SNeSEAE MAR ali edet nes meee 6! betty ia lalbenteiet a oS - oy - SThy H PPS S2T3 ot Oty bie ¥ a aie at as a, rat Estes fet ey eee Alanis ‘3 Sig hy bey bets a He siyeat hie ae Pos : , 1 stest es a Hee: nap se i = ey feisyeisae eae s: sits fy gi oH ia é a ES ee sesaueriae a Sf te2 apa Pt a sh i Y Pini vpn ac a Naes Ita Reh Mein tnt 5 Se ius ‘ Peis Re ae deta Hie ae ais ne Sactle re thie mor st aes Phe . q= b ee bn LIBRARY OF 74 | ela TANIA ARIE (ll MK, ‘ aie Zea Ue Alea | NC j38 Zot nb 1399 } RW GiSsin- Inu AFUaaN ALE y fas a Z I,*, Cornell University — Agricultural Experiment Station. THIRTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE CORNEA UNIVERSITY Agricultural Experiment Station, ITHACA, N. Y. 1900. TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE JANUARY 9, 1901. ALBANY: JAMES B. LYON, STATE PRINTER. 2901, ~ YPIZAAVIMU JIaAHOD noite! Jnomroqxd Lewtlio , VY ADA 9084 . « 5 ae et tee i ge ni tl fear 2° TARUKAL AUT /.a61R MHD OT aiieckd wilindeeinatntiimeiaael einem? SrTATEMYT NEWYORK. No. 69. IN ASSEMBLY, JANUARY 9, 1901. THIRTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Agricultural Experiment Station of Cornell University. STATE OF NEW YORK: DepartTMEeNT oF AGRICULTURE, AxBany, January 9, 1901. To the Honorable the Legislature of the State of New York: In accordance with the provisions of the statutes relating thereto, I have the honor to herewith transmit the Thirteenth Annual Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station at Cornell University. CHARLES A. WIETING, Commissioner of Agriculture. ‘fevntinoi "2 ; [9nr10) sha A, aay \ A. ik sMbivnok ise "s ba) vp wodittn? : oad btinen/. dasoonsisl E Sadi Soest? by ate bean | q ste tf inh apse ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Eutomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. GEO. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGCRLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. Mrs. MARY ROGERS MILLER. Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. S. W. FLETCHER, Extension Work. C. E. HUNN, Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. W. E. GRIFFITH, Dairy Husbandry. Mrs. A. B. COMSTOCK, Nature-Study. ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Nature-Study. OFFICERS OF THE STATION: I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of Director, Room 20, Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. ath pain) Beye ' py nee yA, PIO TAMD oT a A Bae Sine Pi Sy NN we Chine a XM EOS oN ante . mA) : s Lays: or atu: ails. ce ee { 1 pie ' aor) aA beech REPORT. | Irnaca, N. Y. To His Excellency, the Secretary of the Treasury, Washington, D. C. To His Excellency, the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. To His Excellency, the Governor of the State of New York, Albany, NV. ¥. To His Excellency, the Commissioner of Agriculture, of the State of New York, Albany, NV. Y.: Str.—I have the honor to transmit herewith the thirteenth annual report of the Agriculturai Experiment Station of Cornell University, in accordance with the Act of Congress of March 2, 1887, establishing the Station. This document contains the report of the Director and the spe- cial reports of his scientific coadjutors, as well as copies of the bul- letins, Nos. 171-182, inclusive; Nos. 2—5, inclusive, of the Nature Study Quarterlies ; Nos. 6-10, inclusive, of the Reading Courses for Farmers, and Nos. 1-8 of the Junior Naturalist Monthlies, all of which have been published by the Station during the year, and a detailed statement of the receipts and expenditures. The increased scope and effectiveness of the Experiment Station of Cornell University, due to the appropriations with which in recent years the Legislature of the State of New York has supple. mented the annual appropriation from the Federal treasury, are notable and gratifying, and to this newer side of the work I would especially direct your attention. I have the honor to be your obedient servant, J. G. SCHURMAN, President of Cornell University. ayaa aX Fy) x hes ail si fen y Lecnetee 2 és rite 9 LOY, 1991 P f Ce iid) tt BO OF owed ad ova dt ? J e744) = - ¥ * Wasew AS vy REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. To the President of Cornell University : Str.— I have the honor to transmit herewith the Thirteenth Annual Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station of Cornell University. The work of the Experiment Station and that for the “Promotion of Agricultural Knowledge throughout the State,” under Chapter 430 of the Laws of 1899, are so closely allied that it seems appropriate to bind together in one volume and to transmit all of the principal publications of the Station together with those which have been issued by reason of the State appropriation. The administration of the various Federal and State funds for the improvement of agriculture has been placed in the hands of the College of Agriculture, subject, however, to the approval of the College and Station Council, and, in the case of the State funds, to the approval of the Commissioner of Agriculture. The investigations have been directed along two general lines : — those designed to solve as quickly as possible pressing questions, and those which have a far-reaching and more scientific basis. Some of the bulletins embody the results of a single season’s work, while others are the results of years of research. In addition to the research work carried on at the College and throughout the State, a Farmer’s Reading Course has been established not only for the purpose of giving instruction, but with the view of inducing the farmers to become interested in the experimental work. The climate and soil vary so widely in this State that experiments carried on at the central station are often of little value in many other localities, hence it has been thought wise to induce the leading farmers to investigate either independently or under the direction of the Station. More than four hundred farmers are now experi- menting under the immediate supervision of the Station staff. Expert field agents are sent out to assist in mapping out the work and in selecting suitable ground and plantations. The agents ix x Report OF THE DIRECTOR. inspect the work from time to time, give directions for harvesting, weighing and sampling, and so far as possible assist in harvesting the crops. This work, associated with other work of a somewhat different character for the “ Promotion of Agricultural Knowledge,” has been eminently successful. After three years’ experience in sending out these traveling expert teachers and experimenters I am persuaded that no other line of effort has been more fruitful in results. The Station and University Extension staff now consists of some thirty persons selected with special reference to fitness for the work which they are called on to perform. Appended to, and a part of this report, are the reports of the various heads of divisions and a detailed statement of receipts and expenditures for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1900. Twelve bulletins, containing 385 pages and 87 cuts, have been issued on the following subjects : No. 171, “ Gravity or Dilution Separators.” No. 172, “The Cherry Fruit-Fly : A New Cherry Pest.” No. 173, “ The Relation of Food to Milk-Fat.” No. 174, “ The Problem of Impoverished Lands.” No. 175, “ Fourth Report on Japanese Plums.” No. 176, “ The Peach-Tree Borer.” No. 177, “Spraying Notes.” No. 178, “ The Invasion of the Udder by Bacteria.” No. 179, “ Field Experiments with Fertilizers.” No. 180, “ The Prevention of Peach Leaf-Curl.” No. 181, “ Pollination in Orchards.” No. 182, “Sugar Beet Investigations for 1899.” Four Nature-Study Quarterlies have been published on the fol- lowing subjects : No. 4%, “ A Handful of Soil.” No. 3, “ Cuttings and Cuttings.” No. 4, “ The Burst of Spring.” No. 5, “ A Brook.” The following reading lessons for farmers have been issued : No. 7, “ Balance Rations for Stock.” “Quiz on Reading Lesson No. 7.” REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. xi No. 8, “ A Farmer’s View of Balanced Rations.” “ Quiz on Reading Lesson No. 8.” No. 9, “Sample Rations for Milch Cows.” No. 10, “‘ Peter’s Idea of Improving ‘ Worn Out’ Lands.” Two lessons for the Junior Naturalist Clubs have been published on the following subjects: Lesson 1, “‘ Seed Travelers.” Lesson 2, “ The Story an Apple Tree Can Tell.” In December, 1899, this publication was changed to a Nature- Study Monthly. No. 3, “ How Shall We Please St. Nicholas.” No. 4, “Oxygen and Carbon in Partnership.” No. 5, “ Waiting for the Birds.” No. 6, “The Coming of Spring.” No. 7, “The Four Chapters in an Insect’s Life.” No. 8, “ A Children’s Garden.” Twenty-five thousand copies of each bulletin are issued except in rare cases when a bulletin is of a strictly scientific character when but five thousand copies are published for the use of scientific workers. At the present time.in round numbers there are 20,000 farmers registered in the Reading-Course, 35,000 school children in the Junior Naturalist Clubs, and 30,000 public school teachers have applied for and are receiving the leaflets. We are fully persuaded that all of this work is preparing the farmer, the teacher and the child to investigate, to see and to love the natural objects which surround every rural home. Already many observed facts are being reported to us from the multitude of pupils who are inter- ested in our work. Respectfully submitted, I. P. ROBERTS, Director. ie. . a 9 iB" aan = fs “A . ae sess, Mery) are sing i noi ) fot wk enoinnal & Spies + fh"s ‘afi be dnt) se 164% ous noiganl Ansel biel, 1 uo a A i ld oad ava ac Jaina iti sults not acuxeaol 7 : atop e yuivollot ¢ wy ha Sd Be | Ay hook * Lae 2 _ slag. | wiate Ayia Wy 13 a ae ; ) j So ae Or banal Bestar - ring Lae, Sats g ~ ae ‘¢ seins + ia i. 2083 ty ( to fal get a manne eit to fla 2 )Heyiteo vik ot fi ia et WITS banern { east on ret bee Pay | a_i : , _ sa ney ‘ j J * finn pha h tn i, ae oats ‘ baa el REPORT OF THE TREASURER. The Corneil University Agricultural Experiment Station, In account with The United States Appropriation, 1899-1900. To Receipts from the Treasurer of the United States as per appropriation for fiscal vear ending June 30, 1900, as per Act of Congress, approved March 2, Dr: Pe ee SP ek oe, $13,500 00 Cr. aR Oa ee 47) 3 eh a eee eB $9,508 14 | A Se eee eee Neve 774 60 MOMBEMTLONG oho ic Spi ik wits co = 1,620 11 Peasace and Stationery........... 387 59 Prom and Hxpress ..2.2.......- 142275 Heat, Light and Water........... 90 63 Pmetmeal SUpPplies. ....0 25 24.5 5 ss 16 29 Seeds, Plants and Sundry Supplies.. 191 89 PTSD EN Gs eee ae ou k's cesta 15 60 PED OUI cores oo hws =. 2 oie" 205 66 ES Se a ae eee 161 59 Tools, Implements and Machinery.. 6 00 Furniture and Fixtures........... 102 28 BeemLiNe Apparatus; .. 2. is. 5 06s 99 73 PM BE Nee Sho Colas 6s Soe 4 Lia 22 00 Traveling: Hixpenses....:. ....++-- 157 69 Contingent Expenses............. 10 00 Buildings‘and Repairs. ........... 17 42 RESON Waa OP naa ce is Oe Sn Smt wis $13,500 00 (Signed) E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. xiii XVi Report OF THE CHEMIST. Samples. Paris green and arsenicals..........0.+02005> 13 APRON mats «5 ore Reey We Re en see i Soaps A GHG tio. ar aah 2 Mill waste. i Peat ica ods nibo tpg RE RLS 2 OL 2 APRESS cs ee ETE Rees Rae SRN cata vi Bert Pil pax nies jreta is coe es B58 Dal ee. eee Respectfully submitted, G. C. CALDWELL, G. W. CAVANAUGH. Reon? GF THE BOTANISE: To the Director of the Cornell Unwersity Agricultural Experi- ment Station: Srr.— I have the honor to present the following report of the work of the Botanical Division for the past year.. The investigations on the edible and poisonous species of mush- rooms, which have been in progress for several years, have been continued, and considerable information upon the development of ‘certain species, as well as on the presence of species new to the United States, has been gained. These investigations are of such a nature that they must be continued for many years to come, but the new information is available for the publication of brief bulletins from time to time, in which the matter of economic importance can be brought before our constituents. Likewise the investigations on the diseases of timber caused by fungi are continued, and a fund of useful information is thus being brought together. Mr. W. A. Murrill, the Assistant Cryptogamic Botanist appointed for the past year, has been prompt and successful in the discharge of his duties. He has been engaged separately in certain investiga- tions, and jointly with myself in others. He published a short bul- letin of inquiry on a root and trunk injury of apple trees, “The Crown Disease of the King Apple,” Cornell University Agricultu- ral Experiment Station, Oct. 31, 1899. He has continued some investigations begun by Dr. Duggar, on the prevention of leaf curl of the peach, the resuits of which were published in one of the bulletins, “The Prevention of Peach Leaf Curl.” Bulletin 180, March, 1900. Botanical Division Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. These results indicate that this serious disease can be checked if promptly and properly treated. Conjointly with myself he has been engaged in a study of the xvii XVlil Report oF- THE Boranlist. troubles and diseases to which shade trees are subject, especially in cities. A great amount of interesting and important information has been gained which we hope to present for a future bulletin. Dr. Duggar, who has been absent on leave in Europe for the past year, now returns to us after a very profitable year’s study. He has had an opportunity while in Europe to make a study of several obscure organisms belonging to a genus which we have found is doing considerable injury in this country, especially the genus Pehzz- octonia. He will bring with him material of several species of this genus which he has collected on a number of different hosts in Europe. This will be made use of by him in a comparative study with the American species, and will assist him in clearing up much of the confusion which exists regarding this organism, and others which resemble it in the vegetative stage and in the mode of injury. Respectfully submitted, GEO. F. ATKINSON. REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. To the Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Ezxperi- ment Station : Sir.— As the Entomological work of the Station has been per- formed during the past year almost entirely by the Assistant Ento- mologist, [ have requested him to prepare a report on it, which I herewith transmit. Very respectfully yours, J. H. COMSTOCK. To the Entomologist of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station : Str.— During the past year the Entomological Division of the Station investigated a new insect pest of the cherry, which did much damage to this fruit in our State. The insect infests the fruit, and there is usually no indications of its presence until the ripe and luscious fruit is being prepared for canning or for the table. The pest seems to be well protected against a warfare with insecticides, and it will apparently prove a serious pest and one very difficult to combat. The results of our investigations were published in bulletin : No. 172. “The Cherry Fruit-Fly: A New Cherry Pest.” Our extensive experiments against the peach-tree borer were prac- tically concluded during the year and the results embodied in bulletin : No. 176. “The Peach-tree Borer.” An abridged edition of this bulletin was published for general distribution. We expect to further test some of the methods dis- cussed in the bulletin again this year, as it is claimed that our results are not obtained with similar materials in other States ; for instance, Missouri peach-growers assert that gas tar kills their trees, hence we xix | XX Report OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. have obtained some Missouri gas tar to use on our trees which were uninjured by the New York product. A serious greenhouse pest, a little moth (PAlyctenia ferrugalis) whose caterpillar feeds upon the foliage of many greenhouse plants, has been investigated by a student, Mr. Franklin Sherman, Jr., and his observations and results may be embodied in a bulletin soon. We are now investigating an apparently new insect pest of the strawberry in this State. It is a leaf-roller, and it has done much damage in at least one locality, ruining half the crop. We have been successful in breeding the insect in the insectary and expect to get our results ready for publication during the coming year. A bulletin on canker-worms, embodying the results of our inves- tigations during the past two or three years, is in preparation. All of the four or five kinds of canker-worms now at work in the State will be fully illustrated in the bulletin. About 1,500 photographic negatives of injurious insects and their work have been made at the insectary during the past ten years, and this collection receives additions almost daily. These negatives have furnished the excellent half-tone illustrations used in our bul- letins, and we are now making a series of lantern slides, many of - them colored from life, for illustrating lectures at Farmers’ Institutes and similar meetings. The correspondence of the Division continues to increase, and requires a large share of our time. We have attended during the year several Farmers’ Institutes and delivered addresses at the meet- ings of the Western and of the Eastern New York Horticultural Societies. Respectfully submitted, M. V. SLINGERLAND. REPORT OF AGRICULTURIST. To the Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Experi- ment Station : Srr.— The principal lines of work which are now under investi- gation by this division are a continuation of the tillage experiments with potatoes ard sugar beets; variety experiments with sugar beets and beans; comparison of forage crops with reference to their adaptability to withstand drought ; renovation of pastures, and fer- tilizer experiments with various farm crops. ' ‘ : ex wf) 1 ‘ps 4 biiek > r eee: rio) oa 1 sagen piste rag AL, SCR eae aff not si “iG jen 1 ; ; acter (bE pce, Tae Ms Pe et rend by & ¢) é ee) cnt i: cle by acne Ma : AUT RR . ”y Rots mead] "i ot phintge , ar we eget Sagogem Averey rears Lye ee te Sieve 6 tt be Feta AeA ery a they ‘' ¥e © "i a cance’) Va niencl as ¥ F i . S14 vid . \ + .? ale’ Pr E aol c} ad Ay c re gists ° Oia (ait ons we voWiiaae) at ot rani a eye : ; t.3 bs _ - € mpd. tev say on bie! MAS pearls. fiefs g “te r ont iS} ‘a - poe et = polie ware Hd af aAlbsite wt) Uiwuwieehecs bias't bri rai iatey) oa Ove) _ et ihe atx) coGH ‘an 4 ea at i Mahi Bulletin 172. September, 1899. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, N. Y. ENTOMOLOGICAL DIVISION. LP) SU ise ds) nd AS step Gl yO ld Op Pees EY VV Geb aor dP Be T By M. V. SLINGERLAND. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. ¥. 1899. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. G. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. W. A. MURRILI, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. MARY ROGERS MILLER, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E. HUNN, Gardening. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them, 22 Pie CHERRY PRUIT-PLY: Phagoletis cingulata ? Loew. Order Dierrra ; sub-family Tryprerin x. The growing of cherries is already an important phase of the fruit industry of New York and neighboring states. And cherry orchards now frequently supplement the few cherry trees often seen in door-yards, in gardens, or along lanes and roadsides. Everyone who eats this luscious fruit when fresh is familiar with the fact that cherries are often “wormy.” Most cherry growers now un- derstand that the cause of “ wormy” cher- ries is that arch enemy of the plum—the 9.— The plum eureulio, en- plum curculio, shown enlarged in figure 9. eae i ELAM ae Pench The crescent cut or “sting” of this little tte alle cai crescent cut on the cherry, beetle is a very discouraging factor to the —— and is responsible for most cherry grower; and the resulting white ‘“‘wormy” cherries. and footless grub, with a brownish horny head, which revels in the juicy fruit, is a familiar and distracting object to most housewives. In view of these discouraging facts, we are somewhat loath to announce to cherry growers, through the medium of this bulletin, that another, and possibly even a more seri- ous insect enemy, has recently appeared in at least one Massachu- -setts and in several New York cherry orchards. This new cherry pest works in the fruit, as does the plum curculio, and while it is capable of being equally as destructive, it also works in a much more inconspicuous manner. One can usually readily determine when a cherry is “ wormy” from the attacks of the plum curculio, but this new pest gets in its work in such a way that the fruit it infests might easily be classed among the fairest and best on the tree, or in the dish on our breakfast table. 23 94 Buiitetin 172. From the above statements, cherry growers can readily under- stand how serious a menace to their business this new pest might easily become, and how important it will be for them to learn all they can about it. As we made our first acquaintance with the pest only about two months ago, we have had no opportunity to fully investigate its habits, and hence cannot tell its life-story in detail. For the same reason, we have not tested any remedial measures to control it, but, fortunately, we have at hand the literature giving the results of experiments against similar insect pests working in the fruits of European countries and of our antipodal neighbors in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. This bulletin is therefore simply a preliminary report for the purpose of calling the attention of cherry growers to this new pest, with an account of what measures have been used against similar pests, all with a view of helping the growers of cherries to understand the nature of the enemy and to be on the lookout for it. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NEw Pst. This new insect enemy of cherries is very different from the plum cureulio, which has heretofore been justly accused of being the cause of all ““wormy” cherries. The grub of the plum eur- culio is shown much enlarged in figure 10, while the “ worm” which has been found in from one-fourth to one-third of the cherries on some trees the past summer, is shown, natural size and enlarged, in figure 11. As a comparison of these figures will show, this new cherry “ worm” is quite different and can be easily distinguished from the g7wb (name applied to the larva of a beetle) of the plum curculio. . This new cherry “worm” is instead a true maggot, a name given to the larve of the two-winged insects—the flies, like the common 10.— The grub of the house fly. plum curculio, en- larged. This is usu- The shape and size of these cherry maggots, ally the culprit jound When full-grown, are well shown in figure 11. in “wormy” cher- 'They are of a very light yellowish-white color. ries. From each side of the body near the head pro- 11.— Dorsal and lateral views of maggot of the cherry-fly. Natural size and much enlarged. 12.— Rhagoletis cingulata Loew. The fly which is supposed to be the adult or parent of the cherry maggot. The fly is shown natural size and enlarged, with wings spread and in the normal position when the fly isat rest, The enlarged wing below illustrates a variation in the markings. 26 BuuuEetin 172. jects a minute, light-brown, fan-shaped organ, which is the cephalic opening of the breeding tubes; the caudal openings of these tubes or trachea form two peculiar, light-brown, slightly elevated, slit-like openings on the caudal end of the body. The mouth-parts consist of two black, minute, sharp, rasping jaws which usually project slightly from the pointed head. Pella We have as yet found no characteristics by which we can distin- guish these cherry maggots from that common pest of the apple — the apple maggot. And we are not yet sure that this new cherry pest is not the apple maggot in a new role. . These maggots, which spend practically their whole life in the flesh of the cherry, are the only stage of the insect with which the consumers and most of the growers of the fruit will become familiar. The maggots hatch from eggs laid by a pretty little fly, resem- bling in shape, but somewhat smaller than the common house-fly. We cannot know with absolute certainty just what kind of a fly is the parent of the cherry maggot until some of the maggots now in our breeding cages transform into the fly, and this will not take place until next spring. But for reasons to be given later on in dis- cussing the identity of this new pest, we think that the adult form of it is the fly, shown natural size and enlarged, in figure 12. The body of this fly is black, and its head and legs are of a light yellow- ish-brown color; the lateral borders of the thorax are light yellow; the caudal borders of the segments of the abdomen are whitish ; the wings and the scutellum are crossed by four blackish bands and have a blackish spot at their tip; this spot is sometimes confluent with the nearest band, as shown in the enlarged figure of a wing in the lower part of figure 12. The peculiar arrangement of these markings on its wings serves to easily distinguish this fly from any of its near known relatives. One cherry grower tells us that he saw many of these flies on his trees when the fruit was being picked. He stated that the flies were then somewhat sluggish in their movements, often alighting on the picker’s hand. Their black-banded wings render these flies quite conspicuous objects as they flit about from cherry to cherry, so that cherry growers should be able to familiarize themselves with the adult or fly stage of this new enemy. Tue Currey Frouit—-F xy, oT How anv WHEN THE Insect Works. Unfortunately this cherry maggot works in a very inconspicuous manner, so that it will be a difficult matter to determine its presence until the mischief is wrought. All of those who suffered from its ravages the past summer did not know of its presence until their attention was called to it by the consumers of the cherries. One }.— Cherries infested by the Cherry Fruit-fly. All the cherries contained maggots although the upper ones showed no external indications of being infested. Natural size. grower picked two basketsful of what seemed to be the fairest and largest cherries, and took them home for canning. When the house- wife came to pit them she was much surprised and disgusted to find that many of them were “wormy” with these cherry maggots. The two cherries in the upper part of figure 13 contained maggots, although they were apparently perfect fruits externally. If the cherries are allowed to remain on the tree, or are not used within a few days after picking, the work of the maggot will result in a rotting and sinking in of a portion of the fruit, as is shown by the 28 BuuuetTin 172. five cherries in the lower part of figure 13. When this stage is reached, or often even before the fruit shows signs of rotting, the maggots are usually full- grown and soon crawl out of the fruits. One lover of this luscious fruit reports that when some cherries which had been left over from a meal the preced- ing day, were placed on the table the next morning for breakfast, it was found that several maggots had crawled out during the night. He is now wonder- ing how many maggots were unwittingly eaten the 14. — Section of a cherry, enlarged, to show the day before ! maggot and the nature of its work. The small figures above show the maggot and tts supposed parent, the fruit-fly. Natural size, The work of this cherry maggot is well illustrated in the enlarged picture of a cherry in section, in figure 14. The maggots feed upon the juicy flesh of the ripening cherry, usually near the pit. They form an irregular, rotten-appearing cavity which is represented by the black cavity near the pit in figure 14. Until the maggots get nearly full- grown their work does not show on the surface of the fruit. Soon after “ picking-time,” however, the rotting extends to the skin which sinks in. Usually but a single maggot is found in a cherry ; we have sometimes found a second, but always much smaller, mag- got in the same fruit. The maggots do not tunnel all through the flesh of the cherry as does the apple maggot in apples. We have had no opportunity to ascertain when this cherry mag- got begins its work in the fruit. The maggot which works in cherries in Europe is said to begin work about the time the fruits are turning red, and there are indications that our new American pest begins about the same time. It is doubtful if the maggots feed more than three weeks in the fruit, and most of this must be done in the month of June. The maggots may begin their work in the Tur Cuerry Froir—F ty. 29 latter part of May in early varieties of cherries, and we have found them in cherries left on the trees as late as August 5th. We also saw many of what we believe to be the adult insect on the cherries at this late date; Mr. Lowe reports finding young maggots in fruits as late as August 16th. Our Massachusetts correspondent reports that some of his cherries began to “spoil” even before they had fully matured. VARIETIES OF CHERRIES ATTACKED. The European cherry maggot is said to confine its work to the sweet and sub-acid varieties, but its new American congener seems to be less particular in its tastes. The Massachusetts parties who first called our attention to the insect write us that “ all our cherries were badly infested, the Downer and the black ones, but the Morel- los were the worst.” At Ithaca, N. Y., only the early varieties are reported infested ; while at Geneva, N. Y., the insect confined its work this year mostly to the English Morello and the Montmorency varieties, the latter being the worst infested. It thus seems that the pest may attack all varieties of cherries whether sweet, sub-acid, or sour, or whether early or late ; the Morello and Montmorency varie- ties seem to have suffered the most this year. Ir May Arrack Pius or PrRunNEs. One grower at Geneva, N. Y., reports that he fears the same insect worked in his prunes last year. Ten years ago maggots were found working in both cherries and plums in Northern Michigan. These were thought to have been the apple maggot, but we believe they were identical with those which have worked in the cherries of New York and Massachusetts this year. Our correspondents report that thus far this year they have found no indications of the maggots in their plums or prunes. It would not be surprising to find the maggots working in these fruits, which are oftentimes grown nearby, as they are not very dissimilar in their nature to the cherry. Thus growers of plums and prunes, as well as of cherries, should familiarize themselves with this serious menace to their business. ‘Should anyone find maggots or “ worms” of any kind in plums or prunes, we would like to be notified of the fact at once. 80 Buxwxietin 172. Irs DistRIBUTION AND DEsTRUCTIVENESS. We have evidence of the work of this new cherry pest this year from Belmont, Mass.,and Ithaca and Geneva, N.Y. The fly which we found on the fruit at Geneva, and which we feel quite sure is the adult insect, is recorded from the Middle States only. It was doubt- less the same insect which worked in Northern Michigan ten years ago, as noted above. Thus cherry growers in the Eastern, Middle and Northern States should be on the lookout for the pest. At Belmont, Mass., about one-third of a six or seven-ton crop of cherries were ruined by the maggots this year. The pest also destroyed from one-fourth to one-third of the crop of English Morello and Montmorency cherries in one orchard at Geneva, N. Y. These facts show that the new pest will become a serious menace to cherry growing in certain sections. Another serious phase of the matter is the fact that the presence of the pest may not be known until the fruit gets into the hands of the consumers, and such fruit will not help in making future sales to the same parties. Irs History, Ipentrry anp Name. So far as we can find there are recorded but two earlier instances where maggots have been found in cherries in America.* For more than a century European cherry growers have suffered from the ravages of a maggot in the fruit. The first record we find of mag- gots in cherries in America was made by Dr. Hagan, of Cambridge, Mass., in 1883. That year maggots were very common in the fruit of a black cherry tree imported from Prussia‘and set in his garden ten years before. He found no differences between his maggots and pupze and those of the European cherry maggot, but stated that this was not sufficient evidence to prove the specific identity of the two ’ cherry pests. He expected to raise the adult insect and thus settle the identity of our American cherry maggot, but evidently he did not rear the fly, as we are informed that no flies or even any of the maggots are to be found in the collections at Cambridge. It is an interesting fact that we received our first intimation of the existence * Although the bibliography appended to this bulletin includes several refer- ences to cherries being found infested by maggots, it may be noted that the records of Cook, Cordley and Davis all refer to the same case of infestation. Tue Cuerry Frorr—F.y. 31 of such a pest from Belmont, Mass., which is only a few miles from where Dr. Hagen found cherry maggots in 1883. In 1889, specimens of cherries and plums badly infested with maggots were received at the Michigan Experiment Station from northern Michigan. Brief notices of this infestation were soon published (see bibliography) by Cook, Cordley and Davis. Cordley stated that “from the-accounts of our correspondents describing the attack, and from a close examination of both the larva and pupal stages of the insects received, the cherries and plums seem to be badly infested with Zrypeta pomonella (the apple maggot). Whether these are the descendants of small Trypetas which had formerly acquired a taste for apples, or whether certain individuals of those feeding upon the hawthorn have ‘ dropped their plebeian tastes and adopted a more refined table regimen,’ it is unsafe to say, but from the fact that the apple maggot has never been known to attack the apple of northern Michigan, and from the fact that while the apple maggot is abundant on hawthorn everywhere in Michigan, and as it has not attacked the cherries nor plums elsewhere, it seems probable that a cherry and plum loving race of the apple maggot has devel- oped or is being developed in northern Michigan, directly from those which fed upon the hawthorn.” Unfortunately none of the adult insects seem to have been bred, and we are informed that even none of the maggots are to be found in the Michigan College collection. Some of the Geneva cherry growers noticed a few maggots in their cherries last year, and we are informed that they have been seen at Ithaca for a year or more, while our afflicted correspondent at Belmont, Mass., reports that they think their fruit has been infested for the last four or five years, but not nearly so bad as this year. While there seems to be no evidence extant to ever enable one to determine just what insect is responsible for these two earlier records of maggots in cherries, yet we think the cherry maggots we received this year are the same as those previously recorded. And we furthermore seriously doubt if this new cherry pest is the same as the common apple maggot (hagoletis pomonella) in spite of the fact that we, like Cordley, have been unable to distinguish between the maggots found in cherries and those working in apple. - 32 Butuetin 172. The facts recorded by Cordley, as quoted above, strongly indicate that the cherry maggot is a different and distinct insect, and we sub- mit the following evidence in support of this theory. On August 4th we visited an infested orchard at Geneva, N. Y., and found quite a number of English Morello cherries still on the trees, and one or two trees bore many fruits of what the owner called a “sport” or reversion from the English Morello. Many of the fruits con- tained the maggots, and we soon saw many of the little flies shown in figure 12, on the trees, almost always on the fruits. Several of the flies were captured and found to be a species described in 1862 as [?hagoletis cingulata, from the Middle States. This fly is thus a very near relative of the apple maggot (Phagoletis pomonella), and a still more significant point is the fact that Loew, in his original description of the fly we found on the cherries, says it is closely allied to the fly of the European cherry maggot.. As Doane (1898) has recorded, six species (one, zephyria, may prove to be asynonym) of flies of the genus hagoletis have been described from the United States. The habits are known of only two of these flies (2. pomo- nella, the apple maggot, and /?. rzbicola, the dark currant fly), and the maggots of these live in fruits. As we saw no similar flies on the cherry trees, as we found /?hago- letis cingulata on the fruits, in considerable numbers, and in view of the facts just submitted regarding the relationships and probable fruit-feeding habits of this fly, it is easy to understand why we have been lead to think that the fly in figure 12 is the adult of our American cherry maggot, and that, therefore, this maggot is a distinct species from the apple maggot. When the adult insects emerge in our breeding cages next spring, our theory, outlined above, may be demolished, as we may get apple maggot flies or something else entirely unexpected, but this will not materially affect the purpose of this bulletin to record all we have been able to glean regarding an insect, whether old or new, which may certainly be classed as a new cherry pest. For this new cherry pest we would propose the popular name of the Cherry Fruit-fly. We prefer this name to the Cherry Maggot, as it is more expressive of the insect’s habits, and similar fruit-inhab- iting maggots in other countries are known as Pruit-flies. Tae CHerry FRrorr—Fty. 33 PossisLE Narurat Foop-PLants or tHE INsxcrt. If this cherry fruit-fly turns out to be the well-known apple-mag- got fly, then, of course, its native or original food-plant is the haw- thorn. But if this new cherry pest is /?hagoletis cingulata, or some insect other than the apple maggot, then we must look to the native species of wild cherries, or possibly wild plums, and also to the species of Gerberis and Lonicera for its natural food-plants. The ‘atter plants are mentioned as possible native food-plants of the Ameri- ean cherry fruit-fly because the European cherry fruit-fly is known to breed in several species of Berberis and Lonicera. Tun Story or Its Lire. Having first made the acquaintance of this new cherry pest only about two months ago, we have had, therefore, no opportunity to follow it through its yearly life-cycle. Hence we are unable to tell the story of its life in detail. How it spends the winter.— The insect doubtless spends the win- ter in the soil, usually not more than an inch below the surface, in the condition shown, natural size and much enlarged in figure 15. _It isa dark brown, lifeless-looking ob- ject known as a pu- partum. Within this hard, stiff, brown shell which is really the con- tracted and _har- dened skin of the maggot, the insect changes from a maggot toa pupa. Whether the pupa is formed before 15.— Dorsal and ventral views of the puparia of the cherry spring, we cannot fruit-fly. Natural size and enlarged. yet say. Emergence in the spring.— During the spring months the trans- formation from a pupa to the adult insect — the pretty little fly shown Q vo St BuLuetin 172. in figure 12—- takes place. When the time for emergence comes, the little fly bursts open one end of the puparium (figure 15), crawls out, works its way up through the inch or less of soil, and then flits away to find its mate and the food-plant for its progeny. As to. when these cherry fruit-flies emerge in the spring we have no evi- dence. The yellow currant fruit-fly (pochra canadensis) sometimes emerges in May, but the nearer relatives of the cherry fruit-fly, the dark fruit-dy (/ehagoletis ribicola) and the apple maggot fly (hago- letis pomonella) may emerge about the middle of June in the lati- tude of New York. Hence, we would infer from this that the cherry fruit-fly may be expected to emerge about June 15th, in New York. The date of appearance of the flies on the trees will doubt- less vary somewhat with the latitude and the season. The flies will doubtless continue to emerge over a considerable period, perhaps a month or more; the flies which we suspect are the adults of this pest were found on the fruit as late as August 4th. Ligg-laying.— We have not seen the fly lay an egg, but think we have found its eggs in the cherries. We found many minute pune- tures through the skin of the fruits, and obliquely just beneath the skin in the flesh we could discern the remains of a hatched egg. In a few cases we found an unhatched egg, but always crushed it before we could disengage it from the flesh of the fruit. Hence, we are unable to describe or picture the egg. We feel quite sure, however, that the mother fly punctures the skin of the fruit with her oviposi- tor and then inserts obliquely an elongate, whitish egg in the flesh just beneath the skin. Mr. Lowe has recorded the following obser- vations regarding the egg: “ Egg-laying undoubtedly begins as soon as the first fruit ripens, as young maggots were found in some of the earliest fruits. It continues as late as the middle of August, and probably later. We have found young maggots as late as August 16th. On the same day an unhatched egg was found. The eggs are placed nearly or quite under the skin. One egg was found on the outside. A single egg measured 5 mm. (.02 inch), somewhat broader toward one end, and about one fourth as wide as long, at the widest point. Beginning at the broad end and extending about one-fourth the length of the egg, the shell is roughened and some- what darker; color, a dirty yellow.” The flesh of the fruit seems THe Currry Frurr—F xy. 85 to slightly thicken or harden around the egg and adhere closely to it. Apparently the eggs are laid in any part of the fruit. Old ege- scars are quite easily discernible on the cherries; the minute, round depressed spot on the right-hand cherry of the two upper ones in figure 13 is probably an egg-scar. Egg-laying doubtless extends over a considerable period, probably beginning in June and continuing until into August, if any cherries remain on the trees so long. We have no data bearing on the dura- . i at a ? . , . 3 : Ae tion of the egg-stage. The eggs probably hatch in a few days. The maggots life-— As the eggs are laid beneath the skin, the moment it hatches, the maggot finds itself surrounded with its favorite food, the juicy flesh of the fruit. It apparently soon makes it way to near the pit where it proceeds to revel in the flesh, soon forming a rotting cavity, as shown in figure 14. The maggot spends its whole life of three or four weeks in a single cherry, and rarely more than one maggot is to be found in the same fruit. Apparently many of the maggots are nearly full grown‘about the time the fruit is ready to pick, and they find their way into the con- sumer’s hands. Afflicted orchardists report that but few of the infested cherries fall from the trees, hence when the maggots emerge they doubtless drop to the ground, where they soon bury themselves just beneath the surface. Very soon after entering the ground, probably within a day or two, the maggots contract, their skin hardens and turns brown, and the puparcwm stage is formed. The inaggots will change to puparia in any convenient place, as the bot- tom of baskets, rubbish, ete. Number of broods.—We have some puparia which were formed in our breeding cages as-early as July 11th, from which no flies have yet emerged. Hence we conclude that the insect: winters as a puparium, and furthermore, that there is but a single brood of this new cherry pest in a year. Evidently the insect may spend ten or even eleven months of its life in the soil in the puparva stage. How tHe Insecr May BE SPREAD. As it infests only the fruit, one need have little or no fear of receiving this new cherry pest from nurserymen. If nursery trees happen to be grown under infested cherry trees, it is possible that a 36 Bu.vetin 172. few puparia of the pest might be carried away in the soil adhering to the roots of the nursery stock. As many of the maggots emerge from the fruits, after they reach the consumer’s hand, the insect may thus obtain a foothold in new localities. It is quite possible that the insect may be more readily and widely spread in this manner than in any other. Doubtless the pest will spread quite slowly from tree to tree and thus from orchard to orchard, as the adult insects are slow in their movements and are not long-fliers. This is a very important fact for it makes the checking of this new cherry pest largely an imdi- vidual matter, to be worked out independently by each cherry-grower. Discussion oF REMEDIAL MEASURES. It is to be hoped that this new cherry pest is not widely distrib- uted, or that it will never become a serious factor in cherry grow- ing, because it will prove a very difficult pest to control. We have not had time to test any remedial measures, hence can only suggest possible methods, drawn from our experience in combating other insects, from what we know of the habits of the insect, but more especially from the experience of fruit growers in Australia, South Africa and Europe, where similar fruit-flies are serious drawbacks to fruit-growing. Apparently there is no possible chance of getting at the insect with a spray of any kind while it is in the egg, in the maggot, or in the puparium stages. The egg is out of reach beneath the skin, in the flesh ; the maggot spends practically all its life inside the fruit, only a day or two is spent in getting from the fruit into the soil and changing into a puparium; and this puparium would doubtless be impervious to any liquid applied to the soil in such quantities as not to spoil the soil or injure the tree. If the maggots caused the infested cherries to fall prematurely, or so affected them as to render it easy to discover which fruits were infested, then one could do much toward controlling the pest by removing such fruits from the trees or by picking up the “ wind- falls” and destroying them. This latter method can be successfully employed against the apple maggot, which does cause the apples to drop prematurely and which rarely, if ever, leaves the fruit until it Tue CHerry FRourr—F ty. 37 does fall or is picked. But aftlicted cherry growers state that but few, if any, infested cherries fall prematurely, and also that there is no way of distinguishing the infested cherries from the others at picking time. Hence there seems to be no practicable method of vetting at the pest while it is in the fruit, except the heroic method of picking and destroying by boiling, burying, or otherwise, the whole crop on the infested trees just about the time the first fruits are ready to pick, or even before. This method, of course, involves the loss of the cherry crop for a season, but it is the only sure method we can conceive of to completely check the pest. Usually certain trees or certain varieties will become infested first, and the destruction of the crop on these few trees would not count for much as against their being a constant source of danger to the rest of the orchard. The pest could be quickly stamped out in this way, and as it spreads very slowly, it might be a long time in again getting a foothold in the orchard. This method of destroying the crop of cherries for a season, while it is an heroic one, it yet deserves to receive the serious consideration of cherry growers who may be unfortunate enough to have this cherry fruit-fly to combat. As the insect spends ten months or more of its life in the soil, usually less than an inch below the surface, it would seem as though some method might be devised to check it then. All of this time is spent in the pupariam stage (figure 15), and as we have stated above, while in this form the insect would not be readily affected by insecticides of any sort. We doubt if any of the puparia could be killed by the application of any reasonable or practicable amount of any insecticide, especially such substances as the commercial fertil- -izers, gas lime, lime or salt. Gas lime has been tried in Australia with no success. | As the puparia are so near the surface of the soil from July until the following June, it would seem as if thorough cultivation might be successfully employed against the pest. But it is evident that the usual methods of cultivation employed by our most successful orchardists has little or no effect on the pest, for those who suffered from it this year were good, thorough cultivators. A possible explanation lies in the fact that the puparia are too small to be 38 3ULLETIN 172. erushed, and they are so near the surface that the usual shallow cul- tivation of the orchard does not materially change their position relative to the surface. Possibly deep plowing, which is not often practicable in a cherry orchard, in late fall or early spring, might bury these puparia so deeply that the emerging flies could not get to the surface. Where only a few trees were infested it would be practicable to remove the surface soil to a depth of an inch or so from beneath the tree and either bury it deeply, put in the hen yard, or in a much-traveled roadway. One afflicted cherry grower sends the following valuable hint : ‘We have growing in our hen-yard several cherry trees, and they were not as badly infested as the trees outside of it. We can only account for it in that the hens found the insects as food.” Undonbt- edly hens would find many of the brown puparia in the soil, and could doubtless be suecessfully employed against the pest on a few trees. Place a temporary wire-netting fence around one or more trees; turn the hens loose in the enclosure, and stir the soil every day or two to encourage them. Do this soon after the fruit is picked and we doubt if many of the puparia will escape the sharp eyes of the fowls. Something can be done toward checking the pest by not allowing any cherries to remain on the trees after the last picking. If what few “ windfalls” there might be were destroyed, all the marketable fruit picked and disposed of, and all fruits removed from the tree at the last picking, most of the infested cherries would be gotten out of the orchard before most of the maggots had matured and gotten into the soil. Of course, where early and late varieties are infested in the same orchard, this plan might not noticeably diminish the numbers of the pest. It is well worthy of consideration, however. There yet remains one stage of the insect against which we have not turned our destructive batteries. One of the first questions asked us by an aftlicted cherry grower, when he understood how little chance there was of getting at the insect while in the fruit or in the soil, was, why cannot we either kill the flies, or deter or pre- vent them from laying their eggs in the cherries. He inquired if bad-smelling substances hung in the trees or sprayed upon them would not drive the flies away. Apparently no experiments along this line have been made in this country against similar flies, but, Tue CHerry Froit—F ty. 39 fortunately our Australian and Sonth African fruit-growers, who ) are sorely afllicted with fruit-flies, have recently carried on valuable and instructive experiments against the flies. The following sum- mary of their experiments and conclusions cannot fail to be of value and interest to our American cherry-growers. The flies are not attracted to lights in Australia, so that trap- lanterns will be of no avail against the pest. Messrs. Benson and Voller made a careful and extensive series of experiments in the orchards of Queensland, Australia, last year. The objects of their experiments were to prevent or deter the flies from attacking the fruit, and to attract and destroy the flies. In the first series of experiments they sprayed the fruit and trees with strong smelling substances that were deemed likely to deter or repel the fly. They sprayed with sulphide of lime, sulphide of soda, lime, sulphur, wood tar, bone oil, caustic soda, carbonate of soda, whale-oil soap, tobacco, pyrthum, black leaf tobacco extract, nico- tine, and Redwood’s specific. Most of the substances were used singly and in various combinations. None of the mixtures injured the fruit or trees to any extent. Many of the mixtures had a very strong and persistent smell, which was retained on the trees and fruit for at least a week after application, and the smell was not washed out by rain, but rather intensified for the time. Balls of cotton waste saturated with bone oil and other strong smelling substances were also hung in various trees to determine if the odor will deter the flies or not. Flies were seen on fruit within a few inches of the cotton waste, and the trees so treated were as badly infested as any untreated ones. No spray that was tried was a complete success, even though numerous applications were made; but some mixtures* seemed to * Mixture A :— Boil two pounds of sulphur and one pound of 98 per cent. caustic soda in two gallons of water till the sulphur is dissolved, and a mixture known as sulphide of soda is formed. Add six pounds of whale-oil soap, 80 per cent.; and boil for half an hour, adding boiling water to make five gallons of mixture; and add forty fluid ounces of black leaf tobacco extract. Next add water to make forty gallons, and it is ready for use. Mixture B :— Dissolve one pound of whale-oil soap, 8! per cent., in four gallons of boiling water. When dissolved, add twenty five fluid ounces of bone oil and mix well; add water to make forty gallons, and it is ready for use. Mixture C:— Mix equal parts of A and B. 4() 3ULLETIN 172. keen the flies from the fruit for a certain time after their applica- tion, as in the case of the same varieties of fruits, on trees that were sprayed, they were unable to detect a single fly laying eggs, whereas the flies were numerous and busy on adjacent trees. No spray, however, was lasting, as where the applications were made from a week to ten days apart, part of the fruit was infested, but not to the sae extent as on untreated trees, thus showing that the appli- cations must be frequent during the ripening of the fruit to be of any avail. The experimenters record their belief that careful and frequent sprayings with the mixtures noted above will protect a considerable portion of the crop, but at the same time they are confident that to be of any value the spraying must be very carefully carried out, and must be backed up by destroying all infested fruit and taking every possible precaution to keep the insects in check. In the second series of experiments made by Messrs. Benson and Voller they tried to attract, catch or poison the flies. They record that they had no suecess whatever as they failed to attract the flies. They used highly-scented sticky baits, highly-scented poisoned baits, and poisoned fruit baits; but, though numerous insects of various kinds were caught or destroyed, the fruit-flies escaped. The experi- menters could not find that the flies fed on anything, as, with the exception of seeing them occasionally apparently sucking the juice exuding from a puncture they had made in a fruit, they were never seen to be attracted by or feeding on anything. In South Africa the only effectual method of preventing the fruit from attacks by these fruit-flies thus far devised is to enclose the trees in a fine-meshed mosquito netting during the time when the flies are about. We may thus glean from the above summary of the results attained in other countries in combating similar fruit-flies, that there is but little hope of successfully combating our American cherry fruit-fly in the adult or fly state. No careful experiments seem to have been made in Europe against the European cherry fruit-fly, and the recommendations made for combating the pests are few, usually theoretical, and add nothing new to what we have already suggested, with one exception, which may be of interest to housewives and eaters of the luscious fresh Tue Cuerry Frurit—F ty. 41 fruit. One German writer states that ‘it is known to those house- wives who wish to can cherries that the maggots leave the fruits as soon as they have been soaked in water for several hours; and this precaution can therefore be taken with the cherries to be eaten fresh in those years when the cherries are badly infested.” We wish the author of this suggestion had been a little more definite, for we are in some doubt as to what is to be done with those fruits from which the maggots have emerged. Are they to be canned or eaten with the rest ? MARK VERNON SLINGERLAND. 49 BuLLerin 172. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1862. Loew. Mon. of Diptera of N. Am., Part I., p. 76. Original description from a female. Habitat, Middle States. States it is closely allied to the European cherry fruit-fly. Figures a wing. 1873. Loew. Mon. of Diptera of N. Am., Part IIL, p. 263. Briefer description of male and female. Points out great variation in size. States it is closely allied to European FR. flavicincta. Habitat, Middle States; Long Branch, N. J., inJuly. Figures a wine. 1878. Osten Sacken. Cat. of Diptera of N. Am., p. 191. References to Loew’s descriptions. 1890. Smith. Cat. of New Jersey Insects, p. 398. Quotes Osten Sacken’s record of Long Branch, N. J. . 1898. Doane. Entomological News, IX., 69-72. Tables for separating the six species of Rhagoletis. R. ribicola described and compared with R. cingulata. & an x * * * The following are also included in this bibliography, as we believe they refer to this cherry fruit-fly. They are the only records known to us of the occurrence of fruit-fly maggots in cherries in the American literature. 1883. Hagen. Canadian Entomologist, XV., 159-160. Records Trypeta larvee in fruit of a black cherry tree imported from Prussia; apparently did net differ from those of the cherry fruit-fly (ceras?), received from Europe. Did not breed the adults. 1889. Cook. 2d Ann. Rept. Mich. Expt. Station, p. 153. Records receiving plums and cherrics from northern Michigan supposedly infested by Apple Maggot. Cordley. Orchard and Garden, Oct., 1889, p. 192. Records closely examining larvee and pupe of plum and cherry maggots from northern Mich. with the result that they seemed to be those of 7. pomonella. Says pomonella has not been known to attack apples in northern Mich., but does occur in haws. Cherry and plums were badly infested. Davis. The Ohio Farmer, Nov. 9, 1889. Records practically same facts as Cordley (1889). 1890. Harvey. Ann. Rept. of Maine Expt. Station for 1889, pp. 192, 238, 2384, 235. Records Cook’s, Cordley’s and Davis’ observations and suggests that their plum and cherry maggots may be a distinct species from the Apple Maggot. 1899. Lowe. Country Gentleman, LXIV., 693, Aug. 31, 1899. Brief account of the work of the insect at Geneva, N. Y., with description of the different stages. Slingerland. Rural New Yorker, Sept. 16, 1899. Brief, illustrated abstract of this bulletln, No. 172. Tae Fottowine BULLETINS ARE AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION TO THoszt Wuo may DesirE THE. Removing Tassels from Corn, 9 pp. Greenhouse Notes, 31 pp. ‘ " Apricot Growing in Western New York, a 26 pp. The Cuitivation of Orchards, 22 pp. Leaf Curl and Plum Pockets, 40 pp. Impressions of the Peach Industry in , 28 pp. Peach Yellows, 20 pp. Some Grape Troubles in Western N. Y., 116 pp. The Grafting of Grapes, 22 pp. The Cabbage Root Maggot, 99 pp. Varieties of Strawberry Leaf Blight, 26 Ppp. The Quince in Western N. Y., 27 pp. Dwarf Lima Beans, 24 pp. Cigar Case-Bearer, 20 pp. Winter Muskmelons, 20 pp. Forcing House Miscellanies, 43 pp. Entomogenous Fungi, 42 pp. The Spraying of Trees and the Canker Worm, 24 pp. General Observations in Care of Fruit Trees, 26 pp. Soil Depletion in Respect to Care of Fruit Trees, 21 pp. Climbing Cut Worms in Western N. Y., 51 pp. Geological History of the Chautauqua Grape Belt, 36 pp. Extension Work in Horticulture, 42 pp. Spraying Calendar. Dwarf Apples, 31 pp. Fruit Brevities, 50 pp. Texture of the Soil, 8 pp. eolsbure of the Soil and Its Conservation, 4 pp. Suggestions for Planting Shrubbery. Second Report upon Extension Work in Horticulture, 36 pp. Green Fruit Worms, 17 pp. The Pistol-Case Bearer in Western New York, 18 pp. : A Disease of Currant Canes, 20 pp. The Currant-Stem Girdler and the Rasp- berry-Cane Maggott, 22 pp. A Second Account of Sweet Peas, 35 pp. A Talk about Dahlias, 40 pp. How to Conduct Field Experiments with Fertilizers, 11 pp. Potato Culture, 15 pp. Notes upon Plums for Western New York, 51 pp. Notes upon Celery, 34 pp. Strawberries under Glass, 10 pp. Forage Crops, 28 pp. Chrysanthemums, 24 pp. Agricultural Extension Work, sketch of its Origin and Progress, 11 pp. Studies and Illustrations of Mushrocms; I., 32 pp. Third Report upon Japanese Plums. Seeond Report on Potato Culture, 24 pp. Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death Among Swill-Fed Hogs. The Codling-Moth. Sugar Beet Investigations, 88 pp. Suggestions on Spraying and on the San José Seale. Some Important Pear Diseases. Fourth Report of Progress on Extension Work, 26 pp. 7 Fourth Report upen Chrysanthemums, 36 pp. Quince Curculio, 26 pp. Some Spraying Mixtures. Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control. Gravity or Dilution Separators. Studies in Milk Secretion. Impressions of Fruit-Growing Industries. Table for Computing Rations for Farm Animals. Second Report on the San José Scale. Third Report on Potato Culture. Grape-vine Flee-beetle Source of Gas and Taint Producing Bac- teria in Cheese Curd. An Effort to Help the Farmer. Hints on Rural School Grounds. Annual Flowers. The Period of Gestation in Cows. Three Important Fungous Diseases of the Sugar Beet. Peach Leaf-Curl. Ropiness in Milk and Cream. Sugar Beet Investigations for 1898. The Construction of the Stave Silo. puudice and Illustrations of Mushrooms; Studies in Milk Secretion. Tent Caterpillars. Concerning Patents on Gravity or Dilution Separators. Bulletins Issued Since the Close of the Fiscal Year, June 30, 1899. 171 Gravity or Dilution Separators. 172 The Cherry Fruit-Fly: A New Cherry Pest. 45 oA oct ee Fort Yak MitoLIaS|)s4 ae wih aenhans Sen it ; eee ics: Eapahaier weiss) il a" Zi i hy ty gisht itt em fase ; : Adres tia . At iva) i. eee La it 5 mares 4 ent by awe af ah Te} é a 7 vd Se bots] ¥ Wedeate ¢ (a.¥6 matt oe de Pal P ATM hw ae be we s ‘i ‘, & uate me ce) nea 33h WS i Patt & ai ak, ep AA ; \ Ag 5 ah het +3; : pu iAg reo a ed “HP ornt i { ays ‘oS CD ae Set fan ‘ qh oral 7A. 2 +i bie Spe sftp st ra 2 piety, THe / wh a Lstez sé ate : 4] * nes <2 tare Hatin “ gook aii on ee rae, cilppss Bulletin 173. November, 1899. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, N. Y. DAIRY DIVISION. The Relation of Food to Milk-Fat. DAIRY BUILDING. By LEROY ANDERSON. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1899. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College asd Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. G. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. W. A. MURRILL, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. Mrs. A. B. COMSTOCK, Nature-Study. Mrs. MARY ROGERS MILLER, Nature-Study. ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E. HUNN, Gardening. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. EK. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer, EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. Always give old address when change of address is desired. 46 THE RELATION OF FOOD TO MILK-FAT. Can the per cent of fat in milk be increased through changes in the food of the cows? This is a question about which there has been more debate and which has been the subject of more experi- mentation than any other problem relating to the production of milk. Some experiments have seemed to indicate that certain foods possess the power of increasing the proportion of fat in milk, while others, and much the larger number, show that the variations in the quality of milk are not traceable to the food. All who are familiar with the handling of milk know that variations in the per cent of fat do exist and this with the same cow on the same feed and under uniform environment. Why the quality of milk fluctu- ates so widely under conditions which to all outward appearances are the same, has never been determined experimentally. The secretion of milk is so intricate and its processes so completely hid- den from view that a clear understanding of them seems quite impossible. Nevertheless all careful experiments conducted with a view to solve the problem are valuable even though only negative results be obtained and although the conclusions reached may be more or less conjecture. | Experiments conducted for the purpose of determining the rela- tion of food to milk production have usually shown that where < sudden and radical change in the food has taken place, this change has been accompanied by a more than ordinary variation in the per cent of fat This variation may be either an increase or a decrease. After the cows become accustomed to the new feed their milk returns to its former average per cent of fat, which may be éalled the normal per cent. Such phenomena would seem to indicate that the per cent of fat in milk is subject to the peculiar constitution of the cow and that she will give milk of a certain average composi- tion so long as nothing occurs to disturb the “ even tenor of her way.” A definite knowledge of the relation of food to milk-fat would 47 48 Buuietin 1738. solve the question as to whether or not the per cent of fat may be permanently increased by feeding. but concerning this point we have little information except theories based upon the results of many experiments. One theory has been long and largely held that milk-fat is produced from the protein in the food. If this were the case a natural supposition would be that by increasing the amount of protein in the food, the proportion of fat in the milk would be thereby increased. Another theory is that milk-fat is produced from the fat in the food. Then feeding an increased amount of fat might be supposed io result in a higher per cent of fat in the milk; or, on the other hand, a decrease in the supply of food-fat would likewise cause a decrease in the per cent of milk-fat. A third the- ory, and the one which is most largely entertained, is that so long as the animal is well nourished the per cent of fat in the milk is not appreciably affected by even wide variations in the character of the food Experiments supporting these three theories will be found in subsequent pages. The question has a practical bearing in the economical manage- ment of the dairy. For, if by food we may increase the richness of the milk, then there is opportunity to enhance the value of all our cows. Butter-fat is the most valuable constituent of milk, and if the cow may be made to produce a milk richer in fat by giving her certain foods, or foods containing a large proportion of a par- ticular nutrient, then the dairyman may increase the value of his cows to the extent that they may be made to respond to the particu- lar foods by increased production of fat. In general this has not been found to be the case, otherwise why should so many cows be giving milk that is comparatively poor in fat? And why should they possess this same characteristic in common with their ancestors as long ago as their history is known to man 4 Again, if feeding large amounts of protein tends to an increased production of milk-fat, then the dairyman will need to purchase foods containing a high proportion of protein, which foods usually command higher prices than those containing less protein. If, on the other hand, a large supply of protein is not essential to the pro- duction of milk-fat; if the per cent of milk-fat is dependent on the supply of food-fat; or, if it is not governed by the food so long as Tue Rewatrion or Foop to MILK-Far. 49 the cow is well nourished, then the dairyman is warranted in feed- ing those cheaper foods which contain less protein and more carbo- hydrates and fat. A conclusive answer to the question asked at the beginning is not attempted in this bulletin. The record is given of two long experi- ments with rations having different nutritive ratios, and also a less extended one with aration containing varying quantities of palm nut meal. Considerable space is given to a summary of the leading experiments relating to the influence of food on milk production with especial reference to the quality of the milk by which is meant here its percentage of fat. The records of these experiments are gleaned from all reliable sources both domestic and foreign. The object is to place before the general farmer and reader a knowledge of what has been done to solve the mooted question of “feeding fat into milk” by experi- menters abroad as well as at home. In collecting this data free use has been made of all experimental literature obtainable and reference is usually made to the original article. The Experiment Station Record has been used freely, especially for translations of foreign experiments which are reported in periodicals not found in our own library. The attempt has been to make this summary as brief as possible and yet give a fair idea of the plan and scope of the experi- ment, together with the results or conclusions obtained. Summary or Experiments CoNnceRNING THE ReEtarion or Foop TO THE PERCENTAGE OF Far In MILK. Jordan * experimented on tive cows with three different kinds of rations during three periods, the rations being made up so as to con- tain varying amounts of vegetable fats, and found that the yield of milk diminished somewhat in passing from the ration rich in fat to the one containing less fat, and increased slightly after changing again to the fat rich ration. ‘“ The composition of the milk varied but little and no more, or even less, during the three periods than is often observed when the ration is not changed.” In a later experiment + Jordan fed three cows during three periods * Maine Station Annual Report, 1891, p. 62. + Same, 1893, p. 73. + 5) BULLETIN 173. of 35 days each on two rations, one having a nutritive ratio of 1:6.7 and the other 1:12.38 and found that “the yield of milk from the nitrogenous rations was from one-fifth to more than one-third larger than that from the carbonaceous ration. In general the milk was materially richer while the cows were fed the ration rich in protein. * * * The composition of the milk solids seemed te be Independ- ent of the ration. In general the proportion of fat increased through- out the experiment without regard to what the cows were fed, and no evidence is furnished in support of the notion that by changing the food it is possible to produce more butter-fat without an accompany- ing increased production of the other milk solids.” Whitcher,* after studying the effect of pasture and silage, and of changing the nutritive ratio of the quality of the milk, found very little variation in the per cent of fat and concludes: “ I feel warranted in saying that a given animal by heredity is so constituted that she will give a milk of certain average composition ; by judicious or injudicious feeding the amount of milk may be largely varied, but» the quality of the product will be chiefly determined by the individu- ality of the cow.” Wood,t in experimenting on the effect of some coarse fodders on quantity and quality of milk during several experimental periods of two weeks each, found “no variation in the quality of the milk that could be attributed to the character of the food.” Later,{ he fed three cows for two weeks on a basal ration of silage, clover hay, vetch hay, oats and middlings. Then in three subsequent periods of two weeks each, palm oil, cotton-seed oil, corn oil, oleo oil, cocoanut oil and stearin were fed to different cows at the rate of 12 ounces per 1,000 pounds live weight, making a nutritive ratio of 1:6.8. The conclusions reached were: ‘ That the first effect of an increase of fat in a cow’s ration is to increase the per cent of fat in her milk.” “ That with the continuance of such a ration the tendency is for the milk to return to its normal condition.” “That the increase of fat is not due to the oils but to the unnatural character of the ration.” * New Hampshire Station, Bulletin 9, 1890. + New Hampshire Station, Bulletin 18, 1892. tSame, Bulletin <0, 1891. Tue Rerarion or Foop to Mirx-F ar. 51 “That the results of this experiment tend to confirm the conelu- sions expressed in previous bulletins from this Station; that the composition of a cow’s milk is determined by the individuality of the cow, and that although an unusual food may disturb for a time the composition of the milk, its effect is not continuous.” Hills* studied the effect of heavy feeding of grains on milk pro- duction by giving two cows for two months a continually increas- ing amount of grain until they were receiving all they would eat. He found that there was little change in the composition of the milk on increasingly heavy grain feeding, and that no con- nection could be traced between the quality of the milk and the food given. Again,+ in a series of feeding tests covering five periods of four weeks each, and using thirty-one cows, he experimented with vari- ous coarse fodders, grains and mixed feeds. The invariable conclu- sion was that there was no material change in the quality of the milk as a result of the change in ration. Cooke,t in reporting an experiment in feeding sugar meal, cream gluten meal, and germ meal to nine cows for four months in periods of four weeks each, says: “ We are led to the conclusion that sugar meal and cream gluten have a slight effect toward an increase in the richness of the milk.” Lindsey§ fed six cows in nine and fourteen-day periods with seven days preliminary feeding to each period on rations containing amounts of protein which varied from 1.3 to 3.76 pounds per head daily, and the nutritive ratio varied from 1:4.4 to 1:10. The periods were rather short, but the “indications are that the composition of the milk, especially the fat, appeared to be favorably affected by the addition of protein up to three pounds, although there was consider- able difference in the cows in that respect.” Lindsey, Holland and Billing| varied the nutritive ratio of the ration from 1:3.86 to 1:9.43 while feeding six cows in two lots of *Vermont Station, Annual Report, 1890, p. 75. + Same, 1895, p. 203. ¢t Vermont Station, Bulletin 31, 1892. § Massachusetts (State) Station, Annual Report, 1894, p. 42. | Massachusetts (Hatch) Station, Annual Report, 1695, p. 100. 52 Buxiuetin 173. three each, during four periods of 21 to 26 days each, with a seven- day preliminary period. They conclude: “That the same amount of digestible matter in the narrow rations produced from 11.8 to 12.9 per cent more milk than did a like amount of digestible matter in the wide rations, and that neither the narrow nor wide rations produced any decided change in the composition of the milk. Jordan and Jentner* changed the ration of a cow in three ways: “(1) By decreasing the fat in the food from about the usual quan- tity to practically none; (2) by producing wide variations in the protein supply and nutritive ratio, and (8) by producing wide varia- tions in the supply of total digestible material.” The cow was “fed during ninety-five days on a ration from which the fats had been nearly all extracted, and she continued to secrete milk similar to that produced when fed on the same kinds of hay and grain in their normal condition.” The food-fat eaten during this time was 11.6 pounds, 5.7 pounds of which was digested, while the yield of milk- fat was 62.9 pounds. Throughout the whole experiment, “ the com- position of the milk bore no definite relation to the amount and kind of food.” Wingt added ordinary beef tallow to the usual grain ration of ten cows, giving them at first four ounces per head, and increasing the amount gradually until each cow was consuming two pounds daily, which amount was fed for six or seven weeks. He found. “no increase in the per cent of fat in the milk as a result of feed- ing tallow in addition to a liberal grain ration.” Waters and Hesst gave rations varying in nutritive ratio from 1:3.9 to 1:6.65 to nine cows through four periods of thirty days each, and say: “It appears that the narrower nutritive ratio tended to increase the per cent of fat.” Farrington§ studied the effect of heavy grain feeding by giving three cows from December 1 to June 1, in eight periods ranging from 6 to 51 days, an amount of grain increasing continually from * New York (State) Station, Bulletin 1382, 1897. t+ New York (Cornell) Station, Bulletin, 92, 1895. ¢ Pennsylvania Station, Annual Report, 1895, p. 56. § Illinois Station, Bulletin 24, 1894. THe Revation oF Foop to MiLxK-Far. 53 12 to 24 pounds per head daily where it was held for two months, when it was decreased gradually until the cows went to pasture May 1. The nutritive ratio varied from 1:40 to 1:9.4.. He found “that the increase of feed was accompanied by a considerable increase in the pounds of milk produced, and consequently in the pounds of solids, fat, and solids not fat in the milk; but with the exception of one or two days, there were no greater changes in the percentages of fat in the milk after the increase of feed than before it was made.” Wilson, Kent, Curtiss and Patrick* compared corn and cob meal with sugar meal by feeding them to four cows in alternating periods of 21 days each with a 10-day preliminary period, and conclude that “quality of milk, so far as measured by its percentage of fat, was changed by feed to a much greater degree than was quantity. Sugar meal produced 17 per cent more fat and six per cent more total solids per 100 pounds of milk than did the corn and cob meal.” Armsby,t during three periods of three weeks each with two cows compared bran with corn meal and found that while there were slight changes in the composition of the milk there was “no indication that the feeding had anything to do with these changes.’ Again in com- paring in a similar manner bran with oil meal there were slight changes as before, but “ we may safely conclude that whatever changes took place in the composition of the milk-solids were due to advane- ing lactation and not to the feed.” Woll+ in comparing the feeding value of ground oats and bran for milk production, found that “the cows invariably did better on oats, going up in milk yield when coming on oats and going down when bran was fed, while the fat content of the milk remained the same on an average.” Linfield § studied the effect of two rations varying in nutritive ratio on the per cent of fat in milk with ten cows during eight periods of three weeks each. He concludes, “this test adds but * Towa Station Bulletin 14, 1891. + Wisconsin Station Annual Report 1886, pp. 115 and 130. ¢ Wisconsin Station Annual Report 1890, p. 65. § Utah Station Bulletin 48, 1895. 54 Butietin 173. another item to the fairly well established fact that an increase in the quantity of concentrated food in the ration of a cow does not increase the richness of the milk provided the cows are well fed to start with.” Dean* carried on experiments during several years to ascertain the effect of food on the quality and quantity of milk. The results obtained from feeding coarse fodder with and without grain, from comparing pasturage with and without grain, from feeding slop, and from other experiments, generally agree with this statement made in Bulletin No. 80, that “the general conclusion would seem to be that the food does not affect the quality of the milk to any appreci- able extent so long as the animals are in good condition.” Speir + reports at least three different experiments on the effect of foods on milk production. He tested a large number of different kinds of feeding stuffs both singly and in various combinations dur- ing periods of four to five weeks in length. Some of his conclusions are that “an increase of oil in the food does not seem to give any increase of fat in the milk. Rations having an extremely high albuminoid ratio seem to have a depressing effect on the milk yield, well mixed foods giving the best results in this respect. Every food when first given, seems to have more or less effect in increasing or decreasing the percentage of fat in the milk. This effect, however, is transitory and the milk returns to its normal composition about the end of the fifth week.” Stohmann,+ in experimenting with goats found that the fat con- tent of the milk was proportional to the fat content of the fodder, but by a great increase in the nitrogenous foods, the milk-fat did not increase in the same way as when the fat content of the food was increased. Kiihn § carried on extensive feeding trials with bean meal, palm nut cake and malt sprouts, having in all 42 experiments with 10 * Ontario Agricultural College ana Farm Report 1891, p. 154; 1898, p. 148 1894, pp. 147 and 148. ‘ + Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, Scotland, 1894, p. 83; 1896, p. 269; 1897, p. 296. ¢ Journal fiir Landwirtschaft, 1868, pp. 155, 307 and 420. § Journal fiir Landwirtschaft 25 (1877), p. 382. er Tur Revarion or Foop ro Minx-Favr. cows. The feeding periods varied from 21 to 47 days in length. The grains were fed separately in addition to a normal ration and in quantities of 1.5, 2 and 3 kilograms* per head daily. According to his results the fat content of the milk increased proportionately with the increase of protein fed, but did not decrease in the same pro- portion when the protein in the food was decreased. He concludes “that the palm nut cake exerted on the whole a favorable influence upon milk production and especially upon the fat content of the milk.” ‘The bean meal and wall sprouts did not have a like favorable effect. He found that the addition of one-half kilogram of oil to the ration increased the quantity and quality of the milk. But he considered “that this added fat had no dzrect influence on milk production ; that it has an indirect effect in this manner; that a certain quantity of protein is thereby made available for milk production which before the feeding of the fat was used in sustaining the animal body, but the fat now performs this office and permits the protein to be used for producing milk.” He concludes also “ that these experi- ments, according to all observations, prove in the clearest manner how greatly the milk production, and the possibility of influencing arbitrarily through feeding the amount or composition of the pro- duct, are dependent upon the individuality of the animal.” Heinrich+ compared peanut cake with cocoanut cake, the latter ration containing 350 grams more fat than the former. The rations were alternated in periods of four weeks each and three cows were used. He found that the fat of the milk was considerably increased, both in percentage and total amount, when the cocoanut ration was fed, but there was much difference in the animals regarding this point. It is his opinion that the increased yield of fat may be accounted for by the increased amount of fat in the food. - Kochs and Ramm ¢ fed three cows during four periods of about four weeks each, on rations which contained practically the same amounts of dry matter, and nearly equal amounts of digestible non- nitrogenous matter, but the amount of protein fed was such as to make nutritive ratio vary from 1:8.19 to 1:5.42 to 1:4.31 and to *One kilogram (kg.) 2.2 pounds, + Translation in Experiment Station Record, Vol. 1 (1892), p. 67. t Landwirschaftliche Jahrbiicher 21 (1892), p. 809. 56 Butvetin 173. 1:38.19 in the successive periods. They found that “the proportional fat content of the milk remained unchanged by the very wide changes in the food.” Klein* found that the addition of sunflower cake to the usual ration of four cows was followed by an increased milk yield, while it seemed to have no specific effect on the fat content of the milk. Maercker and Morgen+ report a series of codperative experi- ments with farmers in which the effect of watery foods on milk secretion was studied. Beet diffusion residue (beet pulp) was fec alone and also with potato residue (from starch manufacture) in addition to a basal ration of hay, straw and grain. The amounts of residue fed daily were such as to give quantities of water ranging from 43 to 150 pounds per head. The experimental periods were ten days each. They found that the quantity of milk increased regularly with the increase of watery food up to 116 pounds, and that the increase in watery food was without discernible effect upon the composition of the milk. Juretschke + has found as a result of the addition of 4 to 5 pounds, per thousand pounds live weight, of cotton seed cake, rape cake, and peanut cake to a basal ration consisting of hay, straw, brewers’ grains and wheat bran, that the “milk secretion is not directly but only indirectly affected by feeding and that the feeding of large amounts of fat does not increase the amount of butter-fat in the milk.” Backhaus§ found by feeding ten cows on a basal ration of hay, straw, brewers’ grains, etc., and alternating in periods of two weeks with peanut cake, palm nut cake and cotton-seed oil cake, that in order to bring about changes in the fat content of milk very little can be accomplished by the kind of food, and that the favorable effect of some concentrated foods which have been found to increase the fat take place only when large quantities are fed. Soxhlet | reports some investigations on the production of milk *Milch Zeitung 21 (1892), p. 673. r + Translation in Experiment Station Record, Vol. 3 (1892), p. 557. t Molkerei Zeitung 7 (1893), p. 518. d § Journal fiir Landwirtschaft 41 (1893), p. 328. | Translation in Experiment Station Record, Vol. 8 (1897), p. 1016. ( Or Tue ReEwLATION oF Foop to Mivx-Far. richer in fat. He says nothing of the plan or extent of his experi- ments and gives nothing but the conclusions and a discussion of theories. As compared with hay alone, the addition of fourteen pounds of starch, treated with malt and given as a sweet drink, with sixteen pounds of hay made no appreciable increase in milk yield but a noticeable decrease (about 0.7 per cent) in fat. The fat content was practically the same when four pounds of rice gluten containing 71 per cent of protein was fed as when hay was fed alone. When sesame oil, linseed oil or tallow was added to the ration in the form of emulsions thoroughly mixed with the drinking water, the milk contained as high as 5.8 percent of fat. When 1.5 to 2 pounds of linseed oil were added to 18 to 22 pounds of hay the milk averaged 5.24 per cent of fat for four days; when 1 to 2 pounds of tallow were added to the same amount of hay the milk contained from 4.24 to 5.5 per cent of fat, the average for eight days being 4.7 per cent. The author believes that the addition of oils to the ration in the form of emulsions will increase the per cent of fat in the milk while the addition of the same oils in other forms will not so increase it, because the oils are more easily digested in the form of emulsion. He does not believe that the fat of the food goes directly into the milk, but that it forces the body fat, 7. ¢. tallow, over into the milk, and thus indirectly increases the quantity of milk fat. He further states that the fat of the food alone, and not the protein or carbohydrates, is capable of bringing about a one-sided increase in the fat content of the milk. Beglarian * studied the effect of linseed oil, given in water as an emulsion and of ground flaxseed with four cows during four periods of eight days each. The cows shrank in milk yield while taking the oil ration and increased on the flaxseed ration. The author considers the results entirely negative since the oil was not accompanied by an appreciable rise in the fat content, while it had an unfavorable effect on the digestion and comfort of the cows.. The ground flaxseed had no effect on the quality of the milk and a less unfavorable influence on the animal’s digestion. Holtsmark + found that feeding cows as much as 77 pounds of * Milch Zeitung 26 (1897), p. 522. + Translation by F. W. Woll in Experiment Station Record, vol. 9 (1897), p. 92. 58 Bowierin 173. turnips per head daily in connection with a liberal ration of con- centrated feed and cut straw, caused no decrease in the fat content of the herd milk, as compared with the feeding of the regular ration of hay, straw, concentrated feed and a small quantity of roots. Ramm * to study the effect of different foods on milk production gaye ten cows a basal ration consisting of 14 kg. of hay, 6 kg. straw and 50 kg. of beets, to which, for periods of ten days each, he added separately eighteen different foods. He found much variation in the fat content of the milk but no marked increase except with palm nut cake (7.91 kg.) alone and with a mixture of equal parts (8.25 kg.) of palm nut cake and beet molasses, this mixture being accompanied with a higher per cent of fat and total fat in the milk than any other food. For this reason the author thinks molasses has a greater effect on the quality of milk than palm nut cake. He found no relation between the fat content of the milk and the fat content of the food. In a later experiment, Ramm made further comparison of the feeding value of various molasses mixtures. The mixtures used were peat molasses (80 per cent molasses and 20 per cent peat), liquid molasses, equal parts of molasses and palm nut meal, molasses pulp (molasses mixed with fresh potato pulp and dried), molasses chips (fresh beet pulp and molasses mixed and dried), barley meal and palm nut cake of average quality. The basal ration consisted of hay, straw and beets. There were seven experimental periods of 20 days each, the last five days only being used in comparison, Hight cows were used. He found the barley meal to excel the molasses preparations for milk production, but concludes that the latter induce an increase in the fat content of the milk. Winternitzt fed a goat on sesaine oil mixed with a small amount of iodin. He found a portion of the iodin was absorbed by the milk-fat and thus concludes that a direct transmission of the fat of the food into the milk may take place. Albert and Maerckert studied the effect of rations rich and poor in fat, on ten cows during six periods ranging from 7 to 18 days, * Land wirtschaftliche Jahrbiicher 26 (1897), pp. 693, 781. + Zeitschrift Physiol. Chem. 24 (1898), p. 426. + Landwirtchaftliche Jahrbiicher 27 (1898), p. 188. THe Renation oF Foop tro MiItK-F ar. 59 with preliminary periods ranging from 2 to 16 days in length. The amount of protein in the rations was kept constant while the fat was increased from .297 kilograms to 1.706 kilograms per head daily. They found that the feeding of such large amounts of fat increased the percentage of fat in the milk, but reduced the yield so much as to make such feeding unprofitable. Kellner and Andra* compared sugar beets with dried and ensiled beet diffusion residue by feeding them alternately to twenty-four cows during four periods of twenty days each. They found that “the substitution of 4.4 ke. of dried diffusion residue for 27.5 kg. of sugar beets increased the milk yield .953 kg. and the substi- tution of 41.8 kg. of ensiled diffusion residue for the above amount of sugar beets increased the milk yield 1.721 kg. per cow (of 550 kg. live weight) without causing any material change in the quality of the milk.” | Friist reviews the co-operative cow feeding experiments conducted by the Experiment Station at Copenhagen, Denmark since 1888, with especial reference to the effect of food on the fat content of the milk. The summary of 76 series of experiments is given. The rations used were such as could be regarded normal for milch cows, such as are met with in the feeding practice on Danish dairy farms. The question whether abnormal feed mixtures can appreciably change the fat content of milk was not included in the investiga- tion. The author says “it was found that different feeding stuffs and food mixtures in a very large measure influence the quantity of milk yielded as well as the health and general condition of the cows. The feed under practical conditions as found in this country, exerts an entirely insignificant influence on the fat content of the milk. Rhodin¢ emulsified linseed oil in a specially constructed machine and fed from 250 to 750 grams of emulsion daily as a drink in water to each of two cows during seven-day periods in addition to a nor- mal mixed ration. During the first periods of feeding the oil, the fat content of the milk was increased, but during the third period * Landwirtschaftliche Versuchs Stationen 49 (1898), p. 402. + Translation by F. W. Woll in Experiment Station Record Vol. 10 (1898), p. 86. ¢{ Milch Zeitung 27 (1898), p. 306; p. 323. 60 BuLueEtTin 173. the per cent of fat not only ceased to increase, but fell back to the same point as before the oil was fed. Ramm and Winthrop* made a comparison ot some new feeding stuffs using five cows for six months. The foods were corn bran, cocoa-molasses (hot molasses and finely ground cocoa shells), blood molasses (blood, molasses and refusal of cereals) and molasses distil- lery refusc (residue from manufacture of alcohol from beet molasses). They found a wide fluctuation in the fat content of the milk during different periods and believed that the molasses increased the fat content wherever it was fed, while the corn bran seemed to reduce the fat content. When feeding rations rich in fat they could see no relation between the fat content of the ration and the fat content of the milk. Hagemann + conducted some experiments to determine whether a fat rich fodder produces a fat rich milk. During five periods, vary- ing in length from 21 to 35 days, he fed two cows on rations contain- ing from 175 to 720 grams of fat. In addition to a basal ration the grains added were corn meal, linseed-oil meal, malt sprouts and peanut cake mixed with cocoa molasses. In the sixth period of seven days he gave 1.1 pounds of sesame oil to each cow daily as an emulsion in drink- ing water. He concludes that “ the proportional and absolute fat con- tent of milk is not dependent upon the amount of fat in the food.” We have now reviewed the reports of forty-four separate experi- ments. They may be classified in the following manner in answer to the question: Was the percentage of fat in the milk increased by the food given the cows? , +. |A tendency Yes. | No. ito increase. CIM, SIGS os ei wade Asis MS Boe Seles in'< egies a ws sya Ot Ai\s gee) 1 Feeding protein and mixed foods lp each ce he — hel ye gose | 3 | 20 3 Feeding watery foods ..... sda yc cinicete + tice ie such & a psd eed be oe | — 2 — Feeding Molasses preparations .. 2. 22. .=s seus ee cte es cnaee | 3s | —| — NRIs od, § v's okie oe Siew rey ELS hla. 6 cy neck Seige | 10 | 30 4 * Milch Zeitung 27 (1898), p. 513. + Landwirtschaftliche Jahrbiicher 28 (1899), p. 485. Tue Revation or Foop to MILK-Fart. 61 Of the four experiments where the fat in the food increased the proportion of milk-fat, one reports so great a reduction in the yield as to make such feeding unprofitable. The noted experiment of Soxhlet whereby he increased the per cent of milk-fat by feeding the cows oil emulsified in the drinking water, has been repeated many times by other experimenters, but none of them, so far as we know, have reached a similar result. The protein foods which increased the per cent'of fat were palm-nut meal and sugar meal. The molasses preparations may owe their power to increase the fat content of milk to their rather abnormal character. ORIGINAL EXPERIMENTS. These experiments were conducted for the purpose of determin- ing the comparative effect of rations having different nutritive ratios upon milk production. This question has been the subject of experi- mentation at various times and places as has been already noticed, but further investigation along possibly different lines may throw more light upon the problem. Much discussion has occurred over the matter of the length of time during which a particular food should be tested and as to the accuracy of conclusions drawn from feeding trials where two or more foods were given during brief alternating periods. Some contend that four or five weeks is sufhi- cient time in which to secure the true effect of a food, some think that a shorter time, even ten days, is enough, while others hold that the longer the period the more accurate and conclusive the result. It is well known that, when a radical change is made in the food of a cow, the secretion of milk is greatly affected. Thisis most apparent in the fat content, which may either rise or fall, but is more apt to rise. How long the fluctuation may continue depends upon the ability of the cow to accustom herself to the new feed, which time may be only a few days or it may be weeks. And when the cow has become accustomed to the changed feed, her milk falls back to its normal average composition. However, if the experi- ment is concluded before this time, or if the feed is again changed, then conclusions drawn therefrom must be more or less warped. In order that these sources of error might be obviated, we not only continued the experiments for a long period, but also. made no 62 Bunverin 173. changes in the kinds of foods given during the whole time. The feeding trials lasted through two successive winters and for a period of twenty-two weeks during each winter. The effect of the differ- ent rations was studied by comparing the influence of each upon the average milk production of the cows used. We think this method to be satisfactory because, in the first place, the cows were so selected as to make the different lots fairly equal as to age, breed and gen- eral characteristics ; and in the second place, if a given ration will produce any particular effect upon milk production, then this ration will show its influence on the average composition of the milk from the lot of cows to which it is fed when compared with the average composition of milk from other cows on other rations. Our study is contined to the yield of milk and its quality so far as represented by the percentage of butter-fat. The determinations of fat were made by the Babcock test from samples of milk taken from each cow during the last three days of each week. These daily samples were tested separately and their average taken for the average per cent of fat in the week’s milk. Each cow's milk was weighed as soon as drawn and the weekly yield of milk multiphed by the average per cent of fat gives the total fat produced during the week. : The rations fed were of three kinds, one with a narrow, one with a medium, and the third with a wide nutritive ratio. No analyses of foods were made except of the oat chop which was fed during the first year. The amount of dry substance and the nutritive ratio were calculated largely from the average composition of feeding stuffs given in Bulletin No. 11 of the oftice of Experiment Stations. With one exception the same cows were used throughout the two years of experiment. Moreover the same cows were fed rations having practically the same nutritive ratio, though made up of dif- ferent foods during both years, 7. ¢e. the cows receiving a narrow ration the first year also received a narrow ration the second year likewise with the cows on other rations. None of the rations are what would be called unusual for similar ones may be found in use on dairy farms in various parts of the country. During the whole length of both experiments it was the aim to give the cows all the food they could readily consume. THe Reiation oF Foop tro Mirix-Far. 63 The records as published contain only the average data obtained from each lot of cows. In work of this kind, the average record of several cows is of more value than individual records taken singly, and it is from the average record that conclusions must be drawn. For this reason and in order to eliminate many long tables from these pages, the individual records are not published. Tuer First Experiment 1895-6. This feeding trial began November 6, 1895, and continued for twenty-two weeks until April 7, 1896. It was conducted by James M. Johnson then a graduate student in the college of agriculture. The names of the cows used are given below together with their breed, age, number of days in milk and weight. Oe Bene | gay | NAME AND BREED. Age. | 2mm | 82 | BS | Gain. Sane ee. | A 2 | Lot A: Garnet. Valentine, A. J. C. C., 73873 ..... 4 67 | 873 | 992 119 beim a 49-16 Hotei: ooo aca ss 2 49 | 891 | 1088 197 MUMUI TETOISLCIN: (40 nh oc. ale cnc ea bbs ale 4 25 | 1196 | 1870 174 Lor B: Piero etade Jersey. - fs. . dec shn be ees ot 2 49} 721 | 849 128 oenets-o Posten ne: le end: 4 62 | 1146 | 1213 67 Sista 4th aE. HEB. | 31408... aes, Se 3 65 | 1064 | 1239 175 far : BePIE SEA: JCTSEY . oss oss e's a Alen ee eos ote 3 65 | 922 | 1063 141 Glista Netherland, H. F. H. B., 32442..... 3 16 | 1088 | 1127 89 mnmvey ce HONLCH Is) 3602). a oo aie bes 6 vie whe = a | “84 (S207 -) 1223 206 ~The daily rations of the cows in each lot were made up as follows : Lot A: Grain mixture...... 5 ES ae Be TT Nag ot a ee ee Eee te oA 8 to 18 pounds. cuit tert ETT eae net aN al bake, tance a aeiie oie paterson arn Me Neg tae 3 parts. CaGehopr ois, KOF0I.9 7 NOUR Id 8 EID oOo 8s ROEM 2 parts. Cotton-secthmieal, pcan ask az eseuy i es. bg. ond. feel: 2 parts. LESTE es Ug F700) a UN eC eer a, Se 1 part. ETERS RISES Se Se gn SE Tae ae 40 to 45 pounds. eal CSE te ee ira tein oa Ge "2,0 cid hemes weeeistnaiehs 8 to 10 pounds. TMM EMTAGIO pe orcciens cone vile dace es be es go eran a 1:4.5 64 Butrerin 173. Lot B: Grain, mixhre. J6. fac «{: bi foli mays Po SE he oR Ee Mee Semen eee aie De © oe rae ee 1 part. RUSTY SUA. See, Oi See Relies Bd ee ee robe ee ok 35 to 45 pounds. Plover. Bay. S52 =... 3 Ei. Se cies Sas oes Se Meee a Bee Re Aye eee inte 6 to 12 pounds. Mair pe ation lars... see eee Apres euerine 2 Beats 1:4.3 Lot B: SEAT ORONO ois so sed ese csictss ov lee dia Megha LR ee 8 to 12 pounds Aplipne TY eEH, }.p IOV ee tL Ue teak. 8 Miacdenta ence ae ch ghee eee 2 parts CORUOE ON eat Shick kak ee ak Min eee s oes Sant aM eee 2 parts Py Meme raya Oie Sig oe) ees b Pyle Baas cl ats ie eda eed 2 parts RUIMB OR OTL TEAR ete tN tes say aes echt aha gare oe ee bate 1 part. COrm Serie ae aes ee ret lsa aire aes Las hte Roars 50 to 45 pounds. CAOMCR MAY aes frre ta cits Gr oo hayes eo eter neaes Be am ee ea ae 6 to 12 pounds, TICE TER VS PAGNO ois ote ly ceca hatin pide ea Ae Wie kee MIST eae ake ee eee! 1:5.7 Lot C: Ceraeaney IEE Tso tee eee Cie AUR ea poste alates cide Slaven adie 8 to 11 pounds. PG aMOR TS ci cer Se aa hots oa eras ae eek Oe a Rr eaten = _. 2 parts. Wiiear bran. Gos, 3 Ae Calin abie Witte: Zoi Staats Leah neva tne tee Asai 1 part. Sg CY See RnR ee CAR eR Bees cataract eae eS 35 to 40 pounds. RASC, SAY 5: gli dey eeenS Shee eRe Ae fate ee eee 4 to . pounds. DpeeMaVertutiO...). 522s ee tye ee eee tice ois retin eae 1:9.3 Calculating each of these rations on the basis of eight pounds of grain, eight pounds of hay, and 40 pounds of silage, each cow would receive the following number of pounds of digestible nutri- ents per day. THe RELATION oF Foop to MILK-F Ar. 69 : Carbo- | ; Nutritive Protein. hydrates. | Fat. ratio. Pee MATTOW PAGON) . 2. os joesecw eles 3.08 10.63 1.13 1:4.3 ister WNCNUUML. TAUION .cria%s cick vee eee e's 2.37 LeGG .87 tase | re WIGE Per head Per 1000 | Nutritive | Pounds of | Percent | Pounds of weekly. | lbs. daily. | ratio. milk. fat. | fat. lipo heya 167.19 22.63 1:4.15 | 184.42 | 3.37 PsOnal oe hee eee 169.34 22.53 i ee Se Ot 188.33 3.31 6.24 Sie eee 172.81 22.67 1eae tt 187.75 3.20 6.14 Ut ee ee 172.98 22.382 1:4. 00 178.25 3.44 6.13 Beis ees 169.36 21.82 1:3.94 | 177.08 3.21 5.64 PE e535, 62 175.30 22.48 1:4.01 165175 3.20 5.64 ey fs BO 5 5 176.12 22.47 1:4.08 166.50 3.25 5.41 Slight ee eee 178.18 22.61 1:4.04 169.92 3.08 5.24 «SSO ee ES 163.61 20.50 1:3.98 153.38 8.26 5.00 liana Shas Buea ae era 142.36 18.59 1:4.12 150.58 3.37 5.08 Pete ites Nans foo ead: 21.52 1:4.03 161.75 3.27 5.28 Wea e cre a eee Perce sls 163.36 20.74 1:3. 96 152.08 5 fe 4.82 eee pagers 3 ANG 169 .52 21.56 1:3.95 147.92 3.15 4.66 MEARE re 9 aed sca ae uy gs Sea ts 21.59 ie. OO 156.83 3.34 5.23 Eo ee ee ee 173.60 21.76 1:3:.98 155 . 67 3.26 5.08 Ld a See ean 178 . 23 22.07 125792 150.58 3.22 4.85 1 AY RR Ee ar a a 182.63 22.51 1:3. 94 152. 25 3.21 4.88 Ps itis SS es Shas se) ey 21.93 1:3.93 Lobe 7 3.41 5.15 | Sees 176.46 21.52 1:3. 92 148.83 3.32 4.94 1 ES Coe eae «174.74 21.16 1:3. 9% 148.58 3.31 4.92 BUR rent ieee es e's (= 1¥5269 21.20 1:33.91 190.75 3.37 5.09 Barats esa) eens, « | 174.61 20.87 1:3.90 143 .50 3.36 4.83 AVERAGE Recorp oF Lot B. Bouuvetin 173. TABLE Il— (Continued). (Mrprium Rarioy). WEEK. Ce. wis S Sic = @ £0 6S © 12 ste ee @ © aie wie es oi#\.01 (01s) 6° /s, hue 0) @caue B's o8 6 6 = 6 6 @)s, 6 lu ee os. es Te a es WC Sint See) a ace rete a, ane wee) ois Le le a 2D». S elle a ews, ‘ses $) One are ete. 6 are COE) em ee ee Te os» @ es alse wie 6.) (ele le (e wes. s 6 is © 2 ve 0) 8 oer =» ae) 8) a ees © 0 6.608 0 « wine lee ie © 8 eee e) ee)» = 076) 2 pels ee 6s « ©. \¢ ed BS) Swe, Ce (Via toke 5) @ 8 8 oe aw Sicha 6 6m). ale) Cie e s/s w 66/6) ae «8 6 © « s 6,6 eae mae) e216) a8) 6) Se) 0)te Ce Os) Ce .e N10 6 wee Pe Le.e) Oh eC mie Oe le ele) 8. & Dry matter consumed. Weekly product of milk and fat. Average per head. Per head Per 1000 | Nutritive weekly. | lbs. daily. ratio. *162 23.96 1:5.58 *164 23.76 1:5.54 *166 23.44 1:5.54 164 21.87 1:5.59 169 22.42 1:5.538 164 21.80 1:5.54 170 22.53 1-556 175 23.20 1:5.59 177 23.30 1:5.94 180 23.87 1:5.93 176 23 .32 1:5.46 166 21.85 1:5.42 175 23.27 247 178 23.14 1:5.46 184 23.92 1:5.47 186 24.03 1:5.47 186 23.75 co. 47 186 23.43 1:5.47 182 23.09 1:5.46 iio! 22.94 1:5.46 tro) Oe 22.76 1:5.46 181.55 22.65 1:5.46 Pounds of milk. *182.75 *189 . 25 bag ot ee ta) 221.08 227.33 195.17 204.25 214.92 LNW ERWRORDDOD SCR SwORW OO Om VORaPhooow Swe Crow i Or «+ * Average for two cows. Pounds of Pate Pert 2 OT OD 2 WoOnwmNodsahW 26 SE AE AE AF AB AT AF IT ID FFI IAIN ADAG oo oa) J > =) Tue Rewvation oF Foop to Mi1tx-Far. ‘lk TABLE IIl— (Continued). AveracEe Recorp or Lor C. (Wine Ration). — Dry matter consumed. Ww eyafsumacaed ee fat. WEEK. eta Per head | Per 1000 | Nutritive | Pounds of | Per cent | Pounds of weekly. | lbs. daily. ratio. milk. fat. a Loa A eee *129 .38 10.3% Saat f tlie 0 3.63 6.53 Le a ae ee 141.92 20.56 1:9.02 189.08 3.96 7.49 2 Os Aaa ae 147.75 21.21 1:8. 99 180.25 3.95 7.35 PEPE s oats S'00 os 144.62 20.71 1:8.95 174.17 4.09 7.12 Den eis eC 138.80 19.52 1:8.79 169.92 3.89 6.61 nn 2 eae 149 . 93 21.48 1:9.08 169.33 3.78 7.39 7 Dna eee 153.89 21.97 1:9.12 156.75 3.63 6.18 tere ta rcs 2 cis | 156.10 22.23 1:9.15 169.42 3.73 6.32 - e aes 155.15 22.12 1:8.90 167.50 3.99 6.68 Ul Rae ee 158. 99 22.56 1:8. 76 161 . 42 4.05 6.54 LL ee 158.09 22.37 1:8. 75 160 . 92 4.06 6.53 Le As 152.95 21.53 1:8. 75 157.08 4.10 6.44 Lio? ae 159.51 22.42 1:8.80 155.83 4.06 6.32 Lab 2 OS 158. 27 22.04 1:8. 69 157. 42 4.06 6.39 LE en Oe 159.68 22.44 1:8.69 158.33 3.99 6.32 UU eae 152.38 20.90 1:8.55 147.92 4.18 6.18 6 154 . 93 21.04 1:8. 56 1538. 42 4.06 6.23 ils &: 6 157.59 21.37 1:58.61 151.67 4.06 6.16 LL La Coe eee 151.51 | 20.40 1:8.51 146 . 25 4.16 6.08 7, ES a *160.50 21 .62 1:8:535') “161788 3.64 5.88 * Average for two cows. Before entering upon any discussion of these records it is neces- sary to make a few explanations in order that a clear understanding of them may be obtained. The first experiment went through without any irregularities or illness of the cows, sufficient to cause variations that should be noticed when drawing conclusions. But during the second experiment there were some irregularities that need to be noticed. In lot A, Table II, Julia was taken sick during the ninth week of the test and fora few days her milk yield fell off nearly one- half. Her illness and slow recovery considerably reduced the aver- age milk and fat yield as may be seen by a glance at the table. In lot B, Dora did not enter the experiment until the fourth week and was then fresh in milk. She was giving from 40 to 50 pounds of milk daily, which amount increased the average yield, 52 Buuwetin 173. as is seen in table II. During the sixth week she was “off feed ” and her milk fell from 325 pounds during the fifth week to 232 pounds. At the same time her average per cent of fat was over one per cent higher than during the week previous as well as dur- ing the following week. This explains the high average of 3.98 per cent during the sixth week. She quickly regained nearly her former flow and at the close of the experiment was averaging 42 pounds per day. In lot C, Jennie calyead November 8 and entered the experiment the second week fresh in milk. Her coming into this lot increased both the average yield of milk and the per cent of fat for the second and succeeding weeks. During the twentieth week Clara, of lot C, was taken suddenly ill with a high fever and died. Upon examination she was found to have accumulations of fatty tissue in close proximity to the vital organs. During the twenty-first week, May, of Jot C, was taken ill in a similar manner to Olara, but her life was saved. It will be remembered that the cows in this lot received a highly carbonaceous ration. The grain consisted of two parts, by weight, of corn meal and one part of wheat bran, while the silage was rich in corn and had been increased five pounds each about a month before the cows became sick. It may be that so highly carbonaceous a ration has a heating tendency upon the animal body. If this be the case, feeding the ration for so long a period, might, in its cumulative effects, result as disastrously as mentioned above. Although Jennie 2d came through the experiment safely on the same ration, still, when the effect upon Clara and May is considered, we cannot help concluding that the ration is not a good one for long, continuous feeding. To return to the study of the comparative effect of the three rations upon the yield and quality of milk, the results show that there is practically no difference between them so far as their effect on the percentage of fat is concerned. In general there is a gradual increase in the richness of the milk from the beginning of each experiment until the end, regardless of the kind of food. An average of the per cents of fat for periods of four weeks each will present the fact more clearly, and such an average is given in tabular form below. The first two weeks are omitted in striking the average in all cases. Tue Retation oF Foop to Mirx-Far. 73 1895-6. 1896-7. Lot and kind of ration. Lot and kind of ration. A B } A B Cc Narrow. | Medium. Wide. ~| Narrow. | Medium. | Wide. per cent | per cent | per cent | per cent | per cent | per cent fat. fat. fat. fat. fat. | fat. 1st four weeks.... 3.46 3.40 3.47 3.25 ay 3.93 2d four weeks.... 3.29 3.14 3.32 3.24 3.44 3.85 2d four weeks.... 3.44 3.37 3.27 3.23 3.47 4.07 4th four weeks... 3.904 3.59 3.47 8.28 3.49 4.07 5th four weeks... 3.68 3.65 3.68 3.34 3.56 ey, An average of this kind balances the variations from week to week, and places the per cents of fat in a light where conclusions can be more readily drawn therefrom. The reason for the high average during the first four weeks in lot B, year 1896-7, has already been indicated in the discussion concerning Dora’s entering the experiment when fresh in milk, and later becoming reduced in flow and increased in fat by forced feeding. Omitting this period, it will be noticed that the average for the remaining periods bear the same relation to each other as those for lot A. In the first experiment there was an increase from the beginning to the end with each lot of about two-tenths of one per cent of fat. In the second experiment this increase was about one-tenth of one per cent. When we examine the yield of milk and of fat we do not find the same uniformity as is observed in the per centof fat. If anaverage be taken of the yield of milk and fat for the first four weeks after the first two, and for the last four weeks of the experiments we find the following per cent of decrease from beginning to end : 1895-6. 1896-7. Lot and kind of ration. Lot and kind of ration. A B A B Narrow. | Medium. Wide. Narrow. | Medium. Wide. Per cent decrease | Be aebie , o sho io} 18.0 15.5 | 17.8 3.0 14.4 Per cent decrease ; MRIERGSS 3S 344 w5.2 12.0 12.0 12.0 15.6 6.0 10.3 The decrease for 1895-6 was the same with all rations except for a slight difference in favor of the cows receiving the wide ration. 74 Boutietin 173. During the year 1896-7 the yieids are not so uniform, but lot B shows a much smaller decrease than either of the other lots. Taking both experiments into account it would seem that the medium ration had a more favorable influence upon the continued production of milk and total butter-fat than either the wide or narrow rations. Yet, if individual cases are considered, we find Belva 2d, on the narrow ration, holding out in her milk flow during both years as well as, or better than, any of the cows on the medium ration. Noumser or Pounps or Dry Marter Required In EAacu Ration To PropucE 100 Pounps or MILK AND ONE Powunp oF Far. Lot A. Lot B. Lot C. Narrow ration. Medium ration. Wide ration. Milk. Fat. Milk. Fat. Milk, Fat. the GS | a 90.2 26.0 102.8 30.1 98.3 28.7 1896-7.... 106.6 32.3 85.2 23.9 92.8 23.4 Average... 97.5 28.8 93.0 26.6 95.7 25.9 Weicut or Cows. Whether or not the different rations had any particular effect upon the live weight of the cows may be studied by recourse to data already given, but an average of the gain of each lot during the twenty-two weeks together with their average age is tabulated here, for more ready reference. During the first year none of the Lot A. Narrow ration. Lot B. Medium ration. Lot C. Wide ration. age PORE | age. © | Cale perl) ace, 2. Ca =) a re 313 163 123 3 145 ey ey 41-3 | 131 | 4 101 | 3 2-3 | 65 cows had reached full age, and during the second year two of lot A and one of lot B were five years old. Since the cows in lot A were older than the others, it might seem that the narrow ration THE RELATION oF Foop to MiixK-Far. 15 had a tendency to fatten the animals more than the other rations. However the differences are so slight that it is safe to say that the gains in weight are due more to growth than to any particular effect of the food. CHARTS. In order to place the records for milk and fat presented in tables Tand I] more vividly before the reader’s eye the following six charts have been prepared. They show the average daily yield of milk, average per cent of fat, and average weekly yield of fat for both experiments. Passing from left to right in the charts each division represents one week. Counting upward, each of the small spaces represents one-half pound of milk, five one-hundredths of one per cent fat, or one-tenth of a pound of fat, as the case may be. Bouiwetin 173. 76 WNT il NH Ut i il | i HH I A in TTT TAT nu iy TATTLE TEA TTT TTL a UTETCATRATATRAE ET TAN ST TTT TTT TTT NAR I heb td LTTE Ce TTT TTL TT TT ee eT TTT TT TTT THE ebb HN Sais NTT TTS ET A Hh a TUTTI TTS TT TTT HAS LANNE Hap TTT TTT TTT TTS ST TTT TTS i Hee Cet TTT TAA yy UALATLUEAYAAH AEE Wes | FAR TAT HA Hh ULNTEAT T Hs Hee LEN ih LILES iy i A S TTT i NUT URAL ii ANA EE A a tks TH ETAT RS TLL BS HAI Hee tnt US UCHLI NG (INS LANA He TT ess TTT nih RSS HA UNNI tee MATRA HT ni my il Hii TTA Mh ! LTTE os Sitti i HAAN CATT ARAAAUHTA JA ae ITA TC SC TTT TT RTA CIAL ee a HERS PARA RGAATN Gi i tH i LALLA HRSA RE a AN ci HUH I ATTILSSTUITESTT TTS TSS STC AU TTT TTT ST r eT TTT TTL TAT AT 16.— Diagram showing the average daily yield of milk for each week during the Each space between the perpendicular lines represents experiment of 1895-6. h space between the horizontal lines represents one-half pound ie Ei one week, of milk, 1 Tue Revation oF Foon to Mirx-Far. ET TT Hy | Hut I Mt HTT | | | ECCT TILT TTT i un A IANA Litt RAUNT Il i CUTE UVUNTTONAATALAHAAAEOAL AH nn TTT iy Hh TTT TIT TTT TTT | A nie TTY iat ll et ee F CTT 1 LATTA HA EET LATTA tee TAGE HT \ WAHIeG UAT AA : UTLUTUAAAAEAHE AN AEAHU UAHA Mil Ml INIT THE Ae THA | TAL TTL CTE ETT i nt I 4 HIN. | | LU | Hi UUUUTAUAAT AAA E WRG CEU TLTTTN ul HL Mth hia SUENVEEAEEHA LANL ie - iil Att HELA te Ht St! Ht / HERTHA HANS ATARI wa el ETT Hc EOS TIT : i A He ETAT Te ™ HNTAATAHTAAAAT it IN iM LAS ct LATTA HN | THT INTIME ae i ETT vi Halll i | lL i HINT SS He ah INA ULNA AT HT H He TN vi Ht LTRS Ha HL mit i HE TL rit a Si i Nt LTT US nf shea PR ‘ Hit Hil ir TAT HARE It Be IHN hil PTT tt a CRUE EEE oe AT at Nt i UNAUNEAA en Mi THAGHeaH I Ht Hh ETT Ht tet Nv HATTA in MATT TL na Me HN cin HHA HAE eH tt the HAA uf AR NS it ty UC tt mt HT sa HK HT MN LLP TTT i NAN HSS RS ‘i il | UAH il ‘ WARTS | i 17.— Diagram showing the average daily yield of milk for each week during the Each space between the perpendicular lines represents Each space between the horizontal lines represents one-half pound experiment of 1896-7. one week. of milk. Buiyuetin 173. 78 | ccc A LETT TTT i th LN MI HTL PUTTER AAG AA SCARRED HAAR GA GARG HNN PNY PTT TE AAAGSAAAAGAARTA GE THRCRA HES HAUTE ATA RETGAMAIAGTAATHGRAUTRHTIAAAAACHUATGIAARSOC TATRA TAT LT SS TT ON EHR RAREHE CE AEERPEREE atte Ss TT TT TT TT TT TT TT TTS EO TT TT TT TTT HEHE Ar AT EEE RT Re Re PERE PREF TEPPER eee ALATA ct STII = een ee "=s ————_ | ————_ TA Bi ble WEEKLY Propuct or MILK AND Far or Lor No. 1. Glista Netherland. Gem Valentine. Ration for | each perio : of six weeks. | Pounds eo Pounds! Pounds ou Pounds of milk. f of fat. | of milk. | of fat at. fat. (| 204.25 3.00 6.13 157.00 5.20 8.16 | Usual ration || 217.50 3.15 6.85 176.50 5.30 9.35 | of silage, } 207.50 3.00 6.23 145.50 5.35 7.78 | hay and||_ 211.00 3.25 6.86 116.00 4.85 5.63 grain. 202.75 3.25 6.59 118.50 4.85 5.75 201 .50 3.50 7.05 131.25 5.50 7.22 Total...... 1244.50 | 3.19| 39.71| 844.75] 5.20] 48.89. (| 206.50 3.20 6.61 127, 5.52 7.05 | 196.50 3.38 6.64 123, } 5.88 725 Palm nut] 182.25 3.41 6.21 tod 3} pe 1.37 meal ration. | 187.00 3.75 7.01 1A .98 7.04 | 184.00 3.48 6.40 117.631 5.57 6.54 L| 164.7 3.75 6.18 105.50 5.85 6.17 Total ...<.. 1121.00| 3.48| 39.05 | 714.50| 5.80| 41.42 139.50 3.42 4.77 111.50 5.73 6.39 *62.00 3.60 2.23 14% 6.09 6.89 ieee: ASR pee eee: eer 108. 5. 6.10 Usualration.4 | vrrr hp ii prs 83.75 | 5.95 | 4.98 ae an epee ERR es 93.25 5.75 5.36 2 op aah Eee BIS 8 93.75 5.85 5.48 Total ...... 201.50! 3.47| 7.00! 605.00| 5.82 | 35.20 * Went dry. Mollie. Per | Pounds cuit /Pounds of milk.| ¢ of fat fat 334.25 2.60 8.69 347 .50 2.95 10.25 821.50 3.40 10.93 313.50 8.00 | 9.41 305 .50 2.65 8.10 299 .50 3.10 9.28 1921.75 | 2.95 | 56.66 311.00 3.17 9.86 293 .50 38.26 9.57 295 .25 3.38 9.98 206.75 3.48 10.33 298.75 3.35 10.01 295 .00 3.53 10.41 1790.25 3.36 60.16 285 .50 3.07 8.76 315.50 3.30 10.41 304.00 3.55 10.79 807.75 3.25 10.00 294.00 3.40 10.00 290.75 8.25 9.45 1797.50 3.31 59.41 Tue Revation or Foop tro Mirx-Far. 85 TABLE Ill — (Continued). WEEKLY Propucr or MILK AND Fart or Lor No. 2. Mabel 2d Ruby Sadie. a age Sal == = each perio of six weeks. Pounds ee Pounds Pounds ce /Pounds; Pounds pa |Pounds | of milk, | fat. of fat. | of milk | fat. | of fat. | of milk. fat. of fat. [| 188.75 | ee ieee Oe eae (eee 169.75 | 3.30 5.43 Usual ration} | 186.25} 4.10] 7.64] 002. | eee | le 163.50 | 3.05 4.99 partes) | 163.25 | 8:80 | 6.20 | i:...... | ccscce | ores 147.00 | 3.40 5.00 hay and}{ 167.50| 3.95] 6.62| 336.25| 375| 12.61] 141.25| 3.69] 5.09 grain. 76.00| 3.90| 6.86| 385.25] 3.80| 14.64] 148.00| 3.45 5.11 | 171.00| 3.45 | 5.90] 408.00| 3.50] 14.28| 144.50] 3.90| 5.64 Total...... 1047.75 | 3.8 | 40.39! 1199.50] 3.67] 41.53] 914.00| 3.42 | 81.26 (| 160.25] 4.07| 6.52] 434.95 | 306| 14.16| 192.25} 3.22| 426 148.75| 4.58| 6.81 | 439.00] 3.28| 14.40] 119.75 | 3.28 3.93 Palm nu | | 150.75] 4.33] 6.58] 418.75 | 3.25] 18.61] 119.50] 3.33 3.98 mealration.1| 152.00} 4.53| 689| 423.25] 3.26| 13.80| 122.50| 4.06| 4.97 || 148.75| 4.35| 6.47] 492.95] 3.21] 13.55 | 192.75 | 3.23 3.96 [| 149-50] 4:18] 6.25] 415.75] 3.85) 18.93) 113.75] 3.46 3 94 Total...... 910.00 | 4.34) 39.47 | 2553.25 | 3.97! 88.45 0.50| 3.43| 25.04 Ho a Ak AE ee 2S AS eS = 162.25 | 3.69} 5.99| 409.50| 3.00 12.29 104.25| 3.12 3.25 169.75 3.80 | 6.45 389.50 3.20 | 12.75 | 104.75 2.30 2-41 170.50 | 6.5 422.75 | 2.801 11.84 75 "40 | "32 Usual ration.,; 474/99 | 4:00, 6.84| 397.50] 3.25 | 12.92 | 86.75] 3.30] 286 i| 173.25| 4.35 | 7.54] 874.951 3.95] 12.16 7.50| 370| 287 (| 174.00] 3.75| 6.53] 345.50] 2.90] 10.02 | 67.25 | 3.45| 2.32 Total...... 9020.75 | 3.91 | 9.91 | 2348.00 | 3.07 | 71.98 538.25 | 3.16 | 17.08 A clearer understanding of the variations in the per cent of fat during the eighteen weeks may be obtained by finding the average per cent in periods of three weeks each. is given below. A table of such averages In order to make the study more complete, there is placed in the same table the average per cents of fat found in the records of three cows which were in the second experiment described on page 67. The per cents are the averages for the periods of three weeks each which are coincident with those in which palm nut meal was fed. were unaltered during a term of twenty-two weeks. It will be remembered that the rations of the three cows 86 Buuetin 173. TABER TY. AVERAGE PER Cent or Fat 1n Periops or THREE Weexs Eacu. Lot No. 1. Lot No. 2. Glista | Gem Nether-| Valen- | Mollie. Mabel Ruby. | Sadie. land. | tine. : Usual ration, Dec. 9 to Jan.19: Wurst Tree WEEKS. .cc es has otek 3.06 | 5:28 1 2.98 | 3.9 anes 3.21 Second three weeks. .;..:.) ..i.s..% 3.39 | 5:09 | 2.92 | 3.77 | 3.67 3.63 Palm nut meal ration, Jan. 20 to Mch. 2: Hirst Ghnree Weeks). cc of oasa ees ce eet 3.02 | 5:80 173.27 | 4:52 | 3:26 3.28 Second three weeks 2. ..:5.. 420380) “Ste 3.48 Belva 2d.| Cherry. | Clara. RATION UNCHANGED. Narrow | Medium Wide ration. | ration. ration. WD eBerADEE DLO LG ps oc hse eset C0 Hee OE rnd Tee eee 3.02 5.37 5.11 Mecember s0to0 January 19... 60.0 2.020. etm wine oe tole os) ase 5.58 5.30 daniary- 20 tO epruany. 9) 0 5,. 6% sion saste ule o's velo Ses 2.94 5.75 5.68 Beprmiaey 200) to Marchts ¢ 2.78. ats or as shitte enka oe eles p 3.14 5.52 5.44 PNRM), Oe end Sys oe Reels winch hcl etane beta © dichaieNstciniee ate 8.28 5.55 5.45 1 EVEL NE 2G Fem (yt Ee ooh i Eas a oa Set 3.23 5.47 ae Among the cows that were fed palm nut meal it is seen that allin lot No. 1 show in general a higher per cent of fat while the meal was fed than before, but this higher average is kept up for six weeks after the meal was discontinued. Mabel 2d of lot No. 2 is the only cow that shows a lower average both before and after feeding the palm nut meal than during that period, but her total yield of fat was less on the palm nut ration than on the usual ration. Ruby and Sadie each had a higher average before the meal was fed and nearly as high after as during the period of feeding the meal. Ruby’s high average at the beginning is probably due to her being fresh in milk. Tue Revation oF Foop ro MiILK-Far. 87 ~ A comparison of the records of all the cows in table IV shows that with one exception (Gem Valentine) there are no greater variations among the cows which alternated from the usual ration to palm nut meal than among those which were fed an unchanging ration. Thus, taking everything into consideration, we do not feel warranted in saying that the feeding of palm nut meal increased the per cent of fat in the milk. CoNCLUSIONS. For two terms of twenty-two weeks, nine cows were fed in lots of three each on different rations, the nutritive ratios of which were about 1:4, 1:6 and 1:9 respectively. During this time the percent- age of fat in the milk of each lot increased slightly and gradually without regard to the kind of ration. For continuous feeding, the medium ration appeared to give better results as to yield of milk than either the narrow or wide rations. When the food of the cows was changed from the usual ration to one containing from four to seven pounds of palm nut meal and then to the usual ration again, there were variations in the fat con- tent of the milk, but no more nor greater than when the food of the cows was unchanged. Tur Fottowine BULLETINS ARE AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION ‘TO TuosrE WuHo may Desire THEM. Removing Tassels from Corn, 9 pp. Greenhouse Notes, 31 pp. Apricot Growing in Western New York, The Cultivation of Orchards, 22 pp. Impressions of the Peach Industry in NOY 28 pp: Peach Yellows, 20 pp. Barns 2 Grape Troubles in Western N. Y., 16 pp. The Cabbage Root Maggot, 99 pp as of Strawberry Leaf Blight, 26 The Dinos in Western N. Y., 27 pp. Cigar Case- Bearer, 20 pp. Winter Muskmelons, 20 pp. Forcing House Miscellanies, 43 pp. Entomogenous Fungi, 42 pp. The Spraying of Trees and the Canker Worm, 24 pp. General Observaticns in Care of Fruit Trees, 26 Soil Depletion in Respect to Care of Fruit Trees, 21 pp. Climbing Cut Worms in Western N. ve ol pp Geological History of the Chautauqua Grape Belt, 36 pp. Extension Work in Horticulture, 42 pp. Spraying Calendar. Dwarf Apples, 31 pp. Fruit Brevities, 50 pp. Texture of the Soil, 8 pp. opus of the Soil and Its Conservation, pp Suggestions for Planting Shrubbery. Second Report upon Extension Work in Horticulture, 36 pp. Green Fruit Worms, 17 pp. The Pistol-Case Bearer in Western New York, 18 pp. A Disease of Currant Canes, 20 pp. The Currant-Stem Girdler and the Rasp- berry-Cane Maggott, 22 pp. mt Second Account of Sweet Peas, 35 pp. A Talk about Dahlias, 40 pp. How to Conduct Field Experiments with Fertilizers, 11 pp. Potato Culture, 15 pp. Notes upon Plums for Western New York, 31 pp. 132 134 135 136 137 138 Notes upon Celery, 34 pp. Strawberries under Glass, 10 pp. Forage Crops, 28 pp. Chrysanthemums. 24 pp. Agricultural Extension Work, sketch of its Origin and Progress, 11 pp. Studies and Illustrations of Mushrooms; J., 32 pp. Third Report upon Japanese Plums. Second Report on Potato Culture, 24 PP. Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death Among Swill-Fed Hogs. The Codling-Moth. Sugar Beet Investigations, 88 pp. Suggestions on Spraying and on the San José Seale. Some Important Pear Diseases. Fourth Report of Progress on Extension Work, 26 pp. Fourth Report upon Chrysanthemums, 36 pp. Quince Curculio, 26 pp. Some Spraying Mixtures. Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control. Gravity or Dilution Separators. Studies in Milk Secretion. Impressions of Fruit-Growing Industries. Table for Computing Rations for Farm Animals. Second Report on the San José Seale. Third Report on Potato Culture. Grape-vine Flee-beetle Source of Gas and Taint Producing Bac- teria in Cheese Curd. An Effort to Help the Farmer. Hints on Rural School Grounds. Annual Flowers. The Period of Gestation in Cows. Three Important Fungous Diseases of the Sugar Beet. Peach Leaf-Curl. Ropiness in Milk and Cream. Sugar Beet Investigations for 1898. The Construction of the Stave Silo. Studies and Illustrations of Mushrooms; II Studies in Milk Secretion. Tent Caterpillars. Concerning Patents on Gravity or Dilution Separators. Bulletins Issued Since the Close of the Fiscal Year, June 30, 1899. 171 Gravity or Dilution Separators. 172 The Cherry Fruit-Fly: A New Cherry Pest. 173 The Relation of Food to Milk-Fat. 88 Bulletin 174. November, 1899. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, N. Y. Done EROBLEM OF faapoverished Lands. Being Suggestions for Investigation and Experiment. COMPILED BY Lah BALLEE Y:. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1899 ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. G. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. Mrs. MARY ROGERS MILLER, Nature-Study.‘ A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E. HUNN,. Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. W. E. GRIFFITH, Dairy Husbandry. Mrs. A B. COMSTOCK, Nature-Study. ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Nature-Study. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer, EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. 90 CornELL UNIvErRsiTy, Iraaca, N. Y., Vov. 1, 1899. } HonoraB_E ComMIssIoNER OF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY: Str.—The one perennial inquiry at an Experiment Station is how to restore land to its original producing power. We have made many experiments and investigations to determine the problems at issue. A popular summary of these studies is given herewith. The chemical part of the subject has been prepared by G. W. Cavanaugh, under the supervision of Professor Caldwell. Full reports of three years experimenting with fertilizers are now being compiled for publication in bulletin form. This bulletin comprises the following subjects : Part I. How to Understand the Problem. A. Some reasons why lands become impoverished. Bb. How to reclaim depleted lands. Part Il. A Crusade with the Farmers. A. Reading-Lessons Nos. 1 and 2. No.1. The Soil: What it is. No. 2. Tillage and under-drainage : Reasons why. B. Answers to the Questions on Five Reading-Lessons. Nod. The Soil: What it is: No. 2. Tillage and under-drainage: Reasons why. 3. Fertility of the land: What it is. j No. 4. How the plant gets its food from the Soil. 5. How the plant gets its food from the Air. I. P. ROBERTS, Dvrecior. 91 ; ; Sec ow . eee - * wal ja Reena in JY Men CIE 9, ae ole) ag? 2 Se - Plan of a set of plats upon which the farmer may ask the soil and the plant what fertilizers are needed (see p. 99): hone) & plat. vw K plat. 20 lbs. muriate of potash. 3...| N plat. 20 lbs. nitrate of soda, or 40 lbs. tankage or dried blood. 20 lbs. muriate of potash. 20 lbs. muriate of potash. 4...| KN plat. 20 lbs. nitrate of soda. | 40 lbs. tankage, etc. 5...| O plat. No fertilizer. § 40 Ibs. plain superphosphate with 6...) P plat.) 15¢ phosphonic acid. § 20 lbs. muriate of potash. 7..., KPplat. 4 40 ips. superphosphate. | 20 lbs. nitrate of soda, 40 lbs. tankage, ete. 8...| NK P pla . ~ 20 lbs. muriate of potash, or + 20 lbs. muriate of potash. | 40 lbs. superphosphate. 40 lbs. superphosphate. i 3 § 0 lbs. nitrate of soda, | { 40 lbs. tankage, etc. ° We plat / 40 lbs. superphosphate. OF. 40' Ibs: superphosphate. Size of plats 1-10 acre. Upon each plat the same crop is to be grown; care being taken that the seed is pure and that each plat receives exactly the same amount of seed. S, means stable manure; K, potash: N, nitrogen; P, phosphoric acid; O, no fertilizer, The best arrangement is to have plats as narrow as they can be and still carry a reasonable number of rows of the crop, and, unless the field is too large, extend- ing from one side to the other, and across all unlike strips. Such an arrangement would reduce the labor of planting and tillage to a minimum, besides securing the probable advantage of greater evenness in results. A set of plats seventeen and one-half feet wide would carry five rows of corn or potatoes, with three and one-half feet between the rows; there would then be three rows to harvest for the measurement of the crop, the two outside rows being rejected. For cereals, as wheat, rye, barley and oats, plats as wide as could be sown with the drill, with two or three vacant spaces between the plats, would answer. For small fruits, plats carrying three rows should be taken, the fruit of the inner row only being harvested for the measurement of the crop. 93 ~ 7 " ‘ I - a , : ketet va ; tint <7 ~wittee ge. Ts a (ide | wy”, wae arth -y e ie Ss TP (Go any 2 Oma Ca ae ot ¥ ae D Rae seers ah Shia ait ees te ae eats ay ee. THE PROBLEM OF IMPOVERISHED LANDS. hare HOW. TO UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM. “Some of my land will not produce a crop, although my father raised good crops on it. What shall I do to make it productive?” This is a common type of question. It is easily asked, but very difficult to answer. The first thing to do is to find out why the land is unproductive. The remedy then follows as a natural consequence. The disease must be diagnosed, as the physicians say, before it can be cured. If the cause of the unproductiveness is to be discovered, the land itself must be studied carefully, and the history of the field should be known. The man who is on the spot—the farmer himself — has the best opportunity to determine the cause of the trouble. One value of an education and of experiment station teachings is to help the farmer to work out his problems for himself. He can not only solve many of his problems better than the experimenters can, but he derives pleasure from the quest, and great comfort in being able to master his difficulties. The farmer who has worn-out land must study and experiment for himself. It is the object of this bulletin to suggest how this may be done. We will specify some of the leading causes of unproduc- tiveness, and then suggest inquiries. A. Somer Reasons Wuy Lanps Brecomr IMPovERISHED. 1. They may lack tillage and good care.—It is significant that impoverished lands are usually those which have been neglected. From insufficient or improper tillage, lands become cloddy, hard, unresponsive and foul. Jn such cases it may be necessary to resort to summer fallow to correct the errors — to bring the land back into prime condition ; but it is rare that well-farmed fields need fallow- ing. See Part II, paragraphs 7, 8, 9, 14, 16, 25. 95 96 Buxwuetin 174. 2. They may lack humus or vegetable mould.— When in native conditions, in regions of sufficient rainfall, lands are covered with vegetation. As this vegetation dies it becomes incorporated with the soil as humus, making the soil mellow, dark-colored and rich. It enables the soil to hold moisture, lessens extremes of temperature, hastens chemical activities, and itself supplies plant-food. When vegetable matter is withheld from the soil, the humus is not replen-- ished, and it is gradually used up. The soil then becomes hard, “dead,” very dry in dry weather and very muddy in wet weather, and is subject to great extremes of temperature. If the original basis of the soil is clay, the land bakes and becomes lumpy when ploughed; if sand, it becomes loose and leachy. See Part LI, para- graphs 5, 6. One great value of stable manure is to supply humus. Green- cropping is also exceedingly useful. A rotation of crops in which sod is one factor tends to maintain the supply of humus. Catch- crops (sown between other crops) may be used to replenish the humus; also cover-crops (those sown in fall for a winter cover). Long-continued cropping with one or with similar crops tends to deprive the soil of humus. When the farmer does not properly care for the land, nature tries to force him into another rotation This is well illustrated in pastures and meadows in which daisies and wild carrot force out the poor stand of grass. Most of the depleted lands in New York are suffering more for humus than for plant-food. To determine by experiment whether a soil has sufficient humus is difticult, because the forms of available humus-producing materials also contain plant-food. Humus may be supplied by muck, stable manure, leaves or green-crops. All these contain the different plant-foods, and also a large amount of vegetable matter. To test whether a soil needs humus, apply these materials to several plats of ground, leaving one or more without them for checks. Stable manure might be applied to one plat, muck to another, a green- crop of clover, barley, buckwheat, etc., turned under on another. Nature uses leaves for making humus in the woods. 3. They may need draining.— Under-draining lowers the water- table (or the zone of standing water), causing the soil to become 4° Tue PRrRospieM or IMPOVERISHED LANDs. 97 deeper and mellower. Well-drained soil is drier in wet weather and moister in dry weather than soil which is underlaid with a high and hard subsoil. Most of the cold, wet and so-called “sour” lands need draining to make thei productive. Even though they are not too wet for tillage, they may need the drainage for the purpose of deep- ening the soil and causing it to hold more air and moisture. Deep- rooting plants, as clover, tend to make soils deeper. Subsoiling has a similar tendency, but its effect usually is not permanent. Consult Part I], paragraph 9, page 103. 4. The soil may become acid.— There are some cases in which the soil becomes sour to a degree that is injurious to many plants. This is true of some sandy uplands and sometimes is indicated by growths of sorrel, daisies and golden rod. The acid in soil can be detected by its reddening blue litmus paper (to be had at drug stores or at this Station). This over-acid condition often accompanies a lack of humus, and sometimes may be corrected by adding humus. It is also relieved by the use of ashes or lime, which have the power of neutralizing or sweetening acids. The ashes or lime should not be ploughed in, but harrowed in after ploughing, as lime tends to work downward. When experimenting with humus (see next page), an application of ashes on an adjoining plat may help solve the problem. 5. Lhe soil may lack in useful plant-food.— Some of the leading plant-food elements may be nearly or quite exhausted; or, as is more usually the case, they may be in an unavailable condition or locked up. The chemist can tell if the soil which he analyzes lacks plant-food; but another sample of soil from the same field may be very different in composition. There is very little uniform soil in New York, for nearly all of it is mixed glacial soil. But the chemist cannot tell how much of the plant-food is available to plants. Food which is nearly unavailable when he analyzes it, may be made avail- able by a change in conditions or by better tillage; and that which is clearly available may become unavailable the same season. In certain very pronounced cases of depleted lands, the chemist may render much direct aid; but in general he can only suggest and advise, not prescribe. The only sure way to tind out whether more plant-food is needed is to experiment on the land in question. — 4 98 . Buuwuetin 174. B. How to Recitaim DEPLETED LANDs. 1. Jf you think they lack humus, apply stable manure or turn under a green-crop.— The best general green-crop is red clover, but it does not catch well on very sandy and very hard soils. Then begin with any crop which will grow — rye, buckwheat, corn, beans, anything to get a start. If the land produces weeds when left to itself, it is good enough to produce something else. Turn the weeds under, sow something, turn it under, sow again; in two or three years the results will be seen. 2. Till frequently and wisely.— Many depleted lands need till- age more than humus or plant-food. Usually they need both. Pre- pare the land thoroughly for the green-crop. Plow when the land is most fit. In very hard clays, try fall plowing. 3. Lf the land is so poor that it is wholly bare, determine whether at is very acid. Lf it is, apply lime or ashes.— Apply some fer- tilizer to enable you to get a start of plants. The start once made, the future is yours. Plow under herbage; add plant-food as your experiments suggest. We have lands which are now so completely run out that the sand drifts and no plants can obtain a foothold. It is probable that they can be reclaimed, although it is a question if the reclamation will always pay. Analyses have been made of samples of some of these lands, and it is found that they contain liberal supplies of potash and phosphoric acid, but almost no nitrogen. They are almost wholly lacking in humus. The soils are so leachy that an application of nitrate of soda or other very soluble materials would probably be of little avail. Probably the best means of recuperating these lands is to make applications of stable manure and then sow rye or some other cover-crop for the purpose of making a body of humus in the soil. If stable manure cannot be had, tankage will be found to be a good substitute since it contains nitrogen ina more or less insoluble form. We advise persons who have such lands to experiment with a small piece, and when the experiments prove successful to extend them to a larger area. In the Old World, spurry is used to begin the reclamation of such lands. Seed can be had of the leading seedsmen. Tur Prospitem or ImMpovERISHED LANDs. 99 4. Kxperiment with the land to determine what plant-food it needs.— To test the need of fertilizers, a trial of five plats mey be helpful : On the first, apply nitrate of soda at the rate of 200 lbs. per acre. On the second, 200 Ibs. superphosphate. On the third, apply nothing. On the fourth, 200 lbs. muriate of potash. On the fifth, 1,000 Ibs. lime. The results will in some measure indicate which of the elements of plant-food is needed. For a more complete and conclusive method of testing fertilizers, the reader is referred to Bulletin 129. The plan of experiment, as outlined by that publication, is reprinted at the beginning of this bulletin. Part II. A CRUSADE WITH THE FARMERS. In the winter of 1898-9 this Station discussed a series of soil and fertility questions with the members of the Reading-Course (8,605 persons). Five Reading-Lessons were issued, two of which per- tained directly to soil problems ; and these two Lessons are reprinted here. With each Lesson there was issued a series of questions designed to bring out the points in the Lesson. The replies which were received to these questions afford an excellent index to the state of the popular mind on subjects connected with the fertility of the land. The questions were designed to elucidate underlying truths or principles, and correct answers to them will do much towards spreading sound ideas of maintaining and increasing the productive power of the land. We, therefore, reprint the questions and give answers to them. These questions and answers cover all the five Lessons: “The Soil: What it Is;” “Tillage and Under- Drainage: Reasons Why;” “ Fertility of the Soil: What it Is;” “ How the Plant Gets its Food from the Soil;” “* How the Plant Gets its Food from the Air.” These answers are written by H. P. Gould, but have been approved by specialists in the various subjects. 100 Buuuerin 174. A. Reapinc-Lessons Nos. 1 anp 2. LESSON NO. 1. THE SOIL: WHAT IT IS. 1. The busis of soil is fragments of rock.— As the earth cooled, the surface soliditied into rock. The processes of nature have been constantly at work in breaking up this rock and making it into soil. 2. Weathering is the great agency in making rocks into soil.— Rain, snow, ice, frost have worn away the mountains and deposited the fragments as soil. Probably as much material has been worn away from the Alps as still remains, and this material now forms much of the soil of Italy, Germany, France, Holland. Our own mountains and hills have worn away in like manner. 3. Weathering is still actwwe.— All exposed rocks are wearing away. Stones are growing smaller. The soil is pulverized by fall plowing. | 4. The particles of sol are worn and transported by water. Every stream carries away great quantities of soil and deposits it in the shallows and the bays. After every rain, the streams and ponds are muddy or roily. Observe the sediment or fine mud which remains when a “mud-puddle” dries up. The rivulet may carry away tons of earth every year; and this earth is deposited some- where, and sometime it may, perhaps, come into use again for the growing of plants. Many of our best and richest farm lands are the deposits of former streams and lakes. Such lands are fine and silt- like. Most lowlands belong to this category ; and even some of our higher lands are formed from deposits from water. The mixed and varied character of soils is largely due to the fact that they are the results of transportation from different places. | Observe the flat lands about lakes. These flats are formed by the deposition of material from the surrounding highlands; but they are often exposed before their natural time by the lowering of the water level in the lakes. All lakes and pondsare filling up. Nearly every stream makes a delta at its mouth; but if the stream into which it empties is swift, the delta may be carried away. Observe, also, the broad rounded hillocks and knolls in valleys and ravines. Many of them have attaincd their present form from the action of moving water. Tut ProspieM or IMPOVERISHED LANDS. 101 Every farmer knows that overflowed lands are rich. He has heard of the wonderful fertility of the Nile. He should explain these facts. 5. All productive soils also contain organie matter.-— Most organic matter is the remains of plants and animals. As found in soils in a decaying condition, it is called humus. It is the humus which gives the soil its dark or “rich” look. It also tends to make soils loose, warm and mellow. I[t holds moisture. The addition of humus makes soils loamy. A sandy loam may be defined as a soil of which the original mineral matter is sand, and a clayey loam is one of which the basis is clay. Soils which have no humus are hard, “dead” and unproductive. 6. Humus is supplied by means of roots and stubble, green-crops and barn manures.—If the farmer practices a rotation of which meadow and pasture are a part, the supply of humus will be main- tained. In such cases, green-manuring is unnecessary except now and then upon lands which are very hard or poor. The roots and stubble, with the droppings of the animals on the pasture, and manure applied with one of the crops in the rotation, keep the land well supplied with vegetable matter. Whenever possible, it is bet- ter to feed the crop to stock and return the manure to the land, than to plow the crop under; for one will get back the greater part of the fertilizing valne of the crops and maintain the animal at the same time. In western New York, there are hundreds of acres of refuse cabbage lands, and at this day there are thousands of tons of herbage on the ground, ané no stock to eat it. It is wasteful. Many soils which are said to be worn out are robbed of their humus rather than of their plant-food ; others have been injured in their texture by careless or faulty management. In supplying humus, it is better-to add small quantities often. Lands which are under constant tillage, in corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, may be sup- plied with humus if catch-crops are sown with the crop, now and then, late in the season. Rye, Canada peas, crimson clover, and the like may be used for this purpose. Plow them under as soon as the land is ready in the spring, even if the plants are not large. Observe how the forest supplies its humus. Year by year the leaves add to the soil cover, which slowly passes into vegetable mold 102 BuLuetin 174. or humus. The trunks finally decay and pass into the soil. The work is effectively done, but it consumes time; and man is in a hurry. When the forest is removed, the land is usually productive. It is ealled “ virgin soil,” notwithstanding the fact that an enormous crop of trees has just been taken from it, and that it may have grown hundreds of such crops. The real virgin soil is the barren soil. But however rich this forest soil may be when the timber is first removed, it generally soon looses its exuberant fertility. The pigmy crops of the farmer seem to be harder on the soil than the gigantic crops of Nature. Some of this loss of productivity is due to the loss of humus. : A rotation diminishes the exhaustion of plant-food, supplies nitro- gen in leguminous crops, one crop leaves the land in better con- dition for another, the roots and stubble improve the texture of the soil, it keeps weeds in check, provides for continuous labor because stock is kept. The rotation should differ with the kind of soil and general style of farming. The Cornell rotation is: ‘Wheat, Clover and timothy, 1 year, Maize (corn), Oats. A good rotation for weed infested land is: Sod, 1 year, Maize, , Potatoes, or some other tilled crop, Oats or barley. On fruit farms, rotations are not so practicable as on grain farms ; but the fields which are not in fruit can often be worked in rota- tion to great advantage. The general tendency of fruit-farmers is to keep too little stock. If stock cannot be kept, the humus can be maintained by catch-crops and cover-crops. 7. Lhe fertility of the land is its power to produce crops. It is determined by three things: the texture of the soil, its richness in olant-food, and its available moisture.— The texture of the soil is its physical condition,—as to whether it is mellow, loose, leachy, cloddy, hard and the like. A rock or a board will not raise corn, Ture PRoBLEM oF IMPOVERISHED LANDS. 103 and yet it may contain an abundance of plant-food. The plant can- not get a foothold: and it would do no good to apply fertilizers, Spreading potash on a lump of clay is not farming: it is the wast- ing of potash. A cow will not appreciate the fanciest ration if she is uncomfortable; neither will a plant. It is only on land which. is in good tilth that fertilizers pay. The better the farming, the more it will pay, as a rule, to buy plant-food: but poor farming cannot make it pay. 8. Nature secures good texture in soil by growing plants im it.— Roots make the soil finer, and plants supply it with humus. Plants break down the soil by sending their roots into the crevices of the particles, and the root acids dissolve some of it. Observe Nature | working at this problem. First the “moss” or lichen attacks the rock; the weather cracks it and wears it away; a littie soil is gathered here and there in the hollows ; a fern or some other lowly plant gains a foothold; year by year, and century by century, the pocket of soil grows deeper and larger; and finally, the rock is worn away and crumbled, and is ready to support potatoes and smart- weed. Or, the rock may be hard and bare, and you cannot see any such process going on. Yet, even then, every rain washes some- thing away from it, and the soil beneath it is constantly receiving additions. Some soils may be said to be completed: the rock is all broken down and fined. Other soils are still in process of manu- facture: they are full of stones and pebbles which are slowly disin- tegrating and adding their substance to the soil. Did you ever see a “rotten stone ?” The longer plants are grown on any soil, and returned to it, the richer the soil becomes. But Nature has centuries at her disposal ; man has but a few short years and must work rapidly, and he can- not afford to make mistakes. 9. The texture of the soil may be improved (1) by underdrain- ing, (2) by tilling, (8) by adding vegetable matter, (4) by adding certain materials, as lime, which tend to change the size of the soul particles.— The reader will say that Nature does not practice tile- draining. Perhaps not, but then, she has more kinds of crops to grow than the farmer has, and if she cannot raise oaks on a certain piece of land she can put in water-lilies. We have an entire lesson devoted to drainage and tillage, and also one to manures and fertil- 104 BuLietin 174. izers. It is enough for the present to say that the roots which are left in the ground after the crop is harvested are very valuable in improving the soil. This is particularly true if they are tap-roots, —if they run deep into the soil. Clover bores holes into the soil, letting in air, draining it, warming it and bringing up its plant-food. Roberts reports (“Fertility of the Land,” p. 845) that a second growth of clover, two years from seeding, gave a yield of air-dried tops of 5,417 lbs. per acre, and of air-dried roots 2,368 lbs. in the first eight inches of soil. Add to this latter figure the weight of roots below eight inches and the stubble of waste, and it is seen that the amount of herbage left on the clover field is not greatly less than that taken off. In this instance, the roots contained a greater per- centage of nitrogen and phosphoric acid than the tops, and about the same percentage of potash. Make an estimate of what proportion of the plant growth you raise is actually taken off the field. Figure up, as accurately as you ean, the part left in roots, stubble, leaves, and refuse. Even of maize, you do not remeve all from the field. This calculation will bring up the whole question of the kind of root-system which each sort of plant has. Have you ever made a close examination of the roots of potatoes, maize, wheat, clover, cabbages, buckwheat, strawberries, Canada thistles, or other crops? From what part of the soil do these plants secure their nourishment? What power have they of going deep for water? What proportion of them is root ? Because the roots are hidden, we have neglected to examine them. 10. The soil is plantfood; but this food becomes usable or available slowly.— Roberts has compiled the analyses of 49 repre- sentative soils, made by American chemists, and the following is the result: “The tables reveal the fact that even the poorer soils have an abundance of plant-food for several crops; while the richer soils in some eases have sufficient for two hundred to three hundred crops of wheat or maize. The average of 34 analyses gives to each acre of land, eight inches deep, 3,217 pounds of nitrogen, 3,936 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 17,597 pounds of potash, and this does not include that which is contained in the stones, gravel and sand of the soil which will not pass through meshes of one-fiftieth of an inch, which, by weathering and tillage, slowly give up their valuable constituents.”— Loberts, “ Fertility of the Land,” p. 16. Tue Prospiem or ImMpoverRIsHEeD LANDS. 105 Fortunately, this great store of plant-food is largely locked up, else it would have leached from the soil or have been used up long ago. By careful husbandry, a little of it is made usable year by year; and the better the management of the land the more of this food is available tothe plant. When the farmer has done his best to get out of the land all that it will give him, then he may add fertilizers for bigger results. Plant-food is available when it is in such condition that the plant can use it. It must be both soluble and in such chemical form that the plant likes it. Plant-food which is not soluble in rain water, may still be soluble in soil water (which contains acids derived from the humus); and the acid excretions from the roots may render it soluble. But solubility is not necessarily availability, for, as we have said, the materials must be in such combination that the plant will take them. Thus, nitrate of soda (Na NOs) is available because it is both soluble and in the form in which the plant wants it. But nitrite of soda (Na NO,) is not available although it is soluble,— the plant does not like nitrites. 11. Nitrogen must probably be in the form of nitrates before a can be used by most plants.— Nitrogen is abundant. It is approxi- mately four-fifths of the atmosphere, and it is an important content of every plant and animal. Yet, it is the element which is most difficult to secure and to keep, and the most expensive to buy. This is because the greater part of it is not in a form to be available, and because, when it is available, it tends to leach from the soil. It is available when it is in the form ofa nitrate-—— one part of nitrogen, three parts of oxygen, united with one part of some other element (Na NO,, nitrate of soda; K NO,, nitrate of potash or saltpetre ; H NO,, nitric acid, etc.). The process of changing nitrogen into nitrates is called nitrification. This process is the work of germs or microbes in the soil; and these germs work most efficiently when the soil is not water-logged, and when it is well tilled. The farmer should make his available nitrogen supply as he goes along; and he makes it with tile drains, plows, harrows and cultivators. But there are some plants which have the power of using the nitrogen which is in the air in the soil. These are leguminous plants,—clovers, peas, beans, vetch, alfalfa. If, therefore, the 106 Buwuietin 174. farmer cannot secure sufficient nitrogen by other means, he may use these plantsas green-manures. If his system of farming will not allow him to use these plants, or if he does not secure sufficient nitrogen when he does use them, then he can go to the warehouse and buy nitrogen. 12. The sowl is not a mere inert mass; itis a scene of life and actiwity.— This is the new and true teaching. Soil which is wholly inactive is unproductive. Movements of air and water, actions of heat and evaporation, life-rounds of countless microscopic organisms, decay and disintegration of plants and soil particles,— these are some of the activities of the fertile soil. If our ears were delicate enough, we could hear the shuffle of the workers, the beating of the hammers, and the roll of the tiny machinery. AIl things begin with the soil and at last all things come back to it. The soil is the cemetery of all the ages, and the resurrection of all life. If the soil is not idle, neither should the farmer be. LESSON NO. 2. TILLAGE AND UNDER-DRAINAGE: REASONS WHY. By John W. Spencer. 13. The difference between black and white-——Two farmers are neighbors. Mr. White has made a study of potato culture for a number of years, and, as a result, now has an average yield, one year with another, of about 200. bushels per acre from a field of three to five acres. Mr. Black is considered a fairly good farmer, as farmers go, but has given potato culture no special study. He manages his crop as his neighbors do. His methods are those which have been a tradition for several generations, and they had their origin when the country was new and high cultivation was impos- sible on account of the stumps and lack of tools, and also because the virgin soil made it unnecessary. His annual yield is not far from 60 bushels per acre. In other words, Mr. Black has to plow, harrow, furnish seed, plant and cultivate about ten acres to secure as many potatoes as Mr. White does from three acres. Both men sell their product to the same dealer, and we will assume that they receive the same price per bushel. The cost of producing a bushel of potatoes must be very much more with Mr. Black than it is with Mr. White. No manufacturer or merchant could withstand the keen Tre Prospitem or ImpoveERIsHED LANDs. 107 competition in trade if handicapped as Mr. Blackis. When the respec- tive farms were reclaimed from ,the forest, they were considered to be alike in character of soil, aud the rain falls impartially on each. Why the difference in cost of production between Black and White? There are many points of difference in their methods, but we are free to say that one of the essential differences is in tillage. 14. The plant needs water— When Mr. White contemplates a crop of potatoes, he proceeds to make an estimate of what the crop will require and how he can provide for that demand. Perhaps the greatest of all needs is water. By turning to Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin 120, page 419, it will be seen that in a dry season a bushel of potatoes requires about three tons of water for its produc- tion. If Mr. White expects 200 bushels of potatoes per acre, he must somehow manage to provide 600 tons of water for each acre. He has no facilities for irrigation, and his only resource is to make the soil a reservoir. He must store the supply left by winter snows and spring rains, and also the irregular rainfall that comes during the season’s growth. ® Speaking in broad averages, in soils most commonly met with, this storage possibility amounts to about 300 tons of water per acre in the first eight inches of the soil. It must be understood that this amount is not in the form of standing water, for water stand- ing in the soil for any length of time injures both soil and plant. 15. The most useful form of water for plants is film moisture.— Water is capable of assuming many forms, such as steam, vapor, ice, or free-moving liquid. The condition most valuable in the soil is none of these, but is in the form of film moisture. This film moisture can be shown by dipping a marble into water and observing the film of water surrounding it on all sides. When each soil-grain is covered with film moisture, as the marble is, the ideal conditions of soil moisture exist. This form of water is largely independent of gravitation and travels readily in all directions, as can be seen by dipping a cube of sugar into a spoonful of coffee. It is capable of transporting plant-food to the roots of plants from remote corners, where the roots do not reach. It will be observed that film moisture is held only on the surface of soil-grains. The more the soil is pulverized, the more soil-grains there will be, and therefore the greater amount of surface to hold film moisture. 108 Buuuetin 174. The difference in the capacity of lumpy and fine soils to hold film moisture is surprising to one who has not given the question study. George W. Cavanaugh, assistant chemist at the Cornell Exveriment Station, has very graphically shown this by the following ye i marbles would carry is represented in the tube placed } beside the tumbler. The soil in the other tumbler (Fig. | 23) is of the same weight as the marbles in Fig. 22, and jit represents the marbles reduced to the fineness of i common sand. Its capacity for holding film moisture t) experiment: He put small marbles in a tumbler, as shown by Fig. 22, and the total amount of film moisture that the } | i is represented by the water in the standing tube (Fig. 28). (| The weight of material is the same in each tumbler, and ,| the reason why one holds three times more film moisture than the other is due to the increase of surface that comes |j|iij | by dividing a coarse lump into fine particles. | The marbles represent the careless tillage of Mr. Black, | lll and the finer particles the thorough tillage of Mr. White- Mr. White plows about one-third deeper than Mr. | Black, and thereby makes another addition to the capac- i ity of his reservoir. | The coarse soil, as represented by the marbles, will lose its film moisture by evaporation much more readily than the soil represented by Fig. 23, particularly if ¢ the surface of the latter is covered by fine par- ticles representing an earth-mulch. eae 16. Tillage makes \¥ a plant-food available.— Sse Another difference in Fic. 23.— Water held by a fine soil. Fie. 22.— Water held by a the culture given b coarse soil, 8 y Black and White is that the better tillage enables the plant to realize more food than all fer- ilizers which may be applied. There is also a benefit in making available some of the plant-food that nature has put in the soil. Tur ProspitemM oF IMPOVERISHED LANDs. 109 Broadly stated, the native plant food amounts to as much as can be bought in $2,000 worth of commercial fertilizers. The finer soil has another advantage in affording a greater area for root pasturage. It is not uncommon for farmers to think of plant-food in the soil as in the condition of salt or sugar which is capable of being immedia- tely dissolved by water and at once appropriated by the plant, or like potash in ashes that can be soaked out. Plant-food exists in this form only to a limited extent. A man might famish if locked in a granary filled with wheat; yet a chemist would say that there was enough food near him to feed a hundred men. This illustrates how nature has stored much of the plant-food in the soil. It has to go through many changes before it can be appropriated by the plant. The soil is a factory in which the work of preparation is carried on. 17. The soil is a laboratory.— Some of the agents employed in this factory are film moisure, air and heat; ond if these are not fur- nished in the proper extent and condition, the factory runs in a sluggish way, if it does not stopaltogether. Good tillage does much to hasten the activities of this factory by allowing free ingress to the soil of film moisture, air and heat. Air is necessary for a sup- ply of oxygen, and heat to facilitate fermentation and other vital processes. The importance of air and heat in the soil brings us to the ques- tion of drainage. Air cannot enter a soil freely which is filled with standing water, and growth of micro-organisms is hindered. 18. Wet soils are cold.— Standing water is a great absorbent of heat. If no provision is made to drain it away, it must be evapo- rated away. Thereby heat is lost. The soil is cold. A great many barrels of water can be standing on an acre of ground and not attract much attention. To appreciate the amount of heat necessary to evaporate water, one has only to chop, split and burn beneath a cauldron kettle enough wood to evaporate a barrel of water. ‘Every barrel that is evaporated from the soil by the sun absorbs as much heat as is expended by the wood used under the kettle. The soil and plants are perhaps chilled for want of that heat. This is the reason that a wet soil is said to be cold. 19. Drained soils resist drought.— Some farmers have the notion 110 Butuetin 174. that well-drained soil will not withstand a drought as well as an undrained soil. The contrary is true. Every one who has tilled the soil is familiar with places that are wettest in a wet time and dryest in a dry time. When these places dry at all, they dry like a brick. A wet soil can never be tilled so as to present the greatest amount of surface for film moisture and give it a mellow texture to receive a gentle saturation of air; and standing water robs it of much heat required by the soil and plants. 20. Drainage makes a soil reservoir.— There is a place in every soil at which the free water stands. This place is called the water- table. It may be three inches down, or a hundred feet. It is the bottom of the soil reservoir, the bottom of our dish-pan. This dish- pan, or the upper and tillable soil, is the reservoir. It is the part in which the water is held as films on the soil particles. These films travel from particle to particle, the general tendency being upward because the moisture is passing off near the top of the soil by means of evaporation and appropriation by plants. Moisture is constantly supplied from the water-table below. We speak of this movement as capillary attraction. Under-drainage lowers the water-table. It lowers the bottom of the dish-pan; and thereby there is a deeper reservoir above it for the holding of film moisture and the distribution of roots. But, the reader says, if the water-table supplies moisture to the upper soil, then it must be useful and necessary. Certainly ; but it must not be too high, for roots of farm plants do not thrive in stand: ing water. If the upper soil is well tilled, capillary attraction will bring the moisture up. 21. Do not let the moisture get away.— We want this film moist- ure in the upper soil in order that roots may use it. The plants do not use it, to any extent, after it has passed off into the atmosphere. Therefore, stop this water before it reaches the atmosphere. How? Put a layer of loose dry earth between the moist soil and the atmosphere. This layer will stop the upward capillary flow. This layer is the earth-mulch. It conserves, or saves, moisture. 22. Dry and hard soils may be benefited by under-drainage.— The water-table is lowered. Air is admitted. The soil does not puddle. It becomes fine. Under-drainage makes wet soils dry by Tue ProspiteM oF ImMpovERISHED LANDs. THT removing the free water; it tends to make dry soils moist by deep- ening the reservoir and fining the particles of soil. 23. What tillage tools are for.— Some tools, as plows, are to mel- low up the soil and to deepen the moisture reservoir. Others, as cultivators, are to tear up and to pulverize the soil to greater or less depths. Cultivators lift and turn the soil. The spring-tooth har- roW is really a cultivator. Other tools, as harrows, prepare the surface of the soil. They make the seed-bed and put on the earth-muleh. The true harrows stir the soil, but do not lift or invert it. 24. Weeds do not persist in well-tilled lands.—The first and greatest value of tillage is to put the soil in such condition that plants can grow, and then to keep it so. Incidentally it prevents those plants from growing, which we do not want,—the weeds. Usually, the process is reversed: weeds make us till, and we get the other benefits without knowing it. The best tillage prevents weeds rather than kills them. 25. Summer-fallowing is a means of cleaning land and of cor- recting mistakes.— It may be necessary to fallow the land in order to clear it of stones, stumps and brush. But after the land is once thoroughly subdued, summer-fallowing is very rarely necessary if the land has been well handled. If the land has been plowed when too wet and thereby has become lumpy, if it has been allowed to become foul with weeds, or if it has lost heart by too continuous cropping with one kind of crop, summer-fallowing is a good means of bringing it back into condition. The better the farming, the less the necessity of summer-fallowing. In the old days, the poor tillage tools rendered fallowing more necessary than it is to-day. Fallowing is tillage; and tillage liberates plant-food. Some of this plant-food may leach away and be lost, although the small rain- fall of the summer months,— during which time fallowing is prac- ticed,— makes this loss slight. 26. The kind of tillage should vary with the sou, the time of year, the kind of crop.— Too many farmers seem to think that till- age is tillage, no matter how it is performed. The same tool is used for clay or sand or muck, and for fitting the land for wheat or corn or apple trees. A harrow that is best for one field may be worst for 112 Buuwvetin 174. the adjoining field. A man would not think of using a buggy for carrying grain to market, but he will use one tool for many kinds of work. The work is not only poorly done, but it is not economi- eal. It costs too much. Persons who will economize to the small- est degree in expenditures of money may be very wasteful in expenditures of labor and muscle. Persons are always asking if deep plowing is best. The qnestion cannot be answered on general principles. Deep plowing may be best for one field and one erop, and shallow plowing best for another field and another crop. The same remarks will apply to fall plow- ing and spring plowing. One must first learn principles, or the why; then the practice, or the how, will come easy. Nore. The reader should have other sources of information than this Lesson. He may read our Bulletins 119, ‘‘ Texture of the Soil;” 120, ‘‘The Moisture in the Soil;”’ 72, ‘‘ The Cultivation of Orchards;” and the three bulletins on potato culture (Nos. 130, 140, 156). His library should also have King’s ‘‘ Soil” and Roberts’ ‘‘ Fertility of the Land.” B. ANSWERS TO THE QUESTIONS ON THE Five Lessons. No. 1. THE SOIL: WHAT IT Is. Many of the questions in this lesson are intended merely to call attention to certain fundamental facts and to promote thought and discussion. 1. Have you ever observed the influence of weather upon soft slaty rock gutting out on embankments and in railroad cuts ? 2. Have you ever taken a glass of muddy water from a flowing stream and allowed it to stand until the sediment had settled ? What as this sediment ? These questions are intended merely to call attention to this process of soil formation and transformation. 3. Imagine a branch of this stream bringing rotted slate rock and another bringing fine sand. When mixed in the main stream and deposited on some bar or overflowed field, what kind of soit anaes the miature make ? A sandy or clayey soil, the exact nature of which would be gov- erned by the relative proportion of the different ingredients. Such Tue ProspieM oF IMPOVERISHED LANDS. 113 a mixture might also contain much decaying vegetable or organic matter, and this would make the physical condition of the soil such that it would be very fertile. 4, What is inorganic matter ? All matter which is not a part or product of a living organism is inorganic or mineral matter, as a stone or a piece of iron. The bulk of the soil is made up of finely pulverized stone, and is, therefore, inorganic matter. 5. What is organic matter ? Matter which has life or has been produced by living organisms. An animal or a tree, either living or dead, is organic matter. The humus of the soil is decaying organic matter. 6. Why are soils from which a thrifty forest growth has been removed capable at once of producing good farm crops ? Largely because of their good physical condition, due chiefly to the presence of large quantities of humus. 7. Have you ever observed lichen (sometimes called “moss” growing on bare rock or on a tombstone ? This question is intended to call attention to the fact that low forms of plant life are important in the early stages of soil formation. 8. Lf any great amount of lichen should become mixed with the disintegrated rock, would it be humus and form a weak soil that might produce an order of plants a little larger and stronger than lichen ? This mixing of the moss with the pulverized rock would be the first step toward making a soil of good physical qualities. 9. As the higher orders of plants come in and die down and mix with the soil, would the process increase the productive power of the soil ? Yes, within certain limits. The more decaying vegetable matter the soil contains, generally the more productive it is. 10. In imstances in which soil has been removed by grading, could a new soil be well made by adding commercial fertilizer alone? What would you apply first to such land ? The addition of humus would be of first importance. Commercial fertilizers would do littie good applied to a soil in which there is no 8 114 Buuwetin 174. decaying vegetable matter. This would probably be the condition in the case assumed in the question. 11. Lf humus in soil under cultwation is perishable, ought it not to be the farmer's first care to keep good the quantity first found in the virgin soul ? Yes; and this can be done only’ by adding humus from time to time in the shape of barn-yard manure and other forms of organic matter. 12. Ln addition to the humus returned to the soil m manure, Jrom forage fed to stock, and by plowing under stubble and roots, do you think wt a good plan to sow some cover-crop in corn rows at last cultivation, and on oat and wheat stubble as soon as the crop is off, for plowing under the following spring ? Usually a cover-crop is Wiican and especially so if the soil is lacking in humus. 13. What are good crops for this purpose ? Crimson clover, vetch, peas, rye, rape, barley, oats. . 14. Which of these are leguminous plants? Name all the kinds of leguminous plants you know ? The first three named. All the clovers, alfalfa, vetch, peas, beans, lupines. 15. Why is it advised to plow under the green-crops as soon as the land can be worked in the spring ? These crops, if allowed to grow, would give off into the air much moisture needed by the permanent crop; and besides this, if left until they had made a large growth, there might not be enough moisture in the soil to cause them to decay. 16. Do you think a rotation of crops helps the soil to bear the strain of successive cropping? If so, why ? Yes: this practice admits of supplying humus by means of cover- crops ; it admits of tillage which sets free plant-food , and as different kinds of plants require different proportions of the various plant-foods a rotation prevents an unequal depletion of plant-food, as might be the case if one kind of crop was grown continuously for a long time. 17. Are you aware that plant-food exists in the sow im both available and unavailable forms, and that when plants have used up most of the available portion we call the soil worn out ? Tue PropitemM or ImMpovERISHED LANDS. 115 Most soils, even though unproductive, contain plant-food in large quantities, but it is in such condition or chemical form that plants cannot get it. 18. Ls at true that your sou is capable of being made an active laboratory in which changes will take place and some of this unavailable plant-jood be made usable ? It is only when the soil is in such condition that certain changes cap take place, that the unavailable plant-food becomes available to the plant. 19. Are you aware that when the texture of your soil is poor, or im other words, your laboratory ts out of order, the best commercial Fertilizers or stable manures will not give the best results ? The texture or physical condition of the soil is of first importance. A stone contains plant-food, but it will not grow crops because of its physical and chemical condition. " 20. Do you know that heat and air are important agencies in the changes going on in the soil, as they also are in the changes in a barrel of cider or in yeast in a pan of dough ? Chemical changes in the soil cannot take place to the best advan- tage when the air is excluded, or when certain definite temperature cannot be maintained. 21. Does standing water on soil have a detrimental or beneficial effect on the heat and air? Why ? Detrimental, because it keeps the temperature too low and excludes the air; and soil texture is impaired. 22. How can you make the sol laboratory do the best work ? By making and preserving the best physical condition possible. No. 2. TILLAGE AND UNDER-DRAINAGE! REASONS WHY. 1. What proportion of farmers in your neighborhood farm it like Mr. Black ? Apply the test to yourself, and see if you are using good, economi- cal business methods in carrying on your farm. 2. How is farming to be made to pay,— by getting higher prices or by cheapening cost of production ? Prices are largely beyond our control ; the cost of production very largely rests with us. At least, this is true within certain limits. 116 : Buuiuetin 174. 3. Do you expect permanently higher prices for farm produce ? The past may be taken as a reasonably fair indication of the future. 4. Do you set a certain yield before your mind when you are preparing for a crop? Or do you expect to be content with what comes? In the first case, you are farming with your head as well as with your hands, and the aim is to control circumstances as much as pos- sible: the work is done on a good business basis. In the latter case, you are allowing yourself to be ruled entirely by circumstances and your work is not conducted in a good business-like manner. The same careful, judicious business management is necessary in farm- ing that is needful in a successful commercial enterprise. 5. An inch of rainfall weighs about 113 tons to the acre. About 200 tons of water is required to produce one ton of dry matter. Do you have rainfall enough in June, July and August to main- tuin a heavy crop of Indian corn or cabbage ? In considering this question one must keep in mind the fact that much of the rain-fall drains off into streams, especially on hilly land ; also that large quantities are evaporated before the plants can take it up. On account of these losses only a part of the rain is available for the plants. Usually the rainfall in midsummer is not sufficient to maintain a heavy crop, and so we must try to save, by thorough cultivation, what fell earlier in the season. 6. Does surface tillage make soil moist, or keep it moist ? It keeps it moist by preventing the soil from drying out. When soil is left undisturbed for a long time, and it becomes packed down, the moisture in the soil works toward the surface and is evaporated, passing off into the air. Tillage makes a surface mulch which the soil moisture cannot readily pass through. It is equivalent to cover- ing the soil with a layer of straw or a board. Every farmer knows how moist it is under a pile of straw which has remained in the same place for some time, or under a board. This straw or board does not make the soil moist but prevents it from becoming dry. This is what tillage does. 7. Why does deep fall plowing make soils “ warm” or “ early” um spring ? Ture ProspiteM OF [MPOVERISHED LANDs. Miz Land so treated tends to dry out earlier in the spring than unplowed soils; and soils which dry out early in the spring are “warm ” and consequently ‘ early.” 8. What proportion of farmers in your vicinity practice under- drainage ? The important point to be considered is, Does your farm need under-draining ¢ 9. How many of the farms need under-drainage ? There is comparatively little land which will not be improved by under-draining. 10. How deep and how far apart would you lay under-drains ? The distance apart should be governed in a measure by the depth ; the deeper the drains, the farther apart they may be placed. The contour of the land and the nature of the soil will also influence very materially in the matter. In a general way we may say that in moderately porous soils drains three feet deep should be from 30 to 40 feet apart. 11. Do the farmers of your neighborhood have enough differ- ent kinds of tools to enable them to till their land cheaply and efficiently ? This will depend upon the nature of the soil and the kind of crops grown. It is a good question to think about. 12. How many different kinds of tillage tools should a man have to farm it properly uf he has 100 acres devoted to general farming, of which half is clay and half sandy soit ? This question is too general to admit of any one fixed answer. Each farm aiffers in some respects from every other, and the tools used on the one farm probably would not be exactly suitable in all details for another farm. Let each man answer. 13. How often would you till a field of corn or potatoes ? Often enough to keep the soil-mulch in good condition,— that is, light and loose. Study this question. 14. Why do you till your corn or potatoes? Are weeds the lead- ing problem in your mind ? The keeping of the soil-mulch light and loose should be the lead- ing idea. When this is done, few if any weeds can grow. 118 Butierin 174. NO. 3. FERTILITY OF THE SOIL: WHAT IT IS. 1. Do plants obtain all their food from the soil ? A part comes from the soil and a part from the air. 2. What do you mean when you say that soil is echausted,— that it has no more plant-food in it, or merely that it fails to produce crops ? When a soil merely fails to produce a crop, it is usually said to be exhausted, regardless of the amount of plant-food which it may contain. 3. May a soil fail to produce crops and yet not be exhausted of plant-food ? Yes; the plant-food must not only be present but it must he in such a form that the plants can use it. The physical condition of the soil also has much to do with the size of the crop. A soil which is hard and lumpy, containing an insufficient amount of humus, will not produce a good crop, even though it contains an abundance of plant-food. 4. If there are 13 plant-foods which are positively essential, why do we commonly speak of only 3 of them as plant-foods — of nitro- gen, potash, phosphoric acid ? All the other plant-foods are sufficiently abundant in an available form in most soils, so that they do not have to be considered in maintaining the fertility of the land. 5. Do you know if thereis any difference between phosphorus and phosphoric acid? Write the chemical symbol for each. Phosphoric acid is a certain amount of phosphorus plus a certain quantity of oxygen. The symbol for phosphorus is P; for phos- phorie acid, P,O;. 6. Is there any difference between potassium and potash? Write chemical symbols for each. Potash is potassium plus oxygen, combined in a certain definite proportion. K stands for potassium; K,O for potash. 7. Write the chemical symbols for calcium and lime. Ja is the symbol for calcium ; CaO stands for lime. 8. Where do phosphorus, potassium and calcium come from— From the ground or from the air? Are they gases or solids ? Tur ProspiemM oF IMPOVERISHED LANDs. 119 They come from the ground. They are solids. 9. Where does oxygen come from ? It comes from the air; about one-fifth of the air is oxygen and four-fifths nitrogen. 10. Do you know Uf phosphorus, potassium and calevwin exist in nature in their pure state ? In nature they exist only as compounds with other substances. 11. Does oxygen exist anywhere in a pure or uncombined state ? Yes; oxygen exists in the free or uncombined state in the atmo- sphere. About one-fifth of the atmosphere is oxygen. 12. Of what is water composed? Write its chemical formula. Of hydrogen and oxygen; the symbol or formula is H,O. 18. Of what is ammonia composed? Is it a gas or liquid? Can you buy pure ammonia at the drug store ? It is composed of nitrogen and hydrogen (N H,). It is a gas. Ammonia of the drug stores is water which has absorbed some of the ammonia gas. 14. Does the plant feed on ammonia directly ? Very little, if at all. It must first be changed to a nitrate. 15. What is the composition of a nitrate? Write the formula Jor nitrate of potash and nitrate of lime. Nitrates are the result of treating substances with nitric “acid. For nitrate of potash it is K NO; for nitrate of lime, Ca (NOs). 16. In what kind of materials does nitrogen occur? Name some common things which you think contain nitrogen. Nitrogen occurs in organic materials, as in plants and animals. In meat, leather, hair, milk, humus of the soil, cotton-seed meal, ete. 17. Ls nitrogen a solid or a gas? It is a gas. 18. Are nitrates of potash and soda solids, liquids or gases ? They are solids. 19. Are nitrates soluble? Is there danger of their being lost From the sow ? Yes. Loss is likely to oceur, especially on land which remains for a long time with no crop on it. 20. What is an amendment ? A substance which, while it has little or no value as a plant-food / 120 : Buuuetin 174. itself, acts in such a manner as to make plant-food already in the soil more available, or which improves its texture. 21. Ls the sou in your garden sour? Try tt. See Reading-Lesson No. 3, page 7. 22. [In what materials can youbuy phosphoric acid for fertilizer purposes ? The most common materials are ‘orms of bone. South Carolina rock and Florida rock are ancient deposits of fossilized bone. Ground fresh bones are sometimes used as a source of phosphorie acid. 23. In what can you buy potash ? The common commercial forms of potash are sulfate of potash and muriate of potash. Wood ashes are also a source of this plant- food. 24, In what can you buy nitrogen ? Sulfate of ammonia and nitrate of soda are common forms. Cot- ton-seed meal, dried blood and tankage are some of the organic sources. 25. Are there ony home fertilizers, or common farm materials (aside from barn manure), in which you can get these elements ? The plowing under of green-crops, like clover, peas, vetch and the like will furnish nitrogen; wood ashes furnish the only “ home supply ” of potash; phosphoric acid must usually be purchased from the dealers. No. 4. HOW THE PLANT GETS ITS FOOD FROM THE SOIL. 1. Do the root-hairs finally become roots, or do they stay on as the main root grows ? The root-hairs never become roots. As the young rootlets which bear the root-hairs enlarge and their tissues become hard, the root- hairs perish. 2. Are there root-hairs on old roots ? No. 3. On what part of the roots are the root-hairs ? On the young, tender rootlets. 4. Where does the radish plant, which you grew im moss or cloth, get nourishment for making the first root-hairs ? This nourishment probably comes from the food-material stored up in the seed. Tur PRospiteM oF IMPOVERISHED LANDs. Te a 5. Why do particles of soil adhere to a young plant of wheot or cabbage when it is pulled up ? Because the root-hairs and rootlets are so numerous and in sach close contact with the soil. The finer the soil, the closer and more extensive this contact is. 6. What do you understand by a solution ? A substance dissolved in a liquid. 7. Give an example of a substance which will dissolve in water, and one which will not. Sugar will dissolve; sand will not. 8. May materials which are insoluble in rain water be soluble in soil water? Why? (Consult Less. 3.) Yes. Because the soil water contains carbonic acid gas in solution and this increases the dissolving power of water. 9. Does warming the water increase its power to make substances soluble ? Yes. 10. Write a definition of osmosis. (Consult dictionary or some school book on physics or natural philosophy.) It is the tendency of two liquids of different density to pass through a membrane or porous wall which separates them. 11. Why does the soil water go into the root-hair ? It is largely on account of this osmotic tendency or action. The outer walls of the little root-hairs constitute the membrane; the sap or moisture in the cells of the root-hairs and the soil-moisture represent the two liquids separated by the membrane. (See Reading- Lesson 4, fig. 3.) 12. Why does not the liquid in the root-hair flow out into the soil ? Because the sap in the hairs is denser than the water or moisture in the soil; that is, it contains a larger percentage of solid matter in solution. When two liquids of different density are separated by a membrane, the passage of the liquid through the membrane is in the direction from the less dense to the more dense. 13. What would happen if the liquid in the root-hair and that in the surrounding soil were of equal density ? There would be little or no movement of the water from the soil into the root-hairs and the plants wonld die. 122 Butvetin 174. 14. Must all food materials in the soil be in solution before the plant can use them ? Yes. 15. Does the plant ever utilize materials which are insoluble in the soil water? How? Yes; the roots of plants are slightly acid and this increases the dissolving power of the moisture in contact with the roots. 16. How is it that plants can live and grow in a soul which rs dust dry ? Even the soil which seems to us dust dry really contains very minute amounts of water; and so long as this is the case osmotic action goes on though, of course, very slowly when the soil is ‘‘ dust dry.” 17. Can your soil be so loose as to have too much air for the good of the plants ? Yes. This is sometimes the case in very light sandy or gravelly soils. 18. Do you understand that you can smother the root as well as the top of tle plant? How? Yes. The roots need air as well as the top. Soil which is con- stantly soaked with water prevents the air from coming in contact with the roots; smothering results as one of the effects of too wet land. 19. At what season do you suppose that corn roots absorb the most moisture ? When the corn is making its most rapid growth. 20. At what season do you have the least rainfall ? During the summer season when plants are growing most rapidly. 21. Lf you knew that you would not have sufficient rainfall in August to muintain your potato crop, how would you plan to secure the moisture ? Prevent evaporation as far as possible by means of a surface muleh. This means thorough tillage. 22. Name one way in which plants are injured by too strong dressings of potosh or nitrogen. lf applied in such large quantities that the soil moisture dissolved larger proportions than were contained in the sap— that is, if the Ture ProspieM or ImMpovERISHED LANDs. 193 density of the soil moisture became greater than of the sap — osmotic action would be from the plants to the soil and the plants thus giv- ing up their moisture to the soil, would wilt. 23. If all the potash in your cornfield were to become suddenly available, what would happen ? The corn would be killed and heavy rains might leach much of the potash from the soil. 24. How might you apply muriate of potash so that strawberry plants would be injured ? By applying in large quantities too close to the plants. 25. Would it be an easy matter to injure old apple trees by murvate of potash? Why? If applied in very large amounts directly over the roots, injury might follow ; but such injury is rare. 26. If you put the fertilizer in the hill, will not the roots grow beyond and away from it, as the plant grows ? Yes, to a large degree. No. 5. HOW THE PLANT GETS ITS FOOD FROM THE AIR. 1. What proportion of its dry substance does the plant secure From the sou? The amount is variable, but on an average about 3 per cent. Some varieties of plants take up much more and others less than 3 per cent. 2. What one substance or compound is taken in most profusely by the plant ? Water. 3. How does the plant get its water,— through roots or leaves ? Through the roots. 4. In what part of the plant does the water ascend,— through the young wood, or between the bark and wood ? It ascends through the young wood. 5. Where does the plant get its carbon ? From the air. 6. How does tt take in its nitrogen — by roots or leaves ? By the roots. 7. Where ws the starch manufactured ? 124 . Buuuetin 174. In the leaves and other green parts. 8. From what substances is the starch made ? From carbon dioxide and water. 9. Of what elements is starch composed ? Of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. 10. Into what is the starch changed before it is transported ? It is changed into sugar. 11. What use is made of the material after it is transported ? It is used in the growth of the plant. 12. Through what part of the plant does the starch-dike material (or “ elaborated sap”) pass ? It diffuses through the layers of the inner bark. 13. The root takes in water containing food: Can it use this Jood material directly in making root-growth 2? Why? No. This food material is taken into the plant in a crude condi- tion, and it must be transported to the leaves where it unites with other materials before it can be used in the growth of the plant. 14. Why is starch stored in seeds and tubers ? To be used by the seedlings or new plants when growth first begins, and before the plants are sufticiently developed to take their food from the soil and air. 15. Ls starch stored in twigs in the fall ? Yes. 16. Ave the flowers of peaches, and other early blooming plants, Jed from food taken in at the root at the time, or from materials stored in the twig? (Think how the potatoes sprout in the bin.) From materials stored in the twigs the year before. It is for this reason that the condition and health of the trees this year influ- ence so largely the crop of next year. 17. Will mulching the roots of a peach tree with straw when the ground 7s frozen delay the blooming in the spring ? No; because there is food enough in the twigs to feed the blos- soms, and as soon as the weather is warm enough this food is available. : 18. Soil water holds very little food for plants: the roots must take in enormous quantities of water: what becomes of some of this water ? Tue Prospitem or ImpoveRIsSHED LANDs. 125 It passes off through the leaves. 19. Ls the water which evaporates from the soil of any direct use to the plant ? No, not of itself. 20. The plant needs water,—7it swedts it out: how shall we manage so that the plant can have all the water it needs ? An abundance of water goes into the soil (in New York) every year, but it is not equally distributed. When the plants need it most is the time when there is usually the least rain. The only way we can help the plants (unless we irrigate) is to preserve the moist- ure so that it becomes available when it is most needed. This may be done by draining the land, and in this way increase the storage capacity of the soil (See Lesson No. 2); and by keeping a good earth-mulch on the surface so as to prevent, as much as possible, the evaporation of the water from the soil. 21. Write down all the substances (or materials) you know which the plant must have in order to live and grow. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, lime, iron and sulfur were given in Lesson No. 3 as some of the necessary plant-foods. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are also necessary. 22. Which one of these does nature supply in sufficoent abund- ance, without any thought on your part ? Carbon. 23. What ones can you help nature to supply ? Nitrogen, potash, phosphoric acid, lime and water. 24. Name all the congenial conditions (or agencies) which the plant must have in order to be comfortable and to grow. A certain temperature ; a certain water supply ; a certain amount of humus; good texture; and a sufficient supply of plant-food. 25. What ones of these can you help nature to supply or maintain? We can influence the water supply, add plant-food and humus, and maintain good texture. , ‘i alae a, Act Bulletin 175. November, 1899. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. Fro ACA. NY. HORTICULTURAL DIVISION. FOURTH > REPORT “ON JAPANESE PLUMS. By k(H) BAILEY: PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1899. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. GEO. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. Mrs. MARY ROGERS MILLER, Nature-Study. Mrs. A. B. COMSTOCK, Nature-Study. ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E. HUNN, Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. W. E. GRIFFITH, Dairy Husbandry. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of Director, Room 20, Morrill Hall. 128 CorNELL UNIVERSITY, ) frosaca, Nuys Woes, E be09. j HonoRABLE CoMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY: Sir.—The Japanese plums have come to stay, but they have come without accurate descriptions and with confused nomencla- ture. The merits of the older varieties are now fairly well known, but the greater number of the varieties are very imperfectly under- stood. In order to elucidate these perplexities and to spread accu- rate knowledge of this new class of fruits, the Cornell Station has made a special effort to study all the varieties from bearing trees. This bulletin is the fourth report of this investigation. 9 I. P. ROBERTS, Director. ‘snd essundnp ysanina ay. ‘atbusp pun (7f2) 0) yy f0 1801.L0ET — “Fe FOURTH REPORT ON JAPANESE PLUMS. In January, 1894, this Station issued a bulletin (No. 62) on the Japanese plums. Subsequent issues were made in January, 1896, and in October, 1897 (Bulletins 106, 139). For five years and more the Japanese plums have been the subject of careful study at Cornell, and an effort has been made to secure all the varieties. During the past season the crop of these plums has been large and excellent, and the following notes are made directly from the fruits. We are still convinced that the Japanese plums are a very import- ant addition to our orchard fruits. They will not drive other plums from the field, but they have attributes which make them an excel- lent supplement to the European and native sorts. The particular merits of the Japanese plums are their great productiveness, adap- tation to a wide range of territory, beauty, earliness of many of the varieties, comparative freedom from diseases and insects, and long- keeping qualities of fruit. Most of the varieties tend to overbear, and good fruits can be secured only by very heavy thinning. This is especially true of the Burbank, the Abundance and the Red © June. There is great range in quality of the Japanese plums. The poorest of them are inferior to any of the European varieties. The best of them are nearly equal to the best of the European kinds, and all of the leading sorts are better in quality than the Lombard if they are properly thinned and ripened. A great merit of the Japanese plum is the fact that it is adapted to an exceedingly wide range of territory, in this respect excelling both the Domestica and native types. There are varieties which thrive from Canada to the Southern States, and apparently from ocean to ocean. There has been some complaint in the Middle States and the South of loss of blossoms from late spring frosts, but we have never experienced this difficulty. The buds start early ; but in New York State, at least, the winter climate holds so late 131 132 Buuvuetin 175. that there is practically no danger from the early swelling of the buds. The Japanese plums are less seriously attacked by insects and fungi than the common European or Domestica type is. They are not entirely free from the shot-hole fungus, black-knot, curculio and other difficulties ; but in our experience these troubles have been so infrequent or of such minor importance as not to attract serious attention. The fruit-rot is often serious on the Japanese plums, but, in our experience, it is equally or even more serious on the Lom- bard. If the Japanese plums are properly thinned there seems to be no unusual susceptibility to the fruit-rot fungus. | The larger part of the Japanese plum stock which is sold by nurserymen is on peach roots; and on these roots they seem to thrive. However, we find that they do remarkably well when top- worked on Lombard stocks. Theoretically, we are to expect the best results when they are worked on their own roots; and these plums are now so extensively planted that the time cannot be far distant when seed can be obtained cheaply enough-to warrant the raising of Japanese plum stocks. It remains to be demonstrated, however, whether the Japanese plum roots are actually better than the peach or the Domestica plum roots. In former reports we have spoken of the great variation of Japanese plums in respect to the period of ripening. We find that the same trees often do not ripen their fruit in the same sequence in different years. In some years there may be a difference of two weeks in ripening between the Abundance and Burbank, whereas, in other years, the very same trees may ripen their fruit almost simultaneously. The period and sequence of all fruits are greatly modified by the particular season, but the Japanese plums seem to be particularly unstable in these respects. Ever since we began the study of these Japanese plums, we have been puzzled to account for the great differences in opinion respect- ing the merits of individual varieties and the wide discrepancies in descriptions of them. Some of these discrepancies are traceable to a confused nomenclatnre ; but we now believe that many of them are due to the fact that the same tree may bear unlike fruit in dif- ferent years. Some of the trees which we have had under the Fourru Report on JAPANESE PLuMs. 133 closest observation during two or three crops seem to have behaved in this way. For example, in our last report (Bulletin 139), we thought that the Chase is identical with the Chabot. This year, however, the fruit of the same trees of Chase was indistinguishable from Abundance; and yet, between Abundance and Chabot, there is normally a difference of two or three weeks in the period of ripen- ing, and there was this difference on our own grounds this year. From this year’s study, therefore, we are obliged to say that the Chase is the Abundance. Some objection has been raised to the supplanting of Japanese names with new names. We are convinced, however, that the dropping of the Japanese class-names and adjectives is legitimate in the interest of perspicuity. Most of the Japanese names have been loosely applied, and it is impossible, in many eases, to determine any one variety to which the name may be said to belong. To use the old name of Botan, for example, would result in perpetuating a con- fusion, since any person who had a plum under the name of Botan, no matter what it was, would feel justified in sending it out. When, however, the different kinds of Botans are given specific names, the person must distinguish his variety before it can be put upon the market. The same remarks may be made for the Japanese names, Hattankio, Yosobe, Sumomo and Wassu. (Wassu is probably a misspelling of Wasse, or Wase, meaning early.) There are two or three Japanese names, of which Maru and Satsuma are examples, which have been applied to one particular variety; and in these cases we have held to the Japanese vernacular. It is nsually unsafe to make a general recommendation of varieties of any fruit. The value of a variety les not only in its intrinsic merits, but in its adaptation to the personal likes of the grower and to markets, soils, and other extrinsic conditions. However, as a guide in the choice of varieties, I will mention those kinds which now seem to me to be most valuable for general uses and con- ditions. In the first list I place those which seem to be worthy of general planting; in the other list are those of secondary value and those which must be further tested before they can be confidently recommended. The varities are named in the order in which they ripened at Ithaca in 1899: 134 Bu.vetin 175. First list. Second list. Engre Berger Lutts Kerr Red June Ogon Abundance Georgeson Burbank Hunn Chabot Hale Satsuma Wickson In the following account of varieties, we record the notes which have been taken on the Cornell grounds during the present season. The varieties are arranged in the order of their ripening at Ithaca in 1899. (An index to the names will be found at the end of the bulletin.) As already indicated, this order of ripening is not uni- form year by year. By season of ripening we mean the date at which the first considerable number of fruits are fit to be eaten from the hand. Ordinarily, the varieties should be picked for market three or four days, or even a week, earlier than the dates here given It is characteristic of most Japanese plums that even though they are uncolored when picked, they ripen up well if kept in a cool and dry place. All the pictures in this bulletin, except that on the title page, are natural size. They are made from fruits of medium and average size. It should be remembered, however, that pictures of fruits, even though they are full size, look smaller than the fruits themselves. The histories of the varieties are recorded in previous bulletins. 1. EKaruiest or Ati.— Fig. 24, left. Yosebe of Bulletin 106. Wasse-Sunromo. Small, round-oblong, with an indication of a pointed apex in some specimens; suture not prominent; color when fully ripe almost uniformly pink-red, with light bloom; flesh light yellow and soft clinging to the pit, sour, with a decided almond or bitterish flavor, skin tough; first specimens picked July 10, but the larger part of the fruits ripe on July 14. The fruit drops from the stem as soon as ripe. Straw or hay should be spread under the tree to catch it. The tree is a decidedly upright grower, with small and yellowish green deeply serrate leaves, prominent stipules and reddish twigs. Fourru Report oN JAPANESE PLuMs. 135 After having tested four or five crops of this plum, we are con- vinced that its chief merit is earliness and that it is too poor in quality to be recommended, particularly since the Engre is of better quality and practically of the same season. 25.—Lutts. The largest of the very early Jupanese plums. 2. Enern.— Fig. 24, right. About one-third larger than Earliest of All, not round but some- what flattened endwise, the suture usually rather prominent; color a very little darker than Earliest of All; flesh soft and yellow, cling, sour but with almost no almond flavor, and the skin tough. Engre is practically of the same season as Earliest of All, although this year it was about one day later. It is a distinctly better plum. We recommend it for being very early. With us it has beena pro- litic bearer, and the fruits are attractive. Its quality is not as good as that of Burbank and Abundance, but its great earliness com- mends it. 136 Buuuetrin 175. 8. Lurrs.— Fig. 25. Wasse-Botankio. Under the name Wasse-Botankio, we have fruited an excellent early plum for two seasons. It seems to have such distinct merit that we think it worthy general introduction, and I therefore take pleasure in naming it for Mr. Henry Lutts, of Youngstown, N. Y., who has been one of the pioneers in the culture of Japanese plums in this State. Fruit round-oblate with a tendency to a pointed apex, in general form and appearance very like the Burbank, but running smaller ; color dark red, marked with many very fine golden dots and covered with a heavy bloom; flesh light yellow and soft, cling when thoroughly ripe, with only a tinge of almond flavor, but not sour or bitter, the skin rather tough. Ripe enough for eating in the present season on the 14th of July, being four or five days later than Earliest of All and Engre. This is the largest and best very early Japanese plum which we have tested. The tree is a good grower and with us has been productive. 4, Bercrr.— Fig. 26. Strawberry. Ura-Beni. Uchi-Beni. Honsmomo, at least of some nurserymen. Small and cherry-like, flattened endwise, with a distinct suture; color bright light red, with prominent bloom; flesh firm and meaty, yellow, free from the very small pit and with no astringency or almond flavor, the skin not tough nor sour; ripe this year on the ‘17th and 18th of July. This is one of the most distinet of all the Japanese plums. It has the flavor of some of the Domestica varie- ties. The handsome little fruits fall when ripe and should be canght on straw or hay spread underneath the tree. The plums are not much larger than very large cherries, and, coming after the sweet cherries are gone, they seem to piece out the cherry season. The tree is a distinct and upright grower, with rather narrow and light colored leaves, and the fruits are borne well down on the older wood. We believe that the Berger is well worth growing in every home garden. 138 Buuyetin 175. 5. Wiivarp.— Fig. 27. Fruit medium to small in size, oblong, slightly angular, never pointed, the sinus slight or scarcely any, the stem cavity rather deep; color bright red with a heavy bloom and many minute yellow dots; flesh soft to firm, yellow, somewhat cling, with a decidedly 27.— Willard. One of the early plums, but quality very poor. mawkish or almond flavor, skin sour; ripened this year July 23-25. The fruit falls easily. The quality is very poor, and we believe that the variety is not worth growing, particularly since there are earlier varieties of better quality. The leaves are also very badly attacked with the shot-hole fungus, being the worst in this respect of any of Fourtu REport oN JAPANESE PLUMs. 139 the Japanese plums which we have grown. The branches have a straight, upright tendency. The leaves turn red and fall very early. 6. Kerr. Fig. 28. Hattonkin of some nurserymen. fHattankio Oblong. Of medium size, tending to become fairly large when well thinned, tapering a very distinct long point, the suture usually well marked, stem comparatively short and stout; color orange yellow, overlaid with a thick creamy bloom; flesh firm and rather meaty and yellow, cling, sweet and of fair to good quality when well ripened ; ripe this year from the 28th to 30th of July. Tree is of moderate spreading habit, much like the Georgeson; foliage strong, large and good. The Kerr is an exceedingly productive variety, and needs to be well thinned in order to produce the best results. It is one of the best of the yellow varieties. Its chief fault is that it tends to fall before it is fully colored, but the fruits ripen and color on the ground. If they are picked just before they begin to loosen from the stem and are stored or shipped, they will ripen up well. 7. Rep June.— Fig. 29. Nagate no Botankyo. Medium to large in size, cordate-oblong and distinctly pointed, with a very strong suture, often lop-sided; color deep vermilion red, with a thick and handsome bloom; flesh light yellow or yel- lowish white, cling or partially cling, firm and moderately juicy, slightly acid to sweetish, of good quality, though not very rich, the skin slightly sour. We still believe that the Red June is one of the very best of the Japanese plums, because it is very handsome and productive. It ordinarily needs heavy thinning to bring it to per- fection. It varies considerably in season of ripening. This year the earliest fruits were ready for eating on July 30, and for market- ing three or four days before that time. At the time that the Red June was coming into condition for eating, the Kerr was ina similar condition, Earliest of All and Lutts wereall gone, Georgeson showed no sign of coloring, and the Abundance on some of the earlier trees was beginning to turn red. The Red June and Kerr are practically * 140 Buxvetin 175. ofthe same season, although the Kerr begins to fall from the tree a few days before the Red June is ripe. The Red June is a bushy-topped, upright grower, with yellowish green foliage and reddish brown twigs. It is a well marked type. We are fruiting it on both peach and Lombard stocks. 8. Oaon.— Fig. 30. Fruits medium in size or becoming .arge when heavily thinned, globular or flattened endwise, not at all conical or pointed, the suture prominent; color a clear lemon yellow, with a heavy whitish bloom, rarely with the faintest indication of a blush cheek; flesh thick and very meaty, comparatively hard, free from pit, with a very peculiar musky almond flavor. Ready to eat this year August 1, although they were ready to ship, and a very few were edible, some three or four days before this time. It is practically the season of the Red June, although tending to be a trifle later. The tree is a strong, upright grower with heavy thick foliage. It does not seem to beso uniformly productive as some other varieties, althongh it tends to bear very heavily at times. It is readily distinguished from other early varieties by its globular or flatened shape, by the cavity around the pit and by its peculiar flavor. Its quality is indifferent — not so good as that of the Red June nor so bad as that of the Willard. It is sald to be one of the best for canning. 9. DBrrcxmans.— Fig. 31. Fruit of medium size, round-oblong with a tendency to have a blunt point, more or less angular in cross-section, the suture not prominent; color deep bright red, especially when exposed to the sun, more or less yellow-splashed on the shaded side; flesh firm and . sweet, cling or semi-cling, becoming dry and insipid when fully ripe. Ripe this year on the 4th to 6th of August with the earliest trees of Abundance. In 1896, it also ripened with Abundance or just ahead of it. In 1897, the same trees ripened two weeks later than Abundance. It is an upright grower, with yellowish green, rather small, foliage. It is readily distinguished from all other Japanese plums which I know by the dry and mealy character of the ripe fruit. d se fe Ne qf to if - oy ) ‘ G r bhe a5 4 “ BG 45 Er ag A Hi : ite 7¥. Vide%- i ee ie ‘uunjd gaysvul Ajbna-pucoas ajqvnjnr YW ‘AUN, pay —'"6S he be: <: a me: "y ' t 2 i * j ae fyor.ia nopah hp.ma-puovas W uohO — 0k 146 Buuuerin 175. We doubt if the Berckmans is of sufficiently high quality to recommend it for general planting, since the Abundance occupies the same season Some of the trees which have passed for Berck- mans are Abundance. The true Berckmans is distinguished by its dry flesh. 31.— Berckmans. Distinguished, when fully ripe, by tts dry flesh. 10. Asunpance.— Figs. 32 and 33. Yellow-Fleshed Botan. Fruit medium size or varying to nearly large when vigorously thinned, round-oblong with a distinct point, the suture usually more or less prominent; color pink-coppery-red, marked with many minute dots and a thin bloom; flesh firm but juicy, sweet, with no trace of mawkish or almond flavor when well thinned or well ripened, clinging to the pit. The Abundance isa variable plum. Fourta Report oN JAPANESE PLuMs. 147 We have stock from various sources, amongst others from some of the original trees sent out as Abundance by Lovett. The trees vary in time of ripening, the period ranging over a week or ten days, but they all seem to be indistinguishable. This year the first fruits were ripe on the 5th and 6th of August. The ordinary, and what I take to be typical Abundance, is shown in Fig. 32; also in Fig. 1, Bulletin 106. Some trees, however, produce an inferior grade of 32.— Abundance. A good type. Perhaps the best Japancse plum. fruit, as shown in Fig. 33, but I cannot distinguish that this small fruit is a different variety. This small-fruited type of Abundance is the one which I distinguished in our Bulletin 62.as the Babcock. When the Abundance is well thinned, it is certainly an excellent _ plum and one which most people delight to eat. Its great fault is to overbear, and in that case it is very liable to the fruit-rot fungus. 148 Buuyietin 175. With us the Abundance has been less injured with this fungus than the Lombard. The light pink-red color of the Abundance will clearly distinguish the variety from all other Japanese plums which we have fruited. The tree is an upright grower, not so spreading as the Berckmans, with larger and better foliage. I believe that the Abundance is the best single variety of Japanese plum. 33.-- Abundance. Small or inferior type. The Chase which we have heretofore regarded as identical with Chabot was this year perfectly indistinguishable from Abundance. We now believe that the Douglas is Abundance ; or, if different, it is very difficult to distinguish. It seems to have a somewhat drier flesh than Abundance ; but Abundance varies in juiciness. Fourtn Report on JAPANESE Prius. 149 11. Marvu.—See illustration on title-page. Written also Masu and MWassu. Frnit medium in size, globular or slightly flattened endwise, usually tending to have an obtuse point, the suture slight; color dark dull red or maroon red, uniform or nearly so over the whole surface, marked with numberless minute golden yellow dots; flesh rather soft and deep yellow, with a decidedly musky almond flavor, d4.— Buibank. A standard mid-season variety. cling or semi-cling, the skin sour; ripens with the later trees of Abundance. It is a vigorous, upright grower and productive, but the quality is poor, and the variety cannot compete with Abundance. 12. Burpanx.— Fig. 34. Fruit medium in size, becoming large upon vigorous and well- thinned trees, round-oblong to oblong, the point not well marked, and the suture usually somewhat prominent; color orange-yellow 150 BuuietTin 175. overlaid with splashes, streaks and dots of red, giving a more or less marble appearance, but becoming more or less uniformly dense red on the cheek; flesh firm and meaty, yellow, sweet and rich, cling, the skin not sour nor unusually tough. The Burbank ripened very unevenly with us this year, some of the trees maturing their fruit only three or four days later than Abundance, whilst others were ten to eighteen days later. In 1895, as compared with Abundance on our grounds, it was a week later; in 1896, it was from one to two weeks later; in 1897, it was from two to three weeks later. The tree is an exceedingly spreading flat-topped grower and needs strong heading-in to keep it in shape. When well thinned, the fruit is large and of excellent quality, perhaps as good as any of the Japan- ese plums. It is also a good keeper. It usually colors up on the tree some days before it is ripe. Occasional trees ripen their fruit before the main crop of Abundance is ripe. In many cases, the fruit does not become soft and edible, even when apparently full ripe. Heretofore, we have regarded Burbank as the best all-around Japanese plum, but we are now inclined to give that place to Abundance. | The Wassu, from Normand, was indistinguishable from Burbank in habit of tree and character of fruit in 1897 and 1898. This year a part of the fruit on our tree of Wassu ripened a week ahead of the main crop of Burbank, but some of the fruits were as late as the main crop of Burbank. We believe that itis the same thing as the Burbank. 13. Grorcrson.— Fig. 35. White Kelsey. Yeddo. Mikado. Fruit medium or becoming medium to large when well thinned, round or round-flattened in form, usually without a point, the suture distinct; color deep bright yellow with a heavy whitish bloom; flesh firm and solid, golden yellow, of fairly good quality, cling. Ripe this year the middle of August and nearly all gone by the time the latest trees of Burbank were ready for eating. In 1897, the suine trees ripened their fruit from the middle to the 20th of Septem- ber. The tree is a sprawling and forking grower, intermediate in character between the Abundance and Burbank. The fruit is a Fourta Report oN JAPANESE PLums. 151 long keeper and, if picked before it is thoroughly ripe, will ordinarily shrivel before it decays. The quality is medium; it has a little of the mawkish almond flavor, and is usually not prized for eating from the hand. I doubt if it is destined to be a very popular variety. It is one of the commonest varieties. We refer the White Kelsey of Normand to the Georgeson from specimens which we grew this year upon grafts set on Lombard 30.— Georgeson. 11 VY ORCI eR. Fi 2 SRS i RRR ib Lo. BALLET Bulletin 176. December, 1899. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, N. Y. ENTOMOLOGICAL DIVISION. THE Bee Flee Ne bas do Con, Wo lNe ‘June 15, 1749. Peach trees have often been planted here (Albany, N. Y.), and never would succeed well. This was attributed to a worm which lives in the grouud, and eats through the root, so that the tree dies.’ — Peter Kalm, in his Travels into North America, Translation by Forster, vol. IT., p. 244. An abridged edition of this bulletin ts published for general distribution. By M. V. SLINGERLAND. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1899. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. x7, F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND,. Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. Mrs. MARY ROGERS MILLER, Nature-Study. A. L KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E..HUNN, Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. W. E. GRIFFITH, Dairy Husbandry. Mrs. A. B. COMSTOCK, Nature-Study. ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Nature-Study. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. 162 THE PEACH-TREE BORER. Sanninoidea exitiosa Say. Order Leprpoprera ; family SEstpa®. FTER having made a careful study of the horticulture of New York State, I am convinced that the peach industry suffers more from careless and unscientific methods than any other pomological interest. The greatest fault lies in the cultivation, or, I might \ ee have said,in the lack of cultivation. The second wd Sault is attention to borers and yellows.” Since ' 1894, when Professor Bailey expressed the above opinion, the peach industry in New York has increased until now there are probably 13,000 acres of peach orchards in the State, and many of them are receiving better care and cultivation. But every commercial grower of this luscious fruit realizes that his success oftentimes largely depends upon his ability to prevent the weaken- ing or destruction of the trees by that king of all peach insect pests —the peach-tree borer. One of America’s most noted peach growers, J. H. Hale, has said that “the peach-borer has killed more trees than all other causes combined.” We suppose that but comparatively few of the peach trees, which have been planted east of the Mississippi river during the last quarter of a century, have lived to produce a crop of fruit without suffering more or less from this dreaded borer. The peach-tree borer has ranked as one of the standard and serious insect pests of the United States for nearly a century, hence, natu- rally, it has been much discussed in our literature; the bibliography of more important writings concerning it, which is appended to this bulletin, will serve to show how voluminous is the literature regard- ing it. By far the larger proportion of this literature deals with 163 164 Buiuetin 176. methods of preventing or controlling the pest. Thus this exercise of the ingenuity of American peach growers for a century or more has resulted in perhaps as many, if not of more, different schemes to circumvent the ravages of the peach-tree borer than has been devised for any other of our insect pests. And yet there are recorded but few thorough, scientific, extensive and conclusive experiments with any of the methods recommended. This fact led Professor Comstock to plan, several years ago, an extensive series of experiments with many of the so-called “ remedies.” A peach orchard of nearly 400 trees was set near the insectary in 1893 for the sole purpose of experimenting against the insect. Por- tions of this orchard are shown in figures 52 and 53. These experi- ments have cost much in time and labor, but no effort has been spared to render the results reliable and as conclusive as possible. The principal aim of this bulletin is to record the results of these careful and extensive experiments which cannot fail to be of direct practical value to every peach grower. But to fight an insect the most successfully one should know the details of the story of its life, hence we have also aimed to make this bulletin a complete and up-to- date compendium of information on all phases of the peach-tree borer. Irs Hisrory anp Disrripurtion. _ The peach-tree borer is an American insect, and has been found only in the United States and Canada. The peach tree, a foreign plant, had doubtless been in cultivation for a century or more before we find any definite record of its being attacked by the borer. The note quoted on the title page is the first reference to this insect we have been able to find in the literature. This testimony of Kalm (in 1749) would indicate that the insect must have attained a liking for the peach tree about two hundred or more years ago; and before the middle of the last century, or a hundred and fifty years ago, it had become a serious menace to the growing of this fruit in New York State. Twenty years later the insect was recorded (Cooper, 1771) as “prejudicial to the peach trees” in New Jersey. During the first decade of the present century (1800-1812) it became a serious menace to peach growing in New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Vir- ginia, and many methods of preventing its ravages were tried. In 1823 it was common and destructive in Massachusetts and North Ture Pracu-Tree Borer. 165 Carolina, and northern and eastern nurseries were accused of send- ing many infested trees into Maryland. Fifteen years later the peach growers of Tennessee were suffering from its ravages. By 1850 it had become a serious menace to peach growing from the Atlantic ocean to the Mississippi river, and by 1871 it had attained a similar reputation in Canada. It is said to have been recognized in Kansas as early as 1873. During the past ten years it has been sent into New Mexico and California on nursery stock from Ala- bama and Missouri, and has obtained a foothold in New Mexico. Aside from these two instances, there is no definite evidence that the peach-tree borer of the Atlantic States occurs west of the Rocky Mountains except in Colorado. The peach-tree borer of the Pacitic coast is a different but very closely allied species (Sanninoidea opalescens).* In brief, this native American insect found the imported peach tree to its liking, perhaps two centuries or more ago, and before the middle of the last century it had attained the rank of a serious pest of this fruit tree. For more than a hundred years it has been recognized as a serious menace to peach growing in the north-east- ern portion of the United States, and since 1850 it has sustained this reputation in most of the peach-growing sections of the country east of the Mississippi river. At present it has to be fought by every successful peach-grower in nearly every State in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, from Maine to Texas, and also in Canada. Apparently it has not yet established itself on the Pacific coast, and occurs west of the Rocky Mountains only in Colorado and possibly in New Mexico. It seems to have first attracted attention as a peach pest in New York, and thence soon assumed a similar role to the southward, eastward and westward. * In 1897, Cordley published an account of the Atlantic or eastern peach-tree borer (S. exitiosa) as THE peach-tree borer of Oregon, which had been introduced nearly twenty years before. Dr. L. O. Howard has recently carefully investi- gated the distribution of this pest and he writes us, after an examination of Ore- gon specimens, that he has ‘‘ no evidence that Sanninoidea exitiosa now occurs on the Pacific coast. Those introduced into California on nursery stock in 1891 do not seem to have established themselves.” Mr. Cordley also tells us that all the moths he reared were opdlescens. | 166 Butuetin 176. Its NAME. The destructive or “borer” stage of this insect was doubtless known to peach-growers in the first half of the last century. The adult or moth stage of the pest seems to have been known since about 1770. By 1800, some peach-growers had obtained a fairly accurate knowledge of its life, but it apparently received no scien- tific name until 1804 or 1805. In 1804 Dr. Barton received the Magellanic premium from the American Philosophical Society for an essay on “ A Number of the Pernicious Insects of the United States.” Harris recorded in 1826 that Dr. Barton named and described the insect as Zygena persice in this essay, of which Dr. x Mease had published an extract ;* we have been unable to discover if this essay was ever published. Dr. Barton used the name of persicae for this insect in 1805, but if he published a description in connection with this name, it has not yet been found; hence the peach-tree borer’s first and very appropriate scientific name of per- sice has been supplanted by another. It is of interest to note that the name persice or persica was also independently proposed for the insect by Harris in 1823 and Thomas in 1824. In 1823, specimens of the moth of the peach-tree borer were sub- mitted to Say, and he named and described them as exzteosa ; and the insect is now known by this specific name the world over.t * Harris says: ‘‘ Barton having first described this insect, the name which he has imposed has the priority, and must be retained.” He then describes the male and female, using Barton’s name; he refers to Say’s name in a preceding paragraph. And yet four years later we find Harris using only Say’s name, and never referring to Barton’s name in any of his subsequent writings. We can find no explanation by Harris for his rejection of Barton’s name. + Bibliographical references showing the different scientific names which have been applied to the peach-tree borer and the different genera in which it has been placed, arranged by Mr. Beutenmitiller. Zygena persice. 1805. Barton, B. S., Phil. Med. and Phys. Journal, L., pt. ii, p. 29. No description of moth. : Aegeria exitiosa. 1823. Say, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., III., 216. Original description. Apts persica, 1824. Thomas, American Farmer, VI., 37. Paranthrene pepsidiformis. 1825. Hiibner, Zut. Exot. Schmett., p. 32, figs. 538-534, Good figures of female. Tue Pracu-Trer Borer. 167 The insect was popularly known as the “ peach worm” or “the peach-tree insect” in earlier writings. Sometime before 1850 it had received the name of “ peach-tree borer,” and usually under this popular name it has since been discussed. Almost every peach grower east of the Rocky Mountains understands what insect is referred to as the “ peach-tree borer.” However, the peach-tree borer of the Pacific coast States is a different kind of an insect, bear- ing the scientific name of Sanninoidea opalescens. Hence, when exitiosa obtains a foothold in these States, which is lable to occur at any time, it will doubtless be designated as the Eastern peach-tree borer to distinguish it from the Pacific species. The specific name exztzosa means “ destructive,” hence it is aptly applied to such a pest as the peach-tree borer. Emmons (1854), doubtless freely translating this name, called the insect the ‘ Mis- chievous Egery,” the latter part of this being a popularization of its first generic name of Aegeria. As the bibliographical foot-note, referred to above, indicates, Aegeria persice Barton. 1826. Harris, New England Farmer, V., 33. Sphinz exitiosa Say. 18382. Brown, Book of Butt. and Moths, p. 17, fig. 63. Trochilium exitiosa Sum. 1856. Fitch, Third Rept., 356. Trochilium exitiosa Say. 1862. Morris, Synop. Lep. N. Am., p. 140. Sesia xiphiagformis. 1874. Boisduval, Suites a Buffon, Nat. Hist. Lepidop., Het. 1., p. 409. Description cf female. Sannina exitiosa Say. 1874. Butler, Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist., p. 408. Sanninoidea exitiosa Say. 1896. Beutenmiiller, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.. VIII, 126; and Vol. XII., 1899, p. 160. FEMALE VARIETY fitchiz. Aegeria exitiosa var. fitchit. 1882. Edwards. Papilio, IL, é5. MALE VARIETY /uiminosa. Sannina exitiosa var. duminosa, 1894. Neumoegen, Ent. News, V., 331. FEMALE VARIETY ¢edwa? dsiv. Sanninoidea exitiosa var. edwardsii, 1899. Beutermiiller, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., XII., 160. This bibliographical foot-note shows that the insect has received two other spe- cific names (pepsidiformis by Hiibner in 1825, and wiphiaeformis by Boisduval in 1874) in Europe, and it has also been placed in several different genera, being once described asa wasp (Apis persica). The latest student of this kind of insects, Mr. Beutenmiiller, has formed a new genus, Sunninoidea, for this insect and a few closely allied forms. Hence the peach-tree borer now bears the scientific name of Sanntinoidea exitiosa Say. 168 Buuuetin 176. three variations of the adult forms of this insect have been described as distinet varieties. Thus we have the female varieties, fitchii and edwardsw, and the male variety, dwminosa. These will be discussed when the appearance of the insect is being considered. Irs CHARACTERISTICS. Most peach growers have seen this insect in its destructive or “borer” stage, and doubtless but few have ever seen it in any other form. However, the peach-tree borer, like all the butterflies, the moths, the beetles, and flies and some other insects, passes through four different stages (see figure 57 on last page) during its life. It begins life as an egg, from which hatches the larva or “ borer,” which has to pass through a pupa stage, from which the adult or moth form of the insect emerges. The egg and pupa stage will be described in telling the story of the life of the insect. The “ borer.”— When full-grown, the larva or caterpillar of the peach-tree borer is a very light yellow, worm-like creature whose general characteristics are well shown in figure 42. It measures about an inch in length, and in addition to its six well developed thoracic: or “true” legs, it has five pairs of “false” or pro-legs on the third, fourth, fifth, sixth and last abdominal segments. The true jointed legs are of a light brown color, and terminate in a sharp, dark brown claw; all of the pro-legs are furnished with two rows of recurved brown hooklets, except the last pair which has but one row. The body is sparsely clothed with brownish hairs aris- ing from smooth, slightly elevated tubercles, and arranged accord- ing to a definite plan. The “ borer’s” head is of a shiny, dark red- dish brown color, with its strong mandibles or jaws nearly black. The dorsal portions of the first thoracic and the last abdominal seg- ments bear a very light brown, shiny, chitinous shield. The spiracles or breathing holes along each side of the body are nearly circular, dark brown with a black border, the first and last ones being con- siderably larger. The “borer” is well illustrated, both natural size and enlarged in figure 42, and is also represented natural size in its burrow in figure 47. The younger larvae or “borers” present practically the same characteristics as the full-grown one just described, except that the Tur Pracu-TrREE Borer. 169 hairs on the body are comparatively longer. We haveseen no indi- cations that young peach-tree borers present such striking differences from the older ones as do those of the closely allied squash-vine borer. (See Bull. 19, U. 8. Div. Ent., p. 35-36.) The adult msect— The adult form or the parent of the peach- tree borer is a moth. The moth belongs to a remarkable family of insects known as the Clear-winged Moths, many of the members of which resemble bees or wasps in appearance more than they do ordinary moths, a resemblance due to their clear or unsealed wings and in some cases to their bright colors. DeGeer, writing more than a century and a quarter ago, says of one of these wasp-like moths: “When I saw the moth for the first time, I dared not take it with the naked hand, so sure was I that it was a wasp.” (DeGeer’s Abh. zur Gesch. der Insekten, German Translation, Vol. II., p. 163.) A glance at figure 43 will show how easily one might mistake the moth, especially a male, for a wasp, so striking is the resemblance. It is not strange that the adult insect was regarded as a wasp by some of the early writers and was once so described and named (Apis persica, by Thomas in 1824). In figure 43 it will be noticed that two of the moths there illus- trated have a very different appearance, resembling wasps much less than do the other two moths. All of the moths in the figure are peach-tree borer moths, and simply represent the two sexes, the male and female which difter so strikingly in appearance that one may well wonder if they can belong to the same species of insect. Could the figures have been colored true to life the remarkable unlikeness of the two sexes and the striking resemblance of the male to a wasp would have been more vivid. The male moth is represented, twice natural size, at m in figure 44, and natural size, by a large anda small specimen, at 7 in the same figure. Its general color is a deep steel-blue with a glossy lustre like satin ; all the dark portions of the figures are of this blue color. The four wings are transparent and glass-like, with a light tinge of smoky yellow ; their veins, margins and fringes are steel-blue, the margins sometimes scaled more or less with yellow. The lower sides of the palpi are light yellow ; there is a paler yellow spot on the ver- tex of the head and a deeper yellow, transverse stripe at the base of 45.— Moths of the peach-tree borer, natural size. The wpper one and the one at the right are females. 44.— Male and female moths cf the peach-tree borer, natural size at n; m, male moth; £, female moth, northern form (variety edwardsit); t. f., typical female moih, southern form, i. f., body of an tntergrade form of female ~J moth; m, f, t. f., andi. f. are all about twice natural size. 172 Buwuwvetin 176. the head both above and beneath. The thorax has a similar light yellow stripe on each side of the dorsum, a transverse one at its base which is slightly interrupted in the middle, and a short, broader one on each side beneath the bases of the wings. The caudal borders of the dorsal and lateral portions of the second, fourth, fifth and sixth abdominal segments are light yellow; sometimes one or more of these narrow yellow bands are absent or become indistinct, especially where the specimen has become greasy, as it often does in a collec- tion. The anal tuft is wedge-shaped and tipped with white later- ally. The legs are light yellow at the joints. Most of these light colored markings are represented: by white in the figures of the moths. The males vary in size from three-fourths of an inch to an inch and a quarter from tip to tip of their expanded wings; the two males at in figure 44 differ considerably in size. Fitch described seven varieties of the male moth based entirely upon variations in the light colored markings. Neumoegen (1894) has described a beautiful variety of the male which has the borders of the wings heavily scaled with yellow; it bears the varietal name of luminosa. The female moth of the peach-tree borer is shown twice natural size with wings spread at f and ¢. 7.,and natural size by one speci- men at 2 in figure 44; two females are also shown natural size and at rest in figure 43, one at the base of the leaves and the other at the tip of the upper leaf. They are a little larger than the male moths, their wings expanding from one inch to an inch and a half. The female is wholly of a deep steel-blue color with a satiny lustre, except a broad, orange-colored band extending nearly around the abdomen on the fourth, or on both the fourth and fifth segments. The front wings are opaque, being entirely covered with the deep blue scales, while the hind wings are transparent over about half of their area, being heavily scaled with deep blue at the base and along the costal margin, and sometimes also between the two veins nearest the inner margin. A glance at f and ¢. f. in figure 44 will show that the female pre- sents a striking variation in the width of the orange band on the abdomen. In the typical form (¢.,f) this orange band occurs only on the fourth segment, while the female at f has both the fourth Tue Pracu-TrEE Borzr. 173 and fifth segments thus banded. Rarely a specimen is found with the fourth segment and a few scales on the sides of the fifth seg- ment of an orange color, as shown at 7. 7. in figure, thus forming a “ connecting link” or intergrade between the typical female (¢. 7) and the one shown at fin the same figure. In his original descrip- tion of the female, Say stated that the #ifti segment bore this orange band, but his figure shows the fourth segment orange; no specimen with only the fifth segment orange has ever been found. We have been unable to find any structural differences between the form with only one segment orange and the one with the orange band on two segments, and the fact that an intergrade (7. 7. in figure 44) exists, is quite conclusive evidence that they are simply striking variations of the same species. A similar variation occurs in the male of Sannina uroceriformis, persimmon-root borer. The fact that all of the scores of females of the peach-tree borer moth which we bred here at Ithaca, N. Y., with the exception of one intergrade form, were like fin figure 44, while all those which were bred on Long Island and New Jersey by Professor Smith, were like ¢. 7. in this figure, led us to make inquiries regarding the geographical distribution of these two forms of the female. The results indicate that the females with only the fourth segment orange are a southern form or geographical race occurring south of latitude 40 to 42 degrees, while north of this latitude only the variety or race with the orange band covering the fourth and fifth segments occurs; the intergrade form (2. 7 in figure 44) has been found at Ithaca, N. Y., and near New York City. Mr. Beutenmiiller (1899) has recently given the name of edwardsiz to this northern form of the female moth. Another variety of the female with only the fourth abdominal segment orange and “ the space between the two inner veins of the hind wings is nearly, or quite, covered with blue- black scales, forming a stripe which divides the transparent dise into two parts” was named jitchzz by Edwards (1882). Prof. J. B. Smith (1898) has illustrated some interesting structural characteristics of the moth of the peach-tree borer. The scaly vesti- ture on different parts of the body and wings present striking dif- ferences in size and character. ‘“ At the base of the last segment in the female there is a brush of hair ordinarily lying close to the 174 BuLvtetin 176. body like a pencil, but capable of being expanded at the will of the insect. Giving this the usual interpretation we may take it to be a scent organ. The virgin female soon after emergence from the pupa fixes herself at rest, elevates the abdomen, projects the ovipos- itor with the genital organs directed downward, the tufts expanded, and awaits the male. The antennae show considerable differences between the sexes. In the female the joints are not furnished with tufts of hair on the inner side as is the case of the male. At the base of the antenna the differences between the male and female are yet more marked, and yet here the greatest modification is found in the female.” On the basal segment of the antenna occurs a sensory fovea “in the form of a considerable opening covered by a tight, drum-like disc. A series of sensory punctures is found at the base of the second segment, and just above the sensory fovea there is an excavation which leaves that structure entirely free. In the male the large sensory fovea is present, but hardly as well devel- oped as in the female, and there are no sensory punctures on the second segment. It is probable that this fovea is auditory in func- tion. The maxille of the mouth-parts differ quite strongly in the sexes at the base.” Mr. Beutenmiiller writes us that only two other species of these clear-winged moths might be easily mistaken for the moths of the peach-tree borer. Both the males and females of Sestaw pictipes* look much like the males of the peach-tree borer, but are readily distinguished by the presence of a narrow yellow band across the venter of the fourth abdominal segment, which is not present in the peach-tree borer. Both sexes of Sannina uroceriformis, the per- simmon-root borer, resemble the female peach-tree borer, but the hind wings of the former are entirely opaque, except a small trans- parent area at the extreme base. Foop-PLaANts. The peach-tree borer apparently has a decided preference for the peach tree, as no other plant is so often and so destructively attacked. The borer does not seem to discriminate in favor of any particular * Its larva lives under the bark of plum, wild cherry, June berry, and beach Ps . “ plum. We have also bred it from peach trees. Tue Peracu-TrREE Borer. 175 s variety of the peach, all, whether “old relics” or young nursery trees, apparently suffering alike under similar circumstances. but the insect does not confine itself to the peach. As early as 1823, Harris reared it from the cultivated cherry in Massachusetts.* In 1854, Fitch found it working in his cultivated plum trees in New York, and Glover recorded that “ nectarines and apricots are as liable to be attacked by these worms as the peach.” In 1880, Fuller discovered that the cause of the death of several of his dwarf flowering almond shrubs was this peach-tree borer working in the roots. The preceding year it was recorded by Milton as working in the roots of azaleas which had been grown during the summer out doors in pots near badly infested peach trees. In 1882, Edwards described the female variety fitchii from a specimen apparently reared from the roots of wild cherry in West Virginia, and Deve- reaux (Clyde, N. Y.) has recorded (1890) in Packard’s Forest Insects seeing this borer “in the trunk near the ground and in the bark of the roots of young wild cherry-trees.” Townsend states (1891) that the insect works in apricot as well as peach in New Mexico, and New York plum and prune growers suffer from the pest, but not to such a serious extent as those who grow peaches. | In brief then, the peach-tree borer is pur excellence a peach pest, but may also attack both the wild and cultivated varieties of the cherry, the cultivated varieties of the plums or prunes, nectarines, apricots, flowering almond shrubs, and azaleas. As the peach-tree borer is a native of America it must have lived upon some native plant previous to the introduction of the peach into this country. The fact that he found the borer working in his plum trees, led Dr. Fitch to think it quite probable that our indige- nous species of plums were its original food-plants. Marlatt (1896) and other writers have accepted this suggestion, but Devereaux’s ‘observations of the insect working in wild cherry led Packard (1890) * In 1826, Harris records frequently seeing the borers in ‘‘ those tubercles which deform the limbs of the cherry tree.” And in 1841, he states he has *‘ repeatedly obtained both sexes of the moths from borers inhabiting these excrescences ” Whether these excresences were the well-known Black Knot fungus or not is not quite clear from the context. Webster bred the moths from cultivated cherry in Indiana in 1891. 176 Buuvuetin 176. to suggest that “this was undoubtedly the native food-plant of the insect before the importation of peach-trees.” In 1896, “G. E. M.” of Virginia recorded that his Japan plum-trees on Myrobolan or Marianna plum stocks were as badly infested as his peach trees, whereas when budded on Chickasaw or other native varieties, they were entirely exempt. This evidence, in connection with the fact that we have found no record of the peach-tree borer having been found in our native wild plums, would indicate that the wild cherry is more likely to have been its original food-plant than the wild plum; perhaps it originally fed upon both these plants. Whatever may have been its original food-plant, it has evidently almost entirely forsaken it for the peach. How ir SPREADS. The “ borer” or caterpillar probably never leaves the tree upon which it is born from the egg laid on the bark, and the insect spends nearly eleven months of its yearly life-cycle on or in the tree. It. thus can be easily transported for long distances on infested trees, and this is doubtless the way in which it usually reaches new localities. In the spring and fall, when trees are usually transported, many of the “ borers” are quite small and easily escape casual observation. As large peach trees are rarely moved, the growers of nursery stock are most responsible for the introduction of the insect into new localities. As early as 1806, Peters had “discovered the worms in or near the roots of the smallest stocks taken from the nursery.” In 1824, Thomas states that he believed the pest was introduced into the neighborhood of Baltimore on nursery stock from Northern and Eastern nurseries, for many of the trees received from there were infested. It has been found on nursery stock sent into Cali- fornia from Southern nurseries, and it doubtless reached New Mexico and Colorado in a similar manner. Mr. Lowe (1897), states that “it is a too common occurrence in our own State (N. Y.), to find many young peach trees in the packing shed, waiting to be shipped, which are infested by borers. Within the past few months hundred of such trees have been found which were about to be packed and shipped to some distant State.”’ It is doubtful if there is a peach nursery to-day east of the Rocky mountains that is not Tuer Pracu-TrEE Borer. ly We more or less infested with the peach-tree borer. It is one of the most serious of the insect pests that are now being sent out by nurserymen. When the pest once gets a foot-hold in an orchard or locality, it may be slowly spread from orchard to orchard by the adult insects or moths, which fly readily, but apparently not for very long distances. Peach, plum, prune, apricot or cherry trees from a nursery should always be carefully examined for “borers” before setting them. APPEARANCE OF INFESTED TREES. Peach-tree borers often kill young trees by girdling them with their burrows just beneath the bark underground and thus render- ing their destructive work very conspicu- ous. Many _ infested trees, even young trees, survive the attacks of the borer, but they are usually recognized by their weakened, sickly appearance when com- pered with perfectly healthy trees. The re- cuperative powers of a peach tree from the ravages of borers are sometimes wonderful. We have seen a peach tree, only one and a half inches in diameter, sup- port nine borers nearly to maturity in a single season and yet survive. And some of the trees in the older peach orchards of the country, and some of the “old relics” in door-yards or-gardens, have furnished sustenance to hundreds of borers and are yet producing fair crops of fruit. But every borer weakens the 12 45.— Base of an infested peach tree, showing the gummy mass surrounding the tree. L178 3ULLETIN 176. tree more or less, the damage done depending much on the age of the tree, and whether it is well fed and cultivated. We have yet to learn of a successful and progressive fruit-grower who thinks he ean afford to let the peach-tree borer have its own way in his peach or plum orchards. One can usually quickly determine if a peach tree is infested with borers. The work of the borer always causes the tree to exude a large amount of a mucilaginous matter which forms a gummy mass around the infested portion. We have seen at least two tablespoon- fulls of this gum result from the work of a single borer in a peach tree. This gummy mass mixed with particles of bark and the excre- ment of the borers is frequently visible on the surface of the soil close around the base of the tree. In figure 45 is shown a small peach tree surrounded by a ring of this gum resulting from the work of borers. By this tell-tale evidence, the presence of this gum at the base, one can usually determine at a glance if a peach-tree is suffering from borers. Where the peach-tree borer attacks plum or prune trees, however, there is but a slight, if any exudation of this gummy substance, hence one cannot so readily detect its presence on these trees. It is thus more difficult to find the borers in plum or prune trees, and this makes it harder to combat them in these trees. THE Story oF THE PEACH-TREE Borer’s LIFE. Not many creatures pass through such varied, complicated aud interesting experiences in their life-time as do the insects. The most common of them, those that we meet almost every day, could unfold to us many a weird and fascinating tale of their haps and mishaps in life could we but patiently watch their daily life. It is a curious fact, however, that when most of us see an insect of any kind our first impulse is to devise some method of taking its life, or literally of committing an insecticide. And especially is this true when the insect happens to be one which injures our plants, as does the peach-tree borer. But few peach growers stop to marvel over the wonderful transformations exhibited by this insect in passing > or larva, the pupa and the adult moth — of its life-cycle. These four stages are illus- through the four stages — the egg, the “ borer’ Tue Pracu-TrREE Borer. 179 trated in figure 57, used as a tail-piece on the last page; and how few peach-growers over saw the insect in any except the “ borer” or second stage of its life. And yet, our more successful fruit- growers are fast realizing that they must know more, and, in fact, eannot know too much, about the lives and habits of their insect foes in order to fight them the most successfully. The peach-tree borer, like most other insects, begins life as an egg, and, logically, we should begin the story of its life with this stage, but for various reasons we prefer to start with the insect in its winter quarters. How and where the winter is spent.—The peach-tree borer always passes the winter in the larva or “ borer” stage ; this seems to be true wherever the insect occurs, even in the extreme south. In most of the Southern States the borers apparently get most of their growth before winter, and thus the hibernating larva are mostly large or nearly full-grown. In the Northern States and Canada, however, most of the hibernating borers are usually less than half-grown. Sometimes, during a long and favorable season in the North, many of the borers will attain one-half or more of their growth before winter; this happened in New York in 1898, so that many of the borers we found in hibernation at Ithaca on January 5, 1899, were large, some of them three-fourths grown. In most localities, however, both North and South, borers of all sizes, from those only one-eighth grown to those nearly full-grown, may be found in the trees during the winter. Our observations. indicate that in New York State most of the larger borers hibernate in their burrows just beneath the bark and below the surface of the soil, while most of those which are less than half-grown pass the winter curled up in a thin half-cocoon-like structure built over themselves on the outside of the bark in the exuded gum, usually at the upper end of their burrows and at or near the surface of the ground. This winter home or hzbernaculum of the peach-tree borer is a thin affair, with a smooth interior, and is made of bits of frass or particles of bark fastened together with silken threads, which simply covers the borer as it rests curled up on the bark. As these hibernaculums are usually surrounded with the sticky gum which exudes from infested trees, their principal use 180 | Buwuuetin 176. may be to protect the borers from the gummy mass, thus giving them a more comfortable home during the winter. In exceptional cases we have seen nearly full-grown borers in winter curled up ina hibernaculum on the outside of the bark, just at the head of their burrow, which had become filled with the gummy mass. But usually in New York the larger borers hibernate in their burrows beneath the bark and the smaller ones, those less than half-grown, pass the winter in hibernaculums on the outside of the bark in the gummy mass; there are exceptions, however, in both cases, as just noted in the case of the larger borers, and some of the small ones apparently hiber- nate on the bark or in the gummy mass without any hibernaculum. This peculiar method of hibernation of the smaller borers is of con- siderable importance economically, as several northern peach-growers have discovered that they can quickly remove most of the borers a safe distance from the trees during a warm spell in winter by simply hoeing away the exuded gum from around the base of the trees. The peach-tree borer apparently eats nothing during the winter, at least in the Northern States. | Habits of the borers im the spring.— In the latter part of April, 1895, we found that some of the borers had already awakened from their long winter’s nap, and had broken the winter’s fast by begin- ning to feed on the bark. Yet some of them had not awakened or begun feeding by May first, but still lay curled up in their hiber- naculums. Climatic conditions in the spring will doubtless vary these dates somewhat, but usually the borers cease hibernation and begin feeding earlier than this in the spring, possibly feeding nearly all winter in the extreme South. As the borers usually hibernate, either in hibernaculums at the upper ends of their burrows, made the preceding summer and fall, or in their burrows, they oftentimes simply begin work in the spring where they left off to go into hibernation. The smaller borers often feed over an irregular area in the outer bark, but soon burrow into the inner bark and gradually excavate a burrow from one-half to an inch or more wide and two or more inches long, just under the outer bark in the inner bark and sapwood.* At w 3, in figure 46 is * Smith (1598) states that the borers ‘‘travel little and simply keep a clear chamber about them, mostly cut out of the bark, and in this they lie, subsisting Tue Pracu-TrREE Borer. 181 shown the work of a single borer, with part of the resulting gummy mass, g, just above. Usually the borers confine their destructive work to the trunk or roots of the tree a short distance below the surface of the soil; sometimes one is found in a root six or eight inches underground. Occasionally, however, a borer is found in the trunk above ; ae | ground. We found one borer working in a large root-gall on a peach tree. Our observations indicate that in most years the peach- tree borer does more feeding, and is thus more destructive, in the spring than in the pre- ceding autumn in New York ; this is doubtless also true in most Northern States and in Canada. As the borers begin feeding about May Ist, it is during May and June that the peach-tree borer gets in its most destructive work in the North; in Canada appar- ently much feeding is also done in the first half of July. ne ® 46.— Work of a single borer in a peach tree, The above statements are natural size; w bd, burrow of borer ; g, gummy mass; p, pupa projecting Srom cocoon. based somewhat upon data furnished by the following table which has been compiled from our “ digging-out” records and those of Mr. Burrell in Canada. largely upon the plant juices.” It may be that the borers do get much of their food from the juices which exude from the wounds they make with their jaws. thus necessitating their making a comparatively small burrow, but from what we have seen of their work we do not reach such a conclusion, 182 SULLETIN 176. SomE Data OsralNED FROM “ Digarnc-Our” Recorps. a ie —— ; le Soe cd iehemiee tel Se Vine tal S) © a = 2 hil la 5 & Year. Dates of ** digging-out.”’ : r=] Z di £ a = 3 : 3 pees | oe | oe eee om | off O & om 25 ° | jog ok | ck | sa | 68 les | | 4 | 2 ZN Z Z 18°4.| Mareh 2bone. 2k. 40 | 28 | - 20 5 May 22 wee ns 2 4 9 June- fated eo eet os 5 | SE Meade ebay Fo4. = 3 | | s O62BT as ness aha) ta ie ea 1895 | April 25-29........... M0 1° 13-94. 584 | Miaged geo Mcs cs Noe ere ca eet May ease oe 8 eaten Bt | rag Filta | Jumedeyece ss pases eas 14 | 9 | 2 | JuneAt-18. me. ee sae Gh Yatt4 6 | 1 June 27 to July 3 ..+.. | 3 4} 25 | 1 | | Juliegeee wk cee ew | oa be ciel 1896 | June 5-6....... oh ore ee ea | Be Ei) so est 2 5 DHT FSS 14 “6 Sd ee Sent ae eeaie 40 — | 1 peep esa. | os 5M beam tc ape: he, eer RBS ego t as peer 28 bier |baes | JulyStSe. Gk Sth oes al 2 1897»). June 22 eke. eee 1 4 30 |. 38 6 Ve ae food | 21). See ee lie pete: 4 Sangh et LES shea 3): 2tsBal 1 | 1 uly Eis sae eee Fag 5) a 1 | | | \ | ioc We) Melb hi) oie jf am) eee eee 3 | Sem See. 3 | 1 1899 | May 26-27 ............ ve Rees ata Wel iads WE PATON OS. cars 3s cachbocces wate See r 19: 47048 | 21 Similar data by Burrell in Canada. £897) Duly Woes keene om 63 | 63 AB sts hE. 1 DE QR | PAS Oi ae sci ely a ee 19 18 23 9 Rept oe. sc a ay habe tere 1 of adults emerged. No. 11 47.— Work of the peach-tree borer, naiural size; Db, borers in their bur- rows ; Cc, ¢, cocoons tv the place were they wee made by the borers ; p, empty pupa skin from which the moth emerged. 48. —Cocoons of the peach-tree borer, natural size. 49. —Pupe of the peach-tree borer ; natural size at 0; m, male pupa, enlarged ; £, female pupa, enlarged. Tue Pracu-Trer Borer. 185 The above table indicates that usually by far the larger propor- tion of the borers get less than half their growth before going into hibernation in New York and northward. They are naturally hungry after their long winter’s fast and their strong jaws are kept busy during the spring in satisfying this hunger and providing for the rapid growth of their body. It is surprising how rapidly the smaller borers grow in the spring. Some of the borers we dug out on April 19th, 1895, were so small, only one-fourth of an inch long, that we were loth to believe that they would get their growth and develop into the perfect or adult insect that season. We trans- planted some of these small borers onto trees in cages in: the insec- tary on the same day they were found, April 19th. They soon got to work and grew so rapidly that in the next ninety days, or by July 20th, they had not only grown into caterpillars an inch long, but these had spun cocoons, transformed to pupa, and the adult insect or moth had emerged. This question of when the peach-tree borer does most of its dam- age has a very important bearing on one of the most successful methods of combating it. In the South, the borers apparently get most of their growth or do most of their damage in the summer and fall, as most of them pass the winter as nearly full-grown borers. The cocoon.—In New York, and probably in most Northern States, some of the peach-tree borers attain their full growth in most years by June 5th, while others do not reach this stage until a month or more later; in 1899, however, some of them must have become full-grown by May 15th, for we found pupe on May 26th. When full-grown the borer leaves its burrow under the bark and proceeds to make around itself what is known as a cocoon. This is a rough, brown, elongate-oval capsuie with slightly pointed ends and is about an inch in length. It is constructed by the borer of its excrements and particles of bark, these being bound together with gum and a thin smooth inner lining of silk. A cocoon is shown natural size, where it was made by the borer, at ¢ in figure 47, and two others are also shown in figure 48; the one in the right of this figure is of unusual length. It takes the borer from two to three days to complete its cocoon. The cocoons are usually attached to the outside of the bark of the 186 Butyetin 176. tree at or near the surface of the soil, but occasionally one is found two or three inches below the surface or lying loosely in the soil.* Within this cocoon the larva or borer soon sheds its skin and is transformed into an entirely different looking creature known as a pupa. We have not determined just how much time is spent in the cocoon by the borer before it changes to a pupa, but it is at least from three to five days. Usually we have not found the cocoons earlier than June 5th at Ithaca, N. Y*, but in 1899, some must have been made by May 20th, as they contained pupz six days later. They are made much earlier, in April, at Washington, D. C., or even in March in the extreme South. . They may be found, contain- ing borers or pupze in most parts of the country, from these dates until September, even into October in Canada. The pupa.— The third or pupa stage into which the peach-tree borer transforms is shown natural size at m and enlarged at 7 and m in figure 49. These well illustrate the size, form and general features of the pupa. It is of a dark brown color, considerably lighter when first formed, and measures about three-fourths of an inch in length. The male and female pupz are readily distin- guished. The female pupa is larger and more robust, and it has but one row of spines across the back of the seventh abdominal seg- ment (the segment bearing the last or candal spiracle) while there are two rows of these spines on this segment in the male pupa. These sexual differences in the pup of the peach-tree borer are clearly shown in figure 49, the male pupa at 7 and the female at 7. When nearly mature, the female pupee are also readily distinguished from the males by the fact that the fourth or the fourth and fifth abdominal segments assume a dark orange color; the orange-colored segments of the female moth developing inside, simply show through the skin of the pupa. Usually the peach-tree borer does not transform to a pupa in New York much before June 15th (May 26th is the earliest date we have * In one case on a tree we had protected with tarred paper, the borer had first eaten a round hole through the paper, and had then capped the hole with silk and particles of bark, before spinning its cocoon beneath the paper near the hole. This is an interesting case of instinctive foresight in the borer in thus providing for the sure exit of the adult or moth. Tut Pracu-TreE Borer. 187 found one), and pupze may be found from this date until September, probably the most in July. Add about two weeks to these dates for Canada, but at Washington, D. C., and southward, some pupe must vecur as early as April, or even in March in the extreme South. In the pupa stage most of the tissues of the borer or larva are built over into the moth. No food is taken, the pupa spending: its whole life quietly within the protecting cocoon; it can move its abdomen slightly when disturbed. The statements regarding the duration of the pupa stage are quite at variance. They vary from “a few days” (Marlatt, 1896), or “ eight to ten days” (Cocke, 1813) to from three to four weeks. Most writers who have recorded definite data from breeding experiments agree that the pupa stage of the peach-tree borer lasts about three weeks ; Ashmead (1888) says eighteen to twenty-four days for Florida, Smith (1897) records about twenty days for New Jersey, and Fitch (1 855) found it to be at least three weeks in New York, while Burrell reports it as twenty-eight days for Canada. Our breeding experiments indicate that at Ithaca, N. Y., the insect is in its cocoon from twenty-five to thirty days, from three to five of these being spent as a larva, thus making the pupal period about three weeks. Possibly it is shorter in the South, but Ashmead’s record would indicate that it is but little shorter even in Florida. The emergence and habits of the adult or moth.— When the pupa is fully mature, or when the adult insect is ready to emerge, the pupa uses the hard, sharp, beak-like prominence on its head to break through the end of the cocoon, and then by means of the rows of spines on its back, it moves or hitches itself forward until it projects for half its length or more out of the cocoon, as is well shown at p in figures 46 and 47. This movement of the pupa out of the cocoon, and the wise precaution of the borer to build its cocoon near the surface of the soil, usually results in bringing the projecting pupa out of the soil. Thus the adult insect or moth, which is delicate and soft when it first emerges, finds itself at once in its favorite element, the open air. At pin figure 46 is shown a pupa projecting from its cocoon ready for the emergence of the moth. And at p in figure 47 the moth has emerged, leaving the empty pupa skin still sticking in the cocoon ; the same thing is also seen in figure 48. The moth bursts 188 | | Buuuetin 176. through the pupa skin, which splits down the center of the back for a short distance. After carefully drawing out its wings, legs, antennae, and tongue from their pupal sheaths, it may crawl a short distance, where it rests for from twenty minutes to half an hour to let its wings expand and dry. It is then ready for active flight. All records agree that the moths of the peach-tree borer emerge in the day-time, usually early in the day about 8 a. M., and they are also most active during the day, doubtless flying but little, if any, at night. Most moths in other families emerge and fly mostly at night. One familiar with the moths of the peach-tree borer ean usually find them flitting about from tree to tree in a peach orchard during the month of June or July. Those we have seen were rather easily disturbed and always flew rapidly and close to the ground, usually to the base of another tree not far distant. They visit flowers, Fyles (1898) having captured one on the blossoms of Spirea salicifolia in Canada. Unlike most moths, they are not attracted to lights. . The dates of emergence of the moths vary much in different parts of the country, and somewhat in different years. Asall sizes of the borers occur in the trees in the spring, and asall of these get their full growth before fall, it naturally follows that the resulting moths must continue to emerge over quite a long period, or from two to four months. The records from our breeding-cage experiments and other observations at Ithaca, N. Y., are given in the following table: SomE Recorps OF THE EMERGENCE OF THE Morus at ItHaoa, N. Y. b] | 1895 1896. 1898. Date. | Male. Female. Date. | Male. | Female. Date. Number. July 15... farevetr he July 9... 1 | July 27. 3 Vee 2 1) ie eae a ee 5 fg | Ti yo nai es | ae tials ig a 3 2 ee a Pe | Bet AB 9 4 1899. August 5.. 3 | ie ae ES 1 0 “ 2 : a — 3 June 10. 11 eek eee I g | Aug. 6. 2 Ceuts eG 3 4 19.. 2 8 20. . 6 5 Bees) eee 2 3 lS SSeS ee fear ea Ne aE THe Pracu-TrREE Borer. 189 Most of the moths in the above table, except for June 30th, 1899, were reared from borers dug out of peach trees in June. In exam- ining our trees on June 30, 1899, we found that eleven moths had already emerged, some of them possibly a week or more before, so that in exceptional years the moth may appear as early as June 15th in New York. But our records for the four years preceding 1899 indicate that usually no moths emerge in New York before July 1st, while most of them appear from July 15th to August 15th. We have no data as to the emergence of the last stragglers in autumn ; Kellicott (1881) has recorded rearing the moths late in September near Buffalo, N. Y. Thus the time of the emergence of the moths in New York may range from June 15th to nearly Oct. 1st, or over three months. We have endeavored to compile, in the following table, all of the records which seem to be based on definite knowledge of the time of flight of the moths in different localities or States : TABLE SHowine RecorpED Times or Fiuicut oF THE Morus IN DIFFERENT STATES. pany and date State or locality. Ashmead (1888) . 2) Florida «2. 05. 06: Weed (1891) ..... Rississippics.s. 2 Crossman (1888)..| Arkansas.......... Lancaster (1889). .| Tennessee........-.- McCarthy (1893) .| N.Carolina (Central) Cocke (1813)..... Mainginins +2 226. sails ““G. KE. M.” (1896). ee ae i A? (1888):| Kentucky: 0.2.0.0! Raley. (1869). .... | Missouri. .........-. Stedman (1898)... hedates a: scree ts Kellogg (1892) ...| Kansas (Southern). . Faville (1898).... ‘¢ (Northern). . Mhomas)(1877)s5...\> Dinois.....9.2 .: Comstock (1880)..) Washington, D. C.. Fulton (1870)..... Delaware... 22? Cooper (1808)....| New Jersey ....... Smith (1897)..... amen e Paced SES Worth (1828)..... Pennsylvania...... Pane (1576): ..:| ODIO... a2: 4. < oss © Smith (1897).....) Long Island, N. Y.. Harris (1841) ....| Massachusetts ..... Fitch (1855).. ...| New York (Albany). Lintner (1888) ... 7 7 Glover (1855) .... ‘* (Hudson R.) Kellicott (1881) .. ‘* (Buffalo)... Lowe (1897). ... ** (Geneva) Cook (1875).. ... Michigan .3..s. « « Barrel (1898). .)<))| Canadas. s)st.0 acne Time of flight. Appears early in April. April and Sept. June to Sept. None June 1, but few cococns July 18. Moths disappear by July 15. July 15, through Aug. and Sept. First pupa July 1, moths about July 15. June 6 to Oct., mostly July 15 to Aug. 15. July 20, possibly last of May. May until well into July. May and June. June 16 to Sept. Usually July, hut May or June in §. Ill. May 10. June 15 to Oct. About July 15. Last of June to Sept. 1. July 15, through Aug. and Sept. Not before June 15. June 20 to Sept June to Oct., mostly July. July 14 to Aug. 15. Earliest moth on June 27. About June or July. As late as late in Sept. . Not before July 1, usually. July, Aug. and Sept. July 19 to Nov., mostly Aug. 15 to Sept. 15. 190 BuLyuerin 176. It will be seen from the above table that the moths of the peach- tree borer may be found flying in some part of the country from early April (Florida) to November (Canada). Most writers previous to 1880 had recorded that the moths fly from about June 15th to October in most parts of the country ; but Comstock’s observations of the moths laying eggs as early as May 10th, in 1880, at Wash- ington, D. C., created an impression, which was quite general for many years, that the moth emerged in most localities much earlier than the early writers had led us to suppose. It also led to the recommendation to apply remedial measures much earlier in most parts of the country. There is need of more definite data from many localities, espe- cially in the South, before one can make a general statement that will apply to all parts of the country. Marlatt (1896) has given the best generalization of this kind, which we would change but little, as follows: The moths begin to appear early in May in the latitude of Washington, D. C., and southward, over what approximates the lower austral region; in the Gulf Strip of this region they are recorded as appearing a month earlier. In the upper austral region roughly comprising the States above the cotton belt and below the northern tier, the moths do not usually appear until after the middle of June; in the southern portions of some of the States in this region they are recorded as appearing in May. In the transition region, which comprises the northern tier of States, together with most of New York and New England, and also including Southern Canada, the moths appear chiefly in July and later, rarely emerg- ing however, as early as June 15th, and belated individuals as late as October, or even November in Canada. June and July are therefore the worst months for the moths over the principal peach districts south of the fortieth degree of latitude, while north of this the moths are the most numerous during July and August, and in Canada from August 15th to September 15th. Our breeding experiments indicate that the two sexes of the moths are produced in about equal numbers, but we have no con- clusive evidence that the males emerge “a few days earlier than the females” as some record. Smith (1898) states that “the adult life is short, perhaps no more than a day or two.” We have had them Tuer Pracu-T REE Borer. 191 live for three or four days in cages before we killed them, but there seems to be no definite data as to how long they live, probably it is not more than a week. Oviposition, and description of the egg.— The moths may copu- late very soon after they emerge from the pupa; copulation may last for half an hour or more, and we have seen a mated pair fly from tree to tree meanwhile. Our experience, like that of others, indicates that the sexes will not mate when confined in cages. Ege- laying may begin in three or four hours after the females emerge. Smith (1897) states that if the eggs are not fertilized by the male within twenty-four hours, the females lay them unfertilized to get rid of them; these eggs do not hatch, however. The eggs are laid in the day- time, usually, it is said, from 11 A. M. to Bee we. Most of the eggs in the body of the female when she emerges are full size, and have a hard, brown shell, hence it is not a difficult matter to dissect them out and count them. This has been done by some, and the results show how many eggs may be laid by a female of the peach- tree borer. In 1820“ W. T.,” of Wash- ington, D. C., counted 678 eggs in one 50.— Eggs of peach-tree borer. natural size female; this is the largest number thus at n; one egg, en- far recorded. In 1897 Smith dissected from a female, only two hours old, 500 eggs with a hard, brown shell, and fully larged at \; micro- pyle end of egg, greatly enlarged at m. 100 more white or less mature ones; and in another female he counted 625 eggs, “all but very few of them brown and of full size.’ In asmall female we found the 244 eggs shown natural size at m in figure 50. Thus one female is capable of laying from 200 to over 600 eggs. As Smith (1898) states: “ Evidently there is an enormous discrepancy between the reproductive power of the female and the actual number of larve or borers produced,” else our peach 192 Buuuetin 176. orchards would suffer much more severely from borers than they do. No plausible cause for this apparent discrepancy has yet been sug- gested. Smith found that many eggs had been broken into after they were laid, but could not discover the agent. Possibly many unfertile eggs are laid, or the females may often die before laying their full quota. Worth published a very brief description of the egg of the peach- tree borer in 1823, but it was first characterized in detail by Com- stock in 1880. An egg is shown enlarged at 7 in figure 50 (from a photograph), and in figure 51 is shown an egg greatly enlarged (from a drawing). The eggs average .02 of an inch in length and are a little more than half as wide; many are shown natural size at m in figure 50. They are of a light chestnut or mars brown color and are subellipsoidal in form, slightly flattened with an oval- shaped depression, as shown in figure 51 and at/ in figure 50. One end of the egg is either squarely or somewhat obliquely truncate, with a slight depression in the middle where the micropyle is located, as shown in figure 50 at m, which gives a E — — much enlarged view of this end of the 51.— Hog of peach-tree borer greatly enlarged. &88- ; The whole surface of the egg is so sculptured as to have the appearance of being laid with irregularly shaped paving stones, the stones being separated by slight ridges ; this peculiar sculpturing of the shell is well shown at / in figure 50, or in figure 51, and still better at m in figure 50. Several persons have seen the female moth depositing her eggs. Comstock (1880) saw one female “deposit upwards of twenty eggs upon different parts of the trunk of one tree, usually about one or two feet from the surface of the ground, in the space of about one hour. The eggs were deposited singly, and were stuck to the sur- face of the bark on their sides by a gummy secretion.” Smith (1898) records that Walker, at Jamaica, Long Island, saw a female begin laying eggs immediately after mating. She “moved about actively « THe Pracu-Tree Borer. 193 over every portion of the trunk, and even on the lower branches, touching her abdomen constantly to the surface. She was engaged in that way two hours and more. On examination, he found the eggs laid in all sorts of places, without special selection, singly or in groups, the greatest number found together being ten, while in several places three or four were observed together.” Smith then states that in his own examinations he found that “ as a rule the eggs were laid singly, and most of them within six inches of the soil. None were found at the immediate surface, although this point was particularly exam- ined. They were found more scattered higher up the trunk, and, as arule, few above from twelve to eighteen inches. Groups of three or four were occasionally observed, and in one instance I found nine within a space of half a square inch. A few eggs were scattered up to a height of five feet, and on one tree I found some on the main branches. It may be justly said, however, that above eighteen inches from the surface the eggs were “scattering.” They were laid apparently without selection of locality ; some on the per- fectly smooth bark, some among the lichens covering the trees in parts and some among the bark scales. No one locality seemed to be especially selected, and it seemed rather a haphazard seeding down, the moth depending rather upon the number of eggs laid than any method of protection. As to the number onasingle tree, I cut out twenty that were most convenient, observed at least as many more without close examination, and feel safe in asserting that more than fifty were then present within eighteen inches of the surface.” Smith further states that “the length of time during which the insect remains in the egg state is not yet accurately determined. Mr. Walker has found larvee just hatched beneath the empty egg- shells about ten days after observing the moths ovipositing, and believes that to be near the actual period. Dr. L. O. Howard informs me that their records indicate seven to eight days.” How long it takes a female to lay her quota of eggs, if she does lay all of them, is not known. Probably most of the eggs are laid in July and August in New York. Habits of the newly-hatched borer.— Comstock (1880) states that “the young larve when first hatched are very active and have many 13 194 Buxuietin 176. long, stiff bristles on their bodies. Instead of boring through the bark they seek a crack, and an almost ineredibly small one will suffice.” This last statement, as we shall see later, has a very important bearing on the question of preventive applications for this pest. Smith (1898) records on this point that “ Mr. Walker states from his observations, and my own agree in this point, that the young larve may enter the bark at almost any point on the trunk, and that they will try to work in very close to the egg, if possible. I found several cases during the summer of burrows almost immediately below the egg, well up on the trunk. But in such cases the larva does not remain long and soon migrates toward the base. Mr. Walker says that he has actually seen such a migration and found the young !arva crawling down the trunk. It is possible that in this way many are killed in the very early stages by unfavorable surroundings before they get to the base of the tree.” Habits of the borers in the fall.— The young borers continue to feed on the inner bark from the time of hatching in sammer or early fall until they go into hibernation for the winter. We have no data on the time when the borers cease feeding in the autumn and prepare for hibernating. Perhaps the freezing of the soil is the signal for them to begin their winter’s nap. Number of broods yearly.— As we began the story of the peach- borer’s life with it in hibernation, we have now finished its yearly life-cycle. One early observer (Thomas, 1824) thought there were two broods of the insect in a year, but it is the unanimous experi- ence of all others that it always takes the insect a year to go through its life-cycle, even in the extreme south. Lis life-story briefly told — In New York the moths (figures 43 and 44) begin to appear in the latter part of June and continue to emerge until September. A few hours after emerging the females lay their small, oval, brown eggs (figures 50 and 51) on the bark of the trunks of the trees from six to eighteen inches from the ground. From these eggs there hatches, in a week or ten days, a minute larva — the young borer — which at once works its way into a crevice of the bark, and soon begins feeding on the inner layers of the bark. It continues to feed in this manner, gradually enlarging its burrow under the bark, until winter sets in, when it stops feeding and i i ts Tue Pracu-TrEeEr Borer. 195 hibernates during the winter, either in its burrow or in a thin hibernaculum made over itself on the bark near the surface of the soil. The winter is always spent as a larva or borer, a few of them being nearly full-grown, but most of them being considerably less than one-half grown. In the spring, usually about May 1st in New York, they break their winter’s fast and grow rapidly for a month or more, most of them getting their full growth in June. They then leave their burrows and spin about themselves a brown cocoon (figure 48 and ¢ in figure 47) at the base of the tree, usually at the surface of the soil. A few days after its cocoon is made, the borer changes to a pupa (figure 49) in which stage it remains for about three weeks, usually in June in New York. From the pupa the moth emerges, thus completing its life-cycle in a year, fully ten months of which are usually spent as a borer in the tree, the remainder or a little more than a month being spent in the egg, pupa and adult stages. About the middle of July all stages of the insect may be found in some orchards. The above brief sketch of the life of the peach-tree borer will apply in general to most localities in the United States north of Washington, D. C. In Canada the moths do not begin to fly until about a month later, while in the South they appear a month or more earlier, so that the dates in the above sketch will not apply to these regions. Its NatruraL ENEmMIEs. As the peach-tree borer spends most of its life under the bark beneath the surface of the soil, it is not readily accessible to enemies. But it does not entirely escape, for several insects have discovered a way to include this serious peach pest in every course served to their growing progeny. At least eight different enemies of the peach-tree - borer have been found, and all of them are parasitic Hymenoptera. In 1872, the Ichneumon, Phaeogenes ater Cresson, and a Braconid, Bracon, n. sp., were reared from the peach-tree borer in Missouri (Insect Life, II, p. 849 and III, 152). In 1880 Comstock recorded that “ four species of parasites have been bred from the peach-tree borer the past season —two chalcids and two small Ichneumonids, the one belonging to the genus J/icrogaster and the other to the genus Bracon.” Dr. L. O. Howard writes us that the Braconid 196 Buiwuetin 176. mentioned is undoubtedly Bracon nigropictus Riley, but that the Microgaster cannot be found. In 1889, Popenoe recorded (The Industrialist, June 8, 1889, XIV, 153) that “specimens of the pupze and larvee of the peach-tree borer collected in the College orchard, were inclosed in a breeding-jar which now, a few days after the collection, is alive with specimens of the two sexes of a honey-yellow Braconid fly, measuring in the female about one inch, in the male about one-half as large. From the abundance of this parasite in the jar where the dozen larvee and pupze were confined, it may be inferred to be a common insect in this locality.” We have reared two other kinds of these little parasitic enemies. On June 11th, 1896, we found in its cocoon a dead peach-tree borer. A minute insect was seen to dart away from the cocoon, and we found many long, narrow, white eggs laid near one end of the dead borer. By June 16th, there had hatched from these eggs small, white, maggot-like creatures which had evidently been feeding on the dead body of the borer for a day or two. Three days later the maggots or grubs. had entirely devoured the dead borer and had spun cocoons around themselves both on the inside and on the outside of the borers’ cocoon. On June 29th and July 4th, the adult parasites issued from these little cocoons. Dr. L. O. Howard kindly deter- mined them as Lracon mellitor Say. We bred these little Bra- conids from two different specimens of the peach-tree borer, both of which were dead when found. Is it possible that the Braconid fly kills its victim before laying its eggs near the body, or does it attack only those borers which have died from other causes? It is appar- ently not an internal parasite of the peach-tree borer as we saw its grubs feed only externally upon the dead bodies of the borers. In July, 1898, we also bred the same Braconid from the cocoon of a peach-tree borer which we found packed full of the cocoons of this little enemy. About August Ist, 1899, we examined some plum trees at Geneva, N. Y., and found four cocoons of the peach-tree borer. From two of these there emerged a male and a female moth of the borer, but from the other two cocoons we reared two large parasitic flies. One Tut Pracu-Tree BaReEr. 197 of these emerged August 17th and was determined by Mr. Ashmead, through the kindness of Dr. L. O. Howard, as Aphialtes irritator Fab. This Ichneumon fly has not been before recorded as a parasite of the peach-tree borer. From the remaining cocoon, there emerged on August 21st, the same Ichneumon parasite — Phaeogenes ater — which was found at work on the pest in Missouri in 1872, as noted above. The following insects are thus known to be enemies of the peach- tree borer: Pheogenes ater, Kphialtes irritator, Bracon u. sp., Bracon nigropictus, Bracon mellitor, Microgaster sp., and two Chaleids; whether the Kansas Braconid is a species distinct from any of the above, we do not know. The grub of the first species devours, or is parasitic upon the pupa, while all the others appar- ently feed upon the larvee of the peach-tree borer. The fact that, from two of the four cocoons collected from plum trees at Geneva, N. Y., parasites emerged, would indicate that in some localities the enemies of the peach-tree borer may play quite an important part in checking the normal increase of the pest.* * Sometimes minute white larve are found in the gummy mass exuded from peach trees infested by borers. These white *‘ worms” are not enemies of the borer, and they develop into a Fungous-gnat (Mycetophila persice). See Am. Ent. I, 228 (1869); Glover’s Rept. of U. S. Ent. for 1872, p. 114; Lintner’s 2nd Rept., p. 6 (1885). The worms probably feed upon the gum or some decaying matter in it. HOW “FO FIGHT. BRE INSEE T. Including a Discussion of Previous Recommendations and a Detailed Account of Our Extensive Experiments Against It. For nearly a century and a half American peach-growers have been fighting the peach-tree borer, and the proverbial Yankee ingenuity has been freely exercised to devise methods to circumvent the pest. The result has been that more than a hundred different remedial measures have been recommended. We doubt if any other American insect pest has had its life threatened with so many different kinds of machinations. And yet peach-tree borers are now, after being besieged for more than a century by such an army of man’s devices, apparently as numerous and destructive in most peach orchards as in the days of our forefathers. We shall not attempt to discuss all of the methods which have been recommended, for, although we have made a critical and extended search through our American insect literature, doubtless some suggestions have escaped our notice; and again such a dis- cussion would require too much space, and much of it would be of no practical value to peach-growers. Many methods will only be mentioned in connection with some similar methods used in our extensive experiments. Some early recommendations and experiments.— In 1771 a paper was submitted to the American Philosophical Society ‘On the Nature of the Worms so Prejudicial to the Peach Trees for Some Years Past and a Method for Preventing the Damage in Future” (see the Bibliography, Cooper, 1771). We have found no methods recommended for combating this pest earlier than this, and not hav- ing access to this article, we are not sure of the nature of the method then proposed. But apparently the same author stated in 1806 that he had suecessfully used for many years a combination of the “ dig- ging out” and “ mounding” methods, and that he had tested the 198 Tae Pracu-TREE Borer. 199 -treezing”’ method in 1779, injuring his trees and not the worms; hence it is probable that the “digging out” and “ mounding ” methods were among the first to be used against the insect. About the year 1800, John Ellis received a prize of $30.00 offered by the American Philosophical Society for an essay on the best methods of preserving peach trees. Ellis’ method consisted in put- ting a band of straw, three feet long and an inch thick around the tree from the roots upward when the tree was in blossom, then removing the band in autumn. In February, 1806, Mr. Peters read a paper before the Philadel- phia Society for the Promotion of Agriculture in which he gave some remarkable experiences in combating the insect. The remedial measures employed against the peach-tree borer in the early part of this century are so well brought out in Mr. Peters’ article that we quote from it as follows: “T have failed in many things, in which others are said to have succeeded. Straw and bass, or paper, surrounding the trees, from the root, at all distances, from 6 inches, to 3 or 4 feet — white- washing, painting, urinous applications, brine, soot, lime, frames filled with sand, oil, tar, turpentine, sulphuric acid or ott of vitrol, mtrous mixtures, and almost every kind of coating. Teguments of straw or bass make the bark tender; the more dense coating stopped the perspiration. The oil invited mice and other vermin, who ate the bark thus prepared for their repast and thus killed the tree. I planted in hedge rows and near woods, I paved, raised hil- locks of stone —I have suffered them to grow from the pit only, grafted on various stocks and budded, hilled up the earth in the spring and exposed the butt in the fall—I have scrubbed the stocks or trunks with hard brushes, soap suds and sand, scraped them with proper instruments: I have, for a season or two under various experiments, amused myself with the persuasion, that I had discov- ered an infallible panacea. I had temporary success, but final disappointment. “T remove the earth a few inches around the tree in August or September. I pour around the butt of the tree, beginning about one foot above the ground, a quart or more (not being nice about the quantity) of boiling hot soap suds or water. This kills the egg 200 Bowrierin 176. or worm lodged in the tender bark; and of course prevents its rav- ages the next season. I frequently plunge nursery stock into boil- ing water, before planting. I lose very few, and do not attribute the losses to the hot water. I have the trees bared at the roots, exposed to the winter. Il have lost some in this way, but still con- tinue the practice.” {t will be seen from the above that a hundred years ago quite an arsenal of insecticidal devices had been brought to bear upon the peach-tree borer. And the methods most frequently recommended to-day are the same or but slight modifications of these methods which our great grandfathers devised and used. Furthermore, although it is anticipating a little, it is a curious and interesting fact that the results recorded by Mr. Peters in 1806 are not strikingly unlike those we have recently obtained in our extensive experiments against the pest. Cultural methods.— It is doubtful if any of the cultural methods practiced by peach-growers exerts a great influence in keeping their trees free from borers. In our extensive experiments, budded stocks and trees grown from pits were used. Naturally there was no noticeable difference in the number of borers attacking each, for the borers usually worked below the inserted bud on the stock grown from the pit. However, in the case of plum trees, it is stated by “G. E. M.” (1896) that in his experience, Japan plum trees on Myrobolan or Marianna stocks were as badly infested as peach, but when budded on Chickasaw or other native varieties they were entirely exempt. Has anyone had a similar experience with plums? Apparently the insect does not discriminate between the different varieties of peaches, attacking all with equal relish. In New Mexico and neighboring States, zrrzgation is an import- ant factor in the growing of fruit, but Townsend (1892) reports that the “ peach-tree borer does not seem to be affected by irrigation, even though the water be allowed to stand for a considerable time and be given thorough access to the roots.” Those peach-growers who thoroughly cultivate and feed their orchards, scarcely allowing a weed to grow in them during the sum- mer, still have to exercise external vigilance to keep the numbers of Tar Pracu-TreEr Borer. 201 borers below the danger limit. We feel quite sure that it would not lessen the numbers of borers to allow such cultivated orchards to grow up to weeds or grass, but we have found no conclusive data on this point. Both cultivated and uncultivated peach orchards 'may suffer severely from the peach-tree borer, but the one who cul- tivates has several advantages; his orchard is always an advertise- ment to his thrift; it usually pays the best; and it is much easier to fight the borers in a cultivated orchard. Some general details regarding our eapervments.— Realizing the lack of definite experimental information regarding the so-called “remedies” for borers, Professor Comstock planned in 1892 the most extensive and detailed experiments against the peach-tree borer* ever attempted. In the fall of 1892 an orchard of nearly 400 peach trees of five different, leading varieties was set near the insectary. As the sole purpose of the orchard was for experiments against the borers, and as the space was limited, the trees were set in seven long rows six feet apart and only three feet from each other in the row. The location proved to be well adapted to our purpose. ‘The trees grew well and several badly infested “old relics” of peach trees adjoining the experimental orchard insured a good crop of borers in the orchard each year. This last condition was a very important factor in the success and relative value of our experiments. The trees were budded stocks from the nursery, and about one-third died during the winter of 1892-1893, while about one-half of the remaining buds failed to start in the spring. The dead trees were replaced by more budded stock in the spring of 1894, thus the experimental orchard consisted of 275 budded stocks (about half of which had just been set) of five of the leading varieties, and about 125 trees of natural varieties grown from the pits, when our experi- ments with remedial measures were begun in the summer of 1894. The experiments were carried on during 1894, 1895, 1896 and 1898, no applications being made in 1897. The make-up of the orchard remained practically the same during these years, except that a few *The plans also included experiments against the apple-tree borer (Saperda candida) and the experimental orchard was started, but owing largely to lack of the borers, and also to the fact that the peach-tree borer experiment took so much of our time, we have not yet tested any remedial measures for the apple-tree borer. Note the different applications on the May, 1897, looking east down the rows. on ; tal orchard he experimen 52.— View in t bases of the trees. ‘yynos Huayoo) ‘LER ‘hoy up punyoso popuaupsadaa oy} U2 narA -—'E 204 Butietin 176. young trees were set in each vear to replace those which were killed by certain applications, and in 1897 the trees being so large, every other one in the rows was removed, thus reducing the number of trees one-half. Figure 52 is a view of this experimental orchard looking east down the rows in May, 1897; some of the different applications put on the trees in July, 1896, are well illustrated here. Figure 53 is a view of the same orchard looking south across it in May, 1897. The literature of the insect was critically searched and the differ- ent methods which have been recommended for combating it were carefully considered. As many of the methods were simply slight variations of others, only representative ones were selected to be thoroughly tested in our experiments. To these were added a few new ones which occurred to us. We thoroughly tested about twenty-five methods for from one to three years each. In treating the trees each method would be applied to a row of | seven trees across the orchard, as shown in figure 52, where the first row is treated with tarred paper, the third row with some white substance, and so on. Beginning at the west end of the orchard we would usually treat each of the first four rows of seven trees each by a different method, and then leave the next two, or the 5th and 6th rows, untreated for a check experiment. ‘The next four rows, or the 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th rows, would then be treated, usually each by a different method, and the next two, or the 11th and 12th rows, left untreated as checks. This method was continued on through the orchard, duplicating each method at some other portion of the orchard in order to give each as fair and complete a trial as possible. All applications were made about the same time, usually during the latter part of June, and everything was kept cultivated during the growing season. The following spring every tree, treated or untreated, would be carefully examined, and a note made of the numbers and sizes of the borers found in each tree. All this involved a great deal of time and labor each year, but nothing was spared to give each method a thorough and scientific test. Most of the work has been done by the writer, and every detail of it under his direct observation and supervision. We had no favorites among the methods tested; we tried to make each do all it was recom. Tue Peracu-TreE Borer. 205 mended to do; and we confidently expected to find one or more sure methods for controlling the ravages of the pest. We doubt if so extensive and thorough a series of experiments were ever made against borers of any kind in any country, and surely not against the peach-tree borer, hence our results should furnish much data for future recommendations of methods for fighting borers of all kinds. Sometimes results are rendered inconclusive or uncertain on account of the non-appearance of the insect in sufficient numbers to enable one to draw definite conclusions, regarding the effectiveness of any method. As the following table indicates, the “ old relies ” of peach trees located near our experimental orchard have furnished us a goodly supply of borers to combat : TABLE SHOWING THE NuMBER OF Borers Founp IN THE WHOLE ORCHARD FoR Eacu YEAR. a+ as 5 ws aS Hn YEAR. 52.) | <2 SE sf | Be | 88 E a= ar = = = Z Z Z Je oro ARO ec POORER sR Ma eae 123 144 176 RT ee eee, Hate wd oo W ee Ee aes ES we 165 | 210 342 MR Rete se: ais B wie Oe Lie ids Bs Cte SSS shuiss 17 210 376 WMT one Sy sis v ciel a wes x0. nine ob steko ois S Sev sei =) eedl as 106 167 AW i Meets is eho dy bid .chen bord th es Gawd: 83 65 171 Loh a eater re ee. seen arene Se pare eee 72 90 116 Similar Record for the Untreated or Check Trees only. Meee LN) ede el. SSA TIE SRN wee? OT. aS LU, 60 | 68 128 ee ra tctee hy siowne are his wo ty fd nes Gonesiat ete) 72 | 57 176 ee lye oes lle sn eee e wit aapswiee @ Re ae ey Mee eee 15 | 50 137 are RIT lana. BCE. bide hie hc cota ada ie Obs 27 29 ae From the above table we learn that, in spite of the fact that two- thirds of the trees were treated during four of the years to protect them from the attacks of the borer, the average for the whole period of six years is almost a borer (.9 is the exact number) to each tree each year; the average for the check or untreated trees for four years is over one (or 1.1) borer in each tree. Usually over one-half of the check trees were infested each year, and nearly one-half of 206 BuLietin 176. all the trees, whether treated or not, every year since the orchard was set. The methods which have been devised for fighting the peach- tree borer may be classed as destructive methods, which aim to kill the insect, and preventive methods, which do not intend to let the borer get into the tree. 1. Destructive Metruops ror FiguHtine THE INsEcT. It is against the larva or borer and the pupa stages only of the pest that a destructive warfare can be successfully waged. The egos have too hard a shell and are scattered about over the bark too much to enable one to effectively reach them with an insecticide that would not injure the tree. One method has been suggested for killing the adults or moths. Neal (1889) recommends that “small fires at sunset in the orchard during April (in Florida) will destroy many of the moths.” As the moths are rarely, if ever, attracted to lights and are most active during the early part of the day, we do not believe they can be lured to their death by tires. And it is doubtful if the insect can be successfully fought at all in the adult or moth stage. The “ freezing” method.— This method was much in vogue among peach-growers a century and more ago. It was one of the first methods employed against the insect, and consisted in removing the earth from around the base of the tree down to the roots in the fall and leaving this portion, in which the borers usually work, bared to the frosts of winter. Many found it did not kill the borers, and as trees often died from the winter exposure, the method was discarded early in the present century. Bowling water or similar applications.— As early as 1823 it was suggested to remove the earth and gum from around the base of infested trees and pour boiling water on and around the base. There is no question but what the water will kill every borer it reaches. Several have had fairly good success with this method (Crossman, 1888 ; Smith, 1890) and one (Peticolas, 1860) killed his trees as well as the borers. Smith suggested the use of kerosene emulsion instead, and some have used boiling soap suds. Coquillett (1891) dipped the lower portion and roots of infested nursery trees for two Tur Pracu-TreE Borer. 207 minutes into a solution of one pound of whale oil soap to the gallon of water, the temperature of the solution being maintained at from 120° to 130° F. The trees were examined five days later and all the borers found “as lively and vigorous as ever.” Thus it would seem that very hot (scalding or boiling tempera- ture) liquids may sometimes be successfully used in killing peach- tree borers in the tree, but there is danger of injuring or killing the tree, and the method is not so practicable as others on a large scale. Bisulphide of carbon.— This is a liquid which evaporates very rapidly and the fumes of which are sure death to animal life. Cook suggested its use against the peach-tree borer in 1880. No one seemed to have tested the liquid, however, until we treated a few trees in 1895. On April 17th, several small trees were selected which were so badly infested that there was a complete ring of the characteristic gum around the base of each. With a sharpened stick four holes were made around one tree, beginning about four inches from the trunk, and extending in a slanting direction toward the roots for a distance of six to eight inches; seven teaspoonfuls of the liquid were poured into these four holes, and then the holes were quickly stopped up. An hour later, we found three half- grown live borers in the tree and several living angleworms in the soil near the tree. The soil all around the tree smelled very strongly of the fumes. Around another similar tree, we introduced six tea- spoonfuls in the same manner, and three hours later found five live borers in the tree. Around a third tree we injected with the McGowen injector four tablespoonfuls of the bisulphide. The injector was forced into the ground as near the tree as practicable, and straight downward After twenty-four hours we found two living borers in the tree and live angleworms in the soil. These experiments satisfied us that this was not a practicable or effective method for killing the insect. About two years ago.the liquid was extensively used in the San José region of California for the Pacific coast peach-tree borer. One of our correspondents there wrote that “ they could not get the liquid fast enough.” Thousands of trees were killed, and the craze apparently soon subsided. It must be used with great care around the roots of trees, as has been demonstrated on apple trees in Mis- 208 Buuyetin 176. souri (Bull. 35 of the Mo. Exp. Station), and in some Ohio experi- ments (Bull. 106 of the O. Exp. Station) peach trees were killed by injecting it around them. Carbon bisulphide is too expensive and too dangerous to use against the peach-tree borer, and we have no evidence that it is an effective way of fighting the insect. The “ digging-out” method.— This method was one of the first to be used by peach-growers, and it is to-day more universally prac- ticed than any other method. Its name well describes the method. After removing a little of the soil from around the base of the tree, the presence and usually the location of a borer is readily deter- mined in a peach tree by the gummy mass exuded from the wound made by the borer. Sometimes it is a little diffienlt to locate and reach a borer which is working far down on a root. When once their burrow is located it is usually an easy matter to kill them with the knife or a wire. With a little experience one can often locate and kill the borers with but little injury to the tree from the ‘ dig- ging-out” process. The peach tree so quickly repairs such wounds that one should not hesitate to use this method for fear of doing more injury with the knife than the borers would do. Some of the most extensive peach-growers first have a man hoe the soil and gum away from around the base of the trees and leave it thus exposed for a few days. In the meantime, the fresh exere- ment and gum resulting from the borers’ work renders it easier for one to locate them then, than to do so when the soil is first removed. When is the best time to dig them out? In the peach-growing districts north of Washington, D. C., the ideal time would be in the fall in September or later, or in April the next spring. By Septem- ber most of the borers have hatched from the eggs but have not done much damage. And usually most of them do not get half their growth before it is time for them to stop eating and go into hibernation ; and they usually do not begin feeding in the spring before the latter part of April; thus they get most of their growth and do much more damage in May and June. Therefore, by dig- ging them out in September or April one can catch the rascals before they have done much damage in northern localities. But the borers are then so small that many will be missed, enough to Tue Pracu-Tret Borer. 209 develop into a suttcient number of the moths to often re-stock the orchard with as many borers'as were dug out the preceding fall or spring. In April, 1895, we went over our experimental orchard thoroughly and got about 240 borers, and yet in June a second “digging out” revealed nearly 100 more large ones. This has been our experience every year that we have done the work early -in the spring, and we should expect similar results from fall work, although we have had no experience in digging them out then. If the “ dig- ging-out” method is to be practiced but once a year, we would do it in June in New York or northern localities. It is true that the borers have usually done most of their destructive work by June; yet most of them are then so large that one can locate and kill them quicker and will miss but very few of them. This also means a greater reduction of the crop of borers for the next year than if the “digging out” was done only in September or April. We believe if the borers are thoroughly dug out in June in northern peach-growing districts, if one has equally as enterprising neigh- bors, and if all ‘old relics” of peach trees in the neighborhood are destroyed or thoroughly ‘ wormed,” that, under these almost millen- nial conditions, one could reduce the numbers of the pest in an orchard below the danger limit in a few years so that the process would become less and less arduous each year. But if the method were neglected for a year or two, the pest would soon regain its former prestige and destructive powers. We doubt if the insect could ever be exterminated in a locality by the “digging out” or any other method yet devised. To reduce the damage done and the number of borers to the minimum, the digging out should be done twice a year, once in September or later or in April and again in June in northern localities. In the South, apparently the best time to dig them out would be in March or April as it is reported that the moths begin to fly in April and May. Baker (1898) states that in Alabama “it should be done during late fall or winter; swrely before the middle of April.” Perhaps July or August would be the proper time to get at the smaller borers before they had done much damage. There is need of more knowledge of the life-history of the insect in the South before one can make definite recommen: dations regarding the best time to apply remedial measures there. 14 210 Butietin 176. As little or no gum is exuded from infested plum or prune trees, the peach-tree borer is not so easily located in these trees, thus often making the “digging-out ”’ process a more laborious one in such orchards. The “ digging-out ” method is, when thoroughly done, the surest way ef getting at and controlling the peach-tree borer yet devised, and it is practically the only way to get at the pupee in the cocoon. It involves much time and labor, but most other methods are equally as laborious and expensive. From cur experience of six years we believe that one can dig out the borers from young peach trees in a cultivated orchard with no more expense and labor than it requires to apply most of the other methods recommended ; on old trees or on trees in uncultivated orchards we have had no experience, but doubt if such conditions would much affect our belief. ‘lo prop-. erly apply almost any other method, one must first remove the soil from around the base of the tree down to the roots, then usually clean the dirt from the bark, and then incur the expense of making and applying the material used. While the latter is being done one » can usually, with no more expense, locate and kill all the borers in the tree. It is an interesting and curious fact that most peach-growers first dig out the borers and then follow some other method, but they never attribute any of the success which may follow their efforts to the “ digging ” process where it usually rightfully belongs. Our experi- ments have demonstrated to us the wisdom of certain combinations, however, for the trees from which the borers were removed and killed each year usually contain more borers the next year than those trees from which they were first dug out and then certain other methods applied.* Thus the use of certain methods to supplement the “ digging-out” process is not a waste of energy and is to be *We had to practice the ‘ digging-out” method in connection with all the others tested. We would not have been able to make any comparison between the methods without the knowlcdge of the actual number of borers in each tree, which could be gained only by digging them out. In this process one ordinarily kiils many of the borers accidently, but it might be possible by taking great pains to locate and count the borers without injuring them. But we doubt if our experiments would have given any more conclusive results had we done this, for we never lacked for a goodly supply of borers. i la Tur PrAcH-TREE Borer. aba recommended. We will discuss such combinations in our general conclusions to follow this detailed account of remedial measures. II. Preventive Measures. (a) By the use of other plants. The theory that the odor, or some other quality, of certain plants would keep insects away has led some to recommend that such plants be set beside peach trees to preserve them from attack by borers. We find tomatoes, tansy, red cedar and wormwood thus recommended. How tomatoes could afford any protection, it is difficult to conceive, hence the suggestion of their use seems to have scarcely survived its birth. Practically the same results followed the recommendation, as early as 1841, to plant red cedar or wormwood in the same hole with the peach tree, although the odor of these plants afforded a slight hold on which to pin one’s faith that it might possibly have some preventive effect. Tansy.— It was recommended to grow this weed around peach trees, as early as 1841. Although many people were equally as skeptical about its protective properties as they were of red cedar, yet the fact that so eminent an entomologist as Dr. Fitch thought it merited atrial, led several to test it. Peticolas (1860) and “ T. V. P.” (Count. Gent. for 1862, p. 857) reported that it had no effect on the number of borers. The following tabular statement tells the story of our experience with tansy : rare | Largest Effect of Number Number | Number, number ich When applied (of trees) When examined. of trees jof borers,of borers Se a treated. infested. | found. | in one fos | tree. ; | cA PT LOOOs scares. | 2 (29%) 4 | 3 | None 16 May, 1894 } 7 | June 10, 1896. ...| 3 (434) 5 | Q| « Untreated trees. ize | wpe, 1389507." : .| 60 (472) | 128 8 | 128 | gune; 18965... .y. 68 (53%) | 176 8 ae The above results afford some evidence that tansy exercised a slight preventive effect upon the number of borers. We do not 712 Butvetin 176. believe any other odorous plant would give results more encouraging to the peach-grower, besides it would not be advisable to use them in orchards for several reasons. (6) By Materials Piled or Scattered around the Base of the Tree. In 1806, Peters “ paved,’ made piles of stones, and used soot around the base of peach trees without result against the borers. This verdict seems to have been accepted, and with good reason, for the preventive qualities of the methods are not apparent. Salt scattered in a circle around the base, slachked lime ina trough in the soil, and flowers of sulphur were found of no value and were discarded in the early half of the century. L’Hommedieu (1846) tried a mixture of sal¢ and salt petre for three years without success, but reports good results from use of azr-slacked lime, this has not been the usual experience, however, with lime. A safe quantity of kainit around the base of the tree offers no encouraging features so far as effecting the numbers of borers is concerned (Rural Vew Yorker for 1896, p. 533). Tanbark and screenings of anthracite coal have been recommended, but they are not always available, and would afford no more protection than so much soil. Ashes piled around the tree have been often recommended since 1823, but all who have reported their results offer no encouraging evidence. Tobacco.— In 1818, Cocke recorded successful results for several years from binding cured tobacco around the tree at the surface of the soil. Dey (1839) gives corroborative results, and tobacco has since been frequently recommended. This evidence induced us to. test it. We wound “tobacco stems,” obtained cheaply at a cigar factory, thickly and close around the base of the tree from the roots to a little above the surface of the soil. Our results are graphically represented in the following table : 1894-1895. | Largest Effect of Number Number | Number | number | o)ica- When appplied. | of trees When examined. of trees (of borers/of borers Liss a treated. infested. found. in one nee tree. ; April 29, 1895 .. ) | May 1, 1895....+| 8(40 2%) 15 3 | None. June 4, 1894... 20 May 24, 1895...) ~~ Se ‘ Es Tur Pracu-Tree Borer. 913 1895-1896. Largest | perect of Number | Number | Number number AppliCn: When applied. of trees When examined. of trees |of borers of borers aaa treated. infested. found. | in one prt: | tree. ; | fs Pune TOssPS9Gir fe Posey = June 25, 1895 .. 13 } June 17 1996... ;| 203%) 5 2| None. 1896-1897. June 22-28, July 13, 1896 | a7 | ee Ameen 5 2 | None. Years. Untreated trees. 1894-1895... 128 | Same date.... ... | 60 (47%) | 128 8 1895-1896 .... 128 tT ol Sea | 68 (53%)| 176 8 1896-1897..... | 128 ih A Pe ae er | 75 (68 Z) 137 | 6 The tobacco was applied about a month too early in 1894, which may explain much of the difference in the results for that year from the two following years. Note that the percentage of untreated trees which were infested during the last two years is from four to five times larger than the percentage of infested treated trees. This indicates that tobacco kept out from two-thirds to five-sixths of the borers during 1895 and 1896, which is decidedly a good showing for the method. In fact, but very few other appli- cations gave us as good results. Tobacco stems can usually be obtained very cheaply from cigar manufacturers, and when thus available the evidence indicates that they can be depended upon to greatly aid the peach-grower in his fight against this insect. We are not sure just how the tobacco stems act on the insect. It is doubtful if they act as a mechanical barrier, and we are also loath to believe that their odor is offensive to the insect. Perhaps the liquid leached ont of the stems by rains may kill the young borers. The mounding method.— This consists in simply hilling up the soil around the base of the tree. It was one of the first methods devised and has been extensively practiced by peach-grow- ers fora hundred years. Perhaps no other method has been so 914 Butuetin 176. extensively discussed in the literature. In 1869 Walsh, Riley, Dean and Wells submitted much evidence both for and against the mound- ing method. So much was said in its favor that most writers have strongly recommended it, but it seems to have been little used in recent years by our most extensive peach-growers. Usually the soil is mounded to a height of from 6 to 10 inches, but some have made mounds 3 feet high around their trees. We tested the method for three years, making mounds from 6 to 8 inches high around the trees by simply hoeing up the surrounding soil. We never hoed the mounds away in the fall. The following table succinctly states our results : 1894-1895. Largest Number Number | Number nua poke n When applied. of trees When examined. of trees [of borers of borers ne a treated. | infested. | found. | in one tree | tree, (| April, 1895... June 13, 1894... 213 | May 1,'1899. 2} °9 (40'9) 13 4; None. (] May 24, 1895... J | 1895-1896. ( June 10, 1896... June 17, 1895... 21~ | June 11, 1896... + | 8 (884 10 2 | None. ( June 17, 1896... | 1896-1897. June 13, 1896...] 974 | TUMe 23, 20, 29,1) 7 (06 9 2| None ee tO we) i Years. Untreated trees. 1894-1895 ....... 128 | Same dates....... 60 (47 %) | 128 8 1895-1896...... 128 Boat SE a eer 68 (53 Z) | 176 8 1896-1897 ...... 128 as kf acres: 75 (68 9) | 137 6 The table shows that the number of treated trees which were infested was considerably less than the infested ones among the- untreated trees. A comparison of the number of borers found in the treated and untreated or check trees brings out the significant fact that the mounds kept out from 4 to 7, of the borers. Had we made the mounds a few inches higher or hoed them away late Tue Pracu-TrEE Borer. 215 in the fall, the results might have been still more favorable to the method. It must be remembered that we mounded the trees in con- nection with the “digging-out” process, and that there were untreated trees nearby. If one should mound all of the trees in an orchard and dig out none of the borers, it is doubtful if the mounds would keep out quite $ of the borers. From the evidence, we are forced to conclude that mounds of earth around the base of peach trees exercise a decided influence in keeping out borers, but we are not sure just how it is done. Mounding is probably the simplest and least expensive method yet devised for fighting the peach-tree borer, and, when practiced in connection with the “ digging-out” process, we believe it will give good resnlts, but not as good as some other combinations. The mounding should be done between June 15th and July 1st in northern peach-growing districts, and_the mounds should remain at least until October or November. (c) By Wrapping with Paper or Similar Substances. It has been often recommended to bind straw around the base of peach trees to prevent their being attacked by borers. Ellis prac- ticed this a hundred years ago, and in 1800 he communicated his results, certified to by thirteen of his neighbors, to the American Philosophical Society and gained a premium of $30 offered by the society for the best method of preserving peach trees. Peters (1808) soon recorded unsuccessful results with straw, and it seems to have been used only spasmodically since. In 1880, Comstock reported that the same method was being advised as a “ new remedy ” for the peach-tree borer in many agricultural journals. It could act only as a mechanical barrier to the borers, and one would naturally expect that its numerous crevices would allow the minute, newly-hatched borer to readily work its way through to the bark. For this reason and the fact that there was little evidence of the effectiveness of the straw bandage we did not test it. Theoretically, we would not expect it to keep out many borers, but, as we shall see later, our theories are not to be depended upon in fighting the peach-tree borer. About 1825, it was recommended to use bandages of cotton cloth, canton matting, tow-string ; some one suggested smearing the cot- ~ 216 Butyetin .176. ton cloth with tar but it is doubtful if this would suiticiently increase its effectiveness to warrant the expense. In 1526, Harris recom- mended a sheathing paper bandage, and the more expensive cloth bandages have since received little attention ; paper had been used without success as early as 1806 by Peters. Various kinds of paper bandages have been suggested, such as old newspapers, heavy Manila or roofing paper, and turred paper; Bateman used the latter quite successfully in 1871. Tarred paper.— We tested the ordinary tarred siding paper for three years with the following results : 1894-1895. i peeres | | | | | 1 (= St | . | Number | Number | Number aeined pee: When applied. | of trees When examined. | of trees | of borers, of borers fide on treated. | infested. | found. | foundin| 4)... | | one tree. aii vA oe ae | (x\Aprt, 1885 :cacesy) M4 May 18, 1894.. 7 21 1 | May 28, 1895... | | 8 (40 Z) 10 2 | None. 1895-1896. ( | June 5, 1896... ) | June 8, 189. . 21 +| June 11,1896... }| 3(142) 3 1 None. (| June 12, 1896... | 1896-1897. Jaty 11 /TS96. ; . a | June, 22023, 25,7) tac July 13, 1896...| 2) | 98, 1897...... | 10 (80 2) 12 3 | None. Years. Untreated or check trees. 1894-1895 ..... 128 | Same dates....... | 60 (47 7) | 128 | 8 | 1895-1896...... 128 | eis acts | 68 (53 7) | 176 8 1896-1897.:...° | 128 | atin eth ached | 75 (587) | 137 6 | From this tabular statement we learn that while from 14 to 40 per cent of the treated trees were infested, yet the paper evidently kept out from 4 to {of the borers, as compared with the untreated trees. This is a very good showing for the tarred paper bandage. We used pieces of paper large enough so that they usually went around the tree twice and extended from the roots to about a foot above the surface of the soil. Several of the treated trees are to be seen in the first row of trees in figure 52; and in figure 54 is THe Pracu-Tree Borer. D7 shown a nearer view of one of the trees. As the figure shows, the paper was carefully and closely applied to the tree, especially at the top, and going around the tree twice made two thicknesses of the paper, thus apparently eliminating all chances for the little borers to get in. And yet some of the borers got in in spite of the tarred paper bandage. We believe the tarred paper acted only as a mechanical barrier, and that its odor did not add to its effectiveness. Hence we should expect ordinary newspaper or any other paper bandage to be equally as effective a preventive if care- fully applied. The tarred paper did not injure our young trees in in the least, although it was ap- plied to the same trees for three years in succession and remained on the trees nearly the whole time. But others (Smith, 1898) have in- jured trees with it. Old news- papers or any wrapping papers are much cheaper, a little easier to apply and probably just as ef- fective, but they will not remain intact nearly so long in northern peach districts on account of rains and winds. Smith (1898) records some fairly successful experiments with newspaper bandages; and [iy #yo° “20: - : Cordley tells us that in Oregon [O70 >=2te «Pe ae d with tarred paper in the experimental orchard. where the rains do not interfere with it so much as in the East, it is one of the most successful methods in use against the Pacitie coast peach-tree borer. Large or moderate sized trees were treated in New Jersey with newspapers for less than one cent per tree. The evidence thus indicates that paper bandages, when carefully applied, are one of the cheapest, and they are also quite an effective method of keeping out peach-tree borers. -Apply the paper closely 218 Buuwetrin 176. around the base of the tree from the roots to about a foot above the soil from June 15th to July Ist in New York, and it should remain intact until November. Do not use too large or strong a cord for tying on the paper as it is liable to interfere with the growth of the tree; never use wire for this purpose on young, growing trees. (d) By the Use of Wire-cages or Similar Mechanical Devices. In 1806, Peters recorded that frames filled with sand were not effective against the borers, but in 1808 (Matlack) and 1825 (Haines) sand in mounds or cylinders or boxes around the trees was reported a suecess. In 1898, Smith boxed some trees “ with half-inch stuff three inches wide and covering the trunk to the branches;” half of the boxes were closed at the top and the rest left open. Apparently the boxes were not filled with sand or anything else. He states that “the results on the boxed trees are only what we had a right to expect. So far from a shelter being an objection to the moth, it is rather an invitation, and a tile or box-protected tree, with an open- ing at the top, would rather tempt than repel. Ii the top be closed by a band tied tightly to the tree, the effect would probably be good, but this is by all odds the most expensive possible means of keeping out the borers and should be excluded from practical consideration altogether.” Stedman (1898) says that “thin wooden wrappers are satisfactory and, as they can be purchased for about three dollars per thousand from box and basket makers, they are economical. They should be pushed down into the ground so the adults cannot crawl under to deposit their eggs, and the tops should be stopped up with cotton wool in order to prevent them from entering there.” Some one has conceived the scheme to protect the trees by tiles. Smith expected to test these tile protectors in 1897, but they were so heavy and clumsy that his experimenter refused to use them, but he tested the principle on which they were supposed to act with the wooden boxes, as mentioned above. The evidence would hardly encourage a peach-grower to go to the expense of making any of the above applications, when there are others which are much cheaper and much more effectual. Wire cage.— In 1891, Lintner announced that a model for a “new tree-protector” had been shown him, “ which promises to give com- Tue Pracu-TrREE Borer. 919 plete protection for young trees from the attacks of the peach-tree borer. A cylinder of wire netting fifteen inches high, mounted on a galvanized metal base, gathered in at the top so as to adjust itself closely to the tree, opens at one side for passing it around the trunk, and is then secured and fastened to the ground, and slightly into it, by a sliding pin. With this protection, the moth would be effectu- ally prevented from depositing an egg upon or near the base of the tree. The cylinders could be quickly applied, and with proper care in housing them, they would last for many years. Itis thought that they can be offered for sale at about twelve dollars the hundred.” Dr. Lintner wrote us in 1894 that he had no rec- ord of the name of the person who showed him this wire device. Al though it was at once pointed out by Snyder (1891) that this device was too expensive for extensive use, the idea seemed so good theoretically that most of those who have recently discussed this insect have given such a device a prominent place in their recommendations. but apparently no records of actual tests of the device appeared until 1898 (Smith). Smith wrapped pieces of ordinary wire mos- quito netting, 12 by 18 inches in size, around the trees, letting it run about 55.— Wire-cage protector in posi- . : : tion on a peach tree tn the expert- ing it about half an inch away from mental orchard. Theoretically the trunk by a band of newspaper at —@ perfect protector, but practt- cally a useless device. two inches below ground, and keep- the top which filled the space between the wire and the tree; he found it to cost about five cents each for sixty young trees. His results were far from conclusive but seemed encouraging. We thoroughly tested these wire cages in 1894 and 1895. The netting was cut into pieces 14 by 16 inches in size, and the first year 220 Butierin 176. we unraveled or pulled out the cross threads on the upper end for a distance of about three inches, so that we could bring the strands together closely around the tree. The next year, we slit down the upper end for about three inches, making the slits about half an inch apart; we found this the quicker method, and it also served our purpose better. We dug out all the borers, placed the wire netting around the tree so that it extended from below ground where the roots were given off to about a foot above the surface. An inch or more of space was left between the cylinder and the tree, and at the top a slitted wire was carefully brought together aronr.d against the tree and tied. Great care was taken, especially the second year, to make and to keep this cage so tight at the top that by no possibility could one of the moths have gotten inside of it during the season. In figure 55 is shown one of our wire cages in position. Here we have a theoretically perfect protector from the attacks of this pest. We could apply such a cage at a cost of about five cents per tree, but each protector would doubtless last for two or three years, hence the final expense was really not greater than that of many other methods which must be renewed annnally. We felt confident that this wire cage or protector would surely solve the question of perfect protection against the peach-tree borer. The following results show what little regard the borers had for our theory : 1894-1895. | | | Largest | | Number Number | Number | number eee Mee When applied. of trees When examined. of trees |of borers of borers! raha an treated. infested. | found. | in one NS | tree: i June 26, 1894 .. (| April 29, 1895.. (| 45 1895-1896. ( June 5, 1896... ) June 17, 1895 .. June 11, 1896... -| 14 (67%) 44 13 | None. | | June 12, 1896... | 4¥- , at | Years. Untreated or check trees. 1894-1895 ...... 128 ie Same dates each | 60 (477) | 128 8 1895-1896 ...... | TES ee en ce e's | 68 (584 | 176 8 Tuer Pracu-Tree Borer. 2 As the table shows, it was simply a case of misplaced confidence. More of the caged trees were infested by borers than there were of the untreated ones. And what is still more remarkable is the fact that the first year there were nearly as many borers in the caged trees as in those untreated, and the second year, when we took very _ great pains with the cages, nearly twice as many borers got into the caged trees as into the same number of untreated trees! The most borers we ever found (thirteen) in a single tree in our experimental orchard were found in one of these carefully caged or protected (?) trees! It is almost needless to say that we did not consider it neces- sary to test this theoretically perfect wire protector another year. The cages apparently attracted rather than repelled the insect. We are not quite sure how the borers got in, but probably the moths laid their eggs on the trunk above the cage, and when the borers hatched they could easily have crawled through the meshes of the wire; perhaps when once inside the cage, it then afforded the borers a sure protection from their enemies so that every borer which got inside survived to do its destructive work. We must conclude from our experiment that wire mosquito-net- ting protectors offer no protection against the attacks of the peach- tree borer, and the indications are that they are worse than no treat- ment, and also offer an attraction or protection to the insects rather than repel them. (e) By the Use of Washes. At least 50 different kinds of so-called ‘“ washes” have been sug- gested for preventing the attacks of the peach-tree borer. We have made careful and thorough tests of 18 different washes, and these include most of the representative mixtures. We will not attempt a classification of the washes but will discuss those we have treated, and will briefly mention under each of these the others which seem to us to have similar protective properties. In applying the different washes, we first dug out the borers removed all soil from around the base of the tree down to and usually including an inch or more of the main roots, brushed clean the por- tion of the tree to be treated, then put on the wash so thoroughly as to completely cover all irregularities in the bark from the roots to about 12 to 18 inches above the ground; after allowing the wash to dry somewhat the soil would be returned around the base of the tree. 222 Buwuxetin 176. In 1806, Peters reported no success with washes of sulphurie acid, turpentine, brine, wrinous applications and nitrous mixtures and they have been scarcely mentioned since. Asafetida and aloes wash.— This was used against the apple-tree borer by Wielandy in 1870 (American Entomologist, II, 147), and it seemed to us to afford a good test of the effect of odors and _bit- terness on the peach-tree borer. We used 4 pound of each of the substances in 2 quarts of water, heating it to dissolve them. The wash was visible on the trees for a month and a half but retained its odor for a much shorter time. The following table gives our results from the use of this wash: 1894-1895. | | L t | Number | | Number | Number seas Hee of When applied. oftrees | When examined. of trees | of borers! of borers rape Be | treated. infested. | found. in one pane tree: ie a oe | § | April 30;-1895....°7 . ¢ 1895-1896. June 12, 1895... ,§| June 6, 1896...) July 16, 1895.. | le | June 14, 1896 .. | 8 (972) | : | | None. =— —— =~ Years. Untreated or check trees. 1894-1895...... | 128 || Same dates. .:.... 60 (47 Z) 128 8 1895.-1896...... | 128 ia a 8 peer a 68 (03 Z) 176 8 The first year the application was too early and it had no effect on the numbers of the borers.. The second year the wash was applied twice, and the results were considerably better, although a larger percentage of trees were infested. The results offer no encourage- ment to use such a wash. ; Tullow.— Finding that axle grease had been recommended for the apple-tree borer, it occurred to us that tallow, melted and applied as a wash, might prove effective against the peach-tree borer. As the tallow formed a complete and very greasy coating, and remained so for several months, we expected good results from it. The fol- lowing table shows the results we got: i ii i Tuer Pracu-TrREE Borer. 293 1894-1895. L t Number | ey ee nee of When applied. | oftrees | When examined. of trees of borers | of borers hen ran treated. infested. | found. | found in ae | one tree, sa Oe April 30, 1895. . , iy June 4, 1894.... 21 May Srl | 8(88%) 17 4| None. 1895-1896. June 6, 1896. ... } June 25, 1895...; 21 +| June 11, 1896... 11 (52 Z) 40 11 | None. ( June 15, 1896... | Years. Untreated or check trees. a ; 1894-1895...... 128 | Same dates....... 60 (47 @) 128 8 1895-1896...... 128 <— ORSD-OS 68 (53 Z) 176 8 The tallow did not materially lessen the number of infested trees, and the second year it was tested the treated trees contained more borers than those untreated. We cannot explain why such a greasy coating should not be more effective. Soap washes.— A strong soap suds or soap wash has been a stand- ard recommendation for borers of all kinds fora century. As soft soap was not easily obtained, we tested a solution of hard soap for two years, using it at the rate of $ pound in 1 gallon of water the first year, and twice as strong the next year. Our results are as follows: 1894-1895. Largest | erect of Number Number | Number | number iea* When applied. | of trees | When examined. of trees | of borers! of borers) }PPUCA tested. infested. | found. in one rah treee. 3 June 1, 1894.. ) | July 19, 1894. a 14 / April, T88DMi.32 y 9 (64 %) 42 9 None. 1895-1896. June 12, 1895... Ve) | sune “do, ledG-.. ~) : July 16, 1895...| 1) | June 11, 1896... 5| 264%) el | ti | None. Years. Untreated or check trees. 1894—1895...... 128-| Same dates....... 60 (47 Z) 128 8 1895-1896...... 128 bela Ci Pedeaty wha 68 (53 7) | i76 8 294 Butietin 176. The table shows that, although the soap was applied twice each year, many more (over twice as many the first year) borers attacked the treated than the same number of untreated trees, and a larger percentage of the treated trees were infested. We doubt if soft soap would have given better results. We tested whale oil soap (4 pound in 1 gallon of water) for two years with the following results ; 1894-1895. l ii | Largest Number | Number | Number number Efentas When applied. of trees : When examined. of trees | of bor i of borers re ff treated. | infested. found. | in one | nee " tree. June 18, 1894.. | (Viay 2a, E890. te | 2 (22 %) | None. 1895-1896. Tune 26, 1895 ( | s, d| | : nee | 7, 1896... | ¢ | Te 16) 1595... 9} | June 17, 1896... {| 444.2) 9 4 None | Thus whale oil soap gave but little more encouraging results than hard soap. One application of soap will be washed off too soon in most eastern peach districts, and two applications are too expensive in labor. We must conclude that ordinary soap washes are valueless. i “ (lubo” a soap refuse, was recommended by Morgan in 18938. In 1888, Ashmead recommended that Paris green be added to the soap wash, and since then many have added this poison to other washes. Such poisoned washes had been recommended for apple- tree borers nearly 15 years before. It is very doubtful if Paris green or similar poisons add anything to the value of washes, and such poisons may injure the trees,.as pointed out by McCarthy in 1891, and as will be seen in our results from the use of such washes. Our experience with carbolic acid in other washes leads us to believe that the carbolic acid soaps sometimes recommended have little value as a preventive of the attacks of the peach-tree borer. We doubt if the Shaker wash (Lintner, 1891) consisting of fish oul, soft soap, whale oil soap and pulverized sulphur would effectu- ally prevent many borers from getting into the trees. Whitewash.— Lime is one of the principal ingredients of a great many washes. We first tested it for one year as ordinary whitewash, Tue Peracu-TREE Borer. 225 and although we made two applications, on May 31st and July 19th, no encouraging results were obtained. The whitewash scaled off quickly under the influence of rains and other ordinary climatic conditions. Whitewash and linseed oil.— This combination was suggested to us by a correspondent in 1895. To every gallon of thick whitewash we added one quart of linseed oil. The oil greatly increased the lasting qualities of the whitewash, and the mixture formed a good coating on the trees for two months. Linseed oil is reported as a dangerous ingredient in washes (Howard, Bull. 2, U. S. Div. of Ent., p. 34), but no injury resulted to our young trees from its use with whitewash. The following table gives our results from one year’s test of this wash: Largest Number Number | Number |} number Effect of When applied. | of trees When examined. of trees jof borersjof borers applica: treated. infested. | found. in one in tree. eS June 6, 1896... June 24, 1895.. 14 June 15, 1896... }| 7 (504) 13 5 | None. June 17, 1896... Years. | Untreated or check trees. 1895-1896...... | 128 | Same dates. ... / 68 (53%) | 176 | 8 | | The results afford no encouragement to the peach-grower. It is doubtful if the whitewash and glue wash recommended by Marlatt (1896), or the Bordeaux mixture inconclusively tested by Baker (1898) would afford any more protection from the peach-tree borer than did our similar whztewash and linseed oil wash. Hales and similar washes.— Since 1888 Mr. J. H. Hale, one of America’s most famous and most successful peach-growers, has strongly recommended a wash of potash or soap, lime, and carbolic acid, and sometimes Paris green; the real “meat” of the whole thing, he states “ being the carbolie acid which makes such an offensive odor that the moth is driven to more congenial quarters to lay her eggs.” This wash has doubtless been more extensively used during the past ten years than any other application. Some sub- 15 3 226 Buxuwetin 176. stituted clay for the lime, while Stedman (1898) advises adding common washing soda and a poison. We dissolved $ pound of hard soap in 1 pint of water and then added 4 pint of ernde carbolic acid; to this enough freshly slaeked lime was added to form a thick wash. thoroughly for two years with the following results. We tested this wash 1894-1895. Largest Effect of > Number Number | Number | number lied: When applied. of trees When examined. of trees jof bor rs|of borers res i treated. infested. found. in one Pe _ tree. xt June 1, 1894.. ) or Agen 1890. Yl te June 28, 1894.51 °° 71 May 24, 1805... ¢| 17 48H | © 26 5 | None. 1895-1896. tL June 5, 1896... Tae ie ieee |e S| June 11, 1890. (| 6@99| 11 4 | None. el ane { June 17, 1896 .. | | Years. Untreated or check trees. 1894-1895 ...... 128 Same dates...... 60 (472) 128 8 1895-1896 . 128 ct eal Goes 68 (532) 176 8 Apparently Hale’s wash kept out from } to $ of the borers, but it required two applications each year. In New York the wash began to scale off in two weeks, and thus lost its mechanical protec- tive qualities; and we do not believe the offensive carbolie acid has any repellant effect on the moths, and certainly the soap or white- wash is not protective, as our experiments, detailed above, show. None of the washes we have used which contained lime as a prin- cipal ingredient, except the whitewash and linseed oil wash, remained intact on the bark as long as it is necessary to afford protection from the borers. The climatic conditions in New York soon cause the lime to scale off, and thus whatever mechanical protective quality (it has no other) it might have is rendered useless. It is a significant fact that all those who report good results from the use of Hale’s wash also practice “digging out” the borers, and then give all the credit to the wash. We do not believe that Hale’s Tue Pracu-TreEt Borer. Bay wash, and the other similar washes mentioned above, will afford nearly as much protection against the peach-tree borer, under north- ern climatic conditions, as will some other applications which it is necessary to make but once a year. Lime, salt and sulphur wash.— A two years’ test of this famous California insecticide gave us the following results : 1894-1895. Largest Effect of Number Number | Number | number i 2 When applied. | of trees When examined. of trees | of borers | of borers | &PP!1Ca- treated. infested. found. in one ss on | tree. i May 1, 1895... Sgr a June 5, 1894... 14 May 941898. 2 5 (362) 24| 10] Mone. 1895-1896. June 25, 1895. ) | P July 16, 1895. i 7 | June 11, 1896....| 5 (71%) 9 | 4 None. Years. Untreated or check trees. 1894-1895...... 128 | Same dates .. 60 (474) 128 8 1895-—1896...... 128 i cep tiegay ONS 68 (537) 176 8 Even two applications of this wash had no effect upon the num- bers of the borers, hence it is valueless. Resin wash.— This is another insecticide which has been exten- sively used on the Pacific coast, and good results have been reported from Oregon when it was used as a wash for the native peach-tree We used this resin wash, made according to the California Although we used it of double strength borer. formula, for two years. and made two applications the second year, the results obtained, as given in the foliowing table, show that such a wash has little to recommend it to peach-growers who are fighting the borers: 1894-1895. Largest Number Number | Number | number pens a When appplied. | of trees When examined. of trees | of borers! of borers | ee = treated. infested. found. in one od | tree. 7 June 13 1894... 10 | May 24, 1895..... 3 (307) 5 3 None. 228 : BuLuetin 176. 1895-1896. Largest Number Number Number | panibet ee of When applied. of trees | When examined. of trees |of borersjof borers or ag , treated. infested. found. in one erbe | | tree. : June 26, 1895. ) : NY eta July 16, 1895, : 7 | June 15, 1896....| 4 (57%) | 6 2 | None. | Years. | Untreated or check trees. 1894-1895...... 128 | Same dates...... 60 (472) 128 8 | 1895-1896...... 128 ses Es (sec ee 68 (53%) 176 8 | A wash made of resin, linseed oil and beeswax has been recom- mended. It would be rather expensive to use on a large scale, and it is very doubtful if it would be more effectual than the resin wash just discussed. Paris green and glue wash.— This wash was apparently first sug- gested by Neal in 1889 (Bull. 4, Fla. Expt. Station), and a few years ago was strongly recommended in prominent entomological and hor- ticultural books. We dissolved one pound of common glue in one- half gallon water, then added one ounce of Paris green, and diluted the whole to two gallons with water (Neal’s formula). We used it at the above strength and later only half as strong. Within a week after this wash was applied the leaves on nearly every tree began to drop off and in three weeks most of the trees were dead. The wash had killed the bark where it was applied, and had thus practically girdled the tree at the base. Others have reported similar results from its use, so that it should never be used, at least on young trees. Probably the addition of whitewash, as suggested by Smith (Insect Life, IV, 43), would render the wash less injurious to the trees, but we dc not believe it would make an effective wash of it. White or green paint.— Ordinary white paint, made of linseed oil and white lead, was strongly recommended about five years ago by the Virginia and Nebraska Experiment Stations as an effective application for borers. We used white paint for two years with the following results : | Tue Pracu-TrReEE Borer. 229 1895-1896. | | Largest Number | Number | Number union pee of When applied. | of trees When examined. of trees (of borers|of borers ed on treated. infested. | found. | in one faint tree. ; June 19, 1895 .. 14 | June 16, 1896....| 2 (149%) 3 2] None. 1896-1897. July 14, 1896... 20 | June 22-28, 1897..| 11 (552) 12 3 | Slight | | injury. | Years. | Untreated or check trees. 1895-1896 ...... 128 | Same dates....... 68 (53%) 176 8 1896-1897... ... 128 eM: acne ek 75 (58%) 137 6 The first year the paint was very effectual, keeping out nearly 5 of the borers, and doing little or no injury to the trees. The second year it did not keep out $ of the borers, a large percentage of the treated trees were infested, and the trees were noticeably injured ; possibly the application was made a little late in 1896. Our conclusion is that white paint makes a lasting wash and it will doubtless keep out $ or more of the borers, but it may injure young trees; a young orchard is said to have been completely ruined in Alabama by its use (Baker, 1898). It would probably not injure old trees, but we doubt if it would usually be applied thoroughly enough on such trees to penetrate all the cracks and crevices which it must do to be a preventive. We doubt its effectiveness when applied on old trees, and would not recommend it for general use on young trees. We made a light green paint by stirring $ pound of Paris green into 1 gallon of white paint, made as described above. We thus had a poisoned wash. Our results from a two years’ experience with this green paint is shown in the following table: 1895-1896. Largest * Number Number | Number waiter ured of When applied. | of trees | When examined. of trees |of borers\of borers es tk treated. infested. | found. in one te ‘ge tree. se June 19, 1995:'..|. 14 | Jume 11, 1896. ...| 5 (862) 7 g | Much | injury. 230 Buuwetin 176. 1896-1897. Largest | pp Number Number | Number | number pesca When applied. | of trees When examined. of trees |of borersjof borers re pa au treated. infested. found. in one ‘fuse tree. z (| June 22, 28, 28, ) Bs 4 Much Pub La LEC) eB Bey... fae seake » 1 | injury. | Apparently the paint was a very effectual preventive, but the fact that many of the trees were seriously injured and some of them died from its use renders the results as to the number of infested trees and the number of borers found of no value. This experi- ment, in connection with our Paris green and glue combinations, is strong evidence that Paris green is a dangerous ingredient in washes, and we do not believe it increases their effectiveness. Hydraulic cement wash.—In 1824, Shotwell recorded that he found a lime mortar or bricklayer’s mortar to work perfectly as a In 1891 Woodward recom- mended a wash made of dirty soap, sweet skim milk and hydraulic wash to keep out peach-tree borers. cement (common water-lime) as “a sure and safe remedy for borers.” Two years later McCarthy recommended a wash of sour or butter- milk and hydraulic cement, stating that “the weak-jawed grub is unable to break it, and hence soon dies of exhaustion,” but further stipulating that it must be applied every two or three weeks, as the In 1898 Smith recorded He demonstrated that the milk made such a wash last much longer growth of the tree causes it to crack. some experiments with a wash of skim milk and the cement. than if water were used, and that as a mechanical coating it left nothing to be desired. One application would last and remain in good condition as long as necessary, but it would not “ prevent the exit of borers that were already working in the tree, but would keep out any young larve that attempted to get in.” Smith’s results from the use of this cement wash, so far as keeping out the borers is concerned, were inconclusive. We made a wash of sweet skim milk (from a separator) and Port- land cement, using about 6 pounds of cement in 3 or 4 quarts of water; this was sufficient to treat 48 young trees from 1$ to 4 inches in diameter. not injure the trees, and lasts as long as desirable. Tuer Pracu-TrREE Borer. cally, it is an ideal mechanical preventive coating or wash. We gave this wash a thorough test in 1898-1899, with the follow- ing results: 231 It is a very cheap wash, is easily applied, does Thus, theoreti- Largest | - Number Number | Number | number eipat of When applied. of trees When examined. of trees of borers\of borers ripe er treated. infested. found in one ‘tre ee tree. ae §| May 26, 1899... 3 Duly 7, 1698....| 4741 7°, So i909 ; 26 (55%). 36 4| None. Years. Untreated or check trees. 1898-1899 ...... Spmetdareseee | 41 | 3 | This table shatters another theoretical ideal, for there were more infested trees among the treated than among the untreated ones, and just as many borers got into the treated trees. We had expected much more encouraging results from the use of this cement wash, but it evidently has not the qualities which will make it of any value to the peach grower. Printers ink.— This seemed to us to have qualities which might make it a good wash for the peach-tree borer, hence we tested it with the following results : Largest | merect of Number Number | Number | number | 4) jlica- When applied. of trees When examined. of trees |of borersjof borers dae aa treated. infested. found. in one (cod tree. 3 {| May 26, 1899...) (| Slight July 7, 1898... at 1} June 30, 1899... { 8 (302). 9 2 ) |injury Years. Untreated or check trees. 1898-1899 .. Same dates....... | 25 4] | 3 | Although the ink kept out about one-half of the borers, it caused gummy exudations where it was applied, indicating ae to the bark, hence it is not to be recommended. 232 Buuwetin 176. Raupenleim.— This “Caterpillar glue” is a German product, resembling somewhat axle grease mixed with tar. It has been extensively used in Europe, and in fighting the Gypsy Moth in Massachusetts. It is sticky and has a distinct tarry odor, and is applied to the bark of trees to prevent the ascent of caterpillars and other insects. When applied in a thick band, it retains its sticky properties for a considerable period. Apparently it had the neces- sary qualities to make it a good preventive wash to keep out peach- tree borers, hence we tried it for two years with the following results : 1895-1896. Numb Numb Number } : When applied. of trees ' When examined. of trees of, borer s| ee § | Killed 7 recent- June 18, 1895 .. 21 | June 11, 1896.... 0 | 0 / ly-set trees. | 1896-1897. § | June 22, 23, 25, §| Killed every July 10, 1896. . | 42 98, 1897...... 0 | 0 ) tree. It is to be noted that the first year the raupenleim apparently injured only seven trees which had been set only two or three months and had not yet become thoroughly established. As a pre- ventive against the peach-tree borer it was a perfect success on the 14 uninjured trees. Our hopes rose high, and we treated twice as many trees the second year, but we were doomed to bitter disap- pointment for, as the table shows, not a tree survived the treatment. In figure 56 is shown the effects of raupenleim and dendrolene. Perhaps old trees will stand the raupenleim better, but we believe it is not a safe, although apparently a sure, preventive wash. We applied the raupenleim on the bark from the roots to about six or eight inches above the surface of the soil; 4 pound sufficed to treat 21 trees (14 to 2 inches in diameter), making a band of the substance from ¢ to + of an inch thick. Dendrolene.—This is a crude petroleum product and an American imitation of the German raupenleim. The substance was first made for Professor Smith in New Jersey in 1895, and some preliminary ‘aag have Burjry °8901) JO NOL BUO UO PA8N SVL BIUDISQNS YOVIT “PLVYIaO JVIUIULALIALI OYJ U2 8904] 02 BUAIOLP -uap puv unaquadnos fo suorooyddn yo szynsat ey, aoys aungord ay) JO aljUan ay) UL 804g YOWad JO SNOL 00L) AY], —"9G foe 4 et SE we mS © ‘ 234 Buuuetin 176. experiments which he made with it that year, led him to strongly recommend it as a general application for borers and other insects. Soon a dendrolene was placed upon the market and it has been tested in several States, but practically all reports show that it either seriously injured or killed all fruit trees on which it was applied. We treated 50 trees in the same manner as with the raupenleim, and the following table shows that our results agree with most other records : 1896-1897. Number | - Number | Number z F P Effect of applica- When applied. | of trees When examined. of trees _ lof borers : BE a treated. infested. | found. tion on trees. July 10, 1896... 50 | June 22-30, 1897.. 0 0 |Killed every tree We must conclude that neither raupenleim nor its imitation, dendrolene (the kind now on the market) is a safe application for young peach trees. In figure 56 is shown the effect of the applica- tion of these substances on our trees. Pine tar.— We used some “pure North Carolina pine tar” as a wash with the following results: Largest | Number Number | Number meee beens of When applied. | of trees When examined. of trees jof borers of borers | oe en _ treated. infested.-| found. | in one | pars tree. 2 BV aay 261809) 9 | ae July 7, 1898....| 34 ) | June 30, 1899... § 13 (88% | 19 3 None. Years. Untreated or check trees. 1898-1899... ... 56 | Same dates . = 25 (442) 41 | 3 | Apparently the pine tar kept out a few borers, but not enough to warrant is being recommended as a preventive of the peach-tree borer. Tue PracuH-rREE Borer. 935 Gas tar.— Tar was among the first washes to be used against the peach-tree borer, and several (Merriam and Meehan, 1859; “J. KR. G.” in Count. Gent., XXX, 14; and “R. H.S8.” in Rural New Yorker for 1893, p. 622) have recorded that it was a first-class preventive wash, and it did not injure their trees. Some, however, have found that the tar injured or killed young trees. We used it as a wash for three vears, heating it slightly so that it could be more easily painted on, and applying it to the same trees euch year, with these results: 1894-1895. | Largest | Number Number | Number Sie cee pee! of When applied. | of trees When examined. of trees (of borers|of borers. ae ot | treated. | infested. | found. | in one | “4., | tree. Ss | (| April, 1895... ) | | May 31, 1894...| 21+] May 1, 1895....}| 2 (109) 3 | 2 | None. (| May 24, 1895... J | | | 1895-1896. ( June 6, 1896... June 18, 1895. | 21 | June 11, 1896... -| 5 (242) 6 2 | ‘None. 1 yanecte 896, 1) 1896-1897. ( ( June 22, 1897... } July 14, 1896... 21 5 | June 23, 1897... + 0 0 0 None. | (' June 28, 1897... | | Years. Untreated or cheek trees. | 1894-1895 ...... | 128 | Same dates. ..... 60 (4724) 128 8 1890—1896......| 128 aa Doo ras 14 2 A 68 (537) 176 8 1896-1897 ...... 128 fey ces 70 (58%) 137 6 The tar apparently kept out from four-fifths to all of the borers, only a small percentage of the trees became infested, and no injury resulted to the trees. These are the best results we obtained from the application of any wash which did not injure the trees. Our trees had been growing for a year, and hence were well established when the tar was applied; we suspect some of those who injured their trees applied the tar to unthrifty or recently-set trees. In our experience the tar did not interfere with the growth of the trees in 236 Buuverin 176. the least. Tar is about as cheap as any wash, but it is disagreeab‘e stuff to manipulate. The results of our experiments would lead us to believe that gas tar is the most effective application yet devised for preventing the attacks of the peach-tree borer, and as our trees suffered no injury from its use for three years on the same trees, we think it may often be used with safety. Let the young trees get thoroughly established and get to growing thriftily, and keep them in this condition, and try the gas tar wash sparingly at first on a few trees. Some miscellaneous washes.— In 1824, a wash of cow-dung leached ashes, and plaster of Paris was recommended, but we doubt if this would remain on the tree long enough and prove more effectual than Hale’s or similar washes. The same must be said of cow-dung and clay which was recommended in 1827. In 1892, Brown recom. mended a wash made of lime, gas tar and soap ; we have shown that soap and lime are not preventives, and we believe they would neu- tralize the preventive qualities of the tar in this combination. A wash of soft soap, corrosive sublimate and wood alcohol was recom- mended in 1893; it would be an expensive wash and of very doubt- ful efficiency. We are well aware that many other combinations have been recommended as washes for the peach-tree borer, but we think that they will be found to differ very little from some of those we have tested or discussed. Some General Conclusions Regarding Methods of Fighting the Peach-Tree Borer. Although American peach-growers have been fighting the peach- tree borer for a hundred and fifty years, the results from to-day’s methods of warfare are not strikingly different from those recorded by Peters in 1806. Most of the applications now recommended were devised nearly a century ago. Cultural methods.— Different cultural methods (p. 200) such as budding on various stocks, irrigation, and cultivation seem to have little or no effect upon the number of the borers. But to make a success of peach-growing it is usually necessary to thoroughly culti- Tur Pracu-TrREE Borer. 937 vate and feed the trees, and we believe the borers can be controlled more successfully and much easier in such an orchard. Our experiments.— During the past five years we have conducted the most extensive and scientific series of experiments ever attempted. An experimental orchard of 400 peach trees was set for the sole purpose of testing the so-called “remedies.” The details of the plan and extent of these experiments are discussed on p. 201. We thoroughly tested about 25 representative methods for combating the peach-tree borer. Vulnerable stage of the insect.— The insect is open to successful attack only in its larva or borer stage and in its pupa stage; the pupe are reached only by searching for the cocoons and destroying them. DestructivE MEasuREs. Of the destructive or killing methods recommended, the “freezing” method (p. 206) and the use of carbon bisulphide (p. 207) are unsue- cessful and unsafe. Bodling water and similar methods (p. 206) have been successfully employed, but they are impracticable on a large scale and may injure or kill the trees. The “ digging-out” method.— The “ digging-out ” method (p. 208) is the only thoroughly successful and safe way of killing the peach- tree borer. This method is expensive in time and labor, but our experience leads us to believe that any other equally as successful method will cost just as much. To make it a success, the “ digging out” should be thoroughly done, not only on every tree in the orchard, but also on all “old relics” of peach trees in the immediate neighborhood. A half-dozen such “old relics ” left untreated near by served to thoroughly re-stock our orchard with borers every year, so that our “digging-out” method, although practiced thoroughly each year, never reduced the numbers of the borers below the danger limit (p. 204). This is a very important factor in the success of the “ digging-out” method. Under certain millennial conditions, mentioned on p. 209, we believe the numbers of borers could be reduced to the minimum in an orchard by this method alone. Practically every peach-grower, who makes any pretensions of fighting the borers, digs them out at least once a year. Many then apply some wash or other device, but curiously enough, they 238 Butierin 176, usually attribute any success they may seem to have, not to the ‘¢digging-out ” process, where most of the credit usually belongs, but to the other preventive applications. As our experiments show, however, the application of certain preventive measures after the borers have been dug out, is not a waste of energy where several “old relics” are left untreated near by, or if a neighbor’s peach orchard a few rods away is neglected. As these conditions usually prevail in the neighborhood of most peach orchards, we doubt if the “ digging-out ” or any other method used alone, with a few possible exceptions, can be depended upon to reduce the number of borers to the minimum. But we believe there are several combinations of this destructive method with a preventive application which will give better results than either onealone in most orchards, and will keep the pest under control. The best time to dig out the borers is discussed in detail on p. 208. PREVENTIVE MEASURES. Plants.— There is little evidence to show that the odor of any plant, like red cedar or tansy, will have any influence on the numbers of the borers when such a plant is set with the tree (p. 212); such plants would not be desirable adjuncts to peach-growing for other reasons. Tobacco.— It has been recommended to pile or scatter various substances around the base of the tree to keep out the borers (p. 212) but only two of these deserve serious consideration. Nearly a century ago good results were reported from the use of tobacco wound around the base of peach trees. We tested tobacco stems (midribs of the leaves) from a cigar factory, and the results, given on page 213, astonished us. Evidently the tobacco kept out from two-thirds to five-sixths of the borers. Weare not sure how - the stems acted on the insect, but our results indicate that, where tobacco stems are cheaply obtainable, they will prove a good preven- tive from the attacks of the peach-tree borer. Mounding.— By this old and much-discussed method we appar- ently keep out from one-half to seven-tenths of the borers (p. 213). We do not understand just how the mounds of soil keep ont the borers, and we doubt if it would give as good results if not practiced Tue Pracu-TREE Borer. 239 in connection with the “digging-out” method. The mounding method evidently has considerable value as a preventive and is perhaps the cheapest method yet devised. It is perhaps the only method that is practicable in nurseries. Paper protectors.— In the early days, cloth and similar protectors were used, but all were soon superseded by the less expensive and equally as effective paper bandages (p. 215). We kept out from one-half to seven-eighths of the borers with the tarred paper protec- tor shown in figure 54. And doubtless where rains and winds are not too prevalent to interfere with an ordinary newspaper protector, it would give equally as good results as the tarred paper; some report injury to the trees by the use of tarred paper, but our trees suffered no injury from its use. Paper protectors, when carefully put on and kept intact during the danger period, will prove a valu- able and very cheap preventive measure, especially when combined with the “ digging-out” method. ‘ Wire cages.—W ooden boxes or tiles placed around the trees are too expensive and the evidence (p. 218) shows that they afford little protection. The device shown in figure 55, however, is strongly recommended by most recent writers, and, theoretically, it is an ideal protection from the ravages of this pest. We confidently believed that we had solved the problem of how to keep out the borer when we placed these wire mosquito-netting cages around some of our trees. But it was a case of misplaced confidence, for our theory was completely demolished when we examined the caged trees the next year. The cages apparently proved an attraction to the insect, for nearly twice as many borers got into the caged trees as into those untreated. Read the detailed account of this demolition of our pet theory or preventive device on p. 220. Washes.— The favorite method of preventing the ravages of the peach-tree borer has been, for at least a century, by the use of a wash of some kind. More than 50 different washes have been con- cocted, most of which are valueless as preventives, and some of which will injure or kill the trees. We tested 18 washes. An asafetida and aloes wash (p. 222) was not offensive enough. Tallow (p. 222) should have given good results theoretically, but it proved wholly useless; this was a great surprise to us. 240 Buwuetin 176. Ordinary soap and whale oil soap (p. 223), even two applications, offered little or no protection. The addition of Paris green to a soap wash will not increase its effectiveness, and it may injure the trees. Carbolic acid soaps or the Shaker wash (p. 224) would afford no more protection than ordinary soaps, we think. Whitewash or whitewash and linseed oil washes (p. 225) were wholly ineffectual in our experiments. We doubt if whitewash and glue, or Bordeaux mixture have better preventive qualities. By making two applications the same season of //ale’s celebrated wash (p. 225) we sueceeded in keeping out from one-third to one- half of the borers. This wash will not remain intact long enough in New York State, hence it is of little value unless applied twice, which makes it too expensive a process. We cannot see how Sted- man’s (p. 226) or other variations of Hale’s wash could afford any greater protection from the borers. Two applications the same season of a lime, salt and sulphur wash (p. 227) and a resin wash (p. 227) gave little encouraging results to peach-growers. A Paris green and glue wash (p. 228) killed our trees in a few weeks. White paint (p. 228) proves to be quite an effective wash, keep- ing out from one-half to five-sixths of the borers, but it may injure young trees, and we doubt its proving as effectual on old trees. White paint and Paris green or green paint (p. 229) is quite an effectual wash but it seriously injured our young trees, and is there- fore not to be generally recommended. The Hydraulic cement wash (p. 230) which has recently attracted considerable attention, makes an ideal coating over the bark, but we did not succeed in keeping out any borers with it, thus shattering another theoretical ideal. | Printer’s ink (p. 231), although it apparently kept out nearly one-half of the borers, injured our trees, and thus cannot be recommended. Laupentleim (p. 232) dendrolene (p. 232), kept out all of the bor- ers, but killed all the trees. See figure 56. Pine tar (p. 234) kept but a few borers out of our trees. Gas tar (p. 235) proved to be the best application we tested. We THe Pracu-TREE Borer. 241 used it freely on the same trees for three successive years without the slightest injury to the trees and it kept out nearly all the borers. We had been led to believe that tar was very injurious to young trees, and confidently expected to see our trees die each year after being treated with it. But the trees kept just as healthy and grew as thriftily as any others in the orchard. Let the trees become thor- oughly established and get a year’s growth, and it is our experience that tar can be used with safety on them. Go slow with it, by first testing it on a few trees in your orchard. We believe it will prove equally effective whether the borers are dug out or not, and from no other application yet devised would we expect to get such results when used independent of the “ digging-out” method. A few miscellaneous washes of very doubtful value are discussed on p. 236. Some general conclusions regarding washes.— Lime and some kind of soap are often the principal ingredients of washes. Our experience leads us to believe that neither of these substances exer- cise any preventive effect on the peach-tree borer. Furthermore, climatic conditions in New York and doubtless in most northern peach districts, will cause any wash containing much lime to scale off and thus render it ineffective, before the moths have stopped laying eggs. Thus soap and lume or clay are useless ingredients and lime may seriously interfere with the effectiveness of a wash in moist climates. We do not believe a poison like Paris green adds anything to the effectiveness ofa wash, and it may prove a dangerous ingredient, as with glue or white paint. The theory upon which the poison is sup- posed to work is a wrong one. The newly-hatched borer does not deliberately eat its way through the wash and thus get some of the poison, according to the theory, but it seeks a minute crack or crevice _ and works its way in below the surface bark, on which the wash is applied, before it begins to eat. We believe this last fact, regarding the entrance of the newly-hatched borer into the tree, will explain much of the ineffectiveness of washes. It is very difficult to so thoroughly cover the bark of even a young peach tree that many minute cracks will not be left or soon be made through the wash by climatic conditions or by the growth of the tree. 16 242 Buuuetin 176, Crude carbolic acid is another favorite ingredient in washes. Hale says it is the meat” of his wash, on the theory that its odor is offensive to the moths. In our experience in combating the peach- tree borer or any other insect, we have seen little or no evidence that substances having offensive odors had any repellant effect in keeping the insect away from the food-plant of its progeny. Asafetida did not in our experiments, and we do not believe that any of the effect- iveness of tarred paper protectors was due to their odor, for others get just as good results from newspapers; they form a mechanical and not an odorous barrier to the insect. Hence, we do not believe that carbolic acid is a useful ingredient of washes. Most, perhaps all, of the washes act simply as a preventive, mechanical coating over the bark to keep the newly-hatched borers out. Such substances as raupenlerm, dendrolene, and gas tar seem to be ideal washes, but the two first usually kill young trees, and the last also has a similar reputation in some localities, although we saw no evidence to indicate that tar was injurious to well-established young peach trees. Perhaps some one can so modify these ideal washes as to retain their effectiveness as a preventive and yet elimi- nate their plant-injuring qualities. Future compounders of washes should work along this line. We think that most of the above generalizations regarding washes may also apply to washes designed to prevent the work of the apple- tree borer. When to apply washes or other preventive measures.— In New York the applications should be made between June 15th and July Ist, and they should remain in perfect working order until October Ist. In Canada, July 15th will usually be soon enough to make applications, and they should last until November. In the South, the applications should be made in April and they will apparently have to last for three or four months. Read the detailed discus- sions of the different methods for instructions how they are to be applied. final conclusions.— In our four years of warfare against the peach-tree borer we have been thoroughly convinced that it is a very difficult inseec enemy to control. No method of fighting it has yet been devised by which the peach-grower can hope to get a Tue Pracu-Trer Borer. 243 single year’s respite; the trees must be treated anew each year and thus the warfare is a perpetual one. The following substances injured or killed our trees and are there- fore classed as dangerous : Paris green and glue, Raupentleim, | Dendrolene, White paint, White paint and Paris green, Printer’s ink. The following is a list of the things we found to be practically ineffectual or useless : Wire cages, Carbon bisulphide, Asafetida and aloes, Lime, salt and sulphur, Resin wash, Hard soap, Tallow, Tansy, Whale-oil soap, Whitewash, Lime and linseed oil, Hydraulic cement wash, Pine tar, Hales wash (1 application). The following methods proved to be gutte effective, that is, most of them kept out over 4 of the borers: Hale's wash (2 applications) kept out 4 to 4. Mounding kept out 4 to {%. | Tarred paper kept out $ to &. Tobacco stems kept out % to 3. We would expect equally as good results from the “ digging-out” method applied under the conditions stated on pages 208 and 237. Gas tar (p. 235) gave us the best results of anything we tried. We doubt if the applications listed as quite effective would prove as effective if used alone, hence we would recommend that they be 944 Bouwuetin 176. combined with the “ digging-out ” method for the reasons mentioned on pages 208 and 237. Make whichever combination best suits your conditions. If you find, after a preliminary test on a few trees, that you can use gas tar without injuring your trees, we believe it will prove to be the most effective and cheapest method of fighting the peach-tree borer; but use it carefully and intelligently, as trees have been injured by its use. We began this investigation confident that some sure preventive of the entrance of the borers into the trees would be found. There was nothing lacking on our part to have the substances we tested do all that they were recommended or expected to do. We did not accomplish our ideal, but we have demonstrated that nine-tenths of the methods recommended are useless. Our experiments furnish much definite data for future workers, and form a definite basis on which to make suggestions regarding methods of fighting the apple- tree borer and other borers. Our experiments must lead to a much more rational and intelligent warfare against the peach-tree borer. - Peach-growers will now know what not to do, which is often equally as valuable and important as to know what to do. Finally, our experiments have enabled us to point out with confidence certain methods by which the peach-grower may hope to control his worst insect enemy — the peachi-tree borer. Tur Pracu-TrREE Borer. 245 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MORE IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS 1749. 1771. 1801. 1802. 1803. 1804. 1805. 1808. TO THE LITERATURE OF THE PEACH-TREE BORER. Kalm, P. Travels in North America, Trans. by Forster, II., 244. Appar- ently the first reference to the insect. See note below frontispiece. Cooper, J. Submitted a paper to Am. Phil. Soc. ‘‘On the Nature of the Worms so Prejudical to the Peach-trees for Some Years Past, and a Method of Preventing the Damage in Future.” The Society ordered the paper to be printed in the Pennsylvania Gazette and Journal, This paper has not been accessible to us. Ellis, J. Papers on Agr., Mass. Agr. Soc., p. 25, 26; same account in Mass. Agr. Soc. Papers for 1803, and in Trans. Am. Phil Soc., V., 325. Brief and fairly correct account submitted as Prize Essay ($30 prize) some time before 1800 to Am. Phil. Society. Recommends bind- ing on straw when trees are in bloom, removing it in the fall. Barton, B.S. Philosophical Mag., X XII., 208 (pub. in 1805). Foot note as follows: ‘‘The insects most pernicious to this tree are two lepidop- terious insects, of the genus zygena of Fabricius. These while in the larva state destroy the bark of the root.” Partly quoted by Kirby and Spence in their Introduction to Entomology, I., 198 (1815). Mease, J. Domestic Encyclopedia, IV., 243-44. Brief account. Recom- mends mounding, soap-suds, and quotes Ellis. Barton B.8. Essay on ‘‘ A Number of the Pernicious Insects of the United States,” submitted to the Am. Phil. Soc. It was partly read on Nov. 16, 1804, and received the Magellanic Premium on Dec. 21, 1804. The essay was returned for alterations in 1805, and we are unable to find that it was ever published. It is recorded (Harris in 1826) that the insect was described and given its first scientific name of Zygena persice in this apparently unpublished essay. Barton, B.S. Phil. Med. and Physical Journal, I1., pt. IL., p. 29. Brief notice as being destructive to roots of peach. No description of moth. Cooper, J. Mem. Phila. Soc. Prom. Agr., I., 11-14. (Paper read Jan. 14, 1806.) Brief but very good account of the life-history and methods of controlling the insect. The ‘‘freezing-out” process unsuccessful. A combination of the ‘‘digging-out” and ‘‘mounding ” methods was very successful. Peters, R. Mem. Phila. Sec. Prom. Agr., I., 15-19. (Paper read Feb. 11, 1806.) Records failure to prevent the work of the borers by the use of 25 or more different ‘‘ washes” and othermethods. Recommends expos- ing roots in winter and using boiling hot soap suds or water in August or September. Matlack, T. Mem. Phila. Soc. Prom. Agr., I., 373-79. Supposed there were two broods of the borers. Detailed account of successful use of sand (not loam) in earthen cylinder or in a pile around base of tree. 246 1813. 1824. 1826. - Buruerin 176. Cocke, J. H. Mease’s Archives of Useful Knowledge, III., 40-42. Same account in American Furmer (1820) I., 350. Good brief account of life- history. Failed with straw, but was very successful with tobacco leaves. “WwW. T. (Wash., D. C.). Vhe Plough Boy, 1., 331. Brief account of life- history. Counted 678 eggs in one female. Thacher, J. American Orchardist, 198. Brief account quoted from Mease (1803). Say, T. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., III., 216. Original description of moth as exttiosa. Pupa and cocoon described. Worth, J. Jour. Acad, Nat. Sci., III., 217-221. Very good account of the life-history of the insect; egg first described. A sensible discussion of methods then recommended. Recommends a bandage of tow fol- lowed by a soft soap or lime-wash. Sameaccountin American Farmer, IV., 395; and also in Mem. Bd. of Agr. of New York, III. (1826), p. 421. “Agricola” (N. Car.). American Furmer, V., 118. Brief account of life-history, thought moths perforated bark to lay eggs. Quotes Til- ton’s experience with hot water, and also the recommendations of Peters, Coxe and Cocke. Harris, T. W. Letters to Say and replies published in Psyche, VI., 58, 60, 122, 123-24 (1891). Brief notice; proposed to call it persice ; bred from cherry also. Shotwell, W. American Farmer, V1., 14. Records the successful use of a lime mortar wash. Thomas E. American Farmer, V1., 87. Erroneous account of the life- historv; thought there were two broods. Briefly described ‘the female only as an Hymenopteron, Apis persica. Borers numerous on nursery stock. Same account in New Hngland Farmer, Ii1., p. 12. Smith, J. whee enerte plouas1y waaL) ‘quo, [°° * *aTqeiepisuog |---*- afqvieptsuop |-*-3"°°°* amon [ott igs deters QUONT [toot ett tte plowesry yurg a ‘OI0A0S AIO A. s 98 es OTQA09 AIO A aie © we d[QBlopIsuoD setonte tt OgekeG ee eee eeee a1dA0G Fiaps) Sheasy sre iS, ellel« «elas sulel alee 2 TRAN TED “eg is ‘quoNy |****tarqedapIswog |-+°°- “myaqnog | -77"*t' sts amon [ttt tts t+ ouONy forties vee ce ot te semuoag m0018) 5S UO Kia | a Shee qYSIT9 see e ee “' 4aqSI1g sists s 4 HORE tt 2? ee Tot GMO. 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The physiologi- cal effects of the arsenites are recorded in Table I. Slugs were not numerous, but were plentiful enough fora fair test. Both strengths of Paris green, Paragrene, XX, and Green Arsenoid killed all the slugs. A very few sick ones were found when both strengths of Pink Arsenoid, Green Arsenoid No. 53 and Green Arsenite had been sprayed, yet it would pass for a clean sweep. 7 III. Tur Composirion or ARSENITES. The analyses of the insecticides used in these experiments con- sisted chiefly in determining the amount of arsenic, the arsenic soluble in water, and the copper. The arsenic soluble in water was found by shaking the insecticide in water for one hour, at the rate of one pound to one hundred gallons, and determining the amount of arsenic dissolved. Comparing Table II with Table I it will be seen that in proportion as the amount of soluble arsenic in an insecticide increases, its injury to foliage likewise becomes greater. At the rate arsenites are commonly used (4 lb. per bbl.), the burning is not noticeable with insecticides having less than 35 per cent of soluble arsenic. Anybody but a chemist is likely to become confused over the nomenclature of poisons. Arsenite isa general term for all com- pounds of arsenious oxid (As, O;), the active element in all these materials. Arsenoid isa trade name, not a chemical compound, and simply means arsenic-like. An arsenate is a compound of arsenic acid (As, O;). None of the materials mentioned here is an arsenate. When the term arsenic is used in connection with insecti- cides, we mean what is ordinarily called white arsenic (As, O;) and not the metal arsenic (As). In the table copper is given as. copper oxid (Cu O), lead as lead oxid (Pb O) and lime as caleum oxid (Ca O). The sulfuric acid (S O,) has no insecticidal effect. 268 Buiietin 177. TABLE II. ANALYSES OF ARSENITES. ASp Oz ASp O3 “Res NS] O3 Insecticide. Arsenic, | Arsenic, | Qopper oxid, | Sulfuric Total. soluble. acid. Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Paris sreem Yi 2 A a es 56.45 1.83 | 23.62 Sy PAE AP TONE CLES. bE) s a. $008 Sates ponigta te 59.57 3.21 | 27.68 1.384 SEEPS MIPSCINGE 5 foci ak Oe ate eee 54.10 2.36 | 31.59 + (| ee oe PS OF lero Bc wseuare te): 30:41 32.23 See PSEMONC oh te ae ate cing too ree eS 6s 49.17 1.93 | 49.09(Pb O) Green arsenbdid 152490)... 000 8%. OY 60.63 3.53 | 29.29 1.55 Green arsenoid INO: Bax... ¢.i. ase = 53.71 §.33. |. 29.43 3.70 In Bulletin 149, page 720, the following analysis of Laurel green was published : Cofiper! (@n): to. Janoiia..adt : ... . 10.00 per cent. Awsenie (AROs)nocu, sot .seuiea 2: BGS isis This year an insecticide manufactured by the same firm and labeled Special Laurel Green analyzed : PEERIC 1 eC),). Lobel. 2. cio aetna a 42.69 per cent. J fT ra OL OGG ate aan SS sai Vopper Oxid (CuGy. sais veo ea eae 4.50 ie FAO) es pS oe oe Se esis ee Do. jn ae With its present composition this material evidently has value as an insecticide, although no field tests have been made here. It is manufactured by the Nichols Chemical Company of New York and retails for 123 cents per pound. Heretofore the ammonia test has been aderised for detecting the purity of Paris green. The pure Paris green which has been on the market in the past does dissolve in ammonia completely ; but this year samples have been received for analysis which do not, aithough containing the 50 per cent of arsenic required by New York State law. The reason is that they contain lime as well as Sprayinc Nores. 269 copper, and the lime compound with arsenic is insoluble in ammonia water. Although this material is a good insecticide, it is not Paris green. The specific gravity of wmsecticides.— An important point in every insecticide applied with water is the time’ it will remain in suspension. If the arsenite sinks to the bottom of the barrel in a few minutes, as does Paris green, there is an unequal distribu- tion of the poison and the concentrated mixture at the bottom is likely to burn the folage. Frequent stirring is an inconvenience. Generally speaking, the lighter and more floeculent an insecticide is, the longer it will stay in suspension. Assuming the Paris green to be 10, the various insecticides compare with it in weight as fol- lows: Green arsenite, 10; pink arsenoid, 9; paragrene, 7; green arsenoid, 7; XX, 4; green arsenoid No. 53, 4. Equal amounts of the above arsenites shaken in water followed approximately the same order in settling, Paris green and green arsenite settling first and No. 53 last. The heavy specific gravity of Paris green is one of its weak points as an insecticide. SUMMARY OF INSECTICIDES. Paragrene.— Manufactured by Fred L. Lavenburg, New York. Price 144 cents per pound in 14-pound pail. It has equal insecti- cidal value with Paris green, is about as likely to burn the foliage and remains longer in suspension. We consider it an excellent substitute. Green arsenite.—(Arseniate of copper, Scheele’s green.) This is practically the same as Paris green in composition, and has the same effect on foliage. Its fungicidal value is slightly greater than Paris green owing to the higher percentage of copper oxid. When it can be obtained as cheaply as Paris green, it may be given preference. Pink arsenoid.— Manufactured by the Adler Color and Chemi- _eal Works, Brooklyn, N. Y. Retail price 15 cents per pound at N.Y.,f.0.b. It is slightly inferior to Paris green as an insecticide, and has decidedly less fungicidal value, since the lead oxid it contains, corresponding to the copper oxid of Paris green, has little if any 270 Buxuuetin 177. merit as a fungicide. The pink color may be objectionable. Paris green has been so long in common use that people instinctively associate an arsenical poison with a green color. This material is apparently not as valuable as the following, manufactured by the same firm. Green arsenoid.— Retails for 15 cents per pound, f.o. b. It is slightly superior to Paris green in composition and appears to be equally safe on foliage when applied at the ordinary strength. The powder is more flocculent than Paris green, about a third lighter and remains correspondingly longer in suspension. With its pres- ent composition and price we feel justified in recommending it for practical use. Green arsenoid No. 53.— The most serious objection to this material is that its comparatively high percentage of soluble arsenic makes it liable to burn the foliage. It is about equal to Paris green in insecticidal value, superior to it as a fungicide and is remarkably slow in settling from a spraying mixture. Provided the soluble arsenic were neutralized with lime, No. 53 would make an efficient and economical substitute for Paris green. Arsenite of lime.— This has the three-fold advantage of being cheap, the amount of arsenic is under perfect control, and it does not burn the foliage. It is made by boiling together for forty-five minutes 1 pound white arsenic, 2 pounds fresh lime, 1 gallon water. This may be kept in a tight vessel and used as desired. Thor- oughly stir the material before using. For most insects one quart of the above per barrel will be sufficient. Arsenite of lime is insoluble in water and will not injure the foliage of any orchard fruit at this strength. This insecticide is growing in popularity. Some green dye stuff should be mixed with it to prevent the ever- present danger of mistaking it for some other material. ITV. Tuer Burning or Fortace py FunGIcIpEs. The effect on Japanese plums.— The foliage of the Japanese plums is so extremely sensitive to injury from fungicides and insec- Sprayine Nortss. 271 ticides that one must always be cautious when spraying this class of fruit. The apparently increasing susceptibility of the Japanese plums to the fruit rot (monilia) makes it essential to take some pre- ventive measure. It cannot be said that spraying is always an abso- lute specitic for the fruit rot. In a wet season no advantage may be noted. Through a series of years, however, a faithful combina- tion of spraying, thinning the fruit and destroying the diseased fruit can be depended upon to prevent serious Injury. The standard fungicide for the Japanese plums is Bordeaux mixture. Bulletin 164 contains an account of the shot-hole effect produced by Bordeaux on plums and peaches. Tis injury has been observed for several years as resulting from even the most carefully prepared Bordeaux. During the past season, experiments were made to determine the effect of copper carbonate and potassium sulfide on Japanese plum foliage. The copper carbonate was applied in an ammoniacal solution at the usual strength: the potas- sium sulfide at the rate of one ounce toa gallon of water. Both were slightly more injurious to the foliage than Bordeaux. Since it is not probable that either has a greater fungicidal value than Bordeaux, there can be no advantage in displacing the older fungicide. The effect of copper sulfate on foliage.— It would be difficult to find a material of greater fungicidal value than Bordeaux mixture, yet it becomes a practical point to combine the same efficiency with greater ease in application and less danger of injury to the foliage. Those who have used a solution of copper sulfate find it to be an excellent fungicide. From laboratory studies we know that a very weak solution of blue vitriol will prevent the germination of fungi spores, but it is a question if it will have the same value under the conditions of orchard and field. It is of importance to know whether the foliage will be injured by a solution strong enough to be an efficient fungicide. The spraying in our test of this point was done May 24, and the final records taken June 10, The barrel reported below holds 48 gallons, 972 Buuieti 177. TABLE III. Insury to For1ack From Copper SuLFATE SpRAYs. Foliage. 4 oz. per bbl. 8 oz. per bbl. 1 1b. per bbl. 2 1b. per bbl. ADPIGHil). seit) < Bai Doubtful....| Slight...... Considerable., Considerable. |g 2 ARS Sear esen Doubtful....| Slight.....-. BEVElC rc be Very severe. Peat argese. ses <8 Considerable | Considerable.} Severe ...... Very severe. BETS sl) Sas See aan NONE. coi. Slight. ...... Slights. 2... Severe. Plum (domestic)....}| Considerable | Considerable.| Severe .... .| Very severe. Plum (native)...... Bishh te conc Slight. ...... Considerable.| Considerable. Plain (Japan)... 2. Considerable.| Considerable.| Severe...... Very severe. Although no severe injury to the native plums is recorded in the table, it was incidentally brought out that there is considerable _yariation between the different varicties of this group in their susceptibility to injury. The variety under experiment was Golden Beauty. Some spray accidentally reached the leaves of an adjacent Munson and there caused serious injury. Most of the injury noted was in the spotting of the leaves. Wherever the fungicide clung, there the tissue was killed and ultimately fell out, producing a condition which might readily be mistaken for the effect of the shot-hole fungus. When copper sulfate was applied to peaches and domestic plums at the rate of 2 Ibs. per bbl., these perforations were so numerous that many leaves dropped. The young fruits of the Japanese plums were injured by the two strongest sprays. These tests do not throw any light on the value of copper sulfate for controlling plant diseases; they simply indicate that unless care- ful discrimination is made between varieties, only a very weak solu- tion can be used with safety to the foliage. Until the simple solution of copper sulfate has been tested further, there is no safer or surer orchard fungicide than well made Bordeaux mixture. On Japanese plums, apply it weak. It would be well to experiinent in applying it only in bright weather, Spraying Nores. 973 VARIOUS POINTS. 1. The San José scale can be controlled in a plantation by a 20 per cent kerosene and water mixture when the plant is thoroughly sprayed. Early spring or late fall spraying is preferable, but the material may be applied when the plant is in full leaf if the day is sunshiny. 2. Only on sunshiny days should sprays of kerosene and water be used. 3. Compared with fumigation on growing trees, spraying is cheaper, simpler, and perhaps equally effective in the long run. Nurserymen will find fumigation better adapted to their needs than spraying. On growing plants, however, it is attended with difficulty because of the necessity of providing tents. 4, Paragrene, green arsenite, green arsenoid and arsenite of lime are.equal if not superior to Paris green in insecticidal value. The reduced price of these substitutes willcommend them. Arsenite of lime can be made at home. 5. Bordeaux mixture is liable to injure the foliage of the Japanese plums, but no better fungicide for spraying this class of fruit is now known. ‘To avoid injury use a very dilute mixture. 6. Varieties of fruit differ in their susceptibility to injury from sprays. 7. Unless lime is added, a simple solution of copper sulfate as strong as four ounces per barrel cannot be used without injury to the foliage of many fruit trees, 18 THe Fottowinc BULLETINS ARE AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION TO Tuosr Wuo may Desire THEM. ; Removing Tassels from Corn, 9 pp. Greenhouse Notes, 31 pp. Apricot Growing in Western New York, 26 pp. The Cultivation of Orchards, 22 pp. Impressions of the Peach Industry in N. Y., 28 pp. Peach Yellows, 20 pp. Some Grape Troubles in Western N. Y., 116 pp. The Cabbage Root Maggot, 99 pp. Varieties of Strawberry Leaf Blight, 26 THe Quince in Western N. Y., 27 pp. Cigar Case- Bearer, 20 pp, Winter Muskmelons, 20 pp. Forcing House Miscellanies, 43 pp. Entomogenous Fungi, 42 pp. The Spraying of Trees and the Canker Worm, 24 pp. 3 General Observations in Care of Fruit Trees, 26 pp. Soil Depletion in Respect to Care of Fruit Trees, 21 pp. Climbing Cut Worms in Western N. Y., 51 PP. Geological History of the Chautauqua Grape Belt, 36 pp. Extension Work in Horticulture, 42 pp. Spraying Calendar. Dwarf Apples, 31 pp. Fruit Brevities, 50 pp. Texture of the Soil, 8 pp. Moisture of the Soil and Its Conservation, 24 pp. Sideeostions for Planting Shrubbery. Second Report upon Extension Work in Horticulture, 36 pp. Green Fruit Worms, 17 pp. The Pistol-Case Bearer in Western New York, 18 pp. A Disease of Currant Canes, 20 pp. The Currant-Stem Girdler and the Rasp- berry-Cane Maggott, 22 pp. A Second Account of Sweet Peas, 35 pp. A Talk about Dahlias, 40 pp. How to Conduct Field Experiments with Fertilizers, 11 pp. Potato Culture, 15 pp. N ans upon Plums for Western New York, 1 pp. 182 134 Notes upon Celery, 34 pp. Strawberries under Glass, 10 pp. Forage Crops, 28 pp. Chrysanthemums, 24 pp. Agricultural Extension Work, sketch of its Origin and Progress, 11 pp. Studies and Illustrations of Mushrooms; I., 32 pp. Third Report upon Japanese Plums. Second Report on Potato Culture, 24 PP. Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death Among Swill-Fed Hogs. The Codling-Moth. Sugar Beet Investigations, 88 pp. Suggestions on Spraying and on the San José Scale. Some Important Pear Diseases. Fourth Report of Progress on Extension Work, 26 pp. 147 Fourth Report upon Chrysanthemums, 36 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 pp. Quince Curculio, 26 pp. Some Spraying Mixtures. Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control. Gravity or Dilution Separators. Studies in Milk Secretion. Impressions of Fruit-Growing Industries. Table for Computing Rations for Farm Animals. Second Report on the San José Scale. Third Report on Potato Culture. Grape-vine Flee-beetle. Source of Gas and Taint Producing Bac- teria in Cheese Curd. An Effort to Help the Farmer. Hints on Rural School Grounds. Annual Flowers. The Period of Gestation in Cows. Three Important Fungous Diseases of the Sugar Beet. Peach Leaf-Curl. Ropiness in Milk and Cream. Sugar Beet Investigations for 1898. The Construction of the Stave Silo. ea and Illustrations of Mushrooms; Studies in Milk Secretion. Tent Caterpillars. : Concerning Patents on Gravity or Dilution Separators. Bulletins Issued Since the Close of the Fiscal Year, June 30, 1899. 171 Gravity or Dilution Separators. 172 The Cherry Fruit-Fly: A New Cherry Pest. 173 The Relation of Food to Milk-Fat. 174 The Problem of Impoverished Lands. 175 Fourth Report on Japanese Plums. 176 The Peach-Tree Borer. 177 Spraying Notes. 274 Bulletin 178. ; January, 1900. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, N. Y. DAIRY DIVISION. The Invasion of the Udder by Bacteria. COLONIES OF BACTERIA IN A GELATIN PLATE CULTURE FROM AN UDDER. By ARCHIBALD R. WARD. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1900, . ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. : GEO. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. W. A. MURRILL, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. Mrs. MARY ROGERS MILLER, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. S. W. FLETCHER, Extansion Work. C. E. HUNN, Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. W. E. GRIFFITH, Dairy Husbandry. Mrs. A. B. COMSTOCK, Nature-Study. ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Nature-Study. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of Director, Room 20, Morrill Hall. 276 _Corne.u UnNIversiry, IrHaca, N. Y., Jan. 30, 1900. THE HonoraB_E ComMMIssIONER OF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY, N. Y.: Sir.— This bulletin is submitted for publication under Chapter 430 of the Laws of 1899. Whether or not, bacteria invade the milk channels of the normal udder further than the milk duct of the teat, is a problem which dairy bacteriologists have vainly sought to answer satisfactorily. This bulletin contains a description of a unique method of throw- ing light upon this subject together with the facts determined by an application of the method to the study of the udders of nineteen cows. The fact that milk may become contaminated by bacteria before it leaves the small milk ducts of the cow’s udder has a broad and direct application to the methods employed in the production of milk by the most progressive dairymen. . | The conclusions embodied in this bulletin are general in nature but it is believed that future investigations will reveal more specific facts concerning this hitherto unrecognized source of the contamina- tion of milk. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. 277 Description of Plate. Photograph of a section of an udder injected through the teats with a mixture of lampblack and gelatin. The gelatin is removed from the teats and cisterns in order to show the lining mucous mem- branes of those cavities. The jet black areas throughout the whole section indicate the presence of the lactiferous ducts which com- municate with the cisterns. The finest ramifications of those ducts, almost invisible to the naked eye, are manifest by the darkening of the cut surface exposed to view. 278 ‘aHdad{/) NV AO NOILOUS —']T ALVId THE INVASION OF THE UDDER BY BACTERIA. > BY ARCHIBALD R. WARD. The designation of the sources from which bacteria gain access to milk is one of the important results of the application of bacteriology to the amelioration of the dairy industry. Among dairy bac- teriologists there isa marked unanimity of opinion concerning the presence of micro-organisms in unclean utensils, the dust in the air of stables and in the first milk drawn from the teats at each milking. The necessity for the application of precautions to prevent the con- tamination of milk from those sources is well recognized and is exhaustively discussed in the more recent dairy literature.* Concerning the place at which milk first becomes contaminated with bacteria is a controverted matter among bacteriologists at the present time. The more generally accepted views are expressed in the following quotations. Grotenfelt + says that “When the milk is first drawn from the udder of a healthy cow it is germ free or sterile. The original sterility of normal milk is due to the fact that the bacteria can not gain access to the milk glands from without as long as the udder is not injured in any way.” The translator of Grotenfelt’s work adds in a footnote this statement made by Lehmann ¢{: “The bacteria in the milk cisterns will be largely washed out by the first milk drawn, but not all removed until milk- ing has progressed some time.” v. Freudenreich § holds a somewhat similar view. In his dairy bacteriology the following is found: “ In the udder, milk is germ *H. L. Russell, Dairy Bacteriology. Ed. v. Freudenreich, Dairy Bacteriology, translated by J. R. A. Davis. R. A: Pearson, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 63, U. S. Department of Agriculture. + Gésta Grotenfelt, The Principles of Modern Dairy Practice, translated by F. W. Woll, p. 28. t Lehmann, 17te Versammlung d. deut. Ver. f. offent. Gesundheitspflege. § Dr. Ed. v. Freudenreich, Die Bakteriologie in der Milchwirthschaft, 2d edition, p. 25. 281 282 Butietin 178. free except when the milk glands are diseased, as with tuberculosis, or with mammitis. In such cases the tubercle bacilli or those causing the inflammation, are present in the milk when drawn. At other times,.it is germ free as was shown by Pasteur by drawing the milk direct from the udder through a sterile cannula.” In discussing the sources of contamination of milk, v. Freud- enreich mentions that the first milk drawn always contains bacteria. These he says, have invaded the teat since the previous milking and are all washed out, so that sterile milk can be obtained toward the latter part of each milking. This explanation of the presence of bacteria in the fore milk is apparently based upon the experiments in which sterile milk has been obtained from the udder. Schultz,*+ Gernhardt,? Lehmann,? Moore,’ and Backhaus and Cronheim® have worked along this line, merely succeeding in demonstrating that sterile samples may be occasionally obtained from the strippings. Moreover v. Freudenreich’s results, with the milking tube experi- ment suggested by Pasteur, are diametrically opposed to those of Bolley and Hall.t These writers made a study of the bacteria pres- ent in the milk cistern of the normal udder, drawing their samples by means of a sterilized cannula inserted well into the cistern. Bolley questions the accuracy of the dictum: “In the healthy - udder, milk is germ free of sterile.’ He says, “Germs nearly always gain admission to the interior of the teats, and often perhaps, the milk cistern proper where some types may multiply in great numbers.” *1 Schultz, Archiv. f. Hygiene, XIV (1892) p. 260. * Gernhardt, Quant. Spaltpilzunters d. Milch, Inaug. Dissert, Univ. quigemt 3’ Lehmann, loc. cit. 4 Moore, Preliminary Investigations Concerning the Number and Nature of Bac- teria in Freshly Drawn Milk. Twelve and Thirtcenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. 8. Dep’t of Agr., p. 261. >Backhaus and Cronheim, Ber. Landw. Inst. Univ. Kénigsberg, 2 (1897). pp. 12-82. Abstracted in the Experiment Station Record Vol. X, No. 1, p. 87. + Bolley and Hall, Uberdie Kontanz von Bacterien Arten in Normaler Erste Roh Milch. Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologie u. Parasitenkunde. II Abt., 1 Band No. 22-23. H. L. Bolley, North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 21, p. 164. INVASION OF THE Upper By Bacteria. 283 The writer * has concluded, chiefly from a study of the bacterial flora of fore milk that (1) certain species of bacteria normally persist in particular quarters of the udder for considerable periods of time. (2) It is possible for bacteria to remain in the normal udder and not be ejected along with the milk. These conclusions controvert the statement that the milk ducts are always sterile at the close of the milking, becoming tenanted from the outside alone by organisms which chance to come in contact with the end of the duct. Moore pointed out the importance of a study of the bacterial flora of the normal udder, and to that end suggested that bacterio- logic examinations should be made of the udders of freshly-killed milch cows. After making a fruitless effort to obtain udders for the purpose from sound cows, he deemed it expedient to avail him- self of opportunities offered by the slaughter of tuberculous milch cows. In January, 1898, Dr. Moore and the writer, who was priv- ileged to associate with him, were given opportunity to examine the udders of six cows, slanghtered after reacting to the tuberculin test. The animals were apparently in good condition and the udders normal in appearance. The port mortem examinations showed the tubercular lesions to be restricted to a few small nodules in the branchial and pharyngeal glands.t After the bacteriologic examina- tion the udders were carefully scrutinized for tubercular or other lesions without finding them. The results of those examinations, briefly given in a former publication,{ opened up a broad and almost totally unexplored field of research for dairy bacteriologists. The present publication contains a more extended account of the methods employed and the results obtained from examinations made in co-operation with Dr. Moore and of subsequent ones con- ducted by the writer independently. The udders of nineteen milch cows from five different dairies have been examined. Six of these, Group I, were made at Elmira, as already noted; two, Group LI, at * A. R. Ward, The Persistence of Bacteria in the Milk Ducts of the Cow’s Udder. Journal of Applied Microscopy, Vol. I, No. 12, p. 205. + The fact that the six animals were selected as the least diseased out of a herd of seventy-five condemned animals explains the apparently remarkable restric- tion of the tubercular lesions. ¢ V. A. Moore and A. R. Ward, Bulletin No. 158, Cornell University Agricul- tural Experiment Station. 984 Bu.uetTin 178. Albany; two, Group III, at Richfield Springs; five, Group IV, were made at Syracuse; and four, Group V, near Elmira. Meruops. The bacteriologic examinations of the udders have of necessity been confined to those of tuberculous milch cows. But in no ease was the udder tuberculous or otherwise abnormal in appearance. Whether or not a few tubercular lesions in organs far distant from the udder bring about an abnormal invasion of the udder by bacteria is a question which the writer, in the absence of oa to the contrary, is inclined to answer niebontiv dle Just before slaughtering samples of the fore milk were taken and the animals milked as thoroughly as possible under the exciting conditions surrounding them. For convenience in noting results the gland was divided arbitrarily into three parts, as follows: (A) The lower third, including the teat and cistern ; (B) the middle third, which includes the lower half of the gland proper, and (C) the upper third, which includes the remaining portion of the gland. After the cow was slaughtered the udder was carefully removed. The skin was reflected and a flamed knife was used to make an incision extending from the upper part of the udder to the cistern, and of such depth as to expose tissues in the vicinity of the vertical axis of the gland. Alcohol lamp, scalpels, curved scissors, tenaculum, tweezers and platinum loop were found useful in this and in the following proceedings. In making cultures from the glandular tissue care was taken to prevent milk of the ventral region from coming in contact with the freshly exposed surfaces which normally lie above the cistern. Bits of tissue were detached with flamed scissors and transferred to culture media by the use of a flamed platinum loop or tweezers. In some of the earlier examinations made tubes of gelatin and slanted agar were inoculated in this manner from each of the three arbitrarily designated divisions of the quarter. Later, after it was recognized that bacteria are broadly distributed in the udder, the use of slanted agar was discontinued, as it did not permit of the isolation of species. ; Upon returning to the laboratory, the gelatin was liquefied at a temperature not exceeding 87°C. and poured into sterile Petri INVASION OF THE UppER By BACTERIA. 285 dishes, where it again became solid. Agar plate cultures were made from the milk samples, and, together with those slanted agar cul- tures already inoculated, were placed in the incubator. -The agar plate cultures were designed to be used as a check upon the reli- ability of the conclusions reached from an examination of the other cultures. For instance, it might be possible than organisms which appeared to have been obtained from the interior of the udder may have lodged upon the bits of tissue during the transfer. The iden- tity in cultural and morphologic characters of bacteria found in the fore milk and in the glandular tissue of the udder would largely eliminate a source for false conclusions. The tubes of slanted agar, after standing in the incubator for several days, were examined particularly with reference to the presence or absence of growth. Note was taken of the color and character of the growth of the colonies, and sub-cultures were made. The gelatin plate cultures * were in like manner examined, and furnished a more satisfactory method for obtaining pure cultures. With these, a direct comparison made it possible to trace the pres- ence of the same organism in the three localities. In order to prove that these identities existed, sub-cultures were made for a more detailed comparison later. The plate cultures made from the milk were examined and sub-cultures were made from all of the appa- rently different colonies. In the examinations of udders 7 and 8, bits of tissue were brought to the laboratory in sterile test tubes. They were then placed in cool liquid agar and treated thereafter similar to gelatin. The results from this use of agar were less satisfactory than those from gelatin, since the growth of most species is less distinctive upon agar. * The gelatin plate pictured on the first cover page gives an idea of the num- ber of colonies occurring in the cultures made from the glandular tissue of the udder. The culture was rather old when photographed. Hence the colonies are larger and have become more confluent than when first examined. The bit of glandular tissue may be seen as an irregular shaped black area near the center of the plate culture, . The illustration is about one-half the diameter of the original plate. 286 Butietin 178. BacteRIoLogic EXAMINATION OF THE GLANDULAR TISSUE. Group 1.—In this examination* a large number of sub-cultures were made. The growth of the cultures was studied on several kinds of media and each was examined microscopically. They were found to be nearly all micrococci and to belong to one of three species. A spore bearing bacillus belonging to the Bacillus subtilis group and another organism probably B. fluorescens liquefaciens were occasionally encountered in this and the following examina- tions. It is possible that they are contaminations, but our lack of knowledge of the bacteria in freshly drawn milk renders it unsafe to deny their presence within the udder. A number of other cul- tures, each found in but a single instance, were discarded. The writer does not wish to be understood as offering the following brief summaries of cultural characters as full descriptions. The loss of most of the cultures has rendered it impossible to present but little more information concerning their cultural characteristics than was considered in classifying them into the three groups of similar cultures. Micrococcus No. 1. Morphology. A micrococcus about 1» in diameter. Staining.— Stained readily by the common anilin dyes. Agar.— The growtht is white, shiny and viscid rather than friable. : Alkaline bouillon.—This medium becomes slightly clouded with the deposition of a white sediment easily disseminated by agitation. The reaction remains constantly alkaline. Ten per cent gelatin, stab.— Colonies are white and are very slightly depressed, due apparently to a slight liquefaction. In a stab culture the needle’s path is marked by a whitish growth. The surface exhibits a white colony of creamy consistency, but no gene- ral liquefaction occurs even after a month’s growth. * The writer is indebted to Dr. Cooper Curtice for the privilege of examining the above group of udders. + The temperature, except in the case of gelatin cultures is to be understood as 37.5 degrees centigrade. INVASION oF THE Upprr sy BAcrTeERIA. 287 Fermentation tube.— Growth in one per cent solutions of glucose and of lactose in bouillon occurs only in the open arm of the tube. The reaction remains alkaline. Mitik.— Litmus milk remains blue and is not visibly changed. TABLE No. I. Tue Source oF Purr Cuurures or Micrococcus No. 1. Udder. Quarter of udder. Region. ee Right fore, eo stows sas Fore milk and strippings. 32 NS ee ia Right hind 504045305 B (see description of diagram). eR ech o. <5» vary bis Bel LOL ios oy pce Sere vi: ee A ‘3 eae Be ene 5 ss 50) os BIEN TOTES oi... isis. ee A, C, also fore milk. pee Veneto 32 1). Ahi Righs(fores:. 3. 90084 Fore milk. Micrococcus No. 2. Morphology.— A micrococcus about 1y in diameter. Staining.— Stained readily by the common anilin dyes. Agar.— Color* varies from cream white to ocher depending upon age and other undetermined conditions. _ During active growth the color assumes successively the tints lying between cream white and ocher. The color is the distinguishing feature of the growth upon agar. The color of old cultures fades. Alkaline bouitlon.— Growth renders the liquid clouded, with the deposition of a yellowish sediment. Reaction remains constantly alkaline. Miik.— Milk is coagulated in from three to five days. Ten per cent gelatin, stab— This medium is gradually liquefied, the fluid becoming turbid, while a yellowish sediment is deposited. The liquefaction extends downward in a zone involving the whole area of the tube, but preceded slightly by a pit following the track of the inoculating needle. Fermentation tube.— Growth in one per cent solutions of glucose and lactose in bouillon, occurs only in the open arm of the tube. The reaction remains alkaline. * The writer employs Saccardo’s color chart for the nomenclature of colors. 288 Bouiuetin 178. TABLE No. II. Tue Source oF Purr Cutrurses or Micrococcus No. 2. Udder. Quarter of udder. Region. Tn PEE ye ne a, i ay? Sali ayia te Ais ett hind. 2s. o5 ee cme oe eee A. SEN, 1 OAS a ae Ree Senter ee Right ind 55's eas tay «Ph hehe B. enh ee ote cata s Sie aac ee oe me Riehit tore 22 2 Poo A. SEE SE id Sa Oe a MER Sone oo ee itieht fore, .: Ae eee ee B. ce ah a rm ee ee a Wi | PRIDE AOKE 5, oie «it seh ice oe ee A. Micrococcus No. 3. Morphology.— A micrococeus about 1» in diameter. Staining.— Stained readily by the common anilin dyes employed in the laboratory. Agar.— Growth is lemon yellow in color and somewhat viscid in consistency. Alkaline bouillon.— The fluid becomes slightly clouded with the formation of a lemon yellow pellicile and deposition of a sediment of the same color. The reaction remains alkaline. Milk.— The casein is precipitated in six days with an alkaline reaction. It is rapidly digested during the few following days, form- ing a yellowish liquid. Ten per cent gelatin, stab— This medium is gradually trans- formed by liquefaction into a fluid of yellow color. Lermentation tube.— Fermentation tubes containing a one per cent solution of glucose or of lactose in bouillon, show a cloudiness in the open arm of the tube only. The reaction remains alkaline. TABLE No. III. Tue Source or Pure Cuttures or Micrococcus No. 3. Cow. Quarter of udder. Region. Peed 03.0. tete: aah, ehhh Right hind......2..... Gil abed B. (C2 Svc Sa ai etic eeu aye rite Phat Right fore...... Wave ty eee eae A. ree te Peaks Sek. fa se Slave x male ae Hipht fore?t 232). sR 2 B. INVASION OF THE UppER sy BACTERIA. 289 A considerable number of tubes of slanted agar were inoculated with bits of tissue, the size of a pea, taken from the several regions of the six udders comprising group 1. The results are summarized in the following table. TABLE No. IV. Agar Siant Cuttures Mapr rrom Uppers, Group 1. inocu- Source. Resulting growth. 26 | Regions A, B and C of! In 22, a confused mass of white, ocher four quarters. and lemon yellow colored colonies of micrococci., Nos.,:1, 2 and. 38. In 4, B. subtilis (2) only. Milk, right fore quarter. | Pure culture of micrococcus No, 1. Region A, right fore quar | Pure culture of micrococcus No. 2. CU ter. Region B, right fore quar | Micrococcus No. 1 and spore bearer. ter. Region C, right fore quar-| Clear. ter. Region C, right fore quar} Pure culture of mocrococcus No. 1. ter. 15 | 5 each from A, B, % right} 3 remained sterile, 12 exhibited a con fore quarter. fused mass of colonies of species 1, 2 and 3. 8 | A, Band C of right fore Confused mass of colonies of species quarter. 1, 2 and 3. 18 | A, B and C of right fore} 1 from A remained sterile. Remainder quarter. showed species 1, 2 and 3. 23 | A, Band C of four quar-| 6 overgrown by a member of B. sub- ters. tilis group. Remainder presented a confused mass of species 1, 2 and 3. 19 290 Butyetin 178. Udder No.1. Right fore Right: Hine Left fore. Left Hind No.1. o 2. Not Examined No: 2. No. 3, No. 4. No. 5. No growth on twe gelatin plates. A third contains No. 1. : Nai m pure Cultute Ne growth on two gelatin, plates. Two others have a bacillus in pure cultute. No gtowth an gelatin plate No.% Tecognised Nogtowth an gelatin, Not Examined Udder No.6. Left Fore Right Fore Right Hind Left Hind _ Not Examined No. 1. No.1. Not Examinea Not Examined A Graphic Representation of the Bacterial Flora of Udders Nos. 1 to 6. The areas designated by the letters A, B, C, indicate the three arbitrary divisions into which the gland was divided for purposes of examination. A fig- ure (1, 2, or 3) in the canal of the teat indicates that a culture of the micrococcus bearing that number was isolated from a sample of the fore milk. Figures else- where indicate that either a pure culture of the species in question was obtained from the place indicated or that colonies of that species were recognized from peculiarities of growth. One-quarter only of udders Nos. 2, 8, 4 and 5, three of No. 6 and four of No. 7 were examined. TABLE No. V. INVASION OF THE UDDER BY Bacteria. 291 SuMMARY OF RESULTS OF THE BACTERIOLOGIC EXAMINATION OF Uppers Nos. 1 To 6. Udder | Quar- No. ter. eT rh EF R: Eb LiKe fas Fi, 2;1R.F Re- gion. - 2 ‘) eles) Qw i) OS. > oom Ee wooo wo Gelatin plate cultures. Numerous. No cultures made. No cultures made. 16 colonies of two species. 1st. Liquefied JB. Jluorescens liquefa-| ciens (?). 2d. Colonies like re- gion A and B, flour- escens liquefaciens 9 (?). 1st. Liquefied by B Jluorescens liquefa- cvens (?). 2d. Same but shows colonies like region A Liquefied by B. fluor- escens liquefaciens ge ist. Shows 10 colonies of No. 1 2d. Numerous. 1st. No. 1 and 2 fungi. 2d. Fungous growth over plate. 1st. No. 2 on tissue. 2d. Clear. vo oor Re oO Agar slant cultures. © Colonies. Ist. JB. only. 2d. Species No. 2 on tissue. tet: B. only. 2d. White, ocher and lemon colored cocci. (No. 1, 2, 3.) White and ocher cocci. (No. 1 and 2.) B. subtilis (?) and spe- cies 1 and 2. All shows Nos. 1 and 2, and B. subtilis (?). subtilis (?) subtilis (7) All show species Nos. land 2. 5Sshow B. subtilis (?), 1 shows B. fluorescens lique- Saciens (?), 1st. Shows species No. 1 and B. sub- tilis (?). 2d. White and ocher coccus. Nos. 1 and 2. B. subtilis only in both Nos. 1, 2, 3 in both. Nos. 1, 2, 3. See Table IV. See Table IV. See Table IV. 292 Udder No. ter. Lia ob L. H. Quar- Re- gion. Por Ore Owe TABLE No. V —Continvep. — ore e tN or oS _ =) Bouuuetin 178. Gelatin plate cultures. 1st. Fungus on tissue. 2d. Clear. Fungus and B. jfluor- escens liquefaciens Several colonies of white and of yellow cocci. Fungus over plate. Clear. 2 clear, 2 contain 10 and 50 colonies re- spectively of a ba- cillus. 2 clear, 1 contains 6 colonies of a_ba- cillus, 1 contains 6 colonies of white coccus. (No. 1.) Liquefied by a bacil- lus. Three or four colonies of No. 2. Four colonies of No. 9 As Fifteen colonies of No. 2. 18 Agar slant cultures. Coloaies. These and the cul- tures from B and C with three excep- tions contain Nos. 1 and 2. See above. See above. Eight agar slant cul- tures from regions A, B and C showed growth of Nos. 1, 2 and 3. 1 culture clear, 2 con- tain B. fluorescens liguefaciens (?), 15 others from the va- rious regions show colonies of Nos. 1 and 2. A few show B. subtilis (2) also. Nos. 1, 2, and B. sub- telés (?) in each. All show B. subtilis (2?) only. 2 show Nos. 1 and 2, 1 B. subtilis(?) alone. B. subtilis (?) only. No. 2 and B. tilds (2). B. subtilis (?) only. ist. No. 2 and B. sub- tilis (?). 2d. White coccus and B. sub- tilis (2). 1st. Shows No. 1. 2d. No. 1 and 2. dat. Nos 4: 2d. B. subtilis (2). sub- INVASION OF THE Upper By BAcTERIA. 293 Group II—In January, 1899, an opportunity was offered for the examination of two more udders in the manner already described. During the examination of the gelatin plate cultures two apparently different colonies were distinguished as predominat- ing. Sub-cultures were made from these, but were lost before they were compared with the three cultures from the preceding exami- nation. Nevertheless a tabulation of the results from an examina- tion of the growth upon the gelatin plates will be of interest in its bearing on the subject of the general invasion of the normal udder by bacteria. Species No. 4 is a bacillus liquifying gelatin. Species No. 5 is probably identical with No. 2. TABLE No. VI. SumMMARY oF- RersvuLtts oF THE BactrErRioLtogic EXAMINATION OF Upper No. 7. QUARTER OF UDDER. Region. No. of colonies. Speciés. So SR ll Soe I MR Se as J; PAD ATCA Sane wees ae eee No. 4. os SN, ie aie of Stee ee (2 Sen FETE TS 4 Tg SRN A oars Sey: Ay 4 RoR wa has ise Giae ade cles Beco wae ae wat 1G Fines cee: aida 7 Ff "Sts. ctiatss cGisetit Gtinvet wast. Ph. ts kD “4, PNG AMM SPO eos ee a re BOS tens ate aia Noness 55055: a ie NS ee Sik an eS BES? 3 A. AOU, NONE 6: ie x Ye pa ESE ame ee a oa ead ae tiene NONE S202. 4.2 arti HEOKS 25 ie ses oS oles been C2 ae kaa SOF st ee Sk eit 1 « Hiedteas Eh bas » ae ACB sh. 2B. tre kke 100 to 200..... 5) 4; = Ee bn Sect & ee Re ee Coctre cae atc co dae se Hie 2 EES UA DO, PH Sade, Wee Ihe aes sea ncela Tine Cigverm mikes. i Ate et cS 4& = Sie tet age pb ip net ods er Oeil. RRR tne aaa Boos ct one Oe a ONE: eS ratscpiesa?. comtdsier +542 Basal ite.gjat Nonejs)) ee ? 5 Se Paes Sg: Se ee Om Soe nist aoe ae Pie cha ciate cts Sorts ? iets RIT hese cong okie ek ALA Pe eS PEA Se. Gear c sae: 2 ae RE Ce We et cae BSS os gE ee See pee: | 3 2 SA eee CAR Os eo. 1b Ree Mae Sale = * Notes incomplete. The examination of the agar plate cultures confirmed the conclu- sions drawn from the examination of the gelatin plates. Owing to the fact that (1) the colony growth of species is never so distinctive on agar as upon gelatin, and (2) that micrococcus No. 2 assumes a diversity of shades on agar, the results obtained from the exam- ination of the agar plates do not lend themselvos to a concise tabulation. Group IT[— An examination of udders 9 and 10 confirmed the results of previous examinations. Every culture from the regions A, Band C of each quarter of the two udders showed growth. Neither sub-cultures, nor further study of the plates were made. Group I V.— In the examination of these udders gelatin only was used, experience having demonstrated its superiority. As in the former examinations, the results indicated an extensive invasion of the udder. In practically every quarter, it was possible by com- parison of the gelatin plates, to observe the similarity of the bac- terial flora in each of the regions A, B and C. Two species of micrococci were found in considerable numbers in all of the udders. INVASION OF THE UpprErR By BACTERIA. 295 Micrococcus No. 6. Morphology.— A micrococcus about 1 in diameter. Staining.— Stained readily by the common anilin dyes in use in the laboratory. Agar.— The colonies are circular, viscid, white, but assume a cream color later. The growth on agar slant cultures is white, shiny, pasty, with an irregular border. The condensation water is clouded with flocculent sediment. Alkaline bouillon.— The liquid becomes clouded with the depo- sition of a whitish sediment, easily disseminated by agitation. Ten per cent gelatin.— Colonies are circular, varying in color from cream to ocher, and each occupying a slight indentation in the medium. Later, the area of liquefaction becomes larger and the colonies disintegrate into grandular masses floating in the liquid. In the stab cultures the needle’s path is marked by a white dotted growth, more abundant near the surface. The liquefaction extends downwards in a few days forming a liquefied area involving the whole width of the medium. The center becomes liquefied some- what in advance of the edges, forming a cone-shaped liquefaction. Milk.— It remains fluid even after months, with the accumulation of a yellowish sediment in the bottom of the tube. Litmus milk is unchanged in color. Fermentation tube.— Growth in one per cent solution of glucose, lactose and saccharose in bouillon occurs only in the open arm of the tube. The reaction remains alkaline. TABLE No. VIII. THE Sources FRoM wHicd PurE Cuttures or Mriorococous No. 6 | WERE OBTAINED. Udder. Quarter. Region. Ce TIRES See Rkcdeaaee celts team edaeac fa Right fore..... A HED SEES ey ae are eed Bcachicicsciadas AAA PE ate Lett fore. 7.1.5 A PRL eee ect rs wisn o'claty sha see oa ees cheese cee: Lielt fore. Gy :% B GDR FS o< chat bvc oh, dite eters eine aecceiess + Right hind ..... B Syria «aia! aes costae s Ah a ete ras ce Right hind .... | C BROMUS Ss 5-o2y bis ofa shee ales eatin gia etoiste attics oe 8 Right hind..... B Ao aS palit lite htc ap os AAR te nar a CIR Be Lett. ning. 2-4 «65 A a tie. he Pesci heroes ee ten ee eee es Be Fis 1 4Lett fore: a 2! Fore milk. 296 Buuuetrin 178. Micrococcus No. 7. Morphology.— A micrococcus about 1y in diameter. Staining.— Stained readily by the common anilin dyes used in the laboratory. Agar.— Smooth, shiny, white growth upon agar slant cultures. Bowillon.— The liquid becomes uniformly clouded with the depo- sition of a whitish sediment. Gelatin.— The growth is similar to that of No. 6, except that the colonies of No. 7 are.always white. Milk.—It is coagulated with an amphoteric reaction in three days. TABLE No. IX. Tue Sources FROM WHICH PurE CuLturEs oF Micrococcus No. 7 WERE OBTAINED. Udder. Quarter. Region. Os Ah ree oss ab arccate Pride one Ay ER yee Right hind ..... Fore milk. CE ibre OTR Ase Ee OLIN, Pas Left hind ...... A Se AD cate ora 8 Shap Sb tiie at Site LOSS a coctl. Right fore, .:..'.', B gestae bole ge NC dae’ il i aed “gp gai Adgh i Be - tac ye Right fore ..... C GLEE elope she eh chilean chelates care sepa: Right fore...... B aN ee a IT ic Ge age 0 Wine Sp AE ete ai Sis Gee's Right hind ..... A Hams. ores. SOs ede. 1 ase Right hind ..... A TABLE No. X. SumMARY oF ReEsuLts oF THE EXAMINATION OF GELATIN PLATE CuLtuRES FROM Upprr No. 11. Udder No. | Quarter. Region. No. made. Observations. sh eee 2 A ee cia. » dente bictsmtes; Numerous. re core Ags Sea aps Six colonies and mould. Cir. cae kid oS Exceedingly numerous. | ore © A eeespes: gre’ = prey omens Rae eric Exceedingly numerous. Bia tite De. bee Numerous. © paar: ee Numerous. TS | ae AS ant at Cee About twenty-five colonies. Biycdiks sito 2 ee Numerous. Liquefied B. subtilis (?). Or dike $436 Se eae Very slight growth borderingt issue. Oy i 1 eat tte ” via he Slee Numerous. hit at eee Tissue ocher colored, five colonies. Caer re - Ep SAA nets Numerous. ‘Summary oF REsvuLTs oF THE EXAMINATION OF GELATIN PLATE Invasion oF THE Upper sy Bacrerta. TABLE No. XI. Cutrures oF Uppers 12, 13, 14, 15. Udder No. | Quarter. Region. No. made. Observations. Le Bie Bere ay Woda s 1... Entirely liquefied. Be es es Numerous. ees i ere. Pee Numerous. tet... 5 avapiealn es 1... Vee Entirely liquefied. NS atgeers oe di Sc taeeees Slight liquefaction near tissue. No colonies. IG See: ft). ee About twelve colonies. in) eee 1A dere J: Se eee 1... eee Fungus. Pre one 1... jee About twelve colonies. SA ee Leis dee About eight colonies. 2 Ge eae Be ss 2: Veh Ee P.... see 100-200 colonies, many liquefiers. . Beas. a, ee Completely liquefied. Caos, 1... 5g Completely liquefied. ie ae fs AE L.. . ee 100-200 colonies. Bc that Ls, ape Fungus, and numerous colonies. Oger = sete 1. «eee Few. PGES ws Ren. Bee: Hy j ae > Fungus, and about 100 colonies. Boe aS. 1. «]. aa Tt Weight of potatoes from rows harvested, in pounds. ....... 267 ee Weight of potatoes from rows harvested, in pounds......... | 209 ae 2 Weight of potatoes from rows harvested, in pounds.......... | 258 4—Plat| (No fertilizer) Blank. | Weight of potatoes from rows harvested, in pounds........ 211 re Weight of potatoes from rows harvested, in pounds......... | 240 6 rie Weight of pctatoces from rows harvested, in pounds. ...... | 307 i we Weight of potatoes from rows harvested, in pounds......... 208 go y Weight of potatoes from rows harvested, in pounds..... .. | 285 9— Plat} (Stable manure) Ss. Weight of potatoes from rows harvested, in pounds......... 315 = Nore.—If some other crop is grown, one of the above blanks can easily be changed and filled out for that particular crop. At the close of the season and as soon as the results of each plat have been properly recorded, piease return this circular to the Chemist of the Experiment Station at Ithaca, N. Y. : G. C. CALDWELL, Chemist. A. L. KINSLEY, Asst Chemist. Name of Experimenter. Homer H. Jones. P, O: “Home. County. Cortland. State. New York. Fietp ExpPrRIMENTS WITH FERTILIZERS. 323 Experiments by Mr. H. H. Jones, Homer, N. Y.— Mr. Jones who made the experiments and sent in this completed report states that each plat was $ rod wide and 16 rods long, making an area of yy of anacre. Three rows of potatoes were grown on each plat. In harvesting the crop, the outside rows being discarded according to the directions, the yield of the middle row only of each plat was weighed. Thjs row represented ;'5 of an acre. The weight of potatoes harvested from the central row of plat K (muriate of pot- ash) was 267 lbs. ‘This yield on j/, of an acre multiplied by 60 gives the yield of pounds per acre, which was 16,020 lbs.; this is equiva- lent to 267 bushels per acre. It so happens that in this experiment the weight per plat multiplied by 60 gives the, yield in pounds per acre and that this product divided by 60 gives the number of bush- els per acre. Therefore the number of pounds per plat represents the number of bushels per acre. Plat (KN) Plat (KP) Plat (NP) Plat (NPK) Plat (8) Potash Potash Nitrogen Nitrogen Stable Nitrogen. Phos. Acid. Phos. Acid. Phos. Acid Potash. Manure. 60.— Mr. Jones harvesting and weighing the experimental plats of potatoes. W hat lessons can be drawn from this set of experiments? We will first consider whether it was a profitable investment to use nitrate of soda. (See page 322.) The blank plat gave 211 Ibs. of potatoes; the nitrate of soda plat yielded only 209 Ibs.; this would indicate that when used alone the nitrate of soda was injurious rather than beneficial. Muriate of potash used alone gave 267 lbs. per plat, an increase of 56 lbs. over no fertilizers, or 56 bushels to the 324 Bocietin 179. acre. When nitrate of soda was used with muriate of potash the yield was reduced to 240 Ibs. per plat. This means that potash plus nitrogen gave 27 bushels less than potash alone. Here again the nitrogen compound was injurious. Something more of interest and importance may be learned from this series of experiments. For example, it was observed that while the stable manure gave the largest yield, the crop contained the inost small potatoes, and the tubers were more scabby than on the other plats. Also where nitrate was used the potatoes were of a poorer quality and more scabby. On the other hand, plats treated with either potash or superphosphate produced very fine, smooth tubers; the plat with a mixture of potash and superphosphate pro- duced as fine a lot of tubers as the Station representative has ever seen. It is clearly proved by this set of experiments that it would be a waste of money to buy nitrogenous fertilizers for potatoes on this field; but in all probability it might bea good investment to use a moderate amount of potash and superphosphate. It must, however, not be forgotten that these results, while applicable to this particular field, may or may not be suited to a neighboring farm or even to another part of this same farm; for on other farms, even if near by, some at least of the conditions of the soil which may affect the crop may and are likely to be different from those of the soil tested by these experiments. The soil of another farm may be quite different and it may have received quite different treatment in previous years. Potato experiments by Mr. H. H. Bonnell, Waterloo, N. Y. — Mr. Bonnell has experimented during the past three years. We give here a condensed form of his experiment for 1899. Each plat was 35 of an acre and contained four rows of potatoes. The two central rows were harvested and weighed, giving the yield per gy of an acre for each plat. The figures in the table represent the yield in bushels per acre, calculated from pounds per 7, of an acre. Fietp EXPERIMENTS witH FERTILIZERS. 325 Potatoes per acre in bushels caleulated from 1 40 of an acre. Large. Small. TE) a SANT CER 0 ORS See A SUP eet i eres ar a eS RA te 137.7 6.0 Babi wer hc. Ss eso ate ois ics fie wie a Petrie Loni tris eed So eke 129.5 7.3 a ee a ce heen ES ire, Siac ok CORE Rg EE a 6 118.5 8.2 penniad -87 LOSE eS beh yoda sch) Shad tae eR R's es eid Lee ele ee lier 122.2 6.3 Ge fe ree ee ee ei ere 2 wk eh Marais « ate 155.2 0.2 tet Ar Ree rete ere eee Ct SI Oe 147.0 5.2 ee eee ee ee Be tao oe Pe as foe 128.0 5.8 ee Pree es 2th. oe reine Cee aie Oh eb e hte nate 170.0 ket aT ioe bie sere a deo ech id ties Padus k eth s Mlarre Os 189.0 5.5 * For the meaning of these abbreviations and the rate at which the fertilizers were applied see page 317. A study of the above table shows that stable manure (S) gave the best results and that a complete fertilizer (N PK) gave the next best. Stable manure having increased the yield of large potatoes 66.8 bu. Plat (KP) Plat (NPK) Plat (NP) Plat (8) Potash Nitrogen Nitrogen Stable Phos. Acid. Phos. Acid Potash. Phos. Acid. Manure. 61.— Potatoes grown and harvested by Mr. Bonnell. over the yield on the blank plat and decreased the yield of small potatoes from 6.3 bu. to 5.5 bu. The complete fertilizer (NPI) increased the yield over the blank plat 47.8 bu. of large potatoes and decreased the yield of small potatoes from 6.3 bu. to 5.7 bu. Of the plant-foods used alone potash gave better results than 326 Buuvetin 179. either nitrogen or superphosphate. Potash, when used with nitrate of soda, gave better results than when used with superphosphate. The results of these experiments would seem to indicate that a complete fertilizer would give the best results when used on this field, and that the greater portion of it should be potash with only a moderate amount of nitrogen and but little superphosphate. In 1897 Mr. Bonnell experimented with potatoes on another part of the farm; the results indicated that potash gave rather the best results. In 1898 oats were grown on this piece of ground and the superphosphate plats gave the best yields. Again in 1899, two years after the fertilizers had been applied, wheat was grown on it. The plats that had received superphosphate in 1897 still gave the largest crops. These results indicated one of two conditions: either that the cereal plants, oats and wheat, could not find enough phosphoric acid in that soil, unless supplied in the fertilizers; or that the cad- cium sulphate (gypsum or land-plaster), of which all superphos- phates are largely composed, gradually made available some of the tightly locked potash that existed in the soil, and that it was this liberated potash and not the phosphoric acid that gave such marked results the second and third year following the application of the fertilizers. It was formerly a common practice to use calcium sulphate (plas- ter) upon land for the purpose of making available some of the tightly locked plant-food, especially potash. Experiments of Mr. A. 0. Stewart, Mariposa, N. Y.— Mr. Stewart has experimented for the past three years, in 1897 and 1898 on potatoes and in 1899 on corn for the silo. On Sept. 21, 799, one square rod of each plat was cut, shocked and photographed. (See cuts, next page.) Then each shock was weighed and the yield per acre estimated. Also after a week of warm weather the remaining crops on each plat were cut and weighed in order to determine whether the estimated yield per acre would vary much whether based on the yield of one square rod, or of eight square rods, In general, the smaller the area taken for estimating the crop per acre, the greater the probable errors in the calculation. These results are tabulated on page 328. Fietp EXPERIMENTS WITH FERTILIZERS. 327 Plat (S) Plat (NP) Plat (P) Piat (N) Stable Manure. Nitrogen Phos, Ac.d. Phos, Acid, Nitrogen. Plat (K) Plat (KP) Plat (KN) Plat (NPK) Plat (Blank) Potash, Potash Potash Nitrogen No Fertilizer. Phos, Acid. Nitrogen. Phos. Acid Potash. 62.— Mr. Stewart harvesting corn fodder for the silo. Each shock represents the yield from one sq. rod of each plat. 328 Butuetin’ 179. Corn silage per acre in Gain in pounds per acre from Calculated | Calculated | Sept. 21 to from one from eight | Sept. 28, 99. square rod. | square rods. (Sept. 21st.) | (Sept. 28th.) Plaeiee eee es... ee oss See 5.23 5.59 620 PlatsNe oes ads Dele: a. = ee , 4.56 4.82 520 Plate cae ae re. Sees on 2 7.68 8.04 720 Blanibaacscte oe whe. os eR aes SS: 4.24 4.51 540 Plat EP i Ie A eo ae 4.64 4.89 500 Platte ay ee eae t Bee 6.88 7 OTN 780 Plater: SS eee aaa eee 8.80 9.24 880 Phen eis Aah prea 7.84 8.28 | 880 PlatsSicsae cs frie Se Leh Oe Dine ay eh gees 14.48 15.26 1,560 * For the meaning of these abbreviations and the rate at which the fertilizers were applied see page 317. ais: On studying this table it is plainly seen that available phosphoric acid in the soil was at a minimum, since the yield was best on all the plats which received phosphate, whether alone or mixed with one or both of the other plant-foods. It appears further that neither pot- ash nor nitrogen with phosphate added much to the crop over and above the yield with phosphate alone; therefore it would be poor policy to use a complete fertilizer for corn on this field. The experiments of 1897 and 1898 also showed that phosphoric acid was the one plant-food that was deficient in that soil. On comparing the estimated yields per acre from each cutting, we see that in every case there was a decided increase in the total crop during the last week of growth and that these increases per ton were quite uniform. This shows that the estimated yields per acre when calculated either from one square rod or from eight square rods are very nearly alike and that correct results can be obtained by measuring the crop of a part only of each plat. The value of stable mannre as a fertilizer is very distinctly shown in the results of this series of experiments, the increase over the yield on the blank plat being more than three times the increase given by any other fertilizer. Although the quantity of the manure applied contained less available nitrogen compounds, potash and phosphate than was contained in the commercial fertilizers used, it Fretp ExprrRIMENTS WITH FERTILIZERS. 329 was far ahead of the other fertilizers. This result may be due in part to the useful bacteria possibly in the manure, or to the effect of the manure on the physical qualities of the soil, such as its tex- ture, its teniperature, ete. Many other illustrations might be given of the value to the farmer of this kind of experimentation, but lack of space forbids. Injury caused by fertilizers.— As already stated in this bul- letin, not all the experiments were entirely successful. In some cases the plats were too small, in others not enough care was taken in mixing the fertilizers thoroughly with the soil; the result was either a partial injury to the crop, or killing it completely. Such injurious effects were especially noticeable with the muriate of pot- ash and nitrate of soda. The superphosphate did not seem to cause any damage even when applied very close to the plant or in large quantities, even at the rate of two tons per acre, as in some cases by mistake. Superphosphate may therefore be used very carelessly without doing any harm, while great care must be exercised in the application of nitrate of soda or muriate of potash. Does it pay to use commercial fertilizers ?— This question is frequently asked by farmers, but it is a question that can be answered only by the questioners themselves. They, only, know what the purchased fertilizers cost them; they, only, ean know or they ought to know what increase of crop is yielded by the fertilizers applied, and how much money they have received for such increase. As a rule, they know only what they have paid for the fertilizers, and how many bushels or tons of their crops they have harvested ; but they do not know how many bushels or tons are to be credited to the fertilizers, for they do not know how much the soil will yield without any fertilizer, or with stable manure. Neither do they know what the stable manure has cost them. Furthermore, since asa rule they use complete fertilizers, containing all three of the plant-foods, nitrogen compounds, potash and phosphate, therefore they do not know whether any increase in crop is due to the action of all three of the plant-foods, or to two of them, or to one only. In the case of several of, the series of experiments that have been carried out under the supervision of this Station, it has been conclusively shown 330 bbs See 179. that phosphate was the only plant-food that was useful, and tia all the money paid for the other two was wasted. Such being the results of a number of the experiments with fer- tilizers, it would seem that a wise and prudent farmer would attempt to keep a sort of a bank account with every field on his farm that is under cultivation. To accomplish this, he would charge to each field the cost of the fertilizer applied to it, if he uses commercial fertilizers; after the harvest he would credit every field with the market value of its produce. It would cost him but little time and labor to measure three plats, say of a tenth of an acre, in each field to be treated with commercial fertilizers, one plat being left unfertilized ; multiplying the yield of each of these plats by ten - would give the yield per acre. He has then all the data that are necessary in order that he may learn by a simple calculation whether the increase of the crop has more than paid for the cost of the fer- tilizer used. The farmer may say that he cannot spare the time for carrying out this plan; or he may say that he does not want to lose the increase of crop that the fertilizer would give on the one unmanured plat. But this loss on a tenth of an acre only would be very small and it would be of much more importance to him to know whether he gains or loses by the application of fertilizers. Better still would it be if he could carry on a set of experiments with the three import- ant plant-foods in a complete fertilizer in the manner described in the preceding pages. He might then learn that only one of the three foods, say, for example, the phosphoric acid in a plain super- phosphate, or potash, or some combination of two of the three foods is all that the field experimented upon requires, and that money spent for any other food is simply thrown away. Frequently during the summer the representative of the Station was asked by the farmers if it would pay to use such large quanti- ties of fertilizers as were sent out by the Station and if smaller quantities would not do just as well. The answer was that in these. experiments the cost of the fertilizers was not taken into considera- tion, the main object being to find out whether the use of any one or more of the plant-foods would give profitable yields over and above the yield without any fertilizer. For such a purpose it is Fretp EXPERIMENTS WITH FERTILIZERS. 331 better to use large applications rather than small ones in order to — make the results of the experiment more marked. With the cultivated fields of this State in their present condition, with their present amounts of humus and with their present texture, it will not pay, as a general thing, to use large applications of fer- tilizers, because moderate amounts are usually sufficient to make the available plant-food conditions as good or better than other essential conditions of the soil. Just as soon as plant-food conditions are better than other essential conditions the plant will not be able to get the benefit of this extra food, and more or less may be wasted. 638.— Mr. Mubee, of Spencer, N. Y., harvesting and weighing experimental plats of potatoes. Interest in the experimental work and its value.— In most cases the farmers were very much interested and painstaking with the work. Oftentimes the experimenters said that the work was being watched by neighbors, for they wanted to “see whether there is anything in it or not.” Mr. Wills C. Hatch, of Skaneateles, N. Y., wrote as follows: “ Below you will find the results of my third experiment with fer- tilizers on potatoes under your supervision. Each year’s experi- ments gave practically the same results, proving to me beyond doubt what I had before believed, that the soil on my farm did not need the addition of either potash or nitrogen, or, in other words, it would not pay me to use them. Iam now using plain phosphate alone on all my crops and am getting better results than with the mixed goods. This will save me from fifty to one hundred dollars ‘a year in the cost of purchased fertilizers, and with better results. oor Buwretin 179. “The results of my experiments have been given in the Grange and club meetings and also published in the papers. Whether this had anything to do with the case or not I don’t know, but I do know that of about forty tons used by our Grange this season only one ton used was other than plain phosphoric acid goods.” Mr. A. O. Stewart, of Mariposa, N. Y., wrote as follows: “In making my report I wish to assure you that we have been greatly benefited by the experimental: work in many ways. We have learned that the better preparation of the soil and good cultivation are the prime requisites of a good crop. Plat (N) Plat (K) Plat (P) Plat (Blank) Nitrogen. Potash, Phos, Acid. No fertilizer. 64.— Potatoes harvested from four of the experimental plats of Mr. Ha‘ch. “In making these experiments the past three years we have, with the kindly help and suggestions of the Experiment Station, been able to determine what our soil requires, and now in buying fertil- izers-we buy only what our soil most needs, thus reducing the cost of the fertilizer bought nearly 50 per cent. Several of our neigh- bors have been interested in our experimental work and_ they requested me this last spring to purchase for them a fertilizer. con- taining only phosphoric acid. They claim that it gave them good results on all crops, equally as good as a complete fertilizer costing Fieitp ExprerRIMENTs with FERTILIZERS. 333 nearly twice as much, and this in alternate pieces and with the same cultivation.” From a letter of Mr. Chas. Vanderbilt, Alloway, N. Y., we quote, “T am very glad that I undertook the fertilizer experiment work, as it has helped me to know what our land needs, and my neighbors are just beginning to think that one can tell what one needs by ear- rying on the experimental work. I think that acid phosphate, or superphosphate, will show up better than anything else on our clay land as the work shows so far; and some of our neighbors are going to try acid phosphate as an experiment on their wheat this fall through me. * .* * As I have got started in the experimental work I shall never stop it. I shall keep on experimenting.” Farmers who have experimented.— The following is a list of the farmers to whom sets of fertilizers have been sent. Some have received them but once, others twice, and still others three times. The column headed “ Years of experimentation” indicates the num- ber of years that each farmer has experimented and how many sue- cessive sets of fertilizers have been sent to him: Years of NAME OF EXPERIMENTER. Post office. County. experi- mentation. Ackley, Denver....)..22 at Sp CeO walitars 4° 29, Cattaraugus... 1 Madcook, George = VOPR: Fayetteville.... ...| Onondaga... .. t eenriey, Vyierd Bo SOT g te be |. Holey ee sel eie 3. Orleans. 3° 2 eect, etre Py.5, 4 LEORIID OA |; Ravana sc os Sek Chautauqua... 1 Atbright, John Hla ele g: Ontario, Sus ea> ai} Wayne 0. 2° £8 2 1 Allen, John Jd.....2 5%. cepaeee Depauville........ Jefferson... ..... | ‘1 meuendorph: -Ly pein NO |. Sitters. .co's eect Rensselaer ...... | 2 meaty.” WC EPP NOY «, ; Dundee s 7.24} Ps Wates: Sct be 2 Anderson, John. 227) 083244... Oriskany Falls.... | Oneida........ 3 Amoerson,. R.« i. £SvP sen... North Wilna...... Jefferson ...... 1 Amorews, Fe Mepis. Poniney se! 22 Tai ss Onondaga. ... 1 Averell; Warren eerie, . Caledonia.......... Livingston ..... 1 Backus, Jj Hsau pie ian). Little Genesee. ...| Allegany....... 1 Bape SW <.'.. SUP eIeen) 2, Watertown........ Jefferson....... 1 Peatley ATMS 8 BQUU IG, | Townsend :...'....: Schuyler. ..:. 2 ‘Baker’ WN. /Av:. TMP odey fF. Ls Fishers) oti? 4. s Ontario ::(2 093.4% 3 Baldridge; Cs F:s.. AVERY, .. Kendaia. 222272 2... Seneca <. 2.172% 1 Banglar, Frank.-..-.922097¢h .. East Bloomfield....| Ontario........ is Banta, “OC. 2i. re. RSS AOARY, | Conklin. ». 207% sf Broome: 23.228 1 Barney, Frank D............. Westfield... .:..... Chautauqua.... 1 Barris, McClellan ............ Silver Creek....... Chautauqua.... 1 Barrows, George A... ....... Groton... 2509". 2. Tompkins...... 2 Bassett, Bs Aceves OTST | ALCO 2 Sean, |: Chenango...... 1 Bates; C. Aly; dni pysii) | Elington rss). 2: Chautauqua.... 1 Beadle, Geovso22. ULE Ve... Brockport. ...... Monroe. 2.400. ; 1 Beardsley, F.- ‘Ey. . 8202935... Coventry... 220. 4 Chenango...... 1 b04 Butuetin 179. NAME OF EXPERIMENTER. DOME EY, Gl NAb sain as weft placid Benjamin, Chase............. Bennett, Bert: 3. sos0 0 eat Bilehaei, G. Wo.” -.. aa ie Bingham, Henry M. ..... ... i AIDCLG Ac cas ars apy 35 Poarves Tis PEA. Pos. oh se | AE Ca sl TA ae BCaHED GUSEDI. .. fe. cece ce Bliss, Geo. A..... Cubbie hoes Blood: Pilmer Bo. be oo Fos Eira 7.83 40 5. SG. Gee Tae 5 es re a aie Brges, G. Des... ate WMS Gk Brigham ee W oso: Cenk ad ESP GINAS oie s 6 SA oie wees Broa, Ares /—d tb38. SRL Broesan Geol ees. cc's sccee: Brown Cassius eich’ 251%: Boewigng, Wid oe cc. sae Balkeleyo Boise Geo. E,. «.. asrariek) <> Ulster... 4. awies 1 Canandaigua ...... Ontario», 429s As 1 Westfield, sv.10)'i 5}. 4. Chautauqua..... 1 Perry Gitgyy eas. « pchuyler. a5 i286 1 Bath... ..-sstttrivis tes >4.0 Steuben . «2h ..% 1 Forest Lawn. 5+] SUONTOG ss nacre 2 Fiztp EXxpERIMENTS WITH FERTILIZERS. NAME OF EXPERIMENTER. Wunton, H.- Vis zit: arto). Murram. Wim) C.w...eaweidd. .: Bye. Ernest, B., ..us2wiiat.... Hastman, John : x.). 4%... mend ort, WW, Ees ose nee... Moimons, Hoy D.cisuss 9! .... English, Andrew.......:..... mere. Harry (EP ... vasalodttd. 2: rezPerald, *Wm....; saeiilnk.... Mosnnre, Prank Le coage7l...... Fredenburg, Lewis E...... , Mullager, Howard....... 223... Fuller, James’S: ...sueseiy.. Ruthmeton,M,; C. -...csett.+ Pariock, Viilliam..::..2948 1. 3. Srarrett dD cscs Rtat A meer. Harvey. J..;.czvaned i... Goodwin, Geo. A. ..... AD Greene, Chas. 8... ...00% ate Grin, Maurice Noted vid. Gruanell WW . Mo swvteasivi.l. Beene y op 3/55 ts fox5 DEE. Hatch Wills C.; - oudeeatl.:.. Hawkins, Noel......... ‘ reap. Henry ..')~.. veniam.) Heath, Adelbert Inieousvi... Hendrick, James 036.003... Bess* thas: K's ;.c sonmatel.::. Hey ward, Williamoiaisieil. .. eo BEL, 2. 2.0028 eR oo: Romenaan (B N <.:.. .caeeerk » Hoimes’* Wrank: :.; acoPusiat? : 2 moward: F. OW... sone fh. s.. Bowe WwW DE <2. 33 seed 953s.) Boyt Prank D* 49) yiiilor. :. Hulbert; Lorenzo @iiaseehs... Pater, “Henry. .s'. aa0 Rd « .. Hungerford, Nye Srealis, Chas. .W . ceztiet.... iewine Wit. Al ..<.an rede 2k. Jackman, Geo. Wieiiis.t si... packs Oorwil. *;. $wialiat.%. gees OV iy ee sae. wetrords, Harry, A... Gist. wenking. 0, Moss. MOST A). MOREY Ba ho oes DONA oe Johnson, Truman ‘Teast. . Jones, David W. seelueuts.. mones. Hi: 3H 2s. eee hts. Jones, ‘Thomas W fietaierk. =. Kales. Dr: John. W'.8u 44). . , Beener C.. GL. 22. aed. Merinp, A. Al cs. 5". OG... Knapp, C. E......% ov eee rr aeee Post office. Camdensiaaywxd.< Vill€novVidiewstesd.:. W oodvilles cise... Strait’s Corners... . @ is) afd Bicls) ¢ es 0 ee eee eee sees Alpine Afton Ce ey Marshville......... North Syracuse.... Forestville.... 0... eee ee eee North Winfield .... Gouverneur ...... Skaneateles........ Gowanda?)./iii\j... Hamilton DeRuyter voi tril... Slingerlands....... Great Valley....... Stafiord: - wstae DeRuyterigois d. >. Appleton Mariettag.: Sit). ... Fredonia see ee eee we @, 6, 6, Che weal abe 6 \e Duneviigrobasl. French Creek... ... Wathing fv itt. : Stone: Millsertlaes..... - Livonia Station.... Cooperstown Upper Lisle Wolcott Risin gville North Ridgeway... Nelson Piomier 7. Siete ic Watervale.... ... Franklinville ..... Potsdam, souset).'. ¢ 4 ele) Ciao s © 2° 395 Years of County. experi- mentation. Oneida che Westchester.... ‘Cattaraugus... Jefferson Chemung....... Oneida..... “is Schuyler Qiwieens ...2 thks Chenango Yates “se ee we Wyoming.....: Montgomery.... Onondaga...... Chautauqua..... Cay lea. svhekect Chenango Jefferson PUG e, Camere 7 be ANS ANY:. «2/510 Monroe's 2 ene Herkimer .....84..:: St. Lawrence.... Onondaga....... Cattaraugus..... Madisan..., <2 Madison........ Albany wig. 83: Cattaraugus.... Genesce Madison eee eee | NGO ara,. 5 2 4 cae Onondaga...... Chautauqua.... Seneca..< 2). 3- Onondaga....... Livingston Chautauqua..,.. Tompkins Schuyler Jefferson.. ..... Livingston Genesee.......... ese eee ese eee WYO. ic 4s ake Steuben ....<«. Orleans...031. sia. Madison Coitland Onondaga.. .. Cattaraugus.... St. Lawrence... Onondaga Cortland MEE OWE Ewe HHH DWH WWHHUOHP HHH PRP HOP HERR RR RHR w PRR ROR rrr rrr 336 Buxiuetin 179. NAME OF EXPERIMENTER. Mnowles,) Wi. -As+ «2 0a), ».. Koon, Archie i RIP OLDION FE 1s. Kyes, Caleb.. ... BUHIOT US a LaFrenay, Clark: CHociaygh, is. fiane,: Lloyds Weis E044. Ls Langdon, | al see cae a Lanphear, Perry 0200.2... lewis. 7 BE IN. ier SED Lindsley, BW... CHIATss, ., Dnekloy) Jesse-B...... 290K E). 2 Eonibard, Louis ....22..40... Loomis, Eugene W........... Manhee tO. TF... SHENG A, i Mabee; Ee 35x Gua aioe, 2 Mapes, Arlingtons 2674 o. McBirney, 5. S.auooaiuid), McDonough, John........ me MeMurray)iAs H. vse): i. Mean AWD... see. oS Medbury (Cx B.. 320: Mets, John 5U: fogs Phd. IC, Maller: De Mee -2 OO8Racay. - Miller, Gage M......... MF Se MooreD; Mi... tethude 5. Mirnsen 232 -Onn...cs NA. hs Nash, PR WD URL ORNE SD. oe North, Geo: R......gibully |. aks Jerome... ...1 Ula, os. Cake NW A 05. HR ROMAD, 6. Percy, ‘Martin. >. cutie... Perkins, D. Center........... PATI hE is ois as RRO 5 he. Pierce; De Bi... OQaeny.t.. Beaten Fe 5... STA Ae enereau, C..Nx..00¢thel, ... Randolph, Alva F............ Bender, Gro. Hi. iil2anili... Mice, Ammon. fuel... Bice, WrankewDiooss veut. ir. Hichardsoa. .B. Ficccdsicet)... Rabb, Cs Py ee os de ps Oe Oe ae Post Auburn Lyons.. Monticel Pultneyville....... eee ee ee ewe office. Loerie. ck Jonesville: 20714. =. Wilson. oF etn ee ee 6 6 © West Candor. ..... Rushwilles 210.4. 5. Smithvil le Flats.... East Bloomfield.... Walworth ......... Dansvilleig stil. i. Dansvilléi ence}. ), Portland. eee ree - ee Rockdale Sete tr sens South Otselic ..... Chili Centre:.0). ¢. Center. et ltasss. |. gen oc).... Ketchumville...... Oaks Corners::.... Copenha Tucan Ae mtiat .i, Little France...... Oswego. River: Views.ui #2. ... lewd: Coopers Hamburg....... et Center Village. ... Newark Wayville.... Bald win Alfred . Antwerp...... ... Wolcott Homer . Rome. Webste1 0 eXN'e fe Setleh ee 8, © ee 6 (ei bf abies « « & od wb eye es 6s fe eo} datele tlhe «2 © e a"@lwve'e *: te « ‘ove Plains... sville Y 3 @ ehelsie wa) « ae ols S @la tele = © eo 6 © DARD ates (6 8 County. Columbia,..... ¥. . Cayuga.....4 oti Jefferson. ..... St. Lawrence... WY AaiNe., ..dee ee Wyoming ..... Jefferson. ..... | Dutchess... 2. ¥: Sallivan:....d0 {47 Wayne...) “ext Brie...:.....dacou TOR 531.0406 2 Ontario.....4. 0.4 Wayne.....2if1 56k Livingston ..... Livingston .... Chautauqua ... Chautauqua.... Mancce i dtee oc attten Livingston ..... Tompkins...... Jefferson,.... ..4 Herkimer. .... Schuyler... Cf Oswego......%: Oswego,...0%/. .£ Jeffersons... 47. .2i8 Wayne..as £. W yoming#/_.a0: Jefferson . . .i:i./ WY RYE es 5 cnn 558 | Saratoga. ..... Onondaga... .. Allegany:..... 43 Jefferson. .... Wayne. ra Cortland......:. Years of experi- mentation. Rr Rr COR RED ERE DDE RD WH DH WE WH WW HHH WWE DWH HHO RH WHEE EW WE Eee Fietp EXPERIMENTS WITH FERTILIZERS. 337 Years of NAME OF EXPERIMENTER. Post office. County. experi- mentation. Pie, 8. Us Veme.). .. ond volasd - Plymouth.;...«,.. | Chenango....,. 1 Peers, GeO. A on tna cas Brookfield, aaa. - Madison........ 2 Wemnisey, Furr. So asain t « TenaGee oo g eee b ‘Tompkins 2x5 . a5 1 Rutherford, Thomas.......... Hammond; .....as... St. Lawrence.... 2 Bencnuny 3). Diss caus. . ype EE] pb .ee jee ts Ontarigss a cagres 2 Sanders, Chas: Py. 2 i... «+: nis |SWCRCREGCUAGY «cc. 5 - Schenectady.... 2 Schoonmaker & Son....... .. Cedar Ee. car's « ADB eyo cen: 4 Beare "Geor E>. Pek ees French Creek.,.... Chautauqua.... 2 ee I ae a | Perch River... Jéitersan 2: sa es 2 ie OSE 259 Neti, cep isa ania Waterlog. oo ass.) DCNCCA,. os sen ack ai Pee ee ee Ora ne nar bs Pultney ville .... 3. i’: Wayne’. acca, 1 Pewmiout. 3 Uso 6. Seas « PUY oe 5 ate atic. aati LOWS .o asaster:: 1 emedd, Maurice H.. 2... .....2. TO Wellec on seas Oneida toy ae 1 Seddon, Chas... 2.5. irae SYTACURE oy cage - Onondaga...... 2 paurpson, Hrank |. o:5. kts ce. ake Canajoharie....... Montgomery.... 1 St.John, Lewis. S...:5..05..2.. Canajoharie ....... Montgomery.... 1 SLES SE. eh leg ae ios raets Pine City ca. oh. s Chemung....... 1 pmOrms PBeAG IOs. sat. 2) St. Johnsville ..... Montgomery... 1 Pre rela, OV. oP Spore oi me a .5 ene. U4 | 0) Cen 0 arene oem be Orleans oo oc ac 1 Suydam, NelsonS. ......... Binghamton. ..... Broame-. 2's 2 thamer,t 4. i: 23%... Se as Marsh Wells Bridge...... OSES. aaa aor 1 Mimosa WS ns. |. 2 Holland. Patent... ...\ Oneida... 02... 1 Dorsence: (Clayin iy. Diie 4.10886 Gowandas.ve..) 2s. Cattaraugus .. 2 ss. MATL OW pes as pos PoOrtvinle:: co o0 20473 Cattaraugus .... 1 Torney, Jolin Re i230), e241 Lairdsvilless:)"11').Oneidarvs7iii it 1 LT th Se Ot 3 Rs eee Gees rel dh, ag 072 5 Se ey eerie we Chenango ..... 2 SEIVeCl LESS. a ivan ea O's, , 5s PAU ASIR Eaten ares JS WEEO! 6.6 Sains o> 1 Tyrrell, Geos'B;}. 61/4. .Jas 143 huis WY oleotii gis. oiclcka Wayne... ...: 1 PRIME Mra) 105 = ahs oe als says Dd Os WVOLGOLE 2 zis uli g Waynes). 2etS. | Diriek EBS! WIA, Cale Owego's. BELA TiogacVasyt aH 1 Nanderbut Chan... 5 Ge Alloway..)... Bets Wamness ho. 2c 2 Wee BUSKITKS bs foo, ee Purdy Creek... 7 2" SHeUDEM. oc oe 2 Wae-sanctord. A. Peis... PribesjHill cis a2, Montgomery.... 1 Vary & Son, Nathan C.. .... ON 2 et ara e =| Meda <2. 7 5 oe 2 Wager Ben. MM). 5) 222000 Catharine. 2s) 4 4cSéliuylercy. tis: . 3 6 A Sa I Ren ny ae ete Portlandia, 25.55 . 2: Chautauqua.. 1 Waker rout. He" veo Lo eer 5 roe ieee Oneida. etc 2 1 Wepllace,s Ay Pas. | Delaware so... ; 1 POO TOF 0h Ts ee Berwyl..7 sg act Onondaga...... 1 Mporuen. Palmers. [Sy sce 5 Fayetteville ....... Onondaga...... 1 Pemues. WMarntie Gi. 0s. _ a ee eee ~< sig 19qo oO Pa OF gertitatie aroun (ae —S) oh newe soi noiliqs sane Dhvoite maxtiitiot ibe ale nubiog 79’ bis ie sf tiwaod es Jelena Re > Mi Jagh vist I siduuiny stoma -& ’ sast qi Bulletin 180. March, 1900. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, N. Y. BOTANICAL DIVISION. Be PR ches Lobe dN mio PREACH. .LBAE-GURL. By W. A. MURRILL. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1900. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. G. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. *B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. W. A. MURRILL, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. Mrs. MARY ROGERS MILLER, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. 8. W. FLETCHER, Extension Work. C. E. HUNN, Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. W. E. GRIFFITH, Dairy Husbandry. Mrs. A. B. COMSTOCK, Nature-Study. ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Nature-Study. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer, EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of Director, Room 20, Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. * Absent on leave. 342 Cornet. University, 1 Irnaca, N. Y., Feb. 20, 1900. } THe HonorasiE Commissioner oF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY, N. Y.: Sir. — This bulletin is submitted for publication under Chapter 430 of the Laws of 1899. It has been prepared by Mr. W. A. Murrill and embodies the results of experiments extending over one year, together with a résumé of the investigations on the same subject which are set forth in full in Bulletin 164. The Peach Leaf-Curl during the last few years has become a menace to the peach indus- try in many parts of the State. The two years’ experiments lead to the conclusion that the leaf-curl of the peach can be easily con- trolled when proper and timely treatment is given. This bulletin is valuable because it has established the fact that the foliage of peach trees, even of the more tender variety, may be healthy and vigor- ous, and because it gives specific directions as to the time of spray- ing, the kind of, spray material and the method of application. The investigations in Niagara County have been conducted on a large scale that some tacts might be secured to guide the peach grower as to the cost and practicability of treating large orchards. The investigations conducted at Trumansburgh were on a smaller scale but large enough to give reliable results. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. 343 Gers a pS prea rE lay Hit pega cc era, b O08 L- ai om et 1 saunle a a ay. Veceri, th or aye seeds foe AaevonAan eo! Y9 ! retail d soba i ir hie sat heottinndia 6 opal ef id eae Ae ae rs H alt vd bord tot | ead anil 3} Rifrn tc atest: oat: fo. 0&1 gts tare waihastxs ative isseeeea Pore Tees ont ect uentheage = Dite fee F oe =e “toojdne onthe gilt {6 anciths dite vatodys Trocnweyt wali vediouod ¢ ae or ; (teed {onal wit, R peiin itm {ii9 qt dG: donee ~anhei dons alt 07 PBN 4B a heel atoomtisgxe Pere Chis SOs) vliena 60 (LED once ott nies ai difialine ati t ALTARS Ol TTS ED bois te has v9qotg Hou Wt. alta foaoq to ogatlot att tnt font ditt hailey amyl dh oadae ad olds ; « F 3 AC 2. STU . j ‘ } PDy, t a aspouty ber cebiias od vault oc. “obit sot ad TO ie aa PIOe on! d i Rev ore “\ 7: ee eae) . P Fs d ' 5 Beg S ‘yhige to oni sit oF 2a. austin or insge eouty tt oa said ‘oasst. Pare Pan Y Soe oa. pA ; Es arse pee ” j SOMBHIG EER 10 brio it SH ith Hartetany PA ane 40 tye it oult..3 +s <2 2) SIG Hatodbitoy ‘ Hans Be Rib, We tte rtr ge ee. Te Lot nyt 9 ae at ait loase aiff shine 4 Hsin sd eee ate t aioe tk eb} alice 9 es { ore ae « hae Lea et 5 ee Nanay eeias aA ty 4 ash ooh Abia ils 34 pink yitiiaee 1G ideas Hits’ Yen % ‘out at an 19H -vallania 6 no st9w uboipdedsrenaT ip pees iron _ anita Arak 5 ths . r é THE PREVENTION OF PEACH LEAF-CURL. In bulletin 164 of this Station, Dr. Bb. M. Duggar has given an account of the appearance and life history of the fungus causing leaf-eurl of the peach, with the results of some very successful experiments undertaken by him for its prevention. It was for the purpose of farther testing these and other treatments on a commer- cial scale that the experiments here recorded were planned. Ture Orcuarps SELECTED FOR EXPERIMENT. The orchards selected for the experiments have, taken together, presented a variety of conditions of soil, moisture, and exposure, as well as wide differences in the trees themselves. The Eiberta variety has been given the preference because of its well-known suscepti- bility to curl, but Early Crawford, Hill’s Chili, Brigdon, Mountain Rose, Globe, Beer’s Late, and seedling trees havé also been included in the experiments. Of these varieties, some trees have been young and others old, some fruiting heavily and others entirely without Truit, some isolated and some surrounded by trees of the same or different varieties, some sprayed during the season of ’98, but most of them treated in *99 for the first time. Tuer Season or 1899. The season of 1899 was a peculiar one and not very satisfactory for experiments with leaf-curl. The weather in April and early May was unusually bright and dry. The leaves were out much in advance of the flowers and were very large when the petals fell. The curl that appeared was doubtless developed for the most part by the short season of cold, rainy weather that occurred about the middle of May. There was little difference in varieties as regards the abundance of curl, but individual trees showed marked differ- ences. The worst cases of curl I noticed were on Yellow St. John 340 : 346 Buuxietin 180, in the Bradley orchard near Somerset, Niagara Co. Trees affected with the yellows or otherwise enfeebled showed little or no tendency to curl. EstiMaATING THE AmouNT oF CurL. While the past season has not been favorable to the develop- ment of peach-curl, it has been possible to make the estimates in the following experiments with more than usual accuracy. In Mr. Lutts’ Elberta block of one hundred and seventy-six trees, the curled leaves wereall counted. The same method was used in Mr. Wright’s orchard of one hundred and thirty-eight trees. With this experience as a basis and by tedious comparisons of row with row and tree with tree, stopping again and again to correct the estimates by actual counting, I have obtained the results given in the tables to follow. As a further precaution against error, all records of treatments were left behind when the estimates were made; and, in nearly every case, the owner of the orchard has kindly accompanied me to check the results. EXPERIMENT I. This is a continuation of the experiment described in Bulletin 164, pp. 379-380, The frontispiece, taken from Fig. 68 of that bulletin, shows the effect of early spraying as compared with late. The row on the right received its spraying with Bordeaux on April 8, the one on the left May 10. From the experience of the past year, we can add very little to the results already published for this block. Following is the plan of ‘the experiment with a table showing the treatments used and their comparative effects on the eur!. Early in the season aphis and bud moth appeared in abund- ance, and a hail storm later on still farther complicated the injuries, so that the effects of the solutions on the foliage were not estimated. Tue Prevention or Pracn Lrear-Curt. 347 PLAN oF EXPERIMENT I. O O O O O O O ® OO On Or Oo: © 408! XS @¢@. Ort@ ) 'O 2 Or =O | These eight rows, of seven trees each, were selected by Mr. Duggar, for his experiments in 1898. Copper carlLonate alone is represented by x, but when pre ceded by Bordeaux mixture the x is inscribed in a circle. 348 Buxuetin 180. EXPERIMENT |].— TAs or REsUtts. Relative | g Treatment Apr. 6. Treatment May 19. Treatment May 27. pees ° ps - June 15. a) a 1 | Gheok. 2 oss, Check. 32-5. 9.0 | Oleic te arenes 200 2 Bordeaux 6-4-50 | Bordeaux 6—4-50.... | Bordeaux 6—4-50.... 0 3 “sé ‘6 10 4 iis zs Potassium Sulfid ... | Potassium Sulfid.... 15 5 ‘é “é 12 6 Potassium Sulfid... | Potassium Sulfid.... 127 7. Bordeaux 6—4-50 | Ammoniacal Copper | Carbonate ........ Aimmoniacal Copper | Carbonate ....... 16 8 | 1-3 a re Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate, ....£.. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate ........ 12 8 4-7 Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate i.% 0 mies Ammoniacal Copper d4 Carbonate £0 2.00. Bordeaux 6-4-50 represents the normal mixture made with six pounds of copper sulfate, four pounds of good quick-lime, and fifty gallons of water. Exprerment II. The orchard of Mr. H. S. Wright, upon which this experiment was made, is situ- ated quite apart from other orchards of its kind, on the slope of West Hill, Ithaca, two or three hundred feet, perhaps, above the level of the principal portion of the city. It corsists of young trees and suf- fered badly from curl in ’98, but has not been sprayed until the season, just passed. Elberta and Early Crawford varieties are about equally represented, the latter occu- pying mainly the southern portion of the block. The trees matured a good crop of fruit. Following the table of results by rows, 1s given one showing the comparative effectiveness of the solutions used. “SOAS St GE Ba RO RON Re oo re ery 8 oO OO © 0 oO rou e) Q)0 ome) oO a 0 ore 6. ome) 0.0 Oo O. oa 8. oO O10 oO @-6 oem ey oO oOo ‘aes oO oO oO 2 0 ome °° ome ome ome) ome ore 0.0 ome omar) 6-6 ome) oO O10 ome) 0 0 ome 3% oume) oe) ome) ome) ome) ome) one) oO 040 Oo .O oumne) Go ome) ome) ome) oe 2 oume) (o Bex 9 oO oem) she fo ume) oO Tue Prevention oF Pracn Lear-Court. 349 Experiment I].— Taste I], Suowrne Resutrs sy Rows. | : er ™ - Relative Date of Treatment. amounts of Row. | Treatment. curl June 16. OMIHUIPWWH May 5 10 “c 1d “ec 12 13 “ce 14 ss 15 “c 16 “cc 47 19 20 “6 91 6c 92 “ce 23 April 5... ONES 145.) tate. Fo eere cs Aeurat Jiatoe necks Lime 2 Coppe 2-500 SNE Ee ay ake Mp tee et ont A “Ser Ake 500 Het tL Be). ~ Gaze bee ed Bai Ble'.a) pee ote ‘er 6) 6.0, 66) B66 O66) © 6 cu, et «ie, > 0 ele pew “720 Gt SOE a Ce oe ole 6 6 86 COLD F 4 6 pe k OES Oe OP iO, tpege © 0-0 0° ae Os Bye oe ENS, RRR EARS bs Sad cat A PR alee ae ct aR ripuliaterd—2p0 33. 6 gabtisch Saqek oe es eh gs 7 PR erga Gil heath Tecate ae eS Bor deaux 322-50): orien beJd andi. ah Bee ee Se eS SS eee Te seer eee nese ee ee eee er soe eee - eee eee sees eee i cw) — = SOCORRO OCC OW WOWWOCOCSA KP OW OW ww EXPERIMENT IJ].— Tap_e 2. Treatments compared by averaging the amounts of curl on rows receiving the same treatment. Date of Treatment. [se os ee Se 6 eeee ee eee Bye le) OC epg (6.0 mye SS 6 66. 6 6 Check Treatment. me 1-250 Eas See ee ce SNe sii Os Sacre so Saran tua re Tone eet eee 1-500 Se, SAP CI ee TE Ly (AE Average amounts of curl. WE OOWWORSCH orn ouocr In the Bordeaux mixtures used in the above tables, the first figure represents pounds of copper sulfate, the last gallons of water, and the middle one, separated from the others by dashes, represents pounds of unslacked lime. When copper sulfate or lime is used alone with water, the last number represents gallons of water and the first the copper sulfate or the lime in pounds. 350 Butuetin 180. Experiment III. The trees used for this experiment were chosen from the orchard of Messrs. King and Robinson in Seneca Co., on the west shore of Cayuga lake, two miles north of Trumansburg. When the curl first appeared in 1898, which was late in the season, the orchard was sprayed with Bordeaux, but with- out noticeable effect on the curl. The past year it was again sprayed with Bordeaux, but early in April, and it was at that time that my experiments were made. The varieties in this orchard most affected with curl in ’98 were Elberta and Mountain Rose, Hill’s Chili suffer- ing very little; but in ’99, Hill’s Chili seems to have been affected more than any other variety. The spraying was done April 8, the rows running across varieties as shown in the plan. Esti . mates were taken July 5. Table 1 gives results for different treatments ; Table 2 for individual trees in a single row, enabling one to compare varieties. All —— of these trees are very large and were “necks are represented'by r- heavily loaded with fruit. There were no injuries to the foliage. 0'O" 0.6 'O'Gy Ear Gar Ob © 820 Oeoe GS -2 0: . O° (Orn @ 30° 107 -O 20 :Om Or OO. Os OS O47 CO © #020? 10: FO! -O--@ Oo Oa Ora O ©. 0..0.: O20: 5O> 2} O= OO” Or OO O37 4" OQ? +O | ExprertmMent [[I.— Taprit 1.— A Comparison or TREAMENTS. Row Treatment. Amount of curl. 1 Baorienuit 6-8-0 p sboleaertcyte.cd side « One leaf to the tree 2 is SIEM Paha po Ceatlc MDa Sy abehaae sos Seven leaves to the tree 3 ome, 2=55 2077209 SESW? Miao See Fifteen leaves to the tree BOT OC Se Ss a ce aden eee Three p Os fees | EXPERIMENT [V.—Tasprie or ReEsvuLTs WITH OO: QO. O" O80 Oo - OS Din eOmne DO VO. 'O OS Oo Or Oaite Note G) + ek 1G RL © YE > IM I © SARE SAP eR we NOL © le 9 ELBERTA TREES OxstTaINnED By AcruAL Count. Relative Row. | Tree. Treatment April 11-13. Treatment May 11-13. yn: pee June 13 i he Bordeaux 6-4-50.. Bordeaux 4-4-5022... eee. . 8 2 6-6-5020... 4 6-6-5908. sa 0 3 a O30) hac eat ay SOS OU ous Suse we 23 4 ES 3-3-50.0....4. ES 3-38-50 cena. Jace 25 “Eat no NSC! pie EE Pa ik a Oe Rea ane e 6-850 2c 247 5 | 6-10 Check. BA FASE? OF Check ae35. 7480, Slit ATL RK 3520 OT ESD Wa) est pe SCR nga Se SORE Te Bordeauxr3—s8—50 |. . oo sae « 608 6 Bordesws 6-42-50. Occult sa dcticcdesscyeruae eee 209 7 Copper sulfi be ASO! ca Hi lpi Pes - sd iatinered aces ated 854 8 a, | gee Copper sulfate | | oe 450 9 K a ASO. 1129 500 AWAIT: 512 10 gf “ A530 so ects Bordeaux 4—4-50........... 70 2 be te oe THE Ames. olka ee Cae ce, ete ee es ee eee 640 11 | 6-10 Piste il 27 sO oan BS Ae ate ee ee a eS 1552 11 (11-16 SE alge heat Yu yA Peal Soe Pong Satan Ae 5 eect eee 1876 In the Bordeaux mixtures used in the above table the first figure represents pounds of copper sulfate, the last gallons of water, and the middle one, sepa- rated from the others by dashes, represents pounds of unslaked lime. When copper sulfate or lime is used alone with water, the last number represents gal- lons of water and the first the copper sulfate or the lime in pounds, Tus Prevention or Pracu Lrar-Court. 353 EXPERIMENT Y. The trees included in this plot were also selected from one of the orchards belonging to Mr. Lutts. They were all of the Beer’s Late variety and were inclosed on three sides by unsprayed trees. They curled badly in ’98, though not so much as the Elbertas, and have not been sprayed until the past year. The trees are six years old and have about twenty thousand leaves to the tree. There was no crop in 799. A plan and table of results follow, as in the preceding experiments. Puan or Experiment V. 4 2 ES By 6 Z § DE AOL AA A 2h ARE AIS AG Ot O24Or fy iO 0: 5 'O. 2: OOO: - 0.70: OC On BEPOMOHMOMO! Ors OU 1Onetin On! Of OH? O?'s OO ren ae ree Oi OF Ont Ow Ox OOF 7 ty On, GesOnsO.,. © Ona BOO OO Oi OO On ee Oa uO Op @. Oca IP. O- Oy Di FOwOsiB) ii. o#s (O79 9420-10 42-O eis oe From Mr. Lutts’ block of the Beer’s Late variety. The number and arrange- ment of the trees is the sume as in experiment IV and the signs used have the same significance as in that experiment. 23 354 Butietin 180. EXPERIMENT V.— TABLE OF ReEsULTS witH BEER’s LATE. s 2 Treatment April 11-13. Treatment April 11-13. se ae se 2 a 1 Bordeaux 6-—4-50..... Bordeaux 4-4-50...... None 2 og 6-6-50..... * 6-6-50..... or 3 ss 6-6-50. ... es a | re “ 4 pe 3-3-50..... es 3-3-50. .... id 5 ES i PSE) Ca ee De Se ae is 6-8-50 . .. Two leaves to the uree ir e-i OMECK (At. ae. eet ee = CHEE ote; eke ns 4 per cent on all checks 6 Bordeaux 6—4-50..... Ten leaves to the Wothsad Gavel se pre Ss lereker ere slatere trce ff Gopper stilfate 4250. 2)... c.. ost... Bo. 25 oo ere 1 per cent 8 % 4-50..| Copper sulfate 1-250..| 4 per cent 9 f 4-50. .| 3 1-500...) 4 per cent 10 “i 4-50..| Bordeaux 4—4-50... .. | None 11 Raimi 3 53S. 293. So LR OF. Soe KO ee 2 per cent In the Bordeaux mixtures used in the above table the first figure represents pounds of copper sulfate, the last gallons of water, and the middle one, separated from the others by dashes, represents pounds of unslaked lime. When copper sulfate or lime is used alone with water, the last number represents gallons of water and the first the copper sulfate or the lime in pounds. Experment VI. This experiment was made upon a block of Elberta trees chosen from the orchard of Mr. W. T. Mann, one mile west of Somerset, in the northeastern corner of Niagara county. The trees were set in *94 and suffered from the curl in ’97 and 798, but were not sprayed before 99. They are very thrifty and bore a large crop of fruit the past season. The orchard from which these trees were selected was sprayed early in the spring with Bordeaux. Injuries to foliage were observed with some care in this block. The lime used was of the best quality and both it and the copper sulfate were carefully weighed, as was done in the other experi- ments; but it soon became evident that the normal Bordeaux mix- ture contained too much copper sulfate for the foliage of the peach. lIujuries began to appear two weeks after the second spraying. The foliage took on an unhealthy look; shot-holes and yellow tips were abundant and many leaves fell from the trees. By June 14, the injuries to rows 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 12 were equally apparent, and doubtless greater than those sus- tained by the check rows from the attacks of the curl. Row Tor PREVENTION oF Pracu LeEaAr-Cur. 9, treated with comparatively weak Bordeaux, did not at that time show much injury. All of the rows which received only the first spraying remained in fine condition. By July 8, onall trees sprayed late with Bordeaux the foliage was thin and the ground beneath the trees was thickly covered with yellow leaves. On August 8, the rows all appeared about alike, since the injured leaves had mostly fallen or become con- cealed by the new growth. Very few curled leaves had fallen from the checks. The loss of foliage on rows receiving the second spraying with Bordeaux affected to some extent the quality of the fruit on these rows. Injuries to foliage in experi- NN = Seo SEEN Se Byee ee ots ©: 40) ©7 Oo O10 O;::© oo Giz O SPRL rOe SOO) 2 ih © Gis © iia % nad fee. ©. 0) Ou Gy Oe Oi HO, i: OnsOrn® OM ONO AS Orne) Oe © BN © Bio © se. Se. Ox OO) Or ney O40 pO 10), O40 Ox 10" "Or OF OMe Oo (OO. OO Oo Oo. .O.. ©. Cr One OncOnO kOe. Onis OOF O 10 OF € B55 ments IV and V were practically the same as those recorded above. EXPERIMENT VI.— Tasue or ReEsutts. | | Row. Treatment April 14. Treatment May 15. iis MOSPORT A GE ee Pie ke A te EA AS ee ae 2 i a 5) | ee ae Bordeaux 3-3—-50 3 54 G=4-H0atlue 2ogcex ¥f 44-50 4 = U-Oss 5 cae et can a 6-6-50 5 os Nea vo aietaia es | oe 3-3-50 GS i Gheeks. oo. . owasdacaaekh os Check VF aye Sapdeplele ocak ‘< Bordeaux 6—6-50 8 | Copper sulfate 4-50.......... < 44-50 9 re 4-50.. .. ....| Copper sulfate 10 - A-GO:. & AGS SEE 2 PO. BIR Ga ee 11 ‘a Sl Cee were ci ee Boo Lime qe. Bis Ae Bordeaux 4—4-50 13 PP =) Ser Lae, Senne Ae) Oe Oe ae See c= ny ARBRE 14 Peel 2s eee aye ye A eter Ne Gar aaa ee a £6.) Cheek i .ciaccs Jat oid. be. Check Relative amounts of curl June 14. s-eeoeeeevoe-. 6 68)\0 0 (oe a fe 2 eAS SC witelens lee ve oe eer ee eer trae -@eeseveereee eeerereerere eee eres eeve 18 2 356 Buuuetrin 180. CoNCLUSIONS. There is no good reason for giving up the Elberta or any other variety of peach sensitive to leaf-curl, as this disease can be con- trolled by spraying at trifling expense. Of the three substances employed as fungicides in these experi- ments, the Bordeaux mixture is the most useful; and, though sey- eral different strengths of this mixture have been found nearly equal iu efficiency the past season, for the early spraying a strong solution is recommended. When Bordeaux of good strength is used early aud a season of warm, dry weather follows, continuing as late as the middle of May, a second spraying is not profitable. But if the weather is cold and wet, it is well to spray again with Bordeaux after the petals fall, using only two pounds of copper sulfate (with excess of lime) to fifty gallons of water, for, notwithstanding some state- ments to the contrary, the foliage of the peach seems sensitive to stronger solutions. . The treatment, then, for the prevention of peach leaf-curl based upon my own and other experiments is briefly as follows: 1. Spray with Bordeaux consisting of 6 lbs. of copper sulfate, 4 Ibs. of good quick-lime, and 50 gals. of water about the first of April when the buds are beginning to swell. 2. Spray again when the petals have fallen with Bordeaux con- sisting of 2 Ibs. of copper sulfate, 2 ibs. of good quick-lime, and 50 gals. of water. If the weather of April and early May is warm and dry, this second spraying may be omitted. Lime or copper sulfate alone with water have been almost as effective as Bor- deaux the past season when used for the first spraying and followed later by Bordeaux, but their effects are not so lasting, particularly in rainy weather, and wi.ether the season is favorable or unfavorable, the second spraying with Bor- deaux should not be omitted when lime cr copper sulfate are used alone for the first. How to Make tHe Borpravx. Prepare a stock solution by suspending 25 lbs. of copper sulfate in a coarse sack in 25 gals. of water for a day or more until com- pletely dissolved. To make 50 gals. of strong Bordeaux for the - early spraying, take 6 gals. of the stock solution and dilute it with 19 gals. of water. Weigh out 4 lbs. of the best quick-lime, slake it Tue PREVENTION oF Pracu LEAF-CuRL. 357 slowly, dilute to 25 gals., and strain through a metallic sieve into the copper sulfate solution while the latter is being stirred. To prepare 50 gals. of the weak Bordeaux for the late spraying, proceed in the same manner, using 2 gals. of the stock solution of copper sulfate, 2 lbs. of quick-lime, and 48 gals. of water. Those conducting spraying operations on a larger scale will find it convenient to prepare fifty gallons or more of the stock solution of copper sulfate, keeping it covered to prevent evaporation, and to slake a considerable quantity of ime at once and keep it in the form of a paste in a barrel partially sunk in the ground or in a trough made specially for the purpose. If the surface of the paste is kept covered with a little water, the lime may be preserved for an indefinite length of time in this form and the amount required for a given quantity of Bordeaux determined by testing the mixture with a solution of potassium ferrocyanid in about ten parts of water. A drop of this solution on being added to a solution of copper sul- fate produces immediately a dark reddish brown color. When suf- ficient lime has been added in the preparation of the Bordeaux mixture, this change in color does not occur on the addition of potassium ferrocyanid. It is well to add a little more lime, even after the test indicates a sufficient quantity, since a large excess of lime is rather a benefit than otherwise, while a slight excess of cop- per sulfate nay prove injurious to the foliage. A first-class spray- ing outfit and a convenient water supply are very important where much spraying is attempted. W. A. MURRILL. The writer’s thanks are due Messrs. King and Robinson, of Trumansburg, Mr. H. 8. Wright, of Ithaca, Mr. Henry Lutts, of Youngstown, and Mr. W. T. Mann, of Barker, who have offered their orchards for the above experiments and most heartily codperated with him to make them successful. Bulletin 181. March, 1900. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, N. Y. HORTICULTURAL DIVISION. POLLINATION EN ORCHARDS. By S: We PLE TCHER: PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1900. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING. Dairy Husbandry. GEO. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M V. SLINGERLAND. Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. * B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. W. A. MURRILL, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. Mrs. MARY ROGERS MILLER, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. S. W. FLETCHER. Extension Work. C. E. HUNN, Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. W. E. GRIFFITH, Dairy Husbandry. Mrs. A. B. COMSTOCK, Nature-Study. ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Nature-Study. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. TI. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of Director, Room 20, Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them, * Absent on leave, 360 CornELL UNIversiry, Iruaca, N. Y., March 1, 1900. HonoraAB_eE CoMMISsIONER OF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY, N. Y.: Srr.— One of the most trying experiences of the orchardist and also one of the most freqnent, is to see his trees bloom but not set fruit. Various investigations of such difficulties have been made and published, but much more needs to be done. In order to under- stand the subject, particularly in its relations to practical orchard- ing, an investigation was set on foot by Professor Bailey. This investigation has been continued three years under his direction and supervision, and the summary results are published in this bulletin, which is submitted for publication under chapter 430 of the Laws af 1899. The study of pollination in orchards is made necessary by the rise of commercial fruit-growing. When fruit is grown only for home use, or in small areas for a local market, there is not likely to be serious loss from imperfect pollination ; but in large commercial orchards, any general unfruitfulness from this source is quickly noticed. The commercial orchard seems destined to be the most important single factor in American horticulture, and with its growth comes a corresponding increase in the liability of loss from imperfect pollination. This bulletin will find its greatest usefulness, therefore, in the hands of the commercial fruit-grower. Aside from extended investigations in this State, experiences have been secured from all parts of the country. This bulletin is divided into two parts: I. Incidental or occasional causes for loss of fruit. II. Self-sterility, which is the main part of the work. Respectfully submitted, I. P. ROBERTS, Director. 361 68.—At 7 a. m. 65.—The structure of a plum blossom. se. sepals, p. petals; sta. stamens; o. J VE ‘ ovary, 8. style; st. stigma. The pistil = cH } rey, is comprised of the ovary, style and Aes /- stigma. It contains the female part. \( The stamens are tipped with anthers 60 APG Gan tin which the pollen, or male part, is borne. The ovary, 0, ripens into the Sruit. a os Wert ea ea i i wf aD oa 66.— B, pollen escaping from anther. A, pollen germinating on the stigma. Enlarged. The transfer of pollen to the stigma ts sie called pollination. Gj 71.— At 8 a. m. the nat morning. 67.—Pollen grain germinating. Greatly magni- 68-71.— T he opening of a flower of Kieffer fied. pear. The flowers of pears ana - 2 apples have five styles and stig- 65-67.— Details of a fruit blossom. mas. few results from crosses made at Ithaca in 1899 will illustrate this point. Fig. 81 shows the comparative size of Seckel when pollinated with Kieffer and with Lawrence pollen. Clapp pollinated with Kieffer was also larger than Clapp pollinated with Lawrence or Louise Bonne. Howell blossoms which received the pollen of Clapp gave fruits of 81.— Seckel. From Kieffer pollen above, from Lawrence pollen below. nearly twice the size of those which received Bartlett pollen. Bart- letts crossed with Angouleme were larger than Bartletts crossed with Sheldon. In some cases no difference could be noticed, yet most of our standard commercial varieties will be likely to yield enough better fruit when planted with some varieties than with others, to make a study of this point worth the while. Some of the combinations which have been very successful in the commercial orchards of the country are: Bartlett with Nelis, Flemish Beauty, Easter, White Doyenne; Idaho with Bartlett; 378 Butuetin 181. Kieffer with LeConte, Garber; Coe Golden Drop with French Prune, Green Gage, Italian Prune (Fellenburg); Satsuma with Abundance, Burbank, Red June; Miner with DeSoto, Forest Rose, Wild Goose ; Wild Goose with DeSoto, Newman, Miner. Dors Crossina CHANGE THE APPEARANCE OF THE Fruit? In connection with the mutual affinity of varieties which are selected for cross-pollination, there comes the question of the “immediate influence” of pollen. For instance, if Seckel pollen is put on Kieffer pistils, will it impart the Seckel flavor, color and characteristic shape to the resulting fruit? Of course the charac- ters of both may be united in the seeds, and the trees which come from these seeds may be expected to be intermediates; but is the flesh of the fruit ever changed by foreign pollen ? The increase in size which often follows crossing cannot be called a true immediate influence, for the foreign pollen generally stimn- lates the fruit to a better growth because it is more acceptable to the pistils, not because it carries over the size-character of the variety from which it came. In 1899, Hyslop Crab pistils which were fertilized with pollen from the great Tompkins County King, grew into fruits of the usual crab size. An immediate influence in size may be possible, for the size of the fruit is nearly as constant a varietal character as is the shape; but most of the increased size in crosses of orchard fruits probably arises from the fact that the pollen is more acceptable. Setting aside the usual gain in size resulting from crossing, we wish to know whether there will be any change in the shape, color, quality and seasoning of ripening of the fruit. A few undoubted instances of this influence have been noticed with some plants in which the seed is the principal part of the fruit, as the mixing of sweet corn and field corn; also perhaps in various peas and beans. When the seed is surrounded by a fleshy pulp, however, as in our common orchard fruits, it is still in dispute whether this pulp is influenced, however much the seeds themselves may be. Most men have formed their convictions about the immediate influence of pollen from observation, rather than from experimental proof. It does not necessarily follow that “sweet and sour” apples are due to PoLuINATION IN ORCHARDS. 379 cross-pollination, nor that the russet on Greening apples borne on the side of the tree next a Roxbury was produced by the influence of the Roxbury pollen. Most of the changes in fruit which are attributed to the influ- ence of cross-pollination are due to variation. Every bud on a tree is different in some way from every other bud on that tree and may develop unusual characters, inde- pendent of all the other buds, according to the conditions under which it OTOWs. 82.— Stark. From Wagener pollen The best way to determine above, from Stark polien below. Marked benefit from cross-polli- : : mation: influence of pollen is by hand crossing. Among the forty-five whether there is an immediate different crosses which were made in 1899 with this particular point in view, not one showed any change which could be positively attrib- uted to the influence of pollen. Even the concentrated sweetness of Seckel made no impression on the poor quality of Kieffer; nor were there any constant differences in color, shape, or season of ripening in any of the other crosses. Nearly everybody who has crossed varieties of orchard fruits has had a similar experience. Most of the evidence supporting the theory that there is an imme- diate influence of pollen in the crosses of fruits comes from obser- vation ; most of the evidence against it comes from experiment, 380 Buivetin 181. The observer, however careful, is likely to jump at conclusions; the experimenter tries to give due weight to every influence which — might bear on the problem. Since many observers and a few experimenters have found what seems to be an immediate influence 83.— Longfield. From Greening pcllen below, from Longfield pollen ubove. Murked benefit from cross-pcllination. of pollen on the fruit, we cannot doubt but that this influence is sometimes exerted. But it is certainly much less frequent than is commonly supposed. Tue DistrRrButTion OF THE POLLINIZERS. Having selected a pollinizer with reference to simultaneous bloom- ing and mutual affinity, the fruit-grower now wishes to know how many trees will be necessary to pollinate the self-sterile variety. There are three things to be considered here; The ability of the POLLINATION IN OrcITARDS. 881 pollinizer to produce pollen, its market value, and the class of fruit to which the self-sterile variety belongs. Varieties differ in the amount of pollen which they produce, and the pollen production of the same variety is also greatly modified by differences in locality and season. Other things being equal, the variety which produces pollen freely could be used more sparingly in a block of self-sterile trees than one of scanty pollen production. 84.— Abundance. From Abundance pollen above, from Grand Duke pollen below. Some benefit from cross-polination. Little comparative observation has been made on this point as yet; but, as a matter of fact, most of our common varieties produce an abundance of pollen. The number of trees of the pollinizer would also depend largely on whether it has value in itself. If we are planting LeConte to pollinate Kieffer, we would naturally try to get along with the least possible number which will do the work; but if Bartletts are to be used for the same purpose, we can afford to increase the proportion. Some growers plant every tenth row to the polli- nizer, but the proportion should usually be greater. This might be 3892 Butietin 181. enough if the weather during the blossoming season is very favor- able for cross-pollination by wind and insects; but if it is showery, the pollinizers should be more abundant, in order that cross-pollina- tion may be more general during the bright weather between show- ers. If using Garber or LeConte to pollinate Kieffer, every third row may be the pollinizer; if using Bartlett, every other row. For 85.— Talman Sweet. From Talman Sweet pollen above, from Wagener pollen below. No benefit from cross-pollination. apples, cherries and domestic or Japanese plums, the same propor tion may be used. In a commercial orchard, the pollinizer should be planted in a solid row. Theoretically, it is much better to have the pollinizer more evenly distributed among the self-sterile trees ; practically, it will not pay to so mix them except in small orchards. PoLLINATION IN ORCHARDS. 383 Tue ApVANTAGES OF GENERAL Mixep PLANTING. It would appear that the only thing to do now is to find out what varieties are inclined to be self-sterile and the varieties which are best adapted for fertilizing them. But as a matter of fact, cross- pollination gives better results with nearly all varieties, be they self- sterile or self-fertile. A variety may be able to bear good fruit when it is planted alone, but it will often bear better fruit if suitable varieties are near it. Mixed orchards are more productive than solid 86.— Bradshaw Plum. From German Prune polen above, from Bradshaw poilen below. No benefit from cross-pollination. blocks, taking the country over. It is a common observation in Western New York that Baldwins in mixed orchards are more uniformly productive than Baldwins in large blocks. Furthermore, although a variety may be able to set an abundance of fruit with its own pollen, this fruit will often be smaller than if other pollen were supplied. From a number of experiments made in 1899, a few rep- resentative results are here given to illustrate this point. Compare the size of self-pollinated and cross-pollinated fruits in 384 Butrerin 181. Figs. 82-86. In some varieties the difference was very marked, as with Stark and Longfield apples (Fig. 82-83); in others the differ- ence was not so marked, as Abundance (Fig. 84); while a few showed no appreciable increase in size from cross-pollination, as Talman Sweet and Bradshaw (Fig. 85-86). The difference between the cross and self-pollinated Starks and Longfields is so striking that one would almost be tempted to think the self-pollinated fruits were wormy, but they were not. The self-pollinated Talmans and Brad- shaws were apparently as fine in every way as the cross-pollinated fruits. Manning Elizabeth pear also was not benefited by pollen from other varieties. The three self-pollinated Longfields here shown (Fig. 83) had but. five sound seeds; while the two crossed specimens had seventeen sound seeds. In general, cross-pollinated fruits have more good seeds than self pollinated fruits, but there is no constant relation between the size of a fruit and the number of seeds it contains. Some of the viggest apples or pears may have only two or three _ good seeds. In case the ovules in one cell of an apple or pear core are not fertilized, that part of the fruit adjoining is often stunted and the fruit becomes lop-sided in consequence ; but this, likewise, does not always follow. All of the above varieties are self-fertile, at least in Ithaca. They will produce fruit with their own pollen. But we have seen that some of them will produce better fruit if other pollen is supplied. Is it not worth while, then, to plant pollinizers even with self-fertile varieties — that is, to practice mixed planting with all varieties ? There are three good reasons for doing this: First, some believe that self-sterility is likely to increase in the future, under the stimu- lus of high cultivation. Second, we can never be perfectly sure that any variety will be self-fertile on our soil and under our cul- ture; even those varieties which are self-fertile elsewhere may be partially self-sterile with us. Third, most self-fertile as well as self- sterile varieties are benefited by cross-pollination. It is taking risks to plant a very large block of one variety. The trees may bear just as much and just as fine fruit as though other varieties were with them, but the chances are against it. PoLLINATION IN ORCHARDS. 885 Tue PoLuEN-CARRIERS. The pollen of one variety is carried to the pistils of another in two ways: by the wind and by insects. There are many kinds of insects which aid more or less in the cross-pollination of orchard fruits, principally bees, wasps and flies. Of these, the wild bees of several species are probably the most important. In a wild thicket of plums or other fruits, they are usually numerous enough to insure a good setting of fruit. But few if any wild bees can live in a large orchard, especially if it is well tilled. As the extent and thorough- ness of cultivation increases, the number of these natural insect aids to cross-pollination decreases; hence it may become necessary to keep domestic honey bees for this purpose. SUMMARY. 1. Searcely one fruit blossom in ten sets fruit, even in the most favorable seasons and with the most productive varieties. 2. Trees making a very vigorous growth may drop their blossoms. 3. Brown rot, apple or pear scab, and pear blight may kill the blossoms. 4. Frost injury to blossoms is of all degrees. Even flowers which appear to be uninjured may be so weakened that they cannot set fruit. 5. Rain during the blooming season prevents the setting of fruit chietly by destroying the vitality of the pollen, injuring the stigma, or by preventing fertilization because of the low temperature. The washing of pollen from the anthers seldom causes serious loss. 6. Much of the unsatisfactory fruiting of orchards all over the country is due to self-sterility. A tree is self-sterile if it cannot set fruit unless planted near other varieties. 7. The main cause of self-sterility is the inability of the pollen of a variety to fertilize the pistils of that variety. 8. Poor stamens and pistils or the premature ripening of either are but minor causes of self-sterility. 9. An indication of self-sterility is the continued dropping of young fruit from isolated trees or solid blocks of one variety. 10. Self-sterility is not a constant character with any variety. 25 , 386 Buwuetrin 181. The same variety may be self-sterile in one place and nearly self- fertile in another. 11. Poorly nourished trees are more likely to be sterile with their own pollen than well fed trees are. 12. The loss of fruit from self-sterility usnally may be prevented by planting other varieties among the self-sterile trees. 13. The European and Oriental pears can fertilize each other, and many varieties of the domestica, Japanese and native plums are likewise inter-fertile, provided they bloom together. 14. The pollen of some varieties will give larger fruit than that of others when it falls on or is applied to the pistils of either self- sterile or self-fertile varieties. 15. Among our common orchard fruits cross-pollination seldom has an immediate influence on the fruit itself. 16. Cross-pollination probably gives better results than self-polli- nation with nearly all varieties. | 17. It is advisable and practicable to plant all varieties of orchard fruits, be they self-sterile or self-fertile, with reférence to cross-pollination. 18. Insects are probably more important than wind for carrying pollen from tree to tree. 19. Final suggestions.— a. When setting out new orchards do not plant a solid block of each variety, but mix them intelligently. b. If established orchards are unfruitful because of self-sterility it may be profitable to put a few grafts of another variety in each tree. c. Keep fruit trees well nourished but do not stimulate them to an over-vigorous growth. S. W. FLETCHER. Bulletin 182. April, 1900. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, N. Y. AGRICULTURAL DIVISION. Sugar Beet Investigations for 1899 Byvjk. Sil ONE: and- Eb: As CLINTON: PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1900. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G:C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. GEO. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. *B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. W. A. MURRILL, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. Mrs. MARY R. MILLER, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. S. W. FLETCHER, Extension es C. E. HUNN, Gardening. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. VW «Wo EA TE, Dairy Husbandry. Mrs. A. B. COMSTOCK. Nature- Study. ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Nature-Study. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. * Absent on leave. 388 CorneLt UNIveERsIty, ) Irgaca, N. Y., March 15, 1900. f HonorABiE CoMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY : Str.— The following report contains the results obtained from the codperative experiments with sugar beets throughout the state, and also the results obtained upon the experimental grounds at Cor- nell University. The codperative experiments were in charge of Mr. J. L. Stone, and consisted of making tests of varieties and also of fertilizers. Owing to peculiarities of the season the fertilizer work is not here reported, but a full account is given of the test of varieties. This codperative work with the farmers throughout the state is valuable not only for the results obtained from the experi- ments, but also for the interest which it creates among the farmers in the work which is being done by the state throngh the College of Agriculture and by the Experiment Station to advance the cause of agriculture. The work upon the home grounds was in charge of Mr. L. A. Clinton. Experiments have been conducted with fertilizers upon sugar beets, and a summary of the work for three years is given. This report is of value owing to the care taken to make the plats uniform and to the length of time during which the experiment has been conducted. An account is also given of the field plat experi- ments with sugar beets during 1899. The data obtained add to our knowledge of the subject of sugar beet growing, and the report is submitted for publication under chapter 430 of the Laws of 1899. : I. P. ROBERTS, Director. 389 ry, J ws ‘ — ‘ SUGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS FOR 1899. PART I. CO-OPERATIVE EXPERIMENTS. By J. L. Stone. The investigations relating to sugar beets conducted by this station during the season of 1899 have been chiefly along the lines of com- parison of varieties, and testing the effect of different fertilizers on the yield and quality of beets. No effort was made to locate experi- ments outside the territory that is producing beets for the two fac- tories now in operation in the state. However, requests were received from some thirty persons living in other sections asking for seeds and instruction for growing beets, both of which were for- warded, and the beets received from such persons have been tested for sugar and purity. Arrangements were made with thirty-eight farmers who were engaged in sugar beet culture, and, therefore, vitally interested in the work, to make a practical comparative test of five varieties of sugar beets, the seed of which was furnished- to the station by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. By having the five varieties grown side by side, and thus under as nearly uni- form conditions as to fertility and culture as possible in each of the experiments, it was believed that the average results obtained would be much more significant than a larger number of tests where the varieties were separated and perhaps subjected to different conditions. In previous work it has been the custom of the station to receive two beets as a sample for determining the percentage of sugar and purity of the juice. It is frequently observed when these beets are examined separately that they show considerable difference in con- tent of sugar and purity of juice, thus leading to the conclusion that the individuality of the beet may lead to an erroneous estimate of 391 392 Buuuetin 182. the crop where so few as two beets are used asa sample. It was, therefore, decided that each sample should consist of six beets, which were forwarded by express, instead of through the mails as formerly, thus materially reducing the liability to error from the cause mentioned. The season for preparing the land and sowing was unusually favorable so that the seed was gotten in the soil in fine condition and at an early date. In fact the early date at which the seeding was completed had the effect of reducing the number of our experi- ments, as we had expected at least two weeks more time in which to go among the farmers to arrange the work. The weather condi- tions were favorable for germination, a good stand was obtained and early and economical tillage was generally facilitated so that up to the middle of August the crop was unusually promising. From this time on the effect of drought, which in some localities was the most destructive on record, was very manifest. In some instances the damage was so great that the experiment was abandoned as not likely to give trustworthy data. In fact it is believed that abnormal conditions of any kind, and especially drought, lessen the value of experimental data as they emphasize the unavoidable inequalities of soil as regards texture, natural water supply, ete. The variety tests— The following table, No. 1, gives a statement, somewhat in detail, of the results obtained by each experimenter. The table gives the name and address of the grower, the character of the soil, the varieties of beets grown, the yield per acre in tons, the percentage of sugar in the beets and the purity of the juice. _All analyses so recorded in this bulletin were made by Mr. G. W. Cavanaugh and Mr. A. L. Knisely, Assistant Chemists of the Experiment Station. Sucar Beer INvEsTIGATIONS FOR 1899. Name and Address of Grower. Robert Wright, Little York, Cortland Co., W. Y: F. E. Van Camp, Preble, Cortland Co., N. Y. Frank Daley, Preble, Cort- land Co., N. Y. Clark Esty & Son, Tully Valley, Onondaga Co., Ee ¥ C. A. Knapp, Little York, - Cortland Co., N. Y. W. E. Bowen, Little York, Cortland Co., N. Y. A. co a 4 OO He wow-co oO wD Oe OC Od woor cro m CO HC OD SBS WOOF WIVWID onl 20 ie 4) SE be ~ Sucar Brrr INVESTIGATIONS FOR 1899. 395 TABLE 1— Concuvupen. Sugar : : Tons . | Purity Name and Address of Grower. Character Variety of Beets. per Pek, of of Soil. cent in 4 Acre. | Be, ts, Juice L. J. English, Bingham-} Black Kleinwanzlebener ...| 17.04 | 13.40} 82.4 ton, Brvome Co., N. Y. iaragh Vv UMOTI: 235 e ee se } 18.92 | 14.11] 83.4 ASIN ONE EE. see soc 16.00 | 15.06 |} 82.6 Mad seh cide 17.25 | 13.87] 82.0 Biendorf Elite Klein.| 17.92 | 14.44| 82.2 W.C. Smith, Candor, Ti-) Gravelly | Kleinwanzlebener...| 7.50 | 13.82] 80.8 oga Co., N. Y. loam}: Milmiorings otto ie. ts 8.32 | 12.21 | 77.4 Felingen: 2132 1.2243 7.50 | 13.02 | 78.7 Mineo ss. 2 hoes 8.75 | 18.82} 81.3 Biendorf Elite Klein.} 8.12 | 12.25) 82.0 A. C. Bethka, East Syra-| Loam | Kleinwanzlebener...| .... | 16.34/| 85.6 - cuse, N. Y. Wi OMIM 0 6 wha sssinhiled Obert he Skee ZCNFINSCN:: . es ae oss atts PLO lee fe Glee Mangold 33. basse: .... | 15.72]. 84.0 Biendorf Elite Klein.| .... | 18.40] 79.2 Geo. Lamb, East Hamil-| Mucky | Kleinwanzlebener...| .... | 14.58} 79.5 ton, IN. Y. igany |; VEMLOTIN: sn. et weet LOOe | ocae ZERTIN GEN 6 c5caky ven s 8.92 | 16.20} 82.8 Biendorf Elite Klein.| 5.80 | 12.35| 76.0 T. J. Collier, Preble, Cort-| ....... Kleinwanzlebener...| .... | 14.73} 76.4 land Co., N. Y. Wilmprint <3. 23 ose: .... | 15.34] 80.0 OMENS AW & 5, iis. oh x six e on ee one. Biendorf Elite Klein. ‘“‘ rs i four; . five. A study of the kinds of soils upon which these experiments were conducted does not seem to indicate that any one of these varieties is preéminently adapted to a particular soil. As regards the quality of the beets it is also true that each variety takes first place in some experiments and last in others, but here there is a marked tendency for Kleinwanzlebener and Zehringen to appear at the head of the list, Vilmorin and Biendorf Elite Klein- wanzlebener to appear at the foot. Kleinwanzlebener shows largest ¢ of sugar in ten cases, smallest in four. Vilmorin a . ie af one:-' ry seven. Zehringen a 5 “4 re ten. 6235 - one. Mangold ¥ es ‘ 4 three ‘‘ % three. Biendorf Elite Klein, ‘ s = s ones = nine. In some instances the highest content of sugar is associated with the largest yield, but the tendency is to reverse this and associate high quality with low yield and vice versa. In table No. 2 are given the averages of the several varieties as set forth in table No. 1. The yields per acre are the averages for nineteen plats each growing the five varieties mentioned, except that Biendorf Elite Kleinwanzlebener was omitted from one plat. The columns showing the percentage of sugar and the purity of the juice are the averages for twenty-four plats each growing the five varieties except that the variety mentioned above was omitted from two of them. SucAR Best INVESTIGATIONS FoR 1899. 397 TABLE No. 2. CoMPARISON oF AVERAGE RESULTS. Average| yields | Sugar | Suger | ; Sugar Varieties. weight | tons per | in juice | in beets,) PUrity |produced of b oe ’ ate Sebeone per cent, | Of Juice. |p eae Kleinwanzlebener.......... 16.1 FieG7 13.3(5+ |, 10.46 81.2 3538 RAMMOTU ss 3.056 5 Sed tl oe L , 15.7 i1.14 | 14.80 | 14.07 79.9 3235 Mere PORS Lil. Goa 6 ae Se ia We 16.47 15.65 81.8 3474 Nirhiseld, 150903. ELSE. OU 15:7 12.20 15.80 15.01 81.3 3662 Biendorf Elite Klein ....... 15.0 | 11.30 |} 14.33 | 14.19 79.2 3207 While the average yield and quality of the different varieties of beets as shown in the above table are quite uniform, still between the highest and lowest there is a difference of more than one ton per acre in yield and above one and one-half per cent in content of sugar. A gain or loss of one ton per acre as resulting from the variety of beets planted is of very material importance to the farmer, and a difference of one or one and a half per cent of sugar in the beets is of even greater significance to the manufacturer. It is estimated that a factory slicing during the season 25,000 tons of beets containing 15.5 per cent sugar will turn out 3,250 tons of pure granulated marketable sugar, while if it were to slice the same amount of beets 1.8 per cent poorer in sugar, it would turn out 2,925 tons of marketable product—a difference of 325 tons of sugar which at $50 per ton would amount to $16,250. It will be seen that while in each case the expense incurred for beets, labor, fuel, etc., is the same, there is a difference in gross receipts for manufactured sugar amounting to a sum that will go a long ways towards a fair dividend on the investment. Unfortunately the variety showing the highest content of sugar (Zehringen) seems to be the lightest yielder. In our trials of 1898 (see Bulletin 166, pp. 135 and 136) this variety took the same rank when compared with Kleinwanzlebener and Vilmorin as to yield and quality that it does this season. | The variety of sugar beets known as Mangold was tested by this 398 Buuietin 182. station for the first time this season and with very favorable results. As to productivity it heads the list and the quality is good. So far as the experience of this season on nineteen different farms may be an indication, it would seem that this variety might well be placed along with the well tried and ever reliable Kleinwanzlebener. The fertilizer tests.— As stated in the beginning of this bulletin the plan of experimentation included a study of the effect of differ- ent fertilizing material upon the yield and quality of sugar beets. Arrangements were made with a number of farmers to receive sets of experimental fertilizers from the station and apply them accord- ing to instructions. The scheme embraced eight plats of one-twen- tieth acre each as follows: Plat No. 1, 15 lbs. muriate of potash; plat No. 2, 15 lbs. nitrate of soda; plat No. 3, 30 lbs. superphos- phate; plat No. 4, no fertilizer; plat No. 5, 15 lbs. muriate of pot- ash and 15 Ibs. nitrate soda; plat No. 6, 15 lbs. muriate of potash and 30 lbs. superphosphate; plat No. 7, 15 Ibs. nitrate soda and 30 Ibs. superphosphate ; plat No. 8,15 lbs. nitrate soda, 15 lbs. muriate of potash and 30 Ibs. superphosphate; and, at the option of the farmer, plat No. 9, stable manure. The conditions surrounding these experiments during the early part of the season were favorable and the prospect of securing valu- able data seemed good up to the time that the drought became severe. As the season advanced it became evident that the real struggle of the plant was for moisture rather than for plant-food. Since it is impossible to secure nearly an acre of land that is per- fectly uniform in texture and natural water supply it often occurs that the crop will vary more on account of these inequalities than from different fertilizers applied to the various parts. That com- mercial fertilizers may produce their full effect it is necessary that there be a liberal supply of moisture in the soil to take the plant- food thus furnished into solution. Hence it will be seen that the drought largely neutralized the effect of the fertilizer while it emphasized the inequalities of the soil. The data received from these experimenters are in some cases incomplete and owing to the effect of the drought it is considered unreliable and not valuable for publication. Sucar Bexr INVEsTIGATIONS FoR 1899. 399 PART II. SUGAR BEET EXPERIMENTS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT GROUNDS, 1899. By L. A. C1LIntTon. The land upon which the experiments were conducted was a part of the series of permanent plats. These plats have been subjected to intensive culture without the application of any fertilizer since the fall of 1893, when about ten tons of barn manure were applied per acre. ach fall after the removal of the crop from the land some cover crop as wheat or rye has been sown. But the lateness of the’ sowing prevented the cover crop from making much growth, and, as a consequence, but little organic matter has been returned to the soil. The result is that the humus has been depleted and the soil, instead of remaining loose and friable, becomes very hard and com- pact under the action of rains. The fact 1s emphasized that where intensive culture is practiced, for best results it must be accom- panied by a liberal application of barn manures or green manuring must be adopted, at least the organic matter of the soil must be maintained if the soil be kept in good physical condition. The land for beets was plowed May 2—all except plat 27, which was plowed immediately before the beets were planted. After plowing the land was harrowed and rolled. Between time of plow- ing and time of planting the land was harrowed frequently. Planting the beets — On May 15 and 16 plats 21, 22, 23, 24, 26 and 27 were planted to variety Kleinwanzlebener, seed for which was furnished by the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Plat 27 was plowed deeply immediately before planting and har- rowed and rolled. The object in leaving plat 27 without plowing until time of planting was to determine the effect of deep plowing immediately before planting. Plat 25 was planted to varieties — Mangold, Biendorf Elite Kleinwanzlebener, Vilmorins Improved and Zehringen. These plats were all planted with the rows 20 inches apart and the seed was covered to a depth of about one-half inch. Liffects of a hailstorm.— Within a few days after planting and before the beets had appeared above ground a severe hailstorm 400 Butuetin 182. occurred. The whole surface of the ground was covered with a layer of hail from one to two inches deep. The hail rapidly melted and the surface of the ground was made very wet. The effect upon the beets was most disastrous. The soil which had become depleted of its humus was compacted and the crust was so hard that the small beet plants were unable to force their way through. An attempt was made to break the crust by means of garden rakes, but the beet seed was covered so shallow that the plants were rooted near the surface and the soil directly over the young plants could not be dis- turbed without uprooting the plants and thus destroying them. It finally became apparent that a satisfactory stand of beets could not be secured upon all the plats and it was decided to plow and replant them so there would be secured a somewhat uniform stand of beets. The second planting.— All beet plats were plowed June 5, and harrowed once with the spring tooth harrow and once with the spike tooth harrow and the beet seed was planted in rows 20 inches apart. Plats 21, 22, 23 and 24 were planted to Biendorf’s Elite Kleinwan- zlebener sugar beet seed. On plats 25, 26 and 27 there were planted fourteen rows of Zehringen Elite beet seed from Germany, grown by Dippe Brothers; twelve rows were planted to Zehringen Elite sugar beet seed from Germany, grown by Strandes; eight rows were planted to Zehringen beet seed and seven rows were planted td variety Mangold. Object of experiment.— Upon plats 21, 22, 23 and 24 the object was to determine the effect upon the growth and yield of the beets of thinning at various times. With many farmers who grow beets for the factory it is often impossible to thin all the beets at the time of growth which has been recommended as most favorable. Owing to the large area to be thinned or to the pressure of other work the beets are often neglected for some time. Upon plats 25, 26 and 27 the experiment was simply a variety test. Methods of tillage and thinning on plats 21, 22, 23 and 24.— The first tillage given the beets was on June 30, when a hand weeder was used on all plats. This weeder had the knife blade attachments which loosened the soil close to the plants and destroyed small weeds near the beets. Sucar Beer INVEsTIGATIONS FOR 1899. 401 July 5th thinned to a stand the beets on the east oue-half of plat 21, and on the east one-half of plat 22, and on plats 23, 24, 25, 26 and 27. The west one-half of plat 21 was permitted to remain with- out any thinning while the west one-half of plat 22 was bunched. On the west one-half of plat 21 the beets were allowed to remain thickly in the row until July 19 when they were thinned to a stand, there being left a space of about nine inches between beets in the row. On the west one-half of plat 22, the beets which had been bunched were permitted to remain in bunches until July 19, when they were thinned to a stand of one beet in a place. Tillage was given on all plats on July 7, July 19 and July 25. The thorough working of the land before the beets were planted tended to hasten their growth. The weed seeds which were present in the soil germinated before the second planting of the beets and were thus destroyed by the late plowing. The soil was thoroughly warm owing to an abundant rainfall during July, 3.46 inches, the seeds germinated quickly and the plants grew rapidly. The beets were not seriously injured by insects or disease. The growth of top was relatively small compared with the growth of root. To acasual observer the field never presented the appear- ance of having more than half a crop of beets. Harvesting and yreld.— The sugar beet harvest began November 3. A Syracuse chilled sub-soil plow was used to loosen the beets in the ground, after which they were trimmed by hand. The yield of trimmed beets from the various plats, also the per cent of sugar and the per cent purity are shown in the following table. 26 Butuerin 182. 402 ‘peyoung + *pozAleue $390q jo qu stom OSBIVAY L 8 09'9T | LAST |°°"su039°6 |°"¢ A[ne |" *¢ oune ¢°Gs c8 91 1O'9T |°°"8u09 Z"OT | “¢ A[ng’ |**¢ oune 198 | GO'LT | LL'9T |°*°Su01 g°er | "¢ A[uG | ¢ oune 6°68 Go'9L | Pr'ST |°**sa09 Tet |g A[ne¢ |* g oune 168 CLOT | P8'GT |°**su0} ger |" Atue |°*g oune 6°§8 00°ST GBF |'‘°suo1 TOL |g A[ne |*"¢ oune 6&8 08ST 1oeT |°° 800} 9°8 | eT ATug |**¢ oune 9°6L 08 FT 90'FT |°°°8u07 2°8 |g Ane |" *¢ oune 8°08 09 CT CSPI |°°*su07 ¢', | 6T Ane |**¢ oune 8°68 0€ 9T 6P'cT |°° "smog", |°°¢ Ane |°*g oune : eoter. . S| *suluUl ‘Buruesld Ayling | ul 1e3ns | ul aegns |‘o10v aed plorx Jo nae Jo Ova yueo Jag | 9Ua0 190g eee oe es eee ee wee eee eer ee eee eee posure ws Wee eS eer veeeee sss EROLIye7 “ss sssopuryg Aq oq UesaLay97 ‘-sorg oddiq Aq oq ues ULAYeZ ‘IUIQI[ZURMUL[Y 949A SjJropusiqg *IOUIGI[ZUVMULI[Y IU[W 8 Jropusrg "I9UIQ2[ZURMULTY OW 8 Jropusig ‘* TaUdQaTZUVMUL][Y Up sjropusig *OUAGI[ZUBMUL[Y IU 8,Jlopusig *‘I9UIGI[ZUBMULITY INL] 8,Jropusrg “AJOLIB A “FTL SAAN “FRY ISU L mei lke: Hye a reenter gg “' FTBT 989M Be “WBy ISCO Bs “** ype ISM TR Fiteeeeeeeeee sie agent Tz ‘ON 381d Sucar Brrr INVESTIGATIONS FOR 1899. 403 Results from early and late thinning.— In Bulletin 166 of this station the following statement was made with reference to the time of thinning beets. ‘ Where conditions are favorable, considerable range may be taken as to time of thinning. With the weather cool and the soil moist, thinning may be safely done when the beets have attained a height of three to four inches. However, thinning is such a slow process that it would better be commenced on time, viz., when the second pair of leaves appear the plants should at least be bunched. The bunches may then safely be allowed to remain for a week or ten days before the beets are thinned to a stand of one beet in a place. If one could always be certain that the weather would be cool and soil moist, then there would not be the imperative necessity for beginning thinning early. If thinning be delayed until there exists drought accompanied by hot weather, the growth of the plants may be seriously maT aet if the plants are not entirely destroyed.” The results of the experiment during 1899 lead us to change in no way the opinion expressed above, but rather enforce the conclu- sions heretofore drawn. The month of July, 1899, was especially favorable for late thin- ning of beets. It rained eleven days during the month, an average of .314 inch each day, and on four other days during the month there was a trace of rain, the total rainfall for the month being 3.46 inches. The probability is that had the month of July been one of drought instead of one of abundance of rainfall the results might have been far different. Under the conditions which prevailed the late thinning seemed to be in no way injurious to the growth of the beets. The yield of beets was not large enough to make the crop a pay- ing one. This was not to be expected upon land which has been continually cropped for six years without the use of manures or fer- tilizers. The late planting occasioned by the failure to secure a stand from the first planting no doubt materially lessened the yield. The quality of the beets was all that could be desired. The per cent of sugar and the per cent of purity seemed to be affected in no way by the time of thinning. Variety tests.— The variety giving the largest tonnage of beets, 13.1 tons per acre, was the Zehringen Elite from seed grown by 404 Bu..etin 182. Dippe Bros.,Germany. The highest per cent of sugar in the beets, 16.77, was found in the Zehringen Elite from seed grown by Strandes, Germany, and the highest per cent purity, 86.1, was also found in the Zehringen Elite from seed grown by Strandes. In selecting the sample beets to be tested those were selected which seemed to represent fairly the beets grown on the plat. The size of the beets analyzed seems not to have affected the results. The smallest beets, those grown on the east one-half of plat 22 were the lowest in purity. The variety tests in no way prove anything. The conditions of the soil may have had more effect upon the yield than did the variety grown. The Zehringen Elite strains seemed to be better adapted to the soil and conditions present during 1899 than were the other varieties. Another season and on other soil the results might vary widely. Fertilizer experiments with sugar beets.— During the years 1897, 1898 and 1899 fertilizer experiments with sugar beets have been conducted upon some specially prepared plats. Before commencing this experiment it was determined to make the soil conditions uni- form as to quality and treatment. In the spring of 1897 a space was measured off for 14 plats each 4x5 feet in size. The soil of this whole area was then removed to a depth of 24 inches, each layer of eight inches being thrown upon boards by itself. A solid brick cement wall was constructed around each plat and to a depth of two feet below the surface of the ground. This wall was constructed so that there would be no possible chance for the beets in one plat to receive the benefit of the fertilizer applied to any other plat. After the construction of the wall the soil which had been removed was replaced in the inverse order of its removal, the eight inches removed last was returned first, so that it would occupy its original place at the bottom. Before being returned each eight inches of soil was thoroughly mixed and then an equal number of pounds was put into each plat and packed. In this way all the plats were prepared, each layer of soil after being thoroughly mixed was returned to its original position. During the years 1897, 1898 and 1899 the same experiment has been repeated, the various plats receiving each year the same kind of fertilizer received the previous year. Sucar Brer InvestriaaTions For 1899. 405 The small area upon which the experiments were conducted pre- cludes the possibility of making any calculations of value as to the effect of the fertilizers upon the yield of beets. The only deter. minations of value hoped for are those which relate to the effect of the fertilizer upon the sugar content of the beets. We present the following tables which give the results of the three years’ work sepa- rately and also a table which gives the average of results for the three years. TABLE SHowine Errect or FERTILIZER UPON THE QUALITY or BEETS, LSS: r| Per cent | Per cent |-Per cent . _ Plat. Fertilizer used. ace of alee of sigat solide in ene 4 Lbs. in beet. | in juice. | juice. | 0 JUlce- 3 | Sulfate of potash... .2:.0..... 544 17.06 | 17.96 | 20.08 87.56 4 | Superphosphate....... ....} 544 17.29 | 18.18 | 20.12 90.36 5 \oumpiiate Of potash ji 23)... Gor 27..| .. leh adades Piece |ieee tT Ober Vamnrate Of sodand isis... ic 277 16.20 | 17.06 | 19.06 89.50 6 | Nitrate of soda..... Seneie ies 544 16.71") 17.59, - 19,49 88.40 Mea eINe MCECUIZED. 5 ees eves avs bacl ile ees 16.48 | 17.35 | 19.42 89.20 Baie COTeLNIZeT cic s a. ui See ere 16.23 | 17.09 | 19.22 88.60 9 1 Sulfate-of potash... 4/3, 25>. 7-1 tial Wise ae had ei ka £8 CRREEE We ! SUPErPHOSpPhAte: .) 6. hen et 277 £6.61 |) L749") 1914 91.38 19 | { Nitrate of soda.. .......... Dds 4 bh tdten acne ase. Seater 5293 ere Esuperphosphate soe icnc.s és 277 16.94 | 17.84 | 19.84 89.86 Sulfate of potash ....... .. ABAD | Che Pee eve Pare heat See ‘Bl IiiratewOn Soda ss oe ese 184% | 17.43] 18.35 | 20.08 91.22 Superphosphate ............ Tee et | eo Toei ae eee i2e\-Muriate.of. potash...) 2. «2. /:. 544 17.73 | 18.67 20.72 89.94 Koy) tame.) 5S. PR ee ep eh 1089 16.49 | 17.36 | 19.30 89.44 406 Butwetin 182. TasLe SHowine Errecr or FERTILIZER UPON QUALITY oF BEETS, © OND o Pw ary fm) 11 Fertilizer used. 1898. Rate per | Per cent | Per cent | Per cent acre. | of sugar | of sugar | of solids Lbs. in beet. | in juice. | in juice. Sulfate of potash... 2... 0.200. 1089 | 16.77 | 17.65 20.6 Superpnosphate: <6... 23.0: 1089 | 16.39 | 17.25 20.1 { Sulfate of potash............ 1089 | 16.72] 17.60 20.4 (Diente Of soda...) ds0.63 ates LOSS) a ae ieee reomeee NitTALEC-OF GOGH: ). <.5 p00 's¢9 e451 ees 1089 | 18.78 | 14.50 18.4 DUEL GIUZER oii cas os ee a eters 16.15 | 17.00 20.5 Mer TeRiguZer sos: 6.7 soe stat sal, Boxee 17.05 | 17.95 20.4 § Sulfate of potash ........... 1089) Se 3s . Se ok See ae ( Superphosphate............ 1089 | 17.96 | 18.90 21.6 Ir AGS AT BOGS oak jepesn sittin 1089 | 17.53 | 18.45 21.1 Superphosphate............ BOSD.) incisi s'stihsinny mawtbted ack borate Sulfiteo1 potas; . .2¢5. Jk. . DOR hi ics Wan oe pen trea Nitrate of soda......... esiee| O89 ) 16.484 17285 20.3 | Superphosphate.... ....... DD sy cian rok ih, tego eee ee Muriate of potash .. ........ 1089 | 17.48 | 18.40 21.2 Eimieti:. soe cnn rakes a Bes he 1089 | 16.72 | 17.60 20.1 Purity of juice. ec. eaves eevee *.eeeee Taste SHowine Errecr oF FERTILIZER UPON QUALITY oF BEETs, Fertilizer used. 1899. Rate per | Per cent | Per cent | Per cent acre. of sugar | of sugar | of solids Lbs. in beet. | in juice. | in juice. Purity of juice. eS Se ES SSS. ee Oe eee SS 14 Sulfate of potash .... Superphosphate.... .. Sulfate of potash ..... Nitrate of soda....... Nitrate of soda........ NO ferdiliZer cose ood sceied ING TerIZel as cee ss sie='s ( Sulfate of potash ..... ) Superphosphate ...... 1 Nitrate of soda....... Superphosphate ..... . Sulfate of potash..... Nitrate of soda..... . Superphosphate...... Muriate of potash...... MEME 2s), caine vee Ground phosphate rock ete, © (6 18 Oe le Le, 6.8 “es eeee se eee sra* @ie'.e eesre8 eesveee eereee oeree BOD 4 eis ain Tose se yey he tele 1089 | 16.15 | 17.00 19.6 DOSS enaee bs oleate cae 1089 | 138.02 | 13.70 16.5 DUT S45 ss Sabtl Scion ent | CMe Suear Brrr InveEstIGATIONS FoR 1899. 407 TaBLe SHowine Errect oF FERTILIZER UPON QUALITY OF BEETS. Average of Results for 1897, 1898 and 1899. Per cent | Per cent | Per cent Plat. Fertilizer used. ids | Purity : “5 of sugar |of augar | of solids | Suice, Seah EEE LE OU TIOLASD 8 ssp ee peck once 16.66 | 17.53 | 20.39 85 38 a SIPPELPROSPDAGE rs kon. Cuoco ee cere. 15.82 | 16.64 | 19.44 88.75 5 | Sulfate of potash . . 2024 .a,54h dey'es + 15.72 | 16.55 | 19.35 85.46 PME ERCP cas hnfo eae act ands exe colltatey eenyaroeltl « waa; oree-leushnapaeaalh [aeaoee aoe Sy wbiate Of 80a. Ts... 68 -.ee ss -o.«[. 10.000 bh. 15.29 | 18,49 81.60 MCT MIRREELEMEZOR 5 lo 00. ods so ae ace aces Sea 15.53 | 17.05 | 20.00 85.53 Be MERINZOR 2 cas cs ules s'oce ee. «65 16.14 | 17.03 | 19.64 86.40 9 1 sulphate OL, potash.;..). si: scaclee. 220/04 46.900) VETO: |, 2 Oedd 88.39 ROE By NERA GEE C1 os sto keen Bro sata Sa Rg oN eitap ie ae ud teers a a ements 10 |3 PUEADECOY BOUG oOR oa 5in to eee oes 15.83 | 16.66 | 19.14 86.75 Pe GL IDR DER ec 0 5 Scar PS Mos oa ls « prelaacteRes Pte tee Swe |b a Re eee Sulphate of potash.......... Re ae IA el Oe Weta sr ares eee 11 PUIGEACE OF SOUR Se ose ets cee See pane. PGT 2686 1 1079 85.54 SAEIEL MORITA) cdi achaihiake snap se s 0:2 'vic. «| ietsin- ove. | easements Maine? [oats See a Pewiuniate Of potash 055... -5 cece see ees 17.02 | 17.92 | 20.80 85.94 MEANS NIRE ND sah. Set Pei 8g Sa cigs ace of Skid seb cimtes 15.98 | 17.15 | 19.76 86.61 14 | Ground phosphate rock. ...... ....... 15.86 | 16.69 | 19.39 86.04 By a study of the above tables the two facts which seem to be most pronounced are: First, where nitrate of soda was used alone as a fertilizer the per cent of sugar in the beets was very materially reduced as was also the purity of the juice. The average per cent of sugar in the beets where nitrate of soda alone was used was 13.53, with the purity of the juice 81.60. The average of all plats where no nitrate of soda was used was 16.24 per cent of sugar in the beets with the purity of juice of 86.63. Second — Contrary to the popular belief, the beets upon the plat receiving muriate of potash alone as a fertilizer contained the high- est per cent of sugar of any of the beets grown, and the purity of the juice compared well with that of all others. The per cent of sugar in the beets fertilized with muriate of potash alone was 17.02 with a purity of the juice of 85.94. The average per cent of sugar in the beets grown on all plats not receiving any muriate of potash was 15.82 with purity of the juice of 86.04. Itis usually considered that the sulfate of potash is superior to the muriate of potash as a 408 Bu wwetin 182. fertilizer for sugar beets but our experiments do not indicate that the sulfate is superior in any way tothe muriate. This fact is important because the muriate of potash can usually be secured at a price materially less than the price asked for the sulfate of potash. Where nitrate of soda is used as a fertilizer for sugar beets it should be used in conjunction with the mineral fertilizers superphosphate and potash. Muriate of potash may safely be used as a fertilizer for sugar beets. The other chemicals used seem not to have any marked effect upon the quality of the beets. L. A. CLINTON. Tue Fottowine BULLETINS ARE AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION TO Tuos—E Wuo may Desire THEM. 110 12 122 131 Removing Tassels from Corn, 9 pp. Greenhouse Notes, 31 pp. Apricot Growing in Western New York, 26 pp. The Cultivation of Orchards, 22 pp. Eepreware of the Peach Industry in Y. . Y., 28 pp. Peach Yellows, 20 pp. Some Grape Troubles in Western N. Y., 116 pp. The Cabbage Root Maggot, 99 Pp: Varieties of Strawberry Leaf Blight, 26 p. The Quince in Western N. Y., 27 pp. Dwarf Lima Beans. Cigar-Case- Bearer, 20 pp. Winter Muskmelons, 20 pp. Forcing House Miscellanies, 43 pp. Entomogenous Fungi, 42 pp. The Spraying of Trees and the Canker Worm, 24 pp. General Observations in Care of Fruit Trees, 26 pp. Soil Depletion in Respect to Care of Fruit Trees, 21 pp. Geological History of the Chautauqua Grape Belt, 36 pp. Extension Work in Horticulture, 42 pp. Spraying Calendar. Dwarf Apples, 31 pp. Fruit Brevities, 50 pp. Texture of the Soil, 8 pp. Moisture of the Soil and Its Conservation, 24 pp. Suggestions for Planting Shrubbery. Second Report upon Extension Work in Horticulture, 36 pp. Green Fruit Worms, 17 pp. The Pistol-Case Bearer in Western New York, 18 pp. A Disease of Currant Canes, 20 pp. The Currant-Stem Girdler and the Rasp- berry-Cane Maggott, 22 pp. A Second Account of Sweet Peas, 35 pp. A Talk about Dahlias, 40 pp. How to Conduct Field Experiments with Fertilizers, 11 pp. Potato Culture, 15 pp. Notes upon Plums for Western New York, 31 pp. Notes upon Celery, 34 pp. Strawberries under Glass, 10 pp. Forage Crops, 28 pp. Chrysanthemums, 24 pp. __. Agricultural Extension Work, sketch of its Origin and Progress, 11 pp. Ses and Illustrations of Mushrooms; ., de Pp. Third Report upon Japanese Plums. Second Report on Potato Culture, 24 PP. Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death Among Swill-Fed Hogs. The Codling-Moth. Sugar Beet Investigations, 88 pp. Suggestions on Spraying and on the San José Scale. Some Important Pear Diseases. Fourth Report of Progress on Extension Work, 26 pp. 147 Fourth Report upon Chrysanthemums, 36 pp. Quince Curculio, 26 pp. Some Spraying Mixtures. Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control. Gravity or Dilution Separators. Studies in Milk Secretion. Impressions of Fruit-Growing Industries. Table for Computing Rations for Farm Animals. Second Report on the San José Scale. Third Report on Potato Culture. Grape-vine Flee-beetle. Source of Gas and Taint Producing Bac- teria in Cheese Curd. An Effort to Help the Farmer. Hints on Rural School Grounds. Annual Flowers. The Period of Gestation in Cows. Three Important Fungous Diseases of the Sugar Beet. Peach Leaf-Curl. Ropiness in Milk and Cream. Sugar Beet Investigations for 1898. The Construction of the Stave Silo. sy aad and Illustrations of Mushrooms; Studies in Milk Secretion. Tent Caterpillars. Lane Concerning Patents on Gravity or Dilution Separators. Bulletins Issued Since the Close of the Fiscal Year, June 30, 1899. 171 172 173 Gravity or Dilution Separators. The Cherry Fruit-Fly: A New Cherry Pest. The Relation of Food to Milk-Fat. 174 The Problem of Impoverished Lands. 175 176 1% Fourth Report on Japanese Plums. The Peach-Tree Borer. Spraying Notes. 178 The Invasion of the Udder by Bacteria 179 Field Experiments with Fertilizers. 180 The Prevention of Peach Leaf-Curl. 181 Pollination in Orchards. 409 QW ws tool Creel Beste: eevee ruts + AOL eRe ROBT OS sas > > , ees. id noitatase: - a Se" . Grint hadermroqialtc a Pirttiahet saguadals mu qth, ba > Bir atin an - is) toatl oar Dd aat +5 ,* a al “) > ABU gilt 30 old ee dtl ehatamnd) Sina £3) SE se patie ad AEE NOE Ti. Detailed Statement of Receipts and Hxpenditures of the Cornell University Agricultural Heperiment Station, for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1900. EXPENDITURES. . FOR SALARIES. 1899. Bee ae, AGhErts, ADIECLOP . 65 cs ia. « wee wpe vafmametle ae ee $125 00 tueak. b.. Galley, Hortrenlturish 5. .).6./45...«3 CPE ee my es ee 125 00 ete. eet NINO, LAIN MISTS Ss. 3's, ca, <.0.0:¥ alee ohh calshe seh aa Rao Ne 125 00 Sonete Gr. EC Atkinson, Betanist Chiotou, Assistant Agriculturf ist... 5.2 5. -apweree 100 00 Bas aibier Clerk) osc bt sce: aatiea: pag bay Seater: 60 00 L. V. Maloney, Stenographer........... Daath otwiater aienee ne aereme 49 50 ers ieabertsaDirectOes. 6 ool otic segs bods ap eee 125 00 Ieee Bailey Horticularist «2.220226 saienc «oo ae 125 00 Babe Winey Dairyman.... .: 2... ss. ss sae seo roRs 125 00 M. VY. Slingerland, Assistant Ratoriolociat sh Ptene bofarstotag beer’ 135 00 Gait: Atkinson, Botanist, <5. 40s. .oiroe ih canta aticitoe® 83 33 G. W. Cavanaugh, Assistant Chemist ..................4- 100 00 yA. .Clintom: Assistant Agricul tunist:..2¢icy20% -yateiidbode » 3 100 00 BAS BubletoClenis wii caat reer eich a's eee eet As oe See 60 00 PE Cite eT OR GALANTE S eee. ches van oko Pec tele ei ctw edie ora hee $9,460 47 FOR OFFICE AND PRINTING PORAPC waka oh SL SodSS aaa d oda FS aL AST A eect $63 00 SBE Pe VS aoa Asko n dina bce ck tnioNchcbot kei talctet phi dataset tale eae 15 46 ORY ooerap iy esate b ash dla ed ahag shes ciatcicd boisboOMONS aja. de UlGie, aatieny Meanete 80 Cireulat TEtrerssis. 2.4.0 Ack ieee a bein sh Gh Gk RNs Ser 1 25 Preisiit and cartare soe os in ONS da SAM gots Mee ee EE 2 91 Privtme Bulletin No: 172 seseneq 28. SPR Ra ae os 200 00 BOE erie os a viet wats ha tc ew ce Wiehe ata ah oa a tere ahaa a ha ah ee 6 40 eres as na Oe ea ead Csiteans delve ee ee eae 5 3l HH? Wing, traveling: expenses! /.0t seEe I An 79 75 Postawes.s).ctecereersed La dae Els ae. OE DOA 25 00 Bodie binding: 2. sfeeeees Melee isdcdis ie ety 2 48 GUaB ee a hash bas bit wei idee ie lotel WGbiraden isto EROOREE! 45 Amount-carried forward): Jiv2202 ANG aets eves 413 IV 1899 Sept. 11. ‘fem 16. "> ZO. Oct! 7. sie a tat i eae i eae VF rSO4y, cna: 5290. ia) MOODS. St: die) Ie cle Nov. 4. £516, OST, FOBT. tS, Dec: 1. ol as PE Ths ata! eae See: ater: ile: 2 oe SA $ onde. S Stile: 32: or db. #0 18, oD, fy 29. ' 30. <1 30. “30. 1900. Jan. 3. Gas Aprprnprix II, See Te cee tt HBC ee BP 8 £6 COD OO us 18S 0 6 2 8 ee ©. @ 0 80 0 6 «6 4.6 8 B70 Postagel ys Remar eas te eee ere te eee san cca taints vine ii. -A: -Batler,- traveling: exponses. 3.0" 5. 5. fee eee oe een ss Repairing typewriter. . Printing Bulletin No. 172 Paper eeesee City Direetory eo te hes Wrapping papers. Yt eee: Express Freight and cartage........... Engravings L. V. Maloney, salary Express 6 e/6'E 076 © 68) @ eo Be ere G8) 6 ee iqce 6 1,0, @ -<@ B iO (Fee) 6, 6). 6.58 (6.4) 5) 6) 610m mle ew aewe ene 66 6 6 en 80 €e 8 6 66 ECs & 6 8 6:0 96 © ee. C6 6 “6 @-0 6 sets eS She a2 © 8 ys 6.6) 0S O 6 C6 6 . 6 O40 @.2 00) 6 le 6 6-6 Ue 6.6 @ BU 8 0 9:8, Sele 6.6) © a was eeretroeeee ee eeee es eee see eae ees ete eeereeeesce se Seve etceses seuss eeceeae~ 62 see © eeeereeree ee eeeee ee eee. ee ee eeeete se eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eoeeeeee ef +e eevee eevreevre. eee eeeeeeereeseeseeeesesee Co-operative Society, office supplies...... 2... .c0.cce scene URS TRY Suis Stok Scan Sa eke sit oe cen 0 2,5 SB AM Cee Labor and material for mailing list................ scence Labor on Bulletin No. 172 Stationery ee ee ree eeeereeerereeeeeeeeee eee eee ee eee eeesreeseeseeeereeee ese eeeeereeeee* se ees Amount carried forward): fiasco ffs ba osc den 414 $402 81 1 05 30 00 7 37 4 62 242 00 2 00 90 2 50 21 50 25 4 53 11 70 47 67 7 80 40 7 91 2 10 40 25 00 2 00 6 85 8 78° 353 10 7 60 9 05 4 50 1-16 5 86 2 50 60 3 13 1 30 68 59 2 70 30 60 14 97 350 00 27 20 2 00 $2,657 58 as ata i a a Aprrnpix II. Vv Amount. brought forward). o004 Jisvsne cee ees $2,657 58 Advertisement Tor Gl TEPOLtS os. oe. de an cw vied anes 000 URES 1 50 RAM MEE aie icine Wee SM ee, AoA (oloileim & Be oo nie CRUE 25 00 RRO sce aie the dos ciStanliat Pe wieier oyaseies ods SOR » MUERTE barks 30 TRCMAITINE OF1CA:CLOCK, .......66cnc soe ero iene ETI, SUREPOS | 2 25 GAB sadieane Sasa SE nn aa eRe aT ree rey eer * 3 13 I. P.. Roberts, travelingsexpenses:. ii... 60.6 a ova 18 19 POPARerPES p ESUIC GRE IUs. LEG aos oes 0s cfavalopor sc dvecors. eracacodetiion none, shop 406 20 Freight:and .cartage:....:.......200GUe ban at agarose 3 71 G. W. Cavanaugh, traveling expenses...0....50.0.0.c0e0- 4 91 Membership dues to A. A. A.C. @E. 8S. ..... . 2.00... 10 00 Derk ORM eG utc es cre eiha Sisinialh ie Gia arele oie akailes Sagat ate auei nouns Oe ees 6 75 POSES ci oe cs NORE EMSs AAS EE OMED A GAVE Ds cla sa Slate eee 25 00 RAR MAT crn ihn a che eis ue vi oh wie eaieeepase unite see 2 50 ROMS EES MELEE ie atone a Soap cfS casas ante ms aha dota pe eee Shang OR ae eel 3 03 ED ARRAS IE AE AOS A OSPR el tara A a Meee MES 1 388 PRONE DOK a tha os cised ia EO eMneaaie was wins iceag etalow aeawi 2 25 PARIS se Ia ces oS ohn die ow Coatetere: yal eye Ree whyrora-wieke. Sai ntare 25 CELESTE TR Seg” aR SRN BN ri gt UPA Oper er Daeeh ear Sati 20 MSSSGESE GS erate cr cari iat ree one anata ee ohalinn S eeeser anes Cette ale Thier aioe 40 WE NESE Soar GA at) ens cass westaieia petccesieh ser ki al” wie! Gans AV ape ataerwins os ae oeeae 7 15 Pipeverie GME CAMMEE 2o veas sas sist b lauahna.tl te Liste XA abled ees a 5 32 POEM, | cre ies gs weds cgi spi MCGie oleh won haus bi chau Organ oat aie 2 00 LT ECALITY 00 CSS IE ae aa RO etd PR UES PERSIE Bp TT 3 56 VELL SELL SSNeR NED are ty et Ate a Cea pein nc a AG a oeratigs Tarynn aie 2 00 G. C. Caldwell, traveling expenses....... 2.1.20. cseeenes 21 00 Uae Sal atm ten ales Galas cl wear phe a sase. ea 2 soup os opafareieas 25 00 RNR TUA RS cont a cei cad aca! 6 Sis. ans oigrenn mea wae ss thease ober Te stoke 7 37 DIRMAN CRs h Cc oy J aracteeiecies oe Aes alleen Gian Ua iageemnk eee oaenetaiee 25 RIAN Ie oi Yess a) st cla Pa ose: cacy stars wa hoa abe Sa aan ee 16 00 RRIGIEL 905 os aes wo eeteinlajis «salon ee pial eis, ota aieeerae n> toate 2 00 Office supplies. 1 .Mece 2% 35:0 Foret Mss are etaban aaa nlns aasets Apteme 4 30 Bs ae RS ey RF SUR a nt aa Uaecias (Ae ROARS teSausiatere 1 38 BIO SA NIN ES a area's! te 0 6 6 si 01s Eo a ee ee ee ; 9 20 Pistese 6. sss. er ears Bs we a ee ee 2 00 Osta Guide eos. Jee.eaeiek ss we Terie seers ON carne esters ota 2 50 RELIES UREN PONTO ea oc ic: clasclote wel eiege at 2 hae es is he homeo ane a tay as 10 05 PEE EMME ERS cc calt/es o.< baud ima, op aires slack ecaearei pv nie nies : 1 60 mts BU, PRUNES 4 4.5 va cite 4 dni gure sea’e aia ara eee re em 6 25 SS gape ARN ag a hr Aca aI a OR PRR CU yi eS 1 12 SH oes 895 ine eas etna Cle Md Se tale « eee sro) ei tS RMIT 1 50 RI ON ota i Sacre, ene facets SeGie Oy Cidle wis «ow. <0< a ate eral 6 3d Amount carried forward...........% See arate wiw-y oF 8 $2,312 53 415 Apprenpix II. Amount brought sorward..... ..... ...... .. 22. $2,312 53 BQDIOR oi nev kw ies nrecoreceiaiinradsseysisse BE DORRL ANG 308 JeResisie 7 De 8 00 WR ANCRSS ao 55 0. 8a,. coast aamooe whee (same ose any a BR MEOs 1 30 Minjcopraph: works: iujes eceeiaiciea sites cence eo eeN bee 70 Repairs ON CAMEras oe. 2s se 2 sao oe co UE Betiakaes oe 40 amet eso ered iv as ec twese eos Sins shied aati essen 88 BOOK 5 ores <0 oe coca ve 5s AREER G, BIER RTE GMI oe 1 00 NIE, we ton, ie Coton ow i ‘i sadevn pial svonin ehaverevGht Lidia. 65 lee ees Rete a 3 76 Mimeograph work and supplies. ......0....cc.cceececcese 3 50 FOR AGRICULTURAL DIVISON. Prigited SpS. 2/0565 cas < sisi SA x ate Gigi a Secor RP Bey $1 50 STSBGSABEOUS!.” «.o:00S cas w sclomwics AREER SRG ae ORE E eae ect wie? 1 55 POUOS crac vetins apa Cac ewe oars s oeeee Cee Eee ns 2 00 WINDTOSR SS 2 5.aig fe see sla eto aa hose wee cele cee iso Sears eens 55 DABOR oe es wales s sion boda wiseicaes swe fe on ea nie time nee eee 20 79 i; A. Clinton, traveling: expenses. .... 5. 6.20..o0 2 ekees ae 5 82 ING eee ofall ds Ont Seis a aparece ee ee Oa Ree ee eee 25 Deter MOMS oo oes arss crise Se Cea we oe See ne ee eee 6 88 MUSE ie cine cetera ce reer ew eects WE ieee een cae 17 85 Peip Ay ANGCATIAME.:. ccincte ch Cre x ae A ie ee ee ee eee 15 00 BMA reac 8} og Ace watts eo nis VE SOLS ee be ace eee 1 50 BICVGN WANG oo CNCH ois 2.5 Aenn se ORs ae nee eee eee 22 00 PEC PEERS os oncplaiee sy eisai’ o ae ko alae ee oe te Ries Cae 85 BEIT OUIINCES (O).c 5c 5 oo c76 essai eae nee Laas een ee 5 50 PoE Y CPU PS., coast ce oe eee se Deca Piuts folat che ts Sie yh tee ae ea 9 99 Deiter Heads ..\-6vs acces cows cee 5h wate sha Fe Sere ew kee ee 4 25 SECIS TURE i ORINOGTI at sR AS EF i phy Ball OA ee de re 76 Photographic material. ...... rae Aare cd an 1 86 MEU ASE LED TUNEIUL, oot he cats ck is sists! es Diva ge ies Get eee 27 50 ee IAL CATIA Ce 5:55 ns vic. < wis'o G!s Suis s 6 oa a ice aula ota 15 00 PA Cunton traveling eXpenses ..... cas ces vse seein 3 50 DOOR E h nc chal atic tel en Sai aI Wise ‘9 Jo Gia, as dura o's We aie pis geek See 75 37 PIONS i cinco c sala Sis wae ie< 8 sin et Ap AGE eet | ech TR EE a 1 89 MM OME IO. 5 - oaats cient ain cima n 6,0 naa ew ahc® or AWE eo SE Sotee 1 00 POMP SH SCATIBLEs 5 icin ss cis Sos 5 oe ees) as eedels teig a ei aes 15 00 GMPC NR rn Sie ads. ek awine eh awa sk ane Paleess ee emer ae 21 50 BBIGE ic rience Palate ok va ce hice Bei mates ean’ oem aie alee eae 13 35 RAINY DIM, cate ate eG eee cariawis sis ss seco esalor ee as os 2 25 Amount carried forward... 000) ee Sa con dv ccech QeuOIne 416 Apprnprx II. vil Amount brought forwards io0s ONG... ee $295 26 TI ae ee arte. Farid RMT hahce nents wt ah aharn cer bt anavorate! o FOGRE ANG 1 25 RUN gel ne cmt k Min OLAS 4 wee ka aed en oo eS 28 44 PE OENES SUNN i eaica chick ee wh ot Soe wr ree ay Far meres or ew ot erence ONG 1 90 Desh, ANG CREB OG sc sorars mecaterarsteatniote vad ee oo heats # sinentin 55 PEACE by GRTIUN CREED Bin eo sae noe

. 2026. .se, eee se $391 44 1 EON aight eaten slyih> ea adel pie tet SEATED Rm Biad ss Sk Lo $32 56 VOLS LE Sc aa hl ED RPE SRE CON Fan MARR RAD Pas ee whe gd ors} ys 1 20 ANT ek ings at 2 Ns eR A Tat ote thee a ster 3 79 Express... .. ite ot ee la to tor urate Pe GAarorey oehter a ata Stes eet 1 75 eter heads :and postalie. it." <7... wus Asi t eee es ees 26 38 wmonnt: Carried) forward... 2. boca ee come es + wn oe $65 68 27 417 Vill 1899. July 24. Aug. 1. at vas) spo +k] pe aL: ee Sept. 1. ‘thw “out 3. Sue eS jee eB “A:19. . 0: 219: ee 2A. Phat. ae Bt: Get. 3. iG on: p24. Ld: OB tes ne si. Nov. 1. ee od. rs kao. eh A. i 44. oe £4. eT 16: $647, <* 22. Dee. «1. oe I, : iG, Sb tac 9. Appenprix II. Amount brought forward jiyitoul dane A. ee. $65 68 PS sah iccsedte ect ee Cm Santee weed a Oe ae oer ee 2 00 PAODES- isiox kanes 5 Camae es. Cake hee Dae tek ce ae 28 00 ISTO OR Goh oe cain a ietaeisray Jae cathy See eee ae ete Os Ee 1 00 TGA DON? ss cos scat ee eae ee ene eee es eae 37 50 BES TERS schoo toc foie sain oe sye ees wh cin. Me 2 35 BM RATERS 2 oo esses ern ade avi aie foe eon ee 2 00 Mee PERI I e t le Geic ne wily Sutras mastr peta va ead waa oa Siege ee 1 00 OR ee tacit pet ea aad Sarees ea ae eee ee 28 00 IE tetas hertaes cai Seperated a, earch ae ake Brees eee 37 50 NARS SELOC TN Fe weno nieces un alsk Nove iso e Ba Aa eee 3 60 OM ee Gite Sage cer re las haut caw en eeeat cm acacc eee ae 22 53 RaW AMO SY sr eins obo cnet eas on ER. See ane 12 87 PRS COMI, (ClGs> oo er eco eh ele cc ayes oR EO: SL Ie 1 50 Stoneboat........... REL wows Sanat hehe eotieet tik 2use eee 5 00 Seeds anil bulbs. 2. 5... ec du. «+ ace Pos SO ee ee See 1 45 PGEBERN OCU Soop a cine kon los spake o 99.9 fae a RE 5 10 Pagorraphic Supplies: . 2.62. nk eine «a oele oe «eee 9 57 Rema LCH Ari ICP EOS crn 0'c 6 pce) ain oe) eae ees ha arean sp pee ae 1 15 Ma TN pepe fag oy 5 Ste aise engin hy pated Bite pw oS obo PASTE ee Bee 37 50 aga eters ee ek ne Oe Se ee ash Peo de ae 17 55 TAS TIS 9 Fon as cots op epee ai bee phe evaralch'y Bo Seeing Pom gi i 3 00 PORE Caney Se aye chk) Cicoe k aed ogee eke et eme es Ree ‘ite 3 00 Preighi and. carriage. .......5.. eens lee ei gases eee 1 05 PER ILOSS cio a cs fies eases coe che bade s ved s AO ee 45 TTS fark 5 eee eo oo Bron oe ESM te oe ee een 37 50 NONE ig sa ey cs eave sod wei MORI ak TS EE ORE ee 20 00 ETA Woo. tescbateceeen Seis cos 5 SOBROA UES Toe! BOSse bee 11 40 RP Cie soiree 2 wack asad Aas dey Gd aslo ere oe oe ee 2 04 ¢..N. Lauman, traveling expenses... ... .24.4. . (SORE) see 2 80 Lamp, shade and reflectcr ......... i eehorwe. Senet fi 1 45 Pratecia pie supplies: co. < ona 4 sao ues sas faa ken ee 64 Mee Oe? ane ho ie ise Ss ok 8 osc 4 Gem eae ae ae 35 90 Express and custom duty on plants .. . .... .......... 8 48 ROPE OMNIS ies cen airs oe oer tieae 4s, cas jana Sa, ¥ oe gaia ae 2 00 MRE os ka ae os rag in stad a5 Sean yee ae aaa eae 11 50 Re eh arate cen ein IL Nahe a Sonia sia alche maak ela opstn hal Gane 37 50 aia Oe bea Sets ie chad ce «saree ia oe eat roma gue ected ie 20 00 MMRIER HOGG) oe ata. Won seer Lau Vise ae we pla atte Sure seals 12 50 BGM SI CORUAOE 95 iis aa els wo) ciel g Gar 6. a wns, Seager 70 Sunminy hardware supplies. 2 is.0 se. 2.5.55 xn5, 2, ans civiguadmeess 23 75 BIRR 5S Spee Nee sto weal et tatye pi aop lesa Rina ee Sasa? 19 Amount. carried, TonWARE. « ip... )+ na daniryem eos x is oe $558 70 418 Appenpix II. 1x 1900. Amount, brouphtsforward Ua Sent beso es $558 70 MENS cs.) EROEAIES GU WR EON sigiuccs ona) oid obs ores SAT TALS GS Ae AS 2 50 i EEA eee Aaah ociok oh day cis asides) acc ol Sietnr ws! dh by sll ev oi Grain TORSO 13 02 ee RAINES: 6p cos ey an A be sorter mecon og ivanrav a aaa tee wna vs wivhakah wi RO DOT wile Es 50 MR RR IOR 5k a barcym a srectel om daleia yh Gaba ee CEO Se CARIES S 37 50 RIE GEE es os. bodice icv ccquSonsCtavehe) vr nusy v1 dfaaaenel 6p/eiasavs) NERS LIN Oe ee 40 i CR ROTA DCI a oo, iy ip Seco shoe ois ualies AREA ells, SHS. EON 3 70 Sens METEGMIZECTS: . 65 ocd a SE ee ey at tr Re ee RE MA ee OP 5 5 40 ee TE CD ECELCIONS: < paciasciels tale See Sieve oc bre RR IN. LRM: SER 20 23 RR) | RAANIIOMT op vasieestuninssconcea oiler sins etalesavetbecy vesicel ap hee Mea Be ae tL 20 00 Tesi WTR FA CME yin iezs castidvasas, va iaayahomexei guar, Kehss aiuvbeain. Rees PORISRAS 1 AOR Ib clan 37 50 SRE ONCE SUD TITIES, 5.535 aul ya¥ac-ciyetn and arene win ice AMA SRA Ed USE 85 MAMA G So ge She Seem. Jap aahela ereidoataleldieleieio le OMe Sibenarale 36 95 ME DDIIOE 5 Safes bojisis KSI C sind ata ta bold Sm Reeda wee ta edd ES Ae RAE 37 50 MOEMRRME INT PRE UL IC 2 oops te reich chics aes bb ca ndeaw eee RAS oD RIM ae LE) > KOs he 5 50 ated | ClO. aNG: DIAS 5. odie base van 2 suice «SSS MINS GR eR Olen. 4 40 eh © OE ELIEZER. eajas sirasiaieind wie to aig ean mistg nse jaw wle AMD OO ENS cate da Ee 1 00 MRM ME SE TIDES E50 5 ie olde 5.200 o. efa,cnu'e dlatectorers POPES 5 3 Selctes eee 70 OM RATION 510 oe te hoe yo. wn nies SRR AMUSE. RE athe w ccarahs 32 50 ERIM, (CANUIE Seo oo5 ee Nore Tid to wane sie ti pre cusretae hl Oe were @ malate areal 2 05 ee emer ABDI RE IOUIG), ae crocs ne lial ra koe dk acthe once hs Alain) ww ee eae 14 49 MS RETEST o8 eh ae, Ya Sea al) vibes Se SYREN Gare Sheena Rares A eee 37 50 Total for Horticultural Division. ...'... . «5 ./s+ s2jeensee $872 69 FOR CHEMICAL DIVISION, 1899. = amen. Gas, Chemicals and apparatus... ....- vas ecsetcebecicnes $66 05 pete -Olice StOO! sss... eed as oe SOR ENA Sa er Ii ate EN 2 75 1900. ANC OAITOS 5. ie a. Si. oes, 2 aa am wince oles ort ODT Re ica Wage ys 9 97 RpetemE eg ALIQt hg 0 ea) 7 th) it eg ia Main IT ako ion, als yatta 1 75 otal for Chemical Division). 2 7 s.)ca's oe ve a sca eh eet $80 52 FOR BOTANICAL DIVISION. 1899. MRRP REPRISE OOS 2822105. Scere ci anot cosy | atures Sun uae reais Laie a ein meets $ 70 See OPV PACES OGG osc ic1t aera, io ve MSE wat ws eateia eae eke ores eee 16 54 Meee OLA HICAL PUDHCALIONS seve sos oes wack: 4-0 se etad meal emer 3 93 ener) OF ORAPE 52s < ste hye eb wie eas os 6 9 21d see ee aR ee 18 76 Amount carried forward... 5:50 2.2. 2a0ee Bh ears Mes ds $39 93 419 1899. Get. 11. Siti, aia kB Nov. 14. Dec... 1. Mar. 8. Beye yg Apr... 3. May 23. Aug. 8. Nov. 4. ier ONE as 1900. Feb. 5. Mar. 26. May 18. Apprenpix II. Amount. brought forward 2s! Pesce h. «cs os $39 93 Photographic supplies, ...:s.1.0:5 cweestasee eee aby See 75 DEY RERLGR sc osc cise pacer Sean RRR RE Iie eee casas jane 2 81 Dare DIGGER. pen camaee Lee Eee , wh auatTe wsigd os goiess olga ne RET RIAD 4 59 Photopraphic sup plies:.; 4:70.40 Ances acgapsamieyasear ysloete neue RI 19 23 BO tA BCA BUPIPCS oittcon sc aseavesctes wacaces mee ete ae cee 1 60° PELE G AIG CATER sin isi ce savers ceneese! auc into soyn et LEH I 93 Peeve and Cartage. 6505.06 edocs tense pee be katy subbe sie’ : 1 10 Typewriter. and, table: cia aie cc dine vies 0 die ke single ae 97 78 Betanical: PUBMCRUONES. 05 2heiisis san cise cues aaecwnn eee 24 29 Binding -PUBlCAMONS. &, 4 y, LZ a) St IGE ARS v | a az oT yt ee! ety 1 ‘ 33.— The clover roots penetrate the sotl deeply. clay while wet and watch for the seeds to germinate and grow. At the same time put seeds in another pot filled oe loose, mellow, moist soil. Frequently after the farmer has sown his grain there comes a heavy, beating rain, and the surface of the soil is so packed that the air is excluded and the seeds cannot germinate. If plants are grown in pots and the water is supplied at the top of the soil it may become so hard and compact as to exclude the air and the plants will make a sickly growth. The surface soil must be kept loose that the air can penetrate. 451 60 On many lawns it is noticed that the grass is not thriving. It has a sickly appearance and even the application of fertilizer does not seem to remedy the conditions. Perhaps the ground has become so hard the air cannot penetrate and the grass is being smothered. If the surface of the soil can be loosened with a garden rake and clover seed sown, much good may be accomplished. The clover is a tap- rooted plant, and sends it main root deep into the soil. 34.—After the clover dies the soil is in better condition for its having lived. After the death of the plant the root decays, the nitrogen which is stored up can be used as food by the other plants, and most use- ful of all, in such cases, the decay of the tap-root of the clover makes a passage deep into the soil and thus allows the air to enter. Consult Figs. 32-34. 452 JUNIOR NATURALIST LEAFLET NO. 4. STEALING A RIDE. PART I. SIR BUR, TRAMP AND TRAVELER. BY MARGARET BOYNTON. “ Chick-a-dee-dee-dee-dee-dee ” sounded from the hedge. Icaught the motion of the little feathered food-gatherers, but could not see a single black-capped head. “‘ Chick-a-dee-dee-dee-dee-dee. Come play with me-me-me-me- me.” With such an invitation how could I help going out into that brilliant, blue and golden mid-winter day? Against the clear- est of skies each tiny bud-tipped maple twig glowed ruddily. The mountain ash berries still hung in bright clusters, crowned with light pyramids of fluffy snow. The deserted nests in the orchard recalled the busy householders of the warmer, leafier seasons, and a few withered apples offered scanty nourishment to solitary wayfarers. Under my feet the snow spread a creaking carpet, and all about me it afforded a background of diamonds for the devious patterns of the shriveled weeds showing clear and fantastic against it. What a joyous day for the chick-a-dees and me! Presently, attracted by the regiment of teasels there encamped, I turned aside into a small common, a vacant lot well within the bor- ders of our small city, and I tramped it over rejoicing in the short skirt and leggins that permitted unhampered wading in the snow. There were many things to be seen in that little area. Bitter-sweet berries draped the fence. Ragged miniature umbrella skeletons recalled the filmy, white parasols of the wild carrot in its summer guise. “ Devil’s pitchforks” and bristling burdocks plucked at my skirt in passing, and a few hoary aster heads still lingered amid the star-tipped stems whence most of the feathery parachutes had flown. A kindly farmer caught me shaking the teasel heads and called cheerily, “I guess you’ve got a kind of a putterin’ job there, ain’t ye?” and charitably took me into his bob-sleigh for the short half mile back to my corner; but he was not a nature-student and 453 62 did not know what fun I had been having. Nor could he know that the handful of brown and withered stuff that formed the trophy of my half-hours’ trip would offer me a juicy cud to chew. Prominent in my winter bouquet were several sprigs of burdock with rigid stems and bristling burs (Fig. 35). If you, too, want to hear the story Sir Bur will tell under ques- tioning you can probably find the material in plenty on the nearest waste land or in a fence corner, or by the roadside. You, as well as I, in all likelihood, made bur baskets and furniture, and even people richly garbed in green and purple, all your childhood days; yet did you ever stop to think how the burs stick so pertinaciously ? Why they should? And what they do for the plant? No, even the tormenting little boy from across the road who made use of their valuable properties in ornamenting your long hair with bunches of burs probably could not have told you why they were so effective, Notice first, then, the numerous tiny hooks bristling in every direction (Fig. 36). How abrupt is the curve of each hook, how smooth it 35.— Burs cf the bur- and polished the outer surface! It will push dock, One-third yeadily between the finest and closest fibers. natural size. ; ° ° . How sharp is the ineurved point! See, it has penetrated your skin as you press the bur lightly between your ngers! The slender shanks of the hooks yield readily to pressure only to gain more tenacious hold. In disen_ tangling one you are caught by five. The stems all stand stiff and rigid, holding the burs unyieldingly in your way and adding to the advantage of the flexible hooks. Your clothing brushes a bur ever so lightly, the fibers at the jf base break readily and away your bur travels; and not de! Bere singly usually, for note how the branches have so grown, dock the lower ones lengthening, that the burs are practically “* clustered by twos and threes and fours, with hooks interlacing, and they go together. So, clinging with a score or two of little 454 63 hands to the hair of some passing animal or the clothing of a human tramp, Sir Bur steals many a long ride, often relaxing his hold only by going to pieces. The tail of the old cow carries them over the fields (Fig. 37). (i iN \ This, then, is how he travels, but why ? What good does the journey secure for the plant ? Tear a bur apart and find within, among the short twisted bristles, hard little brown- ish-gray bodies, almost like miniature Brazil nuts (Fig. 38), that are —what? If you have not 38.— The bur dock akene. thought you will say ARNT AM AA, eee \ WM ee NS Wie Secon, 1 OT they look like seeds. But are all seed-like bodies properly so called? Where do these little fellows come from ? If you have studied the flower in general, you will remember that its important parts in view of its office of reproduction are the stamens which produce the pollen and the posted with its ovary or seed-case. Within the ovary grow the small bodies which develop into the seeds. Further, the ripened ovary with whatever parts may con- solidate with it in development, and with the matured seeds con- tained, is called the fruit. That is to say, we name things in natu- ral history not alone from appearance and function or oftice, but 37.— Burs stealing a ride. according to their origin and development. What then have we in the bur, seeds or fruits ? You would not think of calling a pea pod a seed would you? You know if you stop to consider that each pea is a seed, and the pod with its peas is the fruit, because developed from the miniature pod in the blossom which was the ovary, and contained the ovules or young seeds. Similarly you easily distinguish morning glory seeds from its fruits, the nasturtinm seeds from the fruits. In all 455 64 these cases and in hundreds of others the fruit is a pod and opens at maturity to let the seeds escape, but there are also hundreds of kinds of plants in which the ovary ripens with a single seed inside of it and does not open at maturity. In this case the fruit is usually but little larger than the contained seed and often looks like a seed itself. However that be, a single-seeded dry fruit that does not open at maturity is called an akene. Akenes are what we find in the bur. How do I know? How ean you tell in other cases? Unfamiliar akenes found away from the parent plant might not be so easily detected, for the single seed within is not always readily found free from the ovary walls, but it can usually be identified by its relation to the plant. You remember that the seed is borne within the ovary. The pea pod and the morning glory and nasturtium pods you know were closed up tight to the time of maturity. But this bur never was nor could have been closed, evidently. In all prob- ability then it is not an ovary. What then? The purple colors of our young bur were borne, we remember, at the top of each bur. These blossom-tops, we can think out now, were masses of pinky- purple flowers, each bur containing many small flowers. The whole is called a compound flower. Each of the little brown wrinkled fruits within the bur is an akene, the fruit of a single flower. Per- haps we shall find crowning some of the akenes the withered remains of the flowers. The tiny blossom was one of several that grow inside the big bur; and each little blossom makes, or tries to make, an akene. Of course the seed within the akene germinates and produces a new plant just as any other seed does. Because of Sir Bur’s adroit- ness at stealing rides, the new little burdock plant usually finds its chance at greater or less distances from its parent plant, and reaps much the same advantage as any pioneer. In favorable circum- stances it finds freedom from the competition of its kind, that is, it does not have to struggle with its fellows for the same food-stuffs, the same conditions of growth and health. It has room. Indeed, it is because of his travelling powers that Sir Bur is here at all, for his race originated in Europe. He was not in New Eng- land to greet the pilgrims, as they left Plymouth Rock, nor in the 456 65 south to welcome the Virginian settlers. His earliest immigrant ancestors possibly came in the Mayflower, but more probably took stowaway passage some time later in the tail of some dog or sheep brought from across the sea. However he came, he is here, numerous and widespread as you know him, and he is still travelling, the veriest tramp of the roadside, stealing rides and pressing ever onward toward the west, following the trail of man and his domesti- cated animals. PART Il. THE RED COW AND THE MAPLE TREE. BY JOHN W. SPENCER. The day was so warm as to suggest an oven. The rays of the sun came the most direct way —as a boy would make a bee-line cross- lots. A blue haze hung about the heavens, dimming the sun at midday and at sunrise and at sunset, making it look like an immense orange, and the heated air shimmered across the level pasture. It was one of those days that warps the slivers in the plank walk and makes prickly the path of the barefooted boy—a day when most boys want to go to the swimming hole at the bend of the creek under the leaning beech. On a gravelly knoll a slick red cow stood in the dark thick shade of a maple tree. A colony of persistent flies was clinging to her shoulder and scattering ones flew about her ears, and others would have found a resting place on her hips and back but for the incessant switching of her tail. With all the persistent switching, the cow, with half closed eyes, chewed her eud with the regularity of the swinging of a pendulum. Said the Red Cow to the Maple Tree, “ You have no troubles such as I have. See how I am pestered with flies every hour of the day. Flies do not trouble you.” Said the Maple Tree to the Red Cow, “It is fortunate they do not for I have no tail with which to switeh them.” Said the Red Cow to the Maple Tree, “I am very thirsty and I shall not find a refreshing drink until, while on my way to the barn to be milked this evening, I shall wade through the brook.” 457 66 Said the Maple Tree to the Red Cow, “ You complain because you have to walk for a drink of water. Is that not better than to long for it and be obliged to wait until it comes to you from the clouds? All of us plant-fellows in this neighborhood need water badly, and some whose roots do not extend deep into the soil have suffered unto death. It is for this reason that the grass has famished and you no longer find a nearby lunch as you found it earlier in the season. I would, indeed, consider it a privilege to travel all day, if I could then have a refresh- ing drink. But alas! when I made this spot my home, it was to be the only place I should ever live during all my life. Food isas difficult for me to obtain as water. In the earlier part of the season when rains were more plentiful, you found a daily lunch within a stone’s throw of this spot; but now 39.— The red cow. when there is nothing here to your liking, you are able to wander to any part of the pasture in search of the best food. I must content myself with what I can find in this one spot. When a drought comes, like the present one, and there is not enough moisture to satisfy my thirst, nor to float sufficient plant-food to my roots, I must endure a double suffering —thirst and hunger. In the cold weather you can seek the warm and sunny side of a straw stack, while I must stand out here on this bleak and unprotected knoll with the winds of winter whistling through my bending limbs.” “ J] should not complain,” continued the Maple Tree, “ for Nature is kind to us all, and we can see her kindness if we look for it in the right way. She has provided blessings for us all, but not of the same kind or in the same way. She has planned that plants never move their homes; that where they make a start in life, there they must remain. She affords all plants great opportunities, how- 458 67 ever, for sending their children abroad in large numbers and gives them means for traveling long distances. In this way many are sure to find congenial places for a life of prosperity. I have no fear that maples will ever become extinct. Some years I send out so many chil- dren that if one in every thou- Romie fac chet ih sand becomes a tree, my family RA et Retr 260 will be a large one. Ks beh Be you see the big thistle in yonder fence corner? The children are now mature and Peet 3 age eer ast ready to travel miles and miles in a balloon, and will settle down into some quiet nook and become plants. The farmer, who calls them weeds, has been fighting them for a lifetime; but, although he is able to keep them from mak- ing serious encroachments upon his crops, the thistle will always be with him. It is abundantly able to take care of itself. Were it not for the sharp needles on the leaf, a red cow might have swallowed them long ago. “See those dark clouds forming in the west — wool sacks they are called. Hark! Did I hear thunder? Ifa red cow fears being struck by lightning, she had better hasten to the bars at the end of the pasture and call to be put into the barn. I hope we shall have a shower. If even some crumbs from it should fall this way, it would be a comfort to me.” 459 NOTES FOR JUNIOR NATURALISTS. A BULB GARDEN. ‘‘ It’s rather dark in the earth to-day.” Said one little bulb to his brother; ‘““ But I thought that I felt a sunbeam ray — We must strive and grow till we find the way!” And they nestled close to each other. Then they struggled and toiled by day and by night, Till two little snowdrops in green and white, Rose out of the darkness and into the light, And softly kissed one another. — Boston Journal. PART I. A TALK BY UNCLE JOHN. BY JOHN W. SPENCER. To sueceed with the cultivation of flowers, the first thing to have in mind is to make the plant comfortable. This condition should be not only the first thought, but also the last thought. IZf you can do this successfully, the plant will do the rest of the work and your results will be abundant. 460 69 What plant comfort is, is a question more easily suggested than answered, for it is a very large subject — about as large as the sur- face of the earth. As a guess we will say that there are as many different kinds of plants as there are people. It is at least safe to say that plants have.as many different notions as to their conditions of life as have the people of the different nations and tribes of the world. If you were to have a birthday party and should invite as your guests the children from the four quarters of the earth, and by magic could bring them to you in a jiffy, the boys and girls from Green- land would come enfolded in seal- skin, and those from Hawaii would bring only their bathing suits. You would have a busy time keeping , them comfortable, for when you opened the door to cool off the little Greenlanders, the little Kanakas would complain of too much draft ; and at table the former would ask if you happened to have some tallow candles for desert, and the latter would ask for breadfruit and ban- anas. Many of our flowering plants have been brought together from such re- mote quarters as that. We have bulbs from Holland, and pansies from England, and phlox from the dry atmosphere of Texas. There is as much difference in the conditions necessary for com- fort in these different plants as there is in the requirements of the little Eskimos and little Polynesians. To some some extent, plants can change their manner of living, but in the main they are happi- est when they can have their own way, just as you and [ are. We cannot bring about the foggy, damp weather of Holland and England when we want it, neither can we bring the dry atmosphere 461 snow-drop. 70 of Texas—air so dry that meat will cure hard in the hottest weather without tainting. It so happens, however, that from one Fourth of July to the next we have many kinds of weather, and if one could not find conditions suited to almost any kind of plant it would be strange. If we cannot make the weather accommodate itself to the best comfort of the plants, we must set the plants so as to accommodate itself to the weather. | Pansies from foggy England and bulbs from the low lands of Holland should be planted to bloom in the cool days of spring, and the phlox from Texas will be quite happy in the heat and drought of July and August. With this idea well fixed in your mind, you will easily see that when you know the country from which a plant has come, a knowl- edge of the physical geography of that country will be helpful in knowing how to make the plant happy and prosperous. We must also make the plant comfortable in the soil. There is great difference in what plants require to make them comfortable. Some, like thistles or mullein or ragweed, will thrive on almost any soil and are no more exacting as to food than a goat or a mule; but other plants are as notional as children reared in the lap of luxury. As a rule, flowering plants belong to the lap-of-luxury class. Elsewhere in this number you are told how nature has developed soil. I hope you will read the article carefully, for there you will understand that all earth is not soil. Soii covers the land as thin skin covers an apple or as you would spread a thin coat of butter over bread, and it holds more or less plant-food. When men erect school buildings and afterwards grade the ground they usually turn a part of the soil upside down. There is also con- siderable rubbish of the builders left scattered about, such as brick- bats, chips of stone, and the like, that go to make the place an uncomfortable one for notional plants. For this reason I wish par- ticularly to call your attention to the manner in which you should prepare the ground on which you intend to plant. The first thing to do is to spade the soil very thoroughly to the depth of at least ten inches. All stones as large as a big boy’s fist should be thrown out, and all lumps given a bat with the back of the spade to make 462 71 all the particles fine. This is to be a flower bed and should be soft like your own bed. It would be better to make it up more than once. After the first spading it would be well to cover the bed with a coat of stable fertilizer to a depth of six to eight inches, which will give additional plant-food ; and in spading the second time, this fertilizer will become thoroughly mixed with the soil. The surface should next be raked smooth, and your flower bed will then be ready for planting. We all admire the bright bulb flowers that are among the first to blossom in the spring. These mostly come from Holland, or at least attain their perfection there. We have just spoken of the importance of planting flowers at such a time that they may live their career when our climate is most like that from which they come. In the case of bulbs, spring and early summer is the most favorable time for them in this country, and fall is the proper time for planting. The exact time in the fall to plant, how to plant, what bulbs to plant, when to put a winter overcoat on the bed, and other details, we will leave for Mr. Hunn to tell. He has had many years experi- ence in the management of flowers, and we advise you to read care- fully what he says. PAR! Si A,sTALK BY THE:GARDENER. BY C. E. HUNN. Your Uncle John has told you something about preparing a bed for your plants. His advice is very good; but the bulbs we are to talk about are like those notional children whom he mentions and they do not want tallow candles for any part of their meal. What I mean is that bulbs do not want to come in direct contact with the stable fertilizer, but they want it down below them where the feeding roots that grow out of the bulb may nibble at it when the bulb is hard at work developing the leaves and flower. You know that all the leaves and the flowers were made the year before, and the bulb simply holds them until the new roots have formed. No kind of treatment will make a bulb produce more flowers than 463 72 were formed in the year it grew (last year); but the better the treatment, the larger and finer the flowers will be. If I wanted to make a bulb bed, I should choose, if possible, a sandy soil and throw out the top soil to the depth of six inches. Then I should put into the bottom of the bed about two inches of well-rotted manure and spade it into the soil. Then I should throw back half of the top soil, level it off nicely, set the bulbs firmly on this bed and then cover them with the balance of the soil; in this way you will have the bulbs from three to four inches below the surface. It is dark down there and in the fall months the top of the ground is cooler than at the depth of five or six inches and the top of the bulb will not want to grow, while the bottom which is always in a hurry will send out roots, to push out the leaves and flowers the next spring. When the weather is cold enough to freeze a hard crust on the soil, the bed should have its winter overcoat. This may be straw, hay, cornstalks or leaves spread over the bed to the depth of six inches if the material is coarse ; but if you use leaves, three inches will be enough, because the leaves lay close together and may smother out the frost that isin the ground and let the bulbs start. What we want is to keep them asleep until spring, because if they start too early the hard freezes of March and early April will spoil their beauty if the leaves or flowers are near or above the surface. Early in April the covering may be removed gradually and should all be off the beds before the leaves show above the ground. Perhaps many of you cannot find a sandy place for your beds; if not, make your beds as has been told you, leaving the stones in the bottom of the bed for drainage. Then, when you are ready to set the bulb place a large handful of sand where your bulb is to go and set your bulb on it; this will keep the water from standing around the bulb. Very fine results may be had on heavy soil by this method. What kind of bulbs shall we put into these beds? Select hyacinths, tulips or narcissus or daffodils, with snowdrops or crocuses of various colors around the edge. | If you use hyacinths you can have the national colors, red, white and blue, or many shades of either color, as shown in the diagrams 464 73 (Figs. 42). Of tulips you can have stars or ribbons of yellow, white or crimson, or in fact almost any color except true blue. In nar- cissus, yellow, sulfur and white are the colors. The little crocuses come in yellow, blue, white and striped colors, and are in bloom and gone before the large flowers take your attention. Many other bulbs are fine for spring flowering, but as most of them are more difficult to grow and many of them rather expensive, I do not think we will discuss them now. Suppose we want a bed of red, white and blue hyacinths (Figs. 42), and make it six feet in diameter. How many bulbs would you want? Now, hyacinths should be planted six inches apart each way, and the outside row should be at least three inches from the f| {I /H a a8 Att) Atty ae Py 42.— Simple designs for bulb beds, edge of the bed. You see you will want a little over one hundred bulbs, which if one person had to buy would cost him or her quite a little; but if fifty or more boys and girls would club together it would be easy for everyone, especially if, after making out a list of all the bulbs you want, you were to write to one of the dealers in bulbs telling him what you want, and how you expect to enjoy the flowers, asking him to let you have them as cheaply as pos- sible. You will find that he will be glad you are interested in bulb growing, and be surprised how cheaply he will let you have them. If you want a bed of tulips, they should be planted four or five inches apart instead of six inches, so you will need more bulbs; but they are cheaper than hyacinths. The narcissus bulbs being still smaller than tulips, may be planted three inches apart ; and the lit- 30 469 74 tle crocuses, the first flower of spring, should touch one another, as should also the snowdrops. Perhaps many of you do not wish to wait until spring for your bulbs to flower, in which case we must try to persuade them to bloom through the winter, say at Christmas. Nearly all bulbs are good natured and may be coaxed to do things that nature never asks them to do; so if we go at it right we will find it very easy to make them think their time to bloom has come, even if the ground is covered with snow and the ice is thick on the ponds. Hyacinths, narcissus and crocus all can be made to flower in the winter by start- ing this way. Get the bulbs so as to be able to pot them by the middle or last of October, or if earlier all the better. The soil should be rich, sandy loam if possible; if not, the best you can get, to which add about one-fourth the bulk of sand and mix thoroughly. If ordinary flower pots are to be used, put in the bottom a few pieces of broken pots, charcoal or small stones for drainage, then fill the pot with dirt so that when the bulbs are set on the dirt the top of the bulb is even with the rim of the pot. Fill around it with soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing above the dirt. If the _soil is heavy a good plan is to sprinkle a small handful of sand under the bulb to carry off the water, the same as is done in the beds outdoors. If you do not have pots you may use boxes. Starch boxes are a good size to use as they are not heavy to handle, and I have seen excellent flowers on bulbs planted in old tomato cans. If boxes or cans are used, care must be taken to have holes in the bot- toms to let the water run out. A large size hyacinth bulb will do well in a five-inch pot. The same size pot will do for three or four narcissuses or eight to twelve crocuses. After the bulbs are planted in the pots or other receptacles they should be placed in a cool place, either in a cold pit or cellar or on the shady side of a building, or, better yet, plunged or buried up to the rim of the pot in a shady border. This is done to force the roots to grow while the top stands still; as only the bulbs with good roots will give good flowers. When the weather gets cold enough so a crust is frozen on the soil, the pots should be covered with a little straw, and as the weather gets colder more straw must be used. 466 75 In from six to eight weeks after planting the bulbs, they should have made roots enough to grow the plant, and they may be taken up and placed in a cool room for a week or so, after which, if they have started into growth, they may be taken into a warmer room where they can have plenty of light. They will grow very rapidly now and will want lots of water, and after the flowers begin to show, the pots may stand in a saucer of water all the time. When just coming into bloom the plants may have full sunlight part of the time to help bring out the color of the flowers. Fig. 43 shows a pot of tulips. I want to tell you of two bulbs that do not need so much fussing to get them to bloom for Christ- a , mas. One of them is called r\ig) = freesia (Fig. 44) and if I could have but one kind of bulb to flower in the winter, I would choose this. The little bulbs are not half as large as crocus bulbs and you will be astonished at the 43.— Pot of tulips. large leaves and flowers such a bulb can produce. The bulbs are about the cheapest of all winter bulbs and they grow without putting them away to make roots, as the tops do not seem as impatient to start as most other bulbs, but wait until there are plenty of roots to help it along. The flowers are borne on a slender stem and look very graceful, either on the plant or in bouquets. They are also very fragrant and a pot with five or six bulbs will perfume a large room. All they need is good light soil, sunlight, water and warmth to make glad the heart of anyone who plants them. The other bulb I would select is the Oriental narcissus or Chinese Sacred lily. This grows in water without any soil whatever. Just take a bowl or glass dish about three times the size of the bulb ; put some pretty stones in the bottom; set in the bulb and build up 467 76 around it with stones so as to hold it stiff when the leaves have grown; tuck two or three small pieces of charcoal among the stones to keep the water sweet, then fill up the dish with water and add a little every few days, as it evaporates. Set the dish in a warm, su lillliinlitian uy Ul A oguniuyy) 44.— Pot of the freesia. light place. In about six weeks the fragrant, fine white flowers will fill the room with perfume and you will have had the pleasure of watching the roots start and grow, the top throw up long green leaves and the flower spikes develop and open their flowers. Hya- cinths may also be grown in water, but not as easily as this narcissus, or in such inexpensive dishes. 468 cif The picture (Fig. 45) of a bulb box was taken last winter from a box of mixed bulbs grown at Cornell. The calla in the center and the Kenilworth ivy trailing over the front of the box were planted in the box in September, and pots of geraniums and other plants set on the dirt to fill the space. When the bulbs that were in pots were ready to be started they were taken out of the pots and set in the dirt in the box where they grew and flowered; the tall stems are 45.— Winter box of bulbs. Paper White narcissus, the last variety for winter. On each side there is a hyacinth just starting and in front a little freesia in bloom. When these bulbs were done flowering, small pots of blooming plants were set on the box and a charming window box was had with many different things in it through the winter. 469 78 CLUB NOTES. We must have a yell for the Junior Naturalist Clubs. What shall it be? We shall be very glad if each of you send us some- thing for that purpose, and we will make a selection. Let it be something the girls can yell as well as the boys. #3 The new school year brings a change of teachers to our Junior Naturalist Clubs of last spring. Our plan is to have clubs that organized last spring retain their charters and reorganize under the new teacher. Some of the former members may drop out, but we hope new members will take their places. * ash US Our club buttons are now ready for distribution and will be sent to each of our old members as soon as their clubs reorganize under their new teachers, and to members of our new clubs as soon as they show an interest by paying the fortnightly dues. * x Whenever your Uncle meets in public a boy or girl wearing a Junior Naturalist Club button, he will speak to the wearer without any formality ; and he thinks it a good plan if members will do the same thing. Let us feel that we belong to the same fraternity and all have the same interest in nature, and we will be friends to each other. He wishes to encourage a feeling of friendship among mem- bers of different clubs. When convenient, it will bring good resalts for one club to visit another, and the host club can show the guest club what it is duing in the study of nature. * * Your Unele is always glad to receive your photographs either in groups or singly. He has a number on hand now and will welcome more. Next to meeting you boys and girls is the sight of your shadows, for that is what a photograph means. * * * Your Uncle wishes to speak to you about the letters he receives from his friends, the Junior Naturalists. At one time last spring 470 79 the number was about two hundred each day. Every one of these was read. The ones written as payment of club dues were sorted out and given to a department where the letters, after a close read- ing, were passed to the credit of the writer. Those of a personal nature or asking information concerning some nature-study topic were handed to your Uncle for bis perusal, and for his answer, so far as he could. Do not think that any of your letters are thrown away without being read. % x x Your Uncle is anxious that each of you boys and girls shall receive his personal attention. With such a large number of letters you must be thoughtful and helpful, and he asks you to send your letters and drawings, that go as dues, in one envelope under the direction of the secretary of your club, and be addressed Burrau oF Nature-Srupy, Corneuy University, Ir#aca, N. Y. He hopes that you will feel like writing him freely, and in your natural way, all about your difficulties in your investigations as naturalists, and he wishes you to tell him of some of the bright things that come into your lives, and some of the shadows, too, if there are any such. All such should be addressed to Jno. W. Spencer, Derury Cutkr, Bureau or Narure-Stupy, Cornett University, Iruaca, N.Y. HOME NATURE-STUDY COURSE. BY MARY ROGERS MILLER. This work is to be continued through the year and new students are welcome at any time. It is designed for teachers and others who have had little opportunity to study nature, yet wish to prepare themselves to teach children to know nature. For the present the inaterial for the Home Nature-study course will consist of various publications of the Nature-study Bureau and Farmers’ Reading-Course, together with the quiz. If the work is taken up with enthusiasm and the quizzes are returned regularly, it is probable that special Home Nature-study publications will be issued. When the interest warrants a separate series of publications for use in this department, they will be forthcoming. Just a word with you about the Home Nature-study. It is not primarily a reading course. The pamphlets sent you are full of suggestions for you to follow, experiments for you to perform, work for you to do. Unless you actually do these things, you fail to make the experiences your own, you take statements on authority, and miss the point of the whole course. Reading what others have observed about nature, lacks the freshness and freedom of original investigation. Without the element of discovery and personal con- tact, nature-study deteriorates into lesson-getting. Seeing nature with other people’s eyes, reading their thoughts about her ways, is most delightful, after one has seen and thought for one’s self. For example, scientists tell us that a certain brown and black but- terfly with a long name migrates southward to spend the winter. We read the words, and straightway forget the fact. ‘ What if it does,” we say. ut let us some day in fall, see the air and the trees full of red butterflies fluttering so bravely yet so silently, thousands and thousands winging their way toward the sunny southland, and we care. When we see, straggling back again in spring the surviv- 472 81 ors of these hordes, their wings all rags and tatters, their beauty gone with their youths, again we are impressed. We marvel at their instinct and their fortitude. There is a wide difference between knowing a thing and hearing about it! It is expected that students in this course will see nature from a new point of view, and study with a new spirit. Every question in the quiz will be for the purpose of bringing out some facts in the student’s own experience. teports should be sent in within eight weeks after the receipt of the lesson. Lesson No. 3 will be on “ The Soil,” and will be sent to all appli- cants. Suggestions and questions are always welcome. L. BE) BAILEY, Chief, JOHN W. SPENCER, Deputy Chief, Of Bureau of Nature-Study and Farmers’ Reading- Course. 473 a ern ‘ban aot ite rt ea He levied oW . bedaaniat on ow ae sana oa Pdisowtad so coialib able a xt might abst tive ee ME WAT Hiner Sahel Rite anit & aio quia: oo Hive seein, way ie rdwohate ies fessodie shies waaig Nine Yond fad wore 18K io Gaiahd by adoq hy ahltpaY aed Tite Sidi tha at noitop ¢ dvigg oil. bivorte deat eer snggtiogxn, antes gion hil at aha te: u ata gil) to: Rate be Ag alk tp, aloowr dehatyy lass ‘i ina vis the eA alt ™ pe, ae ae sere nn pO Raa YAR, Os anoiennp, Sur amoitangg Batic rei ai. tree ADALAR LE ade’: ere aay! ees pn peli CU Ole: aout nis NiGRAtey AR ahpa Tl, Seva, mai shu@rorbahy hese ye mi Lee aia rare rg pares Ste wiht ishatpees gtk Rae +e Peni Chia Ri at Ta ik Cabana pen thhat a. See 4 A ‘ er . er, 4a TEM ph, h He te 2 Fi ey of, ‘outg 3 ‘ a. , t 2) a couse tee RAS “Eee Wales iy oe ere a i ~ . na ‘ - ¥ i re ee ae — 2 afk > Petit GN XR Re eee TE begs! 4 “ ; < t hie: c: eateeah® “Pee Ua) hl apts, eee PAR Be REE ot ‘ — © bei. ie a ere bi ee are y 78 STRESS i PARMAR ORAS AS ALPEN Aas pee ee ae | a F F iver <3) | $a Oe Ce ANE CUR EIS 2 bet arg sat te tapi Than id a tri Hie VOM. ACTA ES My ee chingay aus ae 2 } yi pes Cher APS ATIC A TRY 9 US Es OLE £2 Petit Orie fd Or at a :% f “aut at isd: we eee eee, > LCI Os ath othnes grid Ta riers keno Ww ro Pa tet We bin ae f piper cu a vt qn cit tee Eat STs 5 Poa re “SAI SAS ‘ivanth ieee " Sort i cal Seine 1 ” atte eer Mes estas yi satya ay CA St UE e's ax rege? See eee ee ed rate si 3ia TARE as SL Mate pre e meme ah cat ties nigh va pondig Pedy th Sty eh it eee eee ol (nie denchii a. lint sei Sid dainty Baek esta vio fay BS @ ae ae Ta CBs eaartag tiny HOW eiteeke tele ae that a arta BAMA and ee es Beir Biiintond taser uigraien sonlbterd’ te asin hia! | a é Tk aid Whe Words, od vleangitccay Jengot the: fake i = 4 es: Bids ok ing mete Thy Ht av ce Aulior eae hae aa ¥ a : | ~~ a ie Ae ee a ee Neon ot ee Pigg fs hes at: “Ft ie January, 1900. CORNELL NATURE-STUDY QUARTERLY NO. 3. Issued by the College of Agriculture and Experiment Station of Cornell University, under Chapter 430 of the Laws 1899, of the State of New York. I. -P. ,;ROBERTS; ‘Director. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1900. Entered at the Postoffice at Ithaca, N. Y., as second class matter ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustce of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. ‘STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. . H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. . H. BAILEY, Horticulture. . H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. . F. ATKINSON, Botany. . V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. . W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. . M. DUGGAR, Botany. W. A. MURRILL, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. Mrs. MARY ROGERS MILLER, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E. HUNN, Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. W. E. GRIFFITH, Dairy Husbandry. Mrs. A. B. COMSTOCK, Nature-Study. ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Nature-Study. Broarzomras * OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of Director, Room 20, Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. * Absent on leave. 476 TEACHER’S LEAFLET No. 16. CUTTINGS AND CUTTINGS. BY L. H. BAILEY. ERHAPS no subject connected with the growing of plants awakens so much popular wonder and inquiry as their propagation by means of cut- tings and grafts. We assume that propagation by means of seeds is the natural way, and there fore do not wonder, notwithstanding it is won- derful. Weassume that propagation by cuttings is wholly unnatural, and therefore never cease to wonder, notwithstanding that is less wonderful than the other. To common minds, common things are not wonderful. Mere com- monplace familiarity takes away the charm, for such minds have no desire of inquiry. The well-trained mind goes beneath the surface, and wonders at everything ; and this wonder, grown old and wise, is the spirit of science. A plant does not have a definite number of parts, as an animal does. It may have ten branches or fifty. Each of these branches may do what every other branch does — produce leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds. It is not so with the higher animals, for in them each part may do something which some other part cannot do; if the part is a leg, it runs; if an ear, it hears. Hach part serves the whole animal; and it cannot reproduce theanimal. But in the plant, each branch lives for itself; it grows on the parent stock; or, if it is removed, it may grow in the soil. And if it grow in the soil, it is relieved of competition with other branches and grows bigger; it makes what we call a plant. Having thus bewildered my reader, I may say that a bit of a plant stuck into the ground stands a chance of growing; and this bit is a cutting.” Plants have preferences, however, as to the kind of a bit which shall be used, but there is no way of telling what this prefer- ence is except by trying. In some instances this preference has not 477 86 been discovered, and we say that the plant cannot be propagated by cuttings. 46.— Geranium cutting. One-half natu- ral size. Most plants prefer that the cutting be made of the soft or growing wood, of which the “slips ” of geraniums and coleus are examples. Others grow equally well from cuttings of the hard or mature wood, as currants and grapes ; and in some instances this mature wood may be of roots, Somewhat different principles underlie the handling of these two kinds of cut- tings ; and these principles we may now consider. We shall find it excellent practice to set the pupils to make cuttings now and then. If we can do nothing more, we as in the blackberry. can make cuttings of potatoes, as the farmer does, and we can plant them in a box in the window. Tur Sorrwoop Courtine. The softwood cutting is made from tissue which is still growing, or at least from that It must not be allowed Therefore, it must be protected from which is not dormant. to wilt. direct sunlight and dry air until it is well estab- lished ; and if it has many leaves, some of them should be removed or at least cut in two in order to reduce the evaporating surface. Keep the soil uniformly moist ; and avoid soils which contain much decaying organic matter, for these soils are breeding places of fungi which attack the soft cutting and cause it to “ damp off.” 47. — Carnation cut- ting. Natural size. For most plants, the proper age or maturity of wood.for the making of cuttings may be determined by giving the twig a quick bend ; if it snaps and hangs by the bark, it is in proper condition ; 478 87 if it bends without breaking it is too young and soft or too old; if it splinters, it is too old and woody. The tips of strong upright shoots usually make the best cuttings. Preferably each cut- ting should have a joint or node near its base; and if the inter- nodes are short, it may comprise two or three joints. Allow one to three leaves to remain at the top. If these leaves are large, cut them in two. Insert the cutting 48.— Rose cutting. More than one-half natural half or more its length size. in clean sand or gravel. Press the earth firmly about it. Throw a newspaper over the bed to exclude the light — if the sun strikes it—and to prevent too rapid evaporation. See that the soil is moist clear through, not on top only. 49.— Cutting-bed, showing carnations and roses. Mason’s sand is good earth in which to start cuttings. Or fine gravel — sifted of most of its earthy matter— may be used. If the cuttings are to be grown in a window, put three or four inches of the earth in a shallow box or apan. A soap box cut in two length- 479 88 wise, so that it makes a box four or five inches deep — like a gardener’s flat — is excellent. If the box does not receive direct sunlight, it may be covered with a pane of glass to prevent evaporation ; and then the children may see the plants more readily. But take care that the air is not kept too close, else the damping-off fungi may attack the cuttings and they will rot at the surface of the ground. See that the pane is raised a little at one end to afford ventilation ; and if water collects in drops on the under side of the glass, remove the pane for a time. Cuttings of common plants, as geranium, coleus, fuchsia, carnations, should be kept in a living-room tempera- ture. The pictures are better than words. The line across them shows where the soil comes. There are softwood sa cuttings of geranium (Fig. FTE NS 46), carnation (Fig. 47), and 50.— Verbena cutting ready for transplanting. rose (Fig. 48) ; and there Two-thirds natural size. is a gardener’s cutting-bed (Fig. 49) with cuttings of carnations and roses. Be patient. As long as the cuttings look bright and green, they are safe. It may be a month before roots form. When roots have formed, the plants will begin to make new leaves at the tip. Then they may be transplanted into other boxes or into pots. The ver- bena in Fig. 50 is just ready for transplanting. Each child will want a plant. It is not always easy to find growing shoots from which to make the cuttings. The best practice is to cut back some old plant severely, then keep it warm and well watered, and thereby force it to throw out new shoots. The old geranium plant from the window garden, or the one taken up from the lawn bed, may be served this way. See Fig. 51. This may seem hard treatment, but that is all the old plant is good for; it has passed its usefulness for bloom. 480 89 The best plants of geranium and coleus and many window plants are those which are not more than one year old. The cuttings which are made in January, February, or March, will give compact blooming plants for the next winter ; and thereafter new ones take their place. Some plants may be propagated by means of cuttings of leaves. The Rex begonias or “ beefsteak geraniums” are the commonest examples. The large, nearly mature leaf is divided into triangular pieces, each piece containing at its point a bit of the leaf-base (top of the leaf-stalk). This kind of cutting isshown in Fig. 52. This base is sometimes split (as at 0) by gardeners to hasten the formation of roots. Only the tip of the cutting is stuck into the sand; otherwise it is treated like other softwood cuttings. THe Harpwoop Cortina. Many plants grow readily from cuttings of ripe or dormant wood. The willows cast their branchlets in snow and wind, and_ these, falling in pleasant places, propa- gate their kind; and thus the river sides and the lake shores 51.— Old geranium plant cut back to make it throw out shoots from which cutiings can be made. become willow crowned. Grapes, currants, gooseberries, poplars, readily take root from the hard wood. Fig. 58 shows a currant cutting. It has only one bud above the ground. Best results are attained when the cuttings are made in the fall, and then buried until spring in sand in the cellar. They are not idle while they rest. The lower end calluses or heals, and the roots form more readily when the cutting is planted in the spring. But if the children are interested, take cuttings at any time in winter, plant them in a deep box in the window, and watch. They will need no shading or special care. 31 481 90 When plants of any variety are scarce, the cuttings may be shorter. Sometimes they are reduced to a single “eye” or bud, with an inch or two of wood we should have a graft; and the graft might grow. In this case, 52.—Begonia leaf cutting. Natural S72€. the cutting would not make roots, but it would grow fast to the other plant, and the twain would become one. When the cutting is inserted in a plant, it is no longer called a cutting, but a cion; and the plant in which it is inserted is called the stock. The com- pleted thing —cion growing in the stock —is a graft. Plants are particular as to their companions, when it comes to such close relationships as these. They choose the stocks upon which they will grow ; but we can find out what their choice is only by making theexperiment. There are queer things about it. The pear grows well on the quince, but the quince does not grow so well on attached; and these single-eye cuttings are planted much as one plants seeds. Tue GRAFT. If the cutting were planted in aplant rather than in the soil, 538.— Currant cut- ting. One-third natural size. the pear. The pear grows on some of the hawthorns, but it is an unwilling subject on the apple. Tomato plants will grow on potato plants and potato plants on tomato plants. When the potato is the root, both tomatoes and potatoes may be produced; when the tomato is the root, neither potatoes nor tomatoes will be produced. Chestnuts will grow on some kinds of oaks. 482 Why do we graft ? 91 Think a bit. If I sow seeds of a Baldwin apple, I will probably have as many kinds of apples as I have trees. Some of these apples may be like the Baldwin, and they may not. That is, apple seeds do not reproduce the particular variety. They will not be held to any stricter account than merely to produce apples ; these apples may range all the way from toothsome kinds to Ben Davis. doés not wait for the trees to bear in the hope that they will produce something to his liking. So he grafts them 55.— Cleft-graft. One- half natural size. The nurseryman knows this, and he when they still are young,— takes a cion from the kind which he wishes to perpetuate. So it happens that all the Baldwins and Kings and Russets, and all other named varieties, are growing on alien roots; and what kinds of fruits these stocks would have pro- duced, no one will ever know, because their heads were cut off in their youth and heads were put on to order. In this way apples and pears and plums and peaches and cherries and apricots 54.--Cion are propagated, for they will not grow Sor cleft- grafting. d : One-half ries and blackberries and gooseberries » a tural and currants and grapes grow will- sve. ingly from cuttings, and they are not grafted by the nurseryman. The forming, growing tissues of the trunk is the cambium, lying on the outside of the woody cylinder, beneath the bark. In order readily from cuttings. But raspber- that union may take place, the cambium of the cion and the stock must come together. Therefore, the cion is set in the side of the stock. I once knew a man who believed that everything was designed for some useful purpose. The hole in the pith bothered him, until he discovered that a cion just filled it. He grafted his trees accordingly ; but the experiment was productive of nothing except pithy remarks. 483 92 There are many ways of shaping the cion and of. preparing the stock to receive it. These ways are dictated largely by the relative sizes of cion and stock, although many of them are matters of mere personal preference. DTA 56. — The graft waxed. man. However, grafting is hardly to be recom- mended as a general of cuttings is; and chiefly to satisfy the general curiosity on the sub- ject. But we hope will make the effort The underlying principles are two: see that there is close contact between the cambiums of cion and stock; cover the wounded surfaces to prevent evaporation and to protect the parts from disease. . On large stocks the common form of grafting is the cleft-graft. The stock is cut off and splits and in one or both sides a wedge-shaped cion is firmly inserted. Fig. 54 shows the cion; Fig. 55 the cions set in the stock; Fig. 56 the stock waxed. It will be seen that the lower bud — that lying in the wedge—is covered by the wax; but being nearest the food supply and least exposed to weather, it is the most likely to grow; it pushes through the wax. The wax is made of beeswax, resin and tallow. The hands are greased, and the wax is then worked until it is soft enough to spread. For the little grafting which any school would do, it is better to buy the wax of a seeds- school diversion, as the making this account of it is inserted that now and then a youngster for himself, for nothing is more 57 — gnic1¢-bud- exciting than to make a graft grow all by one’s self. ing. One- Cleft-grafting is done in spring, as growth begins. The cions are cut pre half natural viously, when perfectly dormant, and from the tree which it is desired to propagate. The cions are kept in sand or mos s in the cellar. Limbs of various sizes may be 484 93 cleft-grafted,— from one-half inch up to four inches in diameter ; but a diameter of one inch is the most convenient size. All the leading or main branches of a tree top may be grafted. If the remaining parts of the top are gradually cut away and the cions grow well, the entire top will be changed over to the new variety in three or four years. Each cion may be a different variety ; but there is no differ- ence in the operation or the treatment of the tree. On young or small stocks, like nursery trees, the cleft-graft is not practicable, and a. different form of grafting is employed ; but the teacher will not care to be confused with further details. We have seen that a cutting may be reduced to a single bud; so may a cion. If the bud-cion has very little or no wood attached, and is inserted underneath the bark, the operation is known as budding. The commonest form of budding is shown in Figs. 57, 58, 59. This is the method known as shield-budding, because the bud, with its attached bark, is shield-shape (Fig. 57). A T-shape incision is made in the stock, and under the bark the bud is inserted (Fig. 58); then the wound is tightly bound with soft cord or bast. Budding may be performed whenever the bark will “slip” and when 58.— The bud set in the Matrix. One-half natural 82ze. 59.—The bud tied. well grown buds can be secured,—that is, either in spring or late summer. It is usually performed at the latter season; and then the bud does not throw out a shoot the same season, but merely grows fast to the stock. The next spring it throws out ashoot and makes a trunk; and in the meantime the stock has been cut off just above the bud. That is, the bud-shoot takes the place of the top of the stock. Shield-budding is performed only on small and young stocks. Itis usually exclusively employed in the propaga tion of stone fruits, as cherries, peaches, plums, apricots, for experience has proved that it is preferable to other forms of grafting. It may also be employed for other fruit trees. How is a peach tree made? In 1898, a pit or seed is saved. In 485 94 the spring of 1899, it is planted. The young tree comes up quickly. In August, 1899, the little stock has one bud—of the desired variety — inserted near the ground. In the spring of 1900, the stock is severed just above the bud; the bud throws out a shoot which grows to a height of four or six feet; and in the fall of 1900 the tree is sold. It is known as a year-old tree; but the root is two years old. ‘ How is an apple tree made? The seed is saved in 1898, planted in 1899. The seedings do not grow so rapidly as those of the peach. Atthe end of 1899, they are taken up and sorted ; and in the spring of 1900 they are planted. In July or August, 1900, they are bud- ded. In the spring of 1901 the stock is cut off above the bud; and the bud-shoot grows three or four feet. In 1902, the shoot branches, or the top begins to form; and in the fall of 1902 the tree may be sold as a two-year-old, although most persons prefer to buy it in 1903 as a three-year-old. In some parts of the country, particularly in the west, the little seeding is grafted in the winter of 1899-1900, in a grafting-room ; and the young grafts are set in the nursery row in the spring of 1900, to complete their growth. I have now given my reader an elementary lesson in horticulture ; but I shall consider it of little avail if it is not transformed into practice for the children. February is the gardener’s time for the starting of his eutting-beds, in which to grow plants for the summer bloom. Ask the children to bring the old geraniums and fuchsias and coleus, and other favorites. Keep them in a warm window; cut them back; see that they are well watered; then take the enttings when the time comes. The children will be interested to watch the fortunes of the different cuttings. They will be interested in Vergil’s couplet, as set to rhyme in old English: Some need no root, nor doth the Gardner doubt, That Sprigs, though headlong set, will timely sprout. 486 Dre RS, HE project of organizing the children of the State into nature-study bands or clubs is meeting with unexpected success. The Junior Naturalist Club is organized, in the language of its charter, that “every member thereof shall love the country better and be con- tent to live therein.” The Cornell Nature-Study movement has for its purpose the awakening of a love for natural and native things. It stands for naturalness and freedom. It would deepen every life which it touches, by giving it fuller sympathy with every- thing that is and by enriching its experience. It does not attempt to teach elementary science, nor primarily to popularize knowl- edge ; and herein it differs from other nature-study movements. It is not seeking to make investigators of the coming generation, to the end that the boundaries of science may be widened. It wants to teach the child how to live. It isthe spirit, rather than the letter, that quickeneth. * * * Each Junior Naturalist Club receives a charter, and each member may receive a button. Each member pays dues twice each school month by sending a letter on something which has been seen or studied. Often these letters are the school-room compositions con- cerning nature subjects. Each month we issue to the clubsa Junior Naturalist Lesson, suggesting what topic may be studied to advan- tage. This fall we have made much of the topic “seed travelers ;” aud our office has been full of seeds from the four corners of the State. How much the little minds have opened as they have pic- tured the journeys of the thistle-down and the stick-tight, no one can ever know. % % % A School of Nature-Study for teachers is offered at Cornell in the summer of 1900, asin 1899. Term opens just after the Fourth, and continues six weeks. Because of lack of room and equipment, 487 96 the number of students is limited to one hundred. First come, first served. Applications are already coming in. To teachers in New York State, there is no tuition. Instruction is given in three gen- eral subjects by Professors Roberts, Comstock and Bailey. This instruction comprises a full course in itself. It is a one-session course. Persons who desire advanced instruction, register in the other courses of the summer session. 488 UNCLE JOHN’S TALK WITH THE CHILDREN. my F YOU have not yet organized a Junior Nat- # —_uralist Club in your school, we most cordially invite you to do so. If you desire it, we will gladly mail you instructions. By the instruc- tions you will learn all about the election of club officers, the charter, monthly lessons, and the conditions under which we send badge but- tons. The observations of the month can be made the topic for compositions and drawings, and these are sent to us once or twice each month and are considered by us as payment of dues. For each mempber there is an index card in our office on which his record is kept. In our plans for simplifying the work never for a moment have we entertained the idea that the thousands of letters received as dues should be neglected. Never do we pick up a letter without the feeling that its production meant much to the author and that it is entitled to respectful consideration. Those of our staff to whom this work falls, have become expert in “catching the key” of each letter when reading the first few lines. The original, unpruned letter, expressing the natural boy or girl, pleases us most. We want their ideas more than their scholarship. * * * Ideally one might suppose that our most enthusiastic clubs would come from outside of the city, where Nature is to be observed. While we have had very gratitying reports from such quarters, we have been much delighted by the zeal shown by clubs in such cities as Albany, Auburn, Binghamton, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Cohoes, Corn- ing, Dunkirk, Elmira, Gloversville, Johnstown, Jamestown, Lock- port, New York, Niagara Falls, New Rochelle, Olean, Poughkeep- sie, Rochester, Schenectady, Syracuse, Utica and Yonkers. 489 98 If you know of any boys or girls or adults who by reason of ill- ness belong to the band of “shut-ins,” you may perhaps be doing them a favor by placing us in touch with them. You understand that all our services are free. * * * When preparing dues for mailing, put them in envelopes or in rolls with plain wrapper. Do not fail to give name and address in upper left hand corner of the envelope or roll. It is well to do this even when identification cards are placed inside. When sending letters or drawings, pasteboard sides are unnecessary and when used add much to the postage. %* * * We must again speak of the conditions on which we send the badges or buttons. They are not sent as a bonus or premium for joining a Junior Naturalist Club, but as a testimony that the recipi- ent has done faithful work in Nature-Study. So far as possible, we rely upon the judgment of the teacher when such conditions have been complied with, and to her we consign the buttons for distribu- tion. We wish them to be badges of honor and not to be cheap- ened by being worn by the undeserving. * * * We shall continue to send monthly lessons to all Junior Natural- ists. We find that 1aost interest is found in the study of living and growing things, and material for such is not so easy to obtain dur- ing January and February. We shall, however, select topics sus- ceptible of some illustration. Perhapsit will be just as well to exact but one set of dues for these months. * * * As soon as possible after receiving the roster of a club, we send a charter. During October and a part of November we were unable to be as prompt in doing this as we desired. No doubt some of our Junior Naturalists felt impatient by such enforced neglect, but we are sure we suffered more than they. Itis not an easy thing to register twenty-one thousand boys and girls. We have done this 490 99 and now know where to find each one and also the address of the teacher by whom the work of the club is conducted. * * % Weare often asked — “ Will it not answer your purpose of dues just as well if we send you a few samples?” No, it will not by any means. A record of the work done by each boy and girl is kept in our department on a card, and we want the communica- tions of every member so that proper credit can be given. * * * The inquiry is not infrequent — ‘“‘ What do you do with the thou- sands of letters in the form of dues sent each month?” Weare glad to assure all Junior Naturalists that each letter received in payment of dues is handled with great respect and proper credit given on each ecard. * %* %* The Junior Naturalist family now numbers more than 21,000 boys and girls. They live in many states; and there is one club in Egypt and another in Tasmania. A Junior Naturalist Club House. 491 ABH bs Ba . e: March, 1900. CORNELL NATURE-STUDY QUARTERLY NO. 4. Issued by the College of Agriculture and Experiment Station of Cornell University, under Chapter 430 of the Laws of 1899, of the State of New York. I. P. ROBERTS, ‘Director. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ‘ITHACA, NY. 1900. Entered at the Postoffice in Ithaca, N. Y., as second class matter. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. GEO. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANA UGH. Chemistry. Mrs. A. B. COMSTOCK. Nature-Study. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. *B. M. DUGGAR. Botany. W. A. MURRILL, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. Mrs. MARY ROGERS MILLER, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. S. W. FLETCHER, Extension Work. C. E. HUNN, Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. W. E. GRIFFITH, Dairy Husbandry. ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Nature-Study. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. - * Absent on leave. 494 TEACHER’S LEAFLET NO. 17%. THE BURST OF SPRING. I. THE OPENING OF THE BUDS. (LZ. H. Bailey.) PRING is coming! The buds will burst and the birds will sing ! ~ How do the buds burst? Watch them $a as the spring opens ; or if you are impatient, Y cut long twigs and place them in bottles of water ina living-room, and the buds will swell. First notice what the winter buds are like,— that they are spherical, or oblong, or coni- cal bodies lying close to the limb and tightly covered with scales. Notice that there is a mark or scar beneath the bud, showing where a leaf was borne. It is an excellent practice to collect winter twigs of different kinds of trees and bushes, and to compare the form and color of the shoots, and the size, shape, color and make-up of the buds. Lay the twigs side by side on the table and notice how one differs from. the other. What part of the twig grew last year? Notice the “ring” at the base of the last year’s growth. After all the dif- ferences are noted, put the twigs in water, as you would a bonquet. Sometimes flowers and leaves will appear. If the twigs are two or three feet long, the buds are more likely to grow, for then there is sufficient supply of food (or starch). Change the water frequently, and cut off the lower ends of the twigs so that a fresh surface will be exposed to the water. It will be two to five weeks before the buds open, depending mostly on the kind of plant. Mark one bud on a maple, or apple, or lilac, or other plant, by tying a string about the twig. Look at it carefully from day to day: observe how it opens, and what comes out of it. The pupil should know that a winter twig has interest. 495 104 The bud may be peach or apricot. Soon the bud begins to swell at its top. The scales open. A white lining appears. This lining soon protrudes (Fig. 60). Soon the lining opens. We see that it is a flower. Or, perhaps the peach bud sends out a green shoot rather thana flower. There must be two kinds of peach and apricot buds,—a flower-bud and a leaf-bud. Can you tell them apart? The flower-bud is thicker and rounder. Usually one stands on either side of a leaf-bud. 4 But the leaf-bud may stand alone. Find one: any peach a Open. ‘tree or apricot tree will have leaf-buds, but all may not ing of have flower-buds. As the bud expands and the flower or anapri- leaf appears, notice that the bud-scales fall away. Do cot (ua. vot these scales leave scars? And do not these scars, standing together, make the “ring” which marks the beginning of the new growth 4 nitgltr by Observe a pear bud. Notice that the scales elongate as the bud swells. You can see the white bases of the scales, marking the new growth (Fig. 61). If it is a leaf-bud, the scales may become three-fourths of an inch long before they fall. But sooner or later, they are cast, and their places are marked by scars. If it is a flower-bud, notice that sev- eral flowers come out of it. In the apricot and peach, there is only one flower in each bud. Each of these little pear flowers is closed up like a bud, and elevates re 1 H on oF itself on a stalk before it had bud, opens: and this stalk be- comes the stem of the -pear fruit. But this pear flower-bud contains leaves as well as flowers. Fig. 62 shows what comes out of a pear bud. This, then, is a mixed | flower-bud,— it contains — both leaves and flowers. The apricot and peach bear true or simple flower-buds. 62.— What came out of a pear bud. 496 105 Watch apple buds. The scales do not elongate as in the pear but the flower-buds are mixed. Fig. 63 shows the expanding cluster from an apple flower-bud. Four flowers will open; and there are six leaves. If the buds are made to open in the house on severed twigs, the leaves do not grow so large before the flowers expand, for the twig does not contain sufficient food. Fig. 64 is a photograph of an apple twig which [I had in my window one winter’s day. x * # : n : 63.— Opening of an apple bud. Examine a hickory twig. ce f The illustration (Fig. 65) shows the “ring” marking the beginning of the annual growth. See the large leaf-scars. Notice that the terminal bud is much the largest. It is the one which will grow. The other buds will remain dormant unless they are forced into growth by the death of the terminal bud or by other unusual cir- cumstance. Notice that buds differ in size on shoots of all plants: con- sider that not all the buds are to grow: there is struggle for existence. When the hickory bud expands, some of the scales fall away; but some of the mner parts enlarge into leaf-like bodies, as shown in Fig. 66. In some hick- ories these bodies become two or three inches long before they fall. 32 497 64.— Apple flowers in midwinter. 106 Hickories open very late in the season. The Norway Maple, com- monly planted on lawns, behaves in a similar way. Observe the Sugar Maple. A twig of the common elm is shown in Fig. 67. Notice the “ring.” See the two kinds of buds. We suspect that the three large ones are flower- buds. With the very first warm days — before the robin has built her nest —these three buds will burst; soon the red-brown tassels will hang on the leafless twigs. Each tassel is a flower. Several flowers come from each bud. We see them in Fig. 68: and the leaf-buds have elongated somewhat. 66.— The opening of a 65.—Shoot Watch for the fruits or seeds that hickory bud. ee blow about the walks so early in hickory. spring; and note how the leaves come out. With the first breath of spring, the “pussy willows” come. 68.— Blossoms of the elm. And what are the “pussies?”’ They are clusters of flowers. So i! uw snugly are the little flowers wrapped in wool, that the “ pussies” are 498 107 silken-soft as they begin to expand. Fig. 69 isa We willow shoot. Find one when the buds first begin to burst. Notice the big brown-black scale that covers the bud as a shield and falls when the “pussy ” first begins to appear. * * * And now what is awinter bud? It is a miniature shoot or flower, resting for the time, and snugly wrapped for the long winter. It was made last season. It is ready to leap into growth the moment the warm rain of spring wak- ensit. A good hand lens will show the embryo branch, if a section is made of the bud. This bud is not only ready-formed, but it is ready-fed. The winter shoots 70.— Bloom of azalea. contain starch. On a cut surface of a dormant twig, apply a drop of tincture of iodine; note the bluish color, which is indicative of starch. This starch is insoluble; but with the first awakening of life it changes into sugar, which is soluble and is transferred to the growing point. The burst of spring is made possible by means of this stored food. Notice the azalea in the florist’s window (Fig. 70). The large flower-buds were formed the year before, and it is a short operation to force them into bloom. The flowers come in advance of the leaves; therefore these leaves could not have made the food required for the bloom. The blooming of the apple twig (Fig. 64) in the winter shows that the food is in the twig and buds. Once I drew a branch of a tree into a room and fastened it there. It 499 69. _The opening of a pussy willow. 108 made leaves and began to grow while the tree to which it was attached was perfectly dormant (Fig. 71). TM) WNT ey ES Not only are the buds ready-formed and ready-fed, but they are eovered. Snugly is the growing point protected. Pull away the scales of a winter bud one by one. Observe how closely they are 71.— Branch of a tree bearing leaves inside a window, when the tree ttself 1s dormant, placed. Often the chinks are filed with a packing of wool, or are scaled with varnish. Dip the bud in water: then see if the water permeates the covering. The chief value of the bud-covering is not to protect from freezing, as commonly supposed, but to prevent the soft, growing parts from drying out. Ce Pe ES The plants are waiting for spring, They are ready. 500 Il. THE EARLY BIRDS. (Lowis Agassiz Fuertes.) FTER a long winter, many of us are too impatient for spring to wait for the swelling of the buds, the open- ing of the early flowers, and the springing of the grass. Several weeks lie between the end of winter and the truly genial spring days, and during this interval we look for something to herald the settled spring season. And the thing which gives us that for which we are unconsciously looking, more than all other signs, is the arrival of the birds. Who has not warmed to the quavering call of the first bluebird, or been sud- denly thrilled some early spring day with the sunny notes of the song-sparrow ! In the southern part of this State, notably in the lower Hudson Valley, several birds spend the winter which elsewhere we are accus- tomed to see only after the winter has passed. Among these are the bluebird, robin, song-sparrow, white-throated sparrow, meadow- lark, and possibly purple-finch. But in most of the State we must wait until the first or second week in March before we can be sure of seeing any of them. It is a question which of the earlier birds will first make its appearance, as these early migrants are much less regular in their movements than those that come late in April and in May, after the weather has become settled. Many a robin and bluebird arrives during some early warm “spell,” to find himself suddenly surrounded by flying snow and blown about by cold winds. But these and a few other hardy ones seem able to stand such rebuffs with great equanimity, and the momentary shining of a fickle March sun will often evoke some pent up song-sparrows’ notes from the shelter of a hedge or thicket. Robins, bluebirds, song-sparrows, cowbirds, meadow-larks, phoebes, bronzed grackles, kingfishers and doves may be looked upon as the vanguards of the hosts of migrat- ing birds that come to us each year, and the first four or five may be expected almost any time after the first week in March. If the winter has been late, these may not appear until the middle or even 501 110 the latter part of the month, in which case one is busy keeping track of the arrivals, as the other birds have caught up then, and all come nearly at the same time. It is unnecessary to give detailed descriptions of robins, bluebirds and song-sparrows, as nearly everyone is familiar with them; but some of the other early comers may be more easily recognized if some field impressions of them be given. = i PSS % Almost any warm day in early March we may hear a thin, clear “tsssss ? in a high piping key, and on looking up see from one to five black birds, about the size of orioles, flying in a strange unda- lating manner —some up and some down, with the wings held close to their sides during the “drop” in their flight. They are cowbirds. The flock may swirl into the top of a tree and sit close together. (Fig. 72.) If this happens within eyeshot, stop and watch them for a moment. ’ One or two of the males are almost certain to utter the ridiculous song of the species, which like that of their relatives, the grackles, is accompanied by the most grotesque of actions. The bird spreads its wings to their utmost, spreads and elevates the tail, stretches its neck 72. — Cowbirds. upwards and forwards, and then, quivering and tottering, nearly falls forward off the perch. The only sound which accompanies this absurd action is a faint chuckling “ clk-sfs’k” which is scarcely to be heard a hundred feet away. Be ES) SRS With the cowbirds we may expect the arrival of the bronzed grackles, which resemble them much in flight, but are larger and -come in far larger flocks,— sometimes ten, sometimes a hundred or more. Their arrival is known by the vigorous calls they utter while flying, a loud bass “ jook.” When seen squabbling in the spruce trees or in the bare branches of the willows fringing the streams, the males are likely to be giving their “song.” It is scarcely more of a note than the cowbird’s, a rusty squeak, and it is accompanied 502 Ett by a contortion in the same manner. It is not such a pronounced effort, however, and is often only a slight shudder and shrug of the shoulders. ‘They feed, like cowbirds, mostly on the ground, and walk about most sedately in the grass like small crows. In tall grass, however, they waddle too much to be graceful. When taking flight they spread their long pointed tails in a very peculiar and characteristic manner — not out in a horizontal plane, like most birds, but up at the sides in the shape of a gardener’s trowel, which gives them an extraordinary appearance. FO SP aS The redwings begin to come into the marshes soon after the grackles, and are at that time in full feather and song. Their rich, deliberate “ cronk-ka lrrrrrrr,” interlarded with the clear piping whistles of some of the flock, make a concert of bird-notes very dear to all who are familiar with it. In their scarlet and black velvet dresses these birds are impossible to mistake, whether seen chasing over the marshes, singing from an elm-top, or balancing with spread tail upon some tall reed stalk. Tey SS Wes There is a bird-note so often and so justly mistaken for that of the phcebe that the error certainly merits correction. The spring- song of the chick-a-dee (which may be heard on almost any warm day all winter, and is very easy to call forth by even a poorly 66 oD) whistled imitation) is a clear, pure “ eee 35” or which ] really says “ Phoebe” much more plainly than:the true phaebe note, this latter being much lower in tone, and only to be heard after March is well on, and almost always in the vicinity of running streams and brooklets; while the gay little chick-a-dee whistles at any time or place that suits his versatile fancy. uy vs xy. oy wv wv The mellow flute notes of. the meadow lark (Fig. 73) float to us from the middle of some large open field, and are among the most beau- tiful bits of bird music we ever hear. They are not to be repre- sented by notes, and can only be most inadequately described. There 503 112 is a great variation in the sequence of notes, but all are beautifully clear and ringing, and have a decided tinge of what would be sad- ness if it were not so sweet. The bird flies in a very characteristic manner, never raising the wings above the plane of the back, and when seen below the horizon line always shows the white feathers in the tail. His saffron breast and black breastmark seldom show on the living birds, and the mottled brown back is a wonderful safe- guard against his many overhead enemies. x * x Two or more doves may be seen winging their headlong flight through the air. These are among the swiftest of birds, and are generally out of eyeshot almost before you have seen them. (That is one way of knowing what they were.) In flight, they look like small pigeons with very long graduated tails, and when, in some old orchard or open : wood, you see one rise from the ground into a 74.— Mourning tree, the white lateral feathers in the tail make se an easily recognizable mark. (Fig. 74.) Their cooing notes are well known —a high piched “overtone” followed by several long bell-toned “ ¢osco, —ooooo,” Notes. About April 1 to 10, you may hear a scratching in the dead leaves among the underbrush in any thickly grown tangle, and upon cau tiously coming up, you may discover the authors —not big grouse as you may have supposed, but a flock of five vigorous fox-sparrows, on their way to their northern breeding grounds. They are bright bay fellows, with boldly blotched brown and white breasts, dili- gently scattering the leaves for their food of seeds, spiders, ants and other insects. If you have been fortunate enough not to have been seen you may hear their song, which is one of the finest of our spar- row songs, readily recognizable as such, though not resembling any of its fellows —a clear vigorous carol, often ending abruptly with a rather unmusical “clip.” If, however, they have seen you, you will be treated to a sharp “tseep!” and a rear view of a flock of rapidly retreating birds, for they are not sociable (with us, at least) and gen- 504 113 erally take a hint to move on before you know of their presence. They do not stay long with us on their migration, and seeing them one day is no indication that you can find them the next. co ue eS Although the white throated sparrows spend the winter in our southern counties, they do not start their northward journey as early as we might expect, and it is not until the first part of April that we may be sure of tinding them. I have one list, indeed, that shows their first appearance on May first! They are to be found in similar places to those which the fox- sparrows choose, and are very similar to them in habits, but the boldly striped head and gray breast are very distinctive marks. Almost all of our native sparrows have a call note, the “tseep” note, which is hard to dis- tinguish in the different species without much patient listening —and I doubt if any person is infallible in this distinction. The white- throat has this note as well as the song-sparrow, tree-sparrow (a winter bird), fox-sparrow, white- crown, chippy, field-sparrow, grass-finch, in fact all our brown-backed sparrows. But the song of the white-throat is his own, and may be heard 7.— White-threat- ed sparrow. frequently during his very leisurely journey through our State. His Canadian name, “ Peabody bird” is descriptive of his notes, “ —-- —--—-.? When a number get together and whistle, as if they were singing a round, it makes a very sweet concert. 22 Sa Mis One of the foremost birds in the spring movement is the grass- finch (vesper-sparrow or bay-winged bunting). It is to be found in open fields and along roadside fences, in company with meadow larks, and its sweet song may be heard almost any warm evening after the middle of April. Unlike most of our birds, this sparrow sings at its best late in the afternoon and during twilight, which per- haps makes its song seem the sweeter. It is rather a gentle song, though to be heard at some distance, carrying quite as far as that of the song-sparrow. Although the quality of voice is somewhat simi- 505 114 lar in these two birds, the grass-finch lacks the merry abandon that characterizes the song-sparrow’s song, but has instead a deeper chord, which is called by some people sadness. The bird may be easily recognized in the fields by the white tail-feathers, which always show in flight. It is about the size and general color of the song-sparrow. By the time the foregoing birds are comparatively common, and the maple buds are burst and the lilacs swelling, the gay purple finch appears. He is not purple at all, but has a crimson head, which fades on the lower breast through rosy pink into pure white. He is fond of spruces and larches, feeding greedily on the tender buds as well as on the ants and scale insects that infest them. His song is a fine one, and in addition to the charm of being poured forth in full flight, is so long and intricate that one finds himself holding his breath as the burst of melody continues, as if to help the little fellow catch up with his music. Tr ee es Along the banks of some lake or stream, sitting idly on a tele- graph pole or wire, rising and settling, elevating and depressing his long parted top-knot, a patriarchal old kingfisher may be seen silently await- ing the gleam of a shiner in the water below (Fig. 76). Or perhaps you may first see him flying like a big wood- pecker, screaming his chattering ery high in the air, or scaling perilously close to the water under the fringing hemlock branches that overhang the 76.— Kingfisher. ~~ stream. His large size, slate-blue back, loud notes and characteristic flight make him a hard bird to mistake in any ease. x % # There are many other birds which pass us on their way north, but they rather herald the summer than the breaking of spving. The following list of spring migrations is taken from Mr. Chapman’s 506 . 115 *‘ Handbook of the Birds of Eastern North America,’ and was com- piled for use about New York City. The dates nearly coincide with those I have found about the central part of the State, and are, in the main, only a few days in advance of those for the northern counties. The latter dates in the column are about what may be taken for the middle tier of counties. It is the earnest hope of the writer that these few very brief sketches may be of use to those interested in entering the delightful field of the study of birds; your experience may and probably will be different from that which I have cited, which only goes to show that everyone must readily see for himself, and not only that, but by so doing may make new observations and get new ideas on prac- tically all of even our best known birds. JPirds are not, as a rule, hard to watch, and the patience it requires to sit still and “be a stump” long enough for birds to cease noticing you is soon and amply repaid by the new insight into an unknown realm which is sure to follow. LIST OF BIRDS COMPRISING THE SPRING MIGRA- TION: (Until April 20 — Approximate.) (Taken from Chapman's Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America.) Date of arrival. Date of arrival. Feb. 15—Mar.10. Purple Grackle March 20-31. Wilson’s Snipe Rusty Grackle Kinefisher..> i Red-winged Mourning Dove Blackbird Swan p-sparrow Robin Field-sparrow Bluebird April 1-10. Great Blue Mar. 10-20. Woodcock Heron Pheebe Purple Finch Meadow Lark Vesper sparrow Cowbird Savanna-sparrow Fox-sparrow Chipping-sparrow 507 116 Date of arrival. Date of arrival. April 1-10. Tree Swallow April 10-20 Yellow Palm Myrtle Warbler _ Warbler American Pipit Pine Warbler Hermit Thrush Louisiana Water April 10-20. Yellow-bellied Thrush Woodpecker iuby-crowned Barn Swallow Kinglet 508 Ill. THE OPENING OF A COCOON. (Mary Rogers Miller.) MONG the commonest treasures brought into the school by children in the fall or winter are the cocoons of our giant silk worms. If one hasa place US i bs SS to put them where the air is not too warm or dry, no special care will be necessary to keep them through the winter. Out-door conditions must be imitated as nearly as possible. If early in the fall one is fortunate enough to meet one of these giants out for a walk, it is the simplest thing in the world to capture him and watch him spin his marvelous winter blanket. Two members of this family of giant insects are quite common in this State: the largest, the Cecropia, called sometimes the Emperor, and the Promethea. 77.— Cocoon of the Cecropia moth. It sometimes hangs fiom « twig of some Strut tree. The Cecropia moth often measures five or six inches across —a veritable giant. Its main color is dusty brown, with spots and bands of cinnamon brown and white. On each wing is a white crescent bordered with red and outlined with a black line. ‘The body is heavy and covered with thick, reddish-brown hairs crossed near the end with black and white lines. On its small head are two large 509 118 feathery feelers or antenne. The Cecropia moth emerges from the cocoon, full grown, in early summer when out of doors. Those kept in the house often come out as early as March. The eggs are deposited by adults upon apple, pear, cherry, maple and other shade and fruit trees. Professor Comstock says that the spiny caterpillars which hatch from the eggs in about two weeks, are known to feed upon the leaves of some fifty species of plants. One could there- fore hardly make a mistake in offering refreshment to these crea- tures, since they are anything but epicures. The full-grown cater- pillar, having spent the summer eating and growing, with now and then a change of clothes, is often three inches long and an inch in diameter. It is a dull bluish-green in color. On his back are two rows of wart-like pro- tuberances (tubercles), some yellow, some red, some blue. As there is nothing else in nature which is just like it, one need have no difficulty in recognizing the Cecropia in its different phases. The cocoon which this giant silk worm weaves is shown in Fig. 77. It may be found te on a twig in some tree in the dooryard, but 7g — gna of cocoon of sometimes on a fence-post or equally unexpected Cecropia, inside place. Inside the cocoon the brown pupa, wrew,. showing where : > ar : the moth gets out. alive but helpless, waits for spring. 2 After the moth comes out, it is interesting to examine the struc- ture of the cocoon, and to discover how the moth managed to free itself without destroying the silken blanket (see Fig. 78). Uhr eats Swinging loosely from last summer’s twigs in lilac bushes, and on such trees as wild cherry and ash, one often finds the slender cocoons of the Promethea moth (Fig. 78). We cannot help admir- ing the skill and care displayed by the spinner of this tidy winter overcoat. The giant silk worm which spun it chose a leaf as a foundation. He took care to secure himself against the danger of falling, by fastening the leaf tothe twig which bore it by means of shining strands of silk. It is easy to test the strength of this fastening by attempting to pull it loose from the twig. 510 119 The moths which come from these cocoons do not always look alike, but they are all brothers and sisters. The brothers are almost black, while the wings of the sisters are light reddish , brown, with a light grey wavy line crossing the middle of 4 both wings. The margins of the wings are clay-colored, ve On each wing is a dark velvety spot. The adults emerge in y/ spring and are most often seen in the late afternoon. Their flight is more spirited than that of the Cecro- —, — 2 pia, which moves very sedately as becomes a giant. yt The caterpillars of this species, the | We: young Promethea, feed during the sum- Sr fi mer on leaves of wild cherry, ash an other trees. They grow to be about two inches long, and are distinguished from others by their pale bluish green color and yellow legs. They also have rows of wart-like elevations on their backs, some black and shining, four of a 79.— Cocoon of Promethea moth fastened to a twig with silk, bright red and one large and yellow near the hindmost end. Ny The life of these giant in- sects is divided into four distinct stages; the egg, deposited by the adult moth usually on or near the food ay ie plant; the larva, or caterpillar stage, when most of the methea, eut eating and all the growing is done; the pupa, passed openlength- inside the cocoon woven by the larva; and the adult, a spmaoaan Ter red 0th. the valve. Tic 1in | , peancs ee, ae Lrg Po The life cycle or generation is one year, the winter at upper being passed in the pupa stage. The insect lives but end through a short time in the adult stage and the egg stage is but whichthe +4 or three weeks. Most of the summer is devoted adult moth 7 : : pushes its to the caterpillar phase of its life. way out. These creatures are entirely harmless. They sel- dom appear in numbers sufficient to make them of economic importance. 511 WO TES Have you done anything towards establishing a school garden ? If you know of any interesting efforts in that direction, we should be glad if you would let us know about them. Do you know of any school premises which have been planted and ornamented? If you are interested in garden-making by children, our Leaflet No. 4 (“A Children’s Garden”) is at your disposal. Our Bulletin 160 will give you suggestions for the planting of the school ground. x * # We wish to inaugurate a movement for flower-shows and other nature-study exhibitions in schools and churches. If you have had experience, please give us suggestions. Good subjects for spring work are: The Soil (Leaflet No. 15); toads (No. 9); tent-makers (No. 5); apple twigs (No. 3), particn- larly in connection with the present Leaflet; showers (No. 14); birds (No. 10). se Sea Persons frequently ask if we believe in teaching sentiment in nature-study. We disapprove of sentiment and poetic interpreta- tions when they give the wrong point of view, and when they sub- stitute mere emotion for patient inquiry. Sentiment should be incidental in any interpretation of nature. Yet we have a right to the poetic interpretation. Scientists are likely to go so far as to fer- bid the use of figures of speech and of parables: this is unfortunate. A metaphor or parable may be of distinct value when it teaches a true lesson or drives home a point, even though it is not literally true. One is justified in saying, to some audiences, that a potato puts up a lunch for future use. Everybody knows that the state- ment is a metaphor. He knows that a potato has no brains. The statement does not mislead. If one cannot say that much about a potato, it is not allowable to say that it has eyes. One can scarcely speak a sentence without saying things which are not literally true under all conditions. Even astronomers say that the sun sets. Per- 512 rt sons who insist that every statement about nature must be literally true, take the life and spirit out of writing and conversation. They might say that Bryant’s lyric, ‘ Robert of Lincoln,” is untrue; the bird is not “drest” since he has no clothes; he has no “ Quaker wife ” since he is mated, not wed. Yet there is more real bob-o- link in Bryant’s poem than in the formal description of the bird. Yet we wish to protest against that teaching of nature which is mere sentimentalism, which makes the “ goody-goody ” part of the work so prominent that it becomes the child’s point of view. Inter- est in things themselves should be the primary motive: sentiment comes chiefly as a result. But if there is danger of making senti- ment too prominent, there may be equal danger in insisting on a perfunctory scientific point of view. Tar 8 tee ey The publications of the Cornell Bureau of Nature-Study and Farmers’ Reading-Course are four: Nature-Study Quarterly, for teachers; Home Nature-Study Lesson, for teachers; Junior Natu- ralist Monthly, for children ; Farmers’ Reading Lessons (with quizzes), for farmers. Aside from these, the College of Agriculture pub- lishes the regular Experiment Station Bulletins. With so many publications, it is desirable to keep the mailing lists as small as _pos- sible and yet serve those persons who earnestly desire them. The lists are revised, in order to eliminate “ dead” names. The lists as they now stand are “ live” lists. They are approximately as follows (March 9, 1900) : Bee IETS LOA OES yim adhe eS oa. 5 aha ees a ee 26,000 names sheq@eners-NOme LessOm Genco os ode eee Keen OOO moe REMC PRUs 3 Kk el echt ne Oe arse al Sere 30,000 ‘ Prammets: texdine-e OULSES 2... SSS. eon Loic cee, COU at entails tre Ae iene le ee ocd EN aad dees 20: 000. — -** 95,000 ‘S The incidental personal requests for the publications considerably increase this constituency. L. H. BAILEY, Chef, JOHN W. SPENCER, Deputy Chief, Of Bureau of Nature-Study ond Farmers’ Reading-Course. 33 513 (et : | ; af Pilate wy tytcfit ew Aid deadelh euhraabase pio festt THE yok Meliaai recy Tih Rai rT ite Pita edit oie ee Sr gauTiut st “loonnt: to seloek nba | shh tas a tao ite Bai) Hi 1 daitboy Joan auth Be Ohtle penb For hi pst Pn Meets ching Astas PUN ae ye Mutat ak ie nial eath HERES ‘Pie ee UE AT A RIAU Be Ulotdsi Dy Ee Reg at ae COS yi eA Sad SOG OE nired: yh ay dik ehee, Delica Bry upha Heh, ae eae ett ae uey Ty ter i a Wis ta erie) MN dita AY dP eE rt erate AiR gd? MOMaiiy. oben and Sieh Ty any HP matt Ovusaen! gach ne Salen! of jeanal leuyh ial yee or ee | lt? hoe Paid sabi = : ve a ce ' a 7 1, pass 7) a ehiiia sire lo Naa! Hae: ati 7 ae ° « v4 a are Sor copes intit) “PDsseaistars TF 1OE* ates) os Ree S o* i 4 ’ . ; —_— ‘yy HEAP HIN asbeor’ Yar: Aa B Th a rik! Ser SPENT ct ay | te: Pactitnas? ‘aang jew i derey sr Stale Waniishy NATAL) are eBaias ony, ahaa Seer er a YY) aE sagas Pattie y cit inlangsn : 4 f av ? ; 4 f eomees +s ied Fay Latte tin Cl pA brett aC ULE Sey a ae ty m8 ae r Sail ga ne! ieeeals. eLt Liss guy! wake. + 1 Bik? mir Pts) « VaR eit AL nh, bbe Oe . or cave yoke | mm EX fe are, Sage sit gest aii I abt sh PAUL" ities Its Vs ain Ae iz ‘ es é : ; £4 4 reals. Z a] a : at, + oa oy , 2 "eeu pe “hy ras Gi64 Yaa Ovi; vith 7 , a> wes mt 4 sige be ad ety She fos rte AO hoe Detar a Uy ‘ ie : lL (arad au Vis , hag’ yl iy as dit ; LY ca (05 Saas i Le ee by - ; j is ay. «a a Fay 9) . y J: | Pa Bed Cea aches ey a z Vie ane Pity Go ey | ‘ Ee ai! Se, se Pa ik. =. ‘ BTU... 4 ee * Fig Tittle, eh. 2h VE. ot. > eed rab ees er gsc hae ae ns platters as cee neil Lecnwce thi ie 3) tail i. ieee Sk oo sara ae mete - : to 105.8 eee or ie valabimd.~ pi wos mina load: vee ey rd a HE bd Sh th Rib bi eect a ‘** June, 1900. CORNELL NATURE-STUDY QUARTERLY NG). DS: Issued by the College of Agriculture and Experiment Station of Cornell University, under Chapter 430 of the Laws of 1899, of the State of New York. EP.” ROBERTS, ‘Director. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1900. Entered at the Postoftice at Ithaca, N. Y., as second class matter. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. GEO. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANA UGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. W. A. MURRILL, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. Mrs. MARY ROGERS MILLER, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. S. W. FLETCHER, Extension Work. C. E. HUNN, Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. W. E. GRIFFITH, Dairy Husbandry. Mrs. A. B. COMSTOCK, Nature-Study. ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, Nature-Study. *k OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. EK. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of Director, Room 20, Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them * Absent on leave. 516 TEACHERS’ LEAFLET NO. 18. A BROOK. BROOK is the best of subjects for nature-study. Itis near and dear toevery child. Itisa world in itself. It is an epitome of the nature in which we live. In miniature, it illustrates the forces which have shaped much of the earth’s surface. Day by day and century by century it carries its burden of earth-waste and lays it down in the quiet places. Always beginning and never ceasing, it does its work as slowly and as quietly as the drifting of the years. It is a scene of life and activity. It reflects the sky. It is kissed by the sun. It is caressed by the wind. The minnows play in the pools. The soft weeds grow in the shallows. The grass and the dandelions lie on its sunny banks. The moss and fern are sheltered in the nooks. It comes one knows not whence: it flows one knows not whither. It awakens the desire of exploration. It is a realm of mysteries. It typifies the flood of life. It goes “on forever.” In many ways can the brook be made an adjunct of the school- room. One teacher or one grade may study its physiography ; another its birds; another may plat it. Or one teacher and one grade may devote a month or a term to one phase of it. Thus the brook may be made the center of a life-theme. Lai. 517 I A BROOK AND ITS WORK. (J. 0. Martin.) On a rainy day most of us are driven indoors and thus we miss some of nature’s most instructive lessons, for in sunshine or rain the great mother toils on, doing some of her hardest labor when her face is overcast with clouds. Let us find our waterproofs, raise our umbrellas, bid defiance to the pattering rain and go forth to learn some of the lessons of a rainy day. Along the roadside the steady down-pouring rain col- lects into pools and rills, or sinks ont of sight in the ground. ‘The tiny streams search out the easiest grade and run down the road, dig- ging little gullies as they go. Soon these rills meet, and, joining their muddy currents, flow on with greater speed down the hillside until they reach the bottom of the val- ley and go to swell the brook which flows on in sunshine or rain. The water which sinks into the ground passes out of our sight for a time, but its journey is also down- ward toward the brook, though the soil, acting as a great sponge, holds it back 81.— The brook may be made the center of a life-theme. and makes it take a slower pace than the rushing surface water. The slower-moving underground water percolates through the soil until it comes to a layer of rock, clay, or other impervious sub- stance along the slope of which it flows until it is turned again to 518 127 the surface in the form of a spring. Perhaps this spring is one of those clear cold pools with the water bubbling up through its sandy bottom from which we love to drink on a hot summer's day; or again it is a swampy spot on the hillside where the cat-tails grow. In whatever form it issues from the ground, a tiny rill carries away its overflow and this sooner or later joins the brook. The brook we see is simply the collected rainfall from the hill- sides flowing away to jointhe river. It grows larger as other brooks join it and becomes a creek and finally a river. But where is the dividing line between brook, creek and river? So gradually does the brook increase in volume that it would be difficult to draw any dividing line between it and the larger streams. And so with the rills that formed the brook; each is a part of the river, and the names rill, brook, creek and river are merely relative terms. If we go to other States, we should find that in different parts of the coun- try brooks vary much in size. Brooks are but small-scale rivers; and if we study the work that a brook is doing we shall find it engaged in cutting down or build- ing up just as the river does, although, owing to the smaller size of the brook, we can see most of these operations in a short distance. Let us take our way through the wet grass and dripping trees to the brookside and see what work it is doing. The countless rain-born rills are pouring their muddy water into the brook and to-day its volume is much greater than when it is fed by the slower-moving underground water of the springs, as it is in fair weather. It roars along with its waters no longer clear but _ full of clay and sand (“ mud” as we call it). If we should dip up a glassful of this muddy water we should find that when it had settled, there remained on the bottom ot the giass a thin deposit of sediment. The amount of this sediment is small, no doubt, fora single glassful, but when we think of the great quantity of water constantly flowing by we can see that considerabie sediment is going along with it. Butthis sediment in suspension is not all the load that the brook is moving. If you will roll up your sleeve, plunge your hand to the bottom of the brook and hold it there quietly, © you will feel the coarser gravel and small stones rolling along the bottom. 519 128 All this load of sand and gravel comes, as we have seen, from the valley sides, the banks of the brooks and from its bed. It is mov- ing downward away from its original resting place; and what has been the result? For thousands upon thousands of years our brook may have been carrying off its yearly load of sediment, and though 82.— A brook cutting under tts bank and causing a land-slide. each day’s labor is small, yet the added toil of centuries must have been great. The result of this labor we can see in the great trough or valley through which the brook flows. Tennyson speaks of the ceaseless toil of the brook in the following words: ‘* T chatter, chatter, as I flow To join the brimming river, For men may come and men may go, But I go on forever.” We have seen how the rills and torrents bring into the brook their loads of sand, elay and gravel; let us walk along the bank and see what the brook is doing to increase this load. Just here there is a sudden turn in the channel and so sharp is the curve that the rushing stream is not able to keep in mid-channel but throws 520 129 itself furiously against the outer bank of the curve, eating into the clay of which it is composed, until it is undermined, allowing a great mass of clay to slide down into the stream bed where it is eaten up and carried away by the rushing water (Fig. 82). Farther on the brook dashes down a steep, rocky incline, and if we listen and watch we may hear the thud of boulders hurled along or even see a pebble bound out of the muddy foaming water. These moving pebbles strike against each other and grind along the bottom, wearing them- selves out as well as the large unmovable boulders or the rocky bed of the brook. Thus the larger stones are ground down, rounded at first but in time reduced to sand, adding in this way to the moving burden of the brook. By this slow process of cutting and grinding the deep rock gorges of New York State, those at Watkins, Ithaca, Au Sable Chasm, and even the mighty gorge of Niagara, have been made. The Grand Canyon of the Colorado, over a mile in depth, is one of the greatest examples of stream cutting to be found in the world. Now the brook leads us into a dripping woodland and just ahead we can hear the roar of a little waterfall, for at this point the eut- ting stream has uncovered and flows upon the bed rock with its alternating bands of hard and soft rock through which the busy brook is cutting a miniature gorge. Here is a hard layer which the stream has undermined until it stands out as a shelf and over which the water leaps and falls in one mass with a drop of nearly ten feet. Watch how the water below boils and eddies; think with what force it is hammering its stony cutting tools upon the rocky floor. Surely here is a place where the brook is cutting fast. Notice that swirling eddy where the water is whirling about with the speed of a spinning top; let us remember this eddy and when the water is lower we will try to see what is happening at its bottom. On the other side of the woods our brook emerges into a broad meadow ; let us follow it and see what becomes of its load, whether it is carried always on or whether the tired brook lays it down occa- sionally to rest. Out of the woods the brook dashes down a steep incline until the foaming tide comes to rest in a deep pool. What becomes of the large pebbles which have been swept down? Do they d21 130 go on or do they stop? If you go to the outlet of the pool you will see that the water is coming out with nothing in its grasp but the fine clay and sand, the gravel and pebbles having been dropped by the less rapid current of the pool. This is one of the most impor- tant of the brook’s lessons, for anything that tends to check the current makes it drop some of the sediment that it carries (Fig. 83). Yonder is an old tree stump with its crooked roots caught fast on the bot- tom; the mid-stream current rushes against it only to be thrown back in a boiling eddy and the waters split in twain and flow by on either side with their current somewhat checked. In the rear of the stump is a region of quiet water where the brook is building up a pile of gravel. Farther on, the banks of the brook are low and here the waters no longer remain in the 83.— A pile of brook debris deposited by channel, but overflow the low the checking of the current. ; . land spreading out on either side in a broad sheet. The increased friction of this larger area reduces the current and again we see the brook laying down some of its load. The sand and gravel deposited here is spread out in a flat plain called a flood plain because it is built up when the stream is in flood. It is on the large flood plains of rivers that many of our richest farm lands occur. These receive a fresh coating of soil mixed with fragments of vegetable matter each spring when the stream is in flood, and thus grow deeper and richer year by year. The flood plains of the Mississippi and the Nile are notable exam- ples of this important form of stream deposit. 522 131 And now let us make one more rainy day observation before going back to our warm, dry homes. Just ahead on the other side of that clump of alders and willows lies the pond into which the brook flows and where its current is so checked that it gives up almost all of its burden of sediment. Close to the shore it has dropped its heaviest fragments while the sand and clay have been carried farther out, each to be dropped in its turn, carefully assorted as to size and weight. Here you can see that the stream has partly filled this end of the pond and is now sending its divided current out over the deposit which it has made in a series of branching rivulets. This deposit is called [ga n a delia (Fig. 84) and deltas ‘a = are another important form of 84.— A delta built by a tiny rill flowing from a steep clay bank, stream deposits. In the lakes and ponds deltas may grow outward until the lake is filled when the stream will meander across the level plain without much cur- rent and hence without much cutting power (Fig. 85). In the sea great deltas are being formed in some places, like those at the mouths of the Mississippi, the Nile andthe Ganges. Large areas of dry land have thus been built. Deltas, like flood plains, afford rich farming lands when they are built high enough to remain above the water. Here let us end our study of the brook for to-day, and wait until the rain ceases and the water runs clear again; then we can see the bottom and can also learn by contrast how much more work the brook has been doing to-day than it does when the volume of water is less. On the road home, however, we can notice how the temporary streams have been cutting and depositing, as well as the everflowing brook. See where this tiny rill has run down that steep clay bank until its current was checked at the foot. Notice how it has spread out its sediment in a fan-shaped deposit. This form of deposit is 523 132 sometimes made by larger streams, especially in a mountainous coun- try with plains at the foot of the slopes. They are colled aliwvzal Jans or cone deltas (Fig. 86), but they are not as important as flood plains and deltas. | The next dry, sunny morning that comes let us visit the brook again: it no longer roars, but its clear waters now sing a pleasant melody as they ripple along the stony bed. We can see at a glance that comparatively little work is going on to-day, and yet, if we look closely, we shall see glittering particles of sand moving along the bottom. The clear water, however, allows us to study the bot- tom which before was hidden by the load of mud. 85.— A brook flowing across a pond which has been filled. First we see the rounded boulders and pebbles of all sizes which must have been rolled about for a long time to make them so smooth. Some of them are so very hard that we cannot even scratch them with our kives; others are soft and easily broken. What would be the effect of rolling together stones of such varying hardness ? We must think of these stones as the brook’s tools with which it cuts and grinds, for water without sediment can do little more than slightly to dissolve the rock. Let us go at once to the little waterfall, for we shall be curious to see what lies at the bottom of the whirling eddy that drew our 524 133 attention yesterday. As we look down into the sunlit pool we see that the eddy is gone for the volume of water is not great enough to cause it to revolve, but there in the rock on the bottom is a deep basin-like hole. In the bottom of this hole we shall see a number of well-rounded stones, with perhaps some sand and gravel. These stones are the tools which, whirled about by the eddying water, have cut the basin-like holes. Holes of this sort are common in rocky stream beds, especially in the neighborhood of falls or in places where falls have once been; they are called pot-holes and represent another form of stream cutting. (Tig. 87.) 86.— A brook building a delta into a lake. Formerly the brook flowed straight ahead, but tts own delta has caused it to change its direction. Next let us visit the flood plains which we saw forming when the water was high. Now we shall find the brook flowing in its channel with the flood plain deposits left high and dry. If we dig down into the flood plain we shall see that it is made up of successive lay- ers varying in thickness and in the size of the fragments. Each of these layers represents a period of high water, and the size of the fragments in the layer tells us something of the strength of the cur- rent, and, therefore, of the intensity of the flood. Some layers are 520 134 thicker than others, showing a longer period of flood or perhaps several floods in which there was little variation. This stratification, as it is called, is one of the peculiarities of water deposits and it is due to the as- sorting power of currents which vary in force. If we were to cut into the delta we should find the same thing to be true —aregular succession of layers though sometimes confused by changes in direc- tion of flow. To-day we shall notice something which escaped our attention when it was held by 87.—A pot-hole cut in the rock of a strean’s bed. the rushing torrent — the valley bottom is much wider than the bed of the stream ; if we keep our eyes open we shall see the explanation of this in the abandoned channels, where, owing to some temporary obstructions, the stream has been turned from side to side of the valley, now cutting on one bank and now on the other. In this turning from side to side the cutting area of the stream is increased and it goes on widening its valley as well as cut- ting it downward. And now we have learned some of the most important ways in which the busy brook is toiling; but there are other points which we might have seen, and in some brooks there are special features to be noted. However, we have learned that the brvok is no idler, that its main purpose is to conduct to the ocean the rain that falls upon the earth’s surface, and that in doing this it is wearing down the hills, carrying them away only to build up in other deposits. The cheerful song of the brook takes on a new meaning as we lie in the shade and watch it hurry by. It is not the song of idleness nor pleasure, but the song with which a cheerful and tireless worker seeks to make its task lighter. ; 526 II. INSECT LIFE OF A BROOK. (Mary Rogers Miller.) HAT wader, be he boy or water-fowl, has not watched the water insects 2 y/ A as ") GQ How they dart hither and thither, some y , \\ Uy Wy skimming the surface, others sturdily rowing about in the clear shallows! The sunlight fastens for an instant their grotesque reflections on the smooth bot- tom, then away — the shadow is lost, save for the picture it left in the mem- ory of the onlooker. The splashing, dashing wader, with his shout and his all-dis- turbing stick, stands but a poor chance of making intimate acquaint- ances among water-folk. Your true brook-lover is a silent individ- ual except when occasion demands action. The lad in the title- page picture has the right spirit. From the vantage ground of a fallen log or overhanging bank he looks down on the housekeeping affairs of his tiny neighbors, nor do they seem offended. Indeed, I doubt if they are aware of his presence or curiosity. Time was when the enjoyment of brook life was limited to boys. White aprons, dainty slippers and fear of being called ‘“‘Tom-boy ” restrained the natural impulses of the “little women.” Happily that day is past, and it no longer looks queer for girls to live in the open air and sunshine, free to chase butterflies and hunt water-bugs with their brothers. My brooks abound in swift eddies, perfect whirlpools in minia- ture, and waterfalls of assorted sizes. They have also their quiet reaches, where whirlgig beetles perform their marvelous gyrations, and bright-eyed polliwogs twirl their tails in early May. On the bank are ferns and mosses, and s»metimes willows and alders form a fringing border. The heart-leaved willows along many brooksides are found to bear knob-like bodies at the tips of many of their branches, which look like pine cones. (See Fig. 88.) Now everybody knows that wil- 527 136 lows bear their seeds in catkins. Why then should so many brook- side willows thrust these cones in our faces? On cutting one of the cones open one will learn the secret. A tiny, colorless grub rolls helplessly out of a cell in the very center of the cone. It is the young of a small gnat, ne scarcely larger than a mosquito, and known asa “gall gnat.” The cone-shaped body vy on the willow branch is called a “ pine-cone willow-gall.” The little gray gnat comes Be) out in the spring. Any one ean collect the j f Pa" LZ NT Ws RSNA SSS eG a galls from the willows and keep them in some kind of cage in the house until the gnats come forth. The pine-cone gall is an enlarged and deformed bud. The twig might have developed into a branch but for the pres- ence of the little larva. The scales of the cone are the parts which would have made —— SSS He > = = > TSS = — —— - = —= —— leaves under more favorable conditions. The brook-lover cannot afford to miss the pine-cone willow-galls. Wandering along the brookside in spring fi or early summer, one is surprised to find so many insect visitors darting about in the air. There are dragon-flies of all shapes, 88.— Knob-like bodies, resem. sizes and colors; dainty damsel-flies perch bling pine cones. airily on reeds, their gleaming wings aflut ter in the sunshine; sometimes a nervous mud-wasp alights for a moment and then up and away. The dragon-flies seem intent on coming as near to the water as possible without wetting their wings. They pay no heed to other visitors, yet how easily they escape the net of the would-be collector! Let them alone. Their busi- ness is important if we would have a new generation of dragon- flies to delight the eye next year. The eggs of these creatures are left in the water and the young ones are aquatic. If you would know more of them, dip down into the stream in some sluggish bay. Dip deep and trail the net among the water plants. Besides 528 137 dragon-fly nymphs there will be caddice-worm cases like tiny cob- houses, water-boatmen, back- swimmers, and giant water-bugs.* These are insects characteristic of still or sluggish water, and are found in spring and summer. The insects which skip lightly over the surface of the water where the current is strong, are water-striders. (See not too ee oe Fig. 89.) Some are short and 89.— Water-striders have long, thin legs. 90.— The Debson makes no prete). sions to beauty (natural size), stout, others slender-bodied ; but all have long, thin legs. Their coloris nearly black. As they scurry about in the sunshine the delighted watcher will sometimes catch a glimpse of their reflections on the bottom. Six oval bits of shadow, outlined by rims of light; there is nothing else like it! Be sure you see it. Let us leave the quiet, restful pools and the sluggish bays and follow the hurrying water to the rapids. Every stone changes the course of the current and the babble makes glad the heart of the wayfarer. Let us “leave no stone unturned” until we have routed from his favorite haunt that genius of the rapids, the Dobson. (See Fig. 90.) These creatures bear other common names and are prized by fishermen in the black bass season. Dirty brown in color and frankly ugly in appearance and disposition, these larve, for such they are, have little to fear from the casual visitor at the water’s edge. When a stone is lifted the Dobsons beneath it allow themselves to be hurried along for some distance by the current. The danger over, they * These and others forms found in still or slow flowing water are described and pictured in Leaflet No. 11, Life in an Aquarium, d4 029 138 “eatch hold” and await their prey farther down stream. In spite of their vicious looking jaws these insects are not venomous. At the very worst they could do no more than pinch the finger of the unwary explorer. When the Dobson is full grown, it is called a Hellgrammite fly or horned Corydalis. It has lost none of its ugli- ness, though it has gained two pairs of thin brownish gray wings, and flies about in the evening. It has been known to create some consternation by flying in at an open window. It is harmless and short-lived in the adult stage. Upturned stones are likely to bring to view other strangers. Lying close against their wet surfaces one usually finds young May-flies. (See Fig. 91.) * These, like the young dragon-flies, are called nymphs. When they are ready to leave the water they make their way to the shore and clinging to some convenient tree trunk | | or building they shed their nymph skins. f{ ) I have seen trees and buildings on the banks of the St. Lawrence River liter- ally covered with these cast skins. In the early morning in June and July one ean watch the molting process, the unfolding of the gauzy wings and the unsheathing of the long filaments. (See Fig. 92.) Do not believe that May-flies are harmful. They are sometimes too numerous for comfort at summer resorts where myriads of them swarm about the lights. But stories of their stinging and biting are entirely without foundation. They are short-lived in the adult stage. The name of the family to which they belong, Lphemerida, i,j y Vj VV / Ss SE 91.— May-fly nymph, three times natural size. * Figures 91, 92 and 93 are adapted from Dr. R. Leuckart’s Zoological charts. 5380 139 suggests their ephemeral existence. It is of these that poets have sung. Stone-fly nymphs also cling closely to the flat stones. The cast skins of these are frequently found on the banks of streams. They resemble the May-fly nymphs but can be identified by comparing with these illustrations. (See Fig. 93.) Ds 92.— The May-fly sheds its nymph skin. (Twice natural size.) Sometimes on the very brink of a cataract one will see what appears like patches of loose black moss. Strangely enough, these are the larve of black flies, related to the terrible “ Punkies” of the north woods. The black fly larvee can live only in the swiftest water. There they pass through their transformations and succeed in emerging into their aérial stage, in spite of the rushing current. 531 140 All these things and many more they see who frequent the water brooks. They cannot tell all they see, for some things are too deep 93.— Stone-fly, showing one pair of wings. The lower figure isa nymph. (Twice natural size.) for words. They can and do say to one and all ** Come let us visit the brook together. The water and all that dwell in it and round about invite us and make us welcome.” 582 NOTES FROM THE CLUBS. UR observations of a large number of Junior Naturalist clubs have clearly shown us that best results come when the teacher gives inspiration and guidance without dictating, and leaves the members of the club to feel that the organiza- tion is all theirs. The pride of proprietorship and the feeling of the members that they are doing the same work in the same manner as is done by their elders, is a strong factor in keeping up an interest. * * * A principal of one of the schools has asked us to publish a leaflet on parliamentary practice, a suggestion which we have under serious consideration. He has made much of the meetings of the clubs and has conducted them on a basis of civics and adroitly let the club proceedings drift into parliamentary and legislative usages, whenever nature-study subjects are under consideration. He speaks with much spirit of the interest awakened in a certain class of boys in his school in the election of club officers. These pupils are not distinguished for love of study, being emphatically boys of the street. They are lads in whom was born a spirit of leadership of a certain kind, and the club meeting is an occasion when it comes out in full force. To the boys’ credit, be it said, their purpose was the election of the best members, as judged by their standard. Many situations come up in which proper parliamentary ruling is beyond the knowledge of the teacher and therefore he suggested that we issue a leaflet giving aid in that direction. AT a4 Ah wo 1S Many teachers in whom the taste for good literature is strong, open the club meetings with a roll call in response to which each member gives a quotation appropriate to the lesson of the month. 533 142 The correlation of nature-study with language and also with drawing, seems to be popular. In language it gives a definite and concrete topic and one of interest to the child. From our point of view, it is more important that we have the child’s thoughts than his scholarship. We desire more the expression of what was seen and what such observation meant than to have mere correct English. Each teacher has his own standards and is best able to judge of the requirements, and we therefore never insist that our view-point be made that of the teacher. Drawing is a valuable correlation. We have received much in this line, with which we are greatly pleased. A considerable amount of our best examples have been sent to foreign countries where the fame of our Junior Naturalists has gone, and we have shown our pride in them by sending samples of their work. AP, Sa" PS The suggestion for the payment of monthly club dues in the form of compositions and drawings made during the respective periods” in the regular school work, has been fulfilled to a degree gratifying to us. The large increase of membership has made the correspondence very great indeed, making an increased clerical force necessary, but we have so far succeeded in examining each paper sent and giving the author proper credit. We keep a personal account with every Junior Naturalist. We believe that the movement cannot succeed permanently if our work ends with the organization of clubs. * * * This issue of the Quarterly closes its publication for the present school year. The brook is a good vacation subject. Start the chil- dren in the study of it before the school closes; then ask them to continue to explore it during the summer and report their dis- coveries in the fall. * x %*% During our summer vacation we shall revise the mailing list for our Nature-Study Quarterly. If, since receiving the April number, you have not requested that your name be retained on our mailing list, you would better attend to it at once. We shall be 534 143 pleased to have you remain with us, but if we hear nothing from you we shall conclude you no longer care for our publications. A postal card will be sufficient notice, and please attend to it at once. If you receive no September number, you will know the probable reason. L. H. BAILEY, Chief, JOHN W. SPENCER, Deputy Chief, Bureau of Nature-Study and Farmers’ Reading Course, Cornell University, Ithaca, VN. Y. 535 Dacia 8: Senay eanbieretasbe nie =e pes arabes ak |) Na ee ea AX og dagen spare the ‘s a ee cars: ot bet) ae a “me * ae] eet wer Fe" are) hans eh Fa Go a REE Tt jel Sac SORE R Bras a) i gen . Ree easel SEND EE NO Wet 08 8 ee easy a ST. Sak hy Bawa PAL Rie Uhl he Wis me eR itay if a agree eis: eK Ait Neeaately bias : + xr re e rug ty Ss i. ve mas ter Chie Sie 44 BAF ON} au : ee ees falta st eteeegsrt 4 vil th Sad Wes ras qa Puss >" Sine wire ew Att S ey Q s re “ < ee eee Meas. GS lere Les Lae ay ay OY Moe rent iy Lae (2 ds Pb oe ' b oes aie eae a io 1 shed See a ES wereoniar ne. a ti, ay |) a eae Coe< ms > is cx . : : . “ry ras ¢ ‘ x? x } ‘ ’ it GF Sx hee a he v k 2 3 - j ‘, ee ia oe “1 od ial 2 at } x *% 2 et ee ae ya 8 Pat ay “4 a<" ATTY A F <. Ee tt 4 7 a ¢ - . { 0 ke vogue. eet ‘ , i . oie 4°t: Oks Ge bet is ths et et ry eae] ay? 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One Saturday morning there was an auction sale in town, and among the things sold were several fine milch cows, of no particular breed. David and John each bought two cows. These cows were “ fresh ;” that is, they had been giving milk for about one month. Each cow gave an average of twenty-five to thirty pounds of milk a day. Each man intended to buy feed for his cows and to sell his milk to the village people. These cows were to be used as machines with which to convert raw material, as grain and coarse fodder, into the manufactured product, milk. About _ three months later we heard that David had sold his two cows to John. He complained that they had steadily fallen off in milk since he had bought them, until each cow gave scarcely fourteen pounds a day. John’s cows were still giving thirty pounds a day. Here was a difference of sixteen pounds, or over half, in three months. What was the reason ? It at once occurred to us that John must have given his cows better care than David. We went to each man and asked him how he had fed his cows. David said he had given each cow a small armful of timothy hay and three or four quarts of corn meal, every morning and night. This would be about twenty pounds of hay and ten of meal each day. He did not think it was necessary to feed his cows any particular kinds of food in order to get the most milk from them. Anything the cows would eat was good enough, if only it filled up their stomachs and satisfied their hunger. John said that he gave each of his cows a daily ration of about twenty pounds of clover hay, three pounds of wheat bran and six pounds of ground oats. He believed that a cow needs variety in 537 2 what she eats, as well as a man; and he tried always to give his cows an occasional relish of carrots, turnips, small potatoes, or even apple parings from the kitchen. ‘ Of course,” said John, “a cow can live and will give milk if kept on the same feed day after day ; but I have always found that she is grateful for a little personal attention, and will pay for it with a larger yield of milk.” David had been paying $6.00 a month for the food of each of his cows, actually more than the milk was selling for: John’s ration cost him but $5.00 a taonth per cow, yet he was getting double the amount of milk which David did, and was making money. David was dis- appointed ; John was well pleased. But the chief reason for John’s success was not because he gave his cows a greater variety of food than David, but because he fed them those foods which are well suited for the production of milk. David gave his cows a liberal allowance of hay and corn meal. These are both good foods for making fat but are not rich in those materials which a cow needs in order to increase her flow of milk. They are better for fattening steers than for feeding to milch cows. In other words, John had been feeding a balanced ration, and David an unbalanced ration. This leads us to inquire about some of the principles or reasons which underlie the feeding of animals. 1. An animal is a living machine.— There is always wear and tear on its various parts. As we shovel in coal at the furnace door to make the energy which will turn the great wheels of the shop, so is food taken into the body to supply energy and to repair the waste which comes from using the body. In the first place there must be enough of this food, or fuel, to do all the work; and in the second place, it must contain that which is needed to build up those parts of the body which are breaking down. 2. There are two purposes for which food are fons tapi : to main- tain or support the animal, or the maintenance ration ; and to lay up extra or reserve materials, or the productive ration.— The main- tenance ration is that which keeps up the bodily heat, and repairs the normal wastes. The productive ration stores up fat, supplies flow of milk, and the like. The profit in feeding comes in supply- ing more than a mere maintenance ration. 538 3 8. An idle animal needs less food than one which is hard at work.— A locomotive does not require nearly as much fuel to keep up steam when it is running “light,” as when drawing a freight train on an up grade. The little driving mare which stands in your barn most of the time must have some food to renew the energy used up in breathing, pumping blood throughout its body and other wastes ; but the big team horse which has to pull the plow all day or sled logs out of the swamp must have much better fare. 4. [tis as much tax on a cow to give a big yreld of milk as rt as on a horse to do a big day's work.—There are other ways of using up energy than by physical exertion. Probably each of John’s cows spent as much energy in producing thirty pounds of milk a day as a big Percheron horse does in a heavy day’s work before the plow. The food David gave his cows cost enough, and there was enough of it; but it was not the right kind to repair the waste made in producing milk. Probably he did not know much about the philosophy of milk production. That is the reason why he failed. The cows which John bought of David soon began to pick up under the new fare, and to give more milk. When David found his cows were not paying him, he ought not to have been above seeking advice from a more successful man like John. Or if he had several cows and many kinds of feed-stuffs, he might have changed rations till he had hit upon some combination of foods which gave better results. But neither David nor any other farmer has time for much of such work. It must be done by the Experi- ment Station. The way we can best help the Davids of this State is to tell them what they should aim to supply in their animal rations, and the reasons for this selection. Then each man can pick out for himself the various materials which answer his needs, and which may be obtained to best advantage in his section. 5. Many kinds of food are required.—We can be sure of this by studying the composition of the animal body ; also by reflecting on the many kinds of work which an animal does. The body of an animal is made mostly of water, mineral matter, nitrogenous matter, and fat. 539 4 There is always much water in all parts of the body. Often one-half of an animal is water. Water itself becomes a part of all bone and flesh, but its chief use is to carry building material. When an animal eats, the food goes into the stomach and is there acted upon by different juices. The proper parts are then taken by the blood, which is mostly water, to every part of the body which needs repair. Water also helps to carry off the wastes, or worn out parts of the body. The mineral matter in the body of an animal is found mostly in its bones. Flesh and muscle are so soft that they cannot stand hard use alone, and so they are placed on a bony framework. From two to five per cent of the animal body is mineral matter. Nitrogenous matter is a term the chemist uses for all parts of the body which contain nztrogen. This is the sare element you are feeding to your farm crops; for plants as well as animals must have nitrogen. Flesh, skin, muscle, hair, wool, horn, hoof, feathers, blood, lean meat, the white of an egg and the curd of mild all con- tain nitrogen. When you put horn and hoof waste or dried blood on your land they give up their nitrogen to the plants, and thus have a fertilizer value. The fat of an animal varies with its age, the amount of work it has to do, and the food it gets. The leanest animal has seldom less than five per cent of fat, and the fattest not much above thirty per cent. Fat is a sort of store or reserve supply of food. Late in the fall a fat bear goes to sleep in a hollow tree. When he come out in the spring his ribs show through his hide. He has lived all winter on the reserve fat stored in his body when autumn nuts and berries were abundant. 6. Hat keeps the body warm.—All the higher animals are warm blooded and this body heat must come from the food. That is why most animals eat more food in cold weather than in warm weather ; and why you yourself relish fat more often in winter than in sum- mer. The Esquimaux and other people of very cold climates, live almost wholly on fatty meats. They need a lot of the little heat- giving atoms to keep them warm. Fat-producing materials are given to the animal, sometimes in the 540 5 form of fats; but mostly as starches and sugars, or carbohydrates, as the chemist calls them. After being taken into the body, these carbohydrates are changed into fat. Generally it is better not to feed an animal fat directly, but to feed carbohydrates. The larger part of all dried plants, including all kinds of hay and fodder, is carbohydrate. We often hear a farmer speak of corn as “heatening.” In the winter he will feed more cracked corn to his horse and corn meal to his hens than in summer. This is a fairly good practice ; but very often the farmer does not know the reason. It is because the corn kernel is full of starch grains; and after the animal has eaten it, the wonderful chemistry of the stomach turns it into heat-saving and heat-producing fat. 7. The nitrogenous matters, sometimes called protein, build up the working machinery of the body.—They make lean flesh, blood, muscle, skin, hair, wool, feathers, etc., and are especially needed in making milk. If you are keeping cows for their milk, sheep for their wool, horses for their muscle, or even geese for their feathers, it would be wise to feed them enough protein to best develop the desired points in each. This means that you ought to know the food value of everything you feed to your animals. You ought to know whether it will tend to fatten the cow or to increase her flow of milk; whether it will tend to fatten the hen, and make her lazy, or give her the material for more eggs. The Experiment Station will be glad to answer any questions on this point. Some of the common feed-stuffs which are especially rich in pro- tein are all-animal substances ; also oil-cake, cotton-seed meal, gluten feeds and many other concentrated foods. 8. Lhe different kinds of hay, grain, etc., which we feed to our farm animals contain all these four foods: water, mineral matter, nitrogenous matter and fat.— But the point is this, to increase or diminish the supply of each food according to the end in view. That is, to feed a balanced ration. We need not bother much about the water and mineral matter. Enough of both are supplied in ordinary food and drink; although we should always satisfy the craving of cows and horses for salt, and other appetizers. David was feeding timothy hay and corn meal, both of which are 541 6 poor in protein. What he wanted was milk; and milk is rich in protein. He gave his cows only enough protein to make fourteen pounds of milk, and so the yield dwindled down to that amount. Then David wondered why he did not get thirty pounds, like John. Probably he upbraided the man from whom he had bought the cows, or kicked against his “luck.” He should know that there is a reason for everything. On the other hand, the hay and meal which David was feeding are very rich fat-forming foods. He was not only stinting his cows on milk-producing food, but was also giving them more fattening food than the cows really needed. John was feeding a balanced ration ; David was feeding an unbalanced ration. It will pay every farmer who reads this to tind out if he is not abusing his beast and robbing his pocketbook as David did. 9. A balanced ration is one which contains the nutritiwe mate- rials ( protein, carbohydrates and fat) in those proportions which experience has shown to produce the best results. The composition of a ration should vary with the different animals and with the end in view.—W hat is a balanced ration for a horse may not be for a sheep. Again, a particular ration may be balanced for a cow when she is in milk, but not when we wish to fatten her for the butcher. A ration suitable for a hard worked ox is not a good one for this ox during a period of rest. Let us find out why this is so. When an animal is hard worked, there is a great strain on the muscles, tendons, ete. (working machinery), of the body and this is best kept in order by feeding a ration which contains a large propor- tion of the repairing and muscle forming nutrient protein. If the animal is at rest in the stall there is no severe strain on the working machinery of the body and in such cases rations containing much smaller proportions of protein as compared to the carbohydrates and fat should be fed. 10. Only a part of the protein, carbohydrates and fat is digesti- ble.— Foods are valuable as sources of nourishment only in so far as they can be digested and assimilated. The chemist analyzes a food and tells exactly how much protein, carbohydrates and fat it con- tains, but he is unable to say how much of each is digestible. 542 7 Only a portion of the food ingredients which are eaten is digested and rendered soluble by the changes they undergo in the mouth, stomach and intestines. This soluble portion is assimilated, and from this alone is the animal nourished. . The undigested part passes on and is excreted as manure. This undigested part is of no use to the animal. 11. The value of feeding-stuffs varies with the amount of diges- tible food nutrients which they contain.— Chemical analysis shows the total amount of nutritive ingredients in food-stuffs, but the digestible portion can be found only by carefully conducted feeding experiments with farm animals. Since the amount of digestible nutrients varies with different foods, it must be found for each one by careful experimentation upon animals. Many such experiments have been conducted with each of the common food-stuffs, so that at the present time there are many tables of figures giving for each feeding-stuff the digestible part of its protein, carbohydrate and fat, the total amount of which has been shown by chemical analysis. In practical feeding experiments it has been found that one pound of digestible fat will go as far as 24 pounds of digestible carbohy- drates; or, in other words, that one pound of digestible fat will go 24 times as far as one pound of digestible carbohydrates. There- fore, it is necessary to multiply the fat by 24 in order to get its equivalent in carbohydrates. 12. The proportion between the digestible protein and digestible carbohydrates + (fat 24) m a given food is called a nutritwe ratio.— When we know the digestible nutrients in a food we can easily finds its nutritive ratio. Thus a given food contains 2 parts digestible protein, 10 parts digestible carbohydrates and 1 part fat: the 1 part fat is equivalent to 24 parts digestible carbohydrates ; 10 parts carbohydrates + 24 is equivalent to 124 parts of digestible carbohydrates. That is: this particular food contains digestible nutrients equivalent to 2 parts protein and 124 parts carbohydrates, or for each part of digestible protein there are 6$ parts of digestible carbohydrates and fat. Therefore, this food has a nutritive ratio of 1: 64. 13. To find the nutritiwe ratio of any food, add the (fat x 24) 543 8 to the digestible carbohydrates and divide this sum by the digestlibe protein.— A nutritive ratio shows how many equivalents of diges- tible carbohydrates there are for one of digestible protein. The greater the number of these carbohydrate equivalents for one of protein the wider the nutritive ratio, and the fewer the number the narrower the nutritive ratio. Hence we use the terms “ wide” and “narrow” nutritive ratios. If a farmer has tables showing the composition of the different food-stuffs and their content of digestible nutrients, he can figure out the nutritive ratio for himself. The Cornell Bulletin No. 154 contains such information, and it will be sent to applicants. Lesson No. 8, soon to follow, will continue this subject. Reading - Lessons : 1. The soil: What tt as. . Tillage and under drainage: Reasons why. . Bertility of the sou: What tt ts. . How the plant gets its food from the soil. . How the plant gets its food from the air. . The problem of depleted lands. (Bult. 174.) . Balanced rations for stock. iW. BAILEY; Chief of Farmers’ Reading-Course. JOHN W. SPENCER, Deputy Chief, Cornell Unwersity, Itnaca, NV. Y. “TT SD Or HP OS bO 544 QUIZ ON READING-LESSON CORNELL READING-COURSE NO. 7, FOR FARMERS. JANUARY, 1900. BY 8S. W. FLETCHER. These questions constitute a supplement to Reading Lesson No. 7 (“ Balanced Rations for Stock”). Its purpose is to induce the reader to think carefully about what he reads. Answer the ques- tions as best you can and return this sheet to us (2 cents postage). We want these answers in order that we may know what interest you are taking in the Reading-Course and how much good you are getting from it ; and we want to help you when you do not under- stand the problems involved. We are after results, and do aot care about the handwriting nor the grammar. These answers are Jor our own examination and will not be made public. Do not be afraid to say, “ Ido not know.” We shall be glad of any com- — ments on these lessons. Those who answer the questions will receive Suture lessons. 1. What is a food #. 2. Why do all animals need food ? 3. Is there such a thing as an all round food? Why ? 4, Why will it pay to give a cow more food than is needed to keep her alive ? 35 045 2 5. Are some foods better adapted for making milk than others ; some for making fat ? 6. Does a man usually require as much food when idle as when hard at work? Why ? 7. Do you suppose it makes a student or business man as tired to think hard all day as it does a farmer to work hard all day? Why? 8. If both must have food, do they need different kinds ? 9. Have you ever tried feeding different kinds of foods to your stock in order to tind out which gives the best results ? 10. Did you ever ask the Experiment Station to help you in this ? 11. Have you found any difference in results in feeding clover and timothy hay ¢ 12. If so, for what special purpose do you think each best adapted ¢ 546 13. Is water a food ? 14. Why does a hog suffer less from the cold than a horse? He has not as thick a coat of hair as the horse. 15. If you wish to fatten a farrow cow for the butcher what would you feed her ¢ 16. What would you feed a new milch cow ? 17. What is the difference between a balanced ration and an unbalanced ration ? 18. Do you feed your farm horses the same kind and amount of food in winter as in summer? Why ? 19. What is animal manure 2 20. Will it pay a farmer to work out the nutritive ratio of his feed-stuffs? Why ? 21. Give an example of how you would do it? 547 + 22. What is a maintenance ration ? 23. What is a productive ration / 24. Do all animals pay for their keep ? CORNELL READING-LESSON FOR FARMERS. Issued by the College of Agriculture, Cornell Univer- sity, Ithaca, N. Y., in the months of November, December, January, February and March. Moet §.' Panuary; rg00!"""' A" Farmers View of Balanced Rations. BY S. W. FLETCHER. I have read your Lesson No. 7 on “ Balanced Rations for Stock,” and think I see why John succeeded and David failed. I believe that there is a good deal in what you say about feeding different kinds of food for different purposes. Cake and pie are all right for me when I go visiting, but I must have pork and beans when I am pulling a cross-cut saw. I notice, however, that you say corn meal is not good for feeding to milch cows. Now I have found that I can get most anything I want out of my stock if I have a well filled crib of corn. Can you tell me why your theories do not work in this case? I do not feel quite sure that 1 understand what you mean by “carbohydrates” and “ protein.” If you can, please be more plain. Very truly yours, eeeeeeeers ore eereese serves eeeeeoeee eves eene My Dear Sir: I am very glad you have asked about that corn crib. There are many other farmers who will not discard corn as the best grain for feeding all kinds of stock; and if I can make a convert of you I shall expect you to argue this point with all the corn farmers in your neighborhood. You have learned in Lesson No. 7 that there are only two kinds of food which the farmer needs to feed his animals im large 549 2 — amounts. These are the muscle-makers (proteids, protein, albumin- oids or nitrogenous substances) and the fat-makers (fats and carbo- hydrates). The chief oftice of the muscle-makers is to build up all parts of the body which have work to do, including, with the other vital organs, the milk machinery of a cow’s udder. They also enter largely into the composition of nearly all animal products, as hair, wool, eggs, lean meat and milk. The chief function of the fat- makers, on the other hand, is to supply the fuel from which the animal heat is maintained. They also supply, at least in part, the energy which enables the muscles to work and they enter largely into the composition of various products, particularly eggs and milk. Any surplus of these substances which the food contains may be and usually is stored up in the tissues of the body as fat. These statements show what usually takes place, but since the muscle-makers may perform any of the functions of the fat-makers, it is more exact not to speak of these substances according to their functions but according to their composition and to refer to them as protein, and fats or carbohydrates, instead of muscle-makers and fat-makers. We might illustrate roughly the main point to this problem of stock feeding by saying that a cow is something like a grist mill, and that her stomach is the hopper. 23 6.80 544 3.168 Os. COM Bnd Cop Meal,...|; 5... 3.s.5 os 2.55 .132 1.995 Debs! Ground pessis... 3. ih ae. : 2.7 004 . 1.602 elie. WAG WOTA en. Sees Foto a 1.76 244 .906 2 lbs. buckwheat middlings........... 1.74 440 912 Ee ce on Aga Siete Voce sce ehh Deane 23.95 2.224 13.743 We have tried to use as much of his home-grown grain as possi- ble, and in doing this have made a ratio which is a little short in 568 9 protein. It has a nutritive ratio of 1:6.2, which is wider than the limits suggested, but which might give good results in some cases. However, the ration can easily be made narrower without buying any more feed. Notice that the corn and cob meal is very poor in — protein, while the peas contain even more protein than wheat bran. By feeding one pound more of peas and one pound less of meal the nutritive ratio would be 1:5.8. L. H. BAILEY, Chief, JOHN W. SPENCER, Deputy Chief, Cornell Reading-Course Bureau. 569 om ow he und Sara EAR aif Weide tc aor * Betti Bey' ONG Hite. anny. FO pore ee one 3 sca F arnt. Bish iZG rah tes be x A ev ty : Xk ‘G6 ‘fiovr dit a O38 ié ise ieee e be 49 “¥4t pnt el 4 ak TIC TAT wit nies or, oe) ye. . Ay r cit # Sar ie ses YRILAG, Bi Rae % i ’ thie Pe Wag) el’ VATA), ott Metacsien ae aay ts soya’, si Biddan hi Wadi bos lb DRY, ; iabiestt t ee coy eae? iste Te ear! eral Tes as five ay ae CES vie Md oe Ss 5 ee oe ‘ : ; - os $0 “er eh ae, tw eee ay gs Wirtt ‘ ’ Amt fe % 7 a 5 j yar! a beet Mt Aey> eee is eee nett arnt ahah) hit Ww, euettes eo Tey rl Behe fa ee Yes i Vat, Te ert oe ; VES te) De Sew Or Aa tie, AO colt 2 Ete ae fees: ay 4 : : ae € i: ai 4 SRT ye o NE et F «qed ACR Si AAS es SS RE IDS a eee oe Wah ry 2 eS en Foes tte pats te Tato g" iy Sgteeak Didasats i thet 2) ges BO Bie pe eg CATA SE SABRE B. THA Bet iO Ta CaO: We RTO tS. 2 ae ; ; ’ 4 ae ** i af” St ee Me teh soe a - “2 4 be x oe ed 2B eae: * BS PRN) gps vals Peete PS BB, = Pt -" TP doin om tel" Ree hare se PE Le P cae ervey S eS “a . > « > *t . a? aia: As es CORNELL READING LESSON FOR FARMERS. Issued by the College of Agriculture, Cornell. Univer- sity, Ithaca, N. Y., in the months of November, December, January, Lebruary and March. Entered at the Post Office at Ithaca, N. Y., as second-class matter under act of July 16, 1894, No. ro. March, 1900. Peter's Idea of Improving “ Worn-QOut” Lands. BY JOHN W. SPENCER. It was near to the shortest days of the year that I fulfilled a prom- ise to attend a Grange meeting to be held in a small town in Western New York. [ arrived in Rochester the night before, in order to be able to catch the early morning train. As I passed the Douglas monument in the early gray of the morning, with hat drawn low on my head and ulster turned up to protect my ears, the sharp frost sifted through the air like ashes and the snow creaked beneath the wheels of the early wagons. I wondered what I should say at the meeting. The village was a typical country hamlet. It contained neither wealth nor squalid poverty. No one of its inhabitants could meet with a misfortune without receiving the sincere sympathy of all. The public buildings were a school house, a church with a horse shed, a blacksmith shop, and a store carrying a stock of goods of such completeness as to remind me of the multwm in parvo jack- knife which an uncle once gave me. I wondered the more what I should say. Would I find good farmers here ? The meeting was a forenoon and afternoon affair in the Grange hall over the store. The hall had a dining room and kitchen annex, much to my welfare. In the early part of the afternoon session, I noticed among the faces that seemed interested in the discussion, a middle-aged man with full beard, blue flannel shirt and felt boots. 571 2 He sat on the front bench, and I soon decided that he was not one of those who had come into the hall just to get warm. I tried to draw him out and soon had him asking questions. At the close of the meeting I accepted his invitation to spend the night with him. I took note that others addressed him as Peter, and I called him Peter also. When he drove up to the store for me in a two-seated democrat, a woman sat on the back seat. No introduction being given, I inquired if she was Mrs. Peter and she informed me that she was. What could these people know about scientific farming ? But this was the beginning of a cordial and what has been to me, a very profitable acquaintance. To this day I address them as Mr. and Mrs. Peter and the two children as Repeaters. During that afternoon I had done most of the talking ; but after supper, Peter began to talk, having confidence from being beneath his own roof. Then it was that he told me his experience in restor- ing the fertility of ‘* worn-out” soils. I found that Peter was wise in the ways of the farm, and I gladly became the listener. Follow- ing is substantially what Peter said : “Before [ began thinking much about plant-food 1 had a vague idea that it lay in the soil like salt or sugar, to be dissolved by water and sucked up by the roots of plants; [ thought that. when it was all dissolved the soil was exhausted; and that if I wished to raise another crop I should be obliged to cart on to the soil whatever plant-food my crop might require. When I was asked why mullein and rag weed will grow where our common farm crops cannot, I explained it by the theory that weeds use different kinds of plant- food than farm crops. “Tt was a great revelation to me when a reading lesson showed that even-‘ worn-out’ soils may have enough plant-food to grow many crops if it can only be put in such form that plants can use it; also that all plants require about the same kinds of food although varying a little in the proportions. The idea that plants differ in their ability to digest or use food set me to thinking. The illustra- tion which it gave, that a goat will thrive where a Jersey cow will fare hard, explained a great deal to me and led me to see that weeds are the goats of plant life, since they will thrive where many other plants cannot. 572 3 “ Another idea that I pondered over a great deal was the state- ment that tillage makes a soil more fertile. Experience had taught me that the better | prepared my corn ground and the more I eulti- vated, the better the crop; but I had supposed that this was merely because the soil was made mere mellow and the roots had a chance to spread out further in the soil. Little by little I have come to understand that good tillage helps to make digestible, or available, some of the tough plant-food which lies in the soil. “ When you published your first three lessons on the soil and its fertility, I wish you had directed the printer to put in large letters the idea that the sow ts a laboratory which must be kept in good reparr, so that ‘chemical activities, as you say, can go on rapidly and unlock the locked-up fertility. You ought to have made more clear that it is my business to keep the laboratory in repair so that the ‘chemical activities’ can go on without hindrance. If you were to ask my idea of a worn-out soil, I should say that it is a case in which the farmer has let the soil laboratory go to ruin. If this is true, then the problem of restoring fertility is, How can I best put the laboratory in repair ? “They tell me that soil is made of vegetable matter and rock ground into very fine particles, what I should call stone flour. Please let me say vegetable matter instead of organic matter, for that is the way I am in the habit of thinking. Yes, thank you for suggesting humus; I suppose it means much the same thing. They also tell me that by much cropping this vegetable matter will grad- ually pass out. It came to me that this may become exhausted, leaving only the stone flour behind. Stone flour is next thing to clear sand and clear sand is next thing to a granite boulder. I can- not conceive much ‘ chemical activity ’ going on in a boulder. “Tf Lam right in this, then the first step for me to take towards promoting chemical activities is to imitate nature and add more humus to the soil by plowing under green crops. I have been experimenting along this line for several seasons and in the main I think this is the first principle in trying to improve worn-out soils. I say ‘in the main, for usually one cannot carry a point by one | idea. It seems to me that this often causes the failure of many well-meaning men who would be progressive ; they go on just one d73 + idea. It is comparatively easy to drive one horse, but when it comes to four or six there are a good many lines to keep at just the proper slack or tightness and there is a constant letting up and taking out. As I said before, my experience of several seasons has made me firm in the belief that adding hunius is the first and leading idea in the restoration to fertility of worn-out soils. “But Ido not forget that there are a number of other things in this soil laboratory which should not be overlooked. In carrying on my experiments I find that I have more than one set of reins to manage. One reading lesson showed us that the leading agents in this laboratory are moisture (not standing water), heat and air, and that these must be in the right proportions to have good results. Many soils are so made that these agents occur in abont the right relations, and no artificial aids, as drainage, are needed; yet the productiveness of the soils to-day is much less than years ago. I would advise those who intend to make experiments in restoring fertility to select, for first trial, land which has given paying crops at some time in the past, for it is probable that moisture, heat and air will be present in such soils in the right conditions. Right here I wish to warn everybody against trying to restore fertility on land that never was fertile. Restoring fertility is hard enough, say nothing about creating it. “The piece of land on which I have been making my experi- — ments is part of a farm which I bought a few years ago. It has been rented and abused by tenants for many years. Brush grew in what were fence corners before the fences rotted, and there was a circle of weeds about each stump. It had been a long time since grass seed would catch on that land. Of late years the plowed land had been sown to buckwheat, and no crop was cer- tain without a liberal application of ‘phosphate.’ What was not under the plow grew up to ‘ poverty grass.’ My father-in-law tells me that before the war and mowing machines, he mowed grass in those fields shoulder high, and that timothy did not require reseed- ing for five seasons or more. I think my chances are good for getting those fields back to their early productiveness, without having them cost me more than 574 the price of good land elsewhere. But I have made some mistakes, mostly because I did not take into account all of the workers in my soil laboratory. My first mistake was in not seeing a difference in maintaining fertility and restoring fertility. On my small home farm I kept stock and for a number of years had used clover suc- cessfully in a short rotation. I found that the rnles which worked all right in maintaining fertility there failed to restore fertility on the new place. In some respects it was like two horses begin- ning the spring work: one, well wintered and in good condition, will require a maintenance ration only; the other so poor and weak that it cannot digest enough food to furnish strength for its work and gain flesh at the same time. For two years I found that clover was a failure on the new farm because the land was too poor or too dry. I have my opinion of some of the agricul- tural advisers who would make clover a cure-all for all infertility. Many of these men have never tried it themselves, but simply repeat what they have heard other people say. You may put me down as saying that clover is of little use for beginning the restora- tion, although it is all right for maintaining it, and for adding fertil- ity when the soil has reached a fair degree of tilth or productiveness. “T cannot say that there is any one best way of adding humus to the soil. Conditions vary so much that no hard and fast rule can be followed. I have attended enough Farmers’ Institutes to know that many men go there expecting to be given a recipe on how to succeed in farming. This cannot be given any more than a recipe can be given for making money by selling goods or making wagons. But I will tell you my experience: “On one of my worn-out fields I plowed and harrowed the best I could, aiming at the ‘onion bed’ quality of tillage. On this land I planted fodder corn in drills, and let only one-half or one-third as many stalks grow as I would on the strong soil of my home farm. Before planting I applied commercial fertilizer with a liberal hand to give the corn a start. I gave frequent cultivations until the corn was waist high, and at the last cultivation sowed rye between the rows. In the following spring the rye was plowed under just about the time it began to stalk up and before it had made any head. d75 6 “‘ My experience in using rye for adding humus to the soil has been considerable and for two seasons [ have made the mistake of letting it head out before plowing it under. In this condition it is stubborn stuff to rot, and lays in the soil like very fine brush. Insteadsof being a benefit to the soil it isa nuisance. The quality that makes rye straw wear well as bedding is a detriment when the straw is plowed-under. It is an easy mistake to let rye get too far grown before plowing it under. May is a farmer’s busy month and he finds many things which ought to be done first. When rye has reached a certain stage it heads out very quickly, particularly if the weather suddenly becomes dry. You look the field over one Sun- day and think it will be safe to leave for a few days and by the next Sunday it will be too far advanced to bring satisfactory results if plowed under. “The first crop of corn fodder on my worn-out soil generally pays all the expense of fertilizers and cultivation, and the second crop is an improvement on the first. I am confident that this improvement is not all due to the humus added by the rye, but is also the result of good tillage. How much of it is due to tillage I have no means of knowing; but I wish that all restoration crops could be hoed crops. When once the fertility of a field has reached a point at which I can get a fair crop of clover, I feel that the resto- ration period has ended and maintenance period begun. Some farmers object to clover because of the frequent reseeding which is necessary, and expense of the seed. One point in favor of the more extensive use of clover is the short rotation which it necessitates, thus giving an opportunity for frequent seasons of tillage. I believe in a short rotation for either the restoration or maintenance of fer- tility ; for there is fertility in tillage. * Another way of adding humus is to sow Canada peas and oats as early in the spring as the land can be worked. This involves more expense and brings no return in money for the first year, but it will generally improve the land sooner than fodder corn and rye. Before sowing an ‘onion bed’ preparation should be given. Com- mercial fertilizers may be used as a starter. This crop may be turned under in late June and another humus crop can immediately 576 7 follow. The cow pea, which is no pea at all but a bean, and very tender to frost, can also be sown for this purpose. Personally I have had no experience with the cow pea, but praises of its merit come from so many reliable sources that I intend to give it a trial the coming season. “ How many seasons will it take for land to pass from the resto- ration to the maintenance period? I do not know. Very much will depend upon how low the fertility is in the soil when you begin. With fair nursing I have usually been able to get a paying crop on my own fields the second season, and on the third I have put the land to the clover test. Sometimes the catch of clover on the third year has not been satisfactory, and I have had to. wait until the fourth, but in case of failure 7 never allow the land to remain idle. I have something growing that will make humus, whatever may be its fertility. On my home farm I always sow rye after taking off a crop of sowed grain, provided the field is not already seeded to clover. Rye sown after potato digging will endure the winter and give something to turn under in May. It usually pays me to sow clover between the rows of corn at the last cultivation. Crimson clover also is much praised for this purpose and I have found it good; but I am surprised how well the common red clover will do. When sown during the last half of July it does not make as much fall growth as the crimson but it forges ahead in the spring. “These are some of my methods of keeping the soil hustling: always growing a crop for me or for itself. But these are not the only ways of adding humus. Every farmer must judge for him- self what will be the best way to imitate nature’s way of making soil, by adding humus to stone flour. One point I wish to make emphatic; that is, the humus should be added only in small quanti- ties. I have tokd you my experience in plowing under rye after it has headed out. I have heard that if a large grecn crop is plowed under there is danger that it may make the soil sour, particularly during the hot summers of the south. Of this I have had no experience. I have tried sparingly of lime, plaster and salt. In one of your leaflets you said that these are not direct fertilizers, 37 517 8 since none of them supply nitrogen, phosphoric acid or potash to the plant, except indirectly, by making what is already in the soil more easily digested. My idea is that results from their use are not at all uniform, and where marked improvement follows it is due to local conditions in the soil. “The part that commercial fertilizers play in my experiments is like that of kindling wood in starting a blaze. When planting corn fodder on my worn-out fields [used what the manufacturers call a complete fertilizer, supposed to contain the three elements of plant- food which are needed most. When clover becomes a fairly sure crop, I know that the field has passed the restoration period and begun the maintenance period and I do not buy any more fertilizers containing nitrogen. The ciover supplies me with that. My opin- ion is that I do not need to buy much potash either. It may be necessary in orchards, but for field crops I fancy I can unlock enough of the potash already stored in the soil by first class tillage. What I need most and must buy is phosphoric acid. My fields have been under cultivation upwards of forty years and I find that I get best returns from money invested in dissolved phosphate rock. I am speaking from personal experience now, and would not make my practice a general rule for others. Every farmer must cut and try and think out these problems for himself. In my earlier experience in farming, I spent some good money in commercial fertilizer ; and when it brought me no returns, I blamed the manufacturer. It was not his fault but my own. That was before I became a tillage crank and put my hand in ‘onion bed’ condition. “Stable manure, when well cared for, is a friend that we can count on under nearly all conditions. The chemist tells us that it has only two to four dollars’ worth of plant-food per ton. Perhaps that is all it may have in his own laboratory, but it is often worth more than that in the soil laboratory. I think it has value far beyond the plant-food it contains, because it has power to put in motion those ‘ chemical activities’ of the soil which we have been talking about. It is the best thing to give clover a start when the soil is near the uncertain line between restoration and maintenance. If I can have from four to eight loads per acre when seeding I can 578 usually get a fair stand of clover. After turning the clover under and following with one hoed crop before seeding to clover again, I feel that I have about reached the top of the divide between restora- tion and maintenance. “‘T suppose a man who insists on exact use of words would object to the expression of a ‘dead’ soil, but it means much to a farmer who has stood between the plow handles for many years. By ‘dead’ I mean an absence of mealiness. It is a bad case when two to three crops of humus-makers will not make the soil mealy —I suppose you would say put in a friable condition. As I think of it, this friable condition is but another way of saying that the laboratory has been put in repair so that chemical activities can have full swing. No doubt the humus may have of itself some chemical action, but the repair of the laboratory is the main point with me. “What time of the year would I begin restoration experiments ? I think that spring is the ideal time, but as a matter of practice I have begun mine mostly in the fall. It has come about this way. In the springtime I am hopeful, and I am inclined to excuse some of the past failures of a doubtful field as being due to unfavorable seasons. I think I will chance one more crop. But when harvest time comes, the results are the old story, and I find that there is no way but to begin the improvement of the condition of the soil laboratories at once. If the land has had a grain crop, I sow Canada peas and oats or barley immediately after harvest, using for kindling wood some commercial fertilizer. The peas and oats will grow until after frost, and perhaps remain green until it is too late for fall plowing ; so I allow the vines to mat down under the snow and plow them under in the spring. If the land has had a hoed crop, I use my stand-by —rye; not because I think it the best, but because I can often find nothing else which will fit into the place and season. When my soil has got to the maintenance stage, 1 begin to feel asif I can think about using more freely of fertilizers.” We have given Peter’s story because we believe it contains in simple form three of the first principles of successful farming — good tillage, rotation, humus-producing manures. We want to start a movement for better tillage. Try an acre, or a few rows of a 579 10 potato field or corn field. Keep track of when you tillit. Tell us the results in the fall. Of course you will use judgment; one can overdo anything. But tell us whether you think we are right in believing that these three things — tillage, rotation, humus — are the very foundation stones of good agriculture. If we were to add a fourth it would be good business management; but begin this season for a new experience of these three, and let us know the results. We shall be glad if those farmers who contemplate trying these experiments in improving depleted soils, will write us so that we may register their names. We shall be glad to help them if we can. LH. “BALFERY, Chie, JOHN W. SPENCER, Deputy Chief, Cornell Reading-Course Bureau. 580 JUNIOR NATURALIST CLUB, —LESSON I— OCTOBER 1, 1899. PREPARED BY THE BUREAU OF NATURE-STUDY, College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Seed Travelers. ALICE G. MCCLOSKEY. Not many years ago, in a country which lies between the Baltic and North Seas, there dwelt a writer of stories named Hans Chris- tian Andersen. He called his native land a “swan’s nest,” and I think that he was the most beautiful of all the swans that ever rested there. Junior Naturalists should become familiar with the “ House- hold Tales ” written by this Danish author, for by reading them you will learn to take pleasure in some of the common things about you. How many of you have ever stopped to look at a burdock as you walked along a highway? I fear you think it is only a weed that could not possibly be interesting. Will you read Andersen’s story of “The Happy Family ” and find out how many delightful things he discovered by observing this common plant? If he had not noticed the burdock, he never would have seen the little white snails that lived beneath its broad leaves. For the first lesson this year we are going to ask you to study seed travelers. Do not think because they are small and easily found that they will have no interest for you. Some seeds are wondertully constructed and have remarkable ways of journeying from place to place. They float on the water, are carried by the wind, and slide on the snow. You may find it hard to believe, but many have been shot out of pods and sent long distances. Numberless seeds reach new homes by clinging to the clothing of people and the coats of animals. Do you not wish plants could talk so that we might hear the history of their travels ? 581 2 Madam Dandelion would speak first, I suppose. You know she never hesitates to go where she pleases and remains as long as she likes no matter how rudely she may be treated, so I am sure she would not be at all diffident in conversation. She would probably tell us that she had left her home last year in a balloon which her mother had given her. How she must have enjoyed sailing away, away over field and meadow, until she reached a sunny place where she would have plenty of room to grow. I would like to hear her tell how happy she felt when the warm spring days came, and she arose out of the earth clothed in a gay yellow gown, bringing brightness and cheer into the hearts of little children. Many grown folks, as well as the young people, greet her with a smile each spring, and once Lowell wrote a beautiful poem about this bright little blossom, in which he said: ‘‘My childhood’s earliest thoughts are linked with thee; The sight of thee calls back the robin’s song, Who from the dark old tree Beside the door, sang clearly all day long, And I, secure in childish piety, Listened as if I heard an angel sing With news from Heaven, which he did bring Fresh every day to my untainted ears, When birds and flowers and I were happy peers.” Yes, she is a pert little thing and is sometimes very annoying to the gardener, but no one would banish her altogether. Will you go out into the fields and find Madam Dandelion, so that you can learn from her how she sends her children abroad in balloons ? I wonder how many boys and girls know what sedges are? They look like coarse grasses and generally grow near ponds and in marshy places. The seeds of most sedges travel by water to reach new homes. Whenever I see them gliding along I feel like saying, “Where are you going, little akenes?” An akene, you know, is a small, dry, one-seeded fruit which does not break open when it ripens. The real seed is inside an outer covering and when there is a space filled with air between the outer covering and the seed, it can sail on quiet waters or drift with the current of running streams. Will you try and find as many sedge akeens as you can and send 582 3° them tome? Anything that you can tell me of the mother plants will be of interest. I shall enjoy a description of the place in which they grow, and I shall also like to learn something about their neigh- bors. Do you think the pretty white water lily is one ? A great, burly immigrant which is found in some fields is worth a little study. It has been called a Russian thistle, but it is really a tumbleweed. When [I tell you that in about twelve years it has traveled from Dakota to New York, you may think it deserves to be spoken of as a “cross-country runner.” Will you tell me how you think this tumbleweed reached this country from its far-away home near the Caspian sea, and how it has managed to spread so rapidly in the New World ? Not many days ago I saw a Junior Naturalist who didn’t know that “stick tights” are seeds. They have been called “little tramps,” and I think they deserve the name, for they wander from place to place, stealing rides on people’s clothing or animals’ fur whenever they get an opportunity. If you will look closely at one of these seeds, you will be able to see very plainly the tiny hooks with which it fastens itself to moving objects. Sometimes, when wandering along a roadside, you may see a small oak tree struggling to grow tall and strong like its ances- tors, those brave old “kings of the forest.” You may look for the parent tree, but as far as the eye can reach it is nowhere to be seen. How then did the little acorn travel so far? Keep your eyes open and some day you may discover a way in which this could happen. Maybe an old crow had started out to carry this acorn to his home. On the way he might have met a congenial friend whom he had not met for a long time. Now, in a case like this, children, it seems to me that, on opening his beak the better to say “Caw,” the old chatterer might have dropped the acorn, and being interested in conversation he probably forgot it. If you ever have an opportu- nity, watch a flock of crows and see whether they might plant an oak tree in some such way as this. You may at the same time come across another little creature that carries acorns, but I shall not tell you his name. I shall just mention, however, that he has a saucy face, very bright eyes and a warm-gray coat. He runs so rapidly 583 4 that the most agile Junior Naturalist would scarcely dare to compete with him in a race, and he can talk faster than any lassie in school. Do you think you will be able to find him and tell me his name? I earnestly hope, boys and girls, that in studying seed travelers | you will try and find many of which I have not spoken. In order to do this you will have to go out into the fields and woods where a great teacher is waiting for you. Patiently will she instruct you over and over again, so that whatever you may fail to learn in one lesson you will acquire in some other. The work will be so inter- esting that you will be happy when you learn that in her books there are no last pages. When I read your letters I shall know whether you are really Nature’s students. I shall consider that you have done excellent work if you find ten seed travelers and tell me a few facts about them. When your lesson is prepared suppose you send the seeds to me and I shall give them to boys and girls in large cities who cafinot go out into the fields in search of them. Will it not be a pleasure to help other members of the club in this way ? 584 Issued under Chap- Junior Naturalist Club. ter 430, Laws of 1899. Lesson II. eas I. P. ROBERTS, NOV EMBER, 1899. DIRECTOR. PREPARED BY oe (BUREAU. OF) NATURE-STUDN College of Agriculture, Cornell University, ITHACA, N. Y. fee oO PORY AN APPLE TREE CAN a eLL It was the morning after All Hallowe’en that I wandered into the orchard and stood beneath the tree where the children had played mimic life during the vacation days. It had been the scene for picnics, high teas, receptions and doll parties, with some of the strife and friction of real society. The soap box, with a board through the middle for a shelf, that was a combination of china 585 2 closet and pantry, was upset. The clothes-line swing still hung froma lower limb, but the notched board used asa seat was gone. When the sharp rays of the midsummer sun came down, the wide branches of the tree gave acool protecting shade. While the children had their frol- ies their bickerings, and “ making up,” the old tree was hard at work. Every hour of the twenty-four, day in and day out, week in and week out, it worked, not even having a picnic on the Fourth of July. When you go to a factory and hear the noise of the machinery and see the whirling wheels, and gliding belts, and the army of employees moving briskly about like ants, you think that it is a busy place. Perhaps you are shown the unattractive raw material on one side of the factory and the finished product on the other, and you think what wonderful changes have been made. The tree has been just as busy a place during all the long summer days. I doubt if the tallest Junior Naturalist could lift and carry the product it has manufactured during that time—I mean the new wood and foliage that has grown since spring. The idea that a tree works may be a new one to you; and if so, it is because the tree has made no noise while at work, and yon have not yet learned to listen with your eyes. I wish you to look upon this tree as a real living thing having life like yourself, and having a care for its future welfare. It can tell a story about itself that is just as interesting as any old soldier or sailor can tell. When you have made its acquaintance and listened to its story, Iam sure that you and the old apple tree will be the best of friends ever after. It was raining when I entered the orchard. The drops fell thick and fast, and as some struck pools of water there splashed up cup- shaped waves that settled back in expanding rings. I saw that the tree was no longer at work, but had gone into a profound sleep from which it will not awaken until the warm days of spring. Plain for all eyes to see, however, was the finished product, and I wondered how many of my boys and girls would appreciate the skill shown in the workmanship. There is a great principle in nature which I wish to impress upon your minds. I hope you will learn it, for if you do you will be able to see the reason for many things when you listen with your 586 3 eyes. It applies to all forms of life, both animal and vegetable, even to you and me. Our friend, the apple tree, all his hard work during the '% pended in preparing for the 4 known that a cold and trying | must stand out there alone when the snow squeaks be. | sparkle in the clear sky; that | which will cover its branches | use as whip-lashes. It also seems to have known cd it wakens and enters upon i first want will be a breakfast ; I of no value unless it has a : the tree certainly seems to © @ after providing them, has given hardships of winter. i Besides listening to what I %. i] hear what the tree tells you. “WJ a twig something like the one | tree will willingly part witha jf for the sake of becoming better i When you have your apple look at it intently and then § again before you speak a word. : suggests a tiny wool or fur J iy It is this: there is a constant struggle for existence. understands this very well, and past summer has been ex- future. It seems to have winter was coming; that it many sharp and frosty nights neath the feet and the stars it must endure many cold rains with ice for the strong wind to 4 G7 a that the next spring when another busy summer, its and that a breakfast will be stomach and lungs. Yes, know all these things and “ :; . i) «4 & them protection against the have to say, I want you to I hope each of you will find shown Any apple twig for a Junior Naturalist acquainted. twig, I wish that you would look at it again and still Do you see anything that overcoat — something com- here. fortable for winter? Look again and tell me if the overcoat is in 587 + one piece. To make sure, take a pin and remove it. Note how snugly the pieces are packed together. When you pay your dues, describe how the edges of the outer scales lap over the scales beneath them, or “ break joints” as we say about the shingles on a roof. Examine many buds and tell me if you find any that are not perfectly made. On a large apple tree there are thousands and thousands of buds and you will probably not find one which is imperfectly made. Do you think that carpenters are usually as accurate in their work ? After removing a number of scales or, as we may say, a nnmber of overcoats, coats and waistcoats, you will find the lungs and stomach ready to expand into full size when the tree may require them. Do you suspect that I am speaking in a strange way of something with which you are familiar and which you know by another name? Do you know that if the foliage is seriously injured, a tree will suffer as much as a person who has dyspepsia or con- sumption? Perhaps you can now guess what the tree has so care- fully packed away and protected by woolly and furry scales. Ask the twig to tell its age. The age of a cow can be told by the wrinkles on her horns, and you know that old people have many wrinkles in their faces. Look at the picture and note the wrinkles shown at B. Have you ever learned what caused them? That was the location of a terminal bud last winter, and next summer there will be wrinkles where bud 10 now is. All the length of the twig from B to 10 was made by the tree during the past summer when it was so busy. Now, instead of looking at the picture, will you examine a real twig, begin at the terminal bud, and trace its length until you find some wrinkles? The little twig grew that much longer this year. If you are fortunate enough to have one which has had abundant sunshine, you will probably find another set of wrinkles farther back which will show you the length of growth made the summer before. I have been able to count five or six years of growth on some twigs. If you will compare the one you have with several others, you will find that they have not all grown the same length during the past season. What do you suppose has been the cause of 588 5 this? It may be that the difference could be explained in many ways, but the most probable one is that the twigs which made the greatest progress had the most sunshine. The leaves, in order to do their work well, must also have abundant sunshine baths — bright light and not shaded light. All the terminal buds that you see on an apple tree have great ambitions for the future, just as I hope each Junior Naturalist has. - The bud hopes to become a twig and grow into a branch, and if it can reach out into the sunshine it usually succeeds ; but many buds do not find the full sunlight, and these disappointed ones may become fruit buds. They are short and thick and are borne upon what are known as fruit spurs. Some buds— poor things ! — receive so little light that they become completely discouraged and dis- appear altogether. Look at the picture and carefully note buds numbered 3, 4, 5 and 6. These are probably disappointed buds and in a few years will be only short spurs. I hope that every Junior Naturalist will visit an apple tree, break off a twig and study it carefully. When you have written the story which it tells, will you send the little twig to me? The story it will tell me is that my boys and girls have studied the thing itself, as real naturalists should, and have not depended on books or leaflets for information which can be obtained directly from nature. ALICE G. McCLOSKEY, JNO. W. SPENCER. 589 - ee fs NRE ite ahs (°00! GRA Ss NE lt ee Phos Mailed a scink davnak nl? “editidn ok ad hilt war eam ss ei “snnttladieg fanShnde sreibeste fics He ala : itsnei« Vtiee bett aec. Hy P28 eS ae Ft Reray baaes ini Gad oidet th tig Be HOY fudt ‘sith Tints cul Salbictin Ah oines er BSE bn Hauke ota Pod? ba aed “bite sues Rta: Boe RR ikise 9 Gepdid et & me Hiteiie ee SebAasae vilsien trondacne odt A Ieee a8 Sores Satay ear sod?" Hae fighting tt” ‘Ae peat age HAGE? “oth Tehas SE db? 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