest in our State this year, and for the fact that sandy soil where the wheat does not grow rankly and thus allows the sun to reach the soil at its base is worst affected. When the grain is cut or before if it becomes destitute of sap, old, half grown and young Chinch Bugs migrate to the nearest crop which is still succulent. This is generally corn and thousands can be seen migrating to new pastures. It is a curious fact, that, although many are winged at this time they do not fly but for the most part travel over the dusty soil with their less fortunate companions. If they are al- ready in the corn and this has matured they will leave the corn as they do the wheat. This migratory horde will sometimes pene- trate to the 15th or 20th row in the corn field and even further, the outer rows appearing frequently almost black with the pest. Soon after the middle of September the generations raised during the summer begin to seek winter quarters which may be INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. 12 at some distance from the crop last attacked by them and to be reached only by flight. Places chosen for hibernating are corn shocks left in the field, rubbish and litter of all kinds, fallen leaves in the neighboring timber and Marlatt claims that they can be found by the thousands in the soil at the base of stools of wild grasses where these have not been destroyed by cultivation; he cites it as probably the ancient habit of the species before cultivated crops were in existence. The spring finds them flying from their places of hibernation to cultivated fields. Early in May in this latitude but earlier south of us. At this time they are everywhere; one finds them on his clothing in walking or riding and all in- Fig. 9.—Chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus), adult of long-winged form, much enlarged (from Webster). U.S. Dept. of Agr., Div. of Entomology. stinctively seeking the crop which will afford their young sufh- cient nourishment during their development. This crop is almost universally wheat, and while in the wheat from the very nature of the case they cannot, with our present knowledge, be success- fully dealt with. From the fact that they fly at this time there can be no really effectual barrier to prevent their entering the wheat field. I intend to try planting millet next season, experi- mentally, in a strip, say six feet wide about the wheat field, at the same time that the wheat is sown, and some strips at ,inter- vals through the field. Since they are very fond of millet this may be effective as a trap crop and as the bugs would stay on it as long as any sap ran it could be cut just before maturing and burned with the insects before it was quite dry. Not having tried this I cannot speak authoritatively upon its effectiveness. Plant- 14 INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 190-. ing millet at the same date as wheat may endanger the seed in some soils, but farmers have told me this season that they have raised millet planted that early. Some workers have suggested planting millet between the wheat and corn or about the corn field thus protecting the latter crop. This pest has but few enemies and given favorable climatic conditions increase almost without natural check. A predatory bug is said to prey upon it and among the birds it is claimed that meadow larks and black birds have a fond- ness for it in spite of its peculiar “bedbuggy” odor so disgusting to man, and the stomach of a single quail examined in Nebraska was found to contain over 500 specimens of this pest all eaten in one day. OUR EXPERIMENTS AD THE STADION: On May 28th the Agricultural Department of the Station com- plained to the Entomologist that the bugs were then threatening to seriously injure some experimental plats in the nursery. I found them then copulating and egg laying, which lasted as late as June 2nd. The wheat was young and the question arose as to how the plats were to be saved. On May 3tst, millet was planted around and between the plats. Carbon bisulphide was used June 2nd, canvas covered frames having been made to cover portions of the plats, and we having first tested it on other wheat ; the idea being that if we could by several applications kill off the bugs at that time on the wheat the young millet would attract other bugs which might be seeking food from the outside. The treatment was only partially successful and its use was aban- doned. The reader will understand of course, that the methods adopted here were practicable only when used on a small scale and could not be applied on large fields. It was then decided to use kerosene emulsion. We had found that one part emulsion to ten parts of water did not injure wheat upon which it was first tried. On June 21st and later the emulsion was used on the ex- perimental plats at the strength of one part to ten parts of water and an examination was made June 30th to note its effects. While some of the leaves around the roots appeared a little burned, on the whole the grain looked very well. A goodly proportion of the bugs were killed by this treatment. Upon July 23rd the emul- sion was again applied but to the outside rows only. On July INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. 15 26th bugs were found in all plats upon the millet which was then well up, and it was also found that the wheat was injured some- what in spots by the emulsion, but not sufficient to annul the ex- periment. It was later harvested and threshed. I believe that if the millet had been planted earlier, perhaps at the same time as the wheat the bugs would have been effectually prevented from entering the plats. About July 21st the grain crop on the farm was harvested and the Chinch Bugs migrated to corn in large numbers. At this time numerous complaints began to reach us from farmers in the central, eastern and southern parts of the State. On August 7th at the request of the late John Woodbury representing the St. Francis Milling Company, I went to that place and found the pest in great numbers. Upon the farm of David Stewart the bugs had reached the 15th row of corn as they had also on the farm of W. M. Corbin. Upon the place of John McDonald I found the bugs in corn as far as the 25th row and he stated that he had lost 25% of his Scotch Fife wheat through their injury and that the remaining wheat was hardly marketable. He further stated that July 28th was the date when he first observed the bugs migrating to the corn. We note in this connection that the habits of this pest differ in different latitudes. In eastern Kansas for instance, the migration is about two weeks earlier. Mr. McDonald claimed that where the bugs were con- gregated about pigeon grass in the corn and elsewhere they could be killed by covering to the depth of three inches with dry sandy soil. This may be so where the soil is very sandy or dusty, but a trial upon my part later, at St. Anthony Park, failed to corrob- orate this statement. Farmers in this section were shown how to make a dust furrow and tar line and some availed themselves of the information immediately. Thousands, yes, millions of bugs were observed migrating in the vicinity, yet it was reported that the pest was even worse north of St. Francis in Isanti county. On August 14th James Hanna near Forest City was visited; he stated that he would lose at least one-half of a twelve acre piece of fodder corn owing to the injury caused by the Chinch Bug. He further said that much of the injury ascribed to Chinch Bugs was really due to Hessian Fly, farmers in that neighborhood not being so familiar with the fly as they were with the former insect. 16 INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. REMEDIES AND MEANS OF PREVENTION. We do not know of any practicable means of killing the Chinch Bugs in the grain at present. In this connection we will say that the sending out of diseased Chinch Bugs has been abandoned, it having been found that the results were not sufficiently practical. The insects however may be trapped and killed without much la- bor after they leave the grain and start to attack the corn. Plow a furrow around your corn in such a way that the steeper side is towards the corn; drag a small log back and forth in this furrow until it becomes very dusty; it must be kept dusty. With a post augur bore holes ten or twelve inches deep or even less, along the bottom of this burrow at intervals of about a rod. If the furrow is well made the bugs cannot cross it and finally collect in the post holes where they may be killed by kerosene or hot water. In wet weather a dust furrow is impossible. At such times the bugs may be stopped by means of a tar line. Tar can be purchased of the Minneapolis Gas Company for $4.50 per barrel, barrel included; for $3.75 per barrel without container. Pour tar to the width of two or three inches next your corn field or upon the side of the field attacked by the bugs. While this tar line remains sticky bugs will not cross it. The first tar applied will sink into the ground probably and the line will have to be renewed occasionally; that is it will have to be kept sticky. Bore post holes at the side of the tar line away from the corn and the bugs traveling along the line to find a means of crossing will fall into these holes where they may be killed. Even if the bugs have reached the outer rows of corn they may be stopped by the dust furrow or tar line between these outer rows and the remaining corn. The bugs on the outer rows may be killed with kerosene emulsion, one part emulsion to ten parts of water. Pure kerosene may also be used if one does not care to save the corn. It is certainly desirable to kill these bugs on the outer rows thus lessening the bug crop the following year. It has been claimed that a rope kept saturated with kerosene and placed on the ground on the side of the corn which is being at- tacked, will form an obstacle which they will not readily cross. Some stock will not eat the stalks covered by the bugs, and even if they did the majority of bugs would escape to perpetuate their > _ : - a is s ~ - i eae ee ee FIG.6 SOME LOCUSTS OF MINNESOTA JULIUS BIEN & CO.LITH.N.Y INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. 17 kind and thus make trouble for the farmer the following year. Farmers should practice clean farming; that is, in the fall rub- bish should be burned as far as possible. The Chinch Bugs hiber- nate in rubbish collected in corners, in old straw, in hay stacks, in corn shocks left in the field, etc. Fallen leaves in timber also afford winter quarters, and it will be found that grain fields next these sources where the bugs pass the winter will probably be the first to be infested the following spring. Recipe for Kerosene Emulsion: Dissolve one-half pound of soft or hard soap in one gallon of water, boiling it thoroughly. When the soap is dissolved remove the liquid from the fire and when boiling hot add two gallons of kerosene. This should now be mixed thoroughly by pumping it vigorously through a force pump or spray pump. ‘This may take five minutes. It should be, when properly mixed, like thick cream or clabbered milk. This stock emulsion will keep some time, many weeks in fact, and can be used as desired. GRreAS SHOPPERS OK LOCUSTS: The people of the Red River Valley and of counties adjoining have the unusually wet Spring to thank for freedom from these pests. This year injury from Grasshoppers has been confined to a few localities. Perham, Otter Tail county which always leads complaints of this kind, sent in the alarm through its county commissioner about June 15th, and the Entomologist at once went to that place. Hop- pers were found very plentiful on the old stubble. These were all the Lesser Migratory or White Mountain Locust (M. atlanis) and for the most part past the fourth molt, although some were found considerably younger. The most threatening area in this vicinity was a tract of. unplowed stubble containing 240 acres owned largely by nonresidents, who will not plow. Some farm- ers were found in this vicinity plowing in order to turn under the young hoppers, but all expressed uneasiness at the near presence of such a large tract of unplowed land, which is always a fertile breeding ground for the local forms of Grasshoppers. The situation was so serious that upon consultation with the %) ~ 18 INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. Governor and the Director of the station, it was determined to plow this tract at the State expense and thus not only avert im- mediate loss but also reduce if possible the numbers of Grasshop- pers which would otherwise be on hand to do mischief next year. The most threatening tract (about 200 acres) was then plowed. In the neighborhood of Perham there are altogether about 600 acres of this unused land. Wherever such is found it is a constant menace to farmers who are making every effort to keep this pest within bounds. It would be bad policy for the State to always plow these lands not used and I firmly believe that the only solu- tion to the Grasshopper question is the making of a law which will oblige land owners to plow stubble found to contain Grasshopper eggs in the fall or early in the spring. In every grasshopper in- fested locality visited this summer the Entomologist met with this request from the farmers. Such a law would put an end to the pernicious practice of the State plowing or furnishing free oil ex- cept in exceptional emergencies. Most farmers will gladly plow if nonresident speculators will do the same. A visit to Otter Tail district thirteen miles from Perham showed a condition entirely different from what prevails in the latter place. Here I found every acre in crops; no stubble land and consequently no Grasshoppers, disregarding the comparative few in grass along the roadsides. It is a matter worthy of note that the losses from locally hatched grasshoppers are confined largely to “pioneer districts,’ to the frontier of farming land as it were, where conditions are not settled, where property is changing hands or where the population is shifting and where there are very large tracts of land far from market, owned by individuals who either cannot or will not cultivate all their arable land. It is where these conditions prevail that the Lesser Migratory Locust (second only to the Rocky Mountain Locust in destructiveness) gets in its work and always will in favorable seasons unless compulsory plowing is resorted to. These are the conditions which prevail at Gen- tilly near Crookston, in Polk county, and more particularly in the Hill River district twelve miles northeast from McIntosh in the same county. At Gentilly on June 26th I found the Lesser Migra- tory Locust abundant and causing injury upon all well drained, sandy ridges where the eggs were not spoiled by wet weather last INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. 19 spring. On the farm of Eli Benoit wheat next the stubble as well as beans, barley and young flax were eaten. . It was however in the Hill River district near Lindsay P. O. that farmers suffered the most. Here a tract extending one-half mile east and west and two miles north and south was almost swept of vegetation. Young flax, grass, wheat, barley and oats were mowed down and at the date of my visit, June 26th, the farmers Fig. 12.—View of flax field near Gentilly, one-third of which has been eaten by grasshoppers. were complaining bitterly of a 300 acre piece of stubble which had been allowed to lie fallow for two years or more and was very evidently the breeding ground of the pest. In places I found the ground brown with young hoppers not yet ready to fly, and the area referred to presented a scene of desolation not easily forgot- ten. These young hoppers were working south and on each suc- ceeding visit I found their limit to be further south. Farmers in this neighborhood worked heroically in the fight against the unwelcome visitation and about 800 gallons of oil was distributed by the Entomologist through the county commisson- ers. This oil was judiciously used, but the numbers of the insects 20 INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. were legion, and although the hopper-dozers were run back and forth over the grain all day and day after day, and bushels of Seve sy, SS ; ¢ TEA MINET EA jas bata tae, NAN N, SS ON a i = Young grasshoppers gathering by the thousands on the front of an unfinished store in the Hill River District on a rainy day. Fig. 13.— oily corpses dumped upon the road, the pests appeared to be al- most as numerous after treatment as before. INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. D1 With the exception of a slight outbreak near Twin Valley in Norman county, which the Entomologist found to be not serious, an early and limited attack near Glyndon in Clay county and the crisis at Perham which was promptly met by plowing, Gentilly and the Hill River district were the only places known to be seri- ously affected. As stated above the Lesser Migratory or White Mountain Locust was the offender and was practically the only locust found on the stubble. In grass and other rank growth (in one instance in a clover field in large numbers and also in timothy) I found the Two Striped Locust M. bivitattus (see colored plate) ; some few specimens of Chortophaga viridifasciata (Fig. 14), have also been seen and later the always numerous Red-legged Locusts, M. femur Fig. 14.—Chortophaga viridifasciata, form virginiana, female. Lugger. rubrum. The usual quota of Carolina Locusts so often mistaken for the Rocky Mountain species were observed everywhere. In July I visited this locality again. All the grain had headed but was still in the milk. I then found the hoppers winged and in enormous numbers about one-half mile south of where I had first seen them. They were feeding upon the soft wheat kernels and four out of every ten heads of wheat were being preyed upon by hungry individuals. As far as one could see and observe such small objects in looking out over the grain, grasshoppers could be distinguished by the thousand (see Fig. 11) and it is in the stubble here later, undoubtedly, that eggs were laid. I also learned at this time that the pests had spread further west beyond the broken belt of timber which had formed a temporary western barrier. My last trip to Hill River was on Sept. 3rd after harvest. I then learned that hoppers were observed laying their eggs late in 22 INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. July on the stubble. Unfortunately a heavy storm prevented an examination for the eggs. One of the farmers whose loss perhaps represents an average in this district, told me that he had lost about one-third of his wheat crop, nearly one-half his oats and fully one-half his barley through the ravages of Grasshoppers. Serious as this loss is, it must be admitted that the outlook in the earlier part of the season was much more threatening; in other words, the farmers in this district really got larger crops than they had anticipated. All Locusts, while they vary as to date of egg laying exhibit Fig. 15.—Dissosteira carolina, female. Lugger. practically the same method, well shown in Fig. 58. It will be seen that the eggs are laid in a pocket in the surface inch of soil. The young hopper upon hatching invariably works upward. The significance of this fact in connecton with plowing is at once ap- parent, for the plow turns the bottom of the case up, thus afford- ing no exit for the young hopper. Many of our people mistake the large Locust, notably the Carolina Locust, Dissosteira carolina, Linn., for the destructive Rocky Mountain variety. A comparison of the accompanyng illustration (Fig. 15) with the excellent colored plate, (Fig. 7) will show the difference between these two. It is well, however, to bear in mind that all hoppers are INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. 23 injurious, their ability to do injury beng directly proportionate to their numbers, but only a few species ever become numerous enough to cause serious injury. A word about hopper-dozers may not be out of place as I have met a number of farmers not familiar with their construction. The drawing given, Fig. 16, will explain their structure al- most without the use of words. The material is galvanized iron. The pan may be 8, 12 or 16 feet long. The larger pans are divid- ed into compartments by soldered partitions, thus preventing the oil from running to one end on sloping ground and spilling. The back of the pan is about 4 inches high and the front is turned up about 3 inches. A 4 inch board is fastened to the under side of the pan at each end, the broad surface acting as a runner. These Fig. 16.—Large hopper-dozer with partitions (after Riley). pieces project in front and to them ropes are tied for drawing the machine. Early in the season one horse is used, later when the hoppers get more active two are used, one at each end, so that the insects, startled by the horses, will jump for the main part to- wards the center and be caught by the pan. Uprights two feet long at the back of the pan, not shown in figure, support a white cloth which serves to attract the Locusts and to prevent their fly- ing completely over the hopper-dozer. In this connection it may be said that it is economical to use but little oil. That is, if water to the depth of two inches say, is placed in the pan and enough oil poured upon that to make a thin film, it will be quite as ef- fective as if it were all oil. For, even if the grasshopper barely touches the oil and then hops out, he is sure to die. Some of the farmers in the Hill River district used as many as 12 or 15 gallons of oil daily, whereas if water had been used as above indicated, five 24 INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. gallons probably would have been all that was necessary. Every farmer in districts likely to be affected should have a hopper-dozer ready for use in the spring and not postpone the making of one until the pest is upon him and every one, including himself, is too busy to stop for the work. These machines can be used until the grain is fully one foot high without injuring it. They cost all the way from $4 to $16, depending upon the size, the weight of the iron and the cupidity of the firm making it. It should be borne in mind that as useful as the hopper-dozers are, they should be re- garded in the light of a make shift for use in an emergency, since fall plowing when properly done by all farmers in a neighborhood is a sure method of extermination. Fig. 17 shows a model of a new kind of hopper-dozer in- vented by a Minnesotan. The driver sits behind at end of the Fig. 18. — Melanoplus Fig. 19. — Melanoplus Fig 20. — Melanoplus spretus; dorsal view atlanis; dorsal view femur-rubrum ; dorsal of end of male abdo- of end of male abdo- view of end of male men. men. abdomen. pole and two horses push the machine ahead of them. A strong fan blows the young hoppers against the bottom of rollers which crush them, the rollers being cleaned automatically. There are times when the hopper-dozer can be used to better advantage than at others. A cold raw day, for instance, does not offer favorable conditions. Again, when hoppers are completely winged and fly a long distance when disturbed which, by the way, is after most of the injury has been done, dozers are of practically no use. It was to farmers owning hopper-dozers that oil was fur- nished free by the Entomologist, each farmer applying to his county commissioner for an order for oil on a local dealer. The. price of oil ranged all the way from 9 cents per gallon including the barrel at Minneapolis to 11.1-3 cts. at Perham without con- tainer ; 1434 cents in barrel lots with barrel at the Standard Oil Co.’s Warehouse in Crookston; 15 cents at Gentilly; 14 and 15 INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. 25 at McIntosh, and 20 cents at Twin Valley where they claimed to have no cheap grade. I take pleasure in acknowledging helpful co-operation upon the part of Mr. Sawyer at Perham, Mr. Remi Fortier at Gentilly, Mr. McCarty at McIntosh and Mr. E. L. Tomtengen at Fossum, — Gy I y = ei te pas a SS ’ ih i Fig. 21.—A Robber-Fly destroying a Grasshopper, enlarged. Original. county commissioners, who assisted me in my work at these vari- ous points. Figs. 18, 19, and 20, show differences in details of structure of the abdomens of male specimens of the Rocky Mountain Locust, Lesser Migratory Locust, and the Red-legged Locust which help to distinguish them. 2% INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. NATURAL ENEMIES OF GRASSHOPPERS. Like many other pests the increase of Grasshoppers is re- tarded by parasites, both animal and vegetable, and by predatory enemies which do much to lessen their numbers. The greater the number of hoppers the greater the number of enemies to prey Original. upon them. It is a notable fact that wet weather casts a gloom over these insects. As though they foresaw in it their own dan- ger, they are sluggish and inactive, thus giving the grain a chance to grow. At such times bacteria and fungus diseases carry off INSECTS INJURIOUS IN 1902. o7 very many. It is at these times that they gather in numerous num- bers upon fences, telegraph poles and buildings. Our illustration, —— > be =e Ses . a | a { Ya Wa} SS "qo IMA ET 5 a4 9d aM” T 8 ‘uvf | weg Tt OZ ‘uel 4ST cg XOg PON) Avq |yRUOW) res FON | AVC |YUOW] BOS FON] AVC |YIVOIN| FSR 'ON| ABC |YIUOIN| rg PON | AUC |qIUOW! ssor1Dd | ‘on “TO.-O0, 49}UIM : *00.-66, T9FUIM “66-86, 19} 01M “S6—-L6, FOFULM “L6—96, T9}UIM AMA “SONIA WI “ONIA NVI “ONIAWV’T “ONIAWN VI | “ONIA WNW’ ‘Aueso1g JO WIIG Jo ayeq pue Aueso1g ‘SomaA—'I ATAVL 78 SHEEP HUSBANDRY. It will be observed that, of the 27 ewes in the experiment but 12 were of the first cross, 11 of the second and but 3 of the third. The number of the third cross ewes would have been greater, but for the fact, that several of them kept over were devoted to other lines of breeding. In fact, the entire experiment was in a sense a side issue, as some of the animals of these respective crosses, not in the experiment proper, were from time to time used in other lines of experimenting. But those retained for the experiment were fairly repre- sentative. Lambs Born in Certain Months.—Table II gives the dates at which lambs were born in certain months from ewes of the respective crosses. TABLE II.—Months in which Lambs were Born. LAMBING. , LAMBING. LAMBING. LAMBING. LAMBING. Winter ’96-’97| Winter ’97-’98 Winter ’Y8-’99 Winter ’99-’00| Winter ’00-'01 GROSS) == = | Month} No. |Month| No. |Month| No. |Month] No. |Month! No. a = | ite es Nov. 1 Oct. 1 Oct. 1 Sept. al Oct. 1 jy | Jan. 2 Jan. 3 Dec 2 Oct. af Dec. il Use \) || | | Feb. [es Reb: 4 Jan. 2 Jan. 4 Feb. 2 | Mar. 1 Wee: i! Feb. 2) jane 2 Oct al! Dec 2 Oct: 2 Oct 2 | | Dec 2 | jan 6 Dye; ||, al Jan al 2d | Jan 5 Jan. | 4 Dec 1 | | Feb all | Mar 1 Oct 1 Sept.| 1 Jan. 2 | 3rd Jan. 3 Jan. aL Feb. 1 The advance in the average period of earliness at which the lambs were dropped by the ewes of the second and third crosses, is not what should be looked for, but it is partly ex- plained by the fact, that none of the ewes of any cross would mate for some time subsequently to the period when grazing began. This explains why scarcely anylambs were dropped during the month of November. More October lambs could have been obtained, had they been desired, from ewes of the DISPOSAL OF LAMBS. 79 second and third crosses. Had the ewes been turned out on rich blue grass pastures, it may be that the results would have been different. Disposal of the Lambs.—No attempt was made to sell the lambs in a special market for the same. The chief object of the experiment was to ascertain if they could be grown beginning with ewes of common and mixed blood. The numbers on hand were too limited to justify the attempt to establish a permanent market for such lambs in the Twin Cities, hence they were disposed of variously, and usually too late in the season to bring highest market prices. In 1897 one ewe lamb was sold April 8th, to E. M. Prouty & Co., of South St! Paul. The age was 134 days, the weight 69 pounds, and the price paid was 16 cents per pound live weight, amounting to $11.04. The other ewe lambs were kept for breeding, and the lambs were fed under experiment the following winter. In 1898, four lambs were sold to F. W. Luly, St. Paul, on April 6th. The average weight shrunk was 63% pounds. The price paid was 10 cents per pound, live weight, amount- ing to $6.37 on an average per lamb. The ewe lambs were kept for breeding and the other wether lambs were fed for experiment the following winter. In 1899, six lambs were sold on March 31st, to J. H. McCormick, St. Paul. The average weight was 5514 pounds. The price paid was 10 cent per pound, live weight, amount- ing to $5.53 per lamb, on an average. The ewe lambs and the remaining wether lambs were used as stated the previous year. In 1900, seven lambs were sent to Chicago, along with fat lambs of the previous year. Of these, five weighed on an average 701% pounds, and brought 11 cents per pound, thus averaging $7.75 perlamb. The other two average 115 pounds | and being over-heavy sold for 9 cents per pound, thus aver- aging $10.35 per lamb. The other lambs of the same grade were used as in the previous year. In 1901, eight lambs were delivered on May 16th, to Haas Bros., St. Paul. On May 30th, eighteen lambs were delivered to the same firm. The first averaged 45 pounds and the second lot 75 pounds. The price paid was $3.60 on 80 SHEEP HUSBANDRY. an average per lamb for the first lot, and $6.00 on an aver- age for the second. The other lambs were used similarly to those kept in preceding years. In the meantime the process of eliminating the ewes that were least suitable for retaining went on from year to year. Progeny of the Southdown Cross.—In the summer of 1900, several of the Dorset ewes were mated with a South- down ram. The object was to get lambs that could be shown at the International Fair to be held in Chicago in December of the following year. From the progeny thus begotten seven lambs were selected to be fitted for the said show. Five of these were shown in the class for fat grade lambs and open to the world. They won first honors as best pen of five, and also for best single grade lamb in the exhibit. In the contest for best fat lambs, open to all the Agricultural Colleges on the Continent, they won first, second and third prizes. Four of the number were then slaughtered and shown in the dead meat class with the re- sult that they won first and third prizes, competing against the world. They also formed part of the exhibit from the Minnesota Experiment Station, which won first prize for the best exhibit of the show in the dead class. The mutton form of the grade lambs of this cross was superior to that of lambs from the pure Dorset sires and they were also more easily kept in a good condition of flesh. CONCLUSIONS. The following are the more important of the conclusions based upon the results from the above experiment: 1. That the breeding habit in ewes which usually drop lambs in the spring may be so changed that they will pro- duce them in the fall and early winter. 2. That this change can be effected sufficiently for prac- tical uses in from two to three generations of judicious cros- sing when accompanied by a judicious selection. 3. That it maybe effected thus quickly by choosing very common ewes of mixed breeding, and mating them with pure bred Dorset rams, always reserving the earlier. dropped lambs for breeding uses. 4. That in the transforming process, the dams which have suckled winter lambs may usually be bred more readily PASTURING WETHERS. 81 before being turned out on grass than subsequently, and especially when fed a stimulating grain portion while yet in the sheds. 5. That when the change sought has been thus effected in the dams, a superior quality in the lambs may be ob- tained by using rams in service of certain of the dark-faced types and more especially of the Southdown and Shropshire breeds. 6. That such foods as clover hay, and corn fodder, bran, oats. barley, corn and oilcake, also fields roots prove very satisfactory under Minnesota conditions for the production of such mutton in winter. 7. That in the markets of the West the demand for such lambs is not yet so good relatively as in certain markets further East. SECTION No. 2. PASTURING WETHERS WITH AND WITHOUT GRAIN. The keeping of sheep chiefly on pastures sown for them is of but recent introduction in America. As far as known to the writer it was first practiced at the Minnesota Univer- sity Experment Station in 1895. Since that time the prin- ciple involved has become incorporated more or less into the practice of many of the flockmasters of the country. It has been found that even the partial practice of such a system promises to revolutionize the methods of keeping sheep in the United States. The following are chief among the bene- fits flowing from it: First—It enables the flockmaster to maintain a much larger number of animals than he could otherwise. Second—It makes it possible for him to give them more or less of succulent pasture from spring until fall, which is favorable to their development. Third—It makes it possible for him to destroy nearly all forms of weed life, and cheaper and more effectively than it can be done in any other way, and Fourth—It enables him to fertilize his land so that it shall be in a good condition to grow other crops, particularly grain crops without anyother fertilizing. While experimenting thus in growing pastures, the thought came up in the mind of the writer as to whether it would pay to add grain to the pasture, especially when the &2 SHEEP HUSBANDRY. object was to fatten the sheep while being thus grazed. Some experimenting had been done in that line in Ontario when conducting the Agricultural department ofthat Station, but it related to feeding grain on fall rather than on summer pastures. This experiment was undertaken for the purpose of throwing light upon this question, and it is the only one of the kind up to the date of the experiment which the writer can recall. Plan of the Experiment.—The plan in a general way in- cluded the securing of two lots of wethers and pasturing them until they should be in condition for the block. They were to be put on grazing as soon as it should become plenti- ful. The grazing was to consist of crops sown for this pur- pose other than grass, and in a succession such as would provide food for them in a seasonable condition. This means grazing which would be eaten by the animals when in that condition which would cause them to eat it witha relish, and when it would be sufficiently plentiful to satisfy their appetites. One lot was to be given one-half pound each per day of oats during the experiment proper. The other lot was to have no grain supplement. When the ex- periment proper ceased it was proposed to pasture them for some time subsequently, that their behavior at such a time might be noted and studied. The Time Covered by the Experiment.—The experiment proper began May 2nd, 1899, and extended to August 21st following. It was divided into four periods of 28 days each, and therefore covered in all 112 days. But the subsequent behavior of the sheep was noted until about the close of the grazing season. The Object of the Experiment.—Chief among the ob- jects of the experiment were to ascertain: First—The rela- tive increase made by sheep on spring and summer grazing with and without a small grain supplement. Second—The relative return, if any, obtained from feeding the grain. Third—The relative condition of the animals as to flesh at the close of the experiment proper, and Fourth—The be- havior of the two lots while on grazing during the remain- der of the grazing season. The Animals Chosen.—The animals chosen were wethers. MANAGEMENT OF WETHERS. 83 They were purchased at the the New Brighton Stock Yards, from Mr. Kenneth McLean, of Miles City, Montana. They were purchased in the Autumn of 1898, were brought to the Station and wintered on moderate fare. They were not given much grain during the winter season. They were in a fair condition as to thrift when the experiment began. They were lambs reared on the range. They were possessed of a Merino foundation, and had more or less of Down blood, as indicated in the more or less of dark shading of the face and legs. They were what may be termed a fairly good type of range wethers. The Pastures Grazed.—The following were the pastures grazed and the respective dates of grazing them: WWieltiite tee ay Cre n.d Scccudonsinsassodeaes May 2nd to May 29th eas ean GOATS an clnndaisctenarseockes May 29th to June 26th Batleyeard Oats: s8s.. Sec caseecweue boss June 27th to July 5th cD e ve LOCAL C iar 2 oot aeeas Seas see kees- July 6th to Aug. 13th ape reer eas sstcktcaenrasdeadecsteosiss Aug. 13th to Aug. 17th CASPAR OAIES Vaascscenasesacsacdess Aug. 17th to Aug. 26th Winter rye was first in season. It, of course, had been sown in the fall, and the wethers were turned on it to graze almost as soon as it had become plentiful. The peas and oats and barley and oats were sown early in the spring. All the grains were sown at the rate of about 2% bushels per acre. The rape and Kale were sown broadcast, reason- ably early in the season, and at the rate of 5 pounds of theseed per acre. The peas and oats last mentioned were of second growth. Management of the Wethers.—The wethers were turned in to graze on thesame kinds of food morning and afternoon. They were given the shelter of the sheep shed during the heat of the day. But they were not given darkened apartments in the shed, which would doubtless have been to their ad- vantage in the time of flies. They also lay in the yards of the shed at night. Both lots had free access to water in the sheds and also to salt. The wethers comprised two lots with ten animals in each lot. One of these designated lot 1 were not given any grain during the experiment. The other lot were given one-half pound each of a supplement of oats daily, during the continuance of the experiment. The wethers were weighed at the end of each period. Weights of the Wethers.—Table III gives the aggregate 84 SHEEP HUSBANDRY. weights of the wethers in each lot when the experiment be- gan and ended, the total increase made, and the averages of these. TABLE III.—Weights and Increase. WEIGHTS WHEN EXPERIMENT. LOT Began Closed = May 2nd. Aug. 21st INCREASE Total 805.0 973.0 168.0 al Average 80.5 97-3 16.8 Total | 809.0 1078.0 269.0 2 | | Average 80.9 107.8 26.9 The increase made was not very large by the wethers of either lot, but it was very much better in the case of the wethers to which grain was fed. Those in lot one madea gain of only 16.6 pounds each, or at the rate of but 4.5 pounds per month of 30 days. Those in lot two made a gain of 26.9 pounds, or 7.2 pounds per month. These gains were, however, all that could be reasonably looked for at that season of the year, especially under the conditions. In hot weather and when flies are plentiful, sheep will not make the gains that they do in the fall. Table IV, gives the increase made by the wethers of each lot during each period of the experiment, and the aver- ages of such increase. TABLE IV.—Increase by Periods. GAINS BY PERIODS. First Second | Third Fourth Total LOT May 2—May 29—June 26—luly 24—Aug. 21. Total 24.0 26.0 23.0 95.0 168.0 1 =— Average 2.4. 2.6 Ps 9.5 16.8 Total 71.0 54.0 33.0 111.0 269.0 2 =! Average Cork 5.4 3.3 atobogk 26.9 COMPARISON OF INCREASE. 85 It will be noticed that during the first period while the wethers were pasturing on rye, those in lot two made prac- tically three times the increase made by the wethers in lot one. This is what should be looked for under such con- ditions. During the second period, when the pasture was chiefly peas and oats, the lambs in lot two gained more than twice as much as the lambs in lot one. During the third period, neither lot made the increase that was to beexpected. It may be accounted for in part, by the less advanced con- dition of the rape as compared with the same during the fol- lowing period, in part by the nature of the wethers, and possibly in part by the variations in the weights of animals which are known to occur from day to day. The gains made during the fourth period were excellent in the wethers of both lots. After the close of the experiment proper the wethers in lot one were also given a grain portion of 4% pound each of oats per day and the same grain supplement was continued with the wethers in lot two. The grazing was also con- tinued until Nov. 6th, that is to say, it was made to cover 77 days, or two periods of 28 days each and a third period of 21 days. From Sept. 14th to Oct. 18th the pasture was cabbage, and from Oct. 18th to Nov. 6th it was rape. Table V shows the increase made by the lambs of both lots during the experiment proper, and also during the subsequence grazing. TABLE V.—Gains by Periods During the Entire Experiment. GAINS BY PERIODS. Nl j [ 1st 2d | 3rd 4th | 5th | Ghelok |e Taela Total wOds | May 2—May 29—June 26—July 24—Aug. 21—Sept. 18—Oct. 16—Nov. 6. Total 24.0 26.0 23.0 95.0 6.0 89.0 17.0 280.0 wl Average 2.4 2.6 Adee 9.5 6 8.9 ee 28.0 Total TEGNS4e OS seo nO S2ON GLO) 2050 341.0 2 | Average Toal 5.4 3.3 11.1 2 5.0 2.0 34.1 86 SHEEP HUSBANDRY. It will be noticed, first, that the relative increase was re- versed during the after experiment, that is, during the sub- sequent period of grazing. In the 112 days of the experi- ment proper the wethers in lot two made an aggregate increase of 269 pounds or 7.2 pounds per month of 30 days and the wethers in lot one made an aggregate increase of 168 pounds or but 4.5 pounds per month. In other words the wethers in lot two gained 60 per cent more than the wethers in lot one. In the 77 days of the continuance of the after experiment the wethers in lot one made a gain of 112 pounds or 4.4 pounds per month of 30 days. While the wethers in lot two gained but 72 pounds or 2.8 pounds per month. In other words the wethers in lot one increased 50 per cent more than the wethers in lot two. Second, the in- crease during the fifth period of very hot weather is so slight as to be scarcely worth mentioning, and third, the increase during the last period was also small, owing to the fact probably that the wethezs had reached that point when rapid gains could not be incurred without feeding grain heavily. Cost of Increase.—The cost of increase cannot be ac- curately ascertained owing to the difficulty of properly valuing the pasture consumed, but the result from feeding grain to the lambs in lot two can be ascertained at least approximately. During the experiment proper, the wethers in lot two consumed 560 pounds of oats which at 21 cents per bushel, the market value at the time, amounts to $3.69. As they gained 101 pounds more than the wethers in lot one, the cost of making 101 pounds extra of increase was $3.63, and this cost would probably be still further reduced by some saving effected in the consumption of pasture, be- cause of the grain fed. This, however, could not be certainly ascertained, as under the circumstances there was no means of determining the relative amount of pasture consumed by the wethers of either lot. Since, however, the cost of the extra increase made by the wethers in lot two was less than the market value of the same at the time, and since the wethers in this lot were in a better condition for marketing at the close of the experiment proper than those of lot one. CONCLUSIONS. 87 It is very evident that the small grain supplement fed was a paying investment. CONCLUSIONS. The following are chief among the conclusions that may be shown from the experiment: 1. That in this experiment, during the 112 days of its continuance, the wethers in lot two which were given a grain ration of 4% pound oats each per day, gained 60 per cent more than the lambs in lot one which were given no grain. 2. That, during the experiment proper the extra increase made by the wethers was worth more than the cost of the grain used in making it. 3. That the wethers in lot two were in a better con- dition of flesh at the close of the experiment proper than those of lot one, and consequently if marketed at that time would have sold for.a better price. 4. That since the wethers in lot two gained 60 per cent more than those in lot one during the 112 days of the exper- iment proper, and since the wethers in lot one gained 55 per cent more than those in lot two during the 77 days of the after experiment, the conclusion would seem to be legitimate that the power of a grain supplement such as that used in the experiment to produce increase lessons after it has been fed for several months. 5. That feeding a small grain supplement of oats to wethers that are being grazed is profitable for a period of several months after which it becomes less profitable, if in- deed, profitable to any extent. INVESTIGATION IN MILK PRODUCTION. ey ela eeas CARERS 1. THE FOOD OF MAINTENANCE. In all living bodies there is a constant breaking down of tissues or wear, caused by every muscular action, just as is the case with any piece of machinery. There is also energy expended in the action of the muscles and body heat must be maintained. The nutrients used by an animal in keeping intact the body, that is, in rebuilding the portions worn out and in providing the energy and maintaining body heat when at rest in stall, is termed the Food of Maintenance or Food of Support. The generally accepted feeding standard, Wolff’s, gives 18 pounds of dry matter and of nutrients, .7 of a pound of crude protein, 8 pounds of carbohydrates and .1 of a pound of ether extract or fat, as the amount needed daily for maintenance per thousand pounds live weight. During our earlier feeding experiments it was observed that in some instances cows did fairly good work in the dairy during a whole winter on only a trifle more feed than that prescribed for food of maintenance, indicating that the amount fixed by the standard in general use was in excess ot the actualrequirements. Sanborn of the New Hampshire station reported in 1879 that the steer could be maintained on a smaller allowance of hay than is prescribed in the standard. Caldwell, of the Cornell Experiment Station, New York, reports a trial where four steers gained 1&0 pounds during a period of 60 days, on practically a main- tenance ration. Kuehn, a German investigator, in experi- ments extending over several years showed that the mature bovine could be maintained on .7 of a pound of protein end 6.6 pounds of nitrogen free extract, and that whatever was fed in excess of this amount, caused gain in weight at therate of from 20 to 25 per cent of the amount so in excess. It was evident therefore that at thetime when the dairy division of the University of Minnesota was established, there had been 9) INVESTIGATION IN MILK PRODUCTION. enough data obtained to show that there was still a ques- tion asto thenutrients actually required for food of mainte- nance. It was evident then that in a series of experiments in milk production, which would be likely to extend over two decades, more information ought to be secured as to food required for maintenance under conditions obtaining in the Northwest. It was not possible with the limited and inade- quate facilities accorded the dairy division in securing the composition of food stuffs and feces to carry on the work from a purely scientific standpoint, nor was it considered advisable to do so. The work has therefore been carried on from the more practical phase in the belief that in this form it would receive more attention from milk producers than would be the case if given in more elaborate and technical form. A mere preliminary trial on a maintenance ration was begun on the 31st of October, 1894, when two barren dry cows were fed ona daily ration of 10 pounds of timothy hay and 3 pounds of ground barley for a period of 81 days. Their weight at the beginning of the trial was 1676 pounds, and at the close, 1735 pounds, being a gain of 59 pounds, or .36 of a pound each per day. The average weight of the cows during the experiment was 853 pounds. The dry mat- ter and nutrients of the ration per 1,000 pounds were as follows: TABLE VI,—Giving Food and Nutrients Consumed Daily. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS Lbs, D. M. = Ae Carbohy- Ether Protein drates Extract Abii eRonE AN 18 Bey Ge ecosaocsedeanadoo0be 10 8.768 318 4.509 18 Barley, Meat... ssc s-c222 ; ~ +e Protein Care Fat Ene Actually Consumed............. 11.70 73 5.51 oatal 20 Per 1000 lbs, live weight.... 10.93 68 5.15 10 RECORD OF LOTTIE.—1897-8. TABLE XIII.—Giving Dates and Weights. Date Weight Date Weight Date Weight IDO BK sconcconae 680 INNO Bssscno0 700 WL TO nparase 710 Jan “Seeeo cs 655 IMAG, Tfoseccee 697 Mar. 14....... 710 Jian.” Giss.cccee. 670 Rebel Onececes: 695 Witte Ns cceccs | 710 Jans Wl Oensscc 660 dena ale banenc 695 Mila 2 ilerenels = TLE Wekels as poracccaas 678 eb reluninanyenccs 700 Mar; 24....... 712 Micutlomel (acess te 662 IAI}, PAO ssenb000 700 Mair 28.52.05. 715 Wl, AQ)sscoac0ses 665 ING Deweatieecese 703 IMIZ WES BB sccsoec relic. EWG eb eponace 692 Mebse2Siniecce 710 April 4....... TAG ba FC cesaceace 700 IM[EH RA logcanano4 710 INGopsbll fs creer 710 At oileeetees 702 WIEBE Tfoagconcsc 705 Aprile leece 705 From a careful examination of the different weights it is evident that she was gradually gaining. Her weight in the first column ranged from 655 to 702, while in the second it ranged from 695 to 710, and in the third from 705 to 715. It is exceedingly difficult to determine exactly the gain made. But by assuming that the weights during the five we ks covered by the first column are preliminary and deducting the average weight in the second column from that of the third, there is a difference of 9 pounds or a gain of .27 of a pound daily. The cow was naturally very restless and dis- contented and since she was a stranger in the herd and not accustomed to confinement she probably did not do normal work. The dry matter consumed daily and nutrients actually digested were as follows: THE FOOD OF MAINTENANCE. 95 TABLE XIV.—Giving Nutrients Consumed Daily. DIGESTED D. M. Daily Gain | Protein (Sa Isle Fat 6S Actually Consumed............ 8.53 | sal 3.80 O07 MOG Per 1000 live weight........... 12.08 2 5.38 -10 | | RECORD OF LOTTIE.—1898-99. TABLE XV.—Giving Dates and Weights. Date Weight Date Weight Date Weight INOW mice .c 30. -- 705 ES ee snparaae 750 ENE) = P47 fence 757 Nov. 14 TLO VEROS. WD ocoupescc 750 Micires iOe.cceaes } 762 INOW. Zi ecsccce 730 ian's LG. cc... 750 Wat lS ee.eccss 766 INOW 28.0 .6cs: 725 Pia 22 avcse ee TT IMiait 2 Onaee-nes 760 MCC MO) ee..c52= 132 Aicbiao.Oecsces 752 Mar iiircc ene 765 OTC 3 (745 enenae 742 JEEIDS (Bacacaocoe 755 AS Tale eee 762 LD a eonstebece 750 VEN) os be endoooes 752 ASD Tl Ooescs 765 IDYE@S Fo} Ananosece 745 Rebe2ON. =n. 758 Atprilitiseeceses- 765 During this trial we again find that there was a gradual gain though it was less after the second of January. In the first column the weights ranged from 705 to 750 Ibs. while in the second they ranged from 750 to 758, and in the third from 757 to 765. The average weights in the third column exceed those of the second column by 9 pounds, making an average daily gain of .16 of a pound. The dry matter consumed daily and nutrients actually digested were as follows: TABLE XVI.—Giving Dry Matter Consumed and Nutrients Digested Daily and per 1000 Pounds Live Weight. DIGESTED Dry Daily Bai Bietter 3 # Carbohy- Ether Gam Protein drates Extract Lise. Actually Consumed............. 8.42 -39 5.09 LZ 16 Per 1u00 lbs. live weight..... abate .50 6.72 niles} At the close of the experiment the cow presented clear evidence of having been amply nourished. Her eyes were bright, her movements quick, skin loose and coat new, soft 96 INVESTIGATION IN MILK PRODUCTION. and glossy. The cows employed in the experiment during the winter previous showed similar indications of having been well nourished. Aside from gaining in weight, and on this account presenting a moresmooth appearance, they shed their coat early and it had that bright, glossy appearance which is recognized among stockmen asa sure index of a healthy physical tone. Combining the results obtained in the last three trials, we have the average daily dry matter consumed and nutri- ents digested, and gain made and the average for the three years: TABLE XVII.—Giving Dry Matter and Nutrients Daily per 1000 Pounds Live Weight, and Gain in Weight. | DIGESTED Daily Wear Dry | aa os Gain ped F Carbohy- Ether Weight | Protein drates Extract Belllexasscccssslecss- 1897-8 10.93 68 fs) ats 10 SLY IL ORE BICcccccoosnsseco 1897-8 12.08 elie 5.38 .10 SENT CO Senpceneenecobd 1898-9 11.08 50 6.72 15 16 FAS BITE NRAS cisadongo oanabcogcuadbeotoes 11.38 .63 5.75 12 23 WioltiStandards-c.cccse. css. 18.00 70 8.00 10 The trials on food of maintenance during the three win- ters with barren dry cows show that, with an average of 11.38 pounds of dry matter daily containing of digestible matter, as determined by actual digestion experiments, .63 of a pound of protein, 5.75 pounds of carbohydrates and .12 of a pound of ether extract, the cows were amply nourished and made a daily average gain of .23 of a pound in live weight. While the cows received on an average .63 of a pound of protein daily it does not follow that it is the minimum amount required since in the last experiment the cow received only .5 of a pound with very satisfactory re- sults. The experiments justify the conclusion that with cows at rest in stall in comfortable quarters, a ration of 11.5 of dry matter containing of digestible matter, .06 of a pound of protein, .6 of apound of carbohydrates and .01 of a pound of THE FOOD OF MAINTENANCE. 97 ether extract per hundred weight of cow, will be ample for a maintenance ration. Whether this allowance would be sufficient for cows receiving the treatment accorded them in a well regulated dairy in comfortable quarters, and allowed an outing in the yard for an hour or two during pleasant days in winter, still remains tobedetermined. Pendingsuch determination it is tentatively suggested that for a cow working in the dairy and having ordinarily good care and comfortable quarters the allowance for maintenance be calculated at 1.25 pounds of dry matter, containing .07 of a pound of protein, .7 of a pound of carbohydrates and .01 of a pound of ether extract per hundred pounds live weight. These factors are suggested because they seem warranted by the data obtained, and because it is deemed desirable for convenience in feeding practice, to express the requirements for food of maintenance in the simplest form possible, so it can be understood and used by the average feeder. The deductions from the data indicate: That the factors for food of maintenance in the Wolff feeding standard are in excess of the requirements. That a daily allowance of 11.38 of dry matter contain- ing of nutrients .63 of a pound of protein, 5.75 of carbohy- drates and .12 of a pound of ether extract per 1000 pounds live weight resulted in a daily average gain of about a quarter of a pound. It is tentatively suggested that the food of maintenance for a barren dry cow when at rest in stall be expressed in nutrients .6 of a pound of protein, 6. pounds of carbohy- drates and .1 of a pound of ether extract per 1000 pounds live weight and when at work in a dairy with ordinary good care and comfortable quarters, .7 of a pound of protein, 7. pounds of carbohydrates and .1 of a pound of ether extract be allowed per 1000 pounds live weight or one-tenth as much per cwt. 2. NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS. This report is a continuation of the one made in bulletin 71 of June, 1901. on a further study of the nutrients actually required by dairy cows in milk production. In the bulletin referred to, the subject of protein requirements only, was considered, while in this, nutrient requirements are taken up. In bulletin 71 the subject of feeding standards was briefly reviewed and a table submitted from Henry’s Feeds and Feeding, giving the several standards, which is reproduced for convenience. TABLE XVIII.—American and German Feeding Standards for Dairy Cows, Diges- tible Nutrients per Day per 1000 Pounds Live Weight. — DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS Nutri- RATION Matter) ———————————_ |_ tive Pro- | Carbo- | Ether | Ratio tein |hydrates| Extract IPOS || IE, || EES Lbs. Wolff original (German) feeding ration.. 24.0’ 2S 12.5 4 BA: Woll proposed American ration.. 24.5 2.15 13.27 4s | EG.) Atwater and Phelps proposed standard..| 25.0’| 2.5 |12 to13 .5 to.8] 1:5.6 Wolff-Lehmann modified standard— I. When giving 11 lbs. of milk daily.| 25.0 1.6 10.0 3 1:6.7 Il. When giving 1614lbs. of milk daily.| 27.0 2.0 11.0 4 1:6.0 Ill. When giving 22 lbs. of milk daily.| 29.0 2.5 13.0 13) ONES IA7¢ IV. When giving 2714lbs._ of milk daily.| 32.0 S63 13.0 8 1:4.5 Standard maintenance ration................ 18.0 7h 8.0 cal a Us Ea Lage} ‘Organic matter. In general feeding practice it has become apparent that feeding standards based on the weight of animals without reference to product yielded, were not satisfactory guides and that some modification was desirable. To meet this Dr. Lehmann suggested the modification given in the table, based upon certain stated yields of milk. It appears quite evident that he used the original Wolff fac- tors for daily maintenance, that is, .7 of a pound of diges- tible protein, 8 pounds of carbohydrates, and .1 of a pound NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS 99 of ether extract, per one thousand pounds live weight. Cal- culating the food of maintenance upon this basis, and mak- ing allowance for the yield of milkstated in each sub-division in the Lehmann modification, it is found that he prescribes the nutrients required for the production of one pound cf milk, as appears in the following table. TABLE XIX.—Giving Lehmann Feeding Standard Factors, for the Production of One Pound of Milk. Pr A Carbo- Ether rotein | hydrates | Extract e é ‘ Lbs. bs: Lbs. Wihenroiving Il lbs) of milk Gailiy..-..-0.....0.s+sses. scecssne senesy oss doness O8t 5?) .018 | 27% Ibs. of milk daily...... Foe ee | (094 18 .025 It is not clear why the variations given in the table should occur when the different quantities of milk are yield- ed. While Dr. Lehmann’s modification of the Wolff standard may be an improvement on the original, the following ques- tions naturally suggest themselves: 1. Are the factors approximately correct? 2. Are they applicable to any and all grades or qualities of milk yielded ? 3. Will they answer for heifers in milk ? These are questions that can be determined only by ac- tual demonstration, for we havereached a stage in American agricultural research, when theoretical formule based merely upon calculations made in the laboratory or office carry but little weight. 1. ARE THE LEHMANN FacrTors APPROXIMATELY CORRECT? The feeding experiment conducted at this station during the winter of 1894-5, in which the cows were given a fixed ration fora period of 154 days, during which time a full flow of milk and yield of butter fat was secured without gain or loss in body weight, throws some light on all of the points raised. Since it will be necessary to refer to the performance of the whole herd and that of some individual animals, the average daily nutrients consumed and milk and butter fat yielded by each animal and by the herd for both periods are given. 100 INVESTIGATION IN MILK PRODUCTION. TABLE XX.—Giving the Daily Average of Dry Matter and Nutrients Consumed and Milk and Butter Fat Yielded from Nov. 19, 1894, to Feb. 10, 1895. 84 Days. DIGESTIBLE Av. DAILY YIELD Dry Pe NAME er Matter |! protein| C.H. | Fat || Milk | Cent | Butter Fat 20.53 | 1.70 10.98 45 10.03 6.7 -672 22.63 | 1.87 12.08 .49 15.02 6.3 .949 20.08 1.63 10.72 43 13.44 5.6 -761 20.53 eo 10.98 45 16.78 4.9 .825 23.23 1.98 12.44 sail 25.00 5.6 1.406 26.91 2°25 14 50 58 30.81 4.8 1.490 20.08 1.63 10.72 43 27.26 3.8 1.050 31.49 2.64 16.92 .69 44.39 3.7 1.656 26.22 2.14 14.10 -55 38.01 3.7 1.410 23.29 1.90 12.42 .50 25.55 3.5 .908 28.34 2.39 15.22 .62 32.02 3.4 1.087 28.37 2.38 15.28 61 45.27 2.4 1.094 AVOTALCicsccssasecccsssesee 24.30 2.01 12.03 Eos 26.96 4.1 1.109 TABLE XXI.—Giving the Daily Average of Dry Matter and Nutrients Consumed and Milk and Butter Fat Yielded from Feb. 11 to April 21, 1895. 70 Days. DIGESTIBLE AVERAGE DAILY YIELD Dry NAME OF Cows Per Matter : Carbo- Butter Protein hydrates Fat Milk Cent Fat at 18 X2¥el Kel Fn vonccecoosecoadesecccs 21.19 1.68 11.10 aonke risjea ze 5.59 .736 GOunteSS\-cc.cccsesceresaee 29,22 2.40 15.50 42 41,80 2.53 1.061 ETOUStOMNE ps escecssnscecees 25.24 2.14 13°35 .64 24.88 5.38 1.340 | LO Ne crmaamarcocesocEcenccoce 27.00 2-21 14.10 67 31.46 3.67 1.154 OlINGs. ets ccecssess osssveiees 21.15 1.67 ata baa le) -OL j) 21.20 4.12 8384 REG diye. iratcesccacesscete 20 94 1.69 11.01 51 14.49 6.21 fo Belle sscsstidecsecssciceectas 20.56 1.76 10,89 .50 19.38 4.14 .803 Wy Gila Sos.seeeesteuesss eee 27.57 2.26 14.49 .68 27.93 3.57 -999 OMI Cekressettcaceasscree soe 22.73 1.85 11.94 | .55 25.381 3.49 902 Sweet B. 27.00 neal! 14.21 .67 26.09 5.28 1.379 Topsy.. sel Sil IS 2,59 16.79 -78 40.82 3.69 1.492 TTICKSOY . cesses cesscessee 19.61 1.56 10.33 AT WaIs7 es} 5.34 .840 ASVOLAQEL.-conccccctseseee: 24.51 2.00 | 12.90 .60 25.23 4.07 1.029 It will be seen that the two periods do not cover exactly the same number of days, one being for 84 while the other is for 70 days, but since the daily average of nutrients con- sumed and yield of milk and butter fat were so much alike, the average of the two will be so nearly the actual average that such use is considered allowable. NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS. 101 TABLE XXII.—Giving Daily Average for 154 Days. : | DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS. | ae == == Milk Weight ewes Protein Carbo- Fat | Yielded hydrates Peniodils Sf day Si.nccse.ccccsess 954 2.01 12.93 wo 26.96 Remodeler (0) WayS-te...5c0---5- 958 2.00 12.90 .60 29.23 | = =. NGC alll peace seceeascescces> 1912 4.01 24.93 1.13 52.19 Dei ite 2h aise h=(eh-caoscecasncaccsdsen 956 2.00 12.46 56 26.09 Daily for Maintenauce* Rows 6.69 -.095 Daily available for milk...... 1.33 5.77 46 26.09 Nutrients to 1 Ib. milk........ 051 ~221 .018 * At the rate of protein .07; carbohydrates .7 and ether extract .01 per cwt. From this it is seen that the daily average of nutrients available to a pound of milk did not differ materially from the Lehmann standard except that the herd returned a pound of milk for each .05 of available protein, being about 60 per cent of the amount prescribed by the standard. The average per cent fat in the milk during the winter was 4.07, which is a trifle above the average quality in this country. The discrepancy in the amount of available carbohydrates consumed, per pound of milk yielded is greater than is indi- cated by the above comparison; because the standard pre- scribes 8 pounds per thousand pounds live weight for food of maintenance while only 7 pounds are allowed in this table. If this factor is applied to the Lehmann standard it makes an allowance of .27 of a pound of carbohydrates to a pound of milk. The herd came out of the winter in excellent condition and gave every evidence of having been amply nour- ished, and returned a maximum yield of both milk and butter fat. The following winter, 1895-6 the herd was composed of, practically the same animals, received on an average a daily allowance of 2.59 pounds of digestible pro- tein, and its performance compared with the winter’s work in review, was as follows: 102 INVESTIGATION IN MILK PRODUCTION. TABLE XXIII.—Giving Daily Average of Nutrients Consumed and Milk and Butter Fat Produced during the Winters 1894-95 and 1895-6. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS. Y Weight | Milk Per Cent | Butter Tear Teigh < 4 . Fat Fat z Protein Carbo- Fat hydrates 1894-5 956 200 12.46 .56 26.09 4.10 1.069 1835-6 980 2.59 12.24 .68 PI offal 3.93 1.011 The data thus far submitted give strong evidence that the amount of protein prescribed in the feeding standards is greatly in excess of the amount actually needed. The cows yielded more milk and butter fat during the winter they re- ceived 2 pounds of protein daily than they did the winter following with a daily allowance of 2.59 pounds. Since the herd returned its maximum yield and neither gained nor lost in live weight during the winter of 1894-5, it may be assumed, for the time being, that the Lehmann modifi- cation prescribes more nutrients than are needed. 2. ARE THE LEHMANN FacTors APPLICABLE TO ANY AND ALL GRADES OR QUALITIES OF MILK YIELDED? Inquiring into the question as to the standard being ap- plicable to any grade or quality of milk, a table is compiled from the records of mature cows in the herd, whose productive powers had been developed to their feeding capacity by careful feeding and handling for several years, giving the per cent of butter fat in their milk and nutrients required per pound of milk yielded. TABLE XXIV.—Giving Available Nutrients Consumed per Pound of Milk Yielded by Mature Cows. eae | Protea edearen| neato |e mots! SLO TEb SA EIS aaaanatocboddseddonduEdeKboNe 2.5 | -036 16 O12 -208 1 0) Bora codon OAGn CHU RTI DCE CHOC DSOCEEGECE: 3.7 .04.0 -20 O14 254 PODS iesecsteicccssscoukewacecesel = aes 3.7 -042 -20 O14 .206 CO) bis concneceaencceacatnodecooecsecnrand 4.0 044 22 016 -280 Sweet Bitiatiss-sescoeseeeuese 5.0 052 24 .018 -.310 FV OUISIE Onl nenssnescsuscressneasecseese 5.5 .057 -26 | -019 -336 By this table it is clearly shown that the amount of nutrients to a pound of milk increases with the increase in the quality of the milk, but not in the same proportion; for NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS. 103 Countess gave milk containing 2.5 per cent of butter fat and used .208 of available nutrients while Sweet Briar gave milk containing twice as much butter fat but did not require twice as much protein or other nutrients. The same is the case with the other cows. The table also shows that in formulating a ration the quality of milk yielded should be considered, as well as the quantity. Incidentally the table, which is the daily average of 154. consecutive days’ work, clearly indicates that other things being equal, the richer the milk the more economical is the production of butter fat. It has been shown that the richer the milk in butter fat the more nutriment is required. In- deed it could not be otherwise, for the per cent of solids in the milk increases with the increase in butter fat, and the rate of increase in energy in rich milk is even greater than the increase in solids, because the richer the milk in butter fat, the greater the per cent of fat to solids not fat. To show the rate of increase in nutrients required for the production of a pound of milk of different quality, the records of Houston and Countess are employed: TABLE XXV.—Showing Difference in Nutrient Requirements for Milk Testing High and Low in Butter Fat. Per Cent Fat | ; Carbo- | Ether in Milk Protein | hydrates | Extract NOUS E OMe, ec eeeee cece on neesccseeceseseece ses | Bo nee OSia .26 .019 OUNCCSS caasesesesecesesstveds: sl ccctencseess | DS | 036 Te Wonk ee | | | Difference for 30 tenths........... 00. 3.0 | 02% .10 | .007 | | | | | Witerenece fOF L COME ...2...scesee:cnnnres | -0007 .0033 | .00023 By this it is seen that in the production of the rich milk the additional nutrient requirements were at the rate of .0007 of protein, .0033 of carbohydrates and .00023 of ether extract for each .1 per cent increase in per cent of butter fat. Taking the nutrients required for a pound of milk test- ing 2.5 per cent butter fat as a basis, and the nutrients re- quired in addition for each one tenth per cent increase, we have the following table giving approximately the nutrients required for the production of a pound of milk of a given per cent butter fat. 104 INVESTIGATION IN MILK PRODUCTION. TABLE XXVI.—Giving Net Nutrients Used by Mature Cows for the Production of One Pound of Milk Testing a Given Per Cent Butter Fat. Carbohy- Ether Protem drates Extract ACOSO SE ICE SRE NBOOSEOOOCCEE PLE) .0362 164 .0124 SOA eee We ee og, |, 0860) || AG Tea mItMAONeG POU ATA Mol cot Peat Me nnd sth ences 7 .0376 iz ‘0128 ieee Sa th 20k Te Wee ee es 2.8 0383 174 0131 Be cee nee seen oat ae ae oer cene atiiassrcleces's > 2.9 -0390 ol eT .0133 SE ON cottage vise a ewan Jaane eeenene So) 0397 -181L .0136 8 A Reda RDS IS TORO ODO CMUCHIADSODOGHAOO aaLSODOONOCeCG Sol 0404 184 .0138 PERE SO nEE ALEC IO DAS aa 0 ODDO DITOR BOE CCOOOEEIOAIOG 3.Z O4LL 187 .0140 Re ee ee ee eee rayne cts cite niniblen oa sieicine 3:3 0418 -190 .0142 Fc cana a cO Rae e pane RUC ERROR DeRosa aITOUTS hie J 0425 194 0145 eee Neer fies cans se awenne cc ctaceeinciee se 3.5 0432 197 0147 Petia ney aie Pe ee ee deat A So artes OO 04.39 .200 (0149 Nn oe ee PER OPe ecteonneaceer ea 0446 .204 .0152 See RE eR en cr 0 Gon DOR OROEE ECCI ICOSUIDEOIOCOOE 3.8 .0453 .207 -0154 Se cana BOO LOBUCOLOACBIOS DEIN OQIOHOOCO IS FOOGOND seh .0460 .210 .0156 Baan ee ce ea D ears eo ine ria daleeee cones 4.0 0467 .214 0159 Fee ean ean ee pmtice cee tadeatis wees esoue’ 4.1 0474 SPT? O161L 5s06oa? HOSoAnOABoDoosOdeno ID truouaddooduounoooNad 4.2 O4851 -220 .0163 HSDO DOO SEAR IGCPOCONAEDSROUDOCOBDIGO, OOOCSCCCOOC, 4.3 0488 223 .0165 Re. Ree Ate eee wae csionctise toes 4.4 0495 PAT .0168 BSAA Rocr Se SunEe HES RRRAO DEE oap cob besaanacocr 4.5 -0502 -230 0170 BEN Fes I Me ene teens a scans dee se ence 4.6 -0O509 oS -0172 An DEED Uno cere © Soadoacoaadadagacnoormopmnoood 4.7 .0516 mots -O175 MEE AIA es: eee na em decease enero Seen amass 4.8 .0523 .240 0177 SAR OD ER CBO AC ROO TOO AEEBC optic MOBCOS TOC COOGS 4.9 .0530 .243 .0179 BASE CECOD ECC ONOUCC BO COODE BERS UNCER EARP E COLIC 5.0 0537 247 -0182 Pe ee Sen Meee eee ened ae carers scene 0544 -250 -O185 BERG CoD Miter DOCOEE AEDS eOCH EOC Go DC One ALLA? O551 Oe -0187 a3) .0558 -256 - x Carbo- Ether Protein hydrates Extract Brelaatee tesa cies aciais Casaysteiclaes eisiele stele atelen 2.5 -0380 -188 .0127 ae cone ‘cbitic) Senne EEE ee ae 2.6 .0393 194 0131 =a 7 0405 200 .0135 2.8 -0418 .205 0140 9 0430 211 -0144 0 0443 AT -0148 Bal 0455 sae -0153 ey 0468 -228 .0157 3 -O480 .234 O16L 4 | 20493 .239 .0166 5 0505 245 -O170 6 .0518 -251 .0174 Biel -0530 .256 0179 3.8 0543 -262 0183 Sete) .0555 .268 .0O187 4,0 0568 273 .0192 4.1 0580 27S) .0196 4.2 0593 .285 0200 4.3 0605 .290 .0205 4.4. .0618 -296 .0209 4.5 .0630 402 .0213 4.6 0643 307 .0218 4.7 .0655 epls} .0222 4.8 .0668 “oo 0226 4.9 0680 -324 0230 5.0 .0693 .330 .0235 Sal - Wolff’s finding in this respect was wonderfully in accord with the average needs of cows. The apparent defect in the Wolff Standard is in the amount of protein prescribed, and not being applicable to the needs of the individual cow. TABLE XLIX.—Giving Net Nutrients to a Pound of Milk, and the Lehmann Factors. SARA 5 = = Lehmann J NE i Cc 5o- 8 ee o = NET NUTRIENTS 1895-6 1894-5 1901-2 RaActors POLED Ailiviewessenseeseeeceecenscssecs 2.63 2.09 1.90 PEO LE CO me lb aM Kareouesesccseees LOM55D: .0510 0375 .O818 Carbohydrates to 1 1b. Milk.... -2082 2211 SU EXSS) 2400 Ether Extract to 1 lb. Milk...... .0224. AODUT/'Z¢ .0O156 -0180 Total NetyNutrients........-cessscere 3061 -2898 -2500 -3398 Comparing the protein and other nutrients consumed to a pound of milk yielded with that prescribed in the Lehmann standard, it is found that each winter the cows used less of each nutrient than the standard provides; and that in ap- plying the two standards, that formulated by Wolff comes nearer the average requirements. The Lehmann standard seems specially faulty in the assumption that it requires .081 of net protein to a pound of milk, and in not recogniz- ing that nutrient requirements vary with the quality of the milk yielded. To make further comparisons in regard to the nutrients required in milk production a table is submitted giving the net nutrients used to a pound of butter fat yielded, the daily average yield of milk and butter fat and the daily average PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS. 125 gain or loss in body weight during the three periods under review. TABLE L.—Giving Net Nutrients to a Pound of Butter Fat, and Daily Yield of Products. 1895-6 1894-5 1901-2 Protein used daily: (in IbS:)5..2:. 0.06... -2e.. 2.63 2.09 | 1.90 Proteinstowlilbs Bitter at.....--..--.+<<2- 1.920 1.24.4. 885 Carbohydrates to 1 lb. Butter Fat..... 5.295 5.395 4.652 Ether Extract to 1 Ib. Butter Fat....... 570 434 370 MOLAR ae eae eee cocuak ess wesenSavecesicesce 7.785 7.073 5.907 BVA OL O fe NAGS ics cccs coccs ccovesesctcetavsccscuese 25.01 26.09 28.40 VACIOMOLME MiELOhem ate ccttccccccccescncdesseeses te One! 1.069 1.202 Daily Gain or Lossin Body Weight.... +.20 Sl —.13 Since no standards have taken butter fat and the quality of milk yielded into account, comparisons can only be made with results obtained during the three winter’s work under review. When the cows had a daily allowance of 2.63 pounds of protein they returned a pound of butter fat to 1.92 of net protein; when they received daily 2.09 lbs. they returned a pound of butter fat to 1.244 of protein and when they received 1.90 they returned a pound of butter fat to .885 of protein and that it required 7.785 of net nutrients to a pound of butter fat when receiving 2.63 pounds of pro- tein, 7.073 when receiving 2.09 and 5.907 when receiving 1.9 of protein; that is, the greater the protein supply, the more nutrients were used to a pound of butter fat yielded. From the last sub-division of the table; it is seen that the winter the cows received 2.63 of protein they yielded daily 25.71 pounds of milk; when receiving 2.09 pounds of protein they gave 26.09 pounds and when receiving 1.9 of protein they gave 28.40 pounds. But since the milks differed in quality the yield is not comparable, but the daily yield in butter fat was 1.011, 1.069 and 1.202 respectively; that is, the yield of butter fat, as well as milk, was inversely to the protein supply. In examining the record as to the gain or loss in weight of cows it is shown that the winter they re- 126 INVESTIGATION 1N MILK PRODUCTION. ceived 2.63 pounds of protein they madea daily average gain of .2 of a pound, when receiving 2.09 of protein they gained .12 of a pound and when receiving 1.90 they lost .13 of a pound daily. Whether the decrease in gain the second year and the loss in weight the third year was due to the de- crease in the protein supply or for some other cause does not appear. Butitis possible, it might be said quite probable, that it was due to the difference in the ratio of grain to roughage. During the winter 1901-2 two-thirds of the nu- trients in the rations were provided by the roughage, while during the winter 1894 5, just half the nutrients were in the roughage, and during the winter 1895-6 less than half. The fact that the loss in weight during the winter of 1901-2 oc- curred with all groups indicates that the cows were required to take so much of the daily ration in roughage that the nutrient content did not quite meet the requirements of the cows for the work they were doing and maintain their weight, though they ate to their full limit. Reviewing the results obtained, it appears— That the rations having a nutritive ratio of 1:7.7 and 1:9.7, respectively, were as effective in the production of milk, butter fat and milk solids as was the one having a nu- ELItiVe ratio ol el 6.3. That the protein required in milk production depends upon the quantity and quality of milk yielded. That in the production of butter fat, actually more but relatively less protein and other nutrients were required to a pound of butter fat with cows giving milk containinga high per cent of fat than with those giving milk containing a low per cent of fat. That in the production of milk solids less nutrients were required to a pound with cows giving milk having a low per cent of butter fat than with cows giving milk having a high per cent of fat. It is not held that the decrease in the average daily yield and increased nutriment required to a given product was caused by the increase in protein supply, or that the in- crease in daily yield and decrease in nutriment required to a given product was caused by the decrease in protein supply, PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS. 127 but that a maximum yield is secured at a minimum cost of food by a proper adjustment of the amount of nutriment in the ration to the animal’s needs for maintenance and for product yielded, and the bulk of the ration to its feeding capacity. Anexcess of nutriment in a ration does not seem to increase materially the flow of milk or yield of butter fat, but results in an increase in body weight and a relative de- crease in dairy products; while a diminished nutriment sup- ply resulted in a decreased gain in live weight and a relative increasein dairy products. The record for1901-2 also shows that when aration is short of nutriment because of excess bulk the cows maintained their flow at the expense of live weight, and that it was not because of the shortage of any particular component in the ration—for if such had been the case there would have been a decrease in the yield of milk because of lack of material for its production. 4. INFLUENCE OF STAGE OF LACTATION ON NUTRIMENT REQUIREMENTS. In our feeding practice the generalrule is to give the cows all they will eat up clean, and if a cow shows a desire for more feed it must not be granted until it has been manifested for a week. This is done because a cow will, for a few days, take more than her system can digest and assimilate, so under this rule with its restrictions cows seldom get more than they really need. And it is quite likely that by its strict enforcement it occasionally happens that a cow will shrink in milk because of a shortage of nourishment, but this is not so serious a matter as to cause a cow to go off her feed because of an excess of nutriment. It is not claimed that the cows are fed just right. To be frank we do not know yet the best way to feed each cow, but we are trying to learn and hope in time to succeed. To illustrate the re- sults that are secured from week to week under the methods employed, tables are submitted giving the daily averages of a number of weeks’ feeding, covering different stages of the period of lactation. The following table gives the weekly weight, the nutri- ents consumed daily, yield of milk, butter fat, and total solids and also the nutrients required to one pound of butter fat and one of total milk solids after deducting for mainten- ance .78 of a pound per one hundred pounds live weight. INFLUENCE OF STAGE OF LACTATION. 129 TRUST, CALVED NOVEMBER 12, 1901. TABLE LI.—Giving Weights, Nutrients Consumed and Products Yielded from Ist-llth Week of Lactation. NUTRIENTS DAILY PRODUCT YIELDED Aue WEEK WEIGHT fee ere) eee mie | Soe eee rees ist 925 1.408 | 8 61 42 30.98 | 1.452 | 4.455 | 2.22 12 2nd 875 1.899 | 9.69 sos 39.97 | 1.817 | 5.484 | 2.90 .96 3rd 825 1.814 8.84 47 35.41 | 1.750 | 4.866 | 2.68 .96 4th 802 1.814 | 8.84 47 30.91 | 1.708 | 4.411 |] 2.85 | 1.10 5th 797 1.846 | 9.20 47 ‘32.00 | 1.558 | 4.342)) 3.40 | 1.22 6th 795 1.878 | 9.55 47 32.87 | 1.573 | 4.444] 3.62 128 7th 785 1.977 | 10 62 52 33.50 | 1.544 | 4.208 | 4.57 158 Sth 785 OT 7 [LOG 2 52 32.72 | 1.531 | 4.415 | 4:57 1.58 9th 795 2.015 | 11.05 53 33.77 |1.487 | 4,272 | 4.97 eis 10th 785 2 Oo AlcOS OS 32.76 | 1.610 | 4.439 | 4.64 1.68 11th 785 ZALVA | 12121 Ox 32.16 | 1.377 | 4 075 | 6.30 2.12 Average... 814 LSet | LOLOL: .50 33.37 | 1.591 | 4.494: | 3°79 1.34 At the beginning of her lactation the cow weighed 925 pounds and during the week sheshrank 50 pounds in weight. She consumed daily of protein 1.408 pounds, of carbohy- drates 8.61 pounds, and ether extract .42 of a pound. She gave 30.98 pounds of milk, 1.452 of butter fat and 4.455 pounds of milk solids and returned a pound of butter fat to 2.22 pounds of net nutrients and a pound of milk solids to .72 of a pound, that is, she returned more product than there was of available nutrients, and it therefore follows that she applied some of the substances she had stored in her body either for maintenance or for product. By further examin- ing the table it is seen that as her weight decreased the nutri- ents required to a pound of product increased, and that as her weight decreased, her daily consumption of nutrients in- creased until by the eleventh week,when she had reached her normal working weight, 785 pounds, she took 2.114 of pro- tein, 12.11 of carbohydrates, and .57 of ether extract, and gave 32.16 pounds of milk, 1.374 of butter fat and 4.075 of milk solids. By the eleventh week she had practically estab- 130 INVESTIGATION IN MILK PRODUCTION. lished an equilibrium between the in-go of nutrients and out- go of dairy product. She was in good flesh when she calved, and having stored in her body a large excess of body fat and other substances, she was enabled for ten consecutive weeks to yield more dairy products than the food supply would, under normal conditions, produce. The sudden shrinkage the fourth week in milk flow cannot be accounted for, but an examination of the record of the herd would probably show. Her average daily loss in weight during the first 42 days was 3.33 pounds. The extra ten pounds in weight the 9th week was probably caused by drinking more than the ordinary amount of water the day previous. The following gives a similar record of Pride, covering the first 11 weeks of her lactation. PRIDE, CALVED NOV. 29th. TABLE LII.—Giving Weight, Nutrients Consumed and Products Yielded from lst-llth Week of Lactation. | Nutrients to NUTRIENTS !)AILY PRopUuCT YIELDED WEEK WEIGHT | fein [CTL | Fat | Min |" Eat" | Souids| Pat | Solids ist 847 1.309 9.42 AT 2957 | 1.483 | 4.288 | 3.09 AE OM 2nd 825 1.322 9.55 A7 «| 31.47 | 1.497 | 4.308 | 3.28 1.14 3rd 822 (1.468 | 10.27 OL 30.14 | 1.458 | 4.198 | 4.00 1.39 4th 805 1.486 | 10.40 .5O | 32.06 | 1.461 | 4.213] 4,18 1.45 5th 782 1.486 | 10.40 50 31.30 | 1.423 |4.116| 4.42 1.49 6th 770 1.512 |10.69 |] .51 | 32.01 | 1.357 | 4.094) 4.94 | 1.64 7th 762 1.512 | 10.69 OL 30.78 | 1.407 | 4.124) 4.81 1.64 8th 765 1.512 | 10.69 OL 30.24 | 1.323 | 4.019] 5.10 1.68 9tb 767 1.512 | 10.69 OL 29.10 | 1.228 | 3.925] 5.48 aeral 10th TS7 i512) | 1069) “St | 2876 i270) 3°89) | or36 5 teas 11th 74:7 1.512 | 10.69 OL 28 28 | 1.241 | 3.684 | 5.54 | 1.86 Average... 786 1.467 | 10.38 -50 30.35 | 1.368 | 4.071 | 4.104) 1.387 Pride weighed 847 pounds at the beginning of her lac- tation, received daily the first week 1.309 of protein, 9.42 pounds of carbohydrates and .47 of a pound of ether extract and gave 29.74 pounds of milk, 1.483 of butter fat and 4.288 milk solids, and returned a pound of butter fat to 3.09 INFLUENCE OF STAGE OF LACTATION. 131 pounds of net nutrients and a pound of milk solids to 1.07 pounds of nutrients. Her decrease in weight was more gradual and continued during the 11 weeks when she had lost 100 pounds. She did not sacrifice so much in weight in any one week as did Trust, nor did she yield products so much in excess of nutrients consumed. This was due to her temperament—not being so pronounced a dairy type. She is not as great a feeder as Trust and after the 5th week had reached her normal ration. As her weight decreased the nutrients required to a pound of product increased, but she had not by the close of the 11th week reached an equilibrium between the in-go of nutrients and out-go of product, for under normal conditions it requires over 6 pounds of nutri- ents to a pound of butter fat and about 2.45 to a pound of milk solids. During the 77 days covered by the record she lost on an average 1.4 pounds per day and had not reached her normal working weight. EUROMA, CALVED oct. 16. TABLE LIII.—Giving Nutrients Consumed and Products Yielded from 5th-18th Week of Lactation. NUTRIENTS DaILy PRODUCT YIELDED ee Week Weight | meee Sth 795 |1.760 9.57| .49 | 23.87) 1.348 | 3.650] 4.18 | 1.54 6th | 807 1,847 | 10.53 52 24.36 | 1.390 | 3.734 | 4.75 176 7th 812 1.847 | 10.53 52 23:73 | 1.336 | 3.635 | 4.91 1.80 Sth 787 1.847 | 10.53 52 22.94 | 1.304 | 3.02, |) S202 1.89 9th | 792 VAT 92 2295 49 22.06 | 1.311 3.457 | 4.62 lez) 10th 800 1.82% | 10.30 A9 || 213 | 1-283 | 3:409)| 4:9:7 | I87 11th 787 1.824 | 10.30 A9 21.38 | 1.4188 | 3.152! | 5.45 2.05 12th 772 1.850 | 10.59 2BO! We SS AedlOwe | 22999) G6sZ8 2.3 13th 112 1.850 | 10.59 50 PACTS | 26 7) Seon Ora Drtwl: 14th FTTH 1.850 | 10.59 50 21.94 | 1.150 | 3.221 | 5.98 2.10 15th | 787 1.850 | 10.59 -50 DMO AG Aad O Sal Ser stels | eo iO) Delt: 19th | eS 1.850 | 10.59 -50 20.93 | 1.198 | 3.185] 5.69 2.10 17th | LU 1.850 | 10.59 50 20.56) 1L16w, | S21'O9)|\o28 7 2.2 18th | 782 1.850 | 10.59 50 21.24.) 1.196 | 3.224.) 5.72 212 | « Ave. | 789 1.835 | 10.42 50 22 05 1 235 | 3.334 | 5.34 | 1.98 132 INVESTIGATION IN MILK PRODUCTION. Euroma camein four weeks before the feeding experiment began, so we have here a record covering a period from the 5th to the 19th week of lactation, leaving off the greater portion of the natural “milking down” period, so there are no such marked changes in weight as was shown in the ta- bles preceding it. As the period of lactation advanced the nutrients required to a pound of product increased and dur- ing the 14 weeks she used on an average 5.34 pounds of nu- trients to a pound of butter fat, while Pride required 4.104 and Trust 3.79. She returned apound of milk solids to 1.98 pounds of nutrients, while Pride required 1.39 and Trust 1.34. This difference seems to be due to the difference in the rate of decrease of body weight and with Euroma, also, to the farther advance in lactation. DORRIT, CALVED SEPT. 16, 1901. TABLE LIV.—Giving Nutrients Consumed and Products Yielded from 9th-23rd Week of Lactation. NUTRIENTS DAILY PRODUCTS YIELDED DS ee Week | Wt. Protein gC. Et. Fat Milk eae aot Bee aol 9th | 897 2.111 12.03 61 25 60 1.489 | 3.953] 5.23 1.96 10th | 902 P)oalhal 12.03 61 24.81 1.477 | 3.821] 5.23 2.02 11th | 902 Pyeatatal 12.03 61 | 24.81 1.477 | 3.821) 523 2.02 12th | (8S 2.012 OO 56 | 21.84 1.311 | 3.407 | 4°99 1.92 13th | 892 2aOdez WOE) 7/ 256023200 1.337 | 3.501 | 4.92 Iletsi7/ 14th | 900 2.044 dE ees} 56 22.66 1.344 | 3.474] 5.14 LAKE) altayeol |} Spey 2.076 11.64 [OG 22.90 L258) | 3.392) 5.70 Pysil 3b 16th | 905 2.076 11.64 56 22 31 1 280 | 3.307] 5.64 2.18 17th | 895 2.076 11.64 56 21.96 LALS OS elso 6s 2.28 18th | 895 2.114 12.11 OF 22.61 1.233 | 3.233) 6.34 2.41 19th | 892 Marae || alestst S76 22.40 BU || SilGss |) Syeat 2.47 20th | 897 2.114 ateja lol LaV?/ 22.37 176) |S e302) | 6263 2.36 21st 910 2.114 AQ. ONS 21.33 | ALS fai S tS Sumo nats 2.45 22nd | 910 2.114 1 a3 fOyTh Pyal say A Se oel oo 5.70 2.45 23rd | 910 2.114 12.11 cai 21.70 1.168 | 3.181 59 2.41 Ave. 901 2.085 lal S77 457 22.99 W265) "3:37 | 5:85 2.19 \ Dorrit calved September 16th so she wasin her 9th week of lactation on the 11th of November when the feeding ex- periment began, and therecord covers her work from the be- INFLUENCE OF STAGE OF LACTATION. 133 ginning of the 9th week to the close of the 23rd week. By taking the average weight of the first four weeks of the rec- ord and the last four, we find that she weighed 10 pounds more two weeks before the record closed than she did two weeks after it began, being a daily average gain in weight of .10 of a pound; that she required only 5.23 pounds of nutri- ients to a pound of butter fat the 9th week, and the 18th, when an equilibrium had been obtained between the food consumed and products yielded, she required 6.34 pounds and for milk solids 2.41 pounds. From the 18th to the end of the 23rd she required on the average more than the nor- mal amount, because some was diverted to gain in weight, though the excess was very slight. It will be observed that there was a decrease in the nutrients in the rations fed dur- ing 6 weeks of the experiment, this is the case with all the cows in the herd and was an unfortunate occurrence for the character of the work in hand. It was caused by introduc- ing beet pulp in the ration and resulted in a depression in both yield of milk, per cent fat content, and per cent of total milk solids. TABLE LV.—Giving Record of Klondike from the 29th-42nd Week of Lactation. NUTRIENTS DaILy PRopucT YIELDED Ree ee Week Weight aoe tein | C-H. | Fat | aeitk | "Ba¢| Sotids| Fat |Solids 29th 952 1.330 | 11.56 55 22°37 | 1138 (32080) 52251) JLo 30th 975 1.429] 12.62] .60 22.88 | 1.144 | 3.123 | 6.16 2.26 31st 972 1.429 | 12.62 60 | 22.08] 1.100 | 3.009| 6.43 | 2.35 32nd 967 . | 1.330) 11.56 J5%9) 23.58'| 1.173 | 3-183) 5:03 1.85 33rd 952 \ 1.362 | 11.92 -59 22.41 | 1.177 | 3.142) 5.45 2.04 34th 942 1.426 | 12.27 55 QA S) | ALA |S 8G), Gag 2.16 35th 940 1.426 | 12.27 -55 23.00 | 1.084 | 2.972 | 6.38 2.33 36th 945 1.426 | 12.27 “05 21.33 | 1.060 | 2.860 | 6.49 2.40 37th 940 1.432 | 12.70 56 22.71 | 1.086 | 3.070) 6.78 2.40 38th 937 1.432 | 12.70 56 23.24] 1.161 | 3.188 | 6.34 2.32 39th 947 1.432 | 12.70 56 | 22.88 | 1.176 | 3.128] 6.21 2.33 40th 947 1.420 | 12.56 56 22.23 | 1.094 | 3.039 | 6.53 2235 41st 950 1.420 | 12.56 56 23.14 | 1.144 | 3.112] 6.23 2.29 42nd 94.2 1.432 | 12.70 56 | 23.48 | 1.153 | 3.221) 6.37 | 2.28 Ave 951 1.409 | 12.36 06 22.49 | 1.129 | 3.094} 6.12 2.23 I3t INVESTIGATION 1N MILK PRODUCTION. The record of Klondike affords most excellent data for the study of nutrient requirements near the close of a year’s lactation. The food given was quite constant as to quanti- ty, showing that the bulk of theration fairly met her feeding capacity, and that there was no shrinkage in the flow of milk or yield of butter fat, shows that there was no serious lack in nutriment, though there was a slight shortage to the 37th week, as is shown by the weekly weighings. Her aver- age weight the first four weeks was 966, and the last four, 94.6, being a loss of 20 pounds in 70 days. The nutrient re- quirements to a pound of butter fat and milk solids were as uniform as could be expected, in view of the constant varia- tions that occur in the percent fat in milk. During the 29th, 32nd and 33rd week there was adecrease in the nutrients to a pound of butter fat and milk solids, but this was due toa reduction in the feed. The food was increased during the 30th and 31st week and decreased the 32nd. With the in- crease of feed she decreased in product and the 32nd week she gained in milk and butter fat on the diminished ration, but this was the residual effect of the over-supply of nutri- ment the week previous. A similar result is observed with Duchess the 70th and 71st week of lactation. There was a decrease in butter fat the 33rd, when the feeding of beet pulp began, to the close of the 36th week. This decrease was checked by adding 6 pounds of pulp to the ration; but when it became necessary to reduce the ration the 40th week, a diminuation in butter fat again occurred, but with a gain in weight. A careful study of the food supply, product yielded, and nutrients re- quired to a given product, shows that the food provided was very close to her actual requirements. Special attention is invited to the daily protein supply, being on an average 1.409 pounds and leaving only .743 of a pound of protein available for product and she returned a pound of milk to .O3 of protein, while the Wolf Lehmann standard prescribes .08. The average test of the milk during the time covered by the record was 5 per cent. Table X XVI in the 2nd Article gives the nutrients used to a pound of 5 per cent milk .053 protein, .247 corbohydrates and .018 of ether extract. INFLUENCE OF STAGE OF LACTATION. 135 Klondike returned a pound of milk to .03 protein. . - bohydrates and .020 of ether extract. Shepecened 302 ihe: net nutrients to a pound of milk and lost .29 of a pound daily in body weight, while the table referred to prescribes .318 of a pound of net nutrients to a pound of milk. For the present itis not recommended that cows should be fed on a ration having so little protein, that is, with a nutritive ratio of 1:10, for it might ultimately cause a depression in milk giving functions and deterioration in dairy tempera- ment in the off spring. However, as yet no ill effects have been manifested from feeding the wide rations. The most surprising feature isa shrinkage in weight with wide rations as shown in Table L. DUCHESS. TABLE LVI.—Giving Nutrients Consumed and Products Yielded by Duchess from her 58th-71st Week of Lactation. Bh AGS NUTRIENTS DaILy PropucrT YIELDED | a raieiids | tein | C-H.| Fat | min | "Eat" | Solids| rat’ |Solids 58th §22 1.254 9.62 | A5 13.83 | .856 | Gt | bis 2.27 59th 832 1.509 | 10.63] .53 VSs36 |) .Saek | 2.160) 7.09 2.86 60th 830 1,254 9.62 | 45 SED S) | Rea ela (Se45 2.26 61st 835 1.254 9.62| .45 OU ost = erst2i76 | Pena lair | 5.82 2.20 62nd 8£5 ‘1.267 9.76 | 45 S253) |) eSael | 2.146 | 5.61 2.28 63rd 850 | 1.286 9.98 | 45 12.41 798 | AROS) 63h |) 2:5 64th 835 1.231 9.39 | 42 VOGT | 84> | 19665 5378 2.30 65th £20 } 1-231 9239 | 42 13.48 TAL 1.944 | 6.26 2.39 66th 807 1257)| 9.68 43 13.52 741 |1.974 | 6.74 2.593 67th 812 1.257 9 68 A3 13.63 | .684 | 1.919] 7.36 2.62 68th 822 1°25 7 9.68 43 |14.18| .788 | 2147} 6.29 2.31 69th 825 POI7f 9.68 43 UST || Seu) | 2.018) 6.41 2.45 7Oth 822 aL Jap }| aU Ko39) Pole el4aoS | eion eeCGON eecte: 3.06 MESSE 825 1.257 | 9.68 43 U5 el7 |) 8540 2/278 a7 PAeALT( | | Ave. 27 1.292 a 76) 45 13.63] .800 | 2 073] 6.35 2.45 The heifer Duchess aborted and was in her 58th week of lactation when the feeding experiment began. Her average weight during the first three weeks was 828 pounds, and the last three, 824 pounds, being a decrease of only 4 pounds, taking the three first and three last weighings as a basis. There was, however, quite a change in her weight, gradually increasing to the 63rd week and then decreasing to the 66th week and this was probably due to the reduction in her feed, 136 INVESTIGATION IN MILK PRODUCTION. for when it was increased she regained her weight. The de- crease in total nutrients at this stage of the experiment was due to the reduction in silage and at attempt to replace it it with beet pulp. The change in the amount of nutriment was due to the addition of 4 pounds of pulp and resulted in an increase in the flow of milk, but there was an abnormal depressionin the fat content which raised the nutriment used to 7.36 pounds to a pound of butter fat. The increase in nutriment the 59th and the 70th week was due to an error in feeding 7 pounds of grain instead of 5, the amount as- signed to her. Duchess and Leeoma were the only cows in the herd that were fed according to yield of milk and butter fat, and the result was that both returned butter fat and milk solids for the normal amount of nutriment regardless of advanced stage of lactation. Duchess returned a pound of butter fat to 6.35 pounds of nutriment, while Leeoma re- quired .14 less; though this would naturally follow because Duchess’ milk contained more solids not fat, and on this ac- count she was enabled to return a pound of total solids to 2.45 of nutriment, while Leeoma used 2.47. LEEOMA, ABORTED AUG. 3, 1900. TABLE LVII.—Giving Nutrients Consumed and Products Yielded from 119th-132nd Week of Lactation. zen ee NUTRIENTS DAILY PRODUCT YIELDED NUDHENTS tan | C-H.| Fat | mitk | 225°"| Scias| wat [Solids 119th | 895 1.126] 9.12 AL 8.90 610 | 1-523 | 6:03 | 2.41 120th | 902 1.126 | 9.12 AL 9.06 3623) WES 657 5:82.92 232 121ist | 902 1.126) 9.12 AL 8.88 -604 | 1.519} 6.00 2.39 122nd | 900 1.039] 8.18 338 8.77 .607 |1.499| 4.25 | 1.72 123rd 900) yA=1'39)) 9°26 AL 8.51 .598 | 1.484] 6.34 | 2.55 124th 902 1.158 | 9.48 41 8.27 -583 1.420} 6.89 2.82 125th 890 1.071 | 8.54 .38 8.47 041 |1.355) 5.64 | 2.25 126th §82 1.103 | 8.89 .38 8 31 554 | 1.372 | 6.30 | 2.55 127th 895 1.129] 9.18 -39 8.61 .546 |1.398] 6.81 | 2.66 128th 900 e299 8 .39 8.76 553, | 12387) |) 6.65 2.65 129th 905 1.129} 9.18 .39 8.93 5680 | 1.456] 6.27 | 2.50 130th 902 Iii29 | 9s .39 8.94 591 | 1.476] 6.21 2.48 131st 887 1.257 | 9.68 43 yo baL satire” || aleplisy | z/alay7 2.93 132nd 890 17129)) O21 .39 9.44: -604 | 1.558 | 6.22 2.41 Ave. 896 1.128 | 9.09 -40 8.78 584 |1.467 | 6.21 2.47 INFLUENCE OF STAGE OF LACTATION. 137 The foregoing table covers the record of the daily aver- age for each week beginning with the 119th week of lacta- tion to the close of the 132nd week. While there was some variation in the weight from week to week there was no marked gain or loss. Twice her feed was reduced, the 122nd and 125th, the latter time it covered two weeks. The 127th it was again raised and for 28 consecutive days there was nochange. It was then raised and the week following it was again found necessary to reduce it. She maintained her flow in milk but there was aslight decrease in butter fat. When her feed was lowered she used less than the normal amount of nutrients, about 6 pounds, to a pound of butter fat yielded. During the 131st week of lactation when her feed was raised, she returned a pound of fat to 7.57 pounds nutriment and did not increase in yield of fat, but the week following there was a slight increase. Notwithstanding that the record covered a period from the 119th to the 132nd week of lactation she required only 6.21 pounds of nutriment to a pound of butter fat and 2.47 to a pound of milk solids being the normal amount required by cows when no change in body weight takes place. BESS, CALVED JULY 9, 1897. TABLE LVIII.—Giving Nutrients Consumed and Products Yielded from 237th-248th Week of Lactation. NUTRIENTS DAILy PRODUCT YIELDED Nps Week Weight Ba [ems [RE | ac [PES] Sete | a 237th 1050 1.770 | 10.86 Total Nutriment to Nutriment Product DES SUCRE: Product Daily s eee: nance Klondike ecnccsacteccedsaness a Haya Wg US} 7.418 7.695 4.788 1.60 Da ChHESS'a..ccc.cscc.seseasneseees Lal G2 6.451 ayar(a let Seo 1.74 WWCCOMMA= cress ccevisces couseeasess ala Ysa lis} 6.989 4.189 2.343 1.78 A Ocal scckexaccsecsesocssecs 38.453 20.858 17.595 10 404 ASVELAIL Cincvecncccencnsere 12.818 6.953 5.865 3.468 1.69 From this it is seen that it required from 1.60 to 1.78 pounds of nutriment to 1 pound of product. Byreferring to table LIX it will be seen that the cow Klondike was really loosing weight at the rate of about a quarter of a pounda day, and this had a noticeable influence on the nutriment she used to a pound of product. Her system had the alter- native of using the full complement of nutriment required for maintenance and shrink in yield of dairy product, or main- tain the yield and shrink in body weight, but it chose to give full return in dairy product and draw on body tissue to make good the shortage in the nutriment supply, showing how wonderfully responsive the dairy bred cow is to the de- mands of her lacteal functions. The record of the cow Duchess gives a furtherillustration of the influence of change in body weight upon the return of INFLUENCE OF STAGE OF LACTATION. 145 dairy products to food consumed. In her case, as may be seen by referring to table LIX, the slight daily loss of less than .1 of a pound in weight is reflected in the amount of nutriment required to a pound of product. There was doubtless a waste of nutriment during the 59th and 70th weeks of lactation because of the sudden increase in the rations fed during the two weeks. This is indicated by the fact that she stands charged in the table referred to, with 6.35 pounds of nutriment to 1 pound of butter fat yielded, while Leeoma required only 6.21. Taking into account the changes in the weight of the cows referred to, it is quite evident that it requires about 1.75 pounds of available nutriment to produce 1 pound of product; that is, of the available nutriment, 43 per cent is en in energy and 57 per cent is returned in the milk solids. Of the total nutriment consumed daily approximately 54 per cent was required for maintenance, 19 per cent for energy and 27 per cent was returned in the milk solids. Again taking the record of Trust during the first ten weeks of her period of lactation, showing the decrease in weight from week to week, the average daily nutriment available for product each week, the butter fat yielded, the normal daily yield, and average daily yield in excess, the compensatory yield by virtue of a daily loss in weight of 2 pounds is shown. TABLE LXIV.—Showing Decrease in Weight of Trust, Daily Average of Net Nutriment, Yield of Butter Fat, Normal Yield and Excess. Net Butter Daily | Daily Week Weight Nutriment Fat Normal Yield| Excess Yield Daily Daily Butter Fat | Butter Fat 1st 925 3 811 1.452 .609 843 2nd 875 6.388 1.817 1.022 | “ao 3rd 825 5.327 1.750 S520 898 4th 802 §.526 1.708 884 | 824 5th 797 5.957 1.558 953 605 6th 795 6.355 1.573 1.017 556 7th 785 1.722 1.544 1.235 .309 8th 785 1.722 1.531 1.235 296 9th 795 8.136 1.487 1.302 .185 10th 785 8.214 1.610 1.314 296 Average... 6.516 1.603 1.042 561 146 INVESTIGATION IN MILK PRODUCTION. The first week the cow received daily 3.811 pounds of nutriment available for product and yielded 1.452 pounds of butter fat. It has been shown that the normal require- ments for a pound of butter fat is 6.25 pounds of nutriment and on this basis the nutriment available for product pro- vided for only .609 of a pound of butter fat and her daily yield was .843 of a pound in excess. During the 70 days covered by the table she received daily on an average 6.516 pounds of net nutriment and yielded 1.603 of butter fat— being adaily yield in excess of that provided forin the ration of .561 of apound. Since she decreased in weight on an aver- age 2 pounds per day, the excess yield of butter fat was .28 of a pound for each pound of body weight sacrificed, or a de- crease of 3.57 pounds body weight to a pound of excess yield of butter fat. The record of the 15 cows that came into milk from and after the 11th of November also gives some evidence in re- gard to the amount the daily yield of butter fat is increased by virtue of the milking down of body weight, and the re- lation between the dailv decrease in weight and excess yield of butter fat. TABLE LXV.—Showing Decrease in Weight, Daily Average Yield of Butter Fat, Normal and Excess Above Normal Yield. Net Butter Daily Normal Daily Week Weight Nutriment Fat Yield Excess Yield Daily Daily Butter Fat | Butter Fat 1st 2.8) 0) ns ne eecococed mn Nl WEEE iaccceriaco: © ell es wccscscros «all @ 8 aadccts 2nd DLT, 4.648 1.369 744. 620 3rd 900 5.363 1.325 858 467 4th 877 5.989 1:295 .958 337 5th 873 6.156 1.259 985 274: 6th 863 6.500 1.232 1.040 192 7th 865 6.390 1.202 1.022 180 8th 858 Gro 1.159 1.042 118 9th 853 6 535 a lia Eo) 1.045 O75 DailiynAera Sein, cccsessecuse 6.011 1.245 .962 .283 INFLUENCE OF STAGE OF LACTATION. 147 The cows received daily on an average 6.011 pounds of digestible matter available for product, and yielded daily 1.245 pounds of butter fat. The data already submitted shows that it requires 6.25 pounds of net digestible matter to a pound of butter fat, and upon this basis the nutriment provided daily was only enough for a daily yield of .962 of a pound butter fat, while the average daily excess yield per cow was .283 of a pound. Since the daily average loss in body weight per cow was 2 pounds, the daily compensatory yield by virtue of decrease in live weight was at the rate of .14 of a pound of butter fat per pound of decrease in weight of body, being a sacrifice of 7 pounds of live weight to 1 pound of butter fat vielded in excess of the yield provided for in the ration. The following deductions are made from the data sub- mitted: 1. During the early stages of the period of lactation cows lose rapidly in body weight; of 15 cows the average decrease per cow the first week was 49 pounds, and during 56 days there was a daily average loss per cow of 2 pounds. 2. During the time when the decrease in body weight takes place cows yield dairy product in excess of theamount provided for by the food consumed; the excess of yield de- pending upon the rate of loss in weight of body, in some in- stances it is more than twice the amount provided for by the available nutriment. 3. The excess yield of dairy products gradually decreases until about the 11th week when an equilibrium generally obtains between the nutriment consumed and dairy products yielded, though in this respect cows differ; those of a pro- nounced dairy temperament taking less time, while those not strong in dairy temperament decrease more slowly in weight and require more time to reach normal work in milk production. Before such equilibrium is reached the body fat and possibly other substances contribute directly or in- directly to product. 4. The normal net nutriment requirements to a pound of butter fat is approximately 6.25 pounds, with a slight in- crease by cows yielding milk containing a low per cent butter 148 INVESTIGATION IN MILK PRODUCTION. fat, and less with cows giving milk containing a high per cent of butter fat. 5. The normal net nutriment requirements to a pound of milk solids yielded is approximately 2.4 pounds with a slight increase with cows yielding milk rich in butter fat and less with cows giving milk containing a low per cent of butter fat. 6. When the daily nutriment available for product and the products yielded daily are reduced to an approximate common value of energy, it is found that it requires about 1.75 pounds of available nutriment to 1 pound of product; that is, of the available nutriment, 43 per cent is expended in energy and 57 per cent is returned in the milk solids. 7. The daily yield of butter fat inexcess of the nutriment supply, by virtue of an average daily loss per cow of 2 pounds in body weight, was .283 of a pound, being a sacri- fice of 7 pounds in body weight to 1 pound of butter fat yielded in excess of that provided for in the ration. 8. When the normal working condition of body weight is reached, the nutriment required to a pound of butter fat and a pound of milk solids remains quite constant for an in- definite time under proper management. ALFALFA, [TS CHEMICAL DEVELOPMENT, FEEDING VALUE AND DIGESTIBILITY. “HARRY SNYDER AND J. A. HUMMEL. INTRODUCTION. The interest which has recently been manifested in alfal- fa by farmers and stockmen throughout Minnesota has prompted this work. Much encouragement is being given the growth of this great forage plant by the discovery and | Figure 1.—Third crop Alfalfa, Aug. 28, on farm of Mr. A. B. Lyman, Excelsior, Minn. *The details of this work have been carried out and theresults prepared for pub- lication by Mr. J. A. Hummel, Asst. Chemist. There has been a great deal of inter- est taken in alfalfa and it is believed that this bulletin will answer some of the numerous inquires that have been made regarding this crop. H. SNYDER, Chemist. 150 ALFALFA. introduction of varieties that seem to be hardy in our severe climate. Some of these varieties have been brought from certain localities in Turkestan, the climate of which re- sembles that of Minnesota. Alfalfa has been grown with- out difficulty in the region of Lake Minnetonka in this state, for thirty or more years. The seed of this variety was brought into the state by certain Germans, and is said to have come originally from Norway. This variety has been found to be perfectly hardy in that vicinity, and no doubt, will thrive throughout the state generally excepting pos- sibly certain sections in the northern third of the state. Be- cause of the encouragement thus offered, this work on alfal- fa was undertaken with the object of determining its com- position and feeding value when grown in Minnesota, its chemical development and draft upon the soil. It was also thought that the work might stimulate the interest already shown and bring before our farmers, the great possibilities of this forage plant. Alfalfa or lucern, medicago sativa, is a native of Western Asia; it was early introduced into Southern Europe and later was taken to South America whence it found its way into Mexico and then to California and other western states. In the region south and west of the Missouri River, it found congenial conditions and has proved of immense value to farmers throughout that country. Alfalfa belongs to the same family as clover, peas and beans, the legume family. The young plant, at first, has a single stem, but as this is cut off or grows older, it branches and forms a crown with many stems. The plant has a strong tap root with smaller lateral roots as feeders. This tap root goes deeply into the soil and finds moisture even wien far below the surface. On the roots are found tuber- cles, or small nodules, (see figure 2), similar to those tound on red clover roots, and by means of these tubercles, which are induced by bacteria, the plant is enabled’to gather and use as plant food, free nitrogen of the air,so that in common with red clover and other members of this family, it not only has the power of storing up within itself large quanti- ties of that valuable nitrogenous material protein, but by ALFALFA ROOTS. 151 Fig. 2.—Alfalfa roots, showing the nodules. 152 ALFALFA. the accumulation of roots, it leaves the soil richer in this element than it was before producing the crop. Professor Davenport, when speaking of the members of this important family, says: ‘‘They not only work for nothing and board themselves, but they pay for the privilege.’’ These plants are the only ones of any agricultural importance that can use the atmospheric nitrogen, and they can do it only with the aid of certain bacteria. Figure 3 is typical of the alfalfa plant in blossom, and shows its peculiar habit of bearing the flowers all along the stem and not simply at the tips as the clover blossoms are borne. The seed is formed in spiral pods as shown in the illustration Fig. 4. Unlike red clover, alfalfa is a perennial and lives for an indefinite period. Near Lake Minnetonka, fields have been producing alfalfa for thirty years continu- ously. Seeding.—The young alfalfa plant is rather delicate and a weak feeder consequently the seed bed must be carefully prepared, with a good supply of plant food readily avail- able. The ground should be plowed rather deeply and the surface brought into a fine condition as in the sowing of clover or other small seeds. From ten to fifteen pounds should be sown per acre, preferably without a narse crop, and as early as possible in the spring without danger of frost which may kill the young plants. As soon as the first blossoms appear or whenever the plant shows signs of los- ing thriftiness, it should be mowed as this stimulates stronger growth. It can usually be cut three times during the sea- son, and after it has become well established, it will yield from three to five tons of cured hay per acre. Soil.—Alfalfa seems to do best on sandy loam soils that have a good supply of plant food and are well drained though it has been known to have grown ina heavy clay soil. It will do well on any soil that will produce wheat or coin. The field designed for alfalfa should be selected with the view of leaving it for several years. The plant seems to reach its prime in four years and can as a rule be leftina field profitably for seven or eight years. No difficulty is ex- perienced in getting alfalfa out of a field if it is plowed in mid-summer and kept well cultivated. ALFALFA BLOSSOMS. 153 Fig. 3.—Alfalfa blossoms, reduced one-half. 154 ALFALE.. Fig. 4.— Alfalfa Seed Pods Harvesting.—Alfalfa for hay should be cut when one- third of the blossoms have appeared, because at this stage it makes the best quality of forage. It should be raked up into windrows when somewhat wilted, and never allowed to dry out before being raked, because then it does not cure so well and most of the leaves will be broken off in handling. It should be handled so as to preserve all the leaves since they are the most valuable part of the plant. Ina dry sea- son, it can sometimes be placed in the barn or stack the day after cutting, but it will usually be a better plan to a allow the hay to stand in cocks a few days. HARVESTING. 155 Fig. 5.—Device for stacking Alfa’fa hay. Figure 5shows the device used for stacking alfalfa on the farm of Mr. A. B. Lyman, Excelsior, Minn. The upright piece is made to turn freely, and the pulley at the base is so placed that as the load is drawn up, the rope pulls the arm around so that the hay is deposited in the center of the stack. Alfal‘a seeds rather uncertainly; the second crop is usually better than the first for seed production. For seed it should be cut when the seed pods turn dark, and should be handled in the same way as is clover for seed. The yield is from two to four bushels per acre. 156 ALFALFA. OBSERVATIONS FROM FARMERS. Before venturing on the chemical study of the crop it was thought best to determine to what extent it was grown in the state and gain some information as to its possibilities. For this purpose letters were sent out early in the summer of 1902 tocertain farmers and stockmen throughout the state, requesting them to give any information they could as to the extent to which alfalfa was grown in their vicinity and with what success. Incidentally inquiries were also made to obtain the methods of seeding and handling the crop and other general information. From letters received in reply to these inquiries, it was found that alfalfa has been grown withsome success in Freeborn,Carver, Hennepin, Rice, Sherburne, Sibley, Lyon, Watonwan, Scott and Redwood counties. These counties are all situated in the southern and central part of thestate. Itis possible that successful attempts have been made in many other counties from which we have no reports. Few reports have been received from the nor- thern part of the state. The following are letters received in answer to some of these inquiries: New Prague, Scott Co. “In this vicinity, alfalfa does best on black soil on high land. We sowed about 15 lbs. to the acre. We have about one acre which we feed to the hogs. For this purpose it is fine. They seem to like it better than red clover. We cut it from three to four times a year. It can stand a drouth and frost better than clover. I do not think it freezes out at all. I know of no one else around here who has raised it. Yours truly, ADOLPH SCHARF. Excelsior, Hennepin Co. “My attention was first called to alfalfa in 1881 when my father and I were about ten miles west of here in Lake Town. This was during the month of August, and a field OBSERVATIONS FROM FARMERS. 167 of alfalfa in full bloom attracted my attention. The German farmer, at whose place we stopped, was pleased when I spoke of the alfalfa and was greatly surprised to learn that we had none in our neighborhood. He told of its great feed- ing value forall stock and made, as the strongest point, that it was everlasting, while the red clover with him, often killed out the first year. This good report of this great forage crop did not appeal to my father as strongly as it would have later as we were more interested in grain than stock. However, the next spring, we purchased at Minneapolis, a few pounds of alfalfa seed with which we seeded a few rods of land in one end of a field that we seeded down to red clo- ver. We were greatlysurprised to find our everlasting clover all killed the next spring, while the red clover was not in- jured. We did not do anything more with alfalfa for some time. ‘‘Ten years later, in 1890, I taughtschool about 15 miles from here and found thefarmers all growing alfalfa. I noted its great feeding value and also that it was everlasting, as the farmers told me how long different fields had been seeded and no one had had it winter killed. Children in school often spoke of ‘‘everlasting clover.’’ I reported at home the many advantages of alfalfa over red clover and the next spring we purchased again at Minneapolis 4% bushel alfalfa seed. We seeded about twoacres alfalfain barley and got a finestand. The Germans often cut or pastured the first year after cut- ting the grain but we did not. Our alfalfawas about a foot high and went into winter thus. The next summer we cut three crops of hay and there was quite a fourth crop which we didn’t cut or pasture. You can guess our surprise at finding the “everlasting (?) clover” all dead the next spring, also our surprise to find that the Germans had not lost arod by winter killing. About this time there appeared an article in one of the Minneapolis papers stating that alfalta was not a success in Minnesota except that it did well in Carver county. Our experience and observation and this article led me to form the opinion that common alfalfa was not hardy and that these Germans had a variety that was perfectly hardy. Since then, I have seen this proven a hundred times, have seen fields of common alfalfa and our hardy variety 158 ALFALFA. seeded at the same time and separated only by a wire fence, and the alfalfa all kill out on one side of the fence and not on the other. This alfalfa was brought here some forty years ago and is said to have come from Norway. In 1894 we planted 11% bushels of ‘‘everlasting”’ alfalfa on about seven or eight acres and have had no more trouble with winter killing. We have cut three crops annually except when we left the second crop for seed and have always pastured in the fall. “T think a good stand can besecured with lessseed when planted alone thanany other way, yet have got good stands in grain. I consider 12 pounds per acre heavy seeding. The seed is much smaller than common alfalfa. Make a good seed bed and seed in April and harrow the seed in lightly. Cut two or three times the first year. It does well on all soils except meadow land and wet places. The alfalfa fields cut three good crops of hay eachseason; even during ourdry years wecut three good crops when other hay hardly cut one. “T think it cuts about four tons per acre. This variety of alfalfa cures much quicker than red clover. During a dry season it can be cut and put in the barn the next day. The past season, it needed to be left inshocks a few days. In shocks it turns rain well if put up before it is too dry. ‘‘Some years, it seeds very heavy, while other vears there is none all. I think it will average about three bushels per acre. Last year (1901) the seed crop was ruined by the ex- treme heat and this year (1902) by too much rain. ‘‘We find there is a ready market for the hay. If aman feeds one load he will be sure to want more. One party drove ten miles to our place and purchased fifteen tons when he could have purchased common hay right at home. ‘‘We now have seventy acres of ‘everlasting clover’’ and expect to seed about thirty acres in the spring.”’ Very truly yours, A.B. LNNIAN: Grand Rapids, Itasca Co. “Our test of alfalfa last year resulted in winter killing of OBSERVATIONS FROM FARMERS. 169 9) the greater part of the stand. We sowed Grimm’s* alfalfa. Tests by Warren Pendergast gave similar results. So far we have not shown alfalfa to be hardy in this vicinity.”’ Yours truly, H. H. CHAPMAN. Supt. of N. E. Exp. Station. Madelia, Watonwan Co. ‘“‘T have been raising alfalfa in asmall way for about three years. I commenced with two acres and now have seventy seeded. It should be sown on well manured, well drained land. Prepare a good fine seed bed and sow as you would wheat or oats as soon in the spring as danger from heavy frosts is over. I sowed last spring with a common seeder. I mixed 44 bushel ot wheat with 15 pounds alfalfa and set the seeder to sow 12 bushel per acre. It was sown immediately after the spring rains commenced, and I havea very fine stand. I have just completed cutting the crop for hay. It should be mown at this time (August Ist) or earlier to give the alfalfa a better chance. “T have secured two hay crops from my older fields amounting to about three tons per acre. I shall cut them once or twice more this season. Use any good corn land, sow from 15 to 20 lbs. of seed and do not allow live stock to pasture it the first season. ‘“‘T consider the hay to be about equal to red clover. | As asoiling crop it will be superior to anything we have. I have given my experience to Mr.O.C. Gregg of the Farmers’ Institute who will publish itin his Annual, No. 15.” I re- main Yours truly, JOHN BISBEE. Belview, Redwood Co. “In the year 1899, 1 seeded about 144 acres of alfalfa with wheat to be used for hog pasture in the future. I used about 10 lbs. of alfalfa seed per acre and 1% bu. of wheat per acre. The wheat stooled remarkably well but when the al- falfa was about 6 inches high, I cut it with amower. This *This is the variety grown in the vicinity of Lake Minnetonka, and at the Exp. Station, is known as Minnesota No. 4. 160 ALFALFA. checked the wheat to some extent. It still made a good crop of wheat by harvest. This patch was located in the bottom along the Minnesota River, slightly sloping towards the southwest and bounded on thesoutheast and southwest by tall timber. About 1% acre of the southwestern as well as the lowest portion was very sandy. The rest was very rich, black loam accustomed to clover. This upper portion seemed very promising the first fall but the sandy lot seemed rather weak. I left the stubble and did not pasture the first fall. In the winter the creek overflowed some of this sandy portion completely andsmothered it. Thenext March, during nice weather, the alfalfa started to grow very nicely but dur- ing the alternate cold and warm spells about one-half of the plants seemed to rot off just below the crown, this made a poor stand. However, it made a fair hog pasture that year except the very sandy and poor soil, and I also used it for pasture in the spring and part of the summer of 1901, but as soine more of the plants had damped off in the same way that spring, I decided to plough it up and seed to rape. “The year 1900 I seeded about two acres just on the other side of the timber (southeast side) on quite, if not very sandy, very rich potato land, formerly clover. This time I seeded it alone. It grew very fast. I cutit down when 6 inches high and in addition to that I cut it three times for hay. The first time, it was only alfalfa hay, the next time it was more pigeon grass than alfalfa, and the third time, mostly alfalfa hay. “During the very shifting weather of the next spring (1901) about one-half of the plants damped off in the same way as described. We therefore seeded about 12 Ibs. more to the acre while the first seeding was only 10 lbs. That year, we took one good crop from the patch after which a long velvetish black bug took complete possession of the crop. It was kept eaten down all summer. By the way, this bug also attacked the soy beans and red clover to some extent and also some of the wild leguminous shrubs. ‘“‘As the blue grass which had remained in the land had stooled wonderfully during the summer, I thought it best to break it up, which I did last fall. I used the common Utah OBSERVATIONS FROM FARMERS. 16k grown seed. I found thatthe hay would cure nicely in cocks when raked rather green. To my judgment, alfalfa grows best on rich sandy loam in this neighborhood.”’ Yours truly, G. E. ENESTVEDT. Crookston, Polk Co. ““We have had considerable experience with alfalfa ard there is no crop I have on the farm that has perplexed me more in the past than this. It will neither live nor die. It grows fairly well for one year, then a number of plants die out, but still thereis enough growing to make a partial success. “These struggling plants continue to grow for a long time. I have selected seed from some of these plants and have started to raise some alfalfa in a garden way. I have small garden plots of alfalfa that are doing very well. The Turkestan alfalfa is doing fairly well, but Minn. No. 4* is doing exceedingly well. I have no forage grass planted on the farm that has made such a growth as this one. ‘“‘Both these varietiescame through the winter uninjured. I have now seed selected for more than one-half an acre which I shall sow this spring. I shall bearin mind to report to you of our success in case you so desire.”’ Yours truly, T. A. HOVERSTAD; Supt. N. W. Exp. Farm. Faribault, Rice Co. “T sowed anacre and ahalf of alfalfa four years ago which I mowed for hay three times a year and gota big crop every time. A year ago last spring, I sowed one-third of an acre which I mixed with Bromus grass. Last fall, I could hardly see any of the Bromus grass, but this year, the Bromus grass has improved greatly. I mowed this mixture four times and got about fifteen hundred pounds of hay every time. I cut it when the blossoms on the alfalfa would appear. This year, I sowed nine bushels of alfalfa on twen- *This is the variety grown in the vicinity of Lake Minnetonka, sometimes called Grimm’s alfalfa. 162 ALFALI A. tv two acres which is a thick stand. Isowed the alfalfa with oats which I mowed for hay after it was headed out. About four weeks aiter, 1 mowed the young alfalfa again and Jeftit on the ground. My soil is a heavy timber clay soil. I believe alfalfais the most profitable feed we can raise for all kinds of stock. Yours very truly, NICHOLAS BECKER. THE CHEMICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ALFALFA. Although this work was not undertaken until a few days before the first crop was harvested, it was thought that data of value could be secured. Three samples of one square yard each were taken at weekly interval from a plot of a Western variety, and two samples at weekly intervals from a plot of a Turkestan variety. Both of these plots were in the field used by the Animal Husbandry Division; the Western variety was on range 4, plot 7; the Turkestan variety on range 4, plot 4. The results of the analyses, cal- culated on a basis of water free substance, are given in Table LXVI. TABLE LXVI. WESTERN TURKESTAN Cut Cut Cut Cut Cut June 3. June 10 June 24 June 3 Jusce 10 PemCt. PeniCt: PemGt Per Ct: Peres TOLAWNtTOe en esc. encesss ces 3.28 2.85 2.06 3.03 2.67 Proteid Nitrogen................. 1.93 1.87 1.58 2.24 1.85 Per cent proteid nitrogen to total nitromn| 659 27 65.94 76.65 73.97 69.30 Crude proteid (Total nitrogen X6.25).! 20.50 WZfeteyal 12.87, 18.94 16.68 Ether eamtrac tec. scsscessss tere 2.50 2.48 2.13 2.28 2.26 ub eiseescsdcocesasestansesescecssasescss 30.70 4.1.76 43,63 40.59 42.00 Nitroyen-free-extract.......... 36.04 29.55 35.55 30.66 31.52 1S nA R EBACE CORCLOUROOCCECOCDDON HSCGEC 10.26 8.40 5.92 7.53 7.54 Lbs. Dry Matter per sq. yd. 265 295.8 362.7 260.4 257.2 The first crop from these two fields was harvested June 9th. It will be observed that on June 3rd, at which time, the first blossoms were appearing, there is the highest per- centage of both total nitrogen and proteid nitrogen, and the lowest percentage of fiber for both varieties. This would indicate that the crop should be cut soon after the first THE CHEMICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ALFALFA. 163 blossoms appear in order to secure, in the cured fodder, the largest percentage of protein, and the smallest percentage of fiber. By cutting as early as possible the growth is stimulated and more time is given for the second and third crops to reach maturity. Table LXVII gives the number of grams (28.3 grams in one ounce) of nutrients yielded by one square vard at the different stages. TABLE LXVII. WESTERN TURKESTAN Cut Cut Cut Cut Cut June 3 June 10 Jure 24 June 3 June 10 shotaleNitnogen.2-.-.5..2.260e052 es nae ieee os —- Crude protein (nitrogen X6.25)........ 54.3 52.6 16,7 493 42.9 WM er xb La CUrsssc.s.2s-s0c-cceses 6 62 7.34 4.73 5.94 5.81 TELS? pecceaac cossuebdc. aeeaareecaes Doce 81.36 123°5 157.9 105.7 108. Nitrogen free.extract.......... 95.5 87.4 128.9 79.8 81. EAS Leteas(chiaesfecsoeescscetsncsicscse si 27.19 24.84 21.47 19.6 19.39 On June 30th, a square yard sample was taken of the second crop when it was about six inches high, and four samples were taken thereafter at weekly intervals, the last sample being taken July 29th, five days after the crop was harvested. The first blossoms appeared about July 22nd. These five samples were taken from the field of Turkestan alfalfa mentioned on page 162 and were prepared for an- alysis in the same way as those from the first crop. Table LXVIII gives the results of the analyses of these five samples. TABLE LXVIII. TIME OF CUTTING SAMPLE June 30] July 7 | July 14 July 22| July 29 BROLAIONLETO SCtieraseraersacsessss secs voce ae 5.00 4.20 3.62 2.92 2.65 rOterduNitrOreniac.sc.cccscocesscoscecessss 3.63 3.18 2.70 211 1.98 Per cent proteid to total nitrogen. | 71.84 75.60 74.72 72.31 74.72 Crude protein (Total nitrogen X6.25)............ 31-25 26.25 22.62 18.25 16.56 EH er XCTaACE nc. asscsese sescdeveneessene 4.11 4.18 2.91 3.52 3.22 GUD Checcvcesesctcayesncaessccstese2ecorseoess teense 19.32 24.37 30.08 32.41 34.20 Nitrogen-freeextraCt...<....025s---s<=5 34.65 36.61 3.23 39.23 38.77 2NS) Ploeg senaccanencosAcoOdsanL Dada: ConceseccacoupEdCeT 10.67 8.59 GAS 6.59 6 62 164 ALFALFA. It will be observed that the total nitrogen and ether-ex- tract decrease regularly as the crop grows and the fiber in- creases. The dry matter increases rapidly during the flow- ering period. The nitrogen is assimilated most rapidly in the early stages of growth and after the blossoms appear does not keep pace with the increase of dry matter. During this period, the proteids are being built up in the leaves and transferred to the’stem. Table LXIX gives the total num- ber of grams of nutrients yielded by one square yard at the different stages. ; TABLE LXIX. TIME OF CUTTING SAMPLE | June 30| July 7 | July 14 | July 22 | July 29 z Gms. Gmste |mGnis! Gms. | Gms. 4 DYoEPEWL IND ereOY EXE) A cos cccosanataosacoocECdocosce 2.05 2.84 5.83 8.60 8.85 Crude protein (nitrogen X6.25)....| 12.8 17.38 36.4 53.8 55.3 IS phienme xtra terecescass< see cese cess secre sen. 1.68 2.83 || 4.69 10.36 10.75 TENTS 2 eek PERE rie Sera Sp ae ee | 7.92 | 16.50 | 48.49] 102.3 | 114.2 INTEGO en-=free-CxthaG Crscmenscamiveesceee sn 14.20 24.78 60.00 | 123.8 PAS ss Dey) MEER HO thao sd asocoaosesooSccocseosoennnesoo 41.00 67.70 161.2 294.5 3834.00 In general, the results of the work done on the second crop corroborate that on the first crop. The crop reaches the condition most suitable for cutting at the time when one-third of the blossoms have appeared. After this, a larger amount of much inferior hay is obtained. These re- sults also agree with those obtained by the Kansas Agricul- tural Experiment Station. The chemical department of that station obtained the following results: One=tenth in blooms. ..:.-e-s-5-3: 18.5 per cent protein. One-halfiaybloominy eee 17.2 per cent protein. a ttialll ol @meses erecta ete 14.4 per cent protein. It is stated in the bulletin just referred to that ‘‘The late cutting of the first crop seems to injure the plant more than at any other time, and we have found it profitable to cut alfalfa the first time, as soon as one-tenth in bloom, even though the weather was bad and we knew that the crop would spoil in curing. The increased yield from succeeding cuttings over that cut late much more than makes up for THE CHEMICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ALFALFA. 165 the loss of the first crop. Successful clover-growers the first time they try alfalfa often ruin the stand, so that it has to be plowed up, by waiting to cut until it reaches the stage at which clover is usually cut.’’* The Utah ‘Experiment Station for five years cut alfalfa at different stages of maturity and fed the crop in producing beef. The average production per year per acre was as follows: Hay. Beef. May est LOOM... 2 5ec8 Beis. oods.c. 8: 5.35 tons 706 lbs. isaefiet Ws ol OO TG, os cceskeics ons oces otek 4.90 tons 562 lbs. Half blooms fallen........ nts 4 cae 4..55 tons 4.90 lbs. In order to determine the proportion of dry matter in the alfalfa leaves to that in the stems, seven samples were taken at intervals of four days, and the leaves carefully separated from the stems. The leaves and stems were then dried and weighed. The results are given in the following table. TABLE LXxX. DrRY MATTER Leaves | Stems Per Cent. | PeriCents AMERES “S ocossgocanassonasoassodasned edootsonede gbastsesascnoace 42.78 57.22 ANREWS “ oscndactocozacqaqesocosegnoenagdon, UasdscusHcctooseoneuco 38.62 | 61.38 | Tiras TTC eee ee 40.39 | 59.61 ANBINS WO oceceanacnen asdcoososospsecsecte: gagdece soso BaceHubaCECS 36.08 | 63.92 | DENS rr asoceccoocdoebsoocecenn Bi iasaceesoaiaocseaehaecy assoc aecise's Sone | 63.68 | YBa 7S ocosssescsssoececocsuceoocece oore ad ebeEmoariobAceanocooo0s 34.68 65.32 | AEWAS BO cecncccennennnacoa0 sec sas boSco ade nao COUNG ROCESS ESOS IEEE 36.08 | 63.92 An examination of the table shows that after the third sample, taken June 11th, which was two days after the crop was harvested, there is a noticeable decrease in the propor- tion of leaves to stems. Soon after the alfalfa plant begins to blossom, some of the leaves turn yellow and fall to the ground. We find the largest proportion of leaves to stems just before the blossoming period. An analysis of the dry matter of the leaves, taken at the * Kansas State Agricultural College, Bulletin No. 114. 166 ALFALFA. time the first blossoms appear shows 23.06 per cent of crude protein (Nx6.25). Average wheat bran contains about 16 per cent erude protein. On June 3rd, six days before harvest- ing the crop, the leaves contained 63 per cent of the total nitr’g.n of the part of the plant above ground. On June 11th they contained 57 per cent, having lost 6 per cent be- cause of the transfer of nitrogenous material to the stem which was going on quite rapidly at this stage. This shows the great value of the leaves and emphasises the importance of preventing any loss of this material in harvesting and feeding the crop. The results of the analysis of the dry mat- ter of the leaves and stems, taken at the several periods, are given in table LX XI and reveal some interesting data. TABLE NO. LXXI. TIME OF CUTTING SAMPLES. June | June |) June | june | june) | june | june 3 7 25L 16 21 25 30 LEAVES Pr ChlPriCre | PriCelibpty Grlbra Gtr Cr Pcie Dirye Miatteraeies-cccressseeccses=sn== 24.90 | 30.84 | 28.36 | 32.44 | 34.18 | 32.70 | 59.10 MOtaAleNiitrO Se neescese.cscekeraeceres ZW EXG || SEGA) Blazes || Seale eee hl) rehire Proteid Nitrogen-..-.--.---<-)----«- 3.69 | 3.02} 3.33) 2:51 Pracyy || P4naks} || 2 alire Per cent Proteid to Total Nitrogen ........ 84.69 | 82.74 | 89.20 | 80.66 | 78.95 | 79.44 | 78.25. Crude Protein (Total Nitrogen X6.25).... | 27.25 | 22.87 | 23.31 | 19.50 | 17.12 | 17.12 | 17.31 UN ete Kc AC Useccnieeeeaeteceneren=ne 2.56 4.48 448 3.€0 6.12 5.45 4 56 Pell oye ee ccocecocescecccOec] nocassoncocaxcanNe 12.76 | 13.04 | 17.80 | 13.37 | 17.89 | 18.89 | 20.05 ING) Vi Ba QOCSSEELON COCOC OP BOSD OSU HALLE 7.83 | 6.54] 7.31) 7.75 | 8.35] 7.66) 8.52: STEMS DW rye MAL Orecsccs-e tieoesscecorcesceseulltaconsacees 25.84 | 23.66 | 30.21 | 32.63 | 32.84 | 58.90: MOtAWNGIEOLetivecceccetescddessesse OSU e7iGn |S 8) ele Sn eel G6 Gila. 6 Olli. 4G Proceid Nitro senkpecceeecessecses oe, 1°23 1.46 1.24 ISO 1.40 1.28 Per cent Proteid to Total Nitrogen......... 67.77 | 69.77 | 77.43 | 78.00 | 81.96 | 88.47 | 87.60 Crude Protein (Total Nitrogen X6.25).... | 12.18 | 11.00] 11.75 9.94 | 10.31 | 10.00 9.13 iherebsteaCtccccstcescccsscepeesenes stalls) -78 1.66 aes) 2.53 2.48 3.19 BRD OES i. casencseaceis deseccaccecsescanscsecs £0.76 | 48.13 | 46.69 | 48.21 | 48.16 | 48.12 | 55.15. 7. AR aleApontio acqneanocbanecodean SceCeenece 6.79 | 5.56 5.62 5.36 6.00 4.98) 4.61 It will be noticed that the percentage of dry matter in- creases quite regularly in both leaf and stem, being slightly higher at any given period in the leaf at every stage except THE CHEMICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ALFALFA. 167 one. In the leaf both total and proteid nitrogen decreases as the plant ripens, the proteid nitrogen, however, decreases more rapidly. (The proteid nitrogenis that obtained by the use of Stutzer’s method as given in the Methods of Official Agricultural Chemists. This proteid nitrogen has a greater food value than the nitrogenous material that exists in the non-proteid form.) In thestems, the total nitrogen decreases while the proteid nitrogen remains quite stationary which accounts for the increase in the percentage of proteid to total nitrogen, Thisseems to show that the nitrogen is taken from the soil in non-proteid or amide forms and is changed to proteid forms in the leaves and then transferred to the stems to be finally stored in the seed. The ether extract increasesin both leaves and stems but rather irregularly in the leaves. The fiber increases in the leaves but is almost stationary in the stem. The percentage of ash or mineral matter remains almost stationary in the leaves but decreases in the stems. We find, as is to be expected, that the leaves contain the most ash, for it is in the leaf that the complex compounds found in the ripened plant are elaborated from simpler materials, and in this work the mineral elements take an important part. An examination of table LXVIII will show that the ash ele- ments are taken up most rapidly during the early stages of growth. The results of the analysis of the ash of the leaves and stems are given in table LX XII. TABLE NO. LXXII. IN 100 POUNDS OF ASH Leaves Leaves Leaves Stems Stems Stems Cut Cut Cut Cut Gpq. || — Gime June 3 June 16 June 30 June 3 June 16 | June 30 lbs Ibs Ibs lbs Ibsen |yenlos Phosph't’s(P205) itd. O: 5.90 4.20 9562) +) LO%70) |) LOGS Potash (K20)..... a fe te 14.61 11.60 26.68 | 31.16 | 27.54 Heine (Ca@®)))\0.s2-00- 24.90 24.39 32.41 14.10 13.42 | 15.98 Magnesia (MgO). 3.88 6.49 3.66 5260 449 | 4.70 In the leaves, the ash elements are in almost every case found in the greatest abundance during the early stages. In the stems, there seems to be but little variation in the compo- 168 ALFALFA. sition of the ash during this period, but the next table shows that there is a slight decrease in the percentage of the several ash elements owing to a decrease in the percentage of total ash. It must be noted that the blossoms appeared soon af- ter June 3rd, the time the first sample was taken, so that this work represents only the last period of growth. The figures gven in the table following are calculated from the data of the table immediately preceding and the percentage of total ash. TABLE NO. LXXIII. IN 100 POUNDS OF DRY MATTER Leaves | Leaves | Leaves Stems | Stems Stems Cut Cut Cut Cut | Cut Cut | June 3 June 16 | June 30 June 3 | June 16 | June 30 | lbs lbs lbs lbs | lbs lbs Phosph’t’s(P205)| -.608 457 357 653 | 573 49 Potash (K20)..... | 1.345 tS 988 fateh |] at.z/ | 1.268 Eimer (CaO) eecescs | 1.949 al fei) 2.76 957 | «72 735 | | | Magnesia (ei). 303 503 312 “som | -24 | -216 The most noticeable feature of the following table is the large amount of phosphates shown to be in the seed and the large amount of potash and lime in the cured hay. TABLE NO. LXXIV. IN 100 POUNDS OF DRY MATTER Alfalfa Alfalfa ist Crop Alfalfa Alfalfa Cut Cut Alfalfa Seed Rootes June 30 | July 14 Hay we oors lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs TOtalvAshieees.e sce nscciecsestnesess 10.67 7.15 8.30 3.37 4.22 Phosphates (Pe2Q5)....... ..... IES Io) .69 61 1.72 .66 Potash wy (K5@)) eee --cceseseeceene: 2.54 1.65 2.99 aicilat 76 TIMEX (Ca) asasear soe seeeeatiensoes PAL O7¢ 1.74 1.31 -05 63 Magnesia (MgQ)................ -46 -36 32 18 34 An alfalfa field will yield on an average 8,000 pounds of cured hay per acre in one season. This cured hay will con- tain about 6,880 pounds of dry matter. The number of pounds of each of the four most important ash constituents. removed from an acre by a season’s crop of alfalfa hay, as compared with that removed by acrop of clover hay, is. given in the following table: THE CHEMICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ALFALFA. 169 TABLE NO. LXXV. POUNDS REMOVED IN AN ACRE CROP Potash Phosphates | ;. 3 i CRs) | "eesOer® | Bime (cso) | Magnesia BNitaltalElayss. .sde.s-cs0c-2s 206 58 | 89 | 22 BELOVED EL AY. cocc-osceee0 <-cos 66 28 | 76 | 17 Alfalfa draws most heavily on the lime and potash, re- sembling clover in this respect, but because of its heavier yield per season, a greater quantity of these ash constituents is removed. Most of the soil of Minnesota is well supplied with these ash constituents. If the alfalfa is fed on the farm and the manure well preserved and returned to the land, but little fertility is lost. If it happens that soils are poor in these constituents, fertilizers of lime in the form of land plaster and potash in the form of wood ashes can be profit- ably applied. The ash of alfalfa seed is rich in potash and phosphates; the samples analyzed contained 32.77 per cent potash and 44.29 per cent phosphate. It will be seen that when the seed is sold a considerable amount of this valuable ash material is removed from the farm. With the aid of nitrogen gathering bacteria, alfalfa, like clover, can use the free nitrogen of the air, still it must not be inferred that a fair supply of nitrogen in the soil is un- necessary or that the application of nitrogenous fertilizers is always wasteful. Professor Bernard Dyer* of England has shown by careful experiments that ‘‘Theuse of moderate quantities of nitrate of soda has been decidedly remunera- tive.’ He found that in five years, an annual dressing of 1 ewt. of nitrate of soda per acre gave an increase of nearly three tons of green alfalfa fodder per acre per year, while an annual dressing of 2 cwt. per acre gave an increase of four and a half tons of fodder per acre per year. From this he calculated that there was an annual profit dueto the nitrate of alittle more than four doJlars per acre in the first case and over six dollars per acre in the second case. * Reprint from the ‘Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland,’ Fifth Ser., Vol. XIV, 1902. 170 ALFALFA. TABLE NO. LXXVI. COMPOSITION OF DRY MATTER. Se) \icruidel Nitro- ecole Pro- | pens Fiber les free Ash tein | | Ex't 7 Dye, Ge |li2ian Ciel ies Cini Seine We |e Ge Teeoranesy, (Ses INNS 3 Gacoocecen coos concocoonooc 2720 9) pall 2eaion| -78 | 35.13 | 46.09 | 5.25 TeXoKON SS}, (wis Iwi 3l Aha scoop uoncnanossccososcecod | °8.97|13.44, 1.53|37.05|43.76| 4.22 Blossoms, Cut June 12.......... ee . | 18.58 19.37 | 3.28 | 19:55 | 52.25 | 5.55 | | Alfalfa, 5 months afier Seeding......... 22.64 | 11.81 3.30:| 37.84 39.31 7.69 Birst Crop ofeAlicl tan tlayecessasseecescce 189.71 |15.00] 3.06] 33.27] 4037] 8.30 Second Crop of Alfalfa Huy.............. | 89.38 |17.62 | 208 | 34.33 | 40.00 | 5.97 TAUPE, Ska ogaran cbonavosoocooooda sec AGaeboaSaodee | 93 40 | 36.94 | 10.61 | 13.55 | 35.29 | 3.61 The samples of roots and blossoms, as given in the table immediately preceding were taken from the Station plots. The five months old alfalfa was taken from the farm of Mr. Baird, Edina, Minn. The first and second crop alfalfa hay was taken from the farm of Mr. A. B. Lyman, Excelsior, Minn. The alfalfa seed was a sample of a Turkestan variety from the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The small amount of protein in the very young alfalfa is noticeable. The samples of hay from Mr. Lyman’s farm are believed to be fairly representative of alfalfa hay produced in Minnesota. THE CHEMICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ALFALPA. © eee Nee | ear-old Alfalfa plants. o-y Fig. 6.—Tw 172 ALFALFA. THE FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA. A comparison of the composition of the dry matter of alfalfa hay and clover hay is given in the following table: TABLE LXXVII. COMPOSITION OF THE DRY MATTER No. of pRGeAG Nitrogen- | Samples nee) ae Se Fiber Free- Ash Analyzed SOS ce Extract Alfalfa hay.......-.. 6 17.42 2.62 34.11 37.03 | 8.37 Red Clover hay... 4 12.97 | 3.43 26.82 49.95 | 7.83 The most striking feature shown in this table is the large amount of protein in the alfalfa hay, This substance is al- ways the most valuable constituent of a feeding stuff. It is the substance which enters so largely into the composition of the flesh and the vital fluids of the body, and in a dairy animal, of the milk. Here then we have a source of protein which seems to be far superior to red clover which heretofore has held undisputed the title of being the best nitrogenous forage for Minnesota. With alfalfa as the source of protein and corn as the source of carbohydrates and fat, stockmen of Minnesota can produce cheaply an ideal ration for the production of both milk and meat. Alfalfa makes a fairly satisfactory pasture for all farm animals but under the continued tramping the plants are often injured. It should not be pastured the first year and never so late in the fall as to force the plants to go through the winter with the crowns exposed, because in this con- dition they are apt to winter kill. In pasturing cattle and sheep on alfalfa there is some danger of bloat especially when the pastureis wet. Perhaps the better way to feed alfalfais to mow it and allow it to wilt ashort time before feeding. When fed in this way there is a larger yield of forage and no loss from bloat. Alfalfa has a laxative effect especially when fed green and for this reason it always gives best results when fed with some grain or dry fodder. Under these conditions it is also more digestible as is shown by the digestion trials reported in succeeding pages. DIGESTIBILITY OF ALFALFA. 173 DIGESTIBILITY OF ALFALFA. The value of a feeding stuff does not depend entirely up- on the amounts of the several nutrients that enter into its composition, but upon the amounts of these nutrients that the animal can digest and use. In order to determine to what extent the nutrients of alfalfa are digested, several digestion trials were made. For these trials, two steers, weighing about 800 lbs. each, were courteously loaned by the Animal Husbandry Division and fed alfalfa hay for a period of about ten days before the trial proper began in order to accustom the animals to the ration. At the end of the preliminary period, the steers were put into specially constructed stalls as shown in Fig. 7. Fig. 7.—Steer in stall for digestion trial. These stalls were designed by Professor Andrew Boss and built under his direction. The feeding was done under the supervision of Mr. George Craig, of the Animal Hus- bandry Division, The steers were weighed when put into the stalls and also when removed. The animals were left in the stalls for a period of four days and during that time all the food which they consumed was carefully weighed and samples taken for analysis. The excrements, both solid and liquid, were collected by the devices shown in the illustration. 174 ALFALFA. These were weighed and sampled at the close of each day. The samples of the food and of the excrements were dried and analyzed. The methods of analysis used throughout this work were those adopted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. The calories were determined by combustion in an Atwater. Blakeslee calorimeter. The heat of combustion of the daily samples of urine were determined in all cases except in the fifth trial and in the trial with hog millet. From the composition of the food thus determined and the total weight of food eaten by the animal during the four days, the total amounts of each of the food nutrients consumed were calculated. In the same way, the total amount of nutrients in the dung for the four days was de- termined. The difference in the amounts found in the dung and that found in the food eaten represents the amounts digested. This difference divided by the total amounts of nutrients consumed and the result multiplied by 100 gives the percentage digested. Five separate trials of four days each were made using in all, the same two steers. In the first trial, the animals were fed first crop alfalfa hay of fair quality. This was cut in a feed cutter and the steers were fed all that they would eat up clean which amounted to almost 16 pounds of dry matter daily per steer. In the second trial, the daily ration consisted of 16 pounds alfalfa hay from the same lot as that used in the first experiment, and 5 pounds of corn meal. In the third trial, the daily ration consisted of about 42 pounds of green alfal- fa, third cutting. In the fourth trial, the daily ration con- sisted of 16 pounds of alfalfa hay, 5 pounds barley meal and 15 pounds mangels. In the fifth trial, the daily ration was a duplicate of the ration of thesecond trial, viz.: alfalfa hay and corn meal, with theaddition of about two tablespoonfuls of International Stock Food.* The object of this last trial was to determine the effect of a condimental food on the digesti- bility of aration. A detailed account of the method of making these digestion trials and calculating the results is given in the Annual Report and also in a supplement to this bulletin. The results of these five trials are given in the following table: * According to the Connecticut Experiment Station this material contains wheat feed, cayenne pepper, charcoal, salt and a bitter drug resembling gentian. DIGESTIBILITY OF ALFALFA. 175 TABLE LXXVIII.— Coefficients of Digestibity of Alfalfa Hay. Nitro- ~ | . Dry Sends Ether | Crude] gen- Digest- Matter ein Extr't| Fiber |free-ex-| SH eee : P ee alories Alfalfa Hay | = re REG Imes UR aa aloccinisiecidelcicesie sscleiselies Ses 68 60 | 76.59 | 57.84. | 58.23 | 75.48 | 54.29 | 67.15 SUGS TT ie Wat percsecacne seen BALHODoTO 63.09 | 74.17 | 53.92 | 56.91 | 68.25 | 47 92 | 61.67 INSGOFERS conan nbco5 dos OOOOOUC HEIs 65.84 | 75.38 | 55.88 | 57.57 | 71.86 | 51.40 | 64.41 Alfalia hay fed with corn ineal aa r a RSG eiigal tesiletietsel-tyiesinmsn ce ecies cis vecjeicicia 71.80 | 84.02 | 61.46 | 64 60 | 73.64 | 66.98 | 79.93 SERCH Siem ren ccdievecnaccctsccceaesess 70.16 | 83.25 | 60.19 | 61.98 | 73.24 | 62.70 | 89.26 NCNM Cisne: cela ceactancarinaas c's 70.98 | 83.63 | 60.82 | 63.29 | 73 44 | 64.84 | 70.09 Alfalfa hay fed with corn meal | > eas > and InternationalStock Food | -18 | 56.38 | 60.87 Surore UT he Saameantaceod doccee NeeOBCECOEAs 61.16 | 66 70 | 27.05 | 47.87 | 74 ME Glam lies temeccceesaceasscreciiccsesite ste 60.24 | 68.48 | 28.23 | 51.27 | 70.66 | 43.28 | 61.53 PAS Clea Steen asiaediveicie se sisciscsisescss 6U.70 | 67.59 | 27.64 | 49.57 | 72.42 | 49.83 | 61.20 Green Alfalfa | RSE C item lies Matec lap ete cieeetionentccelesisseciee 60.62 | 73.46 | 37.75 | 42.17 | 72.21 | 40.34 | 62.46 ECS tt be secs .ncteaecccs cress. costes 60.63 | 74.65 | 39.08 | 42.66 | 71.26 | 39.66 | 63.17 INSISTENCE erp osteo tone aE DOAEEOCEE 60.62 | 74.05 | 38 42 | 42.41 | 71.73 | 40.00 | 62.81 Alfalfa hay fd with barl y and mangels | MS ECCI ice ccthsctevestcacccceseecees 63.63 | 74.90 | 53.29 | 48.41 | 73.36 | 63.22 | 60.21 SUGSP Tks Soacepaseoncgesadade BESEBS. GABEE 63.51 | 77.56 | 56.46 | 49.64 | 70.68 | 61.64 | 60.81 AGORA oc cctuvcssicecttsinsos ee cngooe 63.57 | 76.23 | 53.37 | 49.02 | 72.02 | 62.43 | 60.51 These trials show that alfalfa hay compares very favor- ably with that of our other principal forage crops. In con- sidering the nutrients of a feeding stutf we must give the greatest prominence to the crude protein, the nitrogen free extract and the ether extract. Of these the crude protein is by far the most important because it is the nutrient usually lacking in a ration. The column headed Calories gives the percentage of the energy of the food that is digestible. This is determined by the heat given off by burning a certain weight of substance. The table showsthat alfalfa hay is the most digestible when fed in a ration with corn meal, and next highest when fed with barley meal and mangels. Whcn fed green, alfalfa shows a slightly lower digestibility than when fed as dry hay. This is probably due to the more lax- ative effect of the green food, which gives the digestive fluids less time to act on the food. A comparison of the two trials of the digestibility of alfalfa hay when fed with corn meal with the addition of a condimental food in one case, shows a remarkable difference in favor of the ration without the condimental food. The average digestibility of the protein in the two trials without the condimental food is 83.63 per cent, and with the condimental food is 67.59 per cent. With the other nutrients the difference is not as great but still in favor of the ration without the condimental food. The 176 ALFALFA. condimental food seems to have much the same laxative effect as the green alfalfa, but to a greater extent. Table LX XIX gives the percentage of digestible nutri- ents of Minnesota grown alfalfa hay as compared with that of some of our other common feeding stuffs. TABLE LXXI1X. PERCENTAGE OF DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN DRY MATTER. = = Nitrogen- Brotain | Betrece |, Fiber | fee ||" ash AN falianeelarynnnss setcesttesececs seve 13.13 1.46 19.64 26.61 4.30 ReAKCIONEFaecessececsecsiese eoccenes 7.52 1.89 14.53 32.13 2.28 eT MOthiyy Eliayeeseseracesesescens 3.40 1.30 16.20 PATTON Eb o5a50 = CorneAOd det ac. -c-s-se-men sce 3.90 2.20 14.10 Bol) Vii Boece MBanl Gyrceccescrecetcscot eae -eeeace 9.10 1.80 240 5.6 :.GOlma |e weces (Soyer IMs (GED arose sconesaccossonuoces 9.00 2.80 1.00 GGEI4OF Tl) Se... Ee WiheatyBrans...csccrstersssceerss 12.50 3.60 3.60 Seo Ole | eters * Minnesota Experiment Station, Builetin No. 36. ~ “DOISIATC [VAn}[NOUSsy JO pjoy wos ‘ST Ajnf ‘doas paooas ‘uo7i¢9 vUoWMTIIdxY 3e yeId vyeIpy—'g ‘St we * bee wae Oe toe ? _ de OS ES he od | An ek SA SRE SS RIT We PS ee an Gh, ae base, i os bias dy ae FERTILIZING VALUE OF ALFALFA 178 ALFALFA. FERTILIZING VALUE OF ALFALFA. Because alfalfa has the power of appropriating for its use the free nitrogen of the air, it has a high fertilizing value. A crop of alfalfa plowed under adds large stores of this most valuable plant food to the soil. The roots when decayed furnish to the soil large amounts of humus which improves it for crop production both chemically and physically. The Wyoming Experiment Station found that when alfalfa land was plowed and planted to wheat, it produced $8 to $12 more value in wheat per acre than the land that had grown potatoes and grain before. Alfalfa land gave $16 worth more of potatoes per acre than was obtained from land that had grown potatoes and grain before.* In the digestion trial in which green alfalfa was fed, the solid and liquid excrement of the steers contained 94 per cent of the nitrogen consumed in the food. Of this amount nearly 75 per cent was contained in the Jiquid excrement. This shows the value of the manure, especially the liquid part and the importance of returning it to the land. DAE DIGES TIBeLDY OF AOG Miele al (Panicum miliaceum.) An examination of American Experiment Station litera- ture fails to disclose any recorded results of work done to determine the feeding value of hog millet. This millet seems to be easily grown and produces seed fairly well in Minneso- ta, hence this work was undertaken. For this trial,a hog weighing about 180 pounds was used. During the actual trlal the animal was fed 17 meals and the solid and liquid excrements were collected for a like period.. A marker of charcoal was fed to the animal with the first meal and another after the last meal of the period. Only the feces which appeared between these markers was weighed and used for the analysis. Samples were taken at the close of every day, and these were carefully dried anda composite sample for analysis was madeot all. The feeding of the animal and the collection of the excrements was done under the supervision of Mr. C. P. Taylor of the Animal * Wyoming Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 44. THE DIGESTIBILITY OF HOG MILLET. 179 Husbandry Division. The millet was ground and was fed with water. The following table gives the composition of the hog millet fed and of the composite sample of solid excrement. TABLE NO. LXXX, COMPOSITION OF DRY MATTER. Crude Nitro- Deter- A ie Pro- Be Fiber | g’nfree| Ash mined tein Ex’t Cal’r’s | HOR PMN Ei es. cscccccececacte«csnce | 87.87 |13.40| 4.47 | O22 | S8iek: 4.20 | 4.597 SolidPexcrenlent.-e-cessesessccet acess sees 15.57 | 6.75 | 47.00] 18.20 [12.48 | 4.542 The calculation of the percent digested of the several food nutrients is given in table LXXXI. TABLE NO. LXXXI. | Crude Nitro- Hoes Ash | Pro- eat Fiber | gen free | Calories ; teid = Ex’t | Lbs Lbs Lbs Lbs Lbs Lbs PTE OO Cae iis sc sencwceasscceece scenes |} 42.21) 1.78 | 5.658 1.89 8.11 24.78 |88.010 HGH CES 2 5ccs s-cacesokaeesses aves: 11.50 1.44 Le) -78 5.41 2.09 |23.690 DUS ESTO acceso cccncccesecnserecccoes 30.71 34 3.87 qlaalae 2.01 22.69 |64.320 PericentsDigcestedineis..ccc-c- 72.75 |19.17 | 68.36 | 58,86 | 33.36 | 91.56 |73.07 Ren CentiormnersyvAvallablestorBOdiyas |pecessescce|insseccesneel|-ech Tiacassodoode, ace. 13,970} 1.036 | 1.09 ING | ASL7 |) 253 35 3S INOS secesescceeesse 14,061] 1.031 eal 045 | .0842 9.2 36 ay IN@s Sooosaosons cose 18,410} 1.031] .96 O64 | .1075 | 11.1 37 ss INI. “casnosccco tease 15,285| 1.034 | 1.02 105 | .1140] 11.2 38 a IN@> ‘Ceasandecoon tact 15,025] 1.032 | 1.01 O88 | .1077| 10.7 39 os ING) 5 tS sdoobous05 003006 12,985) 1.031} .92 .053 | .0992] 10.8 40 bs IN@p thagssoooccowoance 16,150) 1.031 | 1.01 O54 | .1154] 11.4 46 be INI@5 ) cecosssonecnots 9,979) 1.035 | 1.17 47 Mi INV). @ocseq cogosendae 13,290] 1.037 | 1.16 Average..........10.76 48 ri IN@q OQsnsco. aessccoeos 11,657) 1.037 | 1.15 50 a IMO, oseearicooooncoss 9,301] 1.036 | 1.22 50 ia NO ELO Mm setantecsse= 11,649) 1.032 | 1.15 51 re ISIO)5 WO rccrascanssoc: 12,655] 1.032 | 1.08 52 i IN, ILO snsesncnoacanc 12,383] 1.032 | 1.14 53 es ING). WO eee soncooes 11,567] 1.032 | 1.23 DIGESTIBILITY OF ALFALFA. 180e The urine voided in these trials was analyzed in order to determine the balance of income and outgo of nitrogen and the energy of the urine. The heat of combustion was deter- mined by evaporating 10 cc. of urine on an S. & S. absorp- tion block weighing about .7 gram. The heat of combustion per gram of the block was ascertained by trial. The phos- phoric acid was determined gravimetrically from the residue left in the determination of the heat of combustion. Table LXXXV gives the analysis of the urine samples. The total weight of each of the several nutrients in each food material and in the feces was calculated from the total weight of food and feces and the composition of these materials as given in tables LX XXIII and LXXXIV. As stated above, the difference between the total nutrients in the food consumed and thetotal nutrients in the feces rep- resents the amounts that can be used by the body. We can- not assume the same for the difference of the total calories or energy of the food and feces because the oxidation or burning of the protein in the body does not yield the same amount of heat or energy as it doesin the bomb calorimeter. In the body, the protein is oxidized to urea and similar compounds, while in the bomb calorimeter, the oxidation goes further, and water, carbon dioxid, and free nitrogen are the final products. Hence this difference of energy in food and feces is too large to represent what is actually available to the body, so we subtract the total energy of the urine from this difference and call the result available energy. Another method used to determine the calories or energy lost to the body in the organic matter of the urine is to mul- tiply the number of grams of digestible protein by 1.25. This is the factor as worked out by Atwater and his associ- ates.* This was the method used to determine the per cent of energy available to the body from alfalfa alone. In di- gestion experiments Nos. 9 and 10, this method was used for determining the per cent of available energy of total food as well because in this trial the heat of combustion was not determined. In the trials where other foods were used with the alfal- fa hay, the results that were actually obtained are the di- * Conn. (Storr’s) Station Report, 1899, p. 100. 180f ALFALFA. gestion coefficients of the ration. By taking the digestion coefficients of these feeding stuffs other than. alfalfa hay as determined by other experiments under similar conditions we can estimate the digestion coefficients of the alfalfa alone when fedin aration. The digestion coefhcients of corn used were taken from Jordan’s ‘‘The Feeding of Animals’’ and are as follows: Dry matter, 89.4 per cent; crude protein, 67.9 per cent; ether extract (fat), 92.1 per cent; crude fiber, 58. per cent; nitrogen free-extract, 94.6 per cent. Likewise the digestion coefficients of barley meal used are: Dry matter, 86. per cent; crude protein, 70. per cent; ether extract, 89. per cent; crude fiber, 50. per cent; nitrogen-free-extract, 92. per cent. For the mangels: Dry matter, 78.5 per cent; crude protein, 74.7 per cent; ether extract, 50. per cent; crude fiber, 4.2.8 per cent; nitrogen-free-extract, 96. per cent. In calculating the calories of the feces estimated as re- sulting from foods other than alfalfa, the following factors were used: Protein, 5.65; fat, 9.4; and carbohydrates, 4.15 Calories per gram. The details of these digestion trials are given in the fol- lowing tables: DIGESTION EXPERIMENT NO. 1. Kind of food.—Alfalfa hay. Duration of trial.—Five days. Steer No. 181.—Weight at beginning of experiment 795 pounds; at close, 805 pounds. TABLE LXXXVI. Sam- Dry Pro- Crude pea Heat of ple Mat- | tein Fat Fi- ear Ash | Combus- No. ter |(Nx6 25} ber Be |i | tion | ex’t | | Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs. | Calories 1 niwAl fail faleseens ieee 79.70 | 13 69 2.04 | 27.29 | 29.89 6.79 | 153.320 GianGi7, | MLDPE CCES eres cascek= see 25.86 3.20 .86 | 11.40 Tots: 3.06| 50.370 | | Digestedhis...-e rss 53.84 | 10.49 1.8 | 15.89 | 22.56 3.73 | 1102950 Pr. Ct. Digested...| 68.60 | 76.59 | 57.84 | 58.23 | 75.48 | 54.89 67.15 Pr. Ct. of Energy | 62 37 available to body | ap | During this experiment, the animal eliminated 132.5 Ibs. urine containing 1.5 lbs. nitrogen. The nitrogen bal- ance was therefore as follows: Incomein food 2.19 Jbs.; DIGESTIBILITY OF ALFALFA. 180g outgo in urine 1.5 Ibs.; and in feces .41 lbs.; implying a gain of .28 lbs. nitrogen corresponding to 1.75 lbs. protein. The total heat of combustion of the urine as determined was 7330 calories. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT No. 2. Kind of food.—Al\talfa hay. Duration of trial.—Five days. Steer No. 184.—Weight at beginning of experiment 815 pounds, at close 845 pounds. TABLE LXXXVII. Sam- Dry Pro- | x | Nitro- Heat of ple Mat-| tein Fat eee ae Ash Com- AN? ter | (Nx6.25) Se bustion ex’t Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. lbs. | Ibs. lbs. | Calories al NraeAUfailfarsccceeecs «ce 79.70 | 13.69 2.04 | 27.29 | 29.89 6.79 | 153,320 8-9 TOMI RES) Saanedocbadodeol heed Se} 3.54 | .94 | 11.76 9.49 3 54 58,780 DieestedPereece.- RaDaCE 50.28 | 1015 | 1.10 | 15.53 | 20.40 3.25 94,540 Per cent Digested.| 63.09 | 74.17 | 53.92 | 56.91 | 68.25 | 47.92 61.67 Per cent of energy GE available to body S730 | During this experiment, the animal eliminated 134.5 lbs. urine, containing 1.43 lbs. nitrogen. The nitrogen balance was therefore as follows: Income in food 2.19 Ibs.; outgo in urine 1.43 lbs; and in feces .56 lbs.; implying a gain of .20 Ibs. nitrogen corresponding to 1.25 lbs. protein. The total heat of combustion of the urine as determined was 6585 calories. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT No. 3. Kind of food.—A\lfalfa hay and corn meal. Duration of trial.—Four days. Steer No. 181.—Weight at beginning of experiment 820 Ibs., at close 860 lbs. 180h ALFALFA. TABLE LXXXVIII. Sam- ple Foop CONSUMED No Alfalfa) ‘hiaty:.:.-. ..... 19 Cornvmeal=s.css--.5 MO Gall vecssseen ses 20 IEXXOSS saonnsasodocoang0cbs Estimated fecesfrom food other than Alfalfa........ Estimated feces from~Alfaliar..-....- Total amount di- PRAM GAG (oeoneecocossansoo0c Estimated digestible nutrients in Alfalfa....... Per cent of total food digested........ Estimated per cent of Alfaifa digested.......... Per cent of energy available to body. In total food....... In alfalfa alone... { Nitro- Dry Pro- Heat of Mat- | tein Fat Crude | aise Ash Com- ter | (Nx6.25) are bustion lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Calories 62.62 | 13.05 1.58 | 21.82 | 20.10 6.07 | 120,390 17 43 1.89 A7¢ 7 dors} || 216338)a SPAT 35,030 §0.06 | 14.94 2.35 | 22.40 | 34.01 6.34 | 155,420 19.51 2.68 67 7.97 6.05 2.14 38,650 1 85 59 .06 25 Bide) 14 3,65 17.56| 2.09 61 W.02)| 5:30 2.00 34,992 60.55 | 12.26 1.68 | 14.43 | 27.96) 4.20] 116,770 44.97 | 10.96 .97|14.10]14.80] 4.07 85,390 75 63 | 82.06 | 71.49 | 64.42 | 82.21 | 66.24 Momo 71.80 | 84 02 | 61.46 | 64.60 | 73.64 | 66.98 70.93 BracOnOoEE oct noob ob | lbcacoedaer! Idéccccsaceel scoaado0csd lloadkanaaacs 72.31 WENGE oes eal Seonetoee cs] ca ceeostc wal osenweeenend|betestees ee Ieeccotenee 65.707 i During this experiment, the animal eliminated 100.7 lbs. The nitrogen balance urine containing 1.05 lbs. nitrogen. was therefore as follows: Income in food 2.34 Ibs.; outgo in urine 1.05 lbs ; and in feces .43 Ibs.; implying a gain of .86 lbs. nitrogen corresponding to 5.37 lbs. protein. The total heat of combustion of the urine as determined was 4392 calories. * Calculated from digestible protein. DIGESTIBILITY OF ALFALFA. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT No. 4. Kind of food.—Alfalfa hay and corn meal. Duration of trial.—Four days. Steer No. 184.—Weight at beginning of experiment 840 Ibs., at close 875 lbs. TABLE LXXXIX. Sam- Dry Pro- ple Foop CONSUMED | Mat- | tein Fat No. ter |(Nx6.25) Ser ents han || -lbest|albs: Ibs. 18 Alfalfa Haty:.........0.- 62.63 | 13.05 1.58 19 Coxrnimealercss--ce- 17.43 1.89 77 PL OCaleenecsc ccc 80.06 | 14 94 P7539) 21 RC CEShawennceecenecenccess 20.54 2.78 69 Estimated feces from food| other than Alfalfa........ 1.85 .59 .06 Estimated feces from Alfalfa.s.c.. <-- 18.69 2.19 .63 Total amount digested) ::.....cscc00-: 59.52|12.16| 1.66 Estimated digestible nutrients in Alfalfa....... 43.94 | 10.86 .95 Per cent of total | food digested........ 74.34 | 81.40 | 70.64 Estimated per cent of Alfalfa digested... ...... 70.16 | 83 25 | 60,19 Per cent of energy available to body. 180% Nitro Crude] gen Heat of Fiber | free Ash Fash ss ex’ £. Ibs. lbs. Ibs. | Calories 21.82 | 20.10 6.07 | 120,390 08 | 13-91 24 |) 30 030 22.40 | 34.01 6.34 | 155,420 8.54 6.13 2.40 40,730 25 75 14 3.658 8.30 5.38 2.26 37.072 13.86 | 27.88 3.94 | 114.690 113.52|14.72| 3.81] 83.318 60.47 | 81.97 | 62.15 73 80 61.98 | 73.24 | 62.70 69.26 Rede cacmeee 70.61 eerenciesaoe 64.11% During this experiment, the animal eliminated 110.9 lbs. urine containing 1.14 Ibs. nitrogen. was therefore as follows: The nitrogen balance Income in food 2.34 lbs.; outgo in urine 1.14 lbs.; and in feces .44 lbs.; implying a gain of .76 Ibs. nitrogen corresponding to 4.75 Ibs. protein. The total heat of combustion of the urine as determined was 4.94.2 calories. * Calculated from digestible protein. 180) ALFALFA, DIGESTION EXPERIMENT No. 5. Kind of Food.—Green alfalfa. Duration of trial.—Four days. Steer No. 181.—Weight at beginning of experiment 870 Ibs., at close 860 lbs. TABLE XC. : Nitro- Sam- | Dry} Pro- Heat of ple | Mat- | tein Fat euse aoe Ash Com- No. ter (Nx 6.25) ait bustion Ibs. | Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Calories 30 WAN fallifial ce seeserees | 63.04 | 11.72 1.51 | 16.76 | 27.24 5.80] 128,330 31 IGol ISAS Geeconcodesose | 24.83 Sip bal 94 9.74 AST 3.46 48,180 WMigwestedtcce-wicsenoes 38.21 8.61 SOT TADZF || USI 7/ 2.34 80,150 Per cent Digested.| 60.62 | 73.46 | 37.75 | 42.17 | 72.21 | 40.34 62.46 Per cent of Energy) available to body. 56.54 During this experiment, the animal eliminated 98.7 Ibs. urine containing 1.38 lbs. nitrogen. The nitrogen balance was therefore as follows: Income in food 1.87 lbs.; outgo in urine 1.38 lbs.; and in feces .50 lbs.; implying a loss of .01 Ibs. nitrogen corresponding to .063 lbs. protein. The total heat of combustion of the urine as determined was 7597 calories. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT No. 6. Kind of food.—Green alfalfa. Duration of trial.—Four days. Steer No. 184.—Weight at beginning of experiment 850 Ibs., at close 865 lbs. TABLE XCI. = Nitro- Sam- Dry Pro- Heat of ple Mat- tein Fat puree ome Ash com- No. ter |(Nx6 25) Raat bustion | | | : Ibs, Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs. Calories 30 Trtalltailtaycccecssteces 63.04 | 11.72] 1.51 )|16.76 | 27.24 | 5.80} 128,330 32 Mwiefecesicccanscean sees 24.82 2.917, .92 9.61 7.83 3.50 47,260 Digestecdteccrsacccsesse 38.22! 8.75 .59 7.15 | 19.44 2.30 81,070 | Per cent digested..| 60.63 | 74.65 | 39.08 | 42.66 | 71.26 | 39.66 Coys} U7 / Per cent of energy Available to body 56,80 DIGESTIBILITY OF ALFALFA. 180k During this experiment, the animal eliminated 105.5 Ibs. urine containing 1.40 lbs. nitrogen. The nitrogen balance was therefore as follows: Income in food 1.87 lbs.; outgo in urine 1.40 Ibs.; and in feces .48 lbs.; implying a loss of .01 Ibs.; nitrogen corresponding to .063 lbs. protein. The total heat of combustion of the urine as determined was 7444 calories. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT No. 7. Kind of food.—Alfalfa hay, barley meal and mangels. Duration of trial.—Four days. Steer No. 181,.—Weight at beginning of experiment 905 Ibs., at close 905 Ibs. TABLE XCII, Sam- Dry Pro- Grade Dene Heat of ple Foop CoNsuMED | Mat- | tein IDEN |Satiaces || ace. |) ZNSE Com- No. ter |(Nx6.25) ? ness bustion GXSE | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Calories AL Alfalfa: hatyss:4sis-.- 55.Uu5 | 10.16 1.52 | 18.17 | 19.78 § 41 | 105,210 42 Barley me allic-scssess 17.97 Peper k 48 85 3.77 56 35,680 43 Wiha cele. ssc dseccesces Opa .84 ace 54 3.18 .66 9,840 AGG Al es csceeisc sees 78.34 |13.31 PFN a lhe eral oy iets ar) 6.63 | 150.730 44 NCCES Feaesaccccnteeaeekes 23.67 3.45 48'2)| LOALO 6.49 2.80 48,310 Estimated feces from 5 2 Fe y food other than alfalfa} 3.65 .90 pela ate (eo H | as eee 81 | 6,451 | Estimated feces - from*alfalfare- 2... 20.02 Pifayay sel! 9.37 5.27 1.99} 41,859 Total amount di-| * mesitedhet si accssaeete: 54.67 9.86 1.30 9.46 | 30.24 3.83 | 102,420 Estimated digestible Nees nutrieats in ovfalfa. ets) (0\s} TGl 81 8.80 | 14.51 3.42 | 63,351 Per cent of total) avg 8 a a food digested........ | 69.80 | 74.10 | 61.32 | 48.37 | 82.33 | 57.77 67,95 Estimated per cent of A | alfalfa Gipected cacares | 68.63 | 74.90 | 53.29 | 48.41 | 73.36 | 63.22 | 60,21 Per cent of energy | available to body. LirMetOtale TO OM= sce.llleorssccecsallciecseciewsea| sos seensncel lasassvaseesllecessss cls es | Cee | 63.46 IAT ret ere le eet beter neues | ee | 56.11* i} During this experiment, the animal eliminated 129.6 Ibs. urine containing 1.31 Ibs. nitrogen. The nitrogen balance was therefore as follows: Income in food 2.12 lbs.; outgo in * Calculated from digestible protein. 1801 ALFALFA. urine 1.31 Ibs.; and in feces .44 lbs.; implying a gain of .37 lbs. nitrogen corresponding to 2.31 lbs. protein. The total heat of combustion of the urine as determined was 6767 calories. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT No. 8. Kind of food.—Alfalfa hay, barley meal and mangels. Duration of trial—Four days. Steer No. 184.—Weight at beginning of experiment 910 lbs. at close 910 lbs. TABLE XCIII. Nitro- Sam- Dry Pro- Heat of ple | Foop ConsuMED | Mat-| tein | Fat Gide 2. | Ash | Com- No. ter |(Nx6.25) ext bustion lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs lbs. lbs Calories 41 | Alfalfa hay............ 53.34| 9.85] 1.47|17.60|19.17| 5.24] 104,320 42 Barleysmealiescrcc+ 17.97 223i 48 fis) U lS 76 7¢ 56 35,680 43 INGA eLSscescneacestssase 5.32 R84 12 54 Saks -66 9,840 Motalleciescecsccecens 78.63 | 13.00 220% i 8.99 | 36.12 6.46 | 149,840 45 TaN acoasonaoansoconoaned 23.11 Seplol: .75 9.59 6.84 2.82 47,280 Estimated feces from food other thanalfalfa} 3.65 .90 milst 67/3} || Lee S81 6,451 Estimated feces from alfalfa........... 19.46 Parl 64 8.86 aay) 2.01 40,829 Total amount di- BOSCO. coccscrcscnecss Dene 9.89 1-32 9.40 | 29.28 3.64 |] 102,560 Estimated digestible f nutrients in alfalfa..| 33.88 7.64 83 8.74 | 13.55 Sees 63,491 Per cent of total food digested........ 69.84 | 76.07 | 63.77 | 49.50 | 81.06 | 56.34 68.45 Estimated per cent of alfalfa digested ........ 63.51 | 77.56 | 56.46 | 49.64 | 70.68 | 61,64 60.87 Per cent of energy available to body. During this experiment, the animal eliminated 135.5 lbs. urine containing 1.29 lbs. nitrogen. The nitrogen balance was therefore as follows: Income in food 2.07 lbs.; outgo in urine 1.29 lbs.; and in feces .50 Ibs.; implying a gain of .28 Ibs. nitrogen corresponding to 1.75 lbs. protein. The total heat of combustion of the urine as determined was 6302 calories. * Calculated from digestible protein. DIGESTIBILITY OF ALFALFA. 180m DIGESTION EXPERIMENT No. 9. Kind of food.—AMalfa hay, corn meal and International Stock Food. Duration of trial—Four days. Steer No. 181.—Weight at beginning of experiment 925 Ibs., at close 940 Ibs. TABLE XCIV. Sam- Dry P5o- | - Nitro- | H F ple | Foop ConsumeEpD | Mat- | tein Fat | erage BENS | Ashe | Caan No. ter |(Nz6 25) leo IES | bustion | Cac , lbs. lbs. Ibs. | lbs. | Ibs. lbs. Calories 54 Alfalfa haiy---:...-.>-- a(a7U) 8.&9 M22) 2OL20) 223-70 4.70 | 116,560 BpmeCotty tne alesdcs- nsce- 17.70 | 2.45 75) .59 | 13.60 30 36,380 | | International Stock Food.. .28 O4 O1 .02 18 03 494. cRotale ese 75.68 | 11.38] 1.98 | 20.71 | 36.48] 5.03] 153,434 56 IRIE COGN so aioseccsecsecees 24.29 Satta -95 | 10.78 6 60 2.20. 49,750 Estimated feces from food other than alfalfa...| 1.88 79 .06 a2 5) SS Salis 4,138 Estimated feces fromialfalfac.-...- «+. 22.41 2.96 -89;10.53 |} 5.86 2.05 45,612 Total amount di- | FELCH Ba Wannan i pecHeorECuEe 51.39 7.63 OS 9.93 29.88 2.83 | 103,684 Estimated digestible | nutrisnts in alfalfa....... 35.29 | 5.93 .33] 9.67|16.84]| 2.65 70,948 Per cent of total | food digested........ 67.91 ; 67.06 | 52.02 , 47.95 | 81.91 | 56.27 Gis : | Estimated per cent of | alfalfa digested........... 61.16 | 66.70 | 27.05 | 47.87 | 74.18 | 56.38 60.87 Per cent of energy | available to body. | Tikal {HOXGEI WEYOVE looncneel)! npoocenceH ooneeeecus RCIA | teen eee le hee fee: 64.76* Mena fa fa eal OM xe; | eeceecenee|cense-aeass| peeseree-cs| seaceneee- Serna Resear enon: 57.99* During this experiment, the animal eliminated 95.3 lbs. urine containing 1.12 lbs. nitrogen. The nitrogen balance was therefore as follows: Income in food 1.82 lbs.; outgo in urine 1.12 lbs., and in feces .60 lbs.; implying again of .10 Ibs. nitrogen corresponding to .625 lbs. protein. * Calculated from dlgestible protein. 180n ALFALFA. DIGESTION EXPERIMENT No. 10. Kind of food.—Alfalfa hay, corn meal and International Stock Food. Duration of trial_—Four days. Steer No. 184.—Weight at beginning of experiment 955 Ibs., at close 950 Ibs. TABLE XCV. Sam- Dry Pro- @rude BEEOs Heat of ple Foop ConsuMED | Mat- | tein Fat | Fiber ees Ash Com- No. ter |(Nx6.25) aie bustion lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Calories 54 Atlfalfanhaty cscs. .scee 58.50 9.0L 1.24 | 20.48 | 23.01 4.76 | 118,170 55 CoralMiealtr es. ee tho) 2.45 ALK) -99) | 113560 .30 36,380 International Stock Food.. .28 04 O1 .02 18 .03 494 POA sess -sssertase 76.48 11.50 2.00 | 21.09 | 36.79 | 5.09 | 155,044 NTS BiGCe Soe eceitecesacecsncoes 25.14 SOS ASKS) |) DOES 7.48 2.85 49,600 Estimated feces from food other than alfalfa...| 1.88 79 06 .25 BS salts) 4,138 Estimated feces fEOtI el tall faeces acces 23.26 2.84 389 9.98 6.75 2.70 45,462 Total amount di- ESECU Ieee sesioseoceneces 61.34 7.87 1.05 | 10.86 | 29.31 2.24] 105,444 Hstimated digestible nutrients in alfalfa....... 35.24 6.17 239) LOLS OR M6226 2.06 72,708 Per cent of total food digested........ 67.13 | 68.43 | 52.50 | 51.49 | 79.69 | 44.01 68.01 Estimated percent of alfalfa digested.| 60.24 | 68.48 | 28.23 | 51.27 | 70.66 | 43.28 61.53 Per cent of energy available to body. During this experiment, the animal eliminated 106 5 lbs. urine containing 1.23 lbs. nitrogen. The nitrogen bal- ance was therefore as follows: Income in food 1.85 lbs.; outgo in urine 1.23 lbs.; and in feces .58 lbs.; implying again of .04 lbs. nitrogen corresponding to .25 Ibs. protein. * Calculated from digestible protein. DIGESTIBILITY-OF ALFALFA. TABLE XCVI.—Coefficients of Digestibility of Alfalfa hay, Steer 181 Alfalfa hay, Steer 184............ Alfalfa hay fed with corn Meal ISteet USA os. cccosecsoce. voce Alfalfa hay fed with corn MICA es CCCI SA. ccesecccsesscssace Alfalfa hay fed with corn meal and International Stock POX Seeeere SUS le ceesquoesonqccoseod Alfalfa hay fed with corn meal and International Stock POOGM Steer SA sees c.ceceeten res Alfalfa hay fed with barley meal and mangels, Steer 181 Alfalfa hay fed with barley meal and mangels, Steer 184 TABLE XCVII.—Coefficients of Digestibility of Ration. Alfalfa. 1800 Alfalfa hay and corn meal, Suesre a Bab La asencaccopanoccadsenaaseccons Alfalfa hay and corn meal, SSCECCIel SAceeaccencos.cueeseeeerccroeress Alfalfa hay, corn meal and International Stock Food, SCG Cte Slices: tere svesesacaccsectes Alfalfa hay, corn meal and International Stock Food, SCOOT, AS Bevcscsocsccecseccocsessdeececes Alfalfa hay, barley meal and | UA EISS StCCtel Sil. cs-esseses cee Alfalfa hay, barley meal and mianicels Steer 1S £........ccec0-0s Dry Mat- ter 68.60 63.09 71.80 70.16 61.16 63.51 Dry Mat- ter 67.91 | 69.80 | 69 84 66,70 68.48 —o io 46 74.65 74.90 77.56 Crude pro- tein 82.06 81.40 73.61 75 63 Ether ex- tract i Fiber 58.23 56.91 64.60 61.98 O27 | 42.17 42.66 48.41 49.64 Nitro- gen free- exe. Ash 56.38 Calor- 71.49 | 70.64. | 52.02 64.42 60.47 47.95 | cop laeyat Ash (er) bo H ol 56.27 65.13 63.46 64.24. “ ; a ae i ie > ne ey tp Vere ae y ’ 7 - ae ; - S i i : | a f i ge. «ys 1 7 : > fu ie = ; al=i ' 7 F 7 * 7 : 7 : ; ; " “a i _ Sr , / a : aM &; = =) was ¥ a oe » ; = # a ae = a “i wh Ase tse S52 bs Fe, eT a 7 - A ny =) ee =e oo t } 7 am 2 ‘ is a ie Se 7 — ° 4 wr oe le . {i= : ; nd ' _ : 6 ~ a i bd te — 4 . = 3 ee F = 7 2 uh 4 Pr, ns! a » i A ok =? = “e Po ¥ ca © i o ae td — ‘ as Bs “@ 5 ; , 7 7 ~ iia & : ’ | 4 j - a \ 7 es a - 7 7 x ~ | a - i = ‘ a , : a sd im = t : Se S3' \ 7 oa - 7 7 ~)- ¥ a Awe a 7 : ; | - ie : > ae J = < = ; = - : at = ° t2' \ 1 aes 7 = > te - z- ~esdte we Car 2 iL ae ; = acph : 7 Zw ‘ a ‘ ya - - -_ y i eee | ae ee * bes = c 7 : r pe = }, 2 " wy a 7 * Mi ” ls ay ' oe La 7 : 0 ) 7 7 - Al aa! a - ; i oa = AAs age, _ hig: a - ; F- = 7 _ 7 vee ae" : Se : y 5 5 a : Ae 1. rn De eee a sf e PP 6 pnt Shale = - _ ye 7 m4 ; i hoor ce rae ah 7 ; Se wee is ee onl {ang ee Naa ee eee : 7 ee ee 7 7 . a ; ; s ; . oat ae nt Be he ao = ¥ apn i ts (ray - J 7- a = 7 : : : ey FA i Ke < eo eo a ae 7 e. pge e g Poe Cae. Oe Nhe i eae cts os =F ram v9 4 ; : ir . jue {4 _ . 7 4 ra dl oo eau " “ ty eke y cate Oy AG ey a a or kee : 7 7 ‘QSHOP WoO JSvVoYION suryoo’y ‘uepreg puv sport ee ahietonct 2 ig Cay jae seri. aA DO ee ele an ae a) <4 See eas a le Teo Lad ae REVIEW OF THE WORK OF THE NORTHEAST EX- PERIMENT FARM, SINCE ITS ORGANIZA- TION IN MAY, 1896. EQUIPMENT AND IMPROVEMENTS. During the seven years from April, 1896, to January, 1903, the experiment farm at Grand Rapids has largely per- fected its equipmentin buildings, fencing and machinery. The original purchase included a five room farm house, a horse barn, 30x40 feet, a chicken house 20x50, ice house, black- smith shop and pig pen. Four rooms were added to the house to accommodate the farm help. Two large machine and storage sheds were added to the barn. The chicken house which was too large for warmth was made into a shed for sheep. The pig pen was moved and remodeled. An old root cellar, which was valueless on account of the rotting of the timber, was torn out and rebuilt with stone walls and roof of cedar, making a permanent structure 25x25 feet and accessable by wagon. Near this was built a small green-house hot-bed to be used inthe spring for starting early cabbage and tomato plants. Over the well a stone well-house was constructed with cement floor for churning and separating milk. A tank was set in the roof of this structure, and connected by pipes with the barn, sheep pen, and house. In the fall of 1901, a new cow barn was built, 30x58 feet, with capacity for 40 tons of hay and 25 head of stock. This with a hay shed, which will hold nearly as much, provides abundant hay room. The water works were extended to the new barn and an addi- tional shed for machinery constructed. The stock of farm implements now contains a full line of plows, cultivators, mower and rake, grain and corn binders, separator and power, wagons and small tools. The fencing on the farm has been quadrupled. 160 acres was originally enclosed. The acreage now fenced includes 360 acres of the 455 belonging to the farm and has been sub- 182 NORTHEAST EXPERIMENT FARM. divided into pastures, fields and lanes. Thereis now 2276 rods of fencing of which 770 rods is 5-wired sheep fence, the rest 3 and 2 wired for cattle. Before the state had acquired it, the farm had been con- siderably developed, and devoted largely toraising potatoes. Much of the land that had been cleared was brush land, and was not difficult to get into shape. The acreage under the plow at that time approximated 601% acres. At the present time there is 11234 acres under cultivation, from which the stumps have all been removed, making a total of 52% acres. cleared and stumped since’96. The stumps have been pulled but not removed on 5 acres, and on 3% acres all brushing is completed. This with 5 acres inthe buildings and yards, brings the total of improved land to 126% acres. Open ditches were dug to drain the low places, connect- ing the west side of the farm with the river on the east, the length of which aggregates 355 rods. The barnyard, sheep and hog yards are fenced with woven wire. OATS. The commercial grain crop of this section is pre.eminent- ly oats. Not only is thiscrop necessary for horse feed on the farm, but thereis a constant demand for oats as long as logging operations continue. With a necessarily small acre- age on a new farm devoted to grain, it would be unwise to raise wheat and buy oats for the team. Probably nine- tenths of the grain raised in the counties of Northeastern Minnesota will be oats for many years to come. No grain varies so in quality as oats, due to the greater or less degree of fullness of the kernel. This is affected by the season, and by the climate. Oats from northern regions are heavier than those grown farther south, as a rule. Varieties of oats differ from one another very greatly, some being much heavier and larger yielders than others, regard- less of the climate or season. It costs just as much to raise a poor oat as a good one, and the difference is clear profit to the farmer. The testing of varieties of oats has there- fore been one of the chief aims of the work. During the seven years, forty-three kinds have been tried. To make the test as true as possible, the kinds tested are sown side by side in RESULTS FROM GRAIN CROPS. 183 equal plots on a level piece of ground. They are kept care- fully separated in harvesting and threshing and the vields weighed and compared. One season is not enough, for dif- ferent soils and different seasons affect varieties unequally. But if the same kinds are tested for five years, the average result should be trustworthy. Table XCVIII shows the re- TABLE XCVIII.—Oats, Yields of Seven Varieties for Six Years. Minne- | Aver- sota NAME 1896 | 1§97 | 188 | 1899 | 1901 | 1902 | age peNioms eee | Yield 6 | Improved Ligowo..... 38.6 65.6 61.3 43.7 37.8 51.9 | 49.8 23 TENT COMME n aearceelenstsar 30.0 | 67.6 | 46.3 | 41.9 | 41.6 | 60.6 | 47.2 26 | Early Gothland......... 21.0 | 63.4 | 45.0 | 40.7 | 45.3 | 59.7 | 45.8 4. | Barly Swedish........... 37.1 | 53.6 | 49.4 | 36.3 | 42.4 | 55.6 | 45.7 35 | White Russian.......... 35.7 | 61.7 | 41.9 | 40.9 | 46.6 | 46.4 | 45.5 29 | Archangel....... ... oe 30.7 | 50.6 | 52.5 | 36.3 | 42.0 | 58.7 | 45.1 32 | White Wonder........... 29.3 | 56.1 || 49.4 | 35.3 | 372 | 57.2 | 44.1 sults obtained from the seven kinds which have been sown every year since 1896. These are the survivors of twenty- one varieties with which the experiment was begun. From these, in 1899, the Improved Ligowo was selected for seed, as showing the heaviest yield and best quality. Since 1900 the field oats raised on the farm have been entirely of this variety, and 300 to 400 bushels of seed has been sold each year. The oat is becoming widely distributed throughout the region and reports received seem to indicate that it is an improvement in many cases over those previously grown. But, as the work of the station is continuous, efforts were at once made to secure a number of new kinds for further trial, in the hopes of finding something still better. Seed was received by the aid of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, from Sweden, Russia, Germany, Finland and Belgium, and some Canadian oats were added, which had stood well in the tests at the Government Experiment Farms. In all, twenty were secured, which with the nine best of the old kinds, are shown in Table XCIX. NoTEe.—The yield for 1900 was thrown out as it was impossible to save all the grain in harvesting, on account of continued wet weather. 184 NORTHEAST EXPERIMENT FARM. TABLE XCIX.—Oats, Yields of Twenty-Nine Varieties for Two Years. Minne- sota NAMES 1961 1902 Average No. 226 Swedish Maxnvels (Us ss Giliiccecsssene FUNTRNGK ON os Aeecocéooconosonoecon6oss 8 et | 90 RE OTB VORtS=Sntecnc eae oe 38 | 10 2.58 = Red) Clowenr:.-.-<.------csenerre-s-s 6 “ im : 4 2 Oh . ATiiTaKoNe) the ppnoocdee Odeoo CEBTCORCOSNG 9 25 3.13 78 3.91 IRIEL (QUOK ES PacacaconedscnoosecsNd6eNS 5 8s 8 PSR OMUU Stree cvissaecelieacaslnesse inant 8 2 3.48 76 4..24, Timothy....... son900500 00000000009 5 10 1Reral (NON YS nsccooncade anbccohag9e5 5 80 9 ABITNCLY AOR? aoagoossano coasbdoonenaaaae 5 sf LS 3.72 565 4.37 1XEG| ARoy Osc asecancacoconodongcaII 4. 5 AKG GlO we teemtins seoescciiineniet 5 «“ 60 inte 10 ADUPEKORE AY Coosocopenac[Ge odsdonscucer 9 40 2.80 el! INfearoy oy Oalbbeels-oaeocces chodoéssooS 20 May 2,’01} 100 | 2.35 ASO OP iy itMcsscesicacsecncesesiseeces lewis Tow a1) || os aye LE ReEdUCGlOWerNeesessseeceese sere 6 MRE OE 90 3.50 76 2-28; The plottests asshown have beenconfined to the clovers. red, mammoth and alsike, and the grasses, timothy, red top, bromus inermus, orchard grass, rye grass and agropy- rum. Small gardentests have been made of other kinds, but none have given promise sufficient to warrant their use in preference to the above. Neither rye grass nor orchard grass. have shown any valuable qualities. The yield of orchard, grass both in tables CI and CII is seen to be nearly nothing and the plot is soon invaded by other grasses. Orchard grass appears to have some value as a lawn grass, as it catches and forms a sod, but it does not produce hay. Bro- mus inermis, or brome grass, which has been widely recom- mended for dry sections with good soils, has not been a suc- cess when sown alone, in the trials thus far made. It is not a complete failure, like orchard grass, but it does not thicken up to produce a large crop. It would be of more possible use on droughty soils than on low soils well supplied with mois- ture. Forinstance,in Table CI the yields on old land, sandy and rather dry, averaged for three years .93 tons against .74 tons for timothy, while in Table CII on lower and better COMPARATIVE YIELDS OF GRASSES. 197 soil, timothy for two years gave 1.76 tons and bromus 1.15 tons, or about 64 percent. This fairly represents the rela- tive value of the two grasses on soils adapted to timothy. The comparison on sandy soils is probably in this case a lit- tle too much in favor of the bromus. Bromus when sown in a mixture, with timothy, will persist from year to year, but will not increase, to form a very large portion of the crop. While the seed remains expensive its usefulness is limited in this region, though it might be tried on asmall scale for pasture mixtures. Timothy through the cheapness of the seed, and good quality of hay for horses, is the most universally used of any grass. But no grass depends more on the moisture and fer- tility of the soil, for the production of agood crop. The ideal soil for timothy is quite moist, rich clay orloam. Impover- ished, sandy or droughty soils produce very light crops. Witness Table CI on soil that had been in potatoes three years, where the timothy gave an average for three years of but .74 tons. In Table CII the average, on low soil well supplied with moisture, is 1.76 tons for two years, while in Table CIII, on new land, low, and five years from breaking, 2.17 tons were obtained in 1902. Timothy will do well on all land adapted to grass, but on land that is sandy, hilly and droughty, good results will not be obtained in all cases. Red top has compared favorably with timothy in all of the tests, as the tables show. It flourishes best on moist land, and is a valuable addition to a mixture for meadow or pasture, with timothy. Agropyrum, or slender wheat grass has been tried twice, with the plots. It produces a slim stalk without much foliage and a wiry rather impalatable hay. The vield is fair compared with timothy and it will be tested further, especially on poor soil. The results obtained with clover are the most striking, and important, of all the work done upon the Experiment Farm. Clover has the power of restoring fertility to worn out soils, by taking nitrogen from the air and storing it in its roots. If clover can be grown with certainty, it will make the difference between success and failure on much of the lighter land. The growing of clover on the farm has been a success from the first year. In seven years there has 198 NORTHEAST EXPERIMENT FARM. been but one complete failure, caused by killing out in the snowless winter of ’97—’98, when similar results were ob- tained all over the state. More important still, the clover seems to do well upon the lighter soils as well as the low and heavy fields. In table CI, 1897 with timothy yielding .74 tons, Red Clover yielded 2.3 tons per acre and gave in addition a second crop. In 1899, 26.9 acres sown to clover gave 64 tons, or 2.42 tons per acre. The winter of 1899 and 1900, and the drought in spring of 1900 injured the clover so that there was very little in the first crop, but curiously enough, it came in after the first cutting of the meadow, and produced a_very fair/second crop. In 1901 11.8 acres produced 19.5 tons of clover or 1.68 tons per acre. Eight acres of this was rough, rocky anda part of it swampy. In 1902, 42.1 acres were in clover, and the crop yielded 46.5 tons an average of 2.10 tons per acre. In 1900 the drought injured the catchon one field and it was plowed up, but other fields sown this vear gave in 1901 from 1.4 to 3.3 tons per acre of clover. Thus out of six crops there has never been a failure to catch, and but one complete crop failure due to winter killing, and one partial one from drought. The four full crops averaged for all fields and all four seasons, 2.13 tons per acre for the first crop. The second crop has averaged about .75 tons, but has not al- ways been cut. In the comparison of red clover with mammoth and alsike clover, the second crop, and the subsequent yields must be considered. Red clover will, as shown, produce a heavy crop the vear following the seeding, and in the fall of the sanie season will vive a second cut of a ton or less. This practically exhausts it four hay, and there will not be a crop on the land the next year. There may beconsiderable clover, but it will be scattered and thin. Theroot of each red clover plant lives usually for but two seasons, and whatever clover appears the third year is the result of natural seeding. Not cutting the second crop but pastari-g it, will as this crop generally bears the seed, resultin more clover appearing inthe meadow next year, but the main crop will even then be the other grass sown with the clover, or lacking this, wild grass COMPARATIVE YIELDS OF GRASSES. 199 or weeds. Mammothclover grows to a larger size than com- mon red, ripens later, produces more hay, but does not give a second cutting, and one season usually exhausts it as with the red. Alsike clover is of finer growth than red, does not produce as much, though yielding well, and gives but one crop ina season. It thrives on wetter soil than red clover, and it is more persistent in nature. The comparative yields of these clovers under best conditions are shown with great fairness in table CIII. In table CII the red clover plot was in- jured by water. Table CI gives a fair comparison of red and alsike on poorsoil. Ordinarily the test on such land would be more in favorofthered. Theperennial nature of alsike when protected in winter by sufhcient snow was well shown in 1901-1902. A field that in 1901 gave1.6 tons alsike per acre, yielded in 1902, an average of 2.5 tons, with a more favor- able season, nearly the whole crop being alsike. In the plot test in table CII alsike sown pure, gave a heavier yield in 1902 than the first season. In this test, mammoth clover, which had been cut late the preceding year, also came on and gave a large vield. But the red clover plot was over- grown with foreign grasses. Alfalfa has been sown in three trials using hardy varieties but has never survived the winter. With clover so certain, it will not pay to experiment with alfalfa in the face of these results. Taking up the subject: of seeding brush-land, we must consider blue grass. Thisgrass is nowhere in the statesown for hay, but in the southern portion is sown, or spreads, in- to pastures, and in time crowds out everything else. It produces pasture up to about June, but during July, Aug. and part of September there is practically no feed furnished byit except drystalks. Its only possible use is in permanent pasture. The trials so far made, while not extensive enough for conclusive results, indicate that in this latitude the grass is of very little use even for pasture. It produces but scant feed and takes up the ground in place of other grasses. Its use should be restricted. The widest dependence must be placed on timothy, and for general seeding this may be mixed with red top using about one-fifth of the latter. It will probably pay to add clover on ordinary soals and especially 200 NORTHEAST EXPERIMENT FARM. clays, and alsike on wet lands. Bromus would be worth trying in dry soils but it is difficult to cover and obtain a catch, on brush-land, and the seed is expensive. Other grasses have no proved value. Bearing in mind the biennial nature of red clover and the expense of the seed, the quantity sown with timothy for brush pasture should not be large. A good general rule would be six quarts timothy, one quart red clover, one quart red top per acre, which is 9 lbs. timothy and 2 lbs. clover, the weight of red top depending on its free- dom from chaff. For meadow on cultivated land, red clover and timothy should always be sowntogether. Alsike may be substituted on low ground. The clover will make almost the whole crop the first year, except when injured, when the timothy will take its place. The second season which is the third af- ter sowing, timothy will make the bulk of the crop. The subsequent treatment of the meadow determines the character and in a large part, the success of the farming in this region. Itis natural for many reasons, to wish to have this land in meadow as long as possible. No labor is re- quired but the haying, and more time can be spared on other work, as clearing. Again, when stumps have not yet been removed, plowing is difficult and slow. But against this is the fact that timothy will not continue to yield well on any soil, for a number of years, as the sod becomes tough and prevents the growth of new grass. On lowsoils the decrease will not be so rapid, but on light soils, the third year will sometimes see a diminution of the yield to a point where it would hardly pay to cut it. If meadow land is left in grass, the plowed land will be plowed every year for oats or pota- toes, and its original stock of humus and fertility sadly drained. Allthecrops will suffer. Thetendency will be to get everything into grass, and to work away from home as much as possible, instead of putting the time and work on the farm, and making it produce the living. If it is clearly recognized that sod should never be left more than two or, at most, three years, stumps will come out sooner, mowers and rakes will take the place of scythes, grass seed will always be sown with grain, and grain and cornfodder can have the benefit of fall plowed sod. The crops will be doubled, the fertility of COMPARATIVE YIELDS OF GRASSES. 201 the land restored and retained, and a permanent home as- sured. Plow your sod. Ifthe pressure of work is such that it cannot be done the second or third season let it beregarded as an error, to be remedied at the first opportunity, but never think of land seeded down as ‘‘taken care of”’ indefi- nitely. On the Experiment Farm sod has never been allowed to lie over three years. On the lighter soil the second crop of _ clover has often been plowed under or the sod fall plowed the first year. The only field that has lain three years is a low rich piece of bottom land. The first year it yielded 2.9 tons of clover in the first crop, and a good 2ndcrop. The next season that of 1900, the drought cut down the yield of timothy to about 1 ton peracre. In 1901 the field gave 1.91 tons timothy per acre and was then fall plowed for corn- fodder. On other fields the yield of timothy the second year has dropped to 1 ton or as low as .75 tons per acre, and if not plowed, would sink still lower. One of the poorest fields, rocky and partly swampy, which gave in ’97 a good crop of clover, yielded in ’98 .75 tons timothy. The following year this was pastured, and fall plowed. Grass and clover was sown with oats in ’00, and in ’01 the average yield for the whole field including bad spots was 1.47 tons clover per acre. _It was pastured in the fall, and in ’02 gave 1.02 tons per acre. It is safe to say that more grass was produced on this field than if it had been left in grass continually and the oat crop was raised inaddition. Timothy will seldom exceed two tons per acre, whileclover, with bothcrops will often go over four, but only when newly sown. A meadow fall plowed and sown to oats and clover will produce as much hay the second year as if leftin grass for the two years, and will also give an oat crop, and the ground will then be richer for the clover, and the meadow renewed. Examples of clover yields have been given in general averages. The best fields have gone as high as three tons for the first, and one ton for second crop. In’98 asmall field yielded 3.33 tons per acre. The second crop was fall plowed. In ’02 a field of 10.3 acres gave 25.8 tons of cured clover, which would have been heavier if the hay could have been cured more rapidly. This field in the fall cut 10.3 tons of well cured second crop clover 202 NORTHEAST EXPERIMENT FARM. from 7 acres, which grew toa height of 24inches. Nextyear this field will yield largely timothy, and will not be left in grass longer than two more seasons. One of the oldest and longest cropped fields has been seeded down three times, the first in ’96. The clover crop of ’97 gaveabout 2 tons per acre with agood secondcrop. This field had been cropped to pota- toes three years previously and wassandy. In’98 the timothy yielded but .75 tons and would have continued to yield poorly ifleft in grass. It was plowed for grain which in ’99 gave 36 bushels per acre, and again seeded with clover and timothy. The drought in 1900 prevented a good crop on this light soil, by spoiling the clover stand. A portion was tall plowed for corn. The rest of field yielded in’01, .91 tons timothy, and was then fall plowed. In 1902 this field gave 39 bushels oats per acre, and an excellent stand of clover was secured for 1903. The crop of cornfodder raised on the sod in ’01 went five tons of cured fodder per acre. Thus in spite of a failure of the stand in 1900, spoiling one of the two clover crops, the field has continued to produce good crops of grain, cornfodder and grass, solely through the rotation of the crops and the benefit the soil obtained from the decaying sod and the fertility added by the clover. No manure has been put upon the field since ’95. In seeding, the usual amounts used have been clover 3 qts., timothy 6 qts., or 6 lbs. and 9 lbs. respectively. As oats have been the chief grain crop, the grass seed has usual- ly been sown with oats, though wheat or barley are in some cases better nurse crops. The seed may be broadcast and harrowed in, after the grain is sown. Both should be sown as early as possible. The average date of sowing grass seed on the farm for seven years, for all fields and seasons is April 26th, and it is planned to sow as early as the 18th or 20th if possible. In haying, it is the aim to cut clover as nearly as possi- ble at the period when about half the heads are brown. This date, for seven years has fallen between the 12th and the 18th of July, averaging about July 15th. Timothy, when pure and heavy, ripens three or four days later. The second crop of clover is fit to cut about Sept. 12th to 18th. Its weight depends not only upon the season and the soil, VALUE OF CLOVER FOR PASTURE. 203 but bears a direct relation to the time of cutting of the first crop. Itstarts to grow with great rapidity when the first crop iscut. The earlier this is done the heavier will be the 2nd crop. In 1902, a field of clover was cut July 16th, and yielded 2.5 tons, while the second crop gave 1.5 tons. On the same field, a plot was cut for the first crop, 9 days later, or July 25th,and gave 3.25 tons. This plot yielded .75 tons second crop. Roughly speaking, what is lost in weight by early cutting of first crop is made up in the second crop. This second crop of clover is of great value to the farm, as it can be turned to whatever use the needs of the farm demand. Second Crop Clover for Pasture. It is unexcelled as fall pasture, lasting till well along in Oc- tober or after heavy frosts. On land lacking humus, or droughty it can be plowed under and will add immensely both to the fertility and drought resistance of the soil. Ina season that threatens a wet fall, it is best to devote at least part of it to one of the latter uses, to avoid the danger of its spoiling fromcontinued rains before it can be cured. In 1899 204 NORTHEAST EXPERIMENT FARM. one field of 3.37 acres was cut in the fall and gave 1.15 tons per acre. Ona second field of 15 acres, a portion was cut,a part pastured, and the rest plowed under. The year tollow- ing, the land that had this clover plowed in yielded 35 bu. oats and 14.5 bu. wheat, with a good development of straw in spite of the dry spring, while on some other fields the straw was scarcely long enough to harvest and yield very low. A part of this difference at least, should be credited to the clover. Again, in 1902, two fields, or about seven acres were plowed under about Sept. 5th when the clover was one foot to 18 inches high. Another field of 2.5 acres pastured 75 sheep from Sept. 19th to Oct. 6th, furnishing in that time about two-thirds of their feed. A fourth field of 10.3 acres was divided, seven acres, already mentioned gave 10.3 tons of clover. The other 3.3 acres pastured 12 head of cattle from Sept. 15th till the second week in October. They ran in it after this date. Clover will often grow with such luxuriance in the year it is seeded that it producesa large amount of foliage by fall. If stock are allowed to run on this during August and early September when the clover is getting its strength and stor- ing up food inits roots for winter, with which to make the growth of the following spring, it cannot help but greatly damage if not utterly ruin the prospects of a crop. The leaves are the lungs and stomach of the plant and it cannot grow without them. But it is reasonable to suppose that after the-middle of September, or later, the functions of the leaves have to a certain extent been performed, and it may be a matter of economy to pasture them off rather than let the frost harvest them. But rather than create the impres- sion that this fall pasturing can do no harm, at any time, it would be better to take an absolutestand against it. Prac- tice indicates that yery late pasturing of very heavy seeding is not detrimental. The field which gave the heaviest yields in 1902, was pastured inthe latter part of Sept. 1901, by cows, for three weeks, evidently with no evil results. Fur- ther experiments are being conducted along this line. Clover, while so valuable acrop, both forits first and second crop, is not so easily cured in this latitude as could be wished. Promptness, and the cutting of the hay in cloudy CORNFODDER. 205 weather, to take advantage of all the heat and sun possible in curing, combined with tedding or pitching over in the swath, will usually save itin fair condition. The second crop should be cut in wet weather, rather than in dry, that it may be partially cured when the drying weather comes. Occasionally some has been lost, in a continued wet fall, but in 1902it wassaved in fair condition, after curing in winrow and cock for eleven days. Incuring timothy, no difficulty need be experienced. The work done with grass and clover on the experiment farm is by no means complete. In Table CIII were given the results of twelve plots, six of which are mixtures of different kinds of grasses and clovers for meadow. In 1902, twenty- two different plots were sown, of grasses, clovers and mix- tures, including all of the varieties previously tested, and blue grass. These are so arranged that one-half of each plot can be cut for hay and the other half pastured by sheep. This will test the grasses and mixtures in two distinct ways, which will be a check on each other, and are sure to give use- ful results. Theamount of seed tosow of cloverand timothy, and the proportions of timothy and red clover seed best adapted for general seeding have been tested in a series of 22 plots sown in 1902. Results from these tests will be avail- able next year. Cornfodder.—It is no longer considered good agricultural practice, anywhere in thecorn belt to grow corn with the in- tention of feeding the stalks tocattle aftera crop of ears has beenremoved. Theears absorb most of the feeding value of the corn, and the remaining stalks are dry, woody and tasteless. But cornstalks were never more widely used than today, as a feed for stock. They are grown for this purpose alone, and sown thick, in rows, which prevents the formation of ears and allows the food material to remain distributed through the stalk. Here in northern Minnesota the reasons for grow- ing corn for seed and fodder separately apply with still greater force than elsewhere. The kinds that will ripen seed are necessarily small in size, and the fodder that would be obtained from thesestalks would hardly amount toaton per acre of poor feed. But it requires much less time to mature corn for fodder alone and in consequence the same varieties 206 NORTHEAST EXPERIMENT FARM. can begrown here for this purpose, as are grownin southern Minnesota, and nearly as large yieldsobtained. Cornfodder, grown in this way, becomes second only to hay in impor- tance to thefarmer in this section. In one way it is superior to hay. A bad season may materially reduce the hay crop, but with proper care and cultivation cornfodder can be Cornfodder, Looking Southeast from House. almost absolutely relied upon for a yield which will furnish ample food to take the place of hay. It thus gives to the dairyman and stock feeder a permanence and security which is of untold value to him. Cornfodder has been grown every year onthe experiment farm and has never failed to yield well. Records were not kept of the yield of the fields for the first four years, but in 1900, when the hay crop was cut down by drought to less than a ton,a field of 3.1 acres gave 14.4 tons of cured fodder, or 4.67 tons per acre. In 1901, 39.2 tons were cut from 7.75 acres or 5.05 tons per acre, and in 1902,in a very cold and backward season, it still gave3.9 tons per acre. The value of cornfodder was especially shown in 1900, when, in addition to the field mentioned, a second CORNFODDER. 207 field was sown as late as July 3rd, or after it became evident that the hay crop would be very short. This field of 3.2 acres gave 8. tons of cured fodder when cut Sept. 10th, or 2.5 tonsper acre. The following winter, cornfodder was the chief reliance for the cattle, and it has always been exten- sively fed to the herd in place of the hay which can be sold for a good price. The yield per acre will depend somewhat on the kind of corn used for seed. If the small flint or very early dent kinds are planted for fodder, the yield may not be more than half what it would with larger dents. In ’96this was shown in a test of varieties, when the medium yellow dent known as Minnesota No.13, gave 7.3 tons, and Squaw corn yielded 4 tons. This difference in yield is worth secur- ing. Any dent that will mature in southern Minnesota or northern Iowa is suitable for fodder in this section. Very late and large kinds, as Giant Fodder, are not recommended, as they do not mature sufficiently during the growing sea- son, and produce too coarse a stalk. In this connection, the time of planting, and method are quite important. The Cornfodder, Lower Field, 208 NORTHEAST EXPERIMENT FARM. corn, to make good fodder, should be ripe enough for the lower leaves to turn yellow. This result cannot be attained with the very late southern dents, and the fodder will be watery, sour and hard tocure. Dents from southern Min- nesota will easily mature to this extent if planted at the right time. The date of planting on the farm has varied from May 31st to June 10th. The length of the season will depend on the frost in the fall. Should the corn freeze before itis cut, it is greatly damaged, and its flavor and feeding value reduced one-half. This freeze in seven years, has never come before Sept 7th, and the average date has been Sept. 14th. It is not safe then to delaystarting to cut much after Sept. 5th. The earlier the corn is planted the sooner it will reach the desired state of maturity, and the more time there will be to take care of it before frost. While June 1(th is not too late, it can be profitably sown as early as May 25th. If emergencies arise demanding the planting of late corn, as oc- curred in 1900, a crop may be secured as late as July 1st. It stands to reason that in planting at this date, better matured corn, and possibly just as much of it, can be raised from the seed of earlier flints or dents. . The method of planting has much to do withthe size and quality of the crop. Planting in hills for fodder should beab- solutely abandored. Thestalks are largeand tough and yield low. Broadcast planting is often adopted, on the ground that it doesaway with cultivation and saves work. But the increased labor of cutting must beconsidered, and the results from broadcasting are very unsatisfactory. Weeds grow un- less the stand is thick, and whenit is,so many stalks are pro- duced, that very often the moisture gives out before thecrop is more than well started, and short sickly stalks result, difficult to handle, and with a total yield not equalling that obtained by planting in drills and cultivating. In proof of these facts, the plot planted in 1902, in hills, gave 2.4 tons, that sown broadcast produced 3.7 tons, while the drilled and cultivated plot yielded 5.4 tons per acre, or nearly one- third more than broadcast. Cultivation kills the weeds and prevents evaporation, so that all the moisture and fertility in the soil go to developing the crop. On a weedy piece this is especially important. In 1900, the plot sown broadcast, CORNFODDER. 209 gave 4.7 tons, nearly one half of which was weeds, while on the cultivated plot 5.25 tons of clean fodder was cut. If it is not possible or convenient to plant so as to admit of cul- tivation, one must not blame the corn, or the soil, for poor results. Three and one-half feet is far enough apart for cul- tivation and proper development. The seed may be sown with a grain drill if one is available by plugging most of the tubes, or with a common garden seed drill. It should be sown so that the kernels are not more than an inch apart in the row. This will take a little over a bushel of seed per acre. This close or thick planting insures small stalks, which the cattle will eatclean, and thus makes the wholecrop available. The wider apart the stalks are in the row, the coarser they are, and the greater the waste in feeding. Cornfodder will grow upon new land, and may even be sown in the furrow, in breaking, though it will not give its best results under such conditions. Still, if the soil is thor- oughly worked down and does not dry out too much the yield will befair. The yields are greatly increased by manure, which may be freshly applied in any quantity without in- jury. On worn soils the effect is striking. A sandy piece which had been cropped since’94 without manure, produced in 1901, acrop of 3.7 tons, while on the same piece in that year an application of 10 tons per acre of manure gavea crop of 6.84 tons, or an increase of 85 percent. This same plot was again manured, and in 1902 yielded 5.44 tons while that not fertilized gave 2.65 tons, a difference of 105 percent. The falling off in total yield for the plots for the preceding year was due to the season, which was one of the most cold and backward ever experienced. Corn- fodder will also do well on sod land, but it should be fall plowed. In 1898 the ‘crop was planted on spring plowed sod, and while it gave a good yield, the crop was not over half what it ought to have been, though exact figures were not obtained. The sod was not decayed and the corn suffered from lack of moisture. In 1901 this same field was planted to cornfodder on sod plowed the preceding fall. The yield was 5.05 tons per acre, due largely to the ef- fect of the rotting sod. The field had been cropped without mauure since ’95, and its fertility maintained by the rotation 210 NORTHEAST EXPERIMENT FARM. of grain crops, with grass in short periods. Where possible cornfodder has been planted on new land broken the pre- vious summer, and worked down in the spring. The crops of 96, 97 and 1900 wereraised onsuch land and gave large yields, while the cultivation of the crop left the soil in excel- lent condition for grain. Thecorn binder which is in univer- sal use in other sections, can seldom be afforded on new and stumpy farms. Cutting by hand is facilitated by the plant- ing in rows. The shock should not be large, though late in the fall, if the labor can be afforded, the small shocks may with profit be thrown together into larger ones for protec- tion. In this section it is not possible to stack cornfodder, as it will always spoil inthe stack. It should be fed from theshock. Cutting pays with coarse stalks, but where power and acutter are not available it is a simple matter to grow them fine by close planting. The feeding value of cornfodder is equal to that of timothy hay, with the advantage of being succulent. It will not take the place of clover or of bran for milk cows, nor will timothy. Butit will winter stock over in very fair condition. Sorghum or sugarcane is occasionally tried in place of cornfodder. The experiment farm has demonstrated that this is a great mistake. Sorghum will never give the yield in this section that cornfodder will. In 1900, a season par- ticularly favorable tosorghum by reason of dry, hot weather in the spring and summer, the yield was 3.8 tons as against 5.1 to 6.4 10ns for cornfodder. In 1902, a cold, moderately wet year, sorghum gave practically no crop—cutting 1.25 tons, partly weeds, against 5 tons for corn. Sorghum is a plant for dry, hot climates, and the seed is much slower than corn to germinate, which cuts down the growing season and increases the danger of weeds choking out the crop. It should never be substituted for corn. The same is true of such crops as Kaffir and Jerusalem corn or Dhoura maize, Teosinte and others, all southern forage plants, the results from which on the experiment farm have been even less en- couraging than with sorghum. Millet is a heavy feeder and does best on bottom land. It is apt to be light on sandy soil. Itis a useful crop when there is not enough meadow seeded down to produce hay CORNFODDER. 211 sufficient for the stock; though if cornfodder be used, there is not much necessity for millet. It is usually sown as a catch crop. In’99, after potatoes planted that spring had been drowned out, and failed to come up, millet was sown July 1st and produced over aton per acre. Again in 1900,a field of 4 acres sown the preceding spring to grass, was burned out on a south exposure by the drought. This field was plowed and sownto millet on June 27th, and gave 1.25 tons per acre. German millet is about two weeks later in ripen- ing than the common millet, and requires nearly the full sea- son toripen. It makes a difference, therefore, which varicty is sown if late seeding is necessary. The late crop of 1900 was common millet, and was well matured for hay. That of ’99 was German millet, and when cut, but few heads had appeared. The yield was about the same in either case but the more mature fodder was of a better quality for feeding. On the farm, the millet plots have been sown about June Ist. From that date till the 10th is the best period to sow the crop. If sown earlier, the seed will take so long to sprout, and the small plants develope so slowly that the weeds will generally smother the crop if they are present. In ’97 millet was sown May 17th, and the weeds choked out the mil'et. In any case, the ground should be freshly dragged before sowing. Once well started, millet easily overcomes weeds. While millet will produce a crop if sown late, by using early TABLE CIV.—Yield of Millets Sown in 1902. Plot | VARIETY Ibate Sown iene eee =] tons al (SIGIITAUT s550ndcs0n oponguonsocspsonoqsanone June 2 36 | 3.409 2 Ne BMCS Ghesedseceet vedegse-as so-eecgene: ue 40 S10) 3 Gnib@ialaiilassne Le adeccondoos: noose crests Of 38 3.65 4 TRIG Yea Hdca bec e cee rane ereeeT onceenero 36 2.90 5 ES artalivalke Ons titles aes. re-serreecesesaces= si 25 DGS 6 IS Nera coceesscnscoeonc]e Guouonoccdac ot 34 3.20 7 (CONTRO. | cpeccocanscnpognesdocececeonce eM 34 3.30 8 (SESATAIENS Gehonceono osee oneaponBcaaa Osos June i6 28 3.30 9 (S@harhanO ls cecooocondose codas noceaceooyc 2 33 3.08 10 Gernmaileeceesee-ccbe ere ence scenes =anne Jure 30 21 2250 iyat (COMMON erence stcsecssensereessscesecs 25 19.0 212 NORTHEAST EXPERIMENT FARM. varieties, it will not usually do its best unless sown near June 1st. The best yields of millet were obtained in 1902 on bottom-land brokenin’97, on whichsod had been fall plowed in’01. Table CIV gives the yield in tons of seven varieties and the result of late sowing with two kinds. The yields must be discounted slightly for dampness when weighed. The plots were cut Sept. 16th. Siberian and Hungarian are of similar earliness with common millet and were fully head- ed. The season being cold and late, the German millet even in plot 7 was not headed out yet when cut. Early Fortune is a hog millet but has twice proven very poor, perhaps due to poorseed, and the plot was nearly all weeds. The Japanese millet is quite coarse and tall which accounts for the large yields but does not improve its feeding value. Plots 10 and 11, sown June 30th are seen to be much lighter in yield than those sown on the 1st or 15th. Plot 9, Common, was head- ed and fit to cut, and plot 11 had begun to head, though the stalks were dwarfed. Butthe German millet on plots 8 and 10 was quite immature. Millet must be cured in the fall, and the task isnot easy. This fact must be considered be- fore sowing too much of it. Peas are a success only upon rather heavy soil. In’96, on light sandy soil 9 varieties gave yield of from 8 to 13.5 bushels per acre. In ’98, these varieties, grown on bottom- land underlaid with clay, yielded from 15 to 28.8 bushels per acre. They are valuable for hog feed, and where soil is favor- able, may be grown for such purpose. The harvesting is difficult. Peas should be sown as early as possible. They cannot be sown too early, and if late sown they suffer from mould. Corn.—The experiment farm has each year tested a num- ber of kinds of flint and dent corn, amounting in all to 25 varieties of flint, and 30 of dent. No attempt was made to keep these strains separate as it would have been impossible, and they must be grown side by side for proper comparison. The effort has been to determine the exact status of Grand Rapids as a corn producing locality by finding out what kinds would ripen there year after year. The data obtained applies to other localities directly, only when the conditions are nearly the same, but can be used as a basis of compari- CORN. 213 son for other points by allowing for differences in tempera- ture and moisture. Seed corn, more than all other crops, is directly dependent on the total amount of heat and sunshine during thesummer. The latitude north or south increases or decreases this total heat and directly modifies the kind of corn itis possible to grow. Corn needs a dry air and sun- shine. The presence of much moisture due to swamps and woods or the nearness of large lakes like Superior, with fog, retards its growth. There is a theoreical standard of pro- duction for each locality, representing the largest and the best corn that can be depended on to ripen annually at that point. All smaller and earlier kinds than this will not pro- duce as much, and largerand later kinds will not ripen. This standard shifts with the locality and makes it difficult to breed varieties of corn in one place which will be the best kinds for other and different localities. It accounts for the failure of corn, which does well at one point, to ripen at an- other. But districts as they become better developed, have uniformly improved the kinds of corn raised, as every one knows. This is due first to the reduction of the excessive moisture in the air and soil, by drainage and clearing, and secondly, to selection and improvement of the corn itself. These indisputable facts are often quoted to prove that northern Minnesota will in time grow as good cornas Iowa. This loses sight of the influences of latitude which will for- ever confine corn growing within certain limits, beyond which local modifications cannot pass. From the facts at hand, it is safe to prophesy that in the latitude of Grand Rapids dent corn of reasonable size may sometime be grown with perfect safety, but it will always be smaller and less productive than that grown from Princeton south. In test- ing varieties, the standard kinds have been obtained from seedsmen, and in addition, as many strains as possible from farmers at various points in the northeasern counties. Of the twenty-five flints tested, table CV gives the results ob- tained with eight standard kinds in an average of between four and seven years trial with each variety. 214 NORTHEAST EXPERIMENT FARM. TABLE CV.—Average Results with 8 Varieties of Flint Corn at Grand Rapids, Minn. No. of |Probability of Color NAME ees ts ever Rows of | Ripening at i Kernels |Grand Rapids A | ft Inches White and! . en ae = = : Blk Mix’d SOME NI fecosen 6 55, coos00000000" 3% 7 8 Ripe White Nortb Dakota White.... 4l4 8 8 Ripe x . Gehn or | , RAG : Yellow { North Dak. Yellow, | 41% 8 8-12 Ripe Yellow WUE Sits coocedabcoooodesnsacce 6 9 12 Glazed Yellow SMIWEWOS er ercesee er cseese sos 6 12 8-12 Glazed Yellow ADA BU Te oy ols oceoocbonncccoubsone 6 10 12-14. Glazed Red Kein oP biliipieescase-ssescens-c 7 10 8 Dough Yellow Wonptollonaescseteeceseects 7 10 8 Dough The squaw corn will ripen anywhere in the state, and planted about two feet apart, is fairly productive. The ears spring from the stalk near the base, which is troublesome in cutting. North Dakota white flint is squaw corn, selected and im- proved as the table shows, and is preferable to the former. Gehn or North Dakota yellow corn is the earliest yellow flint of any size. This type forms the basis of many strains of early yellow flint that are being ripened at the Wadena, Crookston and other points. There are several names for this kind of flint, and considerable difference between the strains, but the short stalk seldom growing over 5 feet high, with ears seldom more than 8 inches long, may be safely taken as an index of its earliness in every case. The Mercer, with a slightly improved modification, (the Triumph), represents the next type of flint. Thestalk reaches Six, Sometimes seven feet in length and the ears are 9 to 12 inches long. To this class the Smutnose belongs. These flints are not safe in this latitude, seldom reaching morethan glaz- ing stage before frost. The red King Philip and the yellow Longfellow, 8 rowed flints, with stalks 7 feet high and ears 10 to 12 inches long, are still later types and do not get beyond the dough stage. Dent is not considered as early or reliable as flint for pio- neer localities. Table CVI gives 18 varieties, grown from two to seven years, selected as types from the 30 kinds tried. As with flint, the size and height of stalk are the best indica- tion of earliness. The Palousecorn obtained from Washing- CORN. 215 ton, is very early but so small as to be worthless except asa curiosity. The Station has no seed. The mixed dent known as Bergs, comes the nearest to ripening of any kind tried so far. The ordinary dents, advertised as early by seedmen, will not ripen here. Illustrations are, Northwestern, Queen, Pride of the North, Early Butler, and others. The necessity for adaptation of varieties to locality is well shown in the table by the Whitecap dent. Seed which was raised at Prince- ton gave a stalk 8 feet high and did not form fullsized ker- nels Lefore frost. The same variety, which had been raised for a few years at Aitkin, grew 6 feet high and gave kernels which were well dented by fall. The Berg’s dent is a mixed strain of this yariety grown at Mentor in Polk Co., and this reaches a height of about five feet, and in that locality ripens every year. These areall Whitecap dent. Namesare useless in determining the kind of corn to plant. One must for his TABLE CVI.—Average Result with 18 Varieties of Dent Corn at Grand Rapids, Minn. No. of |Probability of Se ave we ee SE Rae fie: inches White PAlIOUSC cre scsesteesses ecco 2% 6 12-14 Ripe Mixed B.rg’s, (Polk County).. 5 | 8 12-16 Ripe NWVibibecaip:| PATtkit.ccscececesscasescscesess: 6 8-9 12-16 Dented White Sia A SHOVE orserecce osaoaseoeed 3) 8 10-14 Dented Yellow Western King, (Aitkin) 6 8 12-16 Dented Yellow Early Michigan............ 7 bes 16 Late Dough Yellow Early Yellow Canada... 64 9 16 Dough Whitecp Minnesota King........... 7 | bs) 8-12 Dough Yellow HATO ecetsretscsscueseasies es {/ 8 12-18 Late Milk Red Strp’d| Northwestern............... i 8-9 10-16 Late Milk Yellow Dakota Oveenti.-.----.--- ver | 8 12-20 Late Milk Yellow | Dakota Ycllow............. red 8 16 Milk Yellow Queen of the Prairie..... 8 8 16 Milk Yellow eaiialivs ell Uletsesrccccsesccecss 8 | 7-8 16 Milk Yellow Pride of the North........ re. | 8 12-16 Milk White Rastlers.---. neccocasscessogac: Of | 8 12-16 Milk WWihitecaip)| sErincetot.--.-s.1..-..------ 8 | 8-10 12-16 Immature BVElLON vam ON Opel a te.cneeneestencnc==nceerse 8 | 8-10 12-16 Immature 216 NORTHEAST EXPERIMENT FARM. own locality, either take corn that has been raised there al- ready, or experiment till he finds something he can begin on. It will be said that better kinds of corn can be ripened in this locality than appear in the tables. This is true in some sea- sons. The average season, however, will not permit of the ripening of such kinds and in acold year like 1902, even the Berg’s dent did not mature except in verv favorable locations. The influence of moisture was shown by this variety. At Mentor, a comparatively open and settled locality, it does uniformly well. When the seed is brought to Grand Rapids, which is further south, but moister on account of the pres- ence of more woods and water, the corn falls off in height and quality and has to re-adaptitself to the locality. Taken to a point such as Cloquet, where the influence of the lake is felt, though still further south, this corn will not ripen at all. To ripen corn two things are necessary—sandy, warm, well matured soil, and early planting. The seed should be in the ground by May 20th, preferably by the 15th. It may be frozen off, but the chance must be taken. Sandy soil is neces- sary for its freedom from excessive moisture, and consequent warmth. Manuring and frequent cultivation, to give the best conditions for growth, should then insure a crop if the season and variety allow it. Potatoes.—Are naturally adapted to new land, northern latitudes and a light sandy or sandy loam soil. They are an intensive crop requiring more labor and giving greater re- turns per acrethan most field crops. For both these reasons, potatoes must take a conspicuous place in the agriculture of these northern counties. The extent to which they should be raised over and above the needs of the farm will depend the market both local and general. Duluth and the range towns must be supplied, and they ship most of their stock at present from Chisago county or further south. The qual- ity of the potatoes raised in the northern counties is excellent and should insure a good market for shippers. But there is occasional damage chiefly from wet weather causing rot, which affects the keeping qualities. Blight and other fungous diseases are not prevalent. The foliage is usually healthy and vigorous. POTATOES. 217 The mostimportant lesson to belearned by anew-comer, in potato culture, is to avoid planting potatoes on heavy soil or low lying fields. The northerly latitude, with less heat to evaporate the moisture and warm the soil, combined with the probability of heavy rainfall at some period during season, renders the risk of injury from drowning out so great as to be prohibitive. Should there be no other land avail- ble, it will pay to ridge the land, and plant on the ridges, to allow the water to drain away. But when as is usual only a few acres are devoted to potatoes, the field selected should always be a well drained, sloping or elevated piece. The ex- perience of the seven vears planting on the farm illustrates this fact. The crop of ’96 on light, drained soil, gave 203.5 bushels per acre for an average of two fields. In ’97, a por- tion of the field was in a swale and the yield was cut down to 137.3 bushels per acre. In 1898 the crop was planted on a piece of new ground, broken the previous year, full of hu- mus and of a loamy texture, underlaid with clay at 1 ft. to 2ft. This was the best possible potato soil, with the excep- tion, that it was not well drained, and water was apt to soak into it from higher ground. In order not to convey a false impression, it must be clearly stated that this piece was not swampy, had born heavy hardwood timber, consisting of oak, basswood and poplar and has since borne magnifi- cent crops of grain and clover. The potatoes were injured on about one-half the piece,so that the yield on8 acres aver- aged 132 bushels per acre while on the higher portions it gave just twice this, or 265 bushels per acre. The following season this whole field of 11.7 acres was again planted to potatoes, about May 24th. Heavy rains setin and nota sprout came up. Three weeks later, about 4 acres of the highest land was again planted to potatoes, which came up, but the rains continuing, the vines were drowned out and did not produce a crop. As this season was wetter than usual, and in order to thoroughly test this question, 4.7 acres of this field were again planted to potatoes in 1900. This was the dry spring. The vines did splendidly until the later heavy rains set in, but the injurious effect of too much water at this late period (August) reduced the yield to 64 bushels per acre. The var- « 218 NORTHEAST EXPERIMENT FARM. ieties, planted on better drained soil, gave this year 209.6 bushels per acre. In 1901 the potatoes were planted ona sandy soil well drained with the exception of two corners, which were low. Upon these low spots, aggregating one-fifth of the field, the crop was completely ruined by rains, but the rest of the field averaged 158 bushels per acre. The yield for 1902, when the crop was placed entirely upon well drained soil averaged for the fields, 202.9 bushels. This figure is as fair as any to represent the average possi- bility for potatoes, when mistakes are avoided. Under good management it may be higher, as is shown by the average yield of the potatoes grown in variety tests for six years. These plots naturally received the best location and treat- ment. They gave 242.7 bushels for all kinds, good and poor during that period. But the average of the fields, omitting the year of ’99, was 149.6 per acre, the difference being due largely to drowning out. The question of variety, with potatoes, is one of great importance, as there is a wide difference in yield. The difference averaged for 48 varieties, for two years, 214 bushels per acre, the highest yield being 246.3 bushels and the lowest, 132.3 bushels. Earliness, shape, color, size, keeping qualities and flavor give a wide range of choice, but between two varieties of equal merits in other re- spects, the question of yield is all important. It is not easy to test a large number of kinds for yield and be sure that the results really represent their relative producing power. The sensitiveness of potatoes to moisture in the soil causes a variation in yield every few feet, due to slight elevation or depression of the surface level, or change in the soil texture. There are other minor sources of variation not due to the potatoes, but the difference produced by moisture is far in excess of any other. The varieties to be tested should be grown in plots small enough toconfine them all to a piece of ground which can be selected of fairly uniform character. If an equal number and weight of seed pieces be planted of each variety, an average of four or five years vields may be trust- ed to fairly indicate the best yielders, were it not for this variation due to soil moisture. There is a simple way of POTATOES. 219 equalizing this, though it has apparently not been tried so far to any extent by experiment stations. For the last two years, in our test with 52 varieties, a standard kind has been selected and planted every 7th row or 21 feet apart. The yields of these check plots were found to differ widely, but it was seen that where the check plots yielded best, the best yields of other varieties were obtained, and vice versa. The range in yield, even on the fairly uniform piece chosen in 1902, was from 282 bushels to 506 bushels for the standard variety. With such difference as this due to other causes than the quality of the varieties, no amount of averaging could be depended on to givetruthful results. But with this TABLE CX.—Yields of 48 Varieties of Potatoes, Average for Two Years. Per Cent 7 | ae Gross } , KIND eee ae wen Earliness | Quality ! Early Michigan................+.- 363.4 95.3 346.3 Early Feir Pit Zeta Weteescscsces oe OR foe aed vs ‘ : kas 7 BEDOR OUTBREAK. 263 pulse could not be counted. The heifer was groaning with each expiration. The head was very much drawn back and the body still sensitive under pressure. The animal died at 10:30 p. m. Autopsy.—A hasty postmortem by the owner discovered ' what he described as bruised areas under the skin. Death 9.—A spotted heifer, 3-year old, was noticed sick on Dec. 2,at 4:00 p.m. She died about 5:00 p. m., having apparently been in the best of health until shortly before she fell dead. No hemorrhagic areas under theskin wereinoticed by the owner. BEDOR OUTBREAK. The third outbreak which came under my observation occurred among the cattle belonging to Mr. John Bedor, living four and one-half miles east of St. Michael’s Station. Mr. Bedor had lost one animal on Dec. 1st, and another on Dec. Sth, both dying very suddenly and unexpectedly. These cattle had not been in standing corn. The writer visited Mr. Bedor’s place on Dec. 7th, and held examination post- mortem. Autopsy 5.—Bedor death No. 2. Parts examined: Sub- cutaneous tissues, trachea, cesophagus, dura and cord, post pharyngeal glands, thoracic cavity and contents, alimentary tract, spleen, liver and portal glands, pancreas, bladder, peritoneum, inguinal glands, humero-radial and carpal artic- ulations. All parts normal except as noted. There was a circular hemorrhagic area involving the muscles just below the ischial tuberosity. The trachea con- tained a moderate quantity of frothy fluid. Post pharyngeal glands were dark and hemorrhagic but normal in size. The pleura showed a small hemorrhagic areas on the diaphragm and there were a few on the costal pleura. Thelungsshowed in one cephalic lobe, marked interlobular emphysema, similar to that described in autopsy No. 3 (Caffrey). And in the left caudal numerous hemorrhagic areas. On the endocar- dium of the right ventricle of the heart, were several well marked hemorrhages. Bronchial and mediastinal glands were not carefully examined, but were probably normal. There was one circular hemorrhagic area on third stomach, quite typical. There were a few typical hemorrhages, 5 to 264 HAMORRHAGIC SEPTIC AIMIA. 10 mm. in diameter on capsule of liver. Duodenum and rectal mucous membranes were markedly inflamed and swollen. Mr. Ralph Richner, a near neighbor to Mr. Bedor, re- ported that he had approximately 20 head of cattle in his herd November 20th. Mr. Richner lost nine, most of the animals dying very suddenly, and the entire nine within a few days after the first case, which appeared on Nov. 20th. His cattle had been fed shocked corn and other dry feed in the yard, and had not been in standing corn stalks at all. On skinning the animals and opening the carcasses, the owner had noticed that the livers and stomachs were spot- ted. The intestines were not especially noticed. He would probably not have noticed any petechiz on the intestines, even had they been present. Dark bloody spots were noted under the skin in some cases. UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENTAL FARM OUTBREAK. History.—On June 6th, seven cows which had given a normal flow of milk in the morning, gave practically none inthe evening. Otherwise the cows were apparently normal. These cows were all noticed to be slightly ailing the next morning, with the exception of Dell 2. This cow was down and could not be gotten up. The others showed littleexcept dullness. There was no rise of temperature; no evidence of pain or discomfort. When they attempted to walk, the gait was more or less irregular, resembling very much the gait of milk fever in its early stage. This became true of all cases sooner or later, and was of course more marked in some than in others. There had been nothing new or unusual in the care or feed or other environments of these cattle except that for a few days and nights they had been kept in a pasture which had received some sewage overflow from our filter beds, by reason of recent rains. A salt box was located near the point where this overflow stood and the cattle unquestion- ably drank of this water. No other cattle had been in the pasture for ten days. Symptoms, First Period.—The symptoms during the first 24 to 36 hours were not marked except as to continued Fig. 1.—Ulcerations of Tibio-tarsal Articular Cartilage ‘Tibia and os calcis. Tohnson outbreak, post mortem number 1. Fig. 2—General View of Small Intestines. Caffrey outbreak, death No. 6. Showing many small, sharply defined hemorrhages on peritoneal surface. Fig. 3.—Section of Small Intestine. Caffrey outbreak, death No. 6, showing typical heemorrhages on peritoneal surface. Fig. 4.—Yearling Heifer. Caffrey outbreak; death No.7; photograph taken thirteen hours before death. Fig. 5—Hemorrages on Costal Pleura. Bedor outbreak, autopsy No.5, death No. 2. Fig. 6.—Hzmorrhages on Endocardium of Right Ventricle. Bedor out- break, death No. 2. Fig. 7._Iris. University Farm outbreak. The cow stands in an apparently easy attitude, slightly stupid. A moment before she was diinking and switching flies unconcernedly. The photograph shows her condition at 5:00 p.m., at 6:15. p. m. she was dead. Fig. 8.—Lou. University Farm outbreak, meningeal type; case in first stage, cow stupid. Fig. 9.—Dell. stupid. University Farm outbreak, meningeal type; case in first stage, ao Fig. 10.—Dell. University Farm outhreak. This presents the same animal as figure 9, but in a slightly later stage of the disease. Fig. 11.—Swine Plague Hzemorrhages. These hemorrhages involving the subcutaneous muscles resemble very closely the hazmorrhages of bovine hz- morrhagic septicemia. It is interesting to note that the specifle germ or germs of swine plague and hemorrhagic septicemia are not clearly distin- guishable by any known laboratory procedure. na = Fig. 12.—Hemorrhagie Diaphragm. Pleural surface. Taken from a case of swine plague. The hemorrhages are typical of those found in bovine hzmorrhagic septicemia. UNIVERSITY FARM OUTBREAK. 265 dullness, staggering gait and cold extremities. The skin was harsh and lacking sensation. This loss of skin sensation be- gan at the posterior extremities and gradually extended for- ward. The milk flow was completely checked or practically so in all cases. Second Period.—After 24 to 36 hours, diarrhea appeared, the discharge being dark and thin with very disagreeable odor. The breath in some cases was noticed to be very of- fensive. Nervous symptoms gradually developed and were very uniform in all cases. The symptoms during the second period were those which belong to a gradually developing nervous disturbance and were very typical of cerebro-spinal meningitis. The in- ability to walk naturally was continued, the gait being ir- regular and weak. The neck was usually bent to one side and the muscles, particularly of the face and neck, were spasmodically contracted. During this period the animals, with the exception of Countess, a large Holstein cow, were still quiet, moving around very little; ‘but the eyes showed a wild, unnatural expression. The skin continued to lose sen- sation progressively forward. Countess was continually groaning or rather grunting with each respiration; but not in evident pain. During this second period the animals com- menced to chew in a nervous and very persistent manner, with more or less profuse flow of saliva. It is also to be noted that the temperatures remained. normal or subnormal during this period. Third Period.—This was one of intense activity: The eyes continued to grow more wild and unnatural; the grind- ing of the jaws more active and more constant; the convul- sions of the face and neck muscles became more intense and then gradually a period of intense restlessness and activity, and death ended the scene in every case. Post Mortem Symptoms.—Several of these animals were examined and the symptoms as seen on examination post mortem were fairly uniform. Meningitis involving the spinal cord or brain or both these organs was invariably present. In addition to this there were hemorrhages involving the subcutaneous tis- sues, and lymphatic glands in various portions/of the body; 266 H/‘ZAMORRHAGIC SEPTICAiMIA. , also the pleure, pericardium, and surfaces of various inter- nal organs, particularly the lungs and auricles of the heart. Evidently we had here an undouted meningitis; not the specific form of the disease but one probably due to another germ. The lesions seen on post mortem are very suggestive of a hemorrhagic septiccemia infection. Diagnosis.—The veterinarians present, Drs. Lyford, Brimhall, Annand and Reynolds, agreed that .the clinical symptoms and results of examinations post-mortem war- ranted a diagnosis of cerebro-spinal meningitis; but the he- morrhagic conditions made it evident that we did not have the recognized specific type of the disease to deal with. Source of Infection.—Owing to the fact that this partic- ular outbreak occurred in a small portion of our herd and did not spread to other cattle on the farm, we were at first inclined to suspect the water in one of our pastures. The affected lot of cattle (our milking dairy cows) had been re- cently turned into this pasture and acertain small pond had _ been contaminated by sewage overflow from our filter bed, as already noted. But the fact that a few days later a viru- lent case of the same disease appeared in a heifer which had not, so far as known, had access to this water but had been kept in an adjoining pasture seemed to weaken this theory. In addition to this, the further fact that an experimental cow which was given this water only, for a period of about two weeks, gave her normal flow of milk and remained in perfect health, seems to disprove the sewage water theory as a source of infection. A careful survey of the history and surrounding conditions leaves us still in the dark except as. to the following incident: A sheep died about a year before of typical haemorrhagic septicemia. It is possible that the infection came remotely from this sheep and that the menin- gitis was due to germ infection, the germ of haemorrhagic septiceemia being the exciting cause. It should be shown in further explanation that the sheepin question was buried in a field remote, considerably more than a quarter of a mile from the pastures wherein the disease among cattle appeared, although drainage is from this field toward the pastures in question. Other cattle have been kept during the interval in these pastures without harm. We do not know where the UNIVERSITY FARM OUTBREAK. 267 sheep received its infection. The cattle may have been in fected from the same original source, or possibly there was an indirect infection from the dead sheep; but the latter theo- ry seems very improbable. The sheep in question developed its disease and died in the sheep barn practically surrounded by other sheep, and yet we had no other cases among sheep at that time and none since. PROVISIONAL REPORT ON BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF HA:MORRHAGIC SEPTICAEMIA AT STATE EXPERIMENT STATION, ST. ANTHONY PARK, JUNE 9th, 1902. Specimens were collected from cows No.’s 1, 2, 3 on June 9th and from cow No.4 on June 12th, at autopsies conducted by Drs. Reynolds and Brimhall. Bacillus bovisepticus (hemorrhagic septicemia) was obtained in pure culture from the liver and'spleen of cow No. 4 and was found pres- ent also in the lung and meninges of cow No. 1 and in the pharyngeal gland and meninges of cow No. 2, though in these latter two animals the bacillus was mixed with other organisms such ascolon bacillus. This was prob- ably due to the fact that the autopsies were not made until several hours after death. With the cultures obtained from the meninges of cow No. 1, rabbit No. 569 was inoculated intravenously, June 13th and died on June 14th (i. e. in less than 24 hours). From the rabbit the bacillus was obtained in pure culture from the heart’s blood. From cow No. 8 this bacillus was not isolated probably owing to the very great infection with other microorganisms which had developed after the death of the cow. Further rabbit inoculations will be made. In the meantime, from three of the sources, the microorganism has been obtained and one source, cow No. 1, the organism has been shown to be virulent. The strains of bacilli from the other two cows have. been inoculated into animals but as yet no results have been obtained. Your truly, F. F. WESBROOK. CASE NOTES. Tris.—June 8, 3:00-5:00 p. m. She was slightly stupid, in standing position, apparently strong and breathing easily. This cow drank naturally and did not show anything unus- ual except a slight listlessness. Died at 6:15 p. m. Iris’ death was very unexpected until withina few minutes before it occurred. See Fig. 7. - Vye Cow.—June 8, 11:00 a. m., quiet, apparently com- fortable. Could walk fairly well, not supposed to be in any serious danger. This cow had a slight convulsion at 9 a. m. 1-3 p. m. quiet and lying in a comfortable position, died very suddenly. : June 9, the cow found dead early in the morning in a 268 HAMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA. back stable, having forced her way through an intervening: door, which had been closed the night before. The cow had evidently shown great activity before death, although she was very quiet the evening before and not considered to be in immediate danger. Lou.—June 8, 3-5 p. m., standing most of the time, walked fairly well but seemed very weak. Died about 6:15 p.m. see fig. Ss. Sweet Clover.—June 8. Died about 9p. m. after an hour or more of intense nervous and physical activity. She was champing jaws spasmodically and had convulsions of face and neck muscles. The earlier history of this case is un- known. This heifer was taken sick suddenly in a pasture to. which the other cases had not had access and was the only case to develop in this pasture. Alzanka.—June 8, quiet at 10-12 a.m. Neck around to- the side as in parturient paresis. Could walk but was down most of the time. 3-5 p.m., down all the time, neck in the flank, quiet. 9 p.m., down with neck in flank most of the- time; quiet, stupid, stertorous breathing. June 9, 9 a. m., about the same as the previous night. 11 a. m. temperature 100.8. 2:30 p. m. a 101.8. 6:45 p. m. < 102.8. 9:40 p. m. ee LOLS. June 10, 7 a.m. temperature 100.8. Died at 10:30 p. m. Little change in condition until near the end. Dell.—June 8, 11:00 a.m. quiet, down most of the time. At 3 p.m. lying in the yard, stupid, neck bent to one side. She was quiet, although the appearance of her eyes and con- dition of the cervical and facial muscles suggested a tension of the nervous system. Breathing at this time was ster- torous. See Figs. 9 and 10. 10 p.m., temperature 101.5.. Down, quiet but showing the usual symptoms in the face and neck. Loss of skin sensation, etc. June 9, 9 a.m., apparently little change since last night. 2:30 p.m. about the same; 6:45 p.m., temperature 101.6;. 9:50 p.m., temperature 103.4. This cow died at about4a.m. June 10th. Countess.—June 8, 11 a.m. Respiration stertorous, re— UNIVERSITY FARM OUTBREAK. , 269 cumbent most of the time, but could walk. 2:30 p.m. pupil of right eye contracted, left eye dilated. 3to5 p.m. This cow was down most of the time, respiration stertorous. Could walk but the gait was quite irregular. June 9,9 a.m. Cow had died during the night and was found out doors having in some way forced her way through or under a very heavy sliding door. Evidently there had been intense activity before death. . Euroma.—This wasa Jersey cow, giving normally at this time about 14 pounds of milk, testing 5 to 6 per cent butter fat. She gave on the evening of June 6, 5.1 pounds of milk, testing 6.2 per cent; on the morning of the 7th, 2.1 pounds of milk, 5.2 per cent butter fat. On the morning of the 7th head was carried to the left; the left ear was more upright than the other and held back in a peculiar position, and the animal seemed stupid. June 8,9p.m. Patient was standing grating her teeth and showing very marked spasms of "the cervical muscles. The head was now turned around to the right and a portion of the right ear cold. She was not seen during the interval but supposed to be quiet and easy from what was learned of the attendant. At 9:05 p.m. this cow was found back of a spray pump in the runway, very stupid, weak and with poor circulation. She was in standing position and grating her teeth. Spasms of the cervical muscles were marked. This cow was apparently in very serious condition. At 10:00 p-m., there was great nervous excitement, the patient tear- ing around in a large room with short intervals of compara- tive quiet. Chewing motion, discharge of frothy saliva and convulsions of the neck and face muscles were contin- uous. 10:00 p.m. temperature 104. 10:30 p.m. - 105. 11:00 p.m. si 107.6 Died at 11:40 p.m. Note the very rapid rise of tempera- ture. Trudie Lee.—This cow gave no milk on the evening of June 10. June 11, 10:00 a.m., temperature 102; 1:00 p.m., temperature 101.8. This cow was apparently in good health on June 11, except that she showed the usual peculiar - 270 HASMORRHAGIC SEPTIC AMIA. expression of eyes and head. She was grating the teeth slightly; salivation was increased and skin sensation good, at least during forenoon; patient slightly dull. June 11, 1:00 p.m. down. When made to get up she stretched and seemed to feel first-rate. The nose was moist. 6:00 p. m., temperature 101.6; neck at right side, hair rough; feet raised several times in a crampy way, nose moist. 9:00 p.m., temperature 102.6, wild expression in the eyes, and nose dry. She died during the night. Examination Postmortem.—Only this one autopsy rec- ord will be given here. The findings in all cases were very similar and Trudie Lee may be taken as a type. Trudie Lee a Jersey cow in good condition. She died early in the morning of June 12. The carcass was in fairly good condition. There were hemorrhages in several places on superficial parts, under scapulz, etc. There were very marked hemorr- hages involving meninges of the medulla, but scarcely show- ing at all on the brain surface or in its substance. Multiple hemorrhages were thickly scattered over omentum and mesentery, and there were several on the surface of the liver. The heart showed many small haemorrhages on the surface; the right auricle being very markedly hemorrhagic. On the - costal pleura there were numerous hemorrhages of varying sizes. The lungs were deeply congested in places especially in the region of the internal faces. Lesions were all of marked hemorrhagic character. There were two marked hemorrhages between peritoneal and muscular coats of the uterus, which contained a nor- mal five or six months foetus. COMMENTS ON CASE NOTES. A survey of the foregoing case notes brings to light sev- | eral interesting points. In the first place it will be noted that the temperatures were normal or subnormal rather than high, until a very short time before death when the temperature rose very rapidly, notably in the case of Euro- ma. The evidence on this pointis not altogether satisfactory for in so many of the cases circumstances were such that temperatures could not well be taken during the last hour or so. In the Caffrey cases, where it was possible to follow the oe — ee Re UNIVERSITY FARM OUTBREAK. 271 case entirely through itscourse from the onset until the fatal termination, the temperatures were normal or subnormal throughout. In the outbreak which occurred among cattle at the Uni- versity Experiment Farm the disturbances of the nervous System were particularly marked, so much so that the diag- nosis based on ante and post-mortem symptoms was unani- mously considered to be a cerebro spinal meningitis. Several of these cases at certain stages very closely re- sembled typical cases of parturient paresis. (See letter from Dr. Hela under ‘“‘Caffrey Outbreak.’’) It should perhaps be noted that we had one cow taken sick with all the clinical symptoms of this latter disease, the symptoms appearing about 36 hours after parturition. (See ‘A Supposed Milk Fever Case.’’) This case appeared on May 28th and the cow died on the 29th, the diagnosis being parturient paresis, The potassium iodide treatment was given quite early in the case. The first dose of 10 grams apparently hadno effect up- on the course of the disease, and a similar dose was given about six hours later; this also without any apparent effect upon the case. The outbreak previously described as ap- pearing among the dairy cattle belonging to the Univessity Experiment Farm appeared on June 8th, or about 11 days after this supposed milk fever case. No examination post- mortem was made of the latter but in view of the fact that several of the cases which appeared in the general outbreak among our cattle very closely resembled milk fever in all points except in the history of recent parturition, grave doubt has arisin in the mind of the writer whether the sap- posed milk fever case was not acerebro spinal type of hz- morrhagic septicaemia instead of parturient paresis. The writer can well understand that a suspicion as to the accu- racy of the diagnosis in an apparently typical case of partu- rient paresis may appear somewhat peculiar tosay the least, but to those of us who saw the cases among our University Farm cattle it does not seem peculiar at all. There does not appear any reason why this peculiar type of haemorrhagic septiceemia could not appear 36 hours after parturition as well as at any other period. If we consider the sudden checking of milk flow, the constipation, the posterior pa- 272 HAMORRHAGIC SEPTIC AIMIA. ralysis, the lack of skin sensation, the recumbent position with the bead in the flank much of the time, the reason for doubting an apparently clear diagnosis may be easily un- understood. A peculiar fact which appeared in connection with our University Farm cases was noticed by the attendants, and every one who saw the case, viz: That the animals nearly all died in what they called ‘‘inverse ratio’’ i. e., the cases which were apparently most seriously sick early in their his- tories were the cases which lived the longest, whereas the apparently milder cases died very quickly and very unex- pectedly. Thosecases which wereapparently most seriously sick were the ones which lived until the last ones of the out- break. The Vye cow is an instance in point. If the brief convulsion on the morning of June 8th had not been seen, this cow would not ordinarily been considered sick at all be- yond a very slight diarrcea. Iris was standing in the yard drinking, switching flies, showing nothing whatever apparently wrong with her ex- cept slight listlessness as seen in the accompanying photo graph, and yet she died very suddenly and unexpectedly, without developing serious symptoms until a very short time before death. . In none of these cases witnessed by the writer has there been a rise of temperature, nor any tenderness of pressure over the spinal column more than elsewhere over the body, but quite a number have shown a hypersensitive condition of the skin in general. None of the cases seen by the writer presented unnatural heat at the base of the horns or throat paralysis. It will be seen that although the State Farm outbreak was unquestionably a cerebro spinal meningitis as proven by ante-mortem and postmortem symptoms, yet it differed in very many particulars from cerebro-spinal menin-— gitis as it appears in the human family. wis ee ae 2 ow. ae COMMENTS. , 273 A CASE OF OVINE HAAMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA. A show sheep in fine condition 10 months old, which ar- © rived from Canada about the middle of February, was noticed sick February 17th, died on the 18th. This animal was examined on the 17th about 4p.m. The patient show- ed peculiar breathing there being two or three short, moder- ately full respirations and then a considerable interval, Respirations were not very rapid, and quite unlike an or- dinary pneumonia. Neither nasal discharge nor cough was noticed. Temperature and pulse were not taken. This was supposed to be acase of common catarrh and not thought serious. The animal died very unexpectedly. Autopsy.—Several bright, sharply defined hzemorrhagic areas were found on the inner surface of the skin, after re- - moving an excessive amount of fat. There were no hzmorr- hages on the superficial muscles. The small intestines were evenly and generally congested but this was comparatively slight. No heorrhage upon any portion of the alimentary tract. Lungs were as if they had been taken from a hog during an outbreak of hog cholera and swine plague, and wer: typical of the latter disease. The collapsed areas amounted to probably one-third of the entirelung substance. The heart. showed extensive hemorrhagic infiltrations especially the auricles. Report from Dr. Wesbrook, director of the Bacteriological Laboratory of the State Board of Health, was to the effect that pure cultures of Bacillus bovisepticus were recovered. SUPPOSED MILK FEVER CASE. A Jersey cow, high dairy type, belonging to the Univer- sity Experimental Farm, calved May 28. She was noticed sick on May 29, and when seen by the writer had lost volun- tary control of the limbs; skinsensation was poor over most of the body surface. She was rather quiet with the head in the flank, and the usual retention of feces and urine. Iodide of potassium 10 gramms was dissolyed in a quart of warm water at 10:30 a.m. May 29th. One-fourth of this was in-. jected into each gland. This treatment apparently had very 274 HASMORRHAGIC SEPTICAMIA. little effect and the dose was repeated at 9 a. m. May 30th. This second dose was practically without effect and the cow died some time during the same afternoon. We did not ex- pect the cow to die at this time and she was not seen during the last few hours. In view of the symptoms which were seen in one general outbreak of haemorrhagic septicemia where several cases very closely simulated milk fever, thesug- gestion may not appear unreasonable that this case was either not a case of milk fever or else, if you please, a case of milk fever caused by the same germ which was apparently responsible for the development of other cases, which ap- peared later. See University Farm Outbreak. SUSPECTED OUTBREAKS’ NOT UNDER THE PER- SONAL OBSERVATION OF THE WRITER. Mr. Wm. L. Hoover, Faribault, called at my office on Dec. 29th and said he had 17 head of cattle coming two years of age and had lost four; the first case about Dec. Ist, and the last one about Dec. 27th. The first three died with- in a week, leaving quite an interval before the fourth one died on Dec. 27th. All of these animals died very suddenly. The owner noticed on skinning the animals hemorrhagic, areas on the body surface, particularly on the neck, and stated that a similar condition may have been present in every case, but it wasnot noticed. Hedid notknow whether similar areas had appeared uponthe vicera or not. Had not thought of this in making an examination and did not look for them. Mr. E. G. Stark, of Silver Creek, Twp., Wright Co.,came to see me on Dec. 29, concerning the loss of cattle in his neighborhood. He reported that Mr. Isaac Carter had lost three cattle in about a week—out of a total of twelve head. This occurred just before Christmas. The first one died in about six hours after having been noticed sick. The two others also died very suddenly. Hecould give no informa- tion concerning the postmortem conditions, but stated that the cattlehad been fed onshockedcorn and kept in the stable and yard. Later I recived a letter from Mr. Stark, dated Jan. 28, ors; et tees iy YS TS oe es oe eee 4 4 Ce rs > at “ie “ — 4 ee ce ee eee OTHER OUTBREAKS. 275 giving more definite information concerning losses among Mr. Carter’s cattle. He states that the first one died about Dec. 10. It had been found sick in the morning and died about 3:30 p.m. The second died about ten days later. On coming up a hill on its return the animal stumbled and fell over dead, and as he states, “it did not even kick after fall- ing.’’ This was a two year old steer. The third animal died about four days later. This one was taken sick at about eleven in the morning and lived until four o’clock the next morning, suffering very severely, at least so the owner sup- posed, This probably means that the animal did consider- able struggling and possibly groaning while down. The fourth animal was a young cow, and as he expressed it, ‘“‘she also died hard.’’ About Jan. 5 or 6, two animals were found dead in the barn in the morning and the next morning two more animals were found dead. None of these four last animals had been noticed sick. At the time of this outbreak Mr. Carter had 16 head of cattle and lost eight. The owner informed Mr. Stark that those cases which had lived long enough to give an opportunity for observations had seemed very tender to the touch, particularly over the spine and near the base of the brain. The heads were drawn as far back as possible and the eyes ‘‘rolled up.’’ The animals that died had been fed corn on the stalk. One interesting bit of information in connection with this outbreak was to the effect that the owner had these eight animals drawn out just behind his stacks within afew yards of the barnyard after having removed the skin, and that no further cases appeared. One of the neighbors who skinned most of these animals for Mr. Carter had a nice lot of cattle, but his cattle receiyed no infection. Mr. Peter Nelson had lost eight and killed two out of a total of seventeen head. The first case appeared early in November. The deaths with the exception of two, came very close together. These twodied a week or so later. No care- ful examination postmortem was made, and no further in- formation was obtainable from Mr. Nelson. Mr. Jens Sorenson, of Monticello, wrote me on December 7 concerning some disease among a neighbor’s cattle. His letter was to the effect that a certain neighbor had lost eight 276 HA MORRHAGIC SEPTICAIMIA. cattle, and other neighbors (full information not given) had lost cattle from this disease. Some of these cattle which the owners had supposed to bein perfect health had dropped suddenly and died practically without struggling. Others had lived a few hours after being taken sick. The neighbors had noticed that these which lived for a few hours appeared very sensitive along the spinal column. This is very meagre information of course, and may pertain to either hamorr- hagic septiceemia, meningitis or corn stalk disease if there is such a disease. Richard Anderson, Belle Plaine, Paxton township, Sib- ley Co., living two miles north of town, had eleven head and tost four. The first one died about November 13th, the last one November 29th. None were'sick at the time the in- formation was received. The period of sickness was given as approximately three hours, but varied. The owner stated that the head was drawn backward after the animals went down; dark red areas were noticed under the skin, but no spots. were seen ontheinternal organs. His cattle were con- fined to the yard and usually given dry feed, including shock- ed corn fodder. Mr. Anderson noticed also the peculiar grunting expiration, unusual sensitiveness of the body surface under pressure, and that theanimals were disinclined to walk around, being apparently sore. He described the typical condition of the intestines and rectal mucous membrane. 217 HAMORRHAGIC SEPTICAMIA *pidex ‘Juasoid JON uol}{sodmooap ‘[ersua4y,, ‘yap LALLD PUD ALOLAQ JUASALT [BULLION ‘Te ULION ‘mnios ulejyuo0o ABT uosoid oq APM mnIIg *AyIsusyur *pouotysonb st pur ozs ULA[}B01s ATVAy|sIsouseIp yng ‘poz1o0doay|4re0y ut anov0 Aem ‘Te1eMed 4oN “puaf pun *HOI}EINSvOD puy s00e 4 UOTZB[NSvOd fnyyosf ‘yunp own) woiyy|-readde yewasou AyyensgQ pue 1oO[Oo [BPULION *£pooyq s}uszu09 jeurjysezur ‘uo1jzediysuoD ‘souvivodde [ePuION *"sasvo 19430 “pUESqY Ul JUuoseid aq AVIV, “snojnuiashydua pues poyiem Aljensy ‘uappns Aljensy ‘uappns 06-08 OOT-O8 *a1q17da0sns “Sop pure yvos ‘deays ‘sessoy ‘ay};e9| “4rod pure deoys ‘ot}30 dunox ATIYS HS Jnq ‘aurMs, *UOI}BUTIOJUI ON [ey pue z9wUINS ‘suedio Ls0yestdser ATq1ssod “UOUYINIOUT pus ‘suesio oAtsedtp ATquqorg *‘[e00’'T *[B00'T *synys “Opo ‘SosrBYOSIp pooy A[qveqord ‘u1e41990 9 |‘sassvoivo ‘19}BM 'pooy *sermoumnend snoo090;dr STIV[NT[OIIE}UT sno90990;d1g *TOANVYO snipe, “SIPS UTUOW 1eurds-o1qa19D (‘327 yOe1a) Sa ee xBiqquy o4va0 Jd WAS “puashyduia y'}usseid JON ‘yfos yinp ‘pahinyug ‘TeULMOpe ut ATeIoadsa} “yuoseud Atyensn wnses ystppely “SONsSsT} SnOdUe|NoGUS pue ssuny |SU,S10[[v Ajrvou'|ersua4) MWD UL UA PIs USIOP UOYDIN -hn00ajgaaf hppnu 40 yLoq Pp, U1eys poolq A]jUenbery “yWep JO pouteys poor Souryomog| "yuep uo peureys poorg Ayuenbery ‘uappns OOT-O8 , Tersues AIDA *surids aM Sur -MO]]O} ‘JomuINs A1p‘pOH “WOTPeTNooUT pur ‘sesso Aropertdser ‘suvdlo oatysediq “‘ppnadds ap *qoafqo pezooajur Auy *‘s1OBIQIUL sHipovg xviqjuy SNOPUDINIQNS OU 4‘SISBD d}NOe UT wey *yuasoid JON ‘soSeysIOM@My [epy -iadns jd90x9 [vWION ‘quanbaLf sabpystowayy , peuygep Aj1veyo ‘jer0ue3 ‘jueseid Aljensy ‘UOI}B[NSvOD puv sduvivodde [eur4t0N|-t10 [e19ues) p.ureys pooylq A[JUeNba1 peuleys pool somijzomo0g “‘yuesqe 10 ZYBIIS ‘OImO1YS UI MOJS ‘9}n0v UL Uoppng 06-08 *|ears0B AIDA *qUdIAyIpUl ‘uMOUyUy) *pozi[eo0’y cumouyquy ‘snorydestaoq snyjiovg erIma2o1} -dos ose y1i0o mY yy at *(qQ Bop 13zJe TOOS) ‘ses snoourjynoqng PTOI 1 0 (= =) (0K srereeee* SOTITABD SNOIIG srevsecoes SOB UIIOWMH peor con **(GoIyRIND ‘poold “Asdoqny Cecccccccssencees teres: S00 seceee sbersvedersies => S STUNT): “SS UITIMS [200] Kot nde eo 400- “980 ‘sumogduaks *qu00 a9d ‘Aq 1[B710TT “seuiue s[qizdaosng evceere SULIOAV uosvas reveereeeeeeseeeen OTA DIU cafe ve (Vev91q nO 9] 3uts) ‘pveids Jo JUN, xq ee eeeeeeeeeee pvoads MOH seeeeeeeee ms1uvsi0 ‘OV “SIZISUTUO TL yeurdsorqe1e9 pue (Se]-H0v 1g) xvayquy oemoidurdg ‘xvayjuy ‘eimeondes o1seqitomey jo Apnyg earivaeduog Vv 278 HA MORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA. DIAGNOSIS. It is very important to distinguish between black leg and hzmorrhagica septiceemia, because so far as our present knowledge extends, we are practically helpless in the presence of hamorrhagica septicemia. We know almost nothing concerning the method of its spread, method of infection, and we have no vaccine either preventive or curative, and no medicinal treatment; whereas black leg can be easily and cheaply prevented by vaccination. The diagnosis must de- pend upon the history and what can be learned of the ante- mortem symptoms and the results of examinations post- mortem. Ditterential Diagnosis.—So far as the facts occur to the writer at present, the differential diagnosis comes between hemorrhagica septiceemia, black leg, true anthrax and pos- sibly corn stalk disease, if there is a disease which is any longer entitled to this name. There can be no question but that hzmorrhagica septiceemia has been frequently con- founded in the past with other diseases, particularly black leg and true anthrax. Anthrax has been so very rare in Minnesota during the past ten years that I will leave it out it of the discussion in order to simplify. There is developing a grave question as to whether there issuch a disease ascorn stalk disease. This narrows the differential diagnosis down to black leg and cerebro spinal meningitis, either of which might be easily confused with the disease under discussion. In my discussion of the distinction between black leg and hzmorrhagica septiczemia I willhave nothing to say concern- ing laboratory work, because very few stockmen in the event of an outbreak of heemorrhagica septicaemia or black leg have access to bacteriological laboratories. I do not wish to give the inference that I underestimate the importance of labora- tory work; on the eontrary, a diagnosis in the bacteriologic- al laboratory may be positive, accurate, and in some cases the only means of making an accurate diagnosis. The ante-mortem differential diagnosis, exclusive of la- _ boratory findings between hamorrhagica septicemia and black leg must evidently be based upon the history of the cases, ages of the animals affected, temperature records as shown by fever thermometers and local superficial swellings, © DIAGNOSIS. 279 and the examination and appearance of the blood taken from the tumor in case such lesion is present. In both diseases death is liable to occur very suddenly, but black leg commonly affects only cattle under two years of age, whereas hemorrhagica septicemia affects all ages indiscriminately. High temperatures are characteristic of black leg, especially early in the history of the cases, where- as, in hemorrhagica septiceecia the temperature in my ex- perience has been normal or sub-normal until near death, and then in some cases rising very rapidly. A pronounced swelling of the front or hind quarter is rather characteristic of black leg, though in a few cases which died very suddenly there may be no noticeable swelling. These cases usually oc- cur early in the history of the outbreak, and following them there are almost invariably other cases which show the characteristic swellings of black leg or black quarter, as it is frequently called. Swellings of this kind are not characteris- tic of hemorrhagica septicceemia, and when present at all are small. Blood taken from a black leg tumor is dark, frothy ahd with disagreeable odor, whereas the blood taken from a case of hamorrhagica septicemia, even from the small swellings which sometimes occur, is apparently normal. It reddens. on exposure to air, clots readily and does not seem to be changed. It should benoted that this is also true of blood taken from general circulation in the case of black leg. But the important point of difference is the character of the blood taken from the swelling in a black leg case, which blood is very abnormal. There is another point which has some bearing in distin- guishing these two diseases. Hzamorrhagica septicaemia occurs at any season of the year, whereas black leg is most apt to occur in the summer and fall. A diagnosis between these two diseases may, as a rule, be quite easily made by examination postmortem. Here we have in a case of hemorrhagica septicemia the characteris- tic hemorrhages which appear as blood-stained or bruise- like areas under the skiu; and sharply defined blood-stained areas on the internal organs or the linings of the body cavi- ties. 280 HAMORRHAGIC SEPTIC AIMIA. Treatment of Hemorrhagic Septiczemia deserves no dis- cussion for so far as our present information concerning the disease extends it is a waste of time and medicine, although it is truethat the two animals, Alzanka and Dell (University Experiment Farm Outbreak), received full doses of nerve se- datives, and lived very much longer than other cases, but terminated in death just the same. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. For the present at least we must consider the term ‘“‘hz- morrhagica septiczemia”’ as quite inclusive, a sort of generic name which must cover a multitude of widely varying types. of disease, but perhaps in all of which the specific microor- ganism 4. bovisepticus is found, and so far as our present information is concerned we are apparently justified in con- sidering this germ.as the specific cause of the widely varying types. It is also safe to assume that it is not by any means a new disease, the only new feature about it being probably its definite diagnosis by Dr. Wilson of the Laboratory of the Minnesota State Board of Health. Very many outbreaks of this disease have unquestlonably been diagnosed as corn stalk disease, black leg and anthrax. er eee