as oi pe Helens. Shey gtatareged ste pty mt) errere ss terpetbecqebubadtes i? HERE sobiansiaient Serdiert pale it) jeri * sisi GaSe aot oe ats Hees Satktaietpisisialiae: ePe) titesar asbieaeiels ‘ ATtrtrt ters tae: Oe - mm _¢ — OF 24 ~ RY : = =. f ZF a S} | a PR’ W=Cibson-lnvi5 digs) =) a Mien tseibtt), Ah) NOY ated Wes TANYA ek es i. : 1 07, A, EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY GRIGULIURAL EXPERIMENT STATION lthaca, N.Y. 1905. LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAI GARDEN TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE JANUARY 17, 1906. ALBANY BRANDOW PRINTING COMPANY STraTeE LEGISLATIVE PRINTERS 1906 oa SeAre OF NEW. YORK. No. 62. IN ASSEMBLY, JANUARY 17, 1906. EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Agricultural Experiment Station of Cornell University. STATE OF NEW YORK: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY, January 17, 1906. To the Honorable the Legislature of the State of New York: In accordance with the provisions of the statutes relating thereto, I have the honor to herewith transmit the Seventeenth Annual Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station at Cor- nell University. CHARLES E. WIETING, Commissioner of Agriculture. ORGANIZATION Or THE CoRNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, (1904-5.) BOARD OF CONTROL. THe TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the Agricultural College and Experiment Station. ~EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. THOMAS F. HUNT, Professor of Agronomy. EXPERIMENTING STAFF. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director. JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology. HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry. GFOr.SE F. ATKINSON, Botany. JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture. THOMAS F. HUNT, Agronomy. RAYMOND A. PEARSON, Dairy Industry. MARK Y. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. JOHN L. STONE, Agronomy. JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry. STEVENSON W. FLETCHER, Horticulture. ELMER O. FIPPIN, Soil Investigation. JOHN W. GILMORE, Agronomy. HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology. SAMUEL FRASER, Agronomy. JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry. CHARLES E. HUNN, Horticulture. “ffice of the Director, 17 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New ars State who request them. REPORT. OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, Iruaca, N. Y., December 1, 1905. The Governor of the State of New York, Albany, N. Y. The Secretary of the Treasury, Washington, D. C. The Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany, N. Y. Sir.—I have the honor to transmit herewith the eighteenth annual report of the Agricultural Experiment Station of Cornell University, in accordance with the Act of Congress of March 2, 1887, establishing the Station, and also the report for the year ending September 30, 1905, of the work conducted under the Bureau of Extension Teaching in Agriculture maintained by the State of New York. This document contains the report of the Director and the special reports of his several scientific coadjutors, as well as copies of the bulletins, Nos. 222 to 232 inclusive, the Junior Naturalist Monthly, new series, Vol. I, Nos. 1 to 8 inclusive, and the Home Nature-Study Course leaflets, new series, Vol. I, Nos. 1 to 4 inclusive, together with an itemized statement of receipts and expenditures of the Federal Experiment Station, and a statement of the scheme of expenditures under the State appropriation for the extension of agricultural knowledge. The report of the Director is devoted entirely to an exhaustive survey of the winter-courses in agriculture (State extension work), including a history of these courses in other institutions and a detailed statement of the aims, methods employed, and results accomplished in this work at Cornell University. The total enrollment in these courses last winter was 201, as compared with 136 the year preceding. The remainder of the report is arranged under 11 separate headings representing the various departments under which the work of the Station is carried on, and wherever necessary each department is further subdivided to show precisely the work which is being done under the Federal fund for experiment and research and the State fund for extension teaching in agriculture, respectively. 8 REPoRt OF THE PRESIDENT. I. The department of agronomy, in its investigations under the Federal appropriation, has confined its energies almost entirely to the solution of problems connected with the live stock interests of the State, a total of 1,385 plats out of more than 1,500 under experi- ment having been devoted to forage crops. The cooperative ex- periments in agronomy (State extension work) have as their objects (1) to gain information in regard to the soil and crops under experi- ment, (2) to extend the educational influence of experiments to the farmers who are doing the work and to their neighbors who observe them, and (3) to promote a closer relationship and better under- standing between the farmers of the State and the College of Agri- culture. These experiments are carried on very largely by the farmers themselves on their own farms, but under the supervision and direction of the College of Agriculture, and there are now in progress under this head 498 experiments, distributed through 44 counties of the State and requiring the use of about 1,000 separate plats. The subjects under investigation include alfalfa, oats, fer- tilizers, potatoes, soy beans, field beans, buckwheat, vetch, ete. II. The Federal Experiment Station work in animal husbandry has been continued along the same lines as formerly, namely, experi- ments in meat production with cattle, sheep, and swine. The work in the breeding and development of dairy cattle has also progressed satisfactorily. The State extension work in this department has been almost wholly devoted to the supervision of records of thorough- bred cattle, including 700 Holstein cows belonging to 85 different owners throughout the State, and about 10 different herds of Guern- sey breeders. In the sub-department of poultry husbandry (maintained by special State appropriations) the work has consisted of instruction in the winter poultry-course, which, though offered for the first time this year, enrolled 17 students; the preparation of lessons for the Farmers’ Reading-Courses, and of articles for the Junior Natural- ist Mon hly; and, finally, the investigation of a number of the more important problems of interest to poultrymen, including a study of the comparative advantages for egg production and health of fowls, of different styles of pens and different kinds of food, and the best methods of destroying certain external poultry parasites. Of the students pursuing the winter-course in poultry, all who desired posi- tions have secured them at an, advanced salary and the professor in charge reports that the demand for skilled poultrymen of this sort is greater than the College can supply. REpPoRT OF THE PRESIDENT. 9 III. In Horticulture the Federal | Experiment Station work has comprised investigations into (a) the propagation of .the sour cherry, (b) the influence of shade on plants (continued from last year), (c) whether acetylene light is to be a factor in the forcing of plants, (d) the oriental pears and their hybrids in relation to adaptation and commercial value, and (e) among minor investigations, tests of the newer vegetables, the forcing of strawberries, and greenhouse crops. Under the head of extension work in horticulture there are for report (a) the orchard survey, which was continued in Niagara county during the summer of 1905, (b) the investigation of horticultural industries, particularly the grape industry which has suffered in recent years from root-killnmg and epidemics of fungous diseases. The department has collected some valuable information on these subjects, which will soon be presented in bulletin form. (c) Extension teaching throughout the State and at the University, including addresses before granges, farmers’ clubs, and institutes by special request of these organizations and lectures to the winter-course students in agriculture. To meet an increasing demand for special winter-course instruction in horticulture, courses in fruit growing, vegetable gardening, and floriculture have been arranged for the winter of 1906. IV. The most important features of the Experiment Station work in entomology were the completion of the study of the grape- berry moth and the investigation of two comparatively new shade- tree pests and of the bronze birch borer, insects which have wrought great destruction in parks and on private grounds throughout the State. Their life histories have been studied and practical methods of combating the pests have been found and tested. Co-operative experiments (State extension work) have also been conducted at different points throughout the State looking to the control of insect pests, such as the grape root-worm, the plum and quince curculios, and the rose-chafer, and some valuable results have been attained. The entomologist further reports the appearance in many sections of the State of the dreaded San José scale and with a view to aiding the fruit growers of the State in combating this evil, he has recently started a series of experiments with the new soluble petroleums against this scale insect. V. In the department of agricultural chemistry work under the Federal fund has been devoted to the examination of samples of sweet corn for sugar content, with the resulting discovery that sugar content may be increased by proper selection of seed, and to analyses of samples of cabbage and root crops in cooperation with the depart- 10 REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. ment of agronomy, which is endeavoring to grow some easily digested food of proper composition to take the place of western grains and by-products. Likewise the extension work has comprised the analyses ~ of samples of lime, fertilizers, feeds, soil, weed destroyer, apples, etc., all in response to requests from various parts of the State. During the coming year this department will make a study of the conditions under which the oat crop has failed in different sections of the State. VI. The botanical division of the Federal Experiment Station has continued its investigations into the culture of mushrooms and its studies of the higher fungi, and a large correspondence has been carried on with persons about the State seeking aid in the determina- tion of species. Special research work has included a study of the embryology and development of the common mushroom, investiga- tions as to whether the substance of the fleshy fungi possesses any food value for the higher plants after decay, and the determination of the life histories of several parasitic fungi affecting fruits and vegeta- bles. The chief lines of investigation in the State extension division of this department have concerned the nature and cause of blight canker of apple trees and methods of destroying it, the diseases of ginseng, the alfalfa leaf spot, and bean diseases, and many valuable results have been secured. There remain for report certain lines of activity which are main- tained exclusively by the State appropriation for the promotion of agricultural knowledge, namely, the extension courses in dairying, nature study, and general agriculture for farmers, farmers’ wives, school children, and school teachers throughout the State. VII. The short winter-course in dairying (State extension work) was attended last winter by ninety-one regular students coming from thirty different counties of this State, and from two neighboring States (students from other States pay tuition), and by thirty-one students from the short general agricultural course. The practical value of these short courses is very strongly illustrated by the reports of students who attended the dairy course a year ago, practically every one of these students stating that upon the completion of the course they obtained positions of greater responsibility and larger salary than those they had held before entering the course. During the season, 108 visits were made to factories of former dairy-course students throughout the State and their work criticized, such inspec- tions being considered a very valuable supplement to the dairy-course itself. On the experimental side, the sources of milk contamination have been studied and some valuable results have been obtained. REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. 11 VIII. The Bureau of Nature-Study, conducted as a part of the State extension teaching in agriculture, has organized and conducted 486 Junior Naturalist Clubs with a total enrollment of 14,318, dis- tributed among all the counties of the State except four. Fifty topics have been treated and the supervisor has, as usual, carried on a voluminous correspondence relating thereto. IX. In the Home Nature-Study Course (State extension work), four lesson leaflets have been published and circulated among the school teachers of the State, the issues averaging nearly 2,000 copies each. Each of these leaflets covered several distinct subjects so that this work aggregated the placing of 23,000 practical, simplified lessons in nature study into the hands of the teachers of New York State. The topics covered were birds, trees, plants, insects, and fish. This work, which has heretofore been largely confined to the town and city schools, is now being carried to the rural schools with much success, and the demand for leaflets this year was greater than ever before. X. The third year of the Farmers’ Wives’ Reading Course (State extension work) shows a live membership of 17,800 women in the State. The course now covers three series of five bulletins each, dealing with The Farm House and Garden, The Farm Family, and Food and Sanitation. XI. The Farmers’ Reading Course is really a precursor of the short winter-course in agriculture described in the report of the Director. The registration this year in these courses aggregated 9,554 new readers. In all the above extension courses discussion papers are sent out regularly and returned by the readers, and whenever questions arise on which more specific information is desired a personal letter in every case is sent in reply. Such, in brief, is the nature of the work that has been carried on by the Cornell University College of Agriculture under the appro- priations for the Federal Experiment Station and the State Bureau for Extension Teaching in Agriculture. That the work is meeting a real need of the agricultural population of the State is evidenced by the growing enthusiasm and hearty support which the College is receiving not only from individual farmers but also from all the agricultural societies of the State, by whose representatives the College and Station are inspected annually on the invitation of the Board of Trustees of the University. Respectfully submitted, J. G. SCHURMAN, President of Cornell University. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. To the President of Cornell University: Str.—I herewith submit a report of two general lines of work conducted by the College of Agriculture of Cornell University: (1) of the Federal Experiment Station for the year ending June 30, 1905; (2) of the Extension Work maintained by the State of New York for the year ending September 30, 1905. This report consists of the reports of the heads of the various departments concerned, together with bulletins and nature-study publications that have been published in the year between July 1, 1904, and September 30, 1905, except Bulletins 221, 226 and 229, which have been already issued by the State. These various reports explain succinctly the main lines of effort in the research work and extension work of the College of Agriculture. It may be well for me, however, to expand these reports by a more extended account of the winter-courses in agriculture conducted at the college, since these are now coming to have great importance to the agricultural interests of the state. The extension work maintained by the State of New York is conducted along three general lines: (1) direct teaching at the university (the winter-courses); (2) correspondence teaching work (reading-courses and nature-study work); (3) demonstrational experiment work on farms in various parts of the state. The winter-course work which I now desire to describe falls into three main divisions: (1) the General Agricultural Winter-Course designed for farm youth who do not desire to specialize; (2) the Dairy-Course for those who are to make a specialty of dairy farming, or who desire to conduct creameries or similar institutions; (3) the Poultry-Course for those who desire to specialize in poultry husbandry. It has now been determined to add two winter-courses to this list for the coming winter, one on Horticulture, and one on Home Econ- omics. . I shall now make a general discussion of winter-course work and append thereto the courses of study as given in the three winter- courses for 1905, and also a list of the students who were engaged in those courses. The winter-course work is really unacademic work in the sense that it does not require academic standards for admission, is not long continued and does not lead to degrees. However, the work 14 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. is of the greatest possible value to the welfare of the state. If a few hundred energized voung men can be sent into the agricultural districts each year the results within a generation will be beyond all calculation. Since there are no secondary schools that are prepared to give the kind of instruction that is demanded by the agricultural people, it has devolved upon the agricultural colleges to take up these questions, with the result that winter-courses have been organ- ized in very many institutions of the country. These winter-courses constitute a stage or epoch in the revolution of industrial education. It is possible that the future will see them segregated into institutions by themselves, although it is highly probable that these institutions will in larger part be directly connected with the regular agricultural colleges. In order that the whole subject of winter-course instruction may be presented in brief space I will make a somewhat full discussion of it. This I consider to be important at this time in order to place the whole subject in its proper relations and because also we seem now to have come to a point where a rather thorough reorganization of the work should be made. I, therefore, record the data of our winter-course instruction. The desire to get nearer to the people has led to the establishment of short and winter courses in many of the agricultural colleges. In these it is the purpose to give the pupil knowledge of some of the fundamental principles of science as applied to agriculture and to offer him some training in a few of the more careful handicrafts of the farm. Winter-course instruction, as now understood, appears to have originated with the University of Wisconsin. However, many efforts were made in earlier times in the direction of popular and abbreviated courses. This effort found expression in the Ohio Agricultural College, established at Oberlin in 1854. In 1866, Yale offered a “shorter course in agriculture,”’ with the following announce- ment: “For this course the instruction is so arranged that the more important topics, viz.: Practical Agriculture, Agricultural Chemistry and Physiology, Agricultural Zoology, Physical Geography, Forestry, etc., are discussed during the fall and winter terms of each year (Sep- tember to April, with vacation of two weeks at the holidays). Those who desire can thus attend, during seven months of the year, such a selection of the most useful exercises from the studies of the full course as will occupy their time profitably.” Ohio State University at Columbus, the outgrowth of the earlier institution at Oberlin, made an effort in the winter of 1877-8 to interest farmers in a course of lectures. President Orton made the foliowing reference to the subject in his annual report dated Novem- ber 6, 1878: REPoRT OF THE DIRECTOR. 15 “ An effort was made last winter to\establish in the,College a course of lectures on the sciences relating to agriculture for the benefit of the young farmers of the state who are unable to pursue an extended and regular course of study. The scheme proposed four lectures a day for ten weeks. It was to be illustrated and made as serviceable as possible by the use of the excellent facilities of the institution. No entrance examinations were required. The scheme was widely advertised, but there was no adequate response. Seven applicants appeared, but it was not deemed right to devote the necessary time and effort required for the lectures to so small a number.” The following winter a more ambitious effort was made of four weeks duration, and it met with success. This enterprise, however, was not so much a short course for students as a lecture course for farmers. In the annual reports of the following November (1879) Professor N. S. Townshend writes as follows: “The short course to farmers given at the University during January, 1897, may properly be noticed here. “To make the State University more immediately serviceable to the agricultural interests of the state, the Board of Trustees deter- mined to provide a course of free lectures on topics of practical interest to farmers. These lectures were given by the professors of the University beginning January 9 and continued four weeks, four or more lectures each day. The experiment was a decided success; the total number of farmers in attendance exceeded 100, and the regular daily attendance was upwards of 50. “At the close of this course of lectures those who had attended, formally and unanimously expressed their satisfaction with the course of instruction, and united in a request that a similar course should be given at the University in January, 1880.” This course was not continued long. The short course in agriculture at the University of Wisconsin opened the: first of January, 1886, and continued 12 weeks with an attendance of 19 pupils. This is without doubt the oldest short course which has continued growing in attendance. In 1890 there was added a course in dairying, which was practically a short course in that line and a branch of the regular short course. Two students registered that year and 70 the next. Following these early experiments winter-course instruction in agriculture has now been established in the following institutions: South Dakota Agricultural College............... Brookings, S. D. Purdue University....... SS Ee is a ee eae Lafayette, Ind. Colorado State Agricultural College.............. Fort Collins, Colo. Michigan State Agricultural College.....-. oS Agricultural College, Michi- gan. Winaversity Of California. 2...) c.s).00 cea vines vod Berkeley, Cal. (in 1903 had 29 students in dairying). Wrnverstby Of Minnesota‘. .i¢ 65.55. in secs ne ooo St. Anthony Park, Minn. Massachusetts State College of Agriculture....... Amherst, Mass. 16 Report OF THE Director. New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic PAGES, iin 225 cats Ge, bt) s eee bere Pa nea ae ae ee Agricultural College, N. M. University of Wisconsin's. 402.2 14. eise eee Madison, Wis. Delaware College ss. vty. tec ae eee eee Newark, "Del. University: of Missouri := 00.52 cee rae Columbia, Mo. Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College.... Stillwater, Okla. University ‘of Nebraska. .3. 2:02 epee ee Lincoln, Neb. Montana State College of Agriculture and Mechanic TAT ESE es. sicanl cued Ginnenoene ste ote) nee ae ee Bozeman, Mon. Tuskegee Normal and Industrial School.......... Tuskegee, Ala. North Dakota Aricultural College................ Agricultural College, North Dakota. Pennsylvania State College of Agriculture......... State College, Pennsylva- nia. Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College........ College Station, Texas. Winiversityaohlennesscen tee icenteee ere eee Knoxville, Tenn. Oregon Agricultural College. <..U.°. = 35.52 e: see Corvallis, Ore. Louisiana (State University ...2-2. 2... .soee- Baton Rouge, La. Wniversity ol Maine. 3 Jats se eee Aro eee Orono, Me. Rhode Island College of Agriculture and Mechanic ATES oe oa. vee lee SAO ee Us Ae ete E eee Kingston, R. I. Maryland Agricultural College................... College Park, Md. University oi-ldaho:. shins. fasast soc eee Moscow, Idaho. lowa, State College. ccs. 5 sen) ee ee ton shee Ames, Iowa. Kansas State Agricultural College................ Manhattan, Kan. Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College. . . . Agricultural College, Mis- sissippi. New Hampshire College of Agriculture and Me- Glam Agts i) ids ba ielacts- «xc spite one iets Seven ee Durham, N. H. Wniversity of(Georgid. 2-2 2s eae... ose Cae oe Athens, Ga. Ohio State University and Dairy School........... Columbus, O. Agricultural College of the University of Wyoming. Laramie, Wyo. Agricultural College ROR eR ea ches ee NE Logan, Utah. Washington State Agricultural Collene: & iceeaee: Pullman, Wash. Our own winter-course was opened in 1894. It was first a general course in agriculture extending 11 weeks from the first week in January, as it does at the present time. In 1894, however, a dairy- course was established; and in the present year a poultry-course was established. The faculty of the College of Agriculture has now voted to organize a horticultural-course for the coming winter, which will make four departments or branches in the winter-course work. The total registration in the winter-course at Cornell University from the organization of the enterprise is as follows: DBO ad aya oi's Boats oa oe ae SEE, SERRE oe on 61 1 SOB os roti 520 ale Sas ee ES eee ee een (ae 1896 50.5 e054 og ls S0b plate eae po eee ce a er 83 LE ee CEE Sd eh) SDS EIS loo bere ao cls 60 Iolo et Ee eT See O ee cero ene rane Mais oto mos col mice & 25% 93 1S OO Le WEL. Borda alow R Ade Gaeta cee ee ee 89 21010 eae See ae OnE a er en hr ode oig tina ted a deh ols UhOU 83 LOOM woe. Bie kB Stes. 3 SEE Ree eee ree ee 94 eee a ie SMe mE ARI vin’ AAU mani thny Avs Alc 96 TOOSs eit ee siihee .i« Ube hes. Se Ra eee eee eee 121 ReEpoRT OF THE DIRECTOR. ily The past winter’s work is typical of the methods and purposes of this kind of educational enterprise. It is remarkable how much actual information the students receive in the 11 weeks and to what a pitch of enthusiasm their work carries them. Into those three months of work there is condensed a very wide range of most direct and purposeful instruction. I now submit a somewhat de- tailed report of the winter-course work for the present university year. GENERAL REPORT OF THE WINTER-COURSE. The whole number of winter-course students enrolled in 1905 was 201. Of these 91 were enrolled in the Dairy-Course, 93 in the General Agriculture-Course, and 17 in the Poultry-Course. Ten were women. One of the women was enrolled in the Dairy-Course, six in the Gen- eral Agriculture-Course and three in the Poultry-Course. The average age of the students in all the winter-courses in 1905 was 25 years. The average age of the students in the Dairy-Course was 27 years, in the General Agriculture-Course 23 years, and in the Poultry-Course, nearly 29. Two of the students fell out very early in the session. Of the 199 students remaining, 173 came from the country and 26 from cities of over 10,000; 189 were residents of New York; one came from Penn- sylvania, one from Connecticut, one from Virginia, two from Min- nesota, two from Maine, one from Illinois, one from Wisconsin, and one from Iowa. The inerease in the number of students coming from towns and cities is marked. Of the 91 students in the General Agriculture-Course 72 had high school or academy training previous to their enrollment in the winter- course; eight were college graduates; 11 had a common school edu- cation. In the Dairy-Course, 47 of the 91 students had high school or academy training previous to their enrollment in the winter- course, six had college education, and 38 had common schoo: education. In the Poultry-Course, 11 of the 17 had high school or academy training, three had college education, and three had common school education. In all three courses, therefore, there were 130 students who had had high school training, 17 who were college graduates, and 52 who had had a common school education. Of the 91 students in the General Agriculture-Course, 14 desired to secure positions on the completion of their course. Positions have been secured for most of these men at salaries ranging from $25 a month with board and lodging, to $50 a month with board and lodging. The remaining 81 students in the General Agriculture- 2 18 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. Course returned to their farms. Of this number 10 have farms of their own; the remainder are with their fathers, or otherwise situated. Of the 91 students in the Dairy-Course, 53 desired to secure posi- tions on the completion of their course. Positions have been secured for 35 of these men, at salaries ranging from $24 a month with board, to $75 a month. All others who are fitted for responsi- ble positions in dairy work have been recommended to places and it is expected that they will soon be located for the season. Of the 17 students in the Poultry-Course, eight have secured positions as poultrymen, five have returned to their homes for poultry keeping, and four are continuing their studies in special work at Cornell. Of the 91 students in the General Agriculture-Course, 25 have expressed a desire to return for further work, either in the special winter-course that it is hoped may be offered. or as special students. These have been admitted to special work whenever they find it convenient to return. In the Dairy-Course five of the students have expressed a desire to return for a two or four year course, and a larger number have expressed their intentions of returning for another winter-course period. In the Poultry-Course six of the students have expressed their intentions of returning to Cornell for special work next year. In the General Agriculture-Course 30 of the 91 students were members of The Grange. The Dairy-Course. Students taking this course may be divided into two groups,— those who have had one or more seasons of practical work before coming to Cornell and those who have had little or no experience of this kind. We do not require previous experience in a commercial plant, but always advise it; and those who thoroughly understand the routine of creamery, cheese factory, and other dairy work are usually best fitted for responsible positions after completing the Dairy-Course. There are some notable exceptions to this rule, how- ever, for not infrequently men who knew nothing whatever of prac- tical dairy work before coming to the dairy school, have secured responsible creamery or cheese factory positions and filled them with credit alike to themselves and the school. For this reason, it has seemed unwise and unfair rigidly to enforce a rule that every person entering the course must have had a certain amount of actual experi- ence in dairy work. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. 19 In the first and larger part of the winter-course term, all students receive instruction in all branches offered. This is to give them a broad foundation upon which they can specialize. For example, the prospective cheese maker is expected to take butter making, for he will learn many things important for him to know easier in the butter factory than in the cheese factory. Likewise, it is well for the butter maker to understand the main principles of cheese making. Further- more, it often happens that a man in a factory must change from manufacturing one product to the other, either temporarily or per- manently, and he might lose his position if he did not understand the first principles of handling milk in more than one way. Thus far, the practical work has been limited to butter making, cheese making, milk testing, dairy mechanics and market milk. It is desired to give instruction also in other branches of dairy work, and this will be undertaken as soon as the larger facilities in our new building are available. Great emphasis is given to the practical work as compared with that in the class and lecture rooms. This year we used about 6,000 pounds of milk per day. It comes to us in small quantities from nearby dairy farms, and in larger quantities by teams and rail from dairies six to 25 miles distant. The milk is issued in lots of 300 to 500 pounds to groups of two, three or four students and they carry it through the entire process of manufacture, as would be done in a factory where one man handles 3,000 to 5,000 pounds of milk. Report blanks are used upon which every step of the work is recorded, and care is taken to note the losses, over-runs, and flavors and to study their causes. The detailed instruction is practically as follows: The principles of different kinds of dairy work and subjects closely allied to dairying are explained in lectures and recitations. Thorough drill in keeping accounts and in all kinds of dairy mathematical problems is given in the class-room. In cheese making care is taken first of all to teach correct principles, and these bring in some practices which unfortu- nately are not followed in a large number of factories throughout the State. The reason for the backward condition of many cheese factories is that methods of cheese making are changing and there are always a large number of makers who are following old, out-of- date rules and customs. Instruction includes the use of starters and the treatment of difficulties commonly encountered in factories. Special attention is given to the improved fermentation test and experiments are conducted to show the effect of a larger or smaller percentage of fat in milk upon the quantity and quality of cheese. 20 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. In butter making, the instruction is similar to that in the cheese room. The latest and most improved methods are taught; and many of these methods are sadly needed in a large number of fac- tories throughout the State. In this department, special attention is given to the saving of wastes incident to dairy manufacture. But- ter making machinery has been so far perfected that the former enormous waste of fat can now be almost entirely avoided. Every step of the work is watched with the aid of the fat tester, and if there © is an unusual loss at any point the cause is looked for and removed as promptly as possible. Unquestionably tens of thousands of dollars are lost annually because of carelessness in respect to unnecessary waste of butter-fat. In milk testing, the usual methods are taught and the students are shown how to detect common adulterations and the presence of certain preservatives. In dairy mechanics, attention is given to the management of the boiler and engine and the installation and care of shafts, pulleys, belts, ete. It would be difficult to overstate the importance of this branch of the work. Every year many otherwise competent men lose their positions or fail to give satisfaction because they do not understand anything about dairy mechanics. Our students give two or three half days each week to this work; and in addition, they study the construction of separators and other dairy machines which have now become more or less complicated. In market milk, the methods of handling milk for the market are taught. These include standardizing, bottling, cooling, ete., and special emphasis is given to sanitary principles. It is believed that inthe near future we should offer another short dairy-course each year for those butter makers and cheese makers who have had long experience and can leave their work only three or four weeks. Offering such a.course would necessitate some changes in the longer short-course which we have been giving each winter. Poultry-Course. There were 17 students registered in the Poultry-Course, three of whom were women; 138 were residents of New York State; one each came from Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa and Maine. Nearly all, so far as we can judge from the data secured at the time of registration, came well prepared for their work, as the follow- ing statement will show: One had attended Syracuse University, one the Albany State Normal, one the Rhode Island State Agricul- tural College, one the Minnesota State Agricultural College, one REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. ZL Cornell University (special one-year course), one was a graduate of a high school and business college, one a graduate of Trumansburg High School and had several years experience as teacher, one a high school graduate and several years experience as bookkeeper. Of the others, six reported high school training and the remaining three received district school education. Twelve had had farm training. In age, the students ranged from 18 to 65 vears. Four were over 30 years of age. Of the six students who desired positions, all have been placed at salaries of $30 per month, including board and lodging, or better, with the exception of one, who could have been placed on these terms, but whom we did not dare recommend, owing to his inexperience and lack of farm training. This student has secured $20 per month, board and lodging. Of the students who did not take positions, four desired to take up poultry raising for themselves. Three others are women students, two of whom are continuing their work here, and one intending to continue the work another year. Another student is registered as a special and is ‘pursuing work in poultry husbandry. The highest salary received is by the student who has charge of the poultry work in the Experi- ment Station in Minnesota. All of the others are in charge of poultry plants. We have more requests for men to fill positions of responsibility than we have competent students to accept them. We have already been informed during the past year, either verbally or by corre- spondence, that the agricultural colleges or experiment stations in seven different States are anticipating establishing poultry depart- ments in the near future. Of the 17 students, six expressed an expectation of returning to Cornell for further instruction, of which poultry husbandry was to be a part. At least 10 persons have already indicated their intention to take the Poultry-Course next year. It is safe to estimate that since the course began, we have received not less than 100 inquiries in regard to the work. It would appear perfectly safe to estimate that there will be more than twice as many students sign applications for the course next year as we had this year. Following are courses of study offered in the three winter-courses of 1905: A. General Agricultural Winter-Course. All students in this course are required to take the following five subjects: 22 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. Fertility of the Land.—A study of soils from the chemical and physical point of view, with discussions on fertilizers, manures and the principles of plant growth. Lectures, 2 hours a week. Assist- ant Professor Cavanaugh and Professor Bonsteel. Agronomy.—A study of field crops and farm management. As much time as possible is devoted to the culture of special crops; as corn, potatoes, wheat, oats, pastures and forage. Lectures and practice, 4 hours a week. Assistant Professor Stone. Animal Husbandry.—Principles of breeding and feeding animals; history and development of animals, the care and management of dairy cattle. Lectures and practice, 3 hours a week. Professor Wing. Horticulture.—Lectures on the principles of fruit growing and vegetable gardening, with practice in the propagation of plants, pruning, grafting, budding and spraying. Lectures and practice, 3 hours a week. Assistant Professor Fletcher. The Farm Home.—F arm buildings; farm sanitation; planning and caring for the home grounds; the conveniences and comforts of the home; reading in the farm home. Lectures, 3 hours a week. Pro- fessor Bailey, Mrs. Comstock, Miss Van Rensselaer, Assistant Profes- sor Fletcher and others. A series of special lectures will be given by various members of the university faculty, and by prominent men from elsewhere who are authorities on certain lines of agriculture. Students in the General Agriculture-Course are required to attend these lectures. In the General Agriculture-Course there are thus 15 hours a week of required work. Three hours of elective work may be chosen from the following subjects. No student may take more than 18 hours of work, excepting by special permission of the faculty, and 17 hours is as much as the average student can expect to carry satisfactorily. Farm Botany.—A study of the principles of farm growth with particular reference to cultivated plants; the common fungous dis- eases of crops, and their control. Lecture and laboratory, 2 hours a week. Mr. Whetzel. Economic Entomology. Lectures on insect pests of plant, orchard and garden, and remedies for them. Lectures, 2 hours a week. Assistant Professor Slingerland. Farm Dairying.—Butter-making; the care of milk, and milk testing. Those who elect this course pay an additional fee of $5. Lectures and practice, 3 hours a week. Professor Pearson. Poultry Husbandry.—A discussion of the domestic breeds of poultry ; hatching and rearing; the principles of feeding'and manage- ment. Lectures, 2 hours a week. Assistant Professor Rice. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. 23 Diseases of Farm Animals.—The common ailments of domestic animals, and their remedies. Lectures, 1 hour a week. Professor Law. [2 ws Farn “Mechanics and! Machinery.—Dynamonieter and other tests of wagons and other farm implements; farm vehicles and machinery; road-building. Lectures and practice, 1 hour a week. Mr. Gilmore. B. Winter Dairy-Course. Instruction in this course is partly by lectures and recitations, but largely by actual practice in the different kinds of dairy work. The class assembles daily, except Sunday, at 8 a. m., and class room work continues two hours. The students are then assigned by sections or squads to different kinds of practice for most of the balance of the day. These assignments are made so that in the course of the term each student will have his fair proportion of work in each department. Lectures are given in one-hour periods. Frequently they are replaced by examinations and often a part of the hour is occupied by informal discussion of previous lectures or topics previously assigned for study. The subjects of the different lecture-courses and the approximate number of hours given to each are as follows: Milk and its Products.—This course is given from 8 to 9 a. m. daily from Monday to Friday throughout the term. It includes a full discussion of the secretion or formation of milk, its nature and composition, its care and preservation, different dairy products, conditions affecting their quality, methods of marketing, the business side of dairying, dairy mechanics, the construction of dairy buildings and the legal requirements applying to dairy products. Special attention is given to dairy bacteriology and dairy sanitation. The lectures are supplemented by references to dairy literature,—current periodicals, experiment station publications and books. Three hours a week. Professor Pearson and Mr. Truman. Animal Husbandry.—Three lectures per week throughout the term. This subject includes the care and management of dairy cattle and the compounding and feeding of the most economical rations. Three hours a week. Professor Wing. Dairy Chemistry.—The elementary principles of chemistry are explained with a view to enable the student to better understand the composition of dairy products and the chemical changes connected with and influencing certain dairy operations. Three hours per week, the first three weeks of the term. Mr. Troy. 24 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. Diseases of Farm Animals.—The most common diseases of dairy cattle are discussed and remedies explained. One lecture per week throughout the term. Professor Law. General Agriculture.—Under this heading are included several brief courses of lectures upon subjects intimately related to dairy industry,—such as farm manures, commercial fertilizers and the improvement of the land by judicious cropping. Three hours per week, the last eight weeks of the term. Professor Hunt, Assistant Professor Stone and others. The testing laboratory is fitted with all appliances necessary for making the usual quick tests of milk and its products, including lac- tometers and a variety of Babcock testers. Each student is expected to become familiar with the Babcock method of determining fat, the calculation of total solids and the more simple tests for preservatives and adulterations. The creamery contains numerous styles of the apparatus found in a well-equipped commercial plant. The milk is received, weighed, sampled and separated, and the entire processes of cream ripening and churning are carried through in the most approved manner. Special attention is given to Pasteurization and the use of starters. Every step of the work is performed by students and under the close supervision of competent instructors. Instruction is given in Cheddar cheese-making by an expert in the process. The cheese room is equipped with small vats, and cheese is made in each the same as in large factory vats. All the work is performed by students, and every step is carefully observed and reported by them on blank forms provided for the purpose. The university operates a milk route and students are given prac- tice in preparing and bottling milk and cream for retail trade. Quick and accurate methods for standardizing milk and cream are taught. Each student is given one to three exercises per week in dairy mechanics and as often as possible these exercises are accompanied by a thorough drill in factory bookkeeping and common problems in arithmetic such as must be understood by everyone who is doing exact work in any branch of dairying. The mechanics include the care and use of the boiler and engine, lacing belts, computing sizes of pulleys and speeds of shafts, pipe fitting, soldering and a thor- ough study of the construction of different kinds of separators. Upon the successful completion of the short dairy-course, a student may become an applicant for a certificate of proficiency under the following general terms and conditions: REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. 25 “Persons who have passed one full term in attendance upon the Dairy-Course and have satisfactorily passed all of the examinations required of them, may become candidates for a Certificate of Profi- ciency in Dairy Industry. ‘Such a candidate must spend one full season in work at an approved Creamery, cheese factory, market milk plant or dairy. He must report regularly, upon blanks furnished for the purpose, such informa- tion in regard to his factory as may be required, and he must hold his factory in readiness for inspection at any time. “Upon satisfactorily completing these requirements a certificate will be granted; under certain conditions a longer period than a single season’s work may be required.” C. Winter Poultry-Course. In view of the rapid development of the poultry industry, and the large number of persons who are interested in this business, the facili- ties for poultry instruction and experimentation at the College of Agriculture have recently been enlarged and the subject has been given an assistant professorship. - The short course in poultry husbandry is offered this year for the first time. It is one of a number of special courses with which the College of Agriculture hopes to meet the needs of the young farmers of the state who have chosen a special line of agriculture for their life work. It isalso intended to help meet the demand for trained poultrymen to take charge of poultry plants owned by others. While it is manifestly impossible to fully prepare for so exacting a business as poultry-keeping in eleven weeks, this course will give the student a long start in the right direction and will enable him to avoid many mistakes which he would make otherwise. While it is not necessary that a student in this course should have had previous experience with poultry, it is extremely desirable. Instruction in the Poultry-Course is given both by lectures and by practice, the practice occupying the larger part of the student’s time. All students in the Poultry-Course are required to take the follow- ing work: General Poultry Lectures.—A discussion of all subjects of geadel interest to poultrymen: covering such topics as developing special poultry markets; preparing fowls for exhibition; poultry shows, their value and management; judging poultry by score cards and by comparison; recent developments in poultry breeding; incubating; feeding for egg and flesh production; dressing; marketing; caponizing; locating, planning and building poultry houses; diseases of poultry and their control; poultry parasites” “and. ‘howfto¥ combat them; the comparative anatomy of poultry; poultry physiology; the chemistry 26 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. of poultry foods; embryology of the egg; special lectures on poultry diseases, such as roup, tuberculosis, black head; growing crops — especially for poultry, etc. Lectures, 4 hours a week. Assistant Professor Rice. Special Poultry Lectures.—From time to time, special lectures will be given to the Short-Course students by experts along certain lines of poultry husbandry. Lectures will also be given by other members of the faculty, on subjects bearing indirectly on poultry husbandry, as the culture of crops valuable for poultry. Lectures, 2 hours a week. Poultry Practice.—Class and individual practice in planning and building poultry houses; the management of incubators and brooders; selecting fowls for mating; feeding; dressing, and all the practical details of managing a successful poultry plant. Each student will be assigned a special flock and will be expected to perform all the daily operations of its care, keeping an accurate account of the individual record of each fowl, cost of keep, gain or loss of weight, temperature of house, etc., giving him an opportunity to do all the various kinds of work about a poultry plant before he is called upon to do it for himself. He will operate an incubator, giving complete records of results obtained. Excursions to points of interest to poultrymen will be taken by the class occasionally. Three hours a week. Assist- ant Professor Rice. The Farm Home.—Three hours a week. For description of this course see page 20. There are thus 12 hours a week of required work in the Winter Poultry-Course. From the following list of subjects each student may, if it seems desirable, elect 6 hours more. All these elective courses, except the first one, are described under the General Agricul- ture-Course on the preceding pages. All students are strongly advised not to take more than 16 hours work. The selection of electives should be made after consultation with the professor in charge of the course. Additional Poultry Practice.—For those persons who desire to get all the poultry experience possible in the limited time at their dis- posal, and especially for those who expect to take charge of a poultry plant immediately. Practice, 3 hours a week. Assistant Professor Rice. Agronomy, 4 hours a week. See page 20. Farm Dairying, 3 hours a week. See page 21. Horticulture, 3 hours a week. See page 20. Fertility of Land, 2 hours a week. See page 20. Animal Husbandry, 3 hours a week. See page 20. Diseases of Farm Animals, 1 hour a week. See page 21. Farm Mechanics and Machinery, 1 hour a week. See page 21. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. 27 For instruction in poultry husbandry there are several poultry houses, having a capacity of 500 hens and 20 ducks; 11 styles of incubators; various types of brooders; several kinds of bone cutters; various charts and models; stereopticon slides for illustrating lec- tures; a collection of eggs, containing from two to four eggs of nearly all the varieties of domestic poultry. There is an incubator cellar 30 feet square; a slaughter house and packing room 16 by 20; a judging pavilion, feed room, root cellar and carpenter shop. All the standard poultry papers are on file in the dairy building, and the poultry library is one of the largest in the country. A valuable feature of the Poultry-Course is the annual poultry show which is conducted by the students in this course. They carry on the correspondence, keep the records, prepare the fowls for exhibition, score them, award and receive prizes. Many poultrymen from else- where send their stock here for exhibition, to which, if deserving, the Cornell University Poultry Association ribbons are awarded. The show is judged by a well-known expert, whose score is used for comparison with the score of the students. Those who qualify are given a limited certificate of proficiency, according to their ability to judge the various breeds. Those who satisfactorily complete the Short Winter Poultry-Course receive a certificate to that effect, signed by the director of the Col- lege of Agriculture and the assistant professor of poultry husbandry. ROSTER OF THE WINTER-COURSES, 1905. PouLtTRY COURSE. FER GOR Oia. scstcvare nisi, sete < Syracuse, N. Y. Buchanan, (Miss) 8........... Cohoes, N. Y. Modges< (Mis) Ge 2. 35: Flushing, N. Y. Tea) Ge Na ear Cedar Rapids, Iowa. RUG AMV dices ctcvcie athe ais erste = Thorndike, Me. J Berrie a Oia Sin eee ed Westtown, N. Y. Nimono( Miss), Go. Orel osc ts 2. Trumansburg, N. Y. Spperman, On Tatas vas sss Burlingham, N. Y. [Edis iho Sa Gp meee sos tee ane Re Oriskany Falls, N. Y. PommmOr Os Lascea sete te bn: Manorville, N..Y. UPN Pers Bess os, 8 tre telat Burlington, Wis. Seaman, George A............ Buffalo, N. Y. Wet ANGLERG A WVitcrs czas os oeeyeNe Ve Datry-CourseE. Allen ain sEl Fao ck ce ers East Homer, N. Y. Allens SWi Ese Ses. eet Almond, N. Y. Ambler; A. .2)..25te a3. ve ee Gloversville, ING FAMIStIN Es Ter acc sain eee Whitesville, N. Y. Bakers Ac A 2235 Sep. cpr nee Berkshire, N. Y. Barrows; O. Men sae tie McDonough, N. Y iBeardslee; C; Fisica tinh eee Willet, N. Y. Beecher, L. A................ Hastings-on-Hudson, N. Y. (Bensige Wi H..2.sia05. geo Findley Lake, N. Y. Blishs'O. 2o42:22% ose ec oe aleoty Centre tNe Bogert) WeAc tin. ee cee ee Gouverneur, N. Y. Bouton, G. Eas. 3322 aes. ACI Ne Boutwells ie iG: eae ee Copenhagen, N. Y. Browns Batra oc eee Cobleskill, N. Y. Brown; i. Li... <. 24 1. 42.4. Skaneateles; IN. -Y- Brush. Pkt sais hs ae oes Arden, N. Y. Caldwell iW.2G. Dir ie oan ase EK. Freetown, N. Y. Carter, J-2D:-.332 0 eee eet Newfield, N. Y. Collins: C: Acs 2.5. 4 ee ee Ossic wae Conrad tliis.ck <2 einen eo ee Marathon, N. Y. Cottrell’; Ect. the wee Scott, N. Y. Cowls iA. De bit ea aan Lisbon, N. Y. Crowe oh ee Se eee Owasco Lake, N. Y. Cunningham, JiR. se. eee Sherburne, N. Y. Dugan Acts. ths eee eee Delhi, N. Y. Batons Gs Ors hs coos: 2. ae Willet, N. Y. Henner, Siri. M5. See eee Lansingville, N. Y. Hin ches Wt Hee nase sate eeiers Durham, N. Y. LON) sR Re & Baas eee eR pe SALE ar Sidney Centre, N. Y. i. oord (Miss) Be Dials... cove Kerhonkson, N. Y. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. QETERCET, SFr eA tae stack: eo hetss 3 Lisbon, N. Y. Harhinis Bagh ees ena Soot bs Saugerties, N. Y. Mowier Fa. Hoes 228 ook Moravia, N. Y. LOM IW Wh oa c ste eee nee Gloversville, N. Y. SLIDE MER ras ceyeita 2h SS Gas East Homer, N. Y. Hames ie Wisse sae 2-2-2. Goshen, N.Y. SEtimuilton, Fo Bent aoe ee Greene, N. Y. Haleeerety Cyst conc 2 eee yet Otisco; No ¥. PR riwelleh. Sse... oe: Crown Point, N. Y. iBeplans: Pi. £66G ko Jacksonville, N. Y. iPlerions Wisis. 6s Pras. heen New York City. SOT OV Cares oe ea Gouverneur, N. Y. JING SOs | a nr ae Deerfield, N. Y. Stee iis. tee oweey.t 2 |, ee Or. Plain, N.Y: Piehens'Cne Wie sedi oe ede 2S Arden, N. Y. HeplotelP CAM, oP Sst ..2), 2. delerson; N. Y. Picbem Gyles 4.0. tee opaitord, N.Y. IUCr O02 s Daag fol ae ees Parada Lysander, N. Y. felines. Bi.8.. 2... 5.2... 2.02 Valley Falls, N.Y. Biyonrn Willer 2.8 ees os Union Springs, N. Y. 1s) ESTES 9 RS eee a ce Scottsburg, N. Y. ManriweGe Os... 3:22.22 ae. For. Byron, N.Y; Mer AChE Waal oss eden oc ese Rome, Pa. | STS 1s IGS ean ce « Verona, N. Y. Mata teo es Barca. os Soca 52 Hobart, N.Y; EIGEN Sever 2d 5 Sera e ak. ss. Pawling, N. Y. Miter PIE Ee Otel & Ayletics dis Forestport, N. Y. MOONE Ba ldic bis eh ay At hee So Redwood, N. Y. dss? ied 8 Bl CE See a New York City. Reichs loeDy St asec lead Shavertown, N. Y. NID ELSES og er cae oe Stockholm Centre, N. Y. INOEnTOD. Hedy 5c stated hte Freeville, N. Y. Wort hrup;-doJeis es hopin fi0 ates Lisbon, N. Y. Glmstead +)... = Stead ia hook Sennett, N. Y. BET NOG Ye Le <5: 2 Sseghuie ha Ses Union, N. Y. Perens, W.. Bass na83. ae een Hobart, N. Y. Eye AO as wants Fo ae eee oe Verbank, N. Y. Terese! I) Oa, | ir cere Westford, N. Y. Soa Ol Avon, N. Y. SEMUG SE C757 Daren ee enn Jordan, N. Y. STHC1D VLCE oe ae Flackville, N. Y. Suri giol 2 ta re Forest Home, N. Y. 32: ReEporT OF THE DIRECTOR. Sheldonedil. o> =. oe eee Lisbon, N. Y. Shim Gr Ac. ote ee fence Moravia, N. Y. Sloany- CsiNieio cine eee Clyde, N. Y. Smarthi vd scars sas ey Ae hee Oak Hill, N: Y. Spencer, a. Ac 272 ep ctauerech: Flat Creek, N. Y. Terpenning, H. Thompson, W. Thomson, J-A oo .e oa okies Frescott: V. Me. s2.5 args koot Turner, G. W. Wade, M. V... Walker, H.... Walter, L. G.. Webster, M. G Wells, L. R... main DASE tina a hoe are Rensselaer Falls, N. Y. Guilford, Me. South Lansing, N. Y. .. McDonough, N. Y. . Bovina Centre, N. Y. Livonia, N. Y. S. Livonia, N. Y. Cortland, N. Y. Auburn, N. Y. Ketchumville, N. Y. Meridale, N. Y. Lacona, N. Y. Schenevus, N. Y. Rensselaer Falls, N. Y. eee peer Falke submitted, J. H. Bar.ey, Director of the College of Agriculture. I. AGRONOMY. 1. FEDERAL EXPERIMENT STATION WORK. The following is a list of the experiments conducted during 1905: 1. Timothy, 490 plats. a. Selection and breeding work, about 20,000 individual plants in about 450 plats. b. Rate of seeding experiment, 10 plats of 7 vee each. c. Influence of size of seed on woe 7 plats of 3 7 acre each. d. Fertilizer trial, 23 plats of 75 acre each. 2. Pasture Grass Experiments. hee 11 acres, divided into 22 plats, each comprising 13 small plats, a total of 286. To determine the behavior of various grasses and clovers. a. when sown alone. b. when sown in various mixtures. To determine the effects of different fertilizers on these grasses. To study the root systems of these grasses. AGRONOMY. 33 3. Alfalfa. a. Selection and breeding work. b. Soil and inoculation trials in 100 plats. 4. Oats. a. Selection and breeding work. b. Rate of seeding trials. ce. Cultivation trials. 5. Soy beans. a. Selection and breeding work. b. Trials of two varieties for forage. ce. Trials with corn for silage. 6. Cow peas. a. Selection and breeding work. b. Trial of varieties for forage (co-operation with U. 8. De- partment of Agriculture). 7. Potatoes. a. Selection and breeding work. b. Studies of quality. c. Spraying work. d. Influence of sprouting potatoes at various temperatures upon yield. 8. Root crops, 200 plats. Mangolds, half-sugar mangolds, sugar beets, parsnips, carrots, rutabagas, turnips, hybrid turnips, kohl rabi, cabbages. Objects— Test of varieties: ‘To ascertain the yield of roots through a period of years. To compare the yield of dry matter per acre with that of corn. To note variations and select types considered suitable for this locality. To ascertain whether the specific gravity of the root and juice may be ‘used for determining dry matter content, keeping quality, actual feeding value and used as an aid in selection. 9. Wheat. Trial of varieties on a specially adapted soil type. 10. Corn, 60 plats. a. Selection and breeding work. d. Trial of certain selected varieties for yield and forage purposes. 3 34 Report OF THE DIRECTOR. 11. Rotation experiments. 12. Ginseng. Culture experiments. 13. Grass garden, 145 plats. Demonstration plats of grasses and clovers and used for experi- mental purposes, 14. Farm Mechanics. Trials of draft of implements. The policy of the Department of Agronomy has been to continue the experiments previously begun and reported to you in my letter of May 26, 1904, and not to take up additional lines of work. Slight exceptions to this general policy may be noted as follows: No experi- ments are being made this season with field beans or buckwheat. Experiments with macaroni wheat have been replaced by an experi- ment with common wheat. Five years’ culture experiments with sugar beets in co-operation with the United States Department of Agriculture were completed last year and the co-operative experi- ments with the bureau of plant industry, United States Department of Agriculture, in testing varieties of maize for northern latitudes have been begun. Experiments upon the influence of lime when applied to Dunkirk clay loam have been begun owing to a donation of a carload of lime by M. E. Reeder, Muncy, Pa. As indicative of the character of the work and to show that it is on lines which are of considerable importance to the livestock inter- ests of the state, attention may be directed to the number of plats under experiment. Grasses and clovers, with alfalfa, 1,025 plats, Root crops, 200 plats, Corn, 60 plats, Wheat, oats, soy beans, cow peas, etc., 100 plats, or a total of 1,385 plats, almost all devoted to forage crops, out of a total of over 1,500 plats. The grass problem is so complex that it has not been considered an easy one to attack. It is important to the state, and by placing the experimental work on a broad basis, it is anticipated that results of some value will be obtained in the not distant future. The following bulletins have been prepared by the Department of Agronomy during the year. : ‘ed No.'228, Potato Growing in New York. | No. 230, Quality in Potatoes. Fe No.9 232, Experiments on the Influence of Fertilizers upon the Yield of Timothy Hay when Grown on Dunkirk Clay Loam in Tomp- kins County, New York. AGRONOMY. 35 2. EXTENSION WORK. The co-operative experiments in agronomy have been carried on during the past year along lines similar to those previously announced, though somewhat increased in variety and extent. The three main objects of the work as outlined by Professor J. L. Stone in his report herewith submitted are (1) to gain information in regard to the soil and crops under experiment, (2) to extend the educational influence of experiments to the farmers who are doing the work and to their neighbors who observe them, and (3) to promote closer relationship and better understanding between the farmers of the state and the College of Agriculture. I would add that a fourth result, if not an object, is in keeping the College of Agriculture in touch with the important problems of the state and the acquirement of information for the benefit of all citizens of the state. Much of this acquired information finds expression in personal letters to and personal contact with the people of the state. The extension work in agronomy has grown to such an extent as to impair somewhat, in my opinion, its efficiency. Hardly enough time and money is now expended to do the work as thoroughly as it should be done. It is too early in the present season to report the results of the exten- sion work for this vear. I am, however, presenting herewith the report by Professor Stone of the work in progress and have asked him to prepare for presentation to yourself a report upon the work for the season of 1904. The work of the Department of Agronomy has been carried out by the following persons, to whose energy and devotion to duty I am glad to testify. John L. Stone, Assistant Professor of Agronomy, who has charge of the extension work and the winter-course students in agronomy. John W. Gilmore, Instructor in Agronomy, who has charge of the course in rural engineering and in farm practice, and who fee general supervision of the farm business. Samuel Fraser, Assistant Agronomist, who has charge of the experimental work. George W. Tailby, foreman of the farm, who has immediate charge of executing all farm operations. EXTENSION EXPERIMENTS IN AGRONOMY, 1904-1905. Report or AssIsTANT Proressor J. L. STONE. The co-operative experiments in agronomy carried on during the past year have been along lines similar to those of previous seasons, 36 Report oF THE DIRECTOR. though somewhat increased in variety and extent. The three main objects of the work that have been kept steadily in view are: 1. To gain information in regard to the soil and crops experi- mented with. 2. To extend the educational influence of experiments both to the farmers doing the work and to their neighbors who observe them. 3. To promote closer relationship, and a_ better understanding between the farmers of the state and the College of Agriculture. Positive advantages are being made toward the attainment of each of these objects. While perhaps little of the data obtained from these experiments may be classed as scientific and is hardly suitable for publication in bulletin form, yet to the farmers doing the work and to their neigh- bors it has a highly practical value. But of more importance than the gaining of a few facts is the establishment of the habit of asking questions of the soil and of the crops and watching carefully for the answers to those questions. The more complex and difficult the agricultural conditions become, the greater the necessity for habits of close observation. Experimentation cultivates such habits. Many farmers have been encouraged to undertake on their own farms the solution of problems of personal, practical interest to them. An effort is made to visit each experimenter during the season. These visits to the farms and the exchange of letters in connection with the experiments lead to the discussion of many subjects outside of the experiment that are of vital importance to the farmer. The farmer learns where he may obtain information bearing upon his problem, while the college gets a view of many questions from the farmer’s standpoint and is better able to adapt its work to meet his needs. As the farmers and institutions of the state having agricultural interests become more familiar with the college and its facilities for rendering them assistance, the college receives an increasing number of applications for personal visits to the farms that the problems may there be considered and the possible solutions suggested. Inasmuch as improved methods adopted by one farmer become the subject of observation and imitation by others, it is considered legitimate, so far as possible, to comply with these requests. Investigations along the following lines are in progress, but as reports have been received at this writing from but a small portion of the experimenters, it is not possible to state conclusions. Aljalja.—A study of the adaptation of the soil and climate of New York to the growing of the crop. The experimenter to report the conditions existing, the manner of treating the crop and the AGRONOMY. ok, _ successes and failures met in his experience. The direct experiments suggested were: Seeding with and without a nurse crop; Treating a portion of the area with lime; Inoculation with cultures and soil; Stable manure with and without inoculation. Interest has seemed to center around the matter of inoculation. Packages containing inoculated and uninoculated seeds were sent to 200 farmers, and sacks of soil from our alfalfa field to 32 farmers. Many of the farmers introduced one or more of the other experiments into their plats—test of the effect of an application of lime being most frequent. Oats.—A test of three varieties from selected seed. The varieties used were Board of Trade, secured in northeastern Pennsylvania; a strain of White Tartar, secured from the Winters farm in Tioga county, N. Y., and Kherson, a Russian variety imported and tested by the Nebraska Station, where it has proved very superior and from whom our seed was secured. Packages of the three varieties were sent to 12 farmers. Fertilizers—A test of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and _ potash, singly and in combination, eight plats 1-20 to 1-10 acre each. Eight farmers applied for this experiment. Potatoes—A variety test. Five pounds each of Commercial, Iona Seedling and Whitton’s White Mammoth were sent to each of 54 farmers for this test. Sunflower.—In corn for silage. Some farmers have reported very favorably in the past. Only four applied for seed this season. Soy Beans.—Seeds of several varieties were furnished to 19 farmers, who were requested to report, so far as circumstances would permit, on Their grain-producing qualities, Their forage-producing qualities, Their green-manurial qualities, Their adaptation to growing in corn to improve the quality of silage, and The effect of inoculating the seed with cultures. Part of the seed was inoculated for the last-mentioned test. Field Beans.—A test of varieties. Sufficient seed for a test of Red Kidney, Yellow Eyes, White Marrows, Blue-pod Medium, Marrow pea and Excelsior pea beans was sent, upon request, to 20 farmers, who are to report upon theif relative yield and adaptation to the localities where grown. 388 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. Buckwheat.—Ten farmers applied for and received sufficient seed of the Japanese and Silverhull buckwheats for a comparison of these varieties on their farms. Vetch.—Four farmers expressed a desire to test hairy vetch as a cover crop when sown with rye, and were supplied with seed for the experiment. The Destruction of Wild Mustard.—By means of press notices in some of the papers of the state 131 farmers were enrolled to test the efficiency of the copper sulphate spray in destroying wild mustard in growing crops. The heavy and persistent June rains that occurred soon after this work was started no doubt prevented many from carrying it to completion. Liming Soils.—-Aside from those who used lime in connection with their alfalfa experiments, five farmers have undertaken to make a test of the effect of lime on their soils and to report results. Inoculation of Legumes.—Aside from those who are watching the effect of inoculation on alfalfa, seven farmers upon request were furnished a variety of legume seeds, part inoculated and part not inoculated, to observe the effect in the development of nodules and in the growth of the crop. The renovation of pastures and meadows without plowing.—Two experimenters have undertaken to report upon the effect of sowing additional seeds upon pastures and meadows without replowing. Sometimes this treatment is accompanied with searifying the surface or with applications of manure or fertilizer. Dwarj milo.—Through the kindness of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture the college was supplied with a quantity of seed of dwarf milo (Andropogon sorghum var.). This seed was distributed to 22 farmers who are expected to report as to its value as a forage crop in their localities. Altogether 498 experiments were undertaken, distributed in 44- counties of the state and requiring the use of about 1,000 separate plats. | THOMAS F. HUNT, Projessor of Agronomy. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. 39 II. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. 1. FEDERAL EXPERIMENT STATION WORK. During the past year no new lines of work have been undertaken, but work has been continued along the same lines as formerly, namely, experiments in meat production with cattle, sheep and swine. Considerable data have been secured during the past year, but no results have as yet been published. Our work in the breeding and development of dairy cattle is continuous, and has progressed satisfactorily during the past year. 2. EXTENSION WORK. Extension work in animal husbandry lines, with the exception of some half dozen lectures delivered at various points in the state has, been almost wholly devoted to the supervision of records of thorough- bred cattle. During the past year the records of 700 Holstein cows were supervised for various periods of time, mostly for seven days, but in many cases for 30 days, and in a few cases for longer periods. These 700 cows belong to 85 different owners in the state. Of records for Guernsey breeders, we have visited regularly once each month and taken samples for fat determination, about 10 different herds, including between 40 and 50 different animals. The expense of this work, except the necessary clerical work in the office, has been borne by the different owners. H. H. WING, Professor of Animal Industry. II-A. SUB-DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY. A report of the work done in the Poultry Department for the fiscal year ending October 1, 1905, under the state appropriation is here submitted: Instruction.—Two courses of lectures in Poultry Husbandry were given to the students in the winter-courses. One of these consisted of two lectures per week which was given to 30 students in the course in general agriculture. The other was a course of 55 lectures deliv- ered to the students in the Winter Poultry-Course. The Winter-Course in Poultry Husbandry, which was offered this year for the first time, was satisfactory both from the point of attend- ance and quality of the students. 40 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. Seventeen students were enrolled. Of these, three were women; 13 were residents of New York State, one Minnesota, one Wisconsin, one Maine, one Iowa. The large number of students proportionately from other states is worthy of note. This no doubt is due to the fact that only two other states offer systematic instruction in poultry husbandry, and these two offer courses of only six weeks each. The course of instruction given consisted of 94 lectures, 55 of which were given by the writer, on subjects relating to the practical management of poultry, and the others as follows, from various departments and colleges of the university: Prof. H. H. Wing, 10 lectures, “ Principles of Breeding Poultry;” Dr. W. B. Mack, six lectures, “ Diseases of Poultry; Prof. S. H. Gage, six lectures, “ Embryology of the Egg; Dr. James Law, three lec- tures, “Internal Poultry Parasites ;’ Dr. G. 8. Hopkins, two lectures, “Comparative Anatomy of Poultry;’ Dr. P. A. Fish, one lecture, “Comparative Physiology of Poultry;’ Prof. G. Cavanaugh, one lecture, “Condimental Poultry Foods.” Non-resident lectures were also given, as follows: T. E. Orr, Beaver, Pa., three lectures, “Scoring and Judging Poultry ;” T. F. McGrew, Washington, D. C., four lectures, “Turkeys, Squabs, Fitting Fowls for the Show, Scoring and Judging Poultry;” E. G. Wyckoff, Ithaca, N. Y., one lecture, “Making of a Breed;” Dr. E. M. Santee, Cortland, N. Y., one lecture, “ Poultry Sanitation.” The fact that we are able to secure the services of so many experts from various departments and colleges of the university makes it possible to give a course of unusual strength—an advantage which is clearly due to the fact that the College of Agriculture is an integral part of a great university. The instruction was about equally divided between the lectures and the practice work. Three afternoons per week and a portion of every morning, noon and evening, were devoted to the actual work of the poultry plant and to laboratory exercises of a practical nature. In addition to this, several extended excursions were made to points of interest to poultrymen and much time was devoted to the holding of the Annual Poultry Show. This, the second Annual Poultry Show, had more exhibits, larger attendance, and was of greater educational value even than the one of last year. This method of stimulating interest, imparting instruction and unifying student effort, appears to have proven its value and to have established itself as a fixed annual event. During the summer a letter was sent to each of the persons who took the winter Poultry-Course with a hope in view of learning what Sus-DEPARTMENT OF PouLtTRY HUSBANDRY. 41 benefit they had received from taking the Poultry-Course. Replies have been received from 15 of the 17 members of the class. The answers are gratifying in the extreme. Of the six students who desired positions, all were satisfactorily placed. All report that they are satisfied with their places and all appear to be giving satis- faction. One has had his salary raised. All are receiving higher salaries than they did before they took the Poultry Course. One person reports “22 higher salary,”’ one “$150 a year better.”? From the replies received it is safe to say that any persons having the natural qualifications for success with poultry can secure a salary enough larger the first year after completing the Poultry-Course to more than pay for the entire expense of taking the course. From the reports received it would appear that an equal financial advantage would also apply to those who undertake poultry raising for them- selves. The demand for our students to take places of responsibility as managers of commercial poultry plants or those at agricultural colleges or experiment stations, is greater than we have students to supply. The Reading-Courses.—During the year reading-course work in poultry husbandry has been conducted for the Reading-Course Bureau. I am informed by the supervisor of extension work that the records show that 1,483 persons in this state have received these lessons. In addition to this, three of a series of 20 short stories about poultry, for children, have been prepared and published by the Cornell Junior Naturalist Monthly. The amount of correspondence that comes to this office is very large and is increasing. This is due to the many ways in which we reach the farmers and village people, both old and young, nearly all of whom are in some degree interested in poultry. Experimentation.—A large amount of data has been secured during the past two years on a wide variety of problems of interest to poultry- men. Two bulletins will soon be ready for publication from this department. The principal problems which have been or are now under investigation, may be mentioned, as follows: “Comparative influence of a very warm, close pen and an open- air pen on the health, productivity and fertility of fowls;” “Com-_ parative influence of a glass or all cioth windows on the lightness, dryness, temperature and purity of the air of poultry houses, and the consequent effect upon the health, growth, and egg production of fowls;” “Influence of alfalfa pasturage and other green food on ege production, the health of fowls and the fertility of eggs;” “ Com- 42, REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. parative anatomy of the various breeds of poultry to determine type differences;” “Investigation to work out the life history of two species of external poultry parasites, and best methods of destroying them;” “The function of meat in the economy of digestion of the domestic fowl;”: “A comparison of the value of the systems of wet and dry feeding for egg production ;” ‘“ How much food should be fed all other conditions being equal, for best results in egg production ;” “The comparative value for egg production of a ration of all whole grain without meat, and a ration containing both whole grain and meat, and their effect on fertility of eggs and vitality of germs;” “The comparative value of meat scraps, green cut bone and milk flour for winter egg production;” “Changes in temperature reading in incubators due to the position of the thermometer;” “A compara- tive test of several of the most modern devices of incubators;” “Influence of high and low temperatures on the developing germ;” “The effect of moist air as compared to dry air in incubators at the time of hatching;” “A comparison of the natural and _ artificial methods of incubation.” Development.—During the year the equipment of the poultry department has been materially enlarged to meet the needs of the inereased number of students and the necessity for investigation of many poultry problems. The main poultry building has been completed. Several additional varieties of fowls and ducks have been added to the stock, which now numbers approximately 500 fowls and 30 ducks, representing 17 varieties. On the whole, the poultry department, while not as large and as well equipped as it should be in order to accomplish the best results, is nevertheless on an effective working basis. JAMES E. RICE, Assistant Projessor of Poultry Husbandry. III. HORTICULTURE. 1, FEDERAL EXPERIMENT STATION. The work of the Horticultural Department in the Federal Experi- ment Station may be outlined as follows: (a) Propagation of the Sour: Cherry.-This subject has been inves- tigated by an advanced student of the department and some valuable : rt Tr. dt bog aly results secured. HorvicuLtTurn. 43 (b) The experiments announced last year in shading plants have _ been continued under glass and in the field. (c) Whether acetylene light is to be a factor in the forcing of plants, is a problem which has been under investigation for the past two winter seasons and is being continued. The subject is also being studied in its relation to modification of the structure of the plant. (d) A study of the oriental pears and their hybrids in relation to adaptation and commercial value, has been under way for some time and a bulletin is promised during the year. (e) Among minor investigations are tests of the newer vegetables, the forcing of strawberries and greenhouse crops. 2. EXTENSION’ WORK. (a) Orchard survey.—This work was continued in Niagara county during the summer of 1905. Owing to the lack of any appropriation under which it could be conducted, the area covered was relatively small. The services of graduate students of the department were used advantageously, and a preliminary report is in course of prepara- tion. The peach in addition to the apple was studied. (b) The investigation of horticultural industries.—The culture of the grape is a leading industry in several lake districts in New York. It:has suffered severely in recent years from root-killing and epi- demics of fungous diseases. The department has collected informa- tion of value, which, it is hoped, will be presented in bulletin form before long. Garden beans have been studied from two standpoints, the commercial aspect and the varietal characteristics. Careful studies of these features have been made at home and abroad. (ec) Eatension teaching in the State-—Addresses have been given at granges, farmers’ clubs and institutes by special request of these organizations as time permitted. Much interest has been manifested in the various phases of civic improvement by town and village societies. A number of addresses have been given, committees have been met and conferences held for the purpose of assisting in the aesthetic improvement of the exterior of houses in the smaller towns and villages. In passing, it is appropriate to note that each year records increased interest on the part of the farmer in the surround- ings of hishome. In the rural districts more shrubs are being planted, more lawn is being cared for than ever before. An interesting type of meeting that should be assisted and stimulated is the field meeting where farmers gather to study and examine the crops on the ground. (d) Extension teaching at the university.—A course of lectures was given in 1905 to winter-course students in agriculture on commercial 44 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. fruit-growing. There has been a continuously increasing demand for special winter-course instruction in horticulture. This we have tried to meet in an improvised manner by arranging a course in fruit- growing, vegetable-gardening and floriculture for the winter of 1906. 3. PUBLICATIONS. Three bulletins have been issued during the year. Two of them were prepared under the direction of the horticulturist by G. F. Warren, a student of the graduate school taking major work in horticulture, and gave the results of an exhaustive study of the apple industry of Wayne and Orleans counties. The first, that of Wayne county, comprised 183 pages; the second, Orleans county, 42 pages. Both of these have been much appreciated by fruit-growers in these counties, and in other parts of the state. There is a demand for further investigation of this nature. The third bulletin gave the results of experience and experiments in growing some of the leading forcing-house crops. JOHN CRAIG, Professor of Horticulture. IV. ENTOMOLOGY. I herewith transmit a report on the entomological work of the Station during the past year under the auspices of the State fund. The report has been prepared by the assistant entomologist at my neq veS as nearly all the entomological work has been done by him. J. H. COMSTOCK, Projessor of Entomology REPORT OF ASSISTANT PROFESSOR SLINGERLAND. The work of the Entomological Division of the Station during the past year has been concentrated along a few important lines. Some of the work begun last year has been finished, and considerable new work has been done, or is now in progress. Co-operative spray- ing experiments were continued with several prominent fruit-growers and some valuable results obtained. The life-histories of some new and important shade-tree pests have been worked out. Much time has been consumed in teaching and correspondence work. ENTOMOLOGY. 45 1. FEDERAL EXPERIMENT STATION WORK. The study of the grape-berry moth was completed, and resulted in much new information regarding its habits, life-history and remedial suggestions. I was able to demonstrate that this pest is an American insect and not a European species, as we have always supposed. It was also found that other similar insects, which had been classified with this grape-berry moth, but which fed on different food plants, were distinct species. One of these allied forms, and also the most common parasitic enemy of the grape-berry moth, were described by experts as new species, and both were named “Slingerlandana.” This important work on one of the serious pests of the grape was published as Bulletin No. 223, The Grape-berry Moth. Work on the life-histories of two comparatively new shade-tree pests was completed and a practicable and effective method of com- bating them was found and tested. “Both these insects are sawfly leaf-miners, one working on the European elms, and the other on European alder. They have been quite destructive to the shade- trees on the university campus and in various parts of the state. In connection with these shade-tree pests, I have also studied the bronze birch borer. This insect has wrought great destruction in the parks and on private grounds in several of our large cities, and it is fast killing the white birches on the university campus and in Ithaca. These investigations will be brought together in a bulletin to be issued during the coming year. 2. EXTENSION WORK. The extension of the entomological division under the state appro- priation has been rather miscellaneous and of a more popular charac- ter. Teaching.-—During the winter I gave a course of lectures on injuri- ous insects, one lecture each week, to 40 students in the winter-course. Experimental work.—There was issued from this division Bulletin No. 224, Two Grape Pests: I. Effective Spraying for the Grape Root-worm. II. A New Grape Enemy: The Grape Blossom-bud Gnat. The junior author of this bulletin, Mr. Fred Johnson, rendered very valuable services in the work on grape pests during the season. Although my experiments during the preceding two years indicated that the arsenate of lead spray was effective against the grape root- worm, it was decided to continue the experiment another season to more fully corroborate our work, and demonstrate the value of this method of fighting such a serious pest. The same nine-acre vineyard 46 ReporT OF THE DIRECTOR. that was sprayed last year was again sprayed with this same poison this season. Two applications were thoroughly made by a student assistant, Mr. R. 8. Woglum, with the result that it was difficult to find any eggs laid by the beetles on the vines that were sprayed. In connection with this work on the grape root-worm, I discovered that its enemies are now taking an active part in the warfare against it. In examining one vine at random in an infested vineyard, I found 11 egg-clusters of this pest. In at least three of these egg- clusters every egg contained a minute parasitic fly instead of the embryo grape root-worm. ‘This little enemy proved to be one of the parasites which did gallant work in Ohio vineyards several years ago. It is known as Fidiobia flavipes. As it lives in the eggs there is no danger of checking its goodly work with any of the treatments for controlling the pest by man. While I believe this parasite will be an important factor in reducing the numbers of grape root-worms below the danger limit in the Chautauqua grape region, I would not advise any vineyardists to wait for its appearance or to let up a particle in their warfare of cultivation and spraying for the pest. Nature’s insecticides are usually very effective in the long run, but oftentimes too slow for man who is dependent on annual crops. Co-operative experiments.—This division purchased 650 pounds of arsenate of lead for co-operative experiments with fruit-growers during the season. About 400 pounds were used in spraying for the grape root-worm in Chautauqua county, the results of which have been given above. Six prominent fruit-growers co-operated in spraying with this poison for the plum-curculio. Some obtained quite marked results, while others could see little difference between sprayed and un- sprayed trees. Several plum-growers, however, are convinced that they can control this pest by judicious applications of a poison spray just after the petals have fallen and again a week or ten days later. It requires very thorough and timely work. Two orchardists used this poison under my directions for the quince curculio. The results were not so marked as last year, and in one case they were vitiated by the jarring of the sprayed trees with a “curculio-catcher.”’ Last year’s experiments against the rose-chafer were continued this season. Two rose-growers and one vineyardist used the arsenate of lead spray, and my assistant, Mr. Woglum, also sprayed some roses. The insect appeared in large numbers over a wide territory in the region along the southern shore of Lake Ontario, and in isolated places in other parts of the state. In my spraying experiment the AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 47 rose foliage was almost completely protected from the attacks of the beetles by only one very thorough application of the poison, which was used at the rate of 12 pounds in 50 gallons of water. An exten- sive rose-grower on Long Island, who sprayed twice with the poison at the rate of 10 pounds in 50 gallons of water reports that “The bugs distinctly avoided the sprayed beds and rows. If caught and placed on the sprayed parts, they would become sluggish in their move- ments, and paralyzed in their limbs, and many of them would die.” Work was continued on the life-history of the rose-chafer and a bulletin is in preparation giving the results of our studies on this insect, and of the co-operative experiments with a poison spray to control it. In this bulletin we also expect to include the results of the co-operative work against the plum and quince curculios. I visited several of the orchardists who carried on co-operative experiments, both before spraying time and afterwards, to note the results. In these visitations among the farmers, I learn much that is helpful to me in a practical way, and often I am able to give direct information that is of much benefit to them. During a recent tour through many of the best fruit orchards in the western part of the state, I discovered that the dreaded San José scale was thoroughly established in several orchards where the owner hardly suspected its presence. This serious orchard pest is now widely scattered all through the state, and is cropping out in new localities at frequent intervals. Evidently all our orchardists must sooner or later face the problem of controlling this dangerous enemy. I am just starting a series of experiments with the new soluble petroleums against this scale insect. These preparations make staple emulsions by simply diluting with water. Some preliminary experi- ments give very promising results. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Assistant Projessor of Entomology. V. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 1. FEDERAL EXPERIMENT STATION WORK. In continuation of the experiments of the previous year, 59 sam- ples of sweet corn have been examined for the sugar content. The results of the first year’s work indicate that the sugar content may be increased, by proper selection of seed, as individual ears showed sugar contents ranging from 3.47 per cent. to 6.28 per cent. (dry basis). The work will be continued. 48 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. The Department of Agronomy is endeavoring to grow some easily digested food of proper composition to take the place of western grains and by-products. In this connection, analyses have been made of 87 samples of cabbage and root crops. There have also been examined for this department, 112 samples of soils and eight samples of potatoes. 2. EXTENSION WORK. In response to requests from various sections of the state, analyses have been made of nine samples of lime, eight samples fertilizers, 18 samples feeds, three samples soil and two samples weed destroyer. Analyses of 17 samples of apples were made for the department of horticulture in connection with the orchard survey of Wayne county. 3. WORK IN PROGRESS. This Department is co-operating with the Department of Agronomy in soil and inoculation experiments with alfalfa in an effort to corre- late the amounts of soluble plant food of the soil with the differences in growth of this crop. During the year, a study will also be made of the conditions under which the oat crop has failed in different parts of the state. GEO. W. CAVANAUGH, Assistant Professor of Chemistry in its Relations with Agriculture. JAS. A. BIZZELL, Assistant Chemist to the Experiment Station. VI. BOTANY. I present herewith the annual report of the Botanical Division of the Federal Experiment Station for the year ending June 30, 1905. CULTURE OF MUSHROOMS. Some investigations have been carried on for the purpose of deter- mining conditions for growing mushrooms in a simple way, in cellars or basements of buildings, and under benches in greenhouses. The results the past year were very successful and a large yield for the space occupied was obtained under benches in the greenhouse con- nected with the department of botany and in the basement of the building. The mushrooms were also of excellent quality. An account of these experiments, was published as Bulletin No. 227, Mushroom Growing for Amateurs, March, 1905. Borany. 49 It is planned to continue these experiments in a small way and extend them as far as possible with the facilities now at our disposal to other species closely related to the common mushroom. STUDIES OF THE HIGHER FUNGI. The study of the higher fungi which has been one of the special features of the work of the Botanical Division has been continued with the result that considerable additions have been made in the way of illustrations and notes for monographic work on some of the more important genera which it is hoped may be prepared for publica- tion sometime in the future. The studies serve for the present a very valuable purpose in giving us the basis for supplying information to a large number of correspondents who write for aid in determination of species and for information as to the edible or non-edible character of these plants, and concerning the disease of fruit, shade and forest trees. RESEARCH WORK. Considerable attention is given to research work on problems of a more scientific nature which serve one way or another as the basis of applied science, for the instruction of our constituents and for the general advancement of knowledge. 1. One of these problems has been the study of the embryology and development of Agaricus campestris, the common mushroom. This study has been completed. It comprises the determination of the origin and differentiation of the different parts of the plant in the embryo stage from the simple mass of undifferentiated tissue at the time the minute fruit bodies first appear on the strands of mycelium. The study has been made with sections in paraffin which have been prepared and stained in accordance with the best methods. . Photo- micrographs have been made of‘the different stages of development. The study will soon be prepared for publication, either as a bulletin or as an article in some scientific periodical. 2. Some progress has been made in the investigations started for the purpose of determining whether the substance of the fleshy fungi possess any food value for the higher plants after decay. The experi- ments thus far have been conducted with the common mushroom, Agaricus campestris, which has been employed as the sole source of food for corn, beans, peas and buckwheat. These preliminary ex- periments show that during the early stages of decay the mushroom exercises a distinct poisonous effect on the seedlings, but after de- composition is far advanced the plants recover from the injuries if 4 50 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. the mushroom substance is properly “diluted” with sterile sand and the plants make a more healthy growth and more increase in plant substance than those grown in sterile sand alone. These experiments will be continued. 3. Investigations have been started to determine the life-history of several parasitic fungi affecting fruits and vegetables for the primary purpose of determining the perfect stage of development and the manner in which the fungi exist during the winter. GENERAL WORK. Aside from the special problems for investigation there is a great deal of work which is of a general character. This consists of observa- tions, notes, photographs, etc., of a great variety of plant diseases caused by fungi. The work is done for the purpose of accumulating data which will be of value in replying to the numerous calls for information which are received and also will serve in many cases as the basis or aid in some future piece of investigation. Much time is also required to attend to the large correspondence, to determine plants sent in for determination, to name fungi and fungus diseases, and to recommend methods of treatment for fungus diseases, etc., ete. I would also call your attention again to the need of a special building for the study of plant diseases as outlined in my last report. EXTENSION WORK. This work has been prosecuted with unusual vigor and success by the plant pathologist, Mr. H. H. Whetzel, whose report is given here for the year ending September 30, 1905 (comprising remainder of this report) : The following is a brief statement of the chief lines of investigation carried on during the year. 1. Blight canker of apple trees.—Investigation into the nature and cause of certain cankers of young apple trees was begun in the autumn of 1904 and has been continued up to the present time. A very large proportion of the time and funds at the disposal of the pathologist have been devoted to the investigation of this disease. The work has consisted of trips to various parts of the state where the disease was known to be prevalent and severe, for the purpose of studying the trouble in the field. An orchard of 350 apple trees near Ithaca known to beslightly affected has been visited weekly, and a care- ful record of the condition of each tree made every two weeks with the object of collecting data on the different stages in the progress of the disease, methods of dissemination, susceptibility of varieties, etc. Botany. 51 Various methods of treating diseased trees were also being tried in this and other orchards. Three complete sets of inoculations, con- sisting of ten or more individual infections each, have been made during the past season. Five or more pure cultures of the organism from cankers on apple trees, blighted twigs of apples and pears, and blighted fruits of both apples and pears, have been obtained and tested in various culture media to determine their identity. Over 100 photographs of various forms and stages of the canker and twig blight have been obtained. Extensive and detailed data in the shape of notes, correspondence, etec., have been gathered. A paper prepared on the subject,and illustrated with some 30 lantern slides, was presented before the American Pomological Society in session at Kansas City, September 19-21, 1905. Briefly the following conclusions may be drawn from the year’s work: a. The disease is quite prevalent and destructive throughout central New York, the Hudson Valley region north of Albany and in the extreme northern part of the state about Chaumont. It is also reported from the southern part of the state. b. Trees of from six to 15 years of age suffer worst from this malady. Of the young orchards just coming into bearing in the Hudson River region fully 95 per cent. are badly affected. Old trees also suffer frequently. c. The cankers have been proven to be due to bacteria and success- ful inoculations into the healthy bodies of pear and apple trees have been made, resulting in well developed cankers. d. By cross inoculations both direct and from pure cultures, the twig blight of pears and apples, and these cankers on apple trees as well as the “Body Blight” of pears have been proven to be due to the same organism, Bacillus amylovorus. The testing of pure cultures of the organisms obtained from these different sources, through some 10 or more different culture media, has shown them to be the same. e. The chief methods of infection seem to be: through water- sprouts on limbs or body, wounds, pruning knife, or insects that follow to suck up exuding sap and boring insects, e. g., borers, ete. f. The high per cent. of deaths of trees in certain regions seems to be due largely to the work of secondary fungi and bacteria that gain entrance through the infection courts provided by the cankers and cause heart rot of the tree. g. Slightly affected trees may be successfully treated as follows: cut out all diseased or cankered tissue, swab out with a two-tenths per cent. solution of corrosive sublimate or a three per cent. solution of 52 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. copper sulphate and paint over with some heavy paint. Actively spreading cankers may be checked by simply cutting out the diseased bark and allowing the wound to dry. It should be painted later to prevent the entrance of rot fungi. h. Cultivation increases the susceptibility of apple trees to this disease. i. Certain varieties are more susceptible than others. Only one was found that was entirely immune, that was the Wolf River. Talman Sweets are quite resistant. Baldwins and Ben Davis are most susceptible and the first to go out. While the cause of this disease seems to be well established, there still remains much important work to be done in the way of verifying certain conclusions by more extended observations, the duplicating of some of the inoculations, the determination of conditions most favor- able to the development of this disease on the bodies of the trees, susceptibility of varieties, relation to “collar rot,” ete., and the relation of certain phenomena, such as, bleeding, ete., to this disease. A continuation of the work along these lines is planned for next year. It is also planned to undertake some investigations into the means by which this disease is disseminated to the twigs and water sprouts resulting in twig blight. 2. Diseases oj Ginseng.—This investigation is a continuation of the work begun by Mr. Van Hook in 1903. Practically all our work along this line during the past season has been devoted to a study of the leaf blight of ginseng. Leaf Blight.—This disease is by far the most widespread with which the grower has to contend. The past rainy season has been especially favorable to its development, and losses from it have been heavy. It is due to a fungus, Alternaria. It attacks stem, leaves and fruit. In most cases it completely destroys the parts of the plants above ground. The roots are not affected and aside from a reduction in growth do not seem to suffer. They send up apparently as healthy stalks the year following a severe attack of the disease as they do following a year in which the tops have not gone down. The disease almost always ruins the seed crop. It is quite destructive to the foliage of seedlings, greatly reducing root growth. It is largely responsible for the “blasting”’ of seed even though the foliage may not suffer much. It has been demonstrated beyond question during the past season that it may be controlled entirely by the proper use of Bordeaux mixture. The disease was found on wild plants, Botany. 53 Through the courtesy of the Consolidated Ginseng Company of Rose Hill, N. Y., we have been able to study this disease in their gardens, and will with their co-operation conduct extensive experi- ments in the sterilization of the soil with formalin and steam for the control of this disease and the “tip rot’’ and damping off of seedlings. We are indebted to Dr. I. C. Curtiss of Fulton, N. Y., for extensive and successful experiments in spraying for this disease. Numerous photographs and data in the shape of notes have been collected and short articles on this disease have been contributed to different ginseng publications during the year. Material is ready for a short bulletin on the Leaf Blight and Soft Rot of the Roots. Continued experiments in spraying and soil treatment are planned for next year. Other diseases of Ginseng have also received considerable attention, among which is to be mentioned a blight of stems and leaves due to bacteria. The organism was isolated and inoculations made which resulted in successful infection. 3. Aljalfa Leaf Spot.—Spraying experiments to determine if this disease could be controlled were begun quite early in the season. Various mixtures were used and applied every week for several weeks until the alfalfa was too tall to make spraying of any value. Exam- ination of the different plots at the time of the first cutting showed but little reduction of the leaf spot. Those plots treated with Bor- deaux mixture seemed to show the least. The weather was very rainy, the plots treated were small and the work begun so late in the season that no conclusions can be drawn. It was planned to spray again after the first cutting, but continuous rains directly after the first cutting prevented the removal of the crops until the alfalfa had grown too tall to make spraying feasible. The work for this season was therefore dropped. 4. Bean Diseases.—The Bacterial Blight of Beans, and the Bean Anthracnose were very prevalent and destructive in certain sections during the season. A press bulletin on Bean Anthracnose was issued and distributed to bean growers of the state. A visit to one of the bean-growing sections was made and a talk on the subject of bean diseases given before the local grange. Extensive experiments in spraying for Anthracnose during the coming season are planned. 5. The correspondence for the past year has been very heavy. This has taken up a large part of the time when not in the field. The inquiries, while varied, have been largely with regard to diseases of fruit and shade trees and the diseases of truck crops. These have all been given prompt and careful attention. Numerous bulletins 54 RepoRT OF THE DIRECTOR. and copies of the spray calendar have been sent out. We have carried a microscope with us constantly on our trips and have at- tempted to show the grower the organism that was causing him trouble and to explain to him its nature and the means of combating it. This plan has been highly satisfactory. Where possible we have made practical demonstrations of the explanations by inoculations in the field. This we believe has resulted in a more intelligent co- operation on the part of the grower in combating these diseases. GEO. F. ATKINSON, Projessor of Botany. VII. DAIRY INDUSTRY. THE EXTENSION WORK. For this work there was allotted from the State fund, $3,000. This has been expended as follows: | 1. Correspondence.—It is estimated that about 2,000 letters were written last year in connection with extension work. Many inquiries are received from dairymen, butter-makers and cheese-makers who wish to have some difficulty explained and a large number of letters come from persons wishing to enter or ask about the Winter Dairy- Course. Every inquiry received is carefully answered. 2. The Dairy School.—As in previous years a winter-course was given in dairy industry. The term lasted 11 weeks, January to March. The size of the class was larger than ever before and taxed to the utmost our facilities for the winter-course instruction. Ninety- one students registered ,—90 men and one woman, and these gave their entire time to instruction in dairy and closely allied subjects. Thirty- one students taking the General Agricultural winter-course elected farm dairying and received instruction in this subject in one lecture and two half days of practice each week. The ages of the 91 regular dairy students were from 18 to 48, the average being 25. They came from 30 counties in this state and two neighboring states (stu- dents from other states paid tuition) as follows: Allegany county Broonie County. eke ass Sk ae Oe ee etter ieee Cay 9a COUNT Y.ass os oe RL Eo ae eee te eee ae Chautaugua :coumty.s\i:2).¢. Gs. ken veka ete Dine Pram Sheree ee ee Chenanco coum ty Fos. cis' 5. See eae ek et area eae ee tatters ee. 6:05! (oc 00 10\ 70 © 6) le) ne) te! 0, 2 :'0f VU, le: 10 4.0) 16 (0 es’ e) S5.0.cm) w Carrs) ee we) viele eis Re NTH bo Ol Ot Dairy INDUSTRY. See Panouentihiny dates She ees sae fe, PSUR tet 8G WietamareeCGUUhy- ates cet weiss oth cS ees Ot oe ee TE ea Papeless cOUmny see tere Pier Brae SSS SON Ata Sain Paes COU arias Les aee Sie n ck Soret ee Sse EN tLe Sn I pCLC OUTIL ye Mine ete A RL, Se ees oe SOR ETL SE ites ERC ENE COUN Vertes OS Oe ee a SR OP ES! na “1) SIERO SGAU EY 7 ak ea a AR eg MC WES COUN ne set ee Mee en eat ne mete peRE eRe eRe ve oo OTN aTTANSSS RON C1610 D1. 1, ear ee Packham ar Oe ce PPR MG MUCONTEK ye COUN Doers wien nee ree soe cede Cones Ee See he SEES Nerve Monks emelty re aia 4 wae t-eed hoe Pas ee ke ow Leet ea WratCeMe Oli yee = fine lee yhtte cated Oe i MO Te ne ee a Be ewe Se IEW as EORNA Sa) sete eee OS ae Se cll te emrCQ UM er poe ae ered Seneca NA ee eae d eae wee HE SOU See OUD yn me Meera ae oars a, ARG la a Patel oe eet we bana USE CSN TIL sy (0 eA AE Bie ee a ee Ree RR ea Ontario county.......... wR 2 OE ee vas Mer Ned eoene re COUN GMa ey Serine inti seman ine. Sees Peat Lae elm herr CuC ORM eat ares A oanr Stamnes PRL eS Cin Re SUN De, Beemer teem sem see ears Shae lite ey af Flats a aa ROE SS les EE SE AWECECE COUNLY sss) toe os ae Are ce es bh. OU ye teed See ISOS CS. TTI Sees tie 2 te aera te ara aie a ee a Pore RC OU iyo: hehe eae tials Ne ds. Stes ioo teen a goa ee ee Wister-counmtye leak tk oe CS ae Ok ene tet —_ [SGU eee eee ie ae Sarees Instruction in the Winter Dairy-Course is given largely by assist- ants engaged especially for this purpose. W. W. Hall was in charge of cheese practice and W. E. Griffith of creamery practice. Being officers of the State Department of Agriculture, they were detailed by the Commissioner of Agriculture, Hon. Charles A. Wieting. We paid their expenses while in Ithaca. H.C. Troy was in charge of the testing laboratory. He also is connected with the State Department of Agriculture and occupies a laboratory in the dairy building by courtesy of the University. The last named and one extra assistant in each of the three divisions named received nominal compensation. The assistants were selected from present or former students and regarded their connection with our work as of enough personal advantage to largely pay for their services. 56 Report oF THE DIRECTOR. Perhaps the value of the Dairy-Course can be best shown by quoting from those who took it. About the middle of the season each student who was registered in this course last winter was asked how his position compared as to responsibility and salary with his position one year earlier,—before taking the Dairy-Course. Most of the replies are given: H. G. B., Lewis county, assistant in cheese factory. “The responsibility is more than it was last year and the salary is the same.” W. H. F., Greene county, operator in skimming station. “Salary is higher and there is a great deal of responsibility.” 8S. A. D., Delaware county, foreman of creamery. “Responsibility is much larger and salary $15 per month gain.” A. D. C., Essex county, manager of creamery. “Last year was. second man at $35 per month. This year first man at $50 per month.” W. A. B., Essex county, cheese-maker. “Responsibility greater and salary increased $8 a month.” C. E. B., Westchester county, helper in dairy. “About the same responsibility this year as last year. Salary $24 per month and board.” W. E. A., Allegany county, butter and cheese-maker. “Responsibility about the same as last year and one-third increase in salary.” L. H. A., Wyoming county, cheese-maker. “My position this year is much better than it was last vear and the responsibility is greater. My salary is $13 per month more than it was last year and do not have to work as many hours.” H. E. A., Allegany county, cheese-maker. “My salary is the same as last year and responsibility greater,—am now a partner in the business.”’ O. M. B., Schoharie county, cheese-maker. “More responsibility and more salary than last year.” Dartry INDUSTRY. 57 O. B., Rensselaer county, butter-maker. “Am head man this year. Receive $20 more a month.” G. H. B., Erie county, Pa., helper in cheese factory. “My position is the same this year as last, salary is better and the responsibility is more than it was last year.” W. H. B., Erie county, Pa., manager of cheese factory. “Was helper last year.” L. L. B., Clinton county, butter-maker. “More responsibility and better salary, now getting $30 per month and board.” J. D. C., Tompkins county, farmer. “Responsibility the same, salary more than doubled.” C. A. C., St. Lawrence county, cheese-maker. “Salary and responsibility both increased.” J. R. C., Oneida county, manager of creamery. “A great deal more responsibility and double the salary.” F. B. F., Tioga county, sanitary market milk, first assistant. “More responsibility and more salary.” EK. A. F., St. Lawrence county, in charge of skimming station. “Salary is $20 better than it was a year ago.” E. F. F., Chenango county, head butter-maker. “Position this year has more responsibility than last year, with an increase of 25 per cent. in salary.” R. C. H. F., Livingston county, cheese-maker. “Much better.” W. J. G., Jr., Schoharie county, butter-maker. “One year ago was second man for a creamery company at $30 per month. This year have full charge of the plant and receive $60 per month.” E. G., Cortland county, manager creamery. “This year get $20 per month more than last and am in charge.”’ 58 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. F. E. H., Chenango county, work in a butter and cheese factory. “Responsibility and salary are a little more than last year.” G. E. L., Onondaga county, helper in creamery. “Last year I was in a skimming station. This year my respon- sibility is greater,as I am ina creamery and have charge of separating, cream ripening and churning part of the time.” C. H. L., Oswego county, butter-maker and helper. “My salary is $10 per month more than I received last year and responsibility is greater.” K. J. L., Onondaga county, second man in creamery. “Responsibility is the same, salary is more.” W. H. L., Suffolk county, assistant butter-maker. “More responsibility, same salary, but better prospects.” W. L. M., Rome, Pa., cheese-maker. “More responsibility and a better salary.” A. S. M., Delaware county, operator of skimming station. “More responsibility, salary increased $10 per month.” S. M., Broome county, foreman in milk-bottling plant. “Responsibility is much greater this season and salary is $70 per month. It was $40 per month last year.”’ J. H. M., Essex county, manager of skimming station. “Responsibility greater, salary better.” J. J. N., Middletown, Delaware, assistant foreman in creamery. . “Have more responsibility and get a better salary.” H. J. N., Schoharie county, first man in creamery. “The yume is greater and my sees is larger by $15 per month.” F. H. P., Bradford county, Pa., butter-maker. “One year ago salary was $20 per month and at present it is $32.” W. R. P., Columbia county, butter-maker. “Responsibility about the same and an advance of about $10 per month in salary.” Dairy INDUSTRY. 59 J. C. R., Kings county, superintendent of three market milk plants. “Fifteen dollars per month better, salary $75 per month now.” L. W. R., Madison county, third man or helper in creamery. “Salary is much larger.” A. §., St. Lawrence county, butter-maker. “More responsibility and $8 a month more salary this year than last.” J. I. S., Clinton county, creamery operator. “Responsibility greater and $15 a month increase in salary.” J. A. S., Greene county, first man in creamery. “Tast year I was manager of a skimming station at $50 per month. This year I am first man in creamery at $55 per month the whole year and helper furnished.” J. A. §., Erie county, butter-maker. “More responsibility and increase in salary of $8 per month.” E. A. S., St. Lawrence county, second man in butter and cheese factory. “Salary increased $6 per month.”’ H. A. T., Oswego county, butter-maker. “The responsibility is much greater and the salary is more.”’ W. E. T., Chenango county, helper in creamery. “Responsibility more and salary better.” J. A. T., Delaware county, manager of creamery. “The responsibility is the same, the salary is $60 a year more.” G. W. T., Orange county, butter-maker. “Salary $50 a month with full charge of creamery.” H. W., Onondaga ‘county, helper in butter factory. “Responsibility is greater than last year and salary is $10 more per month.” L. G. W., Sullivan county, butter-maker. “Responsibility greater this season. Salary same, but expenses less.” 60 Report OF THE DIRECTOR. M. W., Delaware county, manager of creamery. “Responsibility double and wages increased from $40 to $60 per month.” L. R. W., Wayne county, cheese-maker. “Greater responsibility and salary increased one-half.’ M. V. W., Delaware county, helper in creamery. “Greater responsibility and salary increased from $37 per month to $50.” V. M. T., Hartford, Conn., helper in market milk plant. “Worked on farm last year. This year my salary is $55 per month.” M. G. W., Broome county, assistant butter-maker. “First year in creamery work.” L. D. N., Delaware county, butter-maker. “First creamery work. Salary $50 per month.” R. W. H., Steuben county, condensing operator. “Responsibility and salary doubled.” J. M. J., Herkimer county, butter-maker. “Virst year in creamery work. Salary $30 a month and board.” T. J. M., Livingston county, manager and butter-maker. ? fo} J) “Assistant one year ago, now receiving $550 per year and helper furnished.” W. G. D. C., Cortland county, in charge of milk station. “Position same as last year.” H. D. §S., Schenectady county, helper in market milk plant. “Position much better than last year. I now have charge of engine and boiler, pasteurizer and separators.” It should be remembered that while some of the short-course stu- dents have had good common school training, the majority have never finished the common branches, or did so several years ago and are Dairy INpDustTRY. 61 “rusty’’ in these subjects. The short courses are intended for such men, providing they want to learn thoroughly the practical side of their work and as much as possible of the theory. Prospective students are always advised to gain some experience in a cheese or butter factory or a milk shipping station before coming here. But sometimes this is impracticable and a student is admitted without previous experience. That such a one may succeed in a responsible position is shown by the following description of “A Model Cheese Factory,” which was visited last summer by the instruc- tor in cheese-making. The operator of the factory never made cheese before he entered the Short Dairy-Course in January, 1905. A MODEL CHEESE FACTORY. This factory is located in Schoharie county. The plant is new and excellent drainage has been provided. The floor is made of cement and the equipment throughout is of the best, including a continuously- pressing steel press and a galvanized iron whey vat. Payments to patrons for milk are based upon the most up-to-date method. They depend upon the fat contained in the milk and not upon weight of milk alone, as is the common practice. The average test of milk is 4.7 per cent. fat, and it requires less than nine pounds of this milk to make one pound of cured cheese. The factory man gets $1.20 per hundred pounds for manufacturing and furnishing, and the milk nets the patrons an average of $1.18 per hundred pounds when cheese sells for 114 cents per pound, as they are selling at the time this report is made out. The patrons have learned to value clean whey as a stock food. Accordingly the whey vat, which is placed on the floor above the working room, receives the same care as the vat in which cheese are made. The whey is delivered to the patrons in nearly as good con- dition as is the milk when received. A careful feeder estimates its value at 12 cents per 100 pounds when fed to swine. It is distributed to the patrons through an automatic weighing machine, which appor- tions it according to the amount of milk the different persons deliver. The cheese are made by the most improved methods known in the American cheese-making districts. They are uniform in quality, firm and solid in texture, and they develop a high and delicious flavor when allowed to age. 3. Inspections.—During the season 108 visits were made at the factories of previous Dairy-Course students in different parts of the state. This part of the work is considered an important supplement to the Short Dairy-Course. It is carried on primarily to ascertain if 62 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. candidates for certificates of proficiency in dairy industry are do- ing really highgrade work and thus showing themselves worthy of special recognition. Most of these visits were made by Mr. W. W. Hall, cheese instructor. Some were made by other members of the instructing staff. 4. Experiments.—With the assistance of Walter E. King of the department of bacteriology of the New York State Veterinary Col- lege, the writer completed a series of experiments last summer upon the sources of milk’ contamination. Some valuable results were obtained. A few of the experiments need to be repeated and a few new ones carried through, when all results should be published. On account of limited facilities some experiments upon butter and cheese making have had to be temporarily discontinued. They will be resumed in the near future. 5. Attending meetings.—The writer and Mr. Hall have attended and addressed several meetings held in the interest of better milk. GENERAL. © 1. New Building.—During the past year a very large amount of the time of the writer and some of his assistants has been demanded by the planning and construction of the new dairy building. In general plan this building differs markedly from the one in use the past 12 years and the dairy buildings at other agricultural colleges. Being in two distinct parts,—a one-story part for manufacturing work and a higher part for laboratories, class and lecture rooms, reading room, museum and offices,—one kind of work cannot interfere with the other, yet both may go on in conjunction as readily as when one is directly above or below the other. 2. Milk Supply.—Arrangements have now been completed by which the university will lease a small creamery near Ithaca and thus secure a supply of milk throughout the entire year. This will be advantageous in several ways. It will (a) permit giving instruction in practical work at any time in the year. ; (b) afford a better opportunity for experimental work. (c) provide some milk for the winter dairy classes at a more reason- able rate than heretofore paid. (d) enable the department to make butter throughout the year, thus holding a desirable trade. R. A. PEARSON, Professor of Dairy Industry. NaTuRnE-STupy. VIII. NATURE-STUDY. I would most respectfully submit the following report of results in the Bureau of Nature-Study for the school year ending June, 1905. Total number of Junior Naturalist Clubs organized and (AIDRER Fes SU Tire gies ek Seer eee cy en Se Those out of the state accepted on professional courtesy. . Total membership of 486 Junior Naturalist Clubs, pupils of PM ON es erly os ing hea Seo ey Be SF see Mae es Total number of letters received from pupils relating to sub- TVETE PS4S] TTL: 1 6 FAT arena are ages Na Total number of pages mailed to members of Junior Natural- Ts BS epi fe Mirren ah ce. Var ais gs Beta kate ahaha SR Ogee ads ose 4 Number of topics treated during the school year........ SUBJECT OF LESSONS. OctoBER, 1904. JANUARY, 1905. Alfalfa. Dogs. Chipmunk. Leafless Trees. Silo. Berries. Wild Flowers. Geranium. Canada Thistle and Other Seeds. Diseased Apple. School Grounds. November, 1904. 486 229 245 12 14,318 33,833 781,400 30) Pumpkin. Frepruary, 1905. Sumac. Cows. Soils. Garden. Note Books. Collection of Seeds. Paper White Narcissus. Woodpecker. Letters to Uncle John. DEcEMBER, 1904. Horses. j White Pine. Evergreens < Pitch Pine. Christmas Trees. | Norway Spruce. Birds and Bird Houses. Color in February. Morning Talks. Marcu, 1905. Cats. Willows. Texture of the Soil. Experiments with the Soil. APRIL, 1905. Poultry. Protect Wild Flowers. 64 ReEPoRT OF THE DIRECTOR. How We Can Help the Birds. May, 1905. Experiments with the Soil. The Brook and the Brookside. How the White Pine Grows. Formation of the Soil. Letters from Junior Naturalists. Blossom-time and Seed-time. SUPPLEMENT. Story of a Boy, a Hen and Some Pictures for Junior Naturalists. other Things. Something for Children to Plant. LETTERS BY SUBJECTS. Alfalfa ac. tS Res Cote Sa el a re ee es 4 hens aya apa ee 1,021 Berries ick Foren hie aes oe Scat A eee eg Rise ate eats 114 BGS ee ars aise ace oe ee I ks Ed ee 1,587 181010) Gene NC eS Rone BA Pe tihL Are ater Neo Act det 2 Father NN! I 399 Canadachistle: sd «siice ses eel wd re a Oe ee ee 392 6 peat Da anata Mg) aeRO My ABRIL gate a MINEL tc ta Rt el Aes ta ay che 2,998 (6) i jap 031 0 00. oer aere eee ee ee RRR, Sc Wermnee Ae rere nent 2.t 1,669 @hristmas ree {5 222.) OS So ae eee eee 103 (Oa) cde ery Se aaa aOR ie hae ne reste rea ee A EE An 5 2,183 | BY Yup eeniean ek a ie Reece. eye oe meaNG Bane ey GA Ae teats vlan ie, te 3,250 GAT GOIN = (os ere eS aa io eae oe Te ae 350 Grow Wider Jl reese eX ae eee ee eet eee Bate ee ee 367 Figrsey 5. Uhh ne eet sees a lc ae oe SR en, ee 2,997 164 Coe) « ogee te tay OU g aes T Ma Tiny hee can Serle ie adh ety S 3 16 Nemminno- MS rds oes oe te te eee See ree nen a oi Sian 11 Naming’ TTee nsx... deze tp gente ae ee eer eae eee 275 ING HesbO Oks 55. © Sk ie ee tere 8 en eA te ae 102 Pine ;and-Hemlocke Trees io3- Senate ee oe cee a Plants tesserae Raa soe eee EE eee: 220 16) 0 5 ce ae ere an el le Neraens Se Bone ie ais on Wy ERR men Re OMe a pa enh 1,520 Provect= Wild Plowers cs oe ae ee ee ee eee 82 | SUN 60) 0) 00 erie ten hie re a erga dt need, LPauer nec ap ee Ntnce Ae Neoety A a 3,383 School Groundse wet, sete. teen Oe Se ae eee 232 ol G1 516 (Siesta tint Neat Nata Seiad Ris anabian a ERR eRe eRe in SS 120 Seed Travelers..... See ichch Ra nae A a ie rune sae eg At a ocr 792 UO Le Bcc oA Se Re ETc ee oy ee oa ee eae 1,791 Re O OS Mie rats eine couse fe ec oe ay SAA OUR Raed AGAR iM Do 3c 825 Squash? sles Viste Peak taken ere Be Scopes tne eee 2,145 Sumac 20 es ae eee ieeran: Pein Gren een eee 1,162 SUMMO WER Aad ere ieee Ue sept ne oy nee eee eee a eg cree 502 HER OCS cota Kis ey Soe eee Re Pe, ea eee 297 OD yh ose vate Se fo Sex fet: Sax che aaa Bee ae ee te Ree 806 Vaccinate A pple.d pc. te a cee os es see ee ee cece pe 140 Wieodipeeleer ries fata as Soe et ee ome aS th ee peers T5132 Miscellaneous sss sii eee Is ee ee ee tne 814 Nature-Srupy. 65 Report of the Junior Naturalist Clubs for the Year 1904-1905. The organization of Junior Naturalist Clubs is a movement for the purpose of introducing agricultural nature-study into the public schools of New York State. These clubs have been carried on under the auspices of the Cornell University College of Agriculture during the past seven years, and we have been able to see a steady increase in interest and efficiency in the work. The method of carrying on the correspondence work with the chil- dren by means of Junior Naturalist Clubs is as follows: Through the teachers of the schools we organize the children into correspondence clubs. These clubs are carried on in a formal or in an informal way, as best suits the teacher. From the university each member of the Junior Naturalist Club receives a monthly leaflet containing suggestive lessons along the iine of agricultural nature- study. There are always four or five subjects suggested in each leaflet from which the children may choose one or more. The lessons are given in such a way that the young people are obliged to study the real thing and are not able to get their information from books. When they have prepared their lesson, they write to tell what they have done in their investigational work. Along this line we have had some very satisfactory results. Following are a few sample letters showing the type of the children’s correspondence. Dear UNCLE JOHN: - I am going to write you about the vegetable contest which the fifth grade had. Some had onions, lettuce, cabbage and radish. They put it in a basket and brought them to school to see which were the largest and best. After they had decided which were the best they took them down to the superintendent’s house, Mr. McLane, and he ate them for his supper. He said they did better than people who raise them to sell. I forgot to tell you I was a member of the Pioneer Junior Naturalist Club. I guess I have written all that I know. Your loving niece, ANNA. Dear UNCLE JOHN: I thought I would write you a few lines. I studied about the apple. I took an apple and cut it in two. The apple had two seeds on one side and two on the other side. I took a rotten apple and cut it in two, and I could see where the worm had come out of the apple. The worm came out of the side of the apple. 5 66 Report oF THE DIRECTOR. We had a cricket at school, and we had a flower pot for its home and a lamp shade over the flower pot. We had a little box with a glass in the side of the box. Every morning when I would come to school I would put some plantain leaves in the box. Some of the caterpillars made cocoons. We put the cocoons in a little box and put them in the closet. I guess I will close for this time. I couldn’t write very well. I wish for you to excuse me this time. I think I can write better the next time. Your loving friend, MYRTLE. Drar UNCLE JOHN: We are delighted with our Junior Naturalist Club, and this month we have been noticing plants. We planted some hyacinths in our school room, and we first saw the bud peep out from near the roots about the 10th of February. It is a purple flower and has five bells on it; and we noticed that the lowest bell opened first and on up to the last one on top. Every day that it was pretty and bright we would set the box that had the flowers in it outinthesun, and wedid not water them every day. We also sprouted the seeds of beans to see their jackets burst, and see the little leaves unfold. Uncle John, can you tell us how the bee gets the honey out of the flower? Does he have a long tongue, or does he have a long under lip? Please tell us if you can. Your nephew, MILTON. Dear UNCLE JOHN: I am going to ask you a question. We organized in December, and do we have to read September, October and November numbers? I have gotten a few of your questions in the January number. 1. One-fourth of the apple is taken up by the core. 2. There are eight compartments in the whole apple. 3. There are two seeds in each part. 4. The seeds point toward the stem. 5. The seeds are attached to the core, by the little end of the seed. 6. It is gathered right up in the blossom end. 7. I see the stem in the opposite end. Your nephew, Sic: NATURE-STuDy. 67 Dear UNCLE JOHN: I have something I would like to tell you. The other day the hired man was picking apples in the top of one of the trees. He found an old robin’s nest and pieces of corncobs. I think it was a squirrel’s work, because we have a walnut tree in our yard. Tuesday morning papa was barreling apples. He told me to go up and get a barrel out of the corn crib. When I was getting it out, I looked in it and there was a big, black butterfly. I took it to the house till I went to school. When I went to school I took it along and the teacher said we would keep it in the school house and see how long it would live, for it would freeze to death out-of-doors. For the next meeting we are going to study about different kinds of leaves. To-day the boys started out looking for something to bring before the next meeting. I am sure we would all enjoy it for you to come and visit us. Yours truly, WALTER. Dear UNCLE JOHN: About three weeks ago I found an insect on a leaf of corn; it was fastened on by a woolly string. When I found him, he was green with gold spots on him. We kept him awhile and he begun to have black streaks on him. We have had him about three weeks and it is beginning to crack his shell. There is a little green on him yet. His sides are red with black streaks on them. There are some white spots coming on him. The upper part where he is fastened to the corn has rings running about it. His shell is clear now. We can see his mouth and eyes. Yours truly, Morton. Dear UNCLE JOHN: We have a terrarium which was made out of an old umbrella rack. I had some screen around it. We have a broad-winged katydid, grasshoppers, and some angle worms, and a caterpillar that we call a woolly bear. There is a salamander in there, but he is down among the rocks and dirt. There are two frogs and some crickets. The frogs are asleep under dirt and stones. There is some moss in the terrarium. We planted some grass in one corner of the terrarium. There are some oats in the other corner of the terrarium that we planted. 68 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. The katydid was found on an apple core. The katydid is of a dark green color. The katydid has two pairs of wings and three pairs of feet. Your friend, ALFRED. Drar UNCLE JOHN: We have had three meetings since we organized. We hold our meetings in the school house on Friday afternoons. At our second meeting we held a general discussion on “ Birds.” The result was the building of about 15 bird houses by members of the club. A discussion of some of the articles in the September number of Junior Naturalist Monthly was held at the third meeting. We also had some observation work with a salamander that had been cap- tured. We have seen three bluejays robbing a robin’s nest of three eggs. One of the bluejays kept the robin off while the other two robbed the nest, but she has laid one egg in the nest again. From your nephews and nieces, THE Lone Hitt J. N. C. OBSERVATIONS ON A PLANT. Feb. 17. Planted an onion in a flower pot, a bean in an egg shell, also an orange seed. Had the soil moist. Feb. 18. Did not water to-day; was moist enough. Feb. 19. Watered to-day. Feb. 20. Did not water to-day; did not need it. Feb. 21. Watered to-day; no sign of them growing. Feb. 22. Watered to-day. Feb. 23. Did not water to-day. Feb. 24. No sign of them growing. Feb. 25. Watered to-day. Think the onion is growing and the orange seems to be coming up. Feb. 26. Did not water to-day. Feb. 27. It was only a weed, not the orange coming up. Feb. 28. Watered to-day. Mar. 1. The onion is growing. Mar. 2. Watered to-day. Mar. 3. Watered to-day. Mar. 5. Watered to-day. 1 4 3 Mar. 4. Onion up about half an inch. 5 Mar. 6. Watered to-day. NATURE Stupy. 69 Mar. 7. Onion up an inch. Mar. 8. Watered to-day. Mar. 9. Watered to-day. Mar. 10. My onion does not take up all the room in the pot, so I have planted some beans on the edge. Mar. 11. Watered to-day. Mar. 12. Watered to-day. Mar. 13. My bean does not come up yet. Watered again. MARJORIE. Derar UNCLE JOHN: I am going to tell you about the last time I went out into the ‘country. JI and three more boys went to a near-by woods, called Seepmores woods. We intended to get beechnuts, but when we got there the outer shells hung on the tree, but the inside was gone. I think the squirrels must have beaten us. So we went over the road for a walk, and came to an apple tree which stood near the road. We got quite a few apples here and then went further on. Soon we came to a tree bearing snow-white apples. Now all four had our coats and waists full, which amounted to nearly a bushel. Then we came back. On the way back we got into a swamp and had to go back. Then we saw a woodpecker sitting on a tree. One boy wanted to hit him with a stone, but I said no, see what he does. He pecked on a tree and then flew away. As he went so quick, I could not get a good look at him, so I could not describe him. We were gone from 8 A. M. until 2 P.M. The other day we went after minnies because the Mohawk is flooded. We did not go far because it was cold and we got no minnies. Yours with respect, FRED. Drar UNCLE JOHN: We went up the hill on Thursday afternoon as far as John Brady’s field, and while we were going over the road we stopped at his cabbage field to see if we could get any bugs off them. We got a whole lot of them. We put them in a pail. While we were picking one of us pulled a head of cabbage and began to throw it. John happened to be coming up a field. We all stood and showed him all the bugs. We went on a little further. We came toa field where there was a lot of rock and stones. We lifted them up, and we found a whole wasp’s nest. I lifted a big stone, and we found a ground mole who lived in the stones. Yours cordially, WILLIE. 70 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. Drar UNCLE JOHN: I thought I would write to you. I have received your papers. I am very pleased with them. I get so interested in them that I cannot quit reading them when I start. Iam very pleased in joining the club. F In studying about the sparrow, I find that he is about six inches long from bill to tail, and he is gray. Of-course, there are many kinds of sparrows, but I mean the English sparrow. I see larger numbers of sparrows in the country, because there is more room for them to stay in the country. The female has not the black mark on throat or breast. The sparrow’s eggs are gray. The sparrows eat wheat and oats. I know that, for I have seen them when I feed my chickens come and eat with them. The sparrows roost in barns and trees and many other places. From your loving friend, BESSIE. To all the members of the Junior Naturalist Clubs who have done satisfactory work, we have sent a small picture as illustrated below. No. 1.—Cows at pasture. No. 3.—Field of corn. No. 2.—Belgian hares. No. 4.—Hen with brood of ducklings. Nature Srupy. 71 No. 5. Milkweed distributing its seeds. No. 7.—F ceding the calj. No. 6.—Off jor the woods. No. 8.—Turkey afield. Miniature samples of pictures to be sent those Junior Naturalists who write four acceptable letters during the school year. The pictures themselves are 33x64 in. in size, each printed separately on heavy paper, with wide margin. Choose the one you. want by number. These pictures are sent in recognition of a definite amount of work. Last year the request was that each child should prepare at least four monthly lessons, and the result was that 264 clubs met the require- ments and received the pictures. Our Junior Naturalist Clubs have been organized in all but four of the counties of New York State. Tompkins county takes the lead in interest, having 57 clubs; Chautauqua second with 32; Monroe third with 24. In other counties we have clubs numbering from one to 23. i JOHN W. SPENCER, Supervisor Bureau of Nature-Study. IX. HOME NATURE-STUDY FOR TEACHERS. I have the pleasure of submitting to you the following report of the work done in the correspondence course of Home Nature-study during the past year. During the fall of 1904 our leaflets were, with the permission of the State Department of Public Instruction, prepared especially for work in the training classes in the various public schools of the state. But owing to the fact that no list of these classes was furnished us until December, when the work for the year had been arranged and planned by the training-class teachers, we found it too late to do the work we hoped to do. In all we had 25 training classes, and these took the work because the teachers had been using our leaflets during previous years. Most of these classes kept up the work for the year in a most gratifying manner. During the year we issued lessons for eight months in four leaflets. At first it was intended to send these leaflets only to those who answered the questions contained in them and sent the same to us. But the requests for the leaflets were so numerous from teachers who had no time to do the work, that we yielded to the pressure and sent out our lessons as follows: Qctober-November2y 25 nec sate. ce 1 eee eer 1,918 copies Deeenber-Jamumarye gs. ie css. iene ste ten Ae ee 1,945 copies Hebrmary~ Mare lcs 2500 cis x isa ls is ofthc Pane eee 1,968 copies AUprilS Maye < va 'cethene ss aucts or cues oat Cena Pe ee eee Peer 2,003 copies As each of these leaflets covered several distinct topics our work ageregated the placing of 23,000 practical, simplified lessons in nature-study into the hands of the teachers of New York State. Of these, 2,000 were written out and returned to us, giving evidence of excellent work, In summing up last year’s work, I find that we had fewer regular pupils sending in monthly answers than ever before, but, on the other hand, we had a greater demand for the leaflets than ever before. At the beginning of the present school year an attempt was made to confine our work to the purely rural schools. One hundred and fifty letters were sent to the students who attended our short course last winter asking their help, and 600 letters were sent to the secretaries of the Granges of New York State asking their aid in interesting the teachers of the district schools in this work. In consequence of these Homes Nature-Stupy ror TEACHERS. 73 efforts, we have had requests for the work from 500 teachers in country schools from all parts" of the' state. In order to make the work of real use to the farmers, the economic phases of nature-study have been emphasized. We have offered the following topics for study, all of them dealing directly with agriculture and the needs of the farm. Brrp Srupy. Learning the names of common birds, their food habits, and their value to the farmer and orchardist. A study of the birds that winter here and their good work in the forest and orchard. Where and how our common birds spend the winter; the reason for the.migration of birds. A spring calendar of common birds, which shall include the story of their nest-building and food of nestlings. The game laws of New York State as applied to birds. A knowledge of the Government publications on the relation of birds to agriculture. Suggestions for using bird study as a help in language work and geography. PLANT STUDY. A knowledge of the wild flowers that blossom near the school house in September and October, including their names and their uses. The making of an interesting herbarium of all the plants in the neighborhood of the school. The methods of seed distribution of 10 common weeds. A study of the common woodland flowers in spring, such as the hepatica, adder’s-tongue, Jack-in-the-pulpit, trillium, ete. The making of a wild-flower garden. TREE STUDY. Learning all the trees by name that grow within a mile of the school house; a study of their fruits, leaves, bark, flowers and seeds. The common uses of the wood of the different species of trees. The relation of the trees to the soil and the water supply. The making of a tree herbarium. The value of forestry on the farm. Suggestions for using tree study as an aid in the teaching of geog- raphy, history, language and drawing. 74 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. INSECTS. Learning common insects by name. The study of the life habits of any insects which are troubling the farms or orchards in your locality, and teaching the children, if possi- ble, how to destroy them. i study of the life habits of the large moths, cecropia, luna, ete. A study of some of our common butterflies. Making an insect collection for the school. Suggestions for the relation of insect work with language, drawing, etc. Fiso Srupy. The names of the common fishes of the streams; what happens to them the year through; their food and their nesting habits. How to preserve desirable fish in our streams. The study of a fish, how its form, color, eyes, mouth, fins and gills fit it for its life in the water. The game laws of New York State as applied to fish. Suggestions for the use of the study of fish as an aid to the study of geography. Of the 500 teachers who have applied for the work pene outlined, 322 have applied for the bird work, 282 for the tree study, 290 for the plant study, 241 for insect study, 181 for fish study. Aside from the leaflets, special letters have been sent to each of the applicants giving them general suggestions for the special work which they have chosen. ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK, Lecturer in Nature-Study. X. THE FARMERS’ WIVES’ READING COURSE, 1904-1905. The third year of the Farmers’ Wives’ Reading-Course of Cornell University is completed with a membership of 17,800 women in the state. This number indicates a live membership, since the member- ship has within the year been revised, and the bulletins sent only to those who replied that the post-office address was correct, and that they desired a continuation of the reading. THe Farmers’ Wives’ READING Course, 1904-1905. 75 The course is free to women in the state who indicate that they desire a course of reading and study upon the subjects pertaining to the home work; not simply the routine of housework, but the allied subjects of society and school. The Reading-Course for Farmers’ Wives is a parallel one to that of the farmers, based upon the same general plan, consisting of illus- trated bulletins published five months of the year. Accompanying the bulletin is a discussion paper containing questions which are to be answered and returned to the bureau. In the Farmers’. Wives’ Reading-Course there are now three series of five bulletins each: Series I. Farm House and Garden.—The bulletins in this series are: (1) Saving Steps; (2) Decoration in the Farm Home; (3) Practical Housekeeping; (4) The Kitchen-Garden; (5) The Flower-Garden. Series II. The Farm Family. (6) Rural Schools; (7) Boys and Girls on the Farm; (8) Reading in the Farm Home; (9) Home Industries; (10) Insect Pests of House and Garden. Series III. Food and Sanitation.—The bulletins in this series are: (11) Home Sanitation; (12) Germ Life; (13) Human Nutrition; (14) Food for the Farmer’s Family; (15) Saving Strength. While the sending of bulletins amp the examination of discussion papers forms a prominent feature of the work of the reading-course, the answering of questions written by the readers to the department in all phases of home life is an important element which makes the movement more individually helpful than anything else. It is more than ever recognized that the farm where so many home occupations are carried on must necessarily, in order to be successful, be based upon a scientific knowledge concerning sanitation and food on the farm. The farm is a most desirable place in which to practice the art of home-making. The object of the course is to make ‘the farm home an ideal one, to make those who dwell in rural communities contented in their environment, and desirous to make the most of natural surroundings. MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER, Supervisor Farmers’ Wives’ Reading-Course. XI. FARMERS’ READING-COURSE. The Farmers’ Reading-Course has proceeded along the lines that were determined a year ago. A full report of the Farmers’ Reading- Course work, stating the methods and points of view, was made by Professor Fletcher in the report for the year ending September 30, 1904. In September, 1905, Professor Fletcher severed his connection with our work to become professor of horticulture in the Michigan Agricultural College and his work for the present year, so far as the Farmers’ Reading-Course is concerned, is to be conducted by Mr. George W. Hosford. Following are the statistics of the Farmers’ Reading-Course for the past year. In some cases the same person is reading in more than one series: SUMMARY OF THE YEAR’S WorK IN FARMERS’ READING-COURSE FROM Oct. 1, 1904, To Oct. 1, 1905. New Readers. Series 01; Soils ois. Ye sia Ak Se ce a ee ee ee 2,807 Series: LL Steck. eae a ee eee eee 3,548 Series LUT “Orcharding: 2) Recte ieee eee BAe ee 1,262 Series IV) Poultry i23:-0 ooo is oe ee ee eee 1,483 Series Vi Dairyme *. No 4 9 hs a ee ee ee ee 454 9,554 Discussion Papers. $F Series TF Son oo scat as cee ne tt aa ener er 1,143 Series® WEL Stockns sb ia Saree cee eee eee 761 Series TN -Orcharding: . [ic Sac see eee ee eee 240 Series: LV) Poultry.3 Joie coe ake ee ee ee eee te!) Series: V7 Dairying’, 22: .50 erste eee es pike oe See 160 3,014 Clubs. Reorvanized ‘clubs i726 22,5-n2¢0)- 0s.) oe ee eee 63 New clubseo= 2idte. sons heehee: ecto nie cen ee eine! 62 125 Number of readers an: clulbs:-.7 5 Aes ee re ee ee ee eee 2,546 LE. BATE RW. REPORT OF THE TREASURER. STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES OF CORNELL UNIVER- sity AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION FOR THE FiscaL YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1905. Receipts from the Treasurer of the United States as per appropriation for fiscal year ending June 30, 1905, as per Act of Congress, approved March 2,.1887.. $13,500 00 Expenditures. SST Aes en ee Uwe hr eae Ae ae ae $9,916 41 ToC Te Secl Retee ae Aea e e 956 25 PSUS EIN TR en ek ea ee apt ee ae ee 786 61 Postage and stationery. -......02....%.4 4. 183 04 Pons PICO RMECN ote orcs Se eve. bia ewes 49 93 Heat, light, water and power............ 20 04 iterticalestpplies.. «4-92 etn Wey esac aes 129 87 Seeds, plants and sundry supplies.......... 178 62 JUN ST11y Za eee Aa A no 99 31 Tools, implements and machinery......... 1 25 Hurmmipure and Axbures. 2.6% . es. ss oes 2 209 45 Selenbite A PPArAbUS. 22. os ae ga eo Sa ees 65 57 Sra Velint: EXPenses. oo: Vat. oS Soci de ates 193 92 Canvimsent Expenses. 222s ers ee we os 100 21 BunlGrird ANG Mepaits iota ee aa. 2 SE. 609 52 $13,500 00 We, the undersigned, duly appointed auditors of the corporation, do hereby certify that we have examined the books and accounts of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1905; that we have found the same well kept and classified as above, and that the receipts for the year from the Treas- urér of the United States are shown to have been $13,500, and the corresponding disbursements $13,500; for all of which proper vouchers are on file and have been by us examined and found correct, thus leaving no balance. And we further certify that the expenditures have been solely for the purposes set forth in the Act of Congress approved March 2, 1887. . (Signed) R. B. WILLIAMS, (Seal) MYNDERSE VAN CLEEF, Attest: Emmons L. WILLIAMs, Auditors. Custodian, 78 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. STATEMENT OF THE SCHEME OF EXPENDITURES UNDER THE STATE APPROPRIATION FOR THE EXTENSION OF AGRICULTURAL KNOWL- EDGE FOR THE YEAR ENDING SEPTEMBER 30, 1905. Saillariesi.'.) 408 Wate: Stee Sea eee eer ecae Seek er rae ea 2 WR SIOFASO Office, printing and special investigations............. 5,000 SbenovTra Phers: 2. 6 ete Societies aera ae Pan? Paes 5) 1,000 NevitiResstuldays acccee hay ens pert tis ge eek eee age 2,800 Home mature-ahudiy i acct 5. eta sede eee eee 1,200 Readine=COurses....2 se 95. serie he | Se eee rte ere 3,300 Entomology...... .= err ae ee te eee an cs is Ph Fc 500 Animal shusbandt yc, 5. ee eee ae eee eh «Peace 600 Agneulture and. chemistry: ¢i.cc.s.- 1A to or 1,000 Bo tamiy: 2s fe Fae Sel te A ee Sa 300 Horticulture bo Ayer te ee eee eee 800 Damyandustryvandeschool... 25 icc nee eee 3, 000 Poul tiryrex ol SS Secon eo hats ck Lea ee ee 1,020 $40 , 000 September, 1904 BULLETIN 222 CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Animal Husbandry Department RECORD OF AN ATTEMPT To Increase the Fat in Milk BY MEANS OF LIBERAL FEEDING. By HENRY H. WING and JAMES A. FOORD. ITHACA, Noc¥: PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY. ORGANIZATION Or THE CoRNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BOARD OF CONTROL. Tue TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the Agricultural College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. THOMAS F. HUNT, Professor of Agronomy. EXPERIMENTING STAFF. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director. JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology. HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry. GEORGE F. ATKINSON, Botany. JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture. THOMAS F. HUNT, Agronomy. RAYMOND A. PEARSON, Dairy Industry. JAY A. BONSTEEL, Soil Investigation. MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. JOHN L. STONE, Agronomy. JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry. STEVENSON W. FLETCHER, Horticulture. JOHN W. GILMORE, Agronomy. ROBERT 8. NORTHROP, Horticulture. HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology. SAMUEL FRASER, Agronomy. JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry. JOHN M. TRUEMAN, Animal Husbandry and Dairy Industry. CHARLES E. HUNN, Horticulture. Office of the Director, 17 Morrill Hill. The regular bulletins o the Station are sent free to persons ieee in New York State who request them. RECORD OF AN ATTEMPT TO INCREASE THE FAT IN MILK BY MEANS OF LIBERAL FEEDING. Of all the problems that have been under discussion concerning the production, nature and composition of milk, probably none has been the subject of more controversy than the question of how far the composition of the milk, especially its fat content, is influenced by the food of the cow. One reason for this discussion is that the results of investigation soon ran contrary to the generally received opinion of farmers and dairymen. For a long time the opinion has been very strong in the minds of dairymen that the percentage of fat in milk is directly and largely influenced by the food of the cow. If 99 out of 100 ‘dairymen are} asked jwhether they can make their cows give richer milk by changing the food, they will answer at once in the affirmative, and many will go so far as to say that they have done it time and again. Still this is one of the results that careful investiga- tors have been trying to secure for the last 20 years and so far they have met with little or no success. In a recent bulletin* summing up the work done along this line at various institutions in this country and abroad, the conclusion was reached, that in general terms, it is not possible materially and per- manently to increase or diminish the percentage of fat in the milk of a cow through changes in the amount or character of the food. Following the publication of this statement, came several criticisms, the most noticeable of which was to the effect that the cows experi- mented with were not calculated to show a difference in the percent- age of fat, because the animals under trial were cows that had been kept always on an abundance of good food, and had never lacked for food in any way. They had already been developed to their highest capacity and it is not to be expected that such cows will show a very marked change in the fat content of the milk following a change in the food. If, on the other hand, cows had been taken as they are ordinarily found in the country, the larger number of which are insufficiently fed and have never had a chance to develop, it would be possible to materially increase the percentage of fat in the milk by giving the cows an abundance of rich food. It seemed to us that perhaps the criticism was well taken, and that there might be many * Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 173, No- vember, 1899, “‘The Relation of Food to Milk Fat.’ 6 82 BULLETIN 222. _ herds of poor cows which it would be possible to develop so that they would give milk containing a higher percentage of fat. 1. GENERAL PLAN AND PURPOSE OF THE EXPERIMENT. The experiments detailed in the following pages give the results of an attempt to increase the percentage of fat in milk of a herd of cows previously kept under adverse conditions. The experiments were begun in March, 1900, and were continued four years.* In planning the experiment it seemed desirable to secure a herd that should fulfill as nearly as possible the following conditions: (a) It should be of at least considerable size. (b) It should have been established on the same farm for some time. (c) A large proportion of the animals should be comparatively young. (d) All the cows should drop their calves as nearly as possible at the same time. (e) The herd should have a reputation of having been insufficiently fed for several years. After some inquiry and investigation a herd was found within easy driving distance of the University that answered all of the above conditions very fully. There were 21 cows in the herd. Of these only four were more than 8 years old, all but one had calved within two months of one another. and all were very thin in flesh. They were of native and mixed breeding. »? The solid line ““B i M. A. and 7 between 4 P. M. BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. Bovine tuberculosis is one of the oldest diseases of animals of which we have knowledge. It was known to the Egyptians in the days of their captivity, and from then until now it has been a subject of much thought and investigation. The opinions that have been entertained concerning it have been changeable, the decrees of one century as to its supposed infectious nature and the use of the flesh of the infected animals often being reversed-by those of the following century. History shows that up to the time of the introduction of modern scientific methods for the study of disease, there was little that was definite in our knowledge of tuberculosis beyond the fact that it was a very destructive disease of both men and cattle. In 1865, tuberculosis was demonstrated to be infectious. In that year Villemin showed that it could be produced in healthy animals by inoculating them with pieces of tuberculous tissue. His results were confirmed by a number of other investigators. In 1882, Robert Koch discovered the bacillus* (or micro-organism) of tuberculosis and thus completed the already abundant evidence that tuberculosis was a specific, infectious disease. The finding of its specific cause led to many careful and extended investigations into the nature of tuberculosis, the means by which it is spread, and the measures that must be adopted if its spread is to be checked. The results of these numerous inquiries have given us very definite knowledge of the nature of the disease. It is believed that this knowledge, if properly used, will enable every cattle owner to eliminate tuberculosis from his herd if it is there, and to keep it out if it is not there. In order to have a clear understanding of what kind of a disease tuberculosis is, it may be well to compare it with some disease that is generally known and recognized to be infectious. For this we may take diphtheria in children. It is well known that diphtheria is caused by a micro-organism. This organism is known as Bacillus diphtherie, or sometimes as the Klebs-Loeffler bacillus, from its dis- *Bacteria (singular bacterium) is a general name for “germs” of a vegetable or plant nature. A bacillus (plural bacilli) is one kind of bacteria, distinguished by being much longer than broad. A micrococcus is a spherical bacterium, General terms used to designate many of these minute forms of life are “‘microbe” and “‘micro-organism.”’ 148 BuLLeETIN 225. coverers. It is also known that when a healthy child is exposed (infected) by being brought in contact with a child sick with diph- theria, that the period of incubation (that is, the time elapsing between the ex- posure and the time the symptoms of the disease appear), is but a few days, and that the duration of the disease is short, lasting but a few days or weeks at the longest. At the end of this short period, the entire course of the disease has been run and the child is either dead or well on the way to recovery. In tuberculosis we have similar conditions, but they differ in detail from those in diphtheria in three very im- portant points,—the length of the period of incubation, the way in which the specific bacteria produce the dis- ease, and the time required for the dis- ease to run its course. With diphtheria the specific bacteria pro- duce a toxine which poisons the system, and this toxine is the cause of death. In tuberculosis the speci- fic bacteria do not produce such a toxine, but they live Fie. 31.—The carcass of an anvmal killed for beef ; “showing tuberculosis of the liver, omentum and 1 One or more of the lungs. Generalized tuberculosis. tissues of the body, Bovine TUBERCULOSIS. 149 multiply there, and by their increase penetrate deeper and deeper into the organs of the body, destroying the tissues as they go. Finally the injured organs give rise to symptoms, at first slight, but gradually they become more and more serious until death is pro- duced, because some organ necessary for the life of the individual has been destroyed. While diphtheria completes its course in a few days or weeks, tuberculosis requires for the same purpose months and more often years. ; It is important that both the specific, and the infectious nature of tuberculosis be understood. It is a “specific” disease because it is produced by a single cause—the tubercle bacillus. It is “infec- tious”’ because the tubercle bacteria are taken into the body. This may be by direct contact or by the bacilli being left in a manger, or watering-trough, or elsewhere by a diseased individual and later, but before they die, being taken up by a well animal. Thus a barn containing tuberculous cattle will become infected, and healthy animals placed in such a barn before it is disinfected are very liable to contract the disease. It is often said, that badly ventilated and poorly kept barns, and improper food cause tuberculosis. This is not the case. The disease cannot develop in the absence of the tubercle bacillus, any more than corn can grow in a field in which no corn has been planted. It is, however, undoubtedly true, that in poorly ventilated, dirty barns, the tubercle bacilli may be distributed more rapidly than in sanitary stables, but poor air and filth cannot of themselves produce tuberculosis. In considering, from a practical point of view, an infectious disease like tuberculosis, we must take into account seven important features: (1) the cause, (2) the method oj infection, (3) the period of incubation, (4) the duration of the disease, (5) the way to detect or diagnose tt, (6) the way to eliminate it, and (7) the methods for preventing 1. 1. CaAusE oF TUBERCULOSIS. Tuberculosis is caused by a micro-organism, the bacillus of tuber- culosis. It is a very small rod-shaped micro-organism. It is so minute that 10,000 of them might be placed end to end within the linear distance of a single inch. This organism has a peculiar way of retaining the stain used for coloring it, so that it is possible to dis- tinguish it from other bacteria by a microscopic examination. It will kill guinea pigs when a very few of the bacilli are injected into the subcutaneous tissue. It is also fatal to other animals. The tubercle bacilli that are found in tuberculous cattle and people often differ very slightly from each other, but it is known that they belong to 150 BuLuLeTIN 225. the same species. The Royal Commission on tuberculosis, appointed by the IKXing of England in 1901, has recently made a partial report in which they state that they have been unable to find any difference in the disease-producing power of the bacilli from human and from bovine sources. This bacillus seems to be able to live for some time in dark and damp places. It is readily killed with a five per cent solution of carbolic acid, or a 1 to 1,000 solution of corrosive sublimate. Sunlight and dry air are not favorable for its existence outside of the body. The tubercle bacilli escape from the diseased animal in the saliva and mucus from the mouth when the lungs or certain glands are dis- charging into the respiratory tract. They escape in the pus from tubercular abscesses that open through the skin, and in the milk. Dr. Salmon has recently stated that all of the examinations that have been reported of milk from tuber- culous cows show that about 15 per cent of them give off tubercle bacilli with their milk at some time during the course of the disease. The udders show tuberculosis: in about two per cent of the cases. 2. THE METHOD OF INFECTION. Animals become infected Fic. 32.—A drawing of a heart of a steer with tubercle bacilli largely that was killed jor beef. The heart through the digestive tract. muscle is entirely surrounded by a dense The infection by means of mass of tubercular deposit. There were inhaling particles of dirt no other lesions found in the animal. : or dust carrying tubercle bacilli, or by getting them into wounds of the skin, is possible but certainly not very common. Healthy cattle “nosing” with infected ones or feeding and drinking after them is supposed to be the most usual method of infection. The infection of calves by feeding them milk from tuberculous cows is not an_ infre- quent means of propagating the disease. The slow development of the disease makes it possible for calves to be infected and frequently BovINE TUBERCULOSIS. 151 they do not show evidence of tuberculosis for many years. I have known of a very large percentage of calves fed upon milk of diseased animals to give a good tuberculin reaction (thus showing the disease) before they were six months old. This is believed by the writer to be one of the very important ways by which the disease is disseminated in breeding herds. : Tuberculosis is often found in swine fed upon milk from infected cows. In 1903 the writer knew of a carload of hogs that had been purchased in a district where there were many tuberculous cows, and of which the first 59 of them that were slaughtered were all tubercu- lous. The remainder were not killed at that time. While such a condition may be considered an exception, it is a fact that many swine are infected, especially when they are fed tuberculous milk. Fia 33.—Liver of a cow showing two small tubercular deposits. They were the only lesions found. The cow gave a typical tuberculin reaction. Natural size. Last year the United States meat inspectors condemned about 20,000 hogs for tuberculosis. It should be remembered that the greater the percentage of tuber- culous cows in the herd, and the further advanced the disease is in the cattle, the greater the danger of infection from the use of the milk. In cases where the disease is restricted to small nodules in the lymphatic glands, or perhaps in the lungs, the danger of tubercle bacilli being in the milk is very slight, but when the udder is tuber- culous they are constantly present in the milk and often in very large numbers. When calves or pigs are fed with milk of this kind, they are almost sure to be infected. The same result may follow when it is fed to children or adults. 152 BULLETIN 225. Practically the only way tuberculosis gets into a herd of healthy cattle is by the introduction of a tuberculous animal. It has often happened that farmers who have perfectly healthy cows, buy a nice looking cow that is tuberculous, although the disease was not at all in evidence, and sooner or later this animal infects a very large number of animals in the herd.. The buying of injected animals is largely responsible for the spread of tuberculosis in cattle. The history of tuberculosis in cattle shows that when it is once introduced into a previously uninfected district its tendency is to spread from farm to farm with a rapidity which depends largely Fie. 34.—Tuberculous ulcers in the intestines of a tuberculous cow. These are not common in cattle. upon the activity of the cattle traffie.. If the interchange of animals between herds is frequent the disease usually spreads rapidly. If, on the contrary, there is but little interchange of animals, tubercu- losis spreads slowly in the newly infected community. This observa- tion relates to the spread among herds; other conditions govern the spread of tuberculosis after infected animals are added. The latter factor is controlled by the degree of contact between the diseased animals and their associates, and the sanitary and other conditions Bovine TUBERCULOSIS. 153 to which the herd is subjected. The extent of cattle traffic is one reason why there is greater danger from tuberculosis now than there was a generation ago. If a tuberculous cow is placed in _ snfinement with other cattle she will convey the disease to them more certainly and more quickly than when the animals are at liberty. As bearing upon this point, it has been noted repeatedly that tuberculosis spreads more rapidly in herds when they are confined in winter than when they are at pasture in summer, and there is reason to believe that this difference is due, not to the season, but to the intimacy of contact. Moreover, tuberculosis once introduced, spreads with increasing rapidity as the centers of infection are multiplied. So long as there is but one infected herd from which it may spread in a district, the extending of the disease will necessarily be slow, but when 10 herds are infected from this one the progress of the disease will be 10 times as rapid, and when five herds are infected from each of the 10, the disease will, other factors being equal, spread at 50 times the original rate of progress. 3. THE PERIOD oF INCUBATION. In case of many of the infectious diseases, the time that elapses between the exposure (infection) of the individual and the time when the disease appears is short and more or less uniform. This makes it possible to quarantine suspected animals until after this period has passed and thus ensure safety in placing them with the home stock. With tuberculosis this period is not regular and it is not known how long it may be. Our present knowledge of the subject shows that it varies from a few days to as many months. Tuber- culin (see page 89) does not give a reaction during this period. It is necessary, therefore, for safety that cattle that do not react when purchased should be tested again in from three to six months later, as it is possible they were bought after they had become infected but in the period of incubation. This precaution is of great importance in protecting a dairy. The newly purchased cows should be kept apart from the herd until after the second test. 4. THe DuRATION OF THE DISEASE. Tuberculosis is a disease of very slow progress. It often requires years for it to destroy its victim. The tubercle bacilli multiply and penetrate into the organ in which they were first carried and gradu- ally, destroy it. It often happens that the tubercle’ germs pass into the blood or lymph and are carried to other parts of the body where 154 BULLETIN 225. each germ starts a new tubercle. This is the condition known as generalized tuberculosis, “ miliary tuberculosis”’ or “quick consump- tion. shige: When the diseased tissues are restricted to one organ, the condition is known as local tuberculosis. Fig. 32. When the organs in two of the cavities, such as the lungs, in the pleural cavity, and the liver in the abdominal cavity, are affected the condition is known as gener- alized tuberculosis. This is very important, as the meat inspection regulations of this and other countries permit the flesh of animals suffering from local tuberculosis to be used for food.* When the disease is local, it often requires a very long time for it to invade the organs sufficiently to cause the death of the animal. It nay happen that the germs of the disease are lodged in some organ, like a lymphatic gland, that is not absolutely necessary for the life of the animal, and the entire organ may be destroyed without appar- ent injury to the individual. If the diseased process is arrested before it has advanced too far, even when it is in a vital organ, such as a lung, the liver, or the kidney, the animal will continue to appear to be perfectly sound. Animals thus affected are thought to be per- fectly well, as they appear to be, but sooner or later the disease starts *Following are the United States regulations concerning the use of flesh of tuberculous animals: ‘“Generalized”’ tuberculosis refers to that form of the disease in which the bacilli have been disseminated through the blood and lymph, and in which a number of organs are affected. ‘‘Extensive”’ tuberculosis refers entirely to the amount of tuberculous matter and the number of tubercles, and may apply to a case which is confined to one of the body cavities. é (1) The carcass may be passed when the lesions are limited to one group of lymphatie glands or one other organ. (2) The carcass may be passed when the lesions are limited to two groups of visceral lymphatic glands in either the thoracic or the abdominal cavity. (3) The carcass may be passed when the lesions are limited to two visceral organs (other than lymphatic glands) in the thoracic or the abdominal cavity, provided the lesions are slight, calcified, and encapsulated. (4) The carcass may be passed when the lesions are limited to one group of visceral lymphatic glands and one other organ in the thoracic or abdominal cavity, provided the lesions in the affected organs are slight. (5) The carcass may be passed when the lesions are confined to two groups of visceral lymphatic glands and one other organ in the thoracie or the abdominal cavity, provided the lesions are slight, calcified, and encapsulated. (6) The carcass may be passed when the lesions are confined to the lungs, the cervical lymphatic glands, and one group of the visceral lymphatic glands of the thoracic cavity, provided the affection is slight and the lesions are calcified and encapsulated. (7) The carcass shall be condemned when well-marked lesions are discovered in both the thoracic and the abdominal cavity. BoviNE TUBERCULOSIS. 155 up again. When such animals, while they still appear to be perfectly well, are bought in good faith and placed in a healthy herd they bring the disease and not infrequently transmit it to other animals. Vari- ous manifestations of the disease are seen in Figs. 33-36. It is very likely that some animals, especially cattle, are infected and recover. This is to be expected in some cases where they are Fig. 35.—A photograph of the tubercular nodules on the omentum (covering the intestines) of an advanced case of generalized tuberculosis. kept under favorable hygienic conditions. At present, however, our knowledge of recovery from tuberculosis in cattle is too meager to warrant much encouragement from this source. It appears to be safer and more economical not to trust to a recovery. 156 BuLuEetTIn 225. 5. How to Drtrect TUBERCULOSIS IN CATTLE. From what has been said about the course of the disease, it is perfectly clear that there may be a large number of animals in a herd that are infected with tuberculosis but which appear to be sound. There may be others in which the disease is far advanced and the animals show that they are affected. There are two ways by which the disease can be detected, namely, by a physical examination and with tuberculin. The physical examination is of value in advanced cases only, or where the diseased part is in evidence, as for example in the lymphatic glands of the neck. Experience has shown that by this method one is unable to find more than a very small percentage of the animals that are tuberculous and a menace to the healthy cattle. This method, therefore, is a very crude one and cannot be trusted except in the very advanced cases and in those where the early stages of the disease are in evidence externally. The tuberculin test is far more reliable. There have been many unjust things said about tuberculin and many cattle owners have come to fear that it is a dangerous agent to use. It has been found, however, that tuberculin is as harmless as need be to the health of the animal. The dangers that are supposed to come from it are the results of poor tuberculin, unclean instruments, or other avoidable causes. Tuberculin is the liquid, usually glycerinated bouillon, on which the tubercle bacilli have multiplied or grown. It is concentrated after heating and removing the bacteria and a little carbolic acid or thymol is added to preserve it. The active principle of tuberculin is a sub- stance resulting from the multiplication of the tubercle bacilli in the liquid. In its preparation it is necessary that the tubercle bacilli “orow” sufficiently, which usually requires several weeks before the liquid is used. The flasks containing “cultures,” as they are called, are, when ready, heated for some time at the boiling point. The liquid is then filtered to remove the bacilli, the fluid is then concen- ttated over a water bath. It is again filtered through a porcelain filter and stored. It will be noticed, that tuberculin is heated at two different times during its preparation sufficiently to kill the tubercle bacilli and it is also filtered through a substance that would remove the tubercle bacilli, if any escaped the first filtration. When ready for use tuberculin is a clear, amber-colored liquid. The inten- sity of its color varies according to the amount of blood pigment in the meat from which the bouillon was made. Bovinp TUBERCULOSIS. 157 Tuberculin cannot possibly produce tuberculosis, because it does not contain any tubercle bacteria. It does not excite a latent tuber- cle into activity. It is used the world over, and as yet no authentic report of injury caused by its use has been recorded. All those who have worked with tuberculin are agreed that it is one of the safest and surest tests in detecting the presence of tuberculosis that is known to the medical world. All are agreed, however, that it must be properly used, and that all those physical conditions that would tend to interfere with it must be avoided. If in its use these precautions are taken, tuberculin is as sure as any chemical reaction. If the animal is sound when tuberculin is injected no reaction is observed. If, however, the animal contains an active tubercle there is a reaction which shows itself in a rise of the temperature beginning from 8 to 16 hours after the injection and continuing for from 6 to 10 hours and possibly longer. Fig. 30 shows the curve of the temperature reaction after injecting the tuberculin in a tuberculous animal. It is stated, however, on good authority, that animals in advanced pregnancy, give a rise of temperature when they are not tuberculous. Cows in this condition should not be tested. They can be isolated until a few weeks after delivery, when the test may be applied. It is likewise asserted that occasionally animals in a very advanced stage of the disease will not react. The animal in this case, however, is easily recognized to be in a very bad condition. These and other conditions that might modify the reaction must be understood by one who is using the tuberculin. It often happens that other causes give rise to a temporary elevation of temperature during the testing period. These are readily differentiated from the tuberculin reaction by the character of the temperature curve. It must be remembered that tuberculosis when naturally contracted may have a long and variable period of incubation. The tuberculin does not give a reaction during this period. It is possible, therefore, that an animal that has been associated with and infected by tuber- culous cattle will not react, but will do so in from three to six months thereafter, or as soon as the diseased process has actually begun. While tuberculin is a most reliable diagnostic agent when properly used, it may lead to erroneous conclusions when improperly applied. 6. How to ELimiInatEeE TUBERCULOSIS FROM A HERD. A few years ago this could not be accomplished without sacrificing all the animals. With tuberculin, however, it is not difficult to detect all diseased individuals. BULLETIN 225. the pleural surface covering the deposils on -A photograph showing the tubercular (Reynolds.) ed tuberculosis. ribs of an advanced case of generali BoviINE TUBERCULOSIS. 159 The question arises, what can be done with the reacting animals? The examination of a large number of cattle that have been killed after the test, shows that a small number in every herd containing reacting animals are very extensively diseased and would undoubt- edly have died in a short time. These are of no value and should be destroyed. Usually they are poor, and will not take on flesh. A much larger number of the reacting animals are but slightly diseased. These will readily take on flesh and can be fattened and used for beef. They must be carefully examined when killed, and if the disease is found to be extensive or in the two large body cavities, the carcass must be condemned. The government meat inspection regulations permit of the use of the meat of slightly tuberculous animals for food. These animals, therefore, have a beef value. If the reacting cows are valuable, they can be isolated and kept for breeding purposes by removing the calves at once and feeding them on milk from healthy cows. The milk of the reacting cows can be used if it is sterilized first. 7. How To PREVENT TUBERCULOSIS. As the most common method of introducing tuberculosis is by the purchase of a diseased animal, or feeding the milk of such animals, the most effective way to prevent the disease is not to do those things. Buy all animals on a tuberculin test, and retest after three to six months. Do not feed skimmed milk that comes from tuberculous herds to calves without first sterilizing it. The method is simple. The disease is produced by the tubercle bacilli and if we keep these bacteria away from our cattle they cannot possibly develop tuber- culosis. 8. NrcEssITY FoR FIELD EXPERIMENTS FOR THE STUDY OF ANIMAL DISEASES. A eareful review of our present knowledge of bovine tuberculosis shows that while we have many important facts concerning it, we still need further information. This information can come only from actual investigation on a considerable number of animals living under what might be considered normal conditions. In order to know the best, or at least the most economical method of dealing with tuber- culin-reacting animals, we need to have more knowledge concerning the recovery of the slightly affected individuals and the conditions of the diseased processes in the cases that fail to react on the second test. We have very definite knowledge as to the means of infection, 160 BuLvuerin 225. the course of the disease in the beginning and in the fatal cases, but the course of the disease in the cases that appear to recover needs yet to be determined; and we need also to know how such animals shall be handled with safety to themselves and to others. Vaccination or immunization of cattle against tuberculosis is now being advocated, but before our cattle owners accept such recommendations they must be assured by carefully conducted experiments that the methods are genuine and that the results will be satisfactory. The millions of dollars invested in cattle in New York State and the importance of the cattle industry to the general welfare of the State, demand that. no effort should be spared to secure the most perfect knowledge of tuberculosis and also of other serious animal diseases. From the very nature of the case this information cannot be forth- coming without ample opportunities for investigation. We must supplement the laboratory and stable work with actual field work on a farm or farms that are devoted to these particular purposes. March, 1905 BULLETIN 227 CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Department of Botany MUSHROOM GROWING FOR AMATEURS. By GEO. F. ATKINSON and ROBERT SHORE. REE AC ASN SY: PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY ORGANIZATION Or THE CorNeLL UNtversiry AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BOARD OF CONTROL, Tur TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the Agricultural College and Experiment Station. IXMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. THOMAS F. HUNT, Professor of Agronomy. EXPERIMENTING STAFF. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director. JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology. HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry. GEORGE F. ATKINSON, Botany. JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture. THOMAS F. HUNT, Agronomy. RAYMOND A. PEARSON, Dairy Industry. JAY A. BONSTEEL, Soil Investigation. MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. JOHN L. STONE, Agronomy. JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry. STEVENSON W. FLETCHER, Horticulture. JOHN W. GILMORE, Agronomy. ROBERT 8S. NORTHROP, Horticulture. HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology. SAMUEL FRASER, Agronomy. JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry. JOHN M. TRUEMAN, Animal Husbandry and Dairy Industry. CHARLES E. HUNN, Horticulture. Office of the Director, 17 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New York State who request them. MUSHROOM GROWING FOR AMATEURS. Many letters are received asking for information as to the cultiva- tion of mushrooms. These inquiries come chiefly from those who wish at the present at least to undertake the cultivation of mushrooms on a small scale, probably for private consumption, or perhaps also to furnish a small quantity for the market. To furnish directions for the successful cultivation of mushrooms by the amateur grower some experiments have been made in order to determine what success might be expected where no special houses and no elaborate prepara- tions are made for their cultivation. These are the conditions under which most amateur growers must work. The present bulletin describes briefly the methods to be employed for the cultivation of mushrooms under these conditions. There is not room here to go into any detail concerning the experiments on which this bulletin is based; but before proceeding to a description of the methods to be followed it may be well to state briefly the conditions under which the mushrooms were grown and an outline of the experiment. The mushrooms were grown under two different conditions: First, in boxes under benches in the greenhouse, the part of the greenhouse where the temperature during the winter is about 55° F. at night and from 60°-65° F. during the day except on- bright sunny days, when the temperature may go as high as 70°; second, a space under a potting table in a small basement room was used for making up another bed. The space under the bench in the basement was made into a bed by placing a plank in front against the legs in order to support the material. The material then was packed directly on the basement floor and against the stone wall behind. Boxes were used under the benches in the greenhouse. These were most convenient to handle under the low bench of the greenhouse because the space was quite wide. These boxes were about 3x34 feet wide and one foot deep. There were five of these. The space in these boxes together with that under the bench in the basement made a total of about 90 square feet. Up to the present time, 181 pounds of mushrooms have been picked from this area from one planting of spawn, prac- tically two pounds per square foot. The manure was obtained and composted October 31st. By November 9th it was cured and ready for putting in the beds. The 164 BULLETIN 227. temperature of the material in the beds was suitable for spawning on November 23d when the spawn was planted. The beds were cased in the basement on December Ist, in the greenhouse December 2d. The first mushroom was picked about January Ist, that is, five weeks from spawning the beds. In six weeks we began picking regularly; at first a few, the number gradually increasing, and then diminishing again as the beds became exhausted. A space representing about Fic. 151.—Young stage of mushroom showing spawn, the minute jruit bodies and young button mushrooms. Variety Columbia. 70 to 75 square feet ceased bearing about March 20th; the remaining space was bearing its heaviest about April 1 to 10th. For some reason the spawn in this part of the bed was very late in starting. It was fully two months after spawning before any evidence of mushroom growth appeared. The mushrooms usually were picked every other day and when the crop was at its best bearing from 4-8 pounds were collected at each picking. 13% SAG AG ; 09 hyar1u0 A— 7G | 2Uaq Wapun saxog U1 UMNO “DIquUNjOD hija’ asnoyuaalb ur yauaq TTT Ys Ena lg 166 BULLETIN 227. PLACES SUITABLE FOR GROWING MUSHROOMS. Cellars or basement rooms where the temperature in the winter does not go below 55° or does not rise above 65°, are suitable places for growing mushrooms. It is not advisable to make them under the living part of the house, since the odor of the manure will fill the house. They can also be grown in stables which are not too cold in the winter. If grown under benches in greenhouses, the beds must not be too near heating pipes, and an oil cloth screen must be sloped under the bench to turn off the drip from water used on the benches above. Since this bulletin is prepared for amateurs, the question of the commercial growing of mushrooms in caves or in houses especially built for the purpose will not now be considered. Beds can be prepared on the cellar or basement floor by using the wall for one side of the bed. A board or plank one foot to 15 inches in width ‘an then be stood on edge three to four feet from the basement wall and held in position by the necessary upright scantlings and sup- ported at intervals to hold the material in position. In this way a box of the desired width and length can be made, the floor of the basement or cellar serving as the bottom. If more space is desired, tiers of beds ean be made; that is, two or three or four beds one above the other against the cellar wall. This is a common practice. Cross pieces from the uprights can be nailed on, upon which the floor of the upper beds can be laid. These should be made of lumber at least one inch in thickness. A space about 20-24 inches should be left between the top of one bed and the bottom of the one directly above it. All these places should have some ventilation, but there should not be air currents and care should be taken to make the rooms in which the mushrooms are planted clean and sweet in order to avoid as far as possible any conditions which would encourage insects and other enemies of mushrooms. PREPARATION OF MATERIAL. The best material which has been found for the cultivation of mushrooms is horse manure as it comes from well-littered stables. The best is that which is littered with straw, though manure littered with shavings or sawdust is used, but it usually requires a longer time for curing. While it is desirable to have some straw in the manure, a large percentage of straw is objectionable, and when a large amount of straw is present the coarser straw should be removed. The manure is then piled under shelter either in the stable or in some shed. During the summer or autumn it may be piled in an open shed, In the winter when it is quite cold, an open shed would probably in- ~ S. > a FOR AMATEUE ROWING a! 19 | SH2O0OM (¢ Mu buamoys ‘uoyisod ur dinjo auo {o ydvubojoy gq *suoolysnu UNOLB-7]N{ YZ ‘asnoyucaib Ut Yyouag sapun LOG UL UNOLD “‘pysp) y fja1wn 4—eG 168 BuLLETIN 227. terfere with proper curing. The manure is piled from 3-4 feet deep according to the amount needed and the space available. The length or width of the pile is immaterial. The manure is cured by allowing it to heat and ferment in the pile, but great care must be exercised not to allow it to burn, that is, it must not get white inside. To prevent its becoming too hot, the manure must be forked over and made into a new pile. This is done by beginning at one end, turning the manure over, shaking it slightly as it is turned into the new pile. It may feel to the hand quite hot, but as long as it does not turn white or get too dry the heating will not harm it. Usually after the manure is well heated, turning once in two or three days will answer, but sometimes it is necessary to turn every day. This will depend on conditions; and the conditions of the manure must be examined every day in order to prevent its burning or becoming too dry. It is far better to handle the manure in such a way as to avoid the neces- sity of moistening with water; but if it is too dry to begin with or if it becomes too dry in the process of heating, enough water should be sprinkled on to make it moist, but not wet. It usually requires from 10-15 or 18 days to cure manure, and it is then ready for making into beds. It should not be made into beds, however, until the tempera- ture of the fermenting manure is down to about 100° Fahr. PREPARATION OF THE BEDs. Having prepared the boxes, the manure can now be placed in them. The manure is either used alone or with the mixture of some rich loamy soil, about one part of soil to four or five parts of manure. Most commercial growers of mushrooms do not employ any soil, but use the manure pure. This gives much less trouble and is usually considered a more successful method than the mixture of soil. When the beds are made up without soil, a layer of manure is spread over the bottom; usually the coarser and more strawy material is selected for the bottom layer, since this ferments for a longer time and keeps up the heat in the bed. When the first layer of manure is thoroughly tramped or pounded down, another layer is added which in like manner is thoroughly tramped down. This is continued until the bed is filled, when the manure should be from 10-12 or 14 inches deep and must be firmly packed. In using soil to mix with the manure, a layer of the manure is first put in the bottom of the bed as described. Over this is sprinkled a thin layer of soil. Another layer of manure is then added and another sprinkling of soil. Each time the layers are thoroughly packed down, as before, until the beds are filled. In the experiments described above, soil was mixed with the ma- nure. Where soil is used, care should be exercised in its selection MusHR0ooM GROWING FOR AMATEURS. 169 It should be a good, loamy, rich soil. The best to use is rotted sod, since in the decaying roots and stems there is considerable fresh organic material which is excellent food for the mushrooms. This is the kind of soil used in the experiments described above. Any good pasture sod or good sod by the roadside in rich earth will answer. It is composted without the addition of any other material, and in the course of two or three months composting in the summer it will be ready for use. It should be worked up fine and screened from coarse stone, sticks, ete. PLANTING THE SPAWN. When the beds are first made up, if the work has been properly attended to, they will not be in a vondition for spawning because the temperature will run too high. If the manure in the pile was at a temperature of about 100° when it was made into the bed, the tem- perature in the bed is likely to rise higher, up-to 115° or 120° F. because of its being packed down so closely together. A thermometer should be kept in some part of the bed and if the bed is large the temperature should be tested at different places every day or so. The temperature should be taken several inches below the surface. The proper time to spawn is when the temperature is from 70° to 75° F. What mushroom spawn is. Mushroom spawn as it is found in the market is either in the form of bricks and known as brick spawn, or it is in the form of irregular chunks of manure with the fibrous growth of the mushrooms, known as the vegetative part or mycelium, grow- ing in it. This latter is known as French spawn. Suitable pieces of spawn for planting are those about two inches in diameter. If brick spawn is used, a single brick will make 9 to 10 or 12 such pieces. These are planted according to the wishes of the operator from 8 to 10 or 12 inches apart in the bed. The first row is planted four or five or six inches from the edge of the bed. In the second row the pieces may alternate with those in the first. A hole is well made by a dibble or sharpened stick, which is thrust into the bed and moved around in order to make a hole which will admit the pieces of spawn. The hole should be small enough so that when the spawn is pressed into it, it will fit very tightly. The spawn should be planted from one to two inches below the surface of the bed and then covered with the manure removed in making the hole. This should then be packed down hard. The beds are then left in this condition for about a week, and in the meantime may be covered loosely with excelsior or straw to prevent too rapid evaporation of moisture and also to prevent too rapid lowering of the temperature. ‘saauno & punod { paybran swmoowysnul abun) aaly} AY) ‘dunjo Jouuan ay) UT ‘ydpnubojoyd yybr-Yysv) yy “woo. Buryjod yuawasng ur youag Japun pag ur unoiy = “DiMayog fijaiw0 A—'FGT “DIT sd ons Shaner ete i MusHROOM GROWING FoR AMATEURS. ial CASING THE BEDs. This consists in covering the beds with an inch to an inch and one- half of good soil, the same kind of soil as is used for mixing in with the manure. The object in casing the beds with soil is to retain the temperature within the material, which is necessary for the mainte- nance of the growth, and it also provides a firmer and cleaner sub- stratum in which the stems of the mushrooms are mostly formed and they are thus cleaner when picked. In from six to seven weeks mushrooms should begin to appear. ForRM AND GROWTH OF THE MUSHROOM. For full discussion of the form and growth of the mushroom, the reader is referred to Bulletin 138, Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Studies and Illustrations of Mushrooms* No. 1, but a brief description may be made here. The mature plant is somewhat umbrella-shaped, having a cap, the expanded upper part, which is borne on a stem. Near the upper part of the stem is a collar known as the ring or annulus. On the underside of the cap are the gills. These are thin long plates, something like the blade of a knife, which radiate outward from near the stem and lie very close together. These gills are called the fruiting portion of the plant, because they bear on their surfaces the minute germs or spores by which the plant is distributed and sometimes reproduces itself. These spores are developed in great numbers. They are dark brown when ripe. They easily fall from the plates or gills when ripe, as is seen by placing a cap on white paper for a few hours, when a beautiful spore print is formed from the large number of spores which fall down on the paper. Where mushrooms are growing in a clump, the upper ones when mature shed their spores on the caps of the lower ones, giving them a so6ty-brown appearance. Growth of the mushroom. I have just said that these spores some- times serve to reproduce the plant. They perform the service for the mushrooms which seed perform for the higher plants, but they are not true seeds. The spores are very light and are easily wafted about by the gentlest breeze, so that in the fields the winds scatter the spores far and wide, and thus give an opportunity for the mush- rooms to grow in fields where food and other favorable conditions are *See also Mushrooms, Edible, Poisonous, ete., Henry Holt & Co., New York City, in which is a 40-page chapter on the cultivation of mushrooms in houses constructed for the purpose and in caves, See also Farmers’ Bulletin 204, U.S. Dept. Agr. 72 BuLLETIN 227. present. These spores germinate by producing a very delicate white thread which branches to form a mat of fiber-like substance. Many of these little threads unite into a cord or string which is also white and is shown very well in Fig. 151. This fiber-like substance is known as the mycelium, though mushroom growers. often speak of it as the “fiber.”? It can readily be seen in all good spawn. In practical mushroom culture, the spores of the plant, though they serve as seeds, are not used for planting since the use of mycelium or fiber is a far betéer means of propagating the mushroom. After the pieces of brick are planted in the bed, the moisture is absorbed which gives the mycelium the water which it needs for erowth. The heat from the fermented manure supplies the necessary temperature, and growth of the fiber soon begins. It spreads out into the material of the bed and also grows upward into the soil with which the bed is cased. In the soil and in the manure of the bed, it forms a large mat of these fibers or mycelium cords. Finally when a sufficient mass of the mycelium has formed the mushrooms begin to develop. The mushrooms are formed by the growth of a large number of the same delicate threads, but a larger number of them grow together and they grow upright. First is formed a minute rounded body the size of a mustard seed. This becomes larger until it reaches the button stage of the mushroom, shown in Fig. 151. This same figure shows a very young stage of the buttons when they appear as minute rounded bodies on the cords. Sometimes the spawn will grow very profusely above the piece of brick which has been planted and appears on the surface of the soil. When this is the case, large numbers of minute buttons make their appearance and form very beautiful objects. All of these, however, do not make mature mushrooms, since there is not food enough for all. Those which get the start grow to maturity, while the smaller ones die. As the button stage is reached, the upper part expands into the éap. The stem is shown as a short cylinder. The gills are formed within the upper part of the button and are first covered by the outside mass, which stretches as the cap expands to form the veil. Finally this veil breaks, exposing the gills on the underside, and hangs down on the upper part of the stem as the collar or annulus. PICKING THE MUSHROOMS. The mushrooms are ready to pick about the time the veil breaks. At this time the gills are a bright pink color. As the plant gets older, the cap expands more and the gills gradually become dark brown MussRooM GROWING FOR AMATEURS. 173 or black because of the large number of ripe spores on them. Even in this condition they are suitable for eating if they are not decayed. But when the gills become black, they are not so suitable for the market. In picking the mushrooms, the best way is to take hold of the plant by the cap. By moving the hand from side to side with a slight circular motion the stem is freed from the soil. The end of the stem to which the dirt clings should be cut off and discarded. If any dirt comes up which contains the fiber of spawn, this part should be replaced in the bed. After picking the mushrooms, wherever the stems have made a little hole in removing them from the earth, a little soil should be added to cover this up again. THE SPAWN. Spawn can be obtained from any of the large seedsmen. The spawn handled by these firms is imported. The spawn used in the experiments on which this bulletin is based was obtained from the Pure Culture Spawn Company of Columbia, Mo. This firm has on the market three varieties of spawn known as the Alaska, Columbia and Bohemia, the first kind a whitish one, and the two latter with a brownish cap, the Bohemia being a stouter mushroom than the other two. It is possible with the method employed by this company to cultivate varieties true to name because the spawn is derived from known varieties, whereas most or all of the imported spawn may contain several varieties mixed. ENEMIES OF MusHROOM CULTURE. Mushrooms are subject to a number of troubles which sometimes interfere seriously with the crop. When the manure is poor there is likely to be trouble from the fly. A large number of little maggots are developed which feed in mushrooms. Mites are sometimes very troublesome. Both of these troubles are likely to be more serious in the warmer weather. Snails also, which are troublesome in green- houses, are very fond of mushrooms. Lettuce leaves or cabbage leaves should be placed near the beds or even on the beds, and the beds should be visited at night when the snails are troublesome. Then the mushrooms damp off or fog off. This is usually caused by too much moisture on the surface of the bed. The beds need sprink- ling occasionally with tepid water, but should never be made very wet. Insects can largely be avoided by care in securing good manure and in having the premises well cleaned before the beds are made. When mushrooms are grown in successive years in the same place, 174 BULLETIN 227. the place should be given a very thorough cleaning during the sum- mer. All manure and soil is removed, the beds are cleaned out well, and the walls and boards often whitewashed. It perhaps would be well also at this time thoroughly to disinfect the premises with a solution of formalin. G. F. ATKINSON. ROBERT SHORE. April, 1905 BULLETIN 228 CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Department of Agronomy (Extension Work) POTATO. GROWING IN -NEW YORK (AND LIST OF COOPERATIVE EXPERIMENTS.) By J. L. STONE. ELHACA, N.Y: PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY ORGANIZATION Or THE CoRNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BOARD OF CONTROL. THe TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the Agricultural College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. THOMAS F. HUNT, Professor of Agronomy. EXPERIMENTING STAFF. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director. JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology, ag HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry. Ea GEORGE F. ATKINSON, Botany. JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture. THOMAS F. HUNT, Agronomy. RAYMOND A. PEARSON, Dairy Industry. JAY A. BONSTEEL, Soil Investigation. MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. JOHN L. STONE, Agronomy. JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry. STEVENSON W. FLETCHER, Horticulture. JOHN W. GILMORE, Agronomy. ROBERT S. NORTHROP, Horticulture. HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology. SAMUEL FRASER, Agronomy. JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry. JOHN M. TRUEMAN, Animal Husbandry and Dairy Industry. CHARLES E. HUNN, Horticulture. Office of the Director. 17 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New York State who request them. CoLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, CorRNELL University, IrHaca, N. Y., April 1, 1905. Hon. CHartes A. WIETING, Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany. Sir.—I herewith submit an expository bulletin on potato growing in New York State, embodying the experience of the best potato farmers and the results of numerous scientific experiments. Next to rice, the potato is probably the most extensively grown and most valuable crop in the world. The potato crop of Europe in value and volume exceeds the tabulated wheat crop of the world. According to the last census the crop in the United States was 273,328,207 bushels, of which New York State produced 38,060,470 bushels, or slightly less than one-seventh of the entire crop of the United States. The New York crop was grown on 395,640 acres of land and was valued at $15,019,135. New York has ranked first in potato production in every census year since 1850. The average yield of potatoes in the United States for a ten-year period is 84.5 bushels an acre and in New York State for the same period it is 81.2 bushels. The average yields secured in England are from 230 to 240 bushels; in Norway, 220 to 230; Germany, in 1903, 217 bushels; In Ireland, in 1904, 159 bushels. The potato crop of the world now averages about 4,500,000,000 bushels per annum. Following are figures of potato crops for the year 1904: Acreage. Yield peracre. Total production. Value. U. S. 3,015,675 110.4 332,830,300 bu. 1504 millions of dollars N.Y. 442,254 93%) bus 41,129,622 bu. 222 $ Respectfully submitted, L. H. Battery, Director. 12 178 BULLETIN 228. Burnosupy 4a3{0 UOYLPUOD pun ‘pasadvoa paas ay} ‘pauado smosin{ ay) hpaarjoadsas buinoys ‘soojnjod sol pasvdaid puny °Gey POTATO GROWING. Five bulletins relating to potato culture have been issued by this Station. Bulletins 130, 140, 156 and 196 record results secured on the Station grounds and 191 results of co-operative experiments under the university extension movement. These bulletins have had a wide reading and requests for them are still numerous. Some of them, however, are now out of print and it is decided, instead of reissuing the separate numbers, to combine into a new bulletin a summary of the data contained in them, with such new data as has accumulated. The aim is to present a logical expository bulletin on potato culture, using the experimental data to illustrate and enforce the statements made. Soil. Potatoes grow on a wide range of soils, but those in which either sand or clay largely predominate are not desirable. Potatoes prefer a cool, moist, mellow soil, and it must be well drained either naturally or artificially. These conditions can usually be secured in a sandy or gravelly loam, if rightly managed. There should be enough coarse materia! in the soil to insure friability and enough silt or clay to insure water-holding capacity. An abundant supply of humus is desirable in soils of any grade. It helps to make the stiff soils more permeable and friable, and the loose soils more retentive of moisture. In both it is an important source of plant-food, while its presence favors the bringing of the minerals of the soil into avail- able condition. The physical texture of light soils is favorable for potatoes and if suitably fertilized they will produce larger crops than heavy soils. This is shown by the variety tests recorded near the end of this bulletin. The potatoes grown on light or medium soils are also usually of superior quality to those grown on heavy soils. An interesting illustration of this occurred near the University the past season. A field having a mellow loamy soil on one part and changing to rather a heavy clay loam on another was planted to potatoes. The whole field was well fertilized and tilled, the different soils being treated alike. It chanced that the first potatoes to be harvested were taken from the area having the lighter soil. These potatoes were furnished to customers who pronounced them of excellent quality and at once placed orders for their winter’s supply. These orders were filled with potatoes taken from the area having the heavy soil 180: BuLLETIN 228. and proved to be of very inferior quality, to the annoyance and dis- gust of both seller and buyer. The soil upon which the Cornell experiments have been conducted is a gravelly loam underlaid by sand. The natural drainage is, therefore, very effective and the soil is better adapted to withstand an excess rather than a deficiency of moisture. Previous to the beginning of these experiments in 1895, the land had been subjected to a regular four years’ rotation consisting of wheat, clover, corn and oats. In 1894 the area was planted to corn, having received about 10 tons per acre of barn manure during the previous winter. While this soil was recognized to be in a good state of fertility owing to previous rational treatment, it did not appear to hold an unusual stock of plant-food. In 1896 analysis of soil from these acre plats, computed for a depth of eight inches, indicated in the fine soil the following amounts of the constituents named below: Phosphoric:acid)); 2 eine ak omnes tis tare oo i eee Oe 2,523 Ibs. NIGFOR ENS BS BA casas a1c8d Sarath eee cate ee One eae 2,049 Ibs. BO tas hic Sees sera oes eis Siete cee pO ee Ae ee eee 8,042 Ibs. In Roberts’ “The Fertility of the Land” analyses of 49 soils are tabulated, and, computing for the same depth, the average amounts of potential plant-food per acre are: Phosphorie acid :).).:2 . gases se ote hae ee ae ee 4,219 lbs. INHTOR EN 20st 2 Ae oo sees eee a Eee eee 3,053 Ibs. Potash 2029 scctaiars Grote Smit She ORI oe Oe tee Oe eee 16,317 lbs. It appears, then, that this soil contained in the fine material only about one-half as much phosphoric acid and potash and about two- thirds as much nitrogen as an average soil. The gravel which did not pass through a sieve of 18 meshes to the inch and which constituted about 42 per cent of this soil, contained somewhat more phosphoric acid and slightly less potash per acre than did the fine soil. Some of this gravel was in a soft, rotten condition and pulverized very easily. For six years experiments in the culture of potatoes were conducted upon this area, though potatoes did not follow potatoes year after year on the same plats. The potato crops alternated with crops of beans, sugar beets, corn or oats, and peas. Large yields of these various crops were taken from these plats each year and without the application of manure or fertilizer, the object of the series of experiments being to demonstrate the effect upon the yield of very thorough and judicious tillage of the soil. Place of potatoes in the rotation. In all the plat experiments with potatoes conducted at this Station, the potatoes were planted on land Porato GROWING IN New York. 181 that had been tilled the previous season. As results to be stated further on will show, during the earlier years of these experiments, the soil still carried a fair amount of organic matter derived from previous growth of sod or dressings of manure. This resulted in almost ideal conditions for the crop. The absence of undecomposed sods made possible the thorough, deep preparation of the soil and the deep planting which we have found so favorable to good results. An inverted clover sod is recognized by practical potato growers as an excellent place for potatoes. If the sod is newly turned, however, it interferes with the through preparation and deep planting which is desirable. The ideal preparation is to turn the sod early the pre- vious autumn, plowing as deep as the character of the land will permit, and sow rye or rye and vetch for a cover-crop. In the spring before the cover-crop has made large growth or become woody, the land is plowed again, but not quite sodeep as before. The sod should be so decayed by this time as not to interfere with the working, but to mix thoroughly with the soil. If the spring plowing is done several weeks before planting and while the cover-crop is young and succu- _lent, the cover-crop will decay quickly and not hinder tillage opera- tions. If the cover-crop is allowed to make large growth and become woody, it not only will interfere with the planting operations but will endanger the crop should dry weather prevail, by checking rise of moisture from below. A timothy sod is not so desirable for potatoes, but if it is to be used it should be plowed the previous August and sowed to a cover- crop. This gives it time to rot so it can be incorporated with the soil. The cover may be mammoth clover, or crimson clover (if it succeeds in the locality), rape, or buckwheat and rye. The rape will grow till severe freezing occurs, when it will die and in the spring will mix readily with the soil. About five pounds of seed per acre may be sown and lightly brushed in. The buckwheat and rye may be sown three pecks of the former mixed with five pecks of the latter. The buckwheat will overgrow the rye and hold it in check till frost occurs, when it will be killed and the rye will have opportunity to grow during late autumn and early spring till it is plowed under. Land that has grown a crop of corn, beans or cabbage is an excel- lent place for potatoes, provided there is an adequate supply of available plant-food. If the previous treatment, so far as rotation and manuring is concerned, has been such that there is a fair stock of organic matter left in the soil after growing the preceding crop, then thorough tillage will probably make available adequate sup- plies for the potato crop. This applies to soils of medium or heavy grade rather than to sandy soils. 182 BULLETIN 228. UJ Preparation of the Seed-Bed. Potatoes thrive best on a deep, well drained, moist, mellow, cool soil, and the preparation given to the seed-bed should aim to bring about these conditions as fully as possible. The suggestions made as to place in the rotation have this point in view. Undecomposed sods interfere with thorough preparation and working of the soil, but when broken down and mixed with the soil the effect is highly beneficial. In the Cornell experiments the fitting of the land was very thor- ough and was alike for all the plats, the plan of the experiments having to do with the inter-tillage, spraying, ete., of the crop. It is evident, however, that the fitting had very much to do with the re- sult, since those plats that were given the most common treatment after the plants were up, nevertheless produced very satisfactory crops. This is shown in the following table giving the minimum, maxi- mum and average yields and also the average yield in the State for the years 1895 to 1898 inclusive. TaBLE I.—YIELD oF POTATOES OBTAINED ON CORNELL UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT STATION Puats, 1895 To 1898. Number Minimum Maximum Average Average YEAR. of plats yield | yield yield yield in grown. per acre. | per acre. per acre. | New York. Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels. Bushels, TROS YA See ee 8 304 | 415 352.6 122 IBOG AER oe ea eee 9 245.3 | 350.3 3194 89 TSO AA ae cee ees 10 243. | 384 | 322 62 1898. iat 206 398.6 | 292.3 | 73 Average for four years.......| ....---- 240;250 387 0 Ntersaneen 86.5 This land did not contain large amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid or potash, as shown on page 430. It had no manure or fer- tilizer after the winter of 1893-94. It produced heavy yields of other crops the alternate seasons when it was not planted to pota- toes. The difference between the minimum and maximum yields is due to the difference in the treatment of the crop after it was up; but the very creditable yields given in the minimum column evi- dently must have depended upon the preparation given the soil be- fore this time, for afterwards these plats had the very commonest treatment— that is, they were “laid by” at the third cultivation. Fitting the Experiment Plats. Each fall as soon as the season’s crop was removed the land was deeply plowed, thoroughly harrowed and sowed to a cover-crop. This cover-crop was usually wheat or Porato GROWING IN New York. 183 rye. Once a good stand of crimson clover was secured. Sometimes the cover-crop had time to make only a small growth before winter set in. In the spring, without waiting for the cover-crop to grow, the land was plowed as soon as the soil was dry enough. In this climate the soil and subsoil are almost sure to be thoroughly sat- urated with water at sometime during early spring. Owing to the porous subsoil the surplus in this case would soon drain away and the early plowing would check loss of capillary water by evaporation from the surface. Professor King has shown (see “The Soil,” p. 188) that an unplowed Wisconsin soil lost by evaporation in seven | , 5 -— ae ‘ee . GiRES a Fic. 156.—Covering potatoes by Cornell method. days in April nearly 200 tons of water per acre, more than was lost from the same soil that had been plowed. Usually the potato crop is limited at some season of its growth by the amount of moisture that is available. By early spring plowing and by maintaining ‘an earth mulch thereafter, we probably conserve a maximum amount of the winter’s rainfall for the use of the crop in its time of need. The twice plowing and frequent harrowings that the land has re- ceived have thoroughly pulverized and aerated the soil and put it in favorable condition for chemical and bacterial activity. The method employed in planting also results in a much greater movement of the 184 BULLETIN 228. soil than is usually secured in this operation and should be con- sidered as part of the tillage given the land before the crop is up. The various steps in the planting operations are illustrated dia- grammatically in Fig.155. Furrows were opened deeply by means of a double mold-board plow, piling the earth up in ridges between the rows. ‘The tubers were dropped in these furrows and the ridges were split, using the same implement and throwing the earth into ridges over the rows; Fig. 156. By these operations the whole body of soil was stirred nearly to the depth of the original plowing and as effectively as the plow would do it. Before the potatoes were up the land was leveled by harrowing. We desire to emphasize the fact that up to this point the soil probably received, in the two plowings, the planting and the subse- quent harrowings, double the amount of effective tillage that is ordi- narily given to the potato crop in New York. It is this thorough fitting of the soil which all the plats received, that made possible an average minimum yield of 249.5 bu. (see table, p. 432) per acre dur- ing four years 1895-98, on land that was not manured or fertilized after the winter of 1893-4, as the after-treatment on these minimum plats was only the commonest. The difference between this average minimum yield of 249.5 bushels and the average maximum yield of 387 bushels, or 137.5 bushels, is attributable to the treatment given the crop after the plants were up, which is yet to be considered. Fertilization.” ‘The experiments under discussion were not planned to consider the question of fertilization of potatoes, bu: to demon- strate the efficiency of thorough tillage. It seems wise, however, in this connection to refer briefly to the use of barn manure and commercial fertilizers in potato growing. The potato crop requires an abundance of available plant-food in order to make large yields. Sometimes thorough preparation and tillage of the soil will render available all the crop can use. Usually however, the crop responds well to dressings of manure or fertilizer, and this is especially true in case only ordinary tillage is given. Therefore, unless the soil is known to be in fertile condition it is good policy to provide liberally for the requirements of the crop. The potato usually brings a larger cash return per acre than most farm crops and therefore warrants a relatively large expenditure for man- ure or fertilizers. - Stable Manure. Experience teaches that well rotted manure pro- duces best results with potatoes. In fact, it is well if liberal applica- tions have been made to the previous crop, so that the manure shall have become thoroughly decomposed and mixed with the soil before Porato GROWING IN New YorRK. 185 the land is devoted to potatoes. It is found that direct applications of manure aggravate the potato scab, if that trouble be present, but that the difficulty is not so great if the manure has been applied to the previous crop. It requires, however, a heavy application.to be sufficient for two large tilled crops. In some localities, where the scab is especially troublesome, direct applications of barn manure to potato land have been abandoned and commercial fertilizers em- ployed instead. If the land is to be fall plowed and sown to a cover- crop, the manure, if available, may well be applied at this time— plowing it under if coarse or working it into the surface if fine. The spring plowing will effect its thorough mixing with the soil. Commercial Fertilizers. Commercial fertilizers: are frequently used in New York on land to be planted to potatoes. Potatoes being a cash crop upon which considerable labor is expended and a crop which usually responds to such applications, this practice seems to be rational. This Station, however, has conducted few fertilizer ex- periments and readers are referred to the excellent bulletins on this subject issued by the State Experiment Station at Geneva and also to a popular discussion of the use of fertilizers in potato growing by Mr. Alva Agee in Bulletin No. 105 of the Pennsylvania State Board of Agriculture, Harrisburg, Pa., entitled “ Potato Culture.” Selection of Seed. It is a fact of very general observation among potato growers that varieties possessing strong vigor and powers of large production tend to “run out” under the ordinary system of management. The potato thrives best in a cool climate. In the United States it reaches its highest development in Maine, New York, Michigan and the Northwest. Here degeneration is believed to be less rapid than in territory to the south of this belt, but the tendency exists. Some have thought that it is inherent in the sys- tem of propagating by means of tubers; that the only means of escaping its consequences is by having frequent recourse to new varieties recently developed from the seed. Growers in the more southerly districts believe they find that by securing seed from the North every few years, better crops are produced than from seed of the same variety that has been continuously grown in their own lo- calities. It is believed that this tendency to lose vigor is least marked when the conditions of climate, soil and culture are those best suited to bring the plants to the highest degree of development, and that it increases as these conditions are departed from. It is thought that, in New York at least, the “running out” of varieties is due in greater measure to the system of seed selection and care in common use (or rather to the lack of such a system) than to 186 BULLETIN 228. any tendency to degeneration inherent in the propagation by means of tubers. The cost of the frequent introduction of new varieties or sending to northern localities for fresh seed, is such that much of the area devoted to potatoes in New York is annually planted with tubers more or less reduced in vigor. If a system of seed selection that is practicable for the farmer to follow and would prevent the deterioration of the desirable vigorous sorts, so as to hold them up to their highest point of excellence, or, perhaps, even lead to their further improvement, were understood and practiced, it would in- crease the average yield per acre without materially increasing the cost. Let us first consider the practice of farmers in seed selection and point out some of the causes that lead to deterioration of varieties. The tuber does not belong to the root system of the plant, but to the stem. It is not a true seed: that is in the seed ball. At a certain stage in its growth the plant throws out a branch or stem that, in- stead of rising above ground, and producing leaves, flowers and seeds, remains under the surface and at its extremity produces a cluster of buds (eyes) which are surrounded by and imbedded in a mass of succulent growth—chiefly starch, which constitutes the tuber. The nutrient material contained in the tuber is intended for the nourish- ment of the buds when they start to grow. The tubers tend to par- take of the nature and characteristics of the plants that produce them. Ifthe plant was a strong and vigorous one, having a tendency to produce a goodly number of large well-formed tubers, each of those tubers will partake of the characteristics of the parent and under favorable conditions will produce similar strong plants. If the plant is a weak one, having a habit of setting few tubers and growing these only to small or medium size, these tubers will also inherit and transmit the characteristics of the parent plant. A tuber from a vigorous plant producing a large hill of potatoes, though itself small because it was started late and did not have time to develop full size, would possess and transmit the characteristics of its worthy parent. So, also, the fair sized tuber from a weak hill in which it alone at- tained merchantable size, would inherit the tendencies of its parent. We see, then, that inspection of the individual tuber alone will not enable us to judge whether it inherits great vigor or not. To judge this we must know the character of the hill it came from, or back of this the vigor of the plant that produced the hill. The whole plant, then, must be studied as an individual—not the single tuber. While the variety is new or when the stock has recently come from a locality where vigor is well maintained, nearly all the plants pro- Porato GROWING IN New York. 187 duce large hills of potatoes and a large yield per acre results. Some weak and inferior hills, however, are always found and in the absence of any system for excluding these from the next season’s planting, their proportion to the whole increases from season to season with a gradual decline in productivity of the general stock. : This tendency is observed when the “run of the pile” is used for planting. It is much increased if, for the sake of economy, “sec- onds’’ are selected for seed. A second from a good hill may be ex- cellent seed, but good hills produce few seconds, while the inferior hills produce little else than seconds. The farmer, then, who plants seconds is really selecting his seed in the main from the weak and inferior hills. Many farmers think that seconds are satisfactory for planting. This sometimes is true. If the stock is vigorous, so that nearly all the seconds come from good hills, little deterioration will be observed ; but if the stock is already weakened so that most of the seconds come from inferior hills, the deterioration will be rapid. Considerable experimental data gathered from numerous sources could be presented to sustain the above statements, but space limits us to one experiment extending through two years by the late Pro- fessor E. 8. Goff with potatoes of the Snowflake variety. Tasie I].—SnHow1ne YIELDS FROM Most PRopUCTIVE AND LEAST Propuctive HI11s. 1898. 1899. rer 7 Total Nox lh Wits rs No. | Wt. rs : a of vor No. Yield of of No. Yield yield SEED FROM. | wt. of | sie eee | wt. of|for the hills | seed OP |e raiiienalle |o seeds) ofes ie plant-| in |tubers. a || plant- in |tubers.} = Oe | ed. | gms. LEN yo gms. UO OZos | EMERTE in OZ. Most productive hills... . . UBT) at 42 4138 32 323 190 | 29034 332% Least productive hills..... 13 111 36 1275 32 323 159 88 100} | Care was taken to cut the seed so that in each case the same weight should be planted. The total produce of the seed from the most productive hills is nearly three and one-third times that from the least productive hills. Differences so marked have not always been obtained, but the tendency seems to be uniformly manifested. It is evident, then, that tubers for planting should be selected on the basis of the character of the hills they come from, and that a system for making such selections that is practicable for busy farm- ers is much needed. We believe that the system about to be sug- gested is practicable and will prove profitable to farmers adopting 188 BuLLETiIN 228. it by enabling them to maintain at their highest state of productivity any varieties possessing desirable characteristics, great vigor and adaptation to their soil and markets. Probably they can go farther and even increase the productivity of their best varieties. At all events, seed selection is one of the important means of increasing the crop. Most potatoes are these days dug by machinery, which does not permit of selection by hills. But it would not be burdensome for the farmer to dig by-hand the stock required for next season’s plant- ing. Let the necessary area be set aside from the best part of the field—where conditions are such that plants of high vigor are likely to be produced. Have the tubers from each hill laid by themselves, so that inspection of the hills will be easy. First go through, taking out and discarding all inferior hills. Next make a selection of the very best—the gilt-edge hills. These are for the planting of the next season’s seed area. The remainder are for the planting of the main crop, and by reason of the exclusion of all inferior hills should pro- duce increased yields over “the run of the pile.” The next season the seed area planted with the gilt-edge seed should be harvested in the manner described above and should give still better stock for - planting both the main crop and the seed plat the following year. Thus year by year the productivity of a variety should be main- tained or improved instead of suffering the deterioration so gener- ally observed. It is possible to make decided gains in productivity by selecting on the basis of vigor of vine as manifested during the growing season. The best hills are usually the product of the most vigorous vines. If markers are placed by the most promising-looking plants and these taken out by themselves just before the general harvest, excellent stock is secured with which to start a seed plat. A Chautauqua County farmer who followed this system for three years, reports that he established a strain of a variety that was decidedly more produc- tive than stock taken from the general harvest. This system of se- lection often may be combined with the one previously described to excellent advantage.* _Storing Seed Potatoes. The conditions under which tubers intended for planting are kept during the winter and early spring, have much to do with the vigor of the plants derived from them. If placed in *This matter of the selection of potatoes for planting is admirably adapted for one of the co-operative experiments in our Agricultural Extension Work. We shall be pleased to enter into communication with farmers who are willing to take it up in this connection. Porato GROWING IN New York. 189 large piles soon after harvesting and while the weather is still warm, there is danger of heating to injure vitality. Potatoes should not be stored in large masses till the weather has become cool and they have been sweated in small piles. If stored in crates or in moderate sized slatted bins which favor a gentle circulation of air among them, the vitality is believed to be preserved in high degree. The temperature at which they are held, however, is of chief importance. The lower the temperature can be held without danger of chilling the tubers, the better. From 35° to 50° give good results. In many cellars these temperatures cannot be maintained, especially as warm weather approaches and the tubers start to grow. The sprouts pro- duced in the darkness of the cellars are long, spindling, white and tender and are necessarily sacrificed when the tubers are handled. Plants produced from tubers thus weakened by premature sprouting in darkness are less vigorous than those from tubers held dormant till planting time or suitably sprouted in the light. In 1903 the following experiment bearing on this point was con- ducted by this Station under the supervision of Mr. J. W. Gilmore. About May 5, Maine-grown stock of Sir Walter Raleigh variety that had been kept in excellent condition was set apart for seeding a late planted plat. Part of the seed was simply stored in a cool place in the barn and a part put into cold storage till July 6, when both were planted. The barn-stored seed was considerably wilted and had sprouts two or three inches long, which were mostly broken off in planting. The cold storage seed was just beginning to start into growth. The yields of equal areas were: From barn-stored seed, wilted and sprouted........... * 42.5 Ibs. From cold-storage seed, solid, slightly started......... 111.0 lbs. ‘This shows a gain of 159 per cent in favor of the solid, nearly dor- mant seed over the wilted and sprouted seed. This probably illus- trates extremes, though the sprouted seed was not worse than we have frequently seen farmers using. _in 1904, another experiment was conducted under the supervision of Mr. S. Fraser. The seed tubers were stored from November to May in crates in a cool cellar. No sprouts had started May Ist. They were then divided into four lots and subjected to the condi- tions indicated below. The following figures give the produce of small uniform plats planted June 7th: 190 BULLETIN 228. SEED STORED 36 Days (May 2 To JUNE 7) IN Trays As BELow. VARIETY. In dark Cold Barn cellar frame near 50°-60°. open window |Greenhouse Average above, temp. 70° to 90°. of four bottom near out plats. 80°. of doors. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Chinn INO, SacenoosguameneSododdiodccon ob 15.44 26.50 Pail PAS) 16.25 OLGE Vy altereEvalelo: Dererretetereiesielariekieae eines 16.74 17.00 20.13 20.25 INGORE LYON Na ngocooonoocboodeoOconc 16.09 PAWS 20.69 18.25 Increase over seed stored in cellar.........-.-- epee 5.66 4.60 2.16 Per cent gain over seed stored in cellar.........| .....--- i515 1 28.5 13.4 The sprouts on all those exposed to light were strong, dark green, short, not over 4 to ? of an inch long. On those from the cellar they were three to four inches long, whitish and brittle and would be likely to be broken off in planting. If the planting is to be done by machinery, the tubers should not be exposed to light and warmth as long as were those in this experiment, as the sprouts, though strong and vigorous, were too long to escape injury if handled care- lessly. Probably fifteen to twenty days’ exposure is more suitable. If the cellars or other usual places of storage will not hold the seed practically dormant till within two weeks of planting time, then cold storage should be resorted to if within reach, or the seed tubers may be stored in pits in the field and by proper management kept dor- mant till it is desired to expose them preparatory to planting. What- ever method of handling seed tubers is practiced, it is important that they shall not be weakened by premature sprouting in darkness. Preparation of Scabby Seed for Planting. If the tubers are affected with seab, even slightly, they should be treated before planting. To kill the seab spores, soak the tubers one and one-half or two hours in one pint of formalin diluted by twenty-five or thirty gallons of water. Contained in gunny sacks or:crates, they may be lowered into the preparation and after the requisite time lifted out and allowed to drain. Then spread them out to dry in the shade, after which they may be cut for planting as usual. Cutting. In Farmers’ Bulletin No. 35, Professor Duggar summa- rizes the results secured in a large number of experiments at many stations as to the proper size of seed pieces. Some of his conclusions follow: “Experiments indicate that it is more important to cut the tubers into compact pieces of nearly uniform size than to so shape the Porato GROWING IN NEw York. 191 pieces as to have a definite number of eyes on each set. No piece should be entirely devoid of eyes. “The total yield increases with every increase in the size of seed pieces from the single eye to the whole potato. This increase occurs both in the large and in the small potatoes, but chiefly in the latter. “The gross yield of salable potatoes (large and medium) also increases with the size of seed piece from one eye to the whole potato. “The net yield of salable potatoes (found by subtracting the amount of seed potatoes planted and the yield of small potatoes from the total yield) increases with every increase in the size of seed piece from one eye to the half potato. The half potato affords a larger net salable crop than the whole potato on account of the excessive amount of seed required in planting entire tubers. Taking the aver- age of many experiments, it was found that for every 100 bushels of net salable crop grown from single eyes there were 114 bushels from 2-eye pieces, 131 bushels from quarters, and 139 bushels from halves, but only 129 bushels from planting whole potatoes. “These results favor the use of halves as seed pieces if seed potatoes and crop are assumed to be of equal value per bushel, but when seed potatoes command a very high price quarters may be used to advant- age.” Basing our practice upon these conclusions and upon general ex- perience, it has been the custom at this Station to use good sized tubers for planting and to cut them to three or four-ounce pieces. The number of eyes on each piece’has not received much attention. There are always enough. These pieces are larger than most farmers plant, and in 1902, when making a test of potato planters, it was found that they were too large to pass readily into the pockets of the dropping apparatus of the Robbins Planter. To determine whether smaller seeds would produce equally satisfactory results, plats were planted in two parts of the field with seed pieces of one- half the size of those used on adjoining areas. These smaller pieces were still as large as many farmers recommend. ‘The result was a decrease in yield where the smaller pieces were planted of 21.7 per cent in one case and of 41.5 per cent in the other. In that part of the field where the conditions were least favorable for the crop, the reduction in yield from the use of smaller pieces of seed was most marked, but in either case the loss exceeded the saving in seed several times over. Cut potatoes if stored in bulk will heat and their germinating qualities will be injured; or if spread out to the air they dry up and 192 BULLETIN 228. the vigor of growth is lessened. It is, therefore, unwise to cut a large quantity of potatoes much in advance of the anticipated planting, as an untimely rain may delay the planting for days or weeks, much to the injury of the seed. Dusting the seed with land plaster or gypsum as they are cut lessens the liability to injury if not planted at once. Several experimenters have reported increased yields resulting from treating the cut seed with plaster irrespective of any delay in planting. In 1903 the following data bearing on this point was obtained at this Station. The tubers were cut one or two days before planting and well dusted with plaster, except enough seed which was not treated of each of several varieties to plant one row across the field. The results computed to bushels per acre were as follows: With fo) plaster. plaster. or loss. OVCL a: Sie seen te, a to) ayo ralksboseaiehe ieee aiateie CeelerelD enenee te ae tote enters 246.12 223 .09 +23 .03 Trish‘Cobbler® . F530 See ae a eee oer oae emote 174.78 182.40 —— faG2 Doe's Pride’ cccces-Sale ca acloie a Sa renee ore ee ete Rodeo oie OS 321.46 315.81 | + 5.65 Green Mountain (late planted)....5...-.2--2t-2-4-.+e-- 137.87 174.56 +13.31 Doeis Pride) (ate planted) aaecs-. o» sels cies B cipeuaulstal sete vee 211.56 185.38 +26.18 In three of the five tests, there was a substantial gain when the seed was dusted with plaster. In two cases there was no consider- able effect produced. This treatment is so simple and inexpensive and the results of experiments so favorable, that its more general adoption in practice would seem to be commendable. Planting. Because of the tillage value of a thorough stirring of the soil at planting time, the method of doing the planting in our experimental work has been described in part on p. 431 under “ Pre- paration of the seed-bed.” It is not expected or advised that farmers shall undertake to do the work in just the way we have done, but they endeavor to secure the same conditions we have secured: viz., the placing of the seed pieces well down in a thoroughly mellowed seed-bed. As already stated, the tubers are borne on underground branches that spring out from joints that form on the main stems between the sets and the surface of the ground. Manifestly, then, there should be considerable distance between the point where the stem starts from the seed pieces and the surface of the ground in order that there may be abundant opportunity to form joints and throw out tuber-bearing branches. ‘The general practice of farmers is not -to Potato GROWING IN New YORK. 193 plant deep enough to secure best results. What constitutes desir- able depth depends upon circumstances, chiefly the character and condition of the soil. The lighter the soil and the more mellow the condition secured in its preparation, the deeper may the seed tubers be planted in it. If the soil is heavy and likely to settle compactly over the sets if a rain occurs, then the planting must be more shallow lest the exclusion of air and the difficulty experienced by the young plants in reaching the surface weaken their vitality. In our porous soil no disadvantage seems to result from burying the seed pieces deeply under ridges of earth, while the benefits of the deep and thor- ough stirring of the soil at this latest opportunity and the advantage of having these ridges to work down shortly before the plants come up, thus securing a perfectly clean mellow surface, are very im- portant. In porous soils, the seed pieces should be found four or five inches below the surface after the leveling is completed. This really is much deeper than it seems. Many farmers suppose they are planting three or four inches deep, when in fact the sets are not two inches below the surface. With the potato planting machines now on the market, it is difficult to plant as deep as is desirable for best results. Neither the furrow openers nor the covering apparatus are as large and effective as they should be. Manufacturers state that if they con- struct the machines so as to handle more earth in opening and closing the furrows, the draft will be increased and farmers will object. Of course the draft will be increased because more and better work is being done, but the farmer should willingly supply the team power to do it. It is also objected that deep planting makes harvesting more difficult on account of the greater depth at which the tubers occur. This is true and will be a valid objection to deep planting till diggers are produced that will do thoroughly SUE TEO work in potatoes lying at the greater depth. Amount of Seed. The amount of seed required to plant an acre will necessarily vary with the size of the seed pieces, the distance between the rows and the distance between sets in the row. The distance between rows is usually determined by convenience of cul- tivation rather than by the largest possible yield. About three feet is accepted by most growers as a suitable distance, as it is well adapted to horse tillage. In some instances, four or six inches additional have been found to enable the horse culture to be con- tinued later in the season and the increased yield per row has made 13 194 BULLETIN 228. up for the less number of rows grown. On the other hand, when land is dear and labor cheap, it is found that by lessening the distance between rows and bestowing hand labor after the horse implements are excluded by the growth of the tops, the yield per acre may be very materially increased. Distance between rows is largely a ques- tion of land vs. labor. As to distance between sets in the rows, there is not much accurate experimental data, though there is a very generally accepted opinion that if labor is dear and land cheap, and especially if the land be badly infested with weeds, the planting may well be in check-rows so as to allow horse culture both ways. Thus is secured a somewhat lessened yield peracre but sometimes at a lessened cost of production per bushel. If, however, the land has been well cleaned and well fitted, the sets may be placed closer in the rows so that culture can be given only in one direction and larger yields per acre secured. If rows are widened so as to facilitate late tillage, the sets may be crowded closer in the rows. In practice it is found that with the rows three feet apart the sets may well be placed at 14 to 18 inches apart, depending somewhat upon the variety; and with tubers cut to about two-ounce pieces it will require from 18 to 26 bushels to plant an acre. If planted in check-rows, three feet apart each way and two ounces of seed per hill, ten bushels will plant an acre. Harrowing the Crop. Except when the object was to test potato planting machines, the planting here has been done in the manner de- scribed on page 433, which leaves the earth thrown up in ridges over the rows. About ten days after the planting the field is har- rowed with a spike-tooth harrow. Usually a scantling is placed under the front of the harrow to act as a scraper to help to level down the ridges. A second and sometimes a third harrowing is given before the plants appear above ground. By this means the land is nearly leveled, the clods and stones, if any, are pulled off the rows into the spaces between, several crops of young weeds are de- stroyed and the young potato plants are soon established in a thor- oughly clean, mellow soil. Cultivating. As soon as the rows can be readily followed, the cultivators should be started. Sometimes we have been able to use the weeder at this time to good advantage, but more frequently not. If rain has fallen since the last harrowing, a crust is usually formed on our soil which is too hard for a weeder to break up. If the surface is free from crust, the weeder does excellent and rapid work, only care must be taken not to use it Just as the plants are coming through the surface, as at this time they are very tender and easily Potato GROWING IN New York. 195 broken. After a few days exposure to light and air they become > toughened and will not be much injured by the weeder. If the weeder cannot be successfully used for the first cultivation and especially if young weeds are beginning to start in the rows, a very close, shallow cultivation should be given as soon as possible. This cultivation should be shallow because it cannot be deep and equally close without danger of injury to the young plants. The next cultivation should be as deep as it is practicable to make the cultivator go, keeping away from the rows far enough not to endanger the young plants. The object should be to make the soil between the rows as mellow and as deep as possible. This deep cultivation should follow soon after the close shallow one, or if the weeder was successfully used after the crop was up and the rows are free from weeds, it may take the place of the latter. In all of our tillage experiments with potatoes, the preparation of the soil, the planting and the treatment up tothe second cultiva- tion have been practically as already described. The variations in treatment accorded to the different plats have begun at this point and have consisted, in the main, of comparisons of different numbers of cultivations, of level tillage vs. hilling, and of tests of Bordeaux mixture to prevent blight. The following data are reproduced from Bulletins 140, 156 and 196 and are arranged so as to present only one phase of the work at a time. The grouping indicates plats that are strictly comparable, as they were treated exactly alike except as indicated in the third column: 196 BULLETIN 228. Tas_Le II].—SuHowine THE Errect or NUMBER OF CULTURES. | Number Yield YEAR. Plat. * of per Gain. cultures. acre. Bushels. Bushels. SSO eee esas! eet Beer ee renames PlatuNox2iee ns ec aeee 1163] 378 Plat Non 22 estes ee ies | 9 415 Pilati Niomasiaeeneccus aeptenevell 13 | 319 PlateNoe 24 erence 9 | 414 IPlatgNos 25 ecco sone 11637] 304 Plats Nos. 26oe nce cee aes 9 311 Plat NOw2 Teens miocttes | 13 350 Plat iNOn2S emcee acerieete | 9 330 Average, 4 plats..... | 13 3374 Average, 4 plats..... 9 3674 30 WSOGR. ee ese ete ace otre tees PlatiNiow | Sisseocncttent. 2 350-3 hOes PlatuNios Oecsce ses aloe iat 338.1 58.1 PlateNoral Ose paces 3 280 | PlatuNoyolil. =, tess s-rclees 3 299.7 | BlatuNovl2en oon ee 7 341.6 | 41.9 PlatiNow silecincceercnr ee | a 346.5 | 100.6 PISGEINO SA octets 11 SOUR en 93.2 PlateNorss-orce rotor 3 245.8 | Average, 3 plats..... uf 346.1 70.9 Average, 2 plats..... 11 335.7 60.5 Average, 3 plats..... | 3 275.2 | TiS}? 7 fat eset AERO Ce RESO aes otic RlateNosooe etna 8 357 8 Plat wNovsGracccsemeer 5 349 PlateNios AQ sentient 5 305 Plat Nowa css is eee | 7 347 42 TBO Ses steer ee Adah Oo hens PlatoNoe22eene sachet 6 344.8 | 41.5 Plat Non asec sree. 3 303.3 Pat INO seo Gaectctercescstesceaieecte 6 310.5 40.9 IPlatuNoi2iiicciten ss censeiee 3 areae PS OOS Ea. Specie Cie as ehonsuelinoeenate BlateNOwed lccitere cm coeeens 3 188 PlateNOnc Soret seein 6 169 —19 IAIN BWiesococduoacds 9 174 | —14 Plat Nocatee a 3 195 | PlataNorad in esceneequcreiers 6 213 18 PlatuNowAsrnnn emceer 9 241 46 LOOOLM SS eae er aoe IPlatuNow2Siacwiec a weereiete 155 98 5 Plat; Now24: 2a sen mee 3 93 | Pint NorsSicc sake | 5 129 13 IDERINOB oan eb be cooob. 4 124 8 PlateNow40r acerca 3 116 PlatyNogAlieae serie 4 147 31 It will be observed that seven to nine cultivations gave better . than a greater or lesser number. Above that number the injury to the plants more than counterbalanced any improved condition of the soil. The falling off of the yields for 1899 and 1900 is due to several causes. Droughts occurred each season. In 1899 the rainfall at Ithaca from April to October was 6.31 inches and in 1900 10.06 inches less than normal, while the temperature was above normal ~Porato GROWING IN New York. 197 every month except September, 1899, and May, 1900. These plats had been under intensive cultivation since 1894 without manure, and the amount of humus in the soil was becoming reduced so that the effect of the drought was markedly manifested. Hilling vs. Level Culture. From the beginning of these experi- ments it was the practice not to hill the potatoes, believing that level tillage was more rational; but as many farmers persist in urging that hilling is desirable, some plats were given this treatment and the following table ‘gives results: TaBLE IV.—SHowine YIELDS oF Puats GivEN LEevEL CULTURE COMPARED with Hituine at Last CuLruRreE. Yield per | Difference YEAR. Pate Treatment. pores: Bus IG eee ee earners uae Shots faye INOS ieee 5 cultures, level.......... 325 INO2SS sen 5 cultures, hilled......... 288 37 LUSINS: Bevocara ee elckoteo teen Ean NOw2ainna. cr 3 cultures, level.......... 340 INO 254 c45 08 3 cultures, hilled......... 327 13 TSO Owe ticgs bate skarciotalers ate Not 40% se: 3 cultures, hilled......... 194 INOW Ales oe. 3 cultures, leve]l.......... 195 1900..... eoondoeans0couRt INOR 2D: claire 3 cultures, level.........- 104 INOU26 5.0. 567 3 cultures, hilled......... 103 USOT anh eee aca eae ae INGOs (8505855 3 cultures, level.......... 284 Nos Oe on: 3 cultures, hilled......... 259 25 INOW nas. 4 cultures, level.......... 247 INIOSBES een: 4 cultures, hilled......... 246 INOS Gat oen 4 cultures, level.......... 250 These comparisons are all of adjoining plats cultivated the same number of times. The ordinary practice of many farmers is to “hill up” at about the third working and “lay by” the crop. A better practice would be to give several additional cultivations without hilling. Unfortunately, our experiments were so arranged that we cannot make comparisons of the two methods and have the plats adjoining, though in the following instances they were near enough to be fairly comparable: YEAR. Plat. Treatment. Yield. Difference. NO eerste yecatstevazese! sort enovele ceirneue INONSSinaiccet 5 cultures, hilled......... 288 96 INOS 34508 8 cultures, level.......... 384 T ROR MINS sey 2 uke) No. 25...... 3 cultures, hilled......... 327 18 NOn22 2.00 6 cultures, level.......... 345 NWO ao Sic eee mere eee NOE Deopdac 3 cultures, hilled......... 194 47 INO washes cs 9 cultures, level......... 241 198 BULLETIN 228. In some instances the hilling seems to have had little effect on yield; in others a material reduction in yield seems to result. Combating the Blight. The potato blight has now become so prevalent in New York that no potato grower can afford not to take preventive measures against it. A few years ago there was a fair chance that the crop might escape without preventive treatment. There seems to be little chance now. Fortunately, while combating the blight we may effectually control the “bugs” and the little black flea-beetles at the same time. Paris green or other poisons may be introduced into the Bordeaux mixture whenever the presence of the Colorado beetles make it necessary, and the Bordeaux mixture, while not killing the flea-beetles, repels them to such an extent that they do little damage. There is considerable evidence that aside from their effect in holding in check these enemies of the potato crop, Bordeaux mixture and Paris green when properly applied exert a tonic effect upon the plants. That is, even if these enemies do not appear upon the check plats, or are destroyed by other means, the plats treated with Bordeaux mixture and Paris green produce in- creased yields. The following table gives a summary of the data secured at this Station relating to the use of Bordeaux mixture for blight prevention. Some seasons no blight appeared and little effect was observed. In 1902, owing to excessive rainfall in July the work was hindered to such an extent that the whole crop became affected with blight and no data was taken: TABLE V.—SHOWING YIELD OF PLATS NOT SPRAYED AND SPRAYED WITH Bor- DEAUX MIXTURE. Yield bus.| p; YEAR. Plat. Treatment. Banners Difference. DB OF x ofa e ser =) siro)s0 fetes avens ate revelers INOXSO ese INotisprayeduneceneiteie 234 INosA0 Nance Sprayed 4 times......... 305 +71 SOS Sree steve oy soeeatre nietotces INOW 29 iret Sprayed 7 times......... 213 +7 INO@s.eWsoanne Not Sprayed a. cerey ee slr: 206 DST 8 te ee oe Se PAR yi ae INGS Dace doc Sprayed 6 times......... 192 +48 NON Oseeners INOtisprayedernrpmtrciiercne 144 NGO othe mnavoa clon eee NOR 21S ry. .cer Sprayed 4 times......... 105 —30 INOHL2t eee INOtiBprayed acco asselee 135 INOS 2omeeaee Sprayed 4 times......... 98 —37 QQ DSi. Sayeit tora syenwvers etoycnaiereens INO Sinica: Sprayed 2 times......... 229 +83- INO sO Meee INotisprayedtenesnoarice 146 +83 ITO Je egaichel Gre preiorelo 3 comtcre cre NonwOln seas INOtISprayed sen. meei ees 289 INOns Goeeeine Dry Bordeaux 3 times... . 323 +34 INO S47: Jeecn Sprayed 4 times.........- 353 +64 Potato GROWING IN New York. 199 More extended and thorough experiments than have been at- tempted by this Station have been conducted by the State Experi- ment Station at Geneva and to its reports the reader is referred for more detailed information, regarding the benefits of spraying. Bulletin No. 217 of this Station gives instructions in regard to making and use of Bordeaux and other spray mixtures. Varieties. Every farmer knows that the question of varieties is an important one. It isnot uncommon for one of two varieties planted in the same field to outyield the other two to one. Owing to the rapid degeneration or “running out” of varieties as they are ordinarily managed, the testing and reporting upon varieties of potatoes is very unsatisfactory and unattractive work for experiment stations, as the value of the data obtained is only temporary (the varieties changing in vigor so quickly) and often of only local application, as different varieties are adapted to certain soils and localities in different degrees. The test of varieties is an experiment that should and does appeal strongly to the individual potato grower. The results obtained upon his own soil are more valuable to him than those obtained elsewhere and more valuable to him than to anybody else. Keeping posted on varieties is much like keeping posted in regard to market prices. To assist farmers along this line, for several seasons past the College of Agriculture has included variety test of potatoes in its list of extension experiments. Five pounds of each of several selected varieties of potatoes have been sent tofarmers fortest. They are requested to plant them on uniform areas, give uniform treatment, harvest and weigh the product and report results to the College. The ‘following tables give some of the results secured in 1903 and 1904. A study of the tables reveals the fact that nearly every var- iety will take first rank in some instances and last in others, but that some are much more likely than others to head the list; also that some varieties seem to be much more affected by the character of soil than others. The rank assigned does not always follow yield, but the preference for varieties as expressed by the farmer after taking all characteristics into consideration. These are all varieties that were highly recommended at the time they were tested: 200 BULLETIN 228. TasLE VI.—SHOWING RESULTS OBTAINED WITH THREE VARIETIES OF LATE PotTaToEs GROWN SIDE By SIDE ON 17 DifrERENT FARMS IN 1903. , . Green Moun- Sir Walter Doe's Pride. tain. Raleigh. NAME. County. Soil. —— | | Lbs. per | Lbs. per. Lbs. per plat. Rank. plat. | Rank plat. Rank. Hubbs Bros: .22...-. + Madison...| L 123 1 117 2 103 3 Manley Clark......... Otsego.....| L 127 1 117 2 111 3 John HR. Enniss...- 2. Chemung..| L 30 3 49 2 52 1 Roy Lapham... 5... - Wyoming..| L 127 2 142 iL 89 3 Harry sb) Bield.. sce. Madison...| L 78 3 121 1 87 2 E. T. Brizze Ontario....| L 106 3 165 1 116 2 Velen SCONe sere Tompkins .| M 123 i 95 B) 76 3 Wm. A. Irwin Jefferson...| M 85 1 66 2 65 3 C. E. J. MeMahon.....| Chenango..| M | 90 1 82 2 58 3 Edw. W. Wheat...... Delaware..| M | 79 2 86 1 42 3 Caw. Driges ees cee. Genesee M | | 79 2 77 3 99 1 Robert Tees<. os te- 3: Oneida M | 106 1 99 2 76 3 W. F. Menthew....... St. Law M | 150 | ik), 125 2 88 3 Perry Cooper.....-...| ries sae M 56 1 55 2 37 3 Frank E. Richardson..| Chaut..... M 115 | 1 52 83 88 2 Alexis PVOrks eee | Madison...| M 65 Ue | 64 2 42 3 MJ: Upton.-2.-.-5.° Oswego....| M | 115 | 1 52 3 88 2 — | AV. IDS. \Den wig ACre Diatiscincc aleisiess ae OG 12 tie cio Oo a A Tit bec: fall Weatumine (Asya DUS DOE ACTOs 2 cai no eae ee a octereereetoe S20 4oy Reso: S067 66s | hoes 258223 0\ee eee INOStimes took) stiranice ser escenario 1B Er RAs remy eres Ze | eee Nowtimesstool: 2d mmankee cere sete sl reso SH Puy Cee LO) erates 4.) ) oligemeee Now times) took Sidimanke. se nccenclelene co cieiecie Side seers Si Fes | teas 1 OS eee Av. bus. per acre on 6 light soils.......... Byreiai)) |WSoaoar SPAS NReasoe SilO malar Av. bus. per acre on 11 medium soils..... . OL GLOGS Was cpt. ZOOPAS ene cis 230i pesaleereee Difference in yield on light and medium Bolla ee hoh eee ane aoe oe ees W224. ||. = stss=)- 62875 etc bo) ieee [Stee ek Taste VII—Tasie SHOWING RESULTS OBTAINED WITH Two VARIETIES OF Earzty PoratorEs GROWN SIDE BY SIDE ON SEVEN DIFFERENT FARMS IN 1903. Bovee Trish Cobbler. NAME. County Soil. Hy as s. per Ss. per plat | Rank. plat! Rank. SSMi Jones see sia skeet | Jefferson...... L 70 1 24 2 George A. Kirkland............| Chautauqua...} L 87 1 57 iz eRe Dallan Sok stetes aecw cess enone Jefferson...... L 58 1 51 2 CAG Brench sees Sottero Oneidass 2. is: L 94 1 58 Zz Tm Stones sensei eel Tompkins.....| M 42 1 41 2 Horton: acerca ieee Rensselaer....| M Wil 1 63 2 rank, MoWatinye cies ieee ore | Delaware..... M 52 1 31 2 ‘Average lbs; periplataac.aoeienclc en crnickelsicnciekersreme norte GS256) eee eee AG Balch ae AVeETASS: DUB) DEL ACE oa ayerewe sieveysicicielsialencis erstevelneskelatersie ZrO iO Ore eteictete UGE oe sos Average bus. per acre on 4 light soils................. 257-50) neers MSS roo lace eee Average bus. per acre on 3 medium soils............-- | LOO ZOO | Fae ees ISDE) jG odacc Difference in yield on light and medium soils.......... | ATe 50s seers SSS eeerenicts | Porato GROWING IN New York. 201 Tas LE VIII.—SuHowine REsvuuts OBTAINED WITH THREE VARIETIES OF POTATOES WHEN GROWN SIDE BY SIDE ON TWENTY-SEVEN DIFFERENT Farms IN 1904. . Wilson’s 1st * Gold Coin. ahoics: Prosperity. NAME. County. Soil. Lbs. per Lbs. per Lbs. per plat. Rank. plat. Rank. plat. Rank. Wi. A® Prentice. oc... « Livingston | L 131 1 117 3 120 2 Frank Paddock....... yoming L 50 3 62 1 51 i, Harle’Morse.. <).. 36's <5 Wyoming L 46 2 64 1 44 3 W. Salmon..c 2. ewis..... L 158 1 112 2 101 3 iP SETIsbee < :.s.2 sts 10 Delaware..| L 42 2 49 1 36 3 Wirt Ca Buelliin (oa. sexe Ontario....}| L 80 1 67 3 77 2 HAC Salisbury... ate oe Ontario et 86 2 94 1 79 3 Mesh Perversecr «ac s.1- Clinton....| L 124 1 104 2 101 3 CAH OmReiner:. 27-2) suffolk. 2. 22 2 25 1 14 3 PAS shloyd aes ta. = ies Niagara....} L 60 3 81 1 66 2 ES SISInG hat: rests hence Tompkins .| L 152 1 143 2 128 3 S21 Shapley...5. =. bs: Madison...| L 66 2 77 1 64 3 CBRE Stone seen ate sce Madison...| L 37 3 71 1 51 2 dio. 7 Toei Bean eee Sen Schuyler...| L 101 3 87 2 105 1 Wms hOWey2i ccs eles = Orange....| L 88 1 66 2 64 |. 3 George A. Petri....... | Sullivan...| He | 87 3 94 2 101 1 George A. Goodwin..:.| Cayuga....| H GP Naan calloon Bio os | Gan eee NE Iisacoce Perry Cooper......... Ce) Dra (ee ae ae | 41 1 15 3 28 2 IESE OStiee eee era felis eee p eae H 43 1 40 3 42 2 DEVAS VESTOSs eso sciste <2 | Otsego H 93 2 95 1 85 3 Beds Wellman:. 2225504 | Chaut..... H 34 2 39 1 30 3 ClCo Braymane yo... Albany....| H 108 3 144 1 119 2 Gacy Bogart: scencas aogas. oa. H 30 1 29 2 26 3 Ray. Bs Bower. .-..... Onondaga .| H 128 1 114 3 117 2 H. D. Gage...........| Chenango..| H 118 i 118 3 136 2 GAIWeeLarlbyaysies6 a0 2 « | Tompkins .| H 47 2 49 3 51 1 AS OB. Patrick. 0.66.6 <2 Chenango..| H 74 1 72 2 65 3 Averageibs, per Diatucs te oe crete < sien eo TEEN laueya sects TS LON lbs ns UB sen oot AVeLare DUS! PEELACTEs a. acs cle cis cosleieu sec 259-07 | eee 26020! ences DANE Gs Paet-verets Average on 15 light soils................ ZUGK Sa Wnsisceta: PAL) ee poge DAATGaNeaene Average on 12 heavy soils............... DS Taks |Minocier DAS Ole erciratere OEY Fath ie orca Difference in yield on light and heavy soils Sie Mloaodes 2G, Pe illsraerees G29) Newest No* of times took Ist rank...) 05.5... 22 PO alee verese ns 5 Oe a erences 2 jloddoas INosoftimes took 2d rank. 2... 500.022 Saale. Sicen wlicce eines VOR esters: Sip Nodeoos Potato Machinery. The College of Agriculture has at various times made trials of planters, cultivators and diggers. These trials have not, however, been sufficiently extended or included a sufficient number of machines to warrant a report in detail, but some general considerations growing out of our tests and observations may be given. A number of planters have been tested and in comparison with the old method of hand planting most of them work successfully. They do the work rapidly and largely reduce the expense of planting. But each of them leaves something more to be desired. With those machines having automatic droppers, we failed to secure as regular and even placing of the seed as is necessary for the largest yields. About 80 per cent correct was the result usually secured. The other 20 per cent was either misses or the seed was not deposited at the proper place. Those machines requiring an attendant to supervise 202 BuLLETIN 228. the dropping did more accurate work. In fact, with a quick, faithful attendant the placing of the seed can be made nearly or quite 100 per cent correct. None of the machines handled earth enough in the planting operation to satisfy those conducting the test. The seed is not placed as deep in the soil as it should be and the soil is not loosened about the seed as it should be. The opening apparatus on some machines simply presses the soil aside and compacts it instead of raising and loosening it after the manner of a plow. Again, the covering apparatus does not work deep enough nor ridge the earth up over the row sufficiently for best results in light mellow soils. Perhaps in soils with considerable clay they cover sufficiently. Not- withstanding these shortcomings, the planters are indispensable if considerable areas of potatoes are to be grown, and do better work than is usually secured by hand planting. Wheel cultivators of various patterns are now so well known and widely used as scarcely to need mention here. For use in the potato field while the plants are small, they greatly excel the small culti- vators both as to qualtity and rapidity of work. When the vines get large, however, the small cultivators must be used to maintain the mulch between the rows. They should have a wheel in front and a runner or guard at the rear to keep the blades from cutting deep enough to injure the roots growing between the rows. Potato diggers are not as satisfactorily developed as are the plant- ers. If the attempt is to raise the potatoes, separate them from the soil and lay them on the surface in convenient shape for picking up, digging is a much more difficult undertaking than planting. Several machines accomplish this feat in a satisfactory manner in mellow soils free from stones and unencumbered with weeds. The machines that do not undertake to do so complete work can be used to fair advantage where the former class utterly fails. One digger that is little more than a heavy, strong double mould-board plow with tines or prongs at the rear to help to separate the potatoes from the soil has proved with us very helpful in harvesting the crop under conditions where the more complicated tools were useless. As in the case of planters, however, the grower of any considerable area of potatoes can no longer afford not to use a digger if he can find one that will do satisfactory work in his soil. A farmer whose operations we have closely followed, has within a few years intro- duced into his potato growing a planter, wheel cultivator and digger and states that he can now produce four acres of potatoes with the labor and expense formerly expended upon one acre and secure even better results than formerly. J. L. STone. OUTLINE OF CO-OPERATIVE DEMONSTRATIONS TO BE MADE IN 1905. The following schedule gives a list of the demonstrations or experi- ments that it is proposed to make with New York farmers in the sea- son of 1905. These experiments cover some of the most important of the newer problems that are just now pressing themselves on the attention of our farmers. The list contains enough subjects to offer to every farmer one or two for his particular study. We desire to correspond with any person in the state who may wish to take up any one or more of these subjects on his own place. If there are other important problems pressing for solution in any locality, we should be glad to consider them; but in order to make the work efficient, it is necessary to limit our endeavors. There are three purposes in this extension experiment work: (1) To illustrate or teach,—to instruct the co-operator in methods, to set him at the working out of his own problems, to bring him into touch with the latest discoveries and points of view. (2) To demonstrate in various parts of the State the value or the inefficiency of various new theories and discoveries,—to determine how far these newer ideas are applicable to local conditions. (3) To discover new truth, which may be worthy of record in bulletins: this is usually the least of the results that follow from such experiments because the experiments are not under perfect control nor continuously under the eye of a trained observer. These 48 demonstrations and experiments are in seven categories, each category in charge of a specialist: I. Agronomy, J. L. Stone; II. Plant Selection and Breeding, J. W. Gilmore; III. Horti- culture, John Craig; IV. Entomology, M. V. Slingerland; V. Animal Husbandry, H. H. Wing; VI. Poultry Husbandry, J. E. Rice; VII. Dairy Industry, R. A. Pearson. Correspondence should be addressed to the persons who have charge of these branches at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Specify by number the experi- ments in which you are interested. The general plan of work is mutual or co-operative—the farmer to provide land and labor and to have the crop, the expert to give advice and supervision and, so far as possible, to inspect the work. In some cases the college furnishes seeds and other materials. It does not furnish fertilizers. The benefit of the experiment or demon- 204 BULLETIN 228. stration is expected to accrue mostly to the person on whose place the work is done. It will be impossible, of course, to serve anyone. We shall take only as many experiments as we think we can handle satisfactorily. Persons who desire to engage in this work must apply quickly. Full instructions, together with blanks for the making of reports, will be sent to applicants. I. AGronomy or FIELD Crops. (J. L. STONE.) No. 1. Aljalja. (a) The experimenter to report the conditions existing, the manner of treating the crop and the successes and the failures met in hisexperience. The direct experiments suggested are; (b) Seeding with and without a nurse crop; (c) ‘Treating a portion of the area with lime; (d) When nodules are not found on the alfalfa roots, obtain some infected soil-from a field where nodules are abundantly pro- duced and scatter it over a portion of the area; (e) Apply stable manure to a part of the inoculated area and also to an uninoculated plat. No. 2. Oats. May 21 | Sept. 28 DP GA el creca< loyane Set: 72.38 WGe78 Erides = saci « July 12 | Sept. 28 LSROb eee eres 16.80 65.79 As a general rule, seemingly immature potatoes found in the market are the result of late planting; but it is true that a bulk of normally planted potatoes will contain some immature tubers, being those which did not form until late in the season. L. R. Jones and W. A. Orton of Vermont* show that a considerable part of the yield of marketable tubers developed after September first. It is quite likely, therefore, that a stock might contain many immature tubers. Con- siderable work has been done at some of the other Stations} in attempts to determine the best dates for the planting of potatoes. But all of these investigations have been conducted in consideration of yield only, and none in consideration of quality. Nearly all of the evidence points to early planting as most satisfactory from the standpoint of yield. When late planting is advocated, it is usually because of certain conditions which enable the plants to escape disease. Our own investigations along this line cover a period of two years, but in addition to yield, quality also was considered. The following figures indicate the yield of potatoes planted late as compared with those planted early for the two years: 1903. 1904. Date Date Total yield Date Date Total planted. dug. per acre. planted. dug. yield. Bushels Woeils) Pride .jc.c.. ea May taeOcteam20 321.46 | May 12 | Sept. 28 439.59 Woe spEridekner crise July 7 | Oct. 20 193.06 | July 127) Sept. 28 105.38 Green Mtiae cise. sccicrere May - 7 | Oct. 20 ANI GG ei see cerctens y IP ta cisvancteth eho lheorets iertesere Green Mth iiss oi cieeee July 6 | Oct. “20 dF (RACY al Ral nese hag (Ma alee ee *Vermont Rep. for 1899. Consult the following: Nevada Bul. 20, Mich. Bul. 108, North Carolina Bul. 146, Canada Experimental Farms Rpt. for 1901, and Woburn Experimental Farms Rpt. for 1901. 236 BuLLETIN 230. Late planting is practiced rather extensively in New York State and it is quite probable that the state’s yield is kept at the low average of 90 bushels per acre by this practice. The late-planted tubers of the crops of both years were of poor quality from the consideration of both mealiness in boiling and physical aspects. The seed tubers germinated readily and the plants grew vigorously until the ground was entirely covered. Be- cause of the short season, the late-planted areas could not be culti- vated nor sprayed so often as the early-planted portions; yet a greater average number of tubers were formed in each hill, though they were smaller. Toward the close of the seasons as the nights became cool, the plants ceased to grow and finally withered even before frost. The tubers, however, were not mature. In very few instances could one be found with a netted skin, and they did not assume this appearance later in the season, as often happens with mature tubers. In all instances noted, the cortical layer was poorly defined. The external medullary area was not uniform, being permeated by water areas and branches of the internal medullary area. This portion was large in the center with branches more or less well defined running into the surrounding portion. The texture of the tubers as indicated by cutting, was in all instances more or less leathery and watery. As the knife passed through the tuber there was not imparted that feeling of snappiness manifested by tubers of normal development and good quality. To express in exact terms this conception of texture is not an easy matter, but one’s judgment soon ripens into a keen sense of the difference. After boiling, these late planted tubers retained their form and were soggy. The flavor and color also were not attractive and the liquor in which they were boiled had a pronounced taste and odor. The specific gravity of these tubers from the crops of both years was a little less than that of normal tubers, averaging 1.07 and 1.08 respectively. All of these facts and observations point to the belief that in these immature potatoes, starch elaboration and cellular formation had not advanced to normal. Although the vines of the potatoes planted late, as these were, may die normally at the close of the season, yet this does not assure ripeness of the tubers. Ma- turity is essential to high quality in potatoes. It was also observed that about 75-80 per cent of these immature tubers were readily attacked by the disease called “Internal brown.”’ This disease seems to be due to some physiological derangement or to bacterial action. It usually takes its origin in the internal medul- lary area and is indicated at first by a browning of the tissue. Later the A Srupy or QUALITY IN POTATOES. 237 tissue contracts and decays and a cavity is formed, rendering the tuber entirely worthless. Quauity INFLUENCED By TEXTURE OF SOIL. The third prime factor governing the quality of potatoes as ex- pressed on page 219 is “the physical condition and type of the soil.” No experiments, however, have been made to demonstrate the influence of these considerations upon either the cooking quality or the physical aspects of potatoes. What evidence we have is based upon general observation and the testimony and experience of others. This evidence seems to point to the conclusion that, all other factors being eliminated, quality is affected by the type and texture of the soil. It may be, however, that these are adjunct factors to the more fundamental factors of temperature and moisture, inasmuch as both the temperature and moisture content would vary with both the type and texture of the soil in its normal condition for growing crops. One instance may here be recorded which bears evidence that quality varies with the type and texture of the soil. In 1904, we planted two acres of potatoes upon an area which comprised a small portion of Miami fine sandy loam and the remainder of Elmira clay loam of poor drainage. Carman No. 3 potatoes were planted on the entire area. The soil received a dressing of 500 pounds per acre of a 2-6-8 fertilizer, was well tilled and the crop sprayed several times. At digging time the tubers from the sandy loam area were dug first, and samples, having been tried by several prospective buyers, were pronounced very good. Consequently, orders for their winter’s supply were placed, and some of these orders were filled from the supply harvested from the clay area without any foreknowledge or thought that they were of poor quality. In all instances the tubers. from the clay loam area were of poor quality, remaining firm and soggy after boiling and almost unpalatable because of their flavor. When baked, however, they were passable. SUMMARY. The salient and practical lessons to which this study of soil climate seems to point may be briefly summarized as follows: (1) Tubers grow out upon a short stem or stalk from the plant stem at regular nodes above the planted tuber. It is therefore necessary to plant five to six inches deep (in good soil) in order that 238 BULLETIN 280. the plant may have room enough to form nodes to accommodate the tubers which it is able to bear. (2) If planted deeper than six inches the moisture and temperature conditions are unsuitable for the development of tubers on the first one or two nodes. The tubers are of under size, immature, and somewhat prone to scabbiness. (3) If planted shallower than three inches, the variation in tem- perature and moisture is too great for proper development. The tubers are crowded, and there is a large proportion of small, com- pound, exposed and scabby tubers and also a tendency to produce tubers on the stalk. (4) Tubers growing between the depths of one and one-half and four inches are of more uniformly good quality in appearance and cooking, in good size, and good development, than those growing deeper or shallower. (5) Long tubers which grow sloping in the ground will show a difference in cooking quality (mealiness vs. sogginess) between the bud end (end nearest the surface) and the stem end. The stem end cooks more mealy. In most of such instances the stem end is netted, while the bud end has a smooth surface. (6) Though it cannot be said definitely, it is believed that good quality is developed under a uniform soil temperature of 65-75 degrees. ‘Tubers growing one and two to five inches below the surface are subject to these conditions. Great fluctuation in temperature is detrimental to the best development of potatoes. Tubers growing above the one and one-half inch level are more or less subject to this fluctuation. Uniformly low temperature below 65 degrees, is not conducive to the best development and ripening of the tubers. It may be also that soil texture has an influence on these favorable and adverse conditions. August, 1905 BULLETIN 231 CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Department of Horticulture (Extension Work) 1. SECOND REPORT ON THE FORCING OF STRAW- BERRIES. 2. NOTES ON THE FORCING OF TOMATOES, CUCUM- BERS AND MELONS. Marshall. By C. E. HUNN, JOHN CRAIG REPACAIN WY: PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY ORGANIZATION Or THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BOARD OF CONTROL. THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the Agricultural College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. THOMAS F. HUNT, Professor of Agronomy. EXPERIMENTING STAFF, LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director. JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology. HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry. GEORGE F. ATKINSON, Botany. JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture. THOMAS F. HUNT, Agronomy. RAYMOND A. PEARSON, Dairy Industry. JAY A. BONSTEEL, Soil Investigation. MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. JOHN L. STONE, Agronomy. JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry. STEVENSON W. FLETCHER, Horticulture. JOHN W. GILMORE, Agronomy. ROBERT 8. NORTHROP, Horticulture. HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology. SAMUEL FRASER, Agronomy. JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry. JOHN M. TRUEMAN, Animal Husbandry and Dairy Industry. CHARLES E. HUNN, Horticulture. Office of the Director, 17 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New York State who request them. COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, CorNELL University, IrHaca, N. Y., July 15, 1905. Hon. CHarues A. WIETING, Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany, N. Y. Sir:—I submit herewith Bulletin No. 231 by Professor John Craig and Mr. C. E. Hunn on the forcing of strawberries, tomatoes, cucumbers and melons. This experiment Station has given much attention to subjects connected with greenhouse and closely related work, for this work is very important in New York State. In order to show the extent of the published work I submit an exhibit of the titles of the Bulletins, pertaining to the general subject. Many of these are long since out of print, so that we can now supply to residents of the State only Nos. 134, 136, 147, 186, 190, 200, 227. 7. Influences affecting sprouting 55. Green house notes. seeds. 61. Sundry investigations of the year. 10. Tomatoes. 87. Dwarf Lima beans. 15. Sundry investigations of 1889. 91. Recent chrysanthemums. 21. Tomatoes. 94. Damping off. 25. Sundry investigations of 1890. 95. Winter muskmelons. 26. Egg plants. 96. Forcing house miscellanies. 28. Forcing tomatoes. 112. The 1895 chrysanthemums. 30. Influence of electric light on green 115. The pole Lima beans. house plants. 134. Strawberries under glass. 31. Foreing English cucumbers. 136. Chrysanthemums. 32. Tomatoes 147. Fourth report upon Chrysanthe- 41. Steam and hot water for heating mums. green houses. 186. The sterile fungus Rhizoctonia. 42. Electro horticulture. 190. Three unusual strawberry pests 43. Trouble of winter tomatoes. and a green house pest. 45. Tomatoes. 200. Muskmelons. 49. Sundry investigations of 1892. 227. Mushroom growing. 53. AXdema of the tomato. Respectfully submitted, L. H. Bartuey, Director. 16 aa SECON Deeks FOIE. ON THE Forcing of Strawberries. — 1. FORCING STRAWBERRIES. Since the publication of Bulletin 134, entitled “Strawberries Under Glass,”’ issued in April, 1897, the investigation has been continued with a view of studying: The varieties best adapted to forcing; the length of time required to mature a crop from the time of bringing in the plants from the cold frame; the results of tempera- ture on the crop; economy in handling of the plants. A Discussion OF ForRcING VARIETIES. Taking up the first question, there have been tested nearly one hundred American varieties, eight French varieties and five well Fie. 1.—The beginning oj growth in the cool house. known English forcing varieties. Of this number, but few have been found of value for forcing; and at the present time, the main crop for forcing this winter consists of but three varieties, and these of American origin. Varieties of English origin, popular abroad both for growing in the open and for forcing, appear to deteriorate when brought to this country, rarely holding their excellence more than two seasons, even with careful selection of runners and high cultivation. The French varieties of the Hautboy type, produting fruit of but medium size and of a peculiar musky flavor, are not liked by the average consumer. Again, the long fruiting period of this type of berry is a defect where successive crops are wanted in 246 BULLETIN 2381. the same house. The decisive summer peculiar to this country has probably had a tendency to develop varieties that mature crops of fruit quickly, ripening the larger part of the crop within a few days. This habit is one that is essential to a good forcing variety, so that one crop may be gathered within a short period and the plants then all removed at the same time in order that the house may be cleared for the next crop. Merits of Early versus Late Varieties—At first thought, it would ap- pear that an extra early variety would be preferable to a mid-season or later variety for forcing, but early varieties produce only a small crop of fruits and the berries average small in size. This, coupled with the fact that with greenhouse operations one can to a large extent control the seasons and ripen a crop at will, has discovered the additional fact that the mid-season varieties producing large fruits and yielding an abundant crop, are preferable to either the extra early or late varieties. At the time Bulletin 134 was written, a variety called Beder Wood was considered one of the best for fore- ing, although the berries were only of average size and of rather light color. Further testing of many kinds led to the discovery of other varieties that forced as well as Beder Wood, had larger, more uniform and higher colored fruit, and ripened practically all the berries on each plant at the same time. Among these are Marshall and Glen Mary, the former a _ strong-growing, perfect-flowered variety, yielding a large quantity of fertile pollen and producing fruit of extra size and of a very attractive color. Glen Mary has nearly all the characteristics of an ideal forcing berry, the only fault being that the first flowers to open are almost without stamens, and pollen must be supplied by another variety. If this is done, the berries set readily and swell rapidly. The plants make fine crowns and vigorous root growth and thus are able to absorb a large amount of liquid manure when the fruit is swelling. President is another variety of recent introduction that has proved of exceptional value for forcing. It is a true pistillate, and, contrary to our past experience with such varieties, is equal or superior to any staminate form yet tested. The habit of growth is all that could be desired in a forcing berry. It is stocky, has big crowns that ripen early in the fall, a strong deep root growth, and fruit of extra large size and fine dark red color. Each fruit is well colored over the en- tire surface, and is without the objectionable green tip. The flowers of this variety remain open for several days, which means that if cloudy weather intervenes, pollenization may be delayed until sunny weather. A minimum amount of pollen is required to set the fruits ‘qyhs ur dow vl yp ‘sayaruna Buroiof aqoyas ay} {0 aUuQ—"% “OIA me Mae 248 Buwuierin 231. which swell rapidly and ripen evenly after setting. The berry of this variety is firmer than Marshall or Glen Mary and may be shipped to market much easier. The foliage, while of the large type is not heavy enough to shade the fruits, making it a desirable variety to grow either for table decoration or where individual plants are re- quired to be set before each guest at dinner parties. This method of serving strawberries is very popular, and well-grown plants bearing from four to six high-grade berries command high prices. In our local market they have sold for one dollar a plant and will sell in a large city for from two dollars to two and one-half dollars at Easter Fie. 3.—Showing progress of plant in cool house. time. The accompanying cuts show habit of growth and, to an extent, the fruitfulness of this variety, although the first and largest berries had been picked from each plant before the photograph was made. At this writing, it is considered that the three leading varieties for forcing are Glen Mary, Marshall and President, each possessing merits of its own. GROWING THE PLANTS. At the time of writing Bulletin 134, it was thought necessary to give the plants several shifts between the two-inch pot that was Forcing STRAWBERRIES, 249 plunged to receive the runner and the fruiting pot; but it was soon found that with care in handling through the summer, one shift from the two-inch pot direct into the six-inch fruiting pot gave as good results as more frequent shifting. This saves the labor of at least two shifts, and allows root growth to continue uninterruptedly. RootTInG THE RUNNERS AND HANDLING THE PLANTS. The practice now is to plunge two inch-pots filled with rich soil along rows of virgin plants, 7. e., runners that were set early the same season which have never borne a crop of fruit. Then the first and strongest runners from these plants are led over the pots and as soon as they are well rooted and established in the pots they are cut off from the parent plant, the pots lifted and taken to a convenient » : a place where the plants ers e gon are at once shifted into z= Ag the fruiting pots. The Soil—At_ this final potting, a soil is used containing a large proportion of sandy fibrous loam. If not of light texture, sand should be added in the proportion of one to four. To this mixture is added a_ four-inch potful of dissolved rock or ground bone and a three-inch potful of Fie. 4.—Illustrating a strong plant with good crown, muriate of potash to ready for forcing. every four bushels of soil. Good drainage and firm potting are absolutely essential, and the latter is secured by using a potting stick to pack the soil in each pot. Treatment in the Cold Frame—After potting, the plants should be plunged to the rim in coal cinders or other cool material, and if pro- tected by a frame will need less attention in watering than if unpro- tected. After plunging, water thoroughly once, then hold water from the pots as much as possible without allowing the soil to become entirely dry—until roots have well started from the first ball of roots —then water as needed until the pots have filled with roots. After 250 BULLETIN 231. this time, water but little, giving the plant the same general ripening period it has in the field, thus insuring a large “fat”? crown filled with buds.. On the approach of winter, protect from the first few sharp frosts; and when the plants become dormant, protect from snow until they are wanted in the house. Other things being equal, a plant that has a long period of rest and has been frozen hard will give better results when forced, although it is possible to obtain some good fruit from plants that have but a short rest. Only in the matter of one shift in place of three has economy in handling been found. Each successive stage needs great care and close attention, FORCING THE PLANTS. Care regarding temperature is of first importance through the entire growing season whether the plants are in beds or in pots. Starting with dormant plants taken from the cold frame, heat should be raised gradually from thirty to forty-five degrees by the end of the first week, increasing the heat until the plants are in bloom, when they should be growing in a temperature of from sixty to sixty-five degrees. From the time pollination begins, the house should range from sixty-five to seventy; and while the fruit is swelling, the heat should never be allowed to fall below seventy degrees. One of the accompanying cuts, Fig. 6, shows very clearly the necessity of heat to insure a crop. Tue MaturInG PERIOD. As to the length of time required to mature a crop of strawberries, the work carried on here leads to the conclusion that from eight to ten weeks are necessary for the best results, although the season may be hastened by hard forcing (pushing the crop) during the last four weeks. It is absolutely essential that the plants be grown slowly during the first half of the forcing period, allowing new roots and tops to form in about the same manner that they do throughout the spring weeks in the open. After root growth is well established, heat may be gradually increased and forcing hastened. If rapid forcing is the order, great care is necessary in the application of liquid manure, as the combined stimulus of excessive heat and quick-acting plant food has a tendency to develop soft, flavorless fruits. Heavy firing calls for high temperature and means danger of red spider, the one dreaded trouble of the forced strawberry. Daily syringing of the plants and frequent wetting of the walks must be resorted to in order to hold this enemy in check. It is always safer on this account Forcing STRAWBERRIES. 251 to bring the crop along without undue haste, allowing the fruits to swell normally, retain their flavor and remain solid. Influence of Temperature on Forcing—In order to test the question of temperature on forced strawberries, six plants of four varieties used for forcing in the winter of 1903-4, were placed on a bench in a carnation house where the temperature was held as near fifty-two degrees F. as possible. These plants, four each of Marshall, Glen Mary, Brandywine and Dunlap, were of the same stage of growth as the same varities that were given the usual forcing temperature, and had been grown and treated identically until the plants were in full bloom, when they were moved to the cool house, while the remainder of the plants were placed in the usual warm house. From that time Fie. 5.—Showing vigorous root system. until the berries on plants in the warm house were ready for market, the treatment of both lots was precisely the same with the exception of the temperature. This covered pollination, application of liquid manure and attention to spraying foliage when needed. At the time the accompanying photograph, Fig. 6, was taken, three plants bearing an average number of fruits were selected! from the two lots, growing one in the warm and the other in the cool house. In every case where fruit had set on the plants grown at the lower temperature, they were small and hard, only in a few instances grow- ing to the size of an acorn, but uneven in form and poor in coloring. It may be of interest in this connection to say that while these plants were in this condition, a demand arose for a few pots of berries to 252 BULLETIN 231. be ripe in about four weeks’ time; and these same plants among others were cleared of the immature fruits, taken to the warm house, plunged in soil that registered from seventy-five to eighty degrees, and in the required time were ripening from three to five fair sized berries to each plant. The experiment demonstrates that a cool ‘temperature can be employed to retard strawberries, but compara- Ages Ss Se en “Sewee Gog Da Trask | Wiis oe goat pana a Pao om GE Geary i Fic. 6.—Influence of temperature vn forcing. tively high temperature is necessary to a regular normal develop- ment. List oF VARIETIES TESTED FOR FORCING. Those marked with a double asterisk are the varieties considered the most profitable for forcing. Those with a single asterisk have a secondary value, and those without an asterisk are, in our experience, not suitable for forcing: All Season’s White Johnson’s Late ForcInGc STRAWBERRIES. Parson’s Beauty* Anna Kennedy King Worthy Patrick Armstrong’s Favorite Lawrence Pet Aroma Laxton’s Noble Plow City Atlantic Lehigh President** Beder Wood* Louis Gauthier Quality Belle Luxury* Remontant Leon Belle de Meaux Lyons* Repeater Bismarck Mangoon Ridgeway* Brandywine Manwell Rough Rider Bryant Margaret Royal Sovereign Bubach* Marshall** Ruby Carrie Marston Sample* Challenge Maximus Sans Petite Rouge Clyde Mexican Seaford Commander McKinley Sharpless* Dakota Iron Clad Michel’s Early St. Antone de Padrone Dunlap* Michigan St. Joseph Edith Midnight Sutherland Enormous Miller Tice Gandy Minute Man Uncle Jim Gibson Monitor* Wm. Belt Glen Mary** New Globe* Yant* Grosse Lombard New York No. 171 Geneva Seedling Hunn Nick Ohmer No. 173 Geneva Seedling Improved Parker Earle Ona No. 177 Geneva Seedling James Perfection Palmer No. 47 Reasoner Jersey Market Parker Earle Fia. 7.—Approaching the ripening period. Hie shee W. I] NOTES ON THE FORCING OF Tomatoes, Cucumbers and Melons. Pn : = 4 my k » i ; oe Rents ate ew ea | TOMATOES. The forcing of tomatoes, primarily as an aid in student instruction and incidentally as a test of varieties, is carried on each year at the Cornell Experiment Station greenhouses. The plants are set so that the crop is harvested between the holiday season and Easter week. Among the twelve or more varieties tested within the past four years, several desirable kinds have been found which are well adapted for forcing. The characteristics of a good forcing variety are: slow, stocky growth; healthy, but not heavy, foliage; a habit of forming the first cluster of buds near the base of the plant. Each flower should have a protruding stigma, thus being able to set fruit with a minimum amount of pollen; and it should bear fruit of medium size and uniform shape. The size and shape are of the utmost importance. Winter tomatoes as a vegetable are high-priced, but hardly rank as a luxury, selling as they do from twenty to forty cents a pound. As a single fruit is usually served to each guest, if the fruits are large, the cost is considerably increased; and if irregular, the appearance of the dish would be unattractive. The consumer orders a definite number of fruits rather than a specific weight; and in supplying a critical market, it is necessary to have the tomatoes of moderate size and as nearly uniform as possible. Remarks on Varieties—In many respects, the English types of tomatoes have proved to be superior for forcing purposes to those of American origin. They set fruit more readily in dark weather; they grow the fruit in clusters, ripening the full cluster within a short period, and continue in growth considerably longer than American types. However, there are a few of the latter varieties that have proved highly satisfactory as forcing varieties. Lorillard, one of the first of the American varieties to be forced for midwinter crops, is still as extensively grown as any other variety; and when the true variety is obtained, it is a fine forcing tomato. Combination (Amer- ican), a variety that came into prominence about six. years ago, has given good satisfaction. Mayflower, but for the habit of ripening fruits slowly and separately, would fill all requirements. Pepper (American), a variety with more of the general characteristics of the English tomato than of the American type, has proved an excellent late winter and early spring variety. Fruit of this variety is oblong 258 BULLETIN 281. rather than round. It is borne in large clusters. The fruit ripens evenly, and the only objection to it is its small size. It is a little too small for a fancy trade, in which respect the Sterling Castle, an ex- cellent English variety, is also deficient. Perhaps the four best varieties for general midwinter forcing are Lorillard and Combination (American), Frogmore and Holmes’ Supreme (English). Others of secondary excellence are Sterling Castle (English), and Pepper (American). Both of these varieties have given good results in late winter when the fruits were thinned to the extent of removing about half of that which set under favorable conditions. Other varieties of promise are Eclipse, Spark’s Earliana and Lester’s Prolific. Fic. 8.—Size as a marketing factor. ENEMIES. Diseases—In the forcing of Tomatoes at Cornell Experiment Station, there has been for several years exceptional freedom from disease: Last winter, however, our floor beds were given a copious watering preced- ing a week of cloudy cold weather, when it was impossible to ade- quately ventilate or dry out the houses. This appears to have brought on an obscure trouble which caused the yellowing and spotting of the leaves, resulting finally in a decided check to the plants. On the return of clear and warmer weather, the houses and the soil lost a large amount of moisture and the plants recovered to a certain extent, but were in poor condition to bear heavy crops. Nothing in the way of bacterial or fungous growth could be discov- Forcine oF TOMATOES. 259 ered, and the trouble no doubt was a physiological disturbance due to heavy watering following a period of rapid growth, accompanied by cold cloudy weather. Insect Enemies—Controlled by Fumigating. In common with the experience of many other growers, the houses have been for several years infested with white fly (Aleyrodes). This insect has caused much anxiety to the grower of plants under glass, and many attempts have been made to exterminate the pest by commercial grower and experiment station. Spraying with soap solutions and fumigating with various tobacco preparations were thoroughly Fie. 9.—Forcing in ground bed. tested in the Cornell forcing houses, but with no lasting benefit, and finally fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas was resorted to, using potassium cyanide ninety-eight per cent strength, and commercial sulphuric acid sixty-six per cent and a small quantity of water. Many trials were made with this gas, varying the amounts of cyanide, the time of exposure, the temperature and humidity of the houses. In some instances, there was injury to foliage without destruc- tion of the insects; and especially was this true when fumigation was made in daylight, or when the houses were very damp. Short 260 . BuLuetTin 231. time fumigation with from two to four ounces of cyanide per thous- and cubic feet of space, was found unsafe; and long time or over- night fumigation with one ounce of cyanide to each one thousand cubic feet, was safe only under certain conditions. These conditions, in our experience, are absolute darkness, a still air, a temperature below sixty, and a dry house. With these conditions, it has been possible to keep down the Aleyrode by fumigating once each month with one ounce of cyanide of potassium, two ounces of sulphuric acid and four ounces of water to each one thousand cubic feet of house space. Great care is necessary in the use of this gas. No part of the handling must be left to chance. Not only should the house in which the gas is generated be locked, but the entire range should be guarded. The gas may escape from one house to the next and is sure death to all animal life. How to Fumigate— A desirable method is to fumigate late in the evening when there is less likeli- hood of anyone being ; in, or around the Fic. 10.—Pepper. Desirable for late winter and houses. Our practice early spring. ; is to measure the » four fluid ounces of water into earthenware vessels. Then measure the acid and pour into the water. Weigh the cyanide and place in thin paper bags. Set the vessel containing the liquid on walks in house. Drop a bag of cyanide in the vessel and walk briskly out of the house. If more than one vessel is used (and in a house containing five thousand cubic feet, two vessels are better), the second bag of- cyanide may be dropped in passing, starting with the one farthest from the door. If this fumigation is made before midnight, it might be safe to enter the house next morning in order to raise the ventilators; but it would be better to open them from outside, if possible, thus taking no risk. Forcing TOMATOES. 261 Various trials made—Fumigations made in full daylight, using two, three and four ounces of cyanide to each one thousand cubic feet of space for twenty minutes, the temperature of the house ranging from seventy to eighty degrees, resulted in slight injury to the foliage of tomatoes and severe injury to the foliage of chrysanthemums, geraniums and begonias. Two ounces of cyanide for two hours, house at sixty-five degrees, but damp; exposure made at six p. m.; injury to chrysanthemums Fic. 11.—Lester’s Prolific tomato, an excellent winter variety. not serious. Under these conditions and using the same amount resulted in quite serious injury to tomatoes. Two ounces cyanide, temperature sixty degrees, with dry atmos- phere and all-night exposure resulted in very slight injury to cucum- ber vines and the destruction of over ninety per cent of the insects (white fly). One ounce cyanide, house dry, sixty degrees or below, dark, no injury at any fumigation. Insects mostly killed. HINTS ON FORCING MELONS AND CUCUMBERS. I. MELONS. Melons and cucumbers have been grown with uniform success for a number of winters past at the Cornell Forcing-Houses. One house has been devoted each winter to the muskmelon, a very difficult winter crop, needing constant care through all stages of growth. This is a crop that should perhaps be called a private gardeners’ crop rather than a commercial crop. The time needed to mature a crop is approximately six months, and the attention and heat necessary, make the resulting crop a very expensive one, costing perhaps as much as one dollar per fruit, with a so-called full crop. Melons, unlike cucumbers, are ripened on the vine, not picked green, and considerable time as well as skill is required to bring both the vine and fruit to maturity gradually and together. There are two types employed in forcing, English and American. The English type has been found the better, probably for the reason that these varieties have been selected for years for this purpose. Varielties—Among the best varieties of muskmelon for forcing are Blenheim Orange, Invincible Scarlet, Monroe’s Little Heath, Hero of Lockinge and Gilbert’s Green Flesh. The Blenheim Orange is an exceptionally fine flavored melon, setting fruits with ease; it is perhaps the best on the list. Requirements of the crop—Melons need full sunlight, therefore the glass is not shaded and, in consequence, great care must be taken in watering and keeping the house damp at all times, except during the period of pollination, when the houses should be ‘held rather dry. Hand-pollination is necessary, and it should be deferred until the main vines have reached the desired length with vigorous-growing laterals, well set with pistillate flowers. This, then, is the time to set all the fruit wanted at the same time. Melons are peculiar in that if one fruit gets possession of the vine and grows to any con- siderable size, it is difficult if not impossible to set other fruits after- wards on the same vine. When four to six fruits set on each vine, the crop may be considered as above the average. After the setting, the plants will need attention only in the matter of providing sup- ports for the fruits so that they may hold a healthy growth of foliage and feeding. Forcing oF MELONS AND CUCUMBERS. 263 Feeding—Liquid cow or sheep manure usually gives quickest results, and an application of either should be made each week as the fruit is swelling. When the surface of the fruit begins to “net” (roughen) stimulating foods and water should be withheld, the houses allowed to dry gradually; and as the fruits continue to ripen, the vines should follow closely in degree of maturity, so that when the last fruit on a vine is picked the vine is ready to be thrown out. A succession of plants may be grown, but the setting of young plants between old fruiting plants is attended by many difficulties, for the young plants need entirely different treatment from that required by the older vines; and it is always more satisfactory to clear out the house at one time and clean it thoroughly before a new crop is started. II. Forcinc CucuMBERS. Cucumbers are now forced in considerable quantity for the New York and Boston markets, to a less degree perhaps for the other leading markets of the country. Many of these forced crops are passing from the position of luxuries to that of necessities. The forcing of cucumbers is an older industry in New England than is ordinarily supposed. The English varieties grown at Cornell and mentioned below are not cultivated; they are not profitable. A. THE BEGINNING OF CUCUMBER FORCING IN NEw ENGLAND. The following interesting note on the forcing of cucumbers in Massachusetts is contributed by Dr. Jabez Fisher, of Fitchburg, Mass.: “As near as I can recall, my experience with cucumber growing is as follows: “In the spring of 1860, I built a small glass house, and in 1861 extended it to 105 feet in length; width, 184 feet; double span, run- ning north and south, and with double glazing enclosing an air space of one and one-half inches. It was built for forcing grapes (V. vinifera) in large pots, and strawberries in six-inch pots. In 1862 a single cucumber, self-sown, came up in the central bed, which looked so promising that I had not the heart to destroy it, and placed a stake by the side of it and trained it up to the top of the house, about seven feet. Along with strawberries sent to Boston market, I sent at four different times in all twelve cucumbers which sold for $3.08 net. This was a new idea, and I kept it in sight. In December, 1863, the grapes proving unsatisfactory, I planted a few cucumbers, the product of which was 1421 lbs., bringing $325.61. These were sold to William Taylor, of New York, who, I think, was 264 BULLETIN 231. a rival of Delmonico. Later crops were sold to Taylor, and Arch- deacon & Canty, now Archdeacon & Co., of New York, and also in part in Boston. “The variety of cucumber grown was mostly the New Jersey Hybrid, a cross between the old White Spine and one of the longer English varieties. It produced a fruit about ten to twelve inches long, weighing about three-fourths of a pound. In 1865, the product Fig. 12.—Eclipse. A new forcing tomato of merit. was $460.97; in 1866, $688.92; in 1867, $746.18. (This same year I contracted with Wm. Taylor to supply strawberries at $9.00 per quart in February, $7.00 in March, and $5.00 in April.) In 1868 the cucumbers brought $1092.52, and I decided to give up straw- berries as I had grapes several years before, and grow cucumbers only. In 1869, the cucumber crop sold for $1,588.88. This has ForcING oF MELONS AND CUCUMBERS. 265 not been equalled since. In 1875, the crop was partly New Jersey Hybrid and partly White Spine, since which the* latter only has been grown. ae En eres *. “Tn the first years, cucumbers were not wanted earlier than March 1st and some years they sold on commission for but twelve cents in January and seventy-five cents in March and April; once for more thana dollar each. “Thad many visitors at- tracted by the experiment, but no com- petitor for some ten years, when, as a di- rect result of my showing, Mr. G. M. Ken- dall, of Leo- minster, start- (20 Py aaa alae town, and Mr. T. L. Hosmer in Baldwins- ville, both of which localities are now very large producers of winter cu- cumbers. Ina less degree, the business has Fic. 13.—A productive stem of pepper tomato. spread __ else- where; and spring crops, following lettuce, about Boston and other places have become a very large business.”’ B. ComMERcIAL METHODS. The following questions were submitted to Mr. G. M. Kendall, of Leominster, Mass., a veteran grower of cucumbers under glass, 266 BULLETIN 231. and one who has made a great commercial success of the business. Mr. Kendall’s answers are of great value to those in the business and those interested: 1. What is the usual time of starting the commercial crop? Answer. The time of starting the “cuke” plants depends on the time you want them. Cukes, of late years, do so badly out of doors that the gardeners are raising them in the greenhouses all the year through. They are ready to gather two months from the time the seed is sown. 2. What are your preferences in regard to soil? Answer. The best soil to grow “cukes”’ in, is a sandy loam, with plenty of good, fresh horse manure,—say about one-third manure. I have grown good cukes in clear sand and horse manure. 3. What is the method of pollinating flowers? Answer. The method of pollinating the flowers is one of Nature’s own and the best I know of, viz., by the use of bees; but I have done it "by hand with good success. A man will pollinate about five hundred flowers in one hour after he gets used to it. When bees are employed, I use one male to about six female blossoms. 4. What is the method of training and pruning vines? Answer. I train the vine up to about ten feet and then nip off the head from the main vine; but I also nip off every lateral at the first joint beyond the cuke. I also keep all joints clean—say about twenty inches from the ground. 5. How packed and marketed? Answer. I pack all cukes in bushel boxes containing ninety-six cukes, and put on a tight cover to keep all air from them. I send them to any good reliable commission house, and pay about ten per cent for selling. 6. What varieties are grown? Answer. The variety I grow is some kind of White Spine. Al- most every man has a kind of his own. Mine are well-bred White Spine, the purer the better. 7. What is the temperature maintained in the house? Answer. The temperature in the house should be about sixty- five degrees at night, and ninety to one hundred degrees in good sunshiny days. 8. Remarks on construction of cucumber houses. Answer. The plans for a good cuke house would be to build it twenty-three feet wide and two hundred feet long; solid bed in center, ten feet wide; and raised bed each side about four feet wide, with pipes for heating under the side beds. ‘saojypwo7) burasof punpunjs fo dnowB y—'FT ‘dI1q 268 BULLETIN 231. C. Foreinc ENGLISH CUCUMBERS. The work with cucumbers at Cornell forcing houses has been al- most entirely with those of the English type. These are the long, _slim varieties growing often from eighteen to twenty-four inches in length, very regular in shape, crisp and delicate in flavor. This type of cucumber should be grown in shaded houses, the large succulent leaves burning if exposed to full sunlight. This shading of the house makes pollination rather difficult unless the house is held Fia. 15.—Great commercial house of G. M. Kendall. dry through the middle of the day while fruit is beingset. On the other hand over-dryness encourages red spider. Cucumbers are picked green, usually before they have reached their full growth; in consequence the vines may be maintained in full vigor and in fruiting condition for an almost indefinite period if plants are healthy and food is furnished in sufficient quantity. The culture of this crop is, with the exception of a shaded house, similar to that of growing melons. Among the varieties tested, Duke of Edinburgh, Rollinson’s Tele- graph, Lockies Perfection, Covent Garden and Lion House Im- proved are considered the best kinds for forcing in this locality. ‘asnoy buroiof hipsiavuy [jauoy ur ssaqunona ysybuy— 9] “DIq 270 BULLETIN 231. III. NoTES ON THE CULTURE OF CUCUMBERS AND MELONS. In sowing seeds of cucumbers or melons, it is quite important that they be sown in small pots, pieces of sod or other material that will hold its shape and not allow the-soil to break away from the roots when transplanted. In sowing in pots, a soil composed of equal parts of loam, leaf mould and sand is used. Two seeds are sown in each three-inch pot. These pots are then plunged in soil or sand on a warm bench and thoroughly watered. In from two to four weeks the plants should be large enough to plant out on the benches. They should be pushed along rapidly and not receive any check at any time through low temperature or neglect. The Bench—It is the usual practice to entirely fill the bencht with soil and set the plants two feet each way in benches filled with soil composed of fibrous loam with at least one-third sharp sand or good gravel added. To this should be added well-rotted manure, at the rate of one bushel to sixof loam; and a four-inch pot of ground bone or dissolved rock is also well mixed with each six bushels of soil. Commercial growers are very much more lavish in the use of manure. They often use a soil half loam and half manure, and enrich this as the crop develops. In setting the plants in the bed, some soil is removed from the place where the plant is to be set, a large handful of sharp sand is scattered in the hole, the plant then set and sand again used to fill up to the stem of the plant, firming the soil well around the sand. This sand is used to avoid, as far as possible, the serious trouble called “damping off.’”’ This fungus attacks the plants after they have attained some size, often when in fruit, and is encouraged by over- moist condition directly around the stem of the plant. Previous to this use of sand, quite a number of plants were lost each year through this trouble; but since setting each plant in sand, no plants have been lost. Training—It is the general practice to train the vines upward rather than allow them to spread over the soil on the benches, and for this purpose wires are stretched lengthwise on the bench. These are connected by smaller wires or strings running from the lower to the upper wire. To these, the plants’ are tied, using raffia or soft twine. Usually one main vine or leader is allowed to grow to the desired height, the tip then pinched back and two or more laterals started, these to be also tied as they grow. It is usually better to wait until the vines have made a good strong growth before at- tempting to set fruits, as the fruits grow very rapidly and will . ften check the plants if allowed to set too early. After fruits are swell- ForciInG oF MELONS AND CUCUMBERS. 271 ing, it will be necessary to furnish them some support to prevent the breaking down of the vine. -In the case of English cucumbers, this may be done by making a sling of raffia with which to support the fruits. Melons may be rested upon a thin board slung by strings attached to each corner and suspended to a wire overhead. C. E. Hunn, JOHN CraiG. ~ Tur Fotutowing BULLETINS ARE AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION TO THOSE 72 119. 121 126 129 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 168 169 170 171 172 ResipeENts OF New YorK SratE Wuo May Desire THEM. The Cultivation of Orchards, 22 pp. Texture of the Soil, 8 pp. Suggestions for Planting Shrubbery. The Currant-Stem Girdler and the Rasp- berry-Cane Maggot, 22 pp. j How to Conduct Field Experiments with Fertilizers, 11 pp. Strawberries under Glass, 10 pp. Forage Crops, 28 pp. Chrysanthemums, 24 pp. Agricultural Extension Work, sketch of its Origin and Progress, 11 pp. Studies and Illustrations of Mushrooms; I. 32 pp. Third Report upon Japanese Plums, 16 pp. Second Report upon Potato Culture, 24 pp. Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death Among Swill-Fed Hogs. The Coddling Moth. Sugar Beet Investigations, 88 pp. Suggestions om Spraying and on the San José Seale. Some Important Pear Diseases. Fourth Report of Progress on Extension Work, 26 pp. Fourth Report upon Chrysanthemums, 36 pp. Quince Curculio, 26 pp. Some Spraying Mixtures. Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control. Gravity or Dilution Separators. Studies in Milk Secretion. Impressions of Fruit-Growing Industries. Table for Computing Rations for Farm Animals. Second Report on the San José Seale. Grape-vine Flea-Beetle. Source of Gas and Taint Producing Bac- teria in Cheese Curd. An Effort to Help the Farmer. Hints on Rural School Grounds. Annual Flowers. The Period of Gestation in Cows. Three Important Fungous Diseases of the Sugar Beet. Peach Leaf-Curl. Ropiness in Milk and Cream. Sugar Beet Investigations for 1898. Spadics and Illustrations of Mushrooms; Studies in Milk Secretion. Tent Caterpillars. Concerning Patents on Gravity or Dilu- tion Separators. ake Cherry Fruit-Fly: A New Cherry est. Address 173 176 177 178 Th 179 225 227 228 The Relation of Food to Milk Fat. The Peach-Tree Borer. Spraying Notes. e Invasion of the Udder by Bacteria. Field Experiments with Fertilizers. The Prevention of Peach-Leaf Curl. Pollination in Orchards. Sugar Beet Investigations for 1899. Sugar Beet Pulp as a Food for Cews. The Grape Root-Worm; New Grape Pest in New York. The Common European Praying Mantis; A New Beneficial Insect in America. The Sterile Fungous Rhizoctonia. The Palmer Worm. Spray Calendar. Oswego Strawberries. Three Unusual Strawberry Pests and a Greenhouse Pest. Tillage Experiments with Potatoes. Further Experiments against the Peach- Tree Borer. Shade Trees and Timber Destroying Fungi. The Hessian Fly. Its Ravages in New York in 1901. Further Observations upon the Ropiness in Milk and Cream. Fourth Report on Potato Culture. Orchard Cover Crops. Separator Skimmed Milk as Food for Pigs. Muskmelons. Buying and Using Commercial Fertilizers. Shade Trees. Sixth Report of Extension Work. Pink Rot an Attendant of Apple Scab. The Grape Root-Worm. Distinctive Characteristics of the Species of the Genus Lecanium. Commercial Bean Growing in New York. Cooperative Poultry Experiments. The Yearly Record of Three Flocks. Cost of Producing Eggs. Second Re- port. The Grape-Leaf Hopper. Spraying for Wild Mustard and the Dust Spray. Spray Calendar. Onion Blight. Diseases of Ginseng. Skimmed Milk for Pigs. Alfalfa in New York. i Attempt to Increase the Fat in Milk by Means of Liberal Feeding. Bovine Tuberculosis. Cultivation of Mushrooms by Amateurs. Potato Growing in New York. {COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, ITHACA, N. Y. August, 1905 BULLETIN 232 CORNELL UNIVERSITY . AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE? COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Department of Agronomy EXPERIMENTS ON THE INFLUENCES OF FERTILIZERS UPON THE YIELD OF TIMOTHY HAY WHEN GROWN ON DUNKIRK CLAY LOAM IN TOMPKINS COUNTY, NEW YORK. Made under the direction of Thomas F. Hunt. By JOHN W. GILMORE and SAMUEL FRASER. PTHACA, N.Y. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY. ORGANIZATION Or THE CoRNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BOARD OF CONTROL. THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director of the Agricultural College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. THOMAS F. HUNT, Professor of Agronomy. EXPERIMENTING STAFF, LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Director. JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK, Entomology. HENRY H. WING, Animal Husbandry. GEORGE F. ATKINSON, Botany. JOHN CRAIG, Horticulture. THOMAS F. HUNT, Agronomy. RAYMOND A. PEARSON, Dairy Industry. JAY A. BONSTEEL, Soil Investigation. MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. JOHN L. STONE, Agronomy. JAMES E. RICE, Poultry Husbandry. STEVENSON W. FLETCHER, Horticulture. JOHN W. GILMORE, Agronomy. ROBERT S. NORTHROP, Horticulture. HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology. SAMUEL FRASER, Agronomy. JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry. JOHN M. TRUEMAN, Animal Husbandry and Dairy Industry. CHARLES E. HUNN, Horticulture. Office of the Director, 17 Morril] Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to persons residing in New York State who request them. ~ EXPERIMENTS ON THE INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZERS UPON THE YIELD OF TIMOTHY HAY WHEN GROWN ON DUNKIRK CLAY LOAM IN TOMPKINS COUNTY, N. Y. The census for 1900 gives the area in meadows approximately one-third the area of the improved land in the State. All other cultivated crops are reported to occupy an equal area, leaving one- third the improved area unaccounted for but presumably in pasture. Thirty-one per cent of the area in farm in New York State is unim- proved. Presumably much of this unimproved area is in woodland and doubtless some is pastured. The hay and forage crops of New York State in 1900 constituted nearly two-fifths of the value of all of the crops, not including pasture, produced in the State; and between one-ninth and one-eighth of the value of the hay and forage crops of the United States. It is evident from the above statistical evidence that grass is an important crop in New York State. It has become so because of the natural adaptability of the climate and soil to the growth of grass and not because of, but in spite of, economic conditions. The Agricultural Experiment Station of Cornell University began two years ago a rather systematic study of the grasses and forage crops. Considerable data has already been accumulated bearing upon the general problem of the development of pastures and mead- ows of the State. The following report of progress has been selected for publication at this time because the marked influence of fertilizers containing nitrogen suggests the importance of more extended trials by farmers themselves of commercial fertilizers containing nitrogen. Ifsuch trialsshould prove the results here reported to have a wide application in the State they would further emphasize the importance of the “quest for nitrogen” by means of leguminous crops and by the preserving of stable manure, and particularly emphasize the importance of absorbing the liquid excrements, which contain the bulk of the nitrogen excreted, by the use of bedding and other absorbents. It is assumed that this experiment will be appli- cable to other regions in Central New York and perhaps the whole State where the same-soil type occurs. It is probable that there are other types of soil on which the same results may not be obtained BULLETIN 232. i) J or) THE SOIL. According to the Bureau of Soils, United States Department of Agriculture, the Dunkirk series forms an important group of soils and are “found in well-defined terraces along some of the great lakes. These soils are composed of glacial material reworked and redeposited when the lake waters reached a higher level than at present.” The Dunkirk clay, the most tenacious type of this series, is de- scribed as follows: “Soil is a dark to black clay, six to twelve inches in depth, underlain by a tenacious, mottled clay, beneath which, at a depth of four to ten feet, occurs the typical bowlder clay. Near ancient beach lines the soil is sometimes underlain by gravel. Found upon lake foreland and in upland valleys. Derived from deposition in quiet water. Some areas badly drained.” As- this type occurs on the Station farm it is generally lighter in color than the description above given, only appearing black in the ravines and lower areas, and none of the black phase occurred in the tract on which this experiment was conducted. The soil is quite ten- acious and is difficult to work except when moisture conditions are just right. It is usually difficult to get upon this land until late in the spring, and early fall rains may prevent fall seeding. A mechanical analysis of the soil upon which the following experi- ments were conducted was made by the Bureau of Soils with the following results: MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF DUNKIRK CLay Loam, CoRNELL UNIVERSITY Farm. CONVENTIONAL NAMES. Soil. Subsoil. Organic: Matter jo) ities, sre cee evsieh eet ate ae le Sere Eee, Sta SS eee one 2.6 0.6 Hine gravel, coarse and mediumsand. 52. se eee cc ieee ee ee ee eee P1683 1.4 Minevand very pneiwand marge saeco re ieee edeo pee 9.6 Gna Sil tie ee ee ee ethene Oe Oe ECR EO 64.2 56.6 (OE ee een ae ae ta ee PARAS Ci cede Kaan patina hiAtnast ana! 23.9 35.2 Totali@otineludingiorganicymatter)t eee oe eee eee 100 99.9 This analysis gives the percentage of silt much higher, and the percentage of clay much lower than the analyses reported for Dun- kirk clay. It is thought advisable, therefore, to classify this soil as the silty phase of Dunkirk Clay Loam, no description of which has been given. The tract on which this experiment was conducted had come only recently into the possession of Cornell University. The former FERTILIZERS WITH TIMOTHY ON DUNKIRK CLAy Loam. 277 management had been such as to reduce somewhat, although not seriously, its crop producing power. It is well adapted to the growth of timothy; fairly well adapted to the production of wheat, when properly fertilized; and is less valuable for the production of maize and potatoes. A sample was taken from each of the four corners of the tract under consideration and analyzed by Dr. J. A. Bizzell under the direction of Professor George W. Cavanaugh, with the following results: MrneraL ConstiITUENTS IN DuNkiIRK Cray LoaM, CorNELL UNIVERSITY. Per Cent In WaTER FREE SUBSTANCE OF FINE EARTH: TESCGRTE LNG a COLE" IE Cs Cay a MURR Oe MRP ec Ce aS ea 0.158 TESTS NAc: chore bolic Sa pln elttolars 7 dO OL SIee ore a aa be tia Uleee Ae leinig cao arac ahaa 0.293 RUT CME ea a te Bee cl Perea tilt ae Sete A gcoltoneo meaner Hheigetis pater tle «mt fo5 0.214 1h EYESiye STS a tea lege eRe Sa ice cae ae pea 0.66 The percentages of mineral constituents above given are such as are usually found in soils of average fertility. The tract had been in oats in 1903, the year previous to this experiment. In 1902 a crop of corn was taken from the land. The yield, while average for this type of soil, was not equal to the average upon types better adapted to corn. After the corn crop was taken from the land some remnants of fertilizers were distributed upon the land adjoining and the application extended about 20 feet upon the north ends of these plats. The residual effect of this fertilizer was manifest in the timothy, but as the application extended uniformly upon all plats the relative yields were not affected. EXPERIMENT WITH OATS. This experiment was begun in the fall of 1903. The plan was to seed to wheat and timothy that fall, with the primary object of determining the influence of fertilizers upon the yield of timothy hay, the introduction of wheat into the experiment being merely in order to make it conform with usual farm practice. The plats were subsequently plowed on August 23-25, and fitted on Sept. 13, 1903. The north half of each plat was limed with slaked lime on Sept. 15, and the fertilizers applied as shown in the following table on Sept. 16. The plats-were 226.5 feet long and 19.25 feet wide, making an area of one-tenth acre. This width was chosen because it is the distance covered by three courses of the drill. Between each plat a space of two feet intervened, which was not seeded, but kept cultivated. 2718 BULLETIN 2382. FERTILIZERS ON Oats AND TIMOTHY. FEeRTILIZING MATERIALS. | FrrtitizINc CONSTITUENTS. RATES PER ACRE. RATES PER ACRE. Plat Cost of No. fertilizers. : : . lawns Phos- : Nitrate | Acid Muriate | Nitrogen A - Soda. |Phosphate.| Potash. Total. i OSDE DEO ot Potash. 2VU5: Boo) Lb Lb Lb. Lb Lb. Lb WD aircicleves|t crereveiecs | S20 Mi etereucvers BPA PaGages co 50M sstesiesve $1.60 UBesoodolmoodoac Weconioa hos 80 SOM |, Se on el eieycveteneene 40 1.60 HUB eroges 160! nace weedcalliei secs 160 | 25: || Dkants sealtetekiers 3.60 HAG ver ore. 8 160 SAU coos 480 25 SOE li ererevenere 5.20 lise onoonledoodd 5 320 80 AQOO || Seyeterer 50 40 3.20 MALO stehaicts GON |i sete coretorsie 80 240 25? || areiaie ctebers 40 5.20 MD reercreiet 160 320 80 560 25 50 40 6.80 Are ehsiey slave 160 640 80 880 25 100 40 8.40 (Ox Becaso 320 | 640 80 1,040 | 50 100 40 12.00 2 Dinettele ¢ 320 320 80 720 50 50 40 10.40 Uidilisteiselere 160 | 320 80 560 25 50 40 6.80 DAB heroisites A 320 80 560 * 50 40 * Walisaccce Bie els ahtteedaie-a wll ecee alte creme || coketebere voy || masa > ahiaectesul lgorereReteroteeme na | erarntieneke 5.00 MOD oisvsreye (ONE meal ev ee ey et iS onl ees | || Ko RUN tert oko! 4 lesta ain od 10.00 A. 160 lb. ‘‘Niterlime.’? Not applied in 1905. B. 10 tons of manure. C. 20 tons of manure. *The quantitative composition of ‘‘ Niterlime’’ was not determined, therefore no valuation can be ascribed to this ingredient. The acid phosphate was valued at $c. a lb. or $10 per ton. The nitrate of soda was valued at 24c. a lb. or $45 per ton. The muriate of potash was valued at 2c. a lb. or $40 per ton. The stable manure was valued at 50c. per ton. Early fall rains prevented the seeding of wheat on this tenacious clay soil. It was, therefore, decided to sow oats in the spring without the application of any further fertilizer. The plats were sown to oats at the rate of nine pecks per acre on April 18, 1904, together with timothy at the rate of fifteen pounds per acre. YIELDS OF Oats IN 1904. The following table gives the yield of grain in bushels per acre, the increased yield due to treatment, the total value of increase, and the net gain or loss from fertilizers. The yield of straw is not given, since some doubt as to the accuracy of the figures has arisen. The value of the increased yield of oats is obtained by multiplying the number of bushels by 34 cents, which is according to the United States Department of Agriculture, the average December price of oats in this State for the ten years ending 1903. The net gain or loss from fertilizer is obtained by subtracting from the total value of the increase the cost of the fertilizer, as shown in table on"page 279. FprTILIzERS WITH TIMOTHY ON DUNKIRK CLAY LoAM. 279 INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZERS UPON THE YIELD OF OaTsS ON DUNKIRK CLay LOAM IN 1904. Increased Net gain Plat Bu. oats yield Total or loss No. TREATMENT. per acre. | of grain value of | (—) from bu. increase. | fertilizer. fOLEn | MINOLtreAtINENt sda ci cle:e scissors <\eieie esi efe'e ROE Ate aie tial | Eereae eich ort] le mare- cease a 712 | 320 lbs. Acid Phosphate............. 53.4 —3.6 $—1 .22 $—2 .82 “13° | :80)lbs; Muriate:Potash..5.0...2.00.... 50.6 —7.2 —2.45 —4.05 WAT No treatinentac..:< ic aico's/elnreys's/s'se eietele HSIAO Parenter ceovavety | hacehs arava wrk iT Sete atcracda ory 715 | 160 Ibs. Nitrate:Soda........sss0000: 63.5 4.5 53 —2.07 716 | 320 lbs. Acid Phosphate ‘ 160 Ibsi-Nitrate:Sodat.ccceseseccscus 65.6 6.2 Pats —3.09 TAT | INO treatMen tics ccc c sve «07s sc srcicre sec: BOF | Nerereresrayeren Liscetscersisievee’ lit aieeacieeiare 718 | 320 lbs. Acid Phosphate SOllbs) Muriate Potash... ...c.06,.00 65.4 6.5 PAD A | — .99 719 | 160 lbs. Nitrate Soda SOMbs Muriate deo tases asics. s/clelec se 68.3 10.2 3.49 —1.73 20g MINOMEORLMEN Gs ecm cisic/ucteoeota.0-c se rel<) ise BUA Uiipocoiererste state) |W evacocelevarsyen Wp ccevyenctarsters 721 | 160 lbs. Nitrate Soda 80 lbs. Muriate Potash 320 Ibs. Acid Phosphate............. 64.9 9.4 3.20 —3.60 722 | 160 lbs. Nitrate Soda 80 Ibs. Muriate Potash 640 Ibs. Acid Phosphate............. 60.7 fod 2.41 —5.99 ZOPIMNOLUERtIMIEDE «nei. fsicie cist eheie ses ene Lode Was atelerstere es (Ucctareretene saath cela meverer cies 724 | 320 lbs. Nitrate Soda 80 lbs. Muriate Potash 640 lbs. Acid Phosphate............. 62.8 12) 4.08 —7.92 725 | 320 lbs. Nitrate Soda 80 Ibs. Muriate Potash 320 lbs. Acid Phosphate............. 60.2 10.3 3.50 —6.90 T2O | PNOTtLEREMON Ge craic 'c.c\sia lore eves ie-e ere, eseers ADVE alt cote ciate ers iss Al Severctane Sowa. Whccvere.arateaine 727 | 160 lbs. Nitrate Soda 80 lbs. Muriate Potash 320 lbs Acidubhosphate nn « ciece cee os 53.8 4.6 1.56 —5.24 728 | 160 lbs. ‘* Niterlime”’ 80 Ibs. Muriate Potash 320 lbs. Acid Phosphate............. sy Aa) 2.1 47Uik * (29) SNo treatments. \aicleseis.o< etseletelcvsieto ee elt) aioe omaetN| | Un OdouS. | Memcoaea hc 430)s| No'treatmentyicciereleleiatale)scle)-'sin sie 6 elev e ZC EA eae mos oi ER nec naar! a | cera GTe - ole) Ohtonsiof Manure socio ceralecroreeialeiiel sie 54.2 5.3 1.80 —3.20 As before stated, this experiment was not planned primarily to observe the influence of fertilizers upon the yield of oats, but to study the influence of fertilizers upon the yield of timothy hay. The question was as to the subsequent influence of fertilizers in the production of timothy hay. However, the increase or decrease 280 BULLETIN 232. in yield of oats enters into the final problem. Two circumstances conspire to make the fertilizers less effective probably than normally in increasing the yield of oats, namely, (1) the fertilizers were applied in the previous year for reasons heretofore explained*; and (2) the seasonal conditions were favorable to a high yield of oats upon the untreated plats. The oat crop is known as a weather crop, that is to say, the crop is sensitive to the temperature and moisture conditions during the growing season, and if these are just right the soil is relatively less important. The residual influence of stable manure was quite marked upon the timothy hay, although it did not greatly increase the yield of oats. In no case did the increase in the yield of oats pay for the cost of the fertilizer applied, and on two plats where only mineral fertilizers were applied there was a decrease in yield. YIELD OF TimotHy Hay 1n 1905. After the removal of oats in 1904 nothing was done to the plats until April 5th, when each plat was fertilized as indicated in the table on page 279 except Plat 728, which received all fertilizers designated except “Niterlime.”” Plats 731 and 732, which had received 10 and 20 tons of stable manure respectively in 1903, were left untreated in 1905. On July 7, 1905, the timothy was mown, and on July 12, 1905, the hay was weighed. The following table gives the yields of hay per acre, the increased yield of hay due to treatment, total value of the increase, and the net gain or loss from fertilizers. The total value of the increase is obtained by multiplying the increase in yield in tons by $10.60. This, according to the United States Department of Agriculture, is the average December farm price of hay in New York State for the ten years ending 1903. The net gain or loss from fertilizers is obtained by subtracting from the total value of the increase the cost of the fertilizers, as shown in table on page 281. *See note page 278. FERTILIZERS WITH TIMOTHY ON DUNKIRK CLAy LoAM. 281 INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZERS UPON THE YIELD oF TimoTHY Hay ON DUNKIRK 729 730 731 732 ” #See page 278. Cray Loam IN 1905. TREATMENT. No treatment.......... 320 Ibs. Acid Phosphate 80 lbs. Muriate Potash.. No treatment... TED SUNGlEnte of Gods. sie 320 lbs. Acid Phosphate 160 lbs. Nitrate Soda... No treatmentso,.4.-+-- 320 lbs. Acid Phosphate 80 Ibs. Muriate Potash............... 160 lbs. Nitrate Soda... 80 lbs. Muriate Potash. No treatment.......... 160 lbs. Nitrate Soda......... 80 lbs. Muriate Potash. 320 Ibs. Acid Phosphate 160 lbs. Nitrate Soda 80 lbs. Muriate Potash 640 lbs. Acid Phosphate No treatment.... 320 Ibs. NitrateSoda 80 lbs. Muriate Potash 640 lbs. Acid Phosphate 320 lbs. Nitrate Soda 80 Ibs. Muriate Potash 320 lbs. Acid Phosphate No treatment.... 160 lbs. Nitrate Soda 80 Ibs. Muriate Potash 320 lbs. Acid Phosphate 160 lbs. ‘‘ Niterlime’’t 80 Ibs. Muriate Potash 320 lbs. Acid Phosphate No treatment.......... No treatment.......... 10 tons of manure...... 20 tons of manure...... t‘‘ Niterlime” not applied in 1905. Yield of hay per acre lb. 1,910 2,680 3,190 2,400 3,550 3,840 2,200 2,800 4,280 2,470 Increase in yield of hay lb. Total value of increase. Net gain or loss (—) from fertilizers. FINANCIAL RESULTS FROM FERTILIZERS WITH OATS AND TIMOTHY Hay. No table can be constructed which will show accurately the finan- cial returns which may be obtained from the fertilizers used, since the residual effect of the fertilizers is in some cases undoubtedly con- siderable. In the following table, however, the net gain or loss from fertilizers with the oats and with the timothy has been com- bined in order that the reader may understand the status of the experiment up to date from a financial point of view: 282 BuLLeTIN 232. Net GAIN oR Loss FROM FERTILIZERS WITH OATS AND TIMOTHY Hay. Net gain | Net gain | Net gain or loss or loss or loss Plat | pues (—) from | (—) from No. CE ee fertilizer | fertilizer with oats. | .. With with both timothy. crops. FAT: NO treatmien ti... s5..c: ols aoe tess Bie we whe op elehc overeefe fo eresenel| totes aiemerene bel lene) ote heneton cone || ewarere einen 712 | 320 Ibs. Acid Phosphate...............-.+------ — $2.82 $1.61 —$1.21 MASelSO0llbss MuristesPotasher rm cecice oer eee eres —4.05 3.45 — 60 (AW ESN Gein eekn Tne ane oonocongepeouddudadoUAGdso|) pocosass Ih odocsong |} scogonsoac TAs LOO bse Nitratersodarcreecrieceetincen cite cee —2.07 2.84 77 716 320 lbs. Acid Phosphate | 1GOMbDst Nitrate SOdae sc. oe ci letoreiet eel 2 ore! = =) re lolalatte —3.09 3.14 05 (Ae dae Cole ast 1h sits) | eee ere a een arn, Soar eal Arcam Od, Jab cosebe dl acdc couc6 718 | 320 lbs. Acid Phosphate SOllbssMuriate Potashe ce: teielec [tele eieteeeeeeeieiee —.99 — 50 —1.49 719 | 160 lbs. Nitrate Soda SOl bs: eMiriate Pe otash ls serie ote loleioielotolelaieleiorcier=eiere —1.73 4.87 3.14 420: | @Noltreabmentss .circ cuts cis)ccreyeleteretelersisintore oteim eravetter|| apoter aioterete ian | cele lomatenotats 721 | 160 lbs. Nitrate Soda 80 lbs. Muriate Potash 320 bs Acid (Phosphates cis. ms steer icteloteletasieren —3.60 3.15 — 45 722 | 160 lbs. Nitrate Soda 80 lbs. Muriate Potash 640 1bs-FA cid EP Rosphate cerioe tite slareleiorereeleietel+ ieee —5.99 —1.01 —7.00 723 \ No treatments eric hcl iclo state o otere wiskaten ereverarcenete ellie aietctonorateue | Mieeweieaeneaetets 724 | 320 lbs. Nitrate Soda 80 lbs. Muriate Potash 640i bs Acid (Phosphate ctsere -to's ere ciate sielelerere ol etaiie —7.92 4.13 —3.79 725 | 320 lbs. Nitrate Soda 80 lbs. Muriate Potash S20 bs vA cide hosphatescic sects ereiectetslers relerareran —6.90 11.53 4.63 (CATH Ws kenge) ailerons BOO oS Soem a cam nibe came oall watmadad \lsasaacet | comleocess 727 | 160 lbs. Nitrate Soda 80 lbs. Muriate Potash S20 bE A clas Phosphates «ive rcricie erie cielo retain tote —5.24 Lsersiil 57 728 | 160 lbs. ‘‘ Niterlime”’ 80 lbs. Muriate Potash S20i bs pA cidtPhosphatec acme cies ciicieterciatsscieiesiars * * * 729 No treabme4;nte pec lclolovsle rere tere aie aie rey hea vete see Vovene)cvercte tars) oteveten . ~ + ae —_ fA OMe 4! rh my rae - 7 2 ' s . ‘; * JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. And here, in Autumn’s dusky reign, A birth of blossoms seems again To flush the woodland’s fading train With dreams of May. —John B. Tabb LESSON I.—THE ALFALFA PLANT By L. H. Battery. LL the things that the farmer sells are produced by plants and animals. The animals live on the plants. It is im- portant that we know what some of these plants are. Some plants are grown for human food. Such are po- tato, wheat, apple, lettuce. Some are grown only to feed to animals. Such are grasses and clover,—plants that are made into hay. Hay is the most important crop in New York State. In fact, New York leads all the states in the value of the hay and forage. This value is more than 66 millions of dollars. Hay is important in New York also because there are so many dairy cattle in the state. There are more than one and one-half millions of dairy cattle in New York. In the value of the milk and butter and cheese, New York also leads all other states. There are also great numbers of beef cattle, horses, mules and sheep. All these millions y ~ 2. Sprig of the aljalja plant. 296 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. of animals must be supplied with hay in our long cold winters. Hay is made in New York State from grasses and clover. Suppose we could find some plant that would yield twice as much hay as clover yields and be more than twice as nutritious,—you can readily see how valuable such a plant would be to the State. It would be better than a gift of millions of dollars. Such a plant is alfalfa. Now that you know something about alfalfa in a general way, we want you to know how the plant looks and how it grows. It is not very well known even among farmers, but its cultivation is in- creasing every year. You will probably know where there are fields of it. Sometimes it grows along roadsides as a weed. Last spring Uncle John offered to send a small packet of alfalfa seeds to any Junior Naturalist */ who wrote forit. He sent about ’ 5,000 packets. But if you do not know the plant or cannot find it, write at once to Uncle John and he will send you some by mail from the University farm. Now let us see how many school children in New York State will know what alfalfa is between now and Thanksgiving time. When writing to ; Unele “John about alfalfa, try to answer as many of the following questions as_ possible from your own observation: 1. Does the plant remind you of any other plant that you ever saw? Of what? 3. What leaf is this? 2. How does it grow,—straight up or spread- Is it enlarged? ing out on the ground? 3. How many stalks come from one root? 4. What are the leaves like? Mark out the shape with a pencil. 5. What are the flowers like? Do you know any other flowers of similar shape? What is the color? 6. If possible, dig around a plant and describe how the root looks. Does it branch into many fibres, as grass roots or corn roots do? JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 297 UNCLE JOHN’S LETTER ABOUT THE ALFALFA GARDENS. My Dear Boys AnD GIRLS: Do you know much about the alfalfa plant? Do you remember that last spring we promised to send a packet of seed to each of, you who asked forit? Did yousend your name asking that you be served? We received the names of several thousand children asking for seed and I am wondering whether you are one of them. If so, did you sow the seed? Will you write me a letter telling me what became of it? I am very fond of children’s letters. Each year I receive more than thirty thousand of them. I sometimes wonder whether there is another man who is honored by so many letters from young people, for I count it an honor to be so remembered. As large as that number is, I cannot spare one letter. I always want a few more. All your letters are read and I take great pains to answer all questions. If, by any oversight, you have been missed Iam sorry. I know what it costs a boy or girl to write a letter. I never open one without feeling that the writer is a friend of mine, otherwise he would not have expended so much hard work to write it. School has now begun and of course you are very busy, and so is your teacher. One of the best opportunities to write letters is in school. Please ask your teacher whether you may not write me during your language period. You may say that she may make authors of all of you if she can, but I will do all I can to help you be- come good letter writers. Ask her whether a letter to me may not be a substitute for a composition. In your letter you may tell me your experience with alfalfa. Tell me your failures as well as your successes. Even though you received your seeds and did not sow them, tell me that. I shall never find fault with you for telling me the truth. If you sowed the seed and the plants did not do well, tell me that also. The plants may look very small and uninteresting to you this year, but next year they may surprise you. In some parts of the United States the alfalfa crop is of great value and the loss of it would bring distress to many farmers. I am won- dering whether the crop, as raised in all parts of our country, is not worth more money than all the gold found in the Klondike, taking the two year by year. 1 do not know how that may be. I am wondering. Men by the thousand have gone to the gold mines and endured many hardships and later returned with less money than those who had remained at home and took care of their alfalfa. 298 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. It may be that a mine of wealth lies very near you, and to get it you may have to ask alfalfa to find it and bring it to vou. Gold cannot be found in all places in a gold country, and alfalfa may not feel comfortable and grow in all parts of a good farming country. What we asked of you last spring was that you become alfalfa pros- pectors and later tell us what you found. JoHun W. SPENCER. LESSON II.—GOOD BYE SUNFLOWER. The wind-flower and the violet They perished long ago, And the briar-rose and the orchis died amid the summer glow; But on the hill the golden-rod, and the aster in the wood, And the yellow sunflower by the brook In Autumn beauty stood. —William Cullen Bryant. In seed-time I like to walk in my garden. There the sturdy plants that during the long summer have made the most of sunshine and rain, are ready to show me what they have done. I always look at each one carefully. I always wonder and wonder as I look. Yesterday, along brown paths of tan bark, I walked among my old-fashioned plants. Many kinds, zinnias, asters and the like, were still blooming brightly. “Not yet, not yet!’ they said as I passed. Seed-time for them was still to come. But in one corner with “down-drooping face” stood my old friend, the sunflower. I lifted up the heavy head and saw—I shall not tell you what, lest you lose the pleasure of finding out for yourself. The seed-time of the sunflower is a wonderful thing. Some October day will you look closely at one and tell me what you see? Will you also look at the soil in which the plant grew? What color is it and how does it feel when you hold it in your hands? Every naturalist should notice the soil in which thrifty plants are growing. And this is not all. We want you to take the sunflower head into the school room and ask other Junior Naturalists to help you count the seeds. How many do you find? Save every seed, for later in the year you will need them in making some interesting experiments. It will be well to ask the teacher to take care of the seeds until you are ready to use them. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 299 LESSON III.—_CHIPMUNK IN AUTUMN,WOODS. “What luck, John?” I asked my young friend as he jumped over the rail fence and joined me in the meadow. “First rate,’ he answered, opening his bag and showing me the goodly supply of brown nuts that he had gathered. “I have more than the other fellow and he worked twice as hard as I did.” “Then you had company?” 4. Chipmunk. “Yes. Imeta little chap in the wood. He had very bright eyes, a rather small tail, and wore a fur coat with stripes along the back. It was great fun to watch him. Chipmunks are such busy little things.” You see John is a naturalist. This is why he had such a happy afternoon with his furry little friend out under the trees. He was very willing to tell me what he had learned about the ways of chip- munks. It then occurred to me that other young naturalists might like to make some observations on chipmunks this year. Will not these “nutty days” be a good time to begin? Here are some things to think about as you watch them: 300 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 1. Where do you more often see a chipmunk, on the ground or in the trees? 2. What are its colors above and below? 3. Look at the stripes on its back. How many are there? How far do they extend on the back? 4. In what way does the chipmunk’s tail differ from that of the red squirrel? 5. How far from the ground on a tree have you seen a chipmunk? Does it ever Jump from bough to bough? 6. How does it carry its food? 7. What different kinds of food have you seen a chipmunk eating? What seeds does it distribute? Do you think that a chipmunk has ever planted a tree? 8. Is it a useful tenant on a farm? Give a reason for your answer. 9. It is said that chipmunks are easily tamed. We should like to know what success Junior Naturalists have had in gaining their confidence. f LESSON IV.—SOMETHING ABOUT SOIL. Last spring when we asked the members of the Junior Naturalist Club to prepare for us some work on soils we did not feel at all sure that they would be willing to do it. Uncle John was very much pleased, however, to find that a large number of children wrote ex- cellent letters on this subject. When reading some of the letters we could not tell whether the children had actually done the work them- ~ selves or whether they had learned their facts from others. In all the experiments, let us know just what part vou took in them. The following letter pleased us very much: Dear Uncle John:— I will write and tell you all I know about soils. I experimented to-day by putting some dirt into a tin and put the tin on some coals for a while. When I took it off and looked at it carefully, I found the dirt that was burned was much softer than the other soil and that the lumps had all gone out and it looked like ashes. We named five soils. We think the mucky soil is the best for flowers. To-day some of us went into the woods to get some mucky soil. Your nephew, JESSE. The above letter tells us that Jesse gathered soil, that he looked at it carefully, and that he experimented, as we asked him to do. Here is another good letter: Dear Unele John:— I have looked for and found a good many kinds of soils. The wet and dry, stony, gravelly, coarse grained and fine grained soils. Some of the: soils were: JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 301 different colored. The black soil is rich and that is what we have in our garden and flower beds. We took a pail of sandy and clayey soil and studied.it. Then in some soil we found sticks, roots and other decayed plants. This is what makes the soil rich, When we went into the woods Arbor Day to get flowers and plants we found the rich soil by the creek. Your niece, Eva. We learn from Eva’s letter that after she had studied soils in the school room, she observed them out of doors. This year we hope to. give several lessons on soils and we want you to get some material for them during the fall days. It would be a good idea to take a field trip for the purpose of collecting __ soils. Get some from the garden, some from open fields, and some from _ the woods. Try to find as many dif- ferent kinds as possible. It will be well to have’ . 5. The chipmunk boy. four or five paper ~ bags or glass fruit-cans with you so that you can take several samples back to your school room. On each bag or can paste a piece of white paper on which write where you found the soil. Put the soils into the school room cupboard until we ask you to make some experiments. Be sure to write and tell us whether you have collected the samples. A LESSON V.—HOW CAN WE PROTECT THE WILD FLOWERS? Have you ever thought how much we should miss the spring flowers if they no longer appeared in the wood and alongthe wayside? What if the trailing arbutus and the hepatica should never come to us again? 302 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. What if we searched in vain for Jack-in-the-pulpit, Dutchman’s breeches, painted trillium, yellow violets, or sweet briar roses? Yet, unless something is done to protect the wild flowers, I fear that one by one they may leave us, or at least become scarce in their accustomed places. Thoughtless persons gather all they can find and carelessly uproot many. We always suggest to Junior Natural- ists lessons on common and abundant plants, both because they should mean more to you and because there is no danger that they will be entirely destroyed. We want Junior Naturalists to think on this question and write us about it. Next February, we shall publish two letters, one written by a girl the other by a boy, giving the best suggestions for protecting the wild flowers. Uncle John hopes that a good many young people will help him in this matter. LESSON VI.—CANADA THISTLES AND OTHER SEEDS. We hear many farmers complain of the Canada thistle. Can you tell why? If you study it this fall you may learn new things about it. Perhaps some good-sized boy will be brave enough to get a large thistle plant for one of the Club meetings. He will need to be some- thing of a Spartan, but I believe many of our boys will have the courage to do it. I would suggest in your study of the plant that you consider the following: 1. The kind of root. 2. The number of blossoms. 3. The number of seeds in a blossom-head. 4, Multiply the number of seeds in one of the blossom-heads of any kind of thistle by the number of heads on the plant. If one-tenth of the seeds of such a plant should produce plants next year, do you think the farmer living near it would be pleased? 5. How many good and plump seeds do you find in each head of Canada thistle? Be very careful about this observation. 6. How are the seeds of thistles fitted for traveling? 7. Does the Canada thistle have any other way of traveling except. by seeds? Be careful in answering this. 8. Can you suggest any way by which we can get rid of the Canada thistle? Notr:—Uncle John would like to know the name of the boy who brings the thistle plant to school. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 303 THE LETTERS TO UNCLE JOHN. A few remarks on the kind of letters that are most pleasing to Uncle John may be helpful to the members of the club. Following are the most important points: 1. Always give your address and be sure to sign your full name. 2. Do not feel that you must write on all the topics suggested in the Leaflet. Select those that interest you most. 3. In your letters tell us the things that you have found out for yourself, not the things that you have read or that others have told you. Uncle John would rather have you tell him two or three simple things that you have learned from your own out-door study than to have you write pages of facts that you have heard or read. A very satisfactory letter reads as follows: My dear Uncle John:— A few days ago I found three trees which have been bored by the sapsucker. On one tree the holes went all around the trunk and half way up the branches, but on the two others the holes were scattered about. The trees I saw were bored last spring by the sapsucker. As there was no sap near the holes, I think he eats the inner bark of the trees, as the holes are quite deep. I have never seen insects near the holes, so I do not know if the sapsucker eats them. I have been looking for a sapsucker almost every day since the Junior Naturalist paper came. The Hepatica—Hepaticas grow in very shady and damp places. I think they get most of the sunlight. during the spring before the leaves come out. I did not see the first sign of life, so I cannot tell you about it. The flowers come first, and the leaves do not come until quite awhile after the flowers. The hepatica has three different parts. The three small leaves are a part of the stem, as they are quite a little distance from the flower. The stem is very long and hairy. The new leaves of the hepatica that I saw, looked very fuzzy on the outside and not at all so on the inside. I did not watch the leaves unfold, as I did not have a hepatica in a pot. I have found the hepatica in three different colors,—blue, pink and lilac. I think some smell sweeter than others, and I also think the color has a great deal to do with it. On a sunshiny day the hepatica is wide open, and on a stormy day it is closed up tight. I think the hepatica has from ten to twenty-five seeds. Your niece, SALLIE. Junior Naturalists ask many questions. We are glad of this. We intend to answerevery question. Last school year Uncle John received from Junior Naturalists 33,171 letters. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. O,—fruit loved of boyhood! The old days recalling, When wood-grapes were purpling and brown nuts were falling! When wild, ugly faces we carved on its skin, Glaring out through the dark with a candle within! When we laughed round the corn-heap with hearts all in tune, Our chair a broad pumpkin,—our lantern the moon, Telling tales of the fairy who traveled like steam, In a pumpkin-shell coach with two rats for her team. —John Greenleaj Whittier. LESSON I.—THE PUMPKIN. L. H. BAILEY. In October the cornfields were golden with pumpkins. The corn was in shocks. The tassels were ripe and dry, and hung downward as if mourning forthe dying year. The maple leaves, yellow and red, were falling to the ground like flocks of brilliant birds. Lonely hickory trees held on to their dun-yellow leaves as if loth to let them go. But the pumpkins seemed to be in their prime. Fat and sleek they lay between the corn shocks, and shone out among the drying weeds. We did not remember to have seen them before. It is now November. Heavy frosts have come. One night the brook was frozen nearly to its middle. Much of the corn is still in the shock, but the pumpkins have been taken under cover. They lie in heaps on the barn floor.. The hay and straw falls over them. Still the old cow can smell them. I like to sit on them, and run my fingers down their smooth, broad grooves. In some parts of the State, I miss the pumpkins in the cornfields. These are the regions in which there are many silos; corn is grown in large fields; corn harvesters are used. The absence of the pumpkin tells me of a change in the kind of farming since I was a child. Now you want to ask me some questions; but I shall ask them first of you. Some one in school or in your neighborhood can answer them for you, if you do not know. : My first questions are these: 1. What is a silo and what is it used for? 2. What do the farmers who have silos raise to sell? 3. Why are pumpkins so often planted amongst corn? 4. Do you know of any other kinds of plants that grow underneath taller plants (look under the trees, even in the dooryard; and in the orchard; and under the currant bushes) ? JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 805 But you must tell me something about the pumpkin itself. You have made jack-lanterns, and you will know. You know the Hub- bard squash; but why did you never make a Jack-lantern from one? Look at the pumpkin and the Hubbard squash again. If you live in town, you can stop at the grocer’s and see them. But I suggest that you children take some pumpkins and squashes to the school- house,—all the kinds you can find. Put them on the platform or on the table. If they are nicely arranged, I am sure you will think them handsome. Then write Uncle John. 5. How many different kinds (or shapes) of pumpkins do you know? 6. What kind of stem does the pumpkin have? How does it differ in this respect from the Hubbard squash? 7. Look at the blossom end of both; how do they differ? 8. Look at their shape and tell how they differ. 9. Can you see any difference in the seeds of the pumpkin and the Hubbard squash? 10. Explain any difference in color. If you cannot secure a Hubbard squash, then make the observa- tions on the pumpkin alone. LESSON II.—STAGHORN SUMACS IN NOVEMBER. RaurpH W. Curtis. The woods are not dead because the leaves have fallen. The trees now stand out bold and free with masks thrown aside, as it were, and faces bare. Look at that sturdy oak! And yonder elm, how grace- ful its outlines! See how the lombardy poplar points heavenward like a church spire in the landscape. Notice the ivory branches of the sycamore, the beautiful gray of the beech trunks, the outstretched limbs of the chestnut, the gnarled and twisted branches of the little hawthorn. And there are the sumacs. Now that the leaves are gone and woods and fields take on the soft grays and browns of winter, how the great crimson heads of the sumac stand out big and clear, easy to see from far away. 1. Let us see what we can learn from these common shrubs. A Frew SuGGESTIONS. 1. Look at the colony of sumacs for a few minutes. Write in your note-books answers to the following: Where is the colony growing? In the open field? In the fence corner? On the edge of the wood? 20 306 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. How many colors can you find as you look at one shrub closely? 2. Break a live winter twig of sumac. A milky sap oozes out. Is this sap sticky like resin? Wet or dry, sumac branches make the best of camp-fires. Why? 3. Look carefully at the same twig. See how very hairy it is. Notice the silky buds and the narrow, circular leaf-scar that nearly surrounds each. Some day you will find that the sumac hides its leaves beneath the base of the leaf stem. Fic. 1—Pumpkins and squashes vn the school-room. OTHER SUMACS. Nearly all boys and girls know the staghorn sumac, but I doubt whether you are familiar with some of its near relations. One or two of these are poisonous. You ought to know the poisonous forms that you may avoid them. Here is a brief description of the different kinds in winter. The staghorn sumac is a large shrub with velvety-hairy branches. The fruit or seed part is terminal, 7. e., on the end of the branches, and is composed of a dense cluster of red, hairy berries. Fig. 3 and 4 (1). Smooth sumac is often a large shrub but the branches are smooth. The fruit is terminal like that of the staghorn sumac but does not make such a stiff, dense cluster. Fig. 4 (4). JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY, 307 Poison sumac or “poison elder” is also a large shrub but grows only in swamps or moist places. The twigs are mottled brown and gray. The fruits are round, waxy berries (dry and hard in winter) borne in loose, slender clusters which, instead of being terminal, are axillary, 7. e., growing out of the sides of the branches in the axils of the leaves. If the leaves have fallen the leaf-scars are still there and are big and broad, not narrow and circular like those of the staghorn sumac. Fig. 4 (5). Fragrant sumac, a low shrub. The fruit is in small clusters of red, hairy berries which fall off early in winter. The small clusters on the present twigs are next year’s flowers which open very early in the spring before the leaves. The wood is sweet scented. Fig. 4 (2). Poison ivy or poison oak (a true sumac and by far the most common poisonous plant in the United States) a low shrub or climbing vine, with light brown twigs. The fruit is like that of the poison sumac and the leaf-scars, in proportion to the twig, are also similar. Fig. 4 (8). LESSON III.—SOILS. Gather dried but not decayed leaves of the staghorn sumac, * oak, hickory or maple. Using your hands, grind up the leaves, Moisten them. Get a saucer full of yellow or gray soil. Moisten it quite wet. Place the moist leaves in the soil and mix them in well. Set the saucer in a warm place and stir the dirt and leaves occasionally. What happens? What becomes of the leaves in the forest? What becomes of tree stumps? What happens to the grass that is plowed under? What happens to dead bugs? Who ever saw a dead English sparrow? What becomes of the bodies of dead birds? What do angle worms do with the dead leaves? If you do not know, put an angle worm in a flower jar of moist soil with a lantern globe over it. Place a few dead leaves on top of the soil and watch what happens. Why should the above questions be of interest to young gardeners and naturalists? LESSON IV.—NOTE-BOOKS. As soon as members of the club receive their November Leaflets we want you to get a small note-book in which you can keep a record of all that interests you in the out-door world. Every senior natural- ist does this. Later in the year we shall ask you to copy a page from your note-book and send it to us, that we may have it published in the Junior Naturalist Monthly. You may watch a tree or bird 308 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. or some other out-door thing for several days or weeks and write in your note-book all that you can learn from your observations. Such records will be very interesting to Uncle John. LESSON V.—A COLLECTION OF SEEDS. ‘TJ like the plants which you call weeds,— Sedge, hardhack, mullein, yarrow,— That knit their roots and sift their seeds Where any grassy wheel-track leads Through country by-ways narrow.” —Lucy Larcom. Brown fields, brown weeds, brown tree trunks; let us look at them all. Let us ends the old brown weeds. Girls and boys like to make collections of things. How many different kinds of seeds can you find these November days? Suppose all the members of the club spend one week collecting seeds and let us know at the end of that time how many different kinds you have found? Which weed in seed-time interests you most? Why? LESSON VI.—HOW TO GROW PAPER WHITE NARCISSUS. JOHN W. SPENCER. Materials: A glass dish that will hold about a quart. Some clean sand and pebbles. Six bulbs of Paper White Narcissus that can be bought for a few cents. When the materials are all ready this is what Uncle John wants you todo: Put the sand in the bottom of your glass dish, then set your bulbs up on end; not too close, about an inch apart will be the best. The bulbs stand up as straight as six little majors. Place the pebbles in between the bulbs and on the outside of them. The pebbles are props which keep the little majors standing as straight as you have placed them. Pour some water into the dish so that the bulbs are three-quarters covered. Put the water in carefully that you may not wash the sand and pebbles out of place. Set the dish in the window and the Narcissus plants will be ready to grow. All you will need to do is to occasionally add water. Each week I wish you would write us the changes you see, even the smallest changes. When your plants have blossomed send your old Uncle John your notes. NotTr:—Please send Uncle John the name of the boy who makes the fargest collection of seeds. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 309 LESSON VII.—A LITTLE FARM TENANT. The leaves have fallen and the orchard is still; but we like to be out among the old apple trees, the downy woodpecker andI. He works and I watch him, this useful little farm hand. You must not confound the downy woodpecker with his near relation, the sapsucker, that drills rings of holes in the orchard trees. The sapsucker has yellow on the under parts instead of white and, if you look closely, you will find other ways in which he differs from the downy. When you go into the orchard and see a woodpecker on one of the trees, look at him very closely. Is he smaller than a robin, black above, white below, and red on the nape? If so, he is a downy woodpecker. The female bird has no red on the nape. In aformer Leaflet we have told you why the downy woodpecker is a valuable tenant on the farm. This year we want you to tell us from your own observations why he is helpful. Here are some things to think about as you study him: 1. What does the downy woodpecker find to eat under the bark of trees? Have you ever looked to see? 2. Notice his toes. How are they arranged? 3. How does he brace himself as he works? Watch him do this. 4, Have you ever seen him eat seeds of weeds that farmers do not like on their lands? 5. Fasten a piece of suet to a tree near your home, and I doubt not that the downy woodpecker will often visit you. LETTERS TO UNCLE JOHN. As the days go by and we receive letters from our boys and girls, we find them more and more satisfactory. A few years ago Junior Naturalists often wrote us about things that they read in books. Now they are telling us of the things they themselves see. Each month we hope to publish two or three of the best letters. Here is one that is excellent: Dear Uncle John:— This morning I got a basket full of dandelions with flowers on for the teacher _and we are studying them now. On the dandelion which has a yellow flower, are two colors, yellow and green. The dandelion with the balloon has two colors, white and green. When the boys play ball and play a little late, some take the dandelion balloon and blow it three times. If all the seeds go off, their mother wants them. We had no school Thursday afternoon and so I went out to Capron on a wagon with my uncle. I saw one field just full of the stems of the balloons, because all 310 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. Fie. 4—Fruit and twigs of the common sumacs or shoe-macks. 1, Staghorn; 2, fragrant sumac; 3, poison ivy; 4, smooth sumac; 5, poison sumac. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 311 the balloons were carried off by the wind. Then the wind was blowing west and there was a clump of bushes and behind these bushes it was just white, for the wind could not get at them and blow the dandelions away. I think next year that all the fields around this field will be covered with dandelions because the wind must have planted some seed there. The sky was overcast with clouds when I gathered the basket of dandelions. The dandelion I am studying has seven buds not open yet and on top they feel like silk. Your nephew, We are sorry that we have not the name of the writer of the above. The letter pleases us because the young naturalist not only gathered and studied the dandelions, but he also noticed other out-door things, —the direction of the wind, the overcast sky, and where the dande- lion seeds fell. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. LESSON I.—HORSES. A few minutes ago I went out into the stable to see Peg and Nan, the two bay horses. On the outside of each stall I found a door-plate with Nan written in large, black letters on one, Peg on the other. I visited each old friend in turn. They are quite different in disposition, these two horses. Nan is gentle, affectionate, patient; Peg is spirited, unfriendly, restless. I am very fond of them both and as yet have not been able to decide which I enjoy the more, quiet Nan or spirited Peg. All horses are interesting to me. As I take my daily walk, I like to look at the different ones I meet along the way. There is the baker’s horse and the butcher’s; the doctor’s horse, sleek and active; the heavy gray horses that carry loads of coal up the hill all through the winter weather; “Old Speckle,” the postman’s horse; and the friendly bay I so often see feeding in the meadow. Of all these wayside acquaintances, I like the one I meet in the meadow best. Perhaps I associate him with the meadow-lark’s song, the fresh, green grass, and the gay little dandelions that were about when I first crossed his path; or perhaps our friendship pro- gressed more rapidly than city streets ever will permit. He seems to know when I am approaching and raises his head in welcome. I always pet him and talk to him a bit, and we both know that two friends have met. Sometimes when I reach home I think of the different horses that I have seen during the day and wonder about them. Where is “Old Speckle” in the evening and through the long nights? Day in and day ‘| out I meet him in almost | the same place along the | highway and watch his | ready response to his master’s command. In addition to food and lodg- ing, does he, I wonder, receive an occasional friendly word or an en- Fic. 1.—Nan. couraging pat on _ the head? I hope he does, and I hope, too, that all the others are tenderly cared for. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 313 There are many things about horses that everyone ought to know. If we were to ask Junior Naturalists how coach horses differ from roadsters and how roadsters differ from draft horses, how many would be able to tell us? And if several horses, the doctor’s, the baker’s, the coal dealer’s, the grocer’s and others stood in a row, would you know whether there was a true draft horse or roadster or coach horse among them? Perhaps you will ask, “ What is a draft horse?” The draft horse has short legs, a heavy body, a short, thick neck, broad, deep chest and shoulders, strong hocks, and moderately large feet. It may be Fria, 2.—A good coacher. that your father owns a draft horse. Ask him whether it is a Perch- eron, a Clydesdale, or an English Shire. These are the most familiar breeds of draft horses. The Percherons came from France and at first they were gray. Now they are often black or dark brown. The Shires, commonly bay, brown, or sorrel, came from England; and the Clydesdale, similar in appearance to the Shires but smaller and more active, came from Scotland. All boys and girls know coach horses. As you stand by the school- room window, you may see one pass. They have long, arched necks and fine heads. Their bodies are round and well proportioned. 314 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. Roadsters, trotters, and saddle horses are usually not so large as coachers. Their necks are inclined to be longer and their chests narrower than the coach horse; however, their muscles and tendons are strong. Now, you must not think that just because a horse is drawing a load, he is a draft horse; nor because a horse is hitched to a coach, he is a coach horse; nor because he is driven on the road that he is a roadster. These three names,—draft horses, coach horses, roadsters, —represent types or classes. They mean kinds of horses that are supposed to be best adapted for drawing, or for coaches and car- riages, or for fast driving, if the horse has no other work to do. But the horses that you usually see are just mere com- mon horses, of no particular type, and are used for a great variety of pur- poses. You would not think of put- ting a _ true draft horse, like the animal in Fig. 3, on a light carriage; nor of hitching a coach horse like that in Fig. 8 to a coal wagon. Do you think there is any real roadster, or coach horse, or draft horse in your neighborhood? If not, perhaps you can tell, as the horses pass you, whether they are nearest like one type or another. Try it. Fie. 3.—A typical drajt horse. SOME IMPORTANT FACTS IN THE STUDY OF HORSES. I. P. RosBrerts. If you will observe horses closely, you will find that some are large, heavy, and strong and that they are seldom made to move rapidly; while others may be nearly as tall, but they are slim and carry their heads high and their necks arched. You should also notice that the JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. b15 heavy draft horse does not lift his feet high or walk with a proud and lofty tread; while the coach horse lifts his feet high, carries his head high, and moves very proudly. There are several breeds of draft or heavy horses. Fig. 3 shows a fine Clydesdale horse imported from Scotland. Notice how nicely he is marked. The horseman would say that he has four “white stockings” and plenty of “feather” on his fetlock; strange, is it not, that this long hair should be called “feather?” If you should see a large, smooth, gray horse similar to the Clyde without the “white stockings” or the “feather,’”’ you may conclude that he is a Percheron horse. As we have said before, the Percheron breed of horses came from France. It is not always gray in color. It is slightly smaller than the Clydesdale. After you have learned that a draft horse should be large and strong, study the picture of the coach horse, Fig. 2. Compare him with the draft horse. The coach horse is not a fast trotter nor even a fast roadster, but he is usually very beautiful, strong and stylish. Now I shall ask you to compare the neck shown in Fig. 4 with that shown in Fig. 5. Which do you think is the more beautiful? The horse with the long, slim neck is a noted trotter. If the neck and head were large, would it help or hinder the trotter? Compare the neck of the trotter with that of the draft horse and see whether you can explain why one is heavy and the other light. Can you explain to your parents why the draft horse should weigh more than the coach horse? Do you admire the head and neck shown in Fig. 5? Wherein does it differ from the others? This type is called “ewe-neck’’: Can you tell why? Tell me whether you think this horse would be a safe driver. What do you think of the head and neck of the Arabian horse, Fig. 6? You like it, do you? Why? Can you imagine what kind of horse belongs to that head and neck? Describe it. Probably the Arabian horse would be too spirited for you, so I shall show you a Shetland pony, Fig. 7. Where is Shetland? Why are horses so small in the country where this little fellow came from? How does he differ from the other horses shown in this Leaflet? Note all of the differences. In Fig. 8 you will see a Welsh pony and she has a poneyette, a baby only a few days old. Which is the larger, the Shetland pony or the Welsh pony? Which one would you prefer if the baby were left out? Could you raise a calf until it became a grown cow and then trade it fora pony? Just a plain little pony can be bought for 316 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. Fia 4.—WNeck of a trotter. Fie. 5.—Ewe-neck, a poor horse. the price of a good cow. It is part of a good education to know how to raise and handle cows and horses. With this Leaflet in your hand, you should go to the stable, or, better still, go out on the street, and see whether you can find as good finmses and ponies as the pictures represent. With the exception of Fig. 6, these pictures were made from photo- graphs of living animals. Most all of the horses that you will see are called by a long name — nonde- scripts; that means, horses which have a little draft blood, a little trotting blood, and a little unknown blood, as already described. Some of these may have draft bodies and coach- horse heads, or they may have trotting bodies and such necks as are shown in Fig. 4. With the Leaflet as a guide and a living horse for comparison, you will learn a great deal about horses. Can a _ horse sleep when standing? How are the legs placed when a horse lies down? How does a horse get up,—front legs first or hind legs first? How does a cow get up? Where is the horse’s knee joint? Which way does the knee bend? Fie. 6.—Arabian horse. Fie. 7.—Shetland pony. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. aif Where is the hock joint? Which way does it bend? When a horse starts, after standing, what foot does he first put forward,—the left or the right? The fore or the back foot? What foot moves next? When a horse trots, do the two feet on one side move together? Or do lefts and rights move together? What does the driver mean when he says that a horse “forges” or “overreaches?”’ Name the things that a horse commonly eats What is a good feed for a day,—how much of each thing and when given? Fic. 8.—Welsh pony and its mother. LESSON II.—AMONG THE EVERGREENS. RaupH CurTIs. Away you go over drifted fields and on into the snow-covered wood. How clear and crisp the air! The wind murmurs among the pines; a flock of crows caw overhead; clear and sweet the chickadee pipes its note of welcome. It is not lonely in the winter wood. There you will find evergreens, possibly many kinds. Look at these trees so that you can tell how they differ one from another in 318 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY, general appearance. Notice whether the trees are tall, whether the branches are spreading, whether the leaves are long or short, and whether the cones are large or small. After you have looked at the trees a little while, carefully take a branch from each of the different kinds. These you can study in the school-room where it is nice and warm, and find out some things that you cannot learn by looking at the trees. In Fig. 9 you will see are illustrations of four different kinds of evergreen boughs: the white pine; the pitch pine; the Nor- way spruce; the hemlock. Let us look at them carefully and com- pare them with the boughs we have brought in from the woods. THE WHITE PINE. 1. What is the color of the bark on your white pine branch? 2. How long are the leaves? 3. Notice whether there is a little sheath at the base of each bundle that binds it together. 4. How many buds do you find on the branch? 5. Where are they situated? 6. Notice the cones; are they long or short? 7. On what part of the branch do you find them? 8. Are the scales of the cones opened or closed? 9. Do you find scales inside the cones? If so, describe them. THE PITCH PINE. 1. Compare the bark on your branch of pitch pine with that on the white pine. How does it differ? : 2. Notice how rigid are the leaves of the pitch pine and how straight they stand out from the branches. 3. Notice whether there is a sheath which binds the leaves together at the base. 4, How do the cones of the pitch pine compare in size with those of the white pine? 5. It takes the pitch pine three years to ripen its seeds. You will find in Fig. 7 near the end of the branch very tiny cones that have grown since spring. Farther along on the branch are the cones that are two years old. Notice how tightly closed they are. Then near the base of the branch there is a cone three years old. It has opened and scattered its seeds. THE NORWAY SPRUCE. . In the spruce you will notice that the leaves are not arranged in clusters. . Find out whether there is a sheath at the base of the leaves. . Take out a leaf and tell us whether you find any stem on it. . Are the leaves stiff or soft and feathery? . As I look at a branch of Norway spruce, it seems as if the leaves were all on the upper side of the branch; is this so? Om WW eR JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 319 THE HEMLOCK. 1. Notice how pretty the hemlock trees are in this December weather. How one enjoys looking at a single branch such as we see in the illustration, Fig. 9. 2. Look at the branch of hemlock you have brought to school. Tell us ten different things about it:—the arrangement of the leaves, the length of the leaves, size of the cones, and other facts that you learn from your own observation. LESSON III.—A CHRISTMAS TREE FOR THE BIRDS. Do not forget to give the birds a Christmas tree this year. You will enjoy it as much as they. Let me tell you how to do it. First, select the tree. An evergreen tree in your own garden will be best. Then I want you to think about the gifts for your little winter neighbors. You know the chickadee, the little gray bird that wears a white waistcoat anda black cap? He isthe one that says “Chick-a-dee-dee- dee-dee” or sings “Phoe-be” through the cold winter weather. Chickadee likes suet and I hope you will put a large piece on the tree for him. Doubtless other birds will share his gift. Tell us how many you see eating the suet. If you do not know the names of the birds, describe them. A good-sized bone that has not been salted will attract crows, nuthatches and woodpeckers. Perhaps the downy woodpecker will come for his Christmas dinner. How glad you will be to see this sociable little bird! Some of our winter neighbors are seed eaters:—tree sparrows, snow buntings and the like. You know what strong little bills they have. These bills were made to crack seeds. The sparrows and snow buntings will be pleased with a nice basket of seeds, so I should advise you to provide this gift for them. I want you to find out whether they take any of the gifts provided for the other birds. Do they eat the suet? Notice whether the English sparrow takes an interest in the tree. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. DOGS. As I walk through winter woods I often think of the time when white men did not live here; when forests were dense and wild; and when wolves ran howling on their way through the long, cold nights. ~ But that was long ago. Probably not many of our boys and girls have ever heard or seen a wolf, unless he was a captive. Where have they gone, these wild dog-like animals, and why have they gone? Foxes, near relatives of wolves, are not so rare. Have you ever seen one traveling along his solitary way? I say solitary way, because, as you know, foxes do not hunt in packs as do the wolves. Fig. 1.—Red fox. If you live on a farm, perhaps you can tell of a visit a fox has made to your home and whether or no you enjoyed having him there. We may not be able to see wolves and foxes, but almost every- where and every day we can see their tame relations,—dogs. I like the large dogs best:—St. Bernards, mastiffs, great Danes, collies and the like; yet some very small dogs have taken a large place in my life. Now, every one of our boys and girls can tell a dog story and Uncle John will be glad to hear it; but there is something more we want you JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 321 to do. Since dogs take so important a part in our daily life, we should know more about them. When you write to Uncle John again I hope you can tell at least one new thing that you have learned from your study of dogs this month. On page 323 you will see illustrations of several dogs. These repre- sent certain types and it will be interesting for you to compare the dogs you know with those in the pictures. Which one looks most like a wolf? Do any look like the fox? Note some strong points of difference between the fox and the wolf, between the fox and the dogs. I think that one of the first things you should do is to name the kinds of dogs that you know. Last month you learned that horses Fic. 2.—Gray wolf}. may belong to certain groups or classes (do you know what they are?) ; this month, let us learn the same for dogs. How many kinds of dogs do you know? Can you tell a bulldog when you see it? A spaniel? pointer? collie? bloodhound? St. Bernard? poodle? greyhound? mastiff? pug? foxterrier? Do you suppose all the dogs you see represent some named breed? Or are some of them just “common _ dogs,” as most of the horses are “common horses” and not coachers or roadsters or draft horses? Write Uncle John, for your dues, a letter describing some kind of a dog. Can you describe it so that he 21 BVP JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. could tell that kind of dog when he saw it, even though he had never seen this breed before? If you could own one of the dogs illustrated on page 323, which would you choose? Do you like the bloodhound with its wise, almost human face? the mastiff? the greyhound that runs so fast and sees so far? the collie with its beautiful head and thick, rough coat ? the queer little poodle, so quick to learn all sorts of tricks? the fierce bulldog? As you think about these dogs, compare them with those that you have known. Notice whether your dog is like any one of them. If he is different, which one, if any, does he most resemble? OTHER SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. 1. Give your dog a bone and notice how he holds it. 2. How does a dog drink? 3. Does he sleep much in the daytime? What position does he most often take when he lies down? Does he always choose the same place in which to rest? Can you give a reason for his choice? 4. Have you ever tried to make a nice bed for your dog and has he always arranged it afterward to suit himself? Do you know whether wolves make beds for themselves in the forest? 5. You should keep fresh straw for your dog’s bed and have his kennel white- washed inside once in a while; why? 6. Watch your dog hide a bone. How does he do it? 7. Which dog do you think is best to have in the farm home? Give a reason for your answer. 8. If you live on a farm, you may know what a shepherd dog is. What breed is the shepherd dog? Do you see any dog like him in the pictures on the next page? LEAFLESS TREES. Everyone enjoys trees in summer when the leaves are green and we rest in the deep shade beneath their branches. Each morning we look at them from our windows and are as glad as the birds that they live and grow in our gardens and along the roadside. But in winter how many young people think much about the trees? You may stand “under the spreading chestnut tree” and, unless the old burrs are on it, you cannot tell it from a maple. This is because you have never thought about trees in winter, and have not yet learned that they are well worth knowing when leaves and fruit have disappeared. For your January study, choose a tree near your home, one that you can see every day. Look at it a few minutes in the morning, when the sunlight helps you to see every little branch and twig and the furrows in the bark. Then look at it again in the evening Fig. 3.—Colhe. Fie. 4.—Poodle. Fie. 7.—Greyhound. Fic. 8.—Bloodhound. 394 Junior Narurauist MonrHty. by moonlight or when the stars first begin to twinkle through the open spaces in its branches. You will soon learn to enjoy the leafless trees. In Fig. 13 you will see a tree as it looks in winter. Notice how the branches spread. Notice, too, the long, deep furrows in the bark. What tree is it? SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF TREES IN WINTER. If you do not know the name of the tree you have chosen for study, I hope you will not ask anyone to tell you. In your note-books write everything that you can learn about it now. Sometime during the year the leaves or fruit may tell you the name. 2. Compare the tree you are studying with some other tree near. How does it differ in size, in shape, in the number of branches and twigs? 3. A woodman can recognize a tree by its bark. Write in your note-books four facts that you have learned from the study of the bark on your tree. What is its color? Are the furrows deep or shallow? Are they long or short? Do they extend in regular or in irregular lines? It may be that the bark is smooth. How many trees do you find near your home that have smooth bark? 4. Tell us whether there are buds on your tree. If there are, describe them. How are they placed on the branches, opposite or in some other way? How are the buds covered or protected? BRIGHT BERRIES IN WINTER. A short time ago I visited a Junior Naturalist Club and found the children studying five kinds of berries that had been gathered on the way to school:—barberry, Virginia creeper, bittersweet, false or climbing bittersweet and partridge berry. The lesson was a silent one. Each child had a single specimen and was writing his observations. On the blackboard were a few helpful suggestions as follows :— 1. Where have you seen the berries growing? Did you find the specimen on a tree, a shrub, or a vine? 2. What is the color of the berries? How many colors can you find on stem and fruit? 3. What is the size and shape of the berries? 4. How many seeds do you find in one berry? 5. As you go home from school this afternoon, where will you look for the plant on which your berries grew; in a garden, in a field, or along the roadside? When the children had finished their study of the specimens, I asked them to tell me what they had written. Here is a copy of one of the papers, prepared by a girl about ten years of age:— “This berry is a partridge berry. It grows on a sort of vine with leaves all growing up the stem. It is good to eat but it don’t taste JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 325 of much. The berry is withered now and the little green leaves have dust on the top. You can see that it has been growing along on the ground, for the under sides of the leaves and stem are all earth. The berry is Just like a little red potato.” It may be that many of our Junior Naturalists will be interested in winter berries. I am wondering whether you will find any this month. In Fig. 11 you will find illustrations of four kinds:—1, barberry; 2, Virginia creeper; 3, bittersweet (a nightshade) ; 4, false or climbing bittersweet (celastrus). If you find any of these berries have in mind the following :— 1. Which grow on shrubs? Which on vines? Have you ever seen bright berries on trees in winter? 2. Note the color of the stem of the Virginia creeper. 3. The bittersweet belong to the same family as the potato and tomato. Some- time I hope you will compare the blossoms of these plants. 4. The prettiest of the winter fruits is the false bittersweet, with its crimson and orange colors. 5. What birds have you ever seen eating winter berries? (You must not taste any berries yourself unless you know just what they are.) OWN A GERANIUM. In one of the cities of New York State there are over a thousand school children of whom each owns a geranium. Every geranium is marked with the name of the owner, and the boys and girls are trying to grow thrifty plants. During the Easter vacation there will be held in this city an exhibition of geraniums. Then each young gardener will want his plant to be in good condition. He will try to have it strong and well-shaped, with green leaves and bright blossoms. We should like every member of the club to take care of a plant from now until Easter time. A geranium will probably be most satisfactory, and you will doubtless be able to get one in your own home. As soon as you have marked it with your name, write a description of the plant. How large is it? How many leaves has it? How many buds or blossoms? Is the plant well-shaped? Keep the description in your note-books until April. Then describe your plant again and send a copy of both descriptions to Uncle John. We shall be glad to publish one or two that show improvement in the growth of the plants. The following suggestions will help you:— 1. Be sure the flower pot is large enough, in which you are growing your plant. 2. Water the plant only when it is dry and you will avoid giving it too much moisture. 3. Notice whether there is plenty of good soil in the pot. 326 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 4. Turn your plant around-once in a while, thus exposing all parts to the light. Then the plant will not become one-sided and all the leaves will be green. In connection with this suggestion, I wish you would make an experiment. Place a geranium in a dark cupboard. Water it when it is dry but do not let it have any light. At the end of two weeks, tell us about your plant. A DISEASED APPLE. Do you remember the time the doctor vaccinated you, and how he did it? I want you to turn doctor and vaccinate an apple. There will be this difference in results: you were vaccinated to prevent a disease, but on the apple you will try to produce one. From a thoroughly rotted apple, take pieces no larger than a pin head and insert them beneath the skin of a sound apple. Keep the vaccinated apple in a warm room and in about a week watch to see it get the rot disease. This disease is caused by a fungus. You will not be able to see the fungus with the naked eye but it surely will be there. The growth and spread of germs and fungi are very interesting studies and I am sure you will find them so if you make simple experiments. UNcLE JOHN. THE SCHOOL GROUNDS. Perhaps you are already beginning to think of spring. What will you do then? You will clean up your front yard. You will rake out all the matted and tangled grass, pick up the litter and rubbish, pile up the wood in the back yard, and make the whole place look “as neat as a pin.” Now, will you not help to do the same thing for the school grounds? I am sure you will. You will want to see the grass look neat and clean, the fence straightened up, the limbs and old paper and loose stones picked-up, the holes filled. Perhaps you will want to plant a few trees or other things. But the first and most important part to do is to make the place look “spick and span.” I am sure that this will be good work for your Junior Naturalist Club. Uncle John wants to know how many clubs will try to do this. When you mect again, bring this matter up and let your secretary write Uncle John whether you will try to clean the school grounds early in spring, just as soon as the birds are coming back. 5 Can you tell from the bark 3? 1 13:—W hat tree is th Fie Fic. 4.—A cow grown for beef, drawn by a Junior Naturalist. Fre. 5.—Dot’s Lily, a dairy cow, drawn by a Junior Naturalist. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. COWS. I. P. Roperts. “And blown by all the winds that pass And wet with all the showers, She walks among the meadow grass And eats the meadow flowers.”’ —From ‘The Cow,” by R. L. Stevenson. In the Junior Naturalist Monthly for December, we talked about horses and something was said about raising a calf. Now calves are nearly as nice as ponies, if you become acquainted with them. The other day I saw a calf that had long, rough hair and was all out of shape because the owner did not feed and care for it as he should. He had fed it cold skimmed milk or whey, with timothy hay but no meal. It was in a stable where the snow and wind had not been kept out by good walls. The stable was quite damp and had not been cleaned and bedded for some time. When the calf drank the cold milk in this cold stable, it shivered as though it had ague, stood with its feet very close together, and arched its back almost like a rainbow. It could not grow well, much less think of playing, when it was so cold and hungry. Perhaps you have never raised a calf by hand. If you have plenty of new, warm milk and a warm stable in winter, or one free from flies in summer, it is an easy task to raise a calf and one can get lots of fun out of it. At first you have to deceive the calf a little, because it does not know how to keep its head down when feeding nor does it know how to drink. Four to six quarts of milk will make a good supper or breakfast. If you are not strong enough to hold the calf’s head down in the pail while fooling him with your fingers, you will have to ask your father to help you. _ If the calf you are feeding is raised for beef, it may be kept quite fat from calfhood until it is sold. But it may be that you want your calf to become a milch cow, so that butter can be made from the milk. If so, it will be better to feed it on skimmed milk. This skimmed milk should be as warm as the new milk“before it was milked. For one or two weeks, feed the calf part new and part skimmed milk. After that skimmed milk will do nicely if you also feed it a little bright clover hay each day. At first it would be well to give it just a little corn-meal with a pinch of oil-meal in it. If the calf has too 328 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. much meal, its digestion will be disturbed. Then, too, you must sprinkle the meal over the bottom of a good-sized box, so that the calf will eat slowly and mix the meal with the saliva of its mouth. Cows designed for dairy cows should not be kept too fat when young, or when they are grown they may forget to give great pailfuls of frothy milk and put the fat or tallow on their backs instead of putting butter fats into the pail. What makes the milk froth? Do you like frothy milk? In Figs. 4 and 5, you will see two pictures of cows, drawn by a Junior Naturalist. The cow illustrated in Fig. 5 was bred and raised to produce milk; the one in Fig. 4 was bred and raised for beef. Notice the difference in the shape of the two animals. Try to find a cow something like the milch cow in the picture. First put your hand on her to see whether her hair is soft and the skin pliable and not too thick, then run your fingers along her back- bone. If it is rough, that is up-and-down, you may conclude that she has some good marks of a dairy cow. Next you can examine the underside of the abdomen for milk-veins. If these are large, then you may know that there has been a large flow of blood to the udder, to help to make the milk. When it was returned through the veins, they were not large enough to carry so much blood, so the veins swelled and became large, sometimes larger than your finger. In the pictures, what difference do you note between the necks of the two animals? Can you go out to the stable and distinguish some of the good dairy cows from those which resemble the picture of the beef cow? If you can, then you have learned a hard and valuable lesson, and have acquired some skill in seeing what you look at. You will have to go to the stables many times and ask many questions, if you learn the difference between the good cows and the poor ones; between the beef cows and the dairy cows. Most calves have two hard buttons on tlhe top of their heads. These soon grow fast to the skull and then the horns begin to grow rapidly. See whether you can find these buttons. Which do you like the better, horned cows or mulleys? If you like mulleys better, when the calf is about two weeks old, shave the hair from around the button, scrape the button quite clean, and then moisten it with water. Buy a stick of caustic potash at the druggist’s, moisten it a little and rub it hard on the moistened button till it becomes slightly soapy. Once is enough. Do not let the potash spread over a space larger than a five-cent piece, or you will cause a bad sore to come around the button. This is almost a painless way of making mulleys from horned cattle. It makes me very unhappy when I hear the JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 329 weak cow bellowing with pain because she has been hurt by the horns of the strong boss cow. How many times do you suppose that boss cow hooks the mulley during a year? Do you think cows look better with or without horns? When the cow-calf grows to be about one year old, it is called a heifer. When it begins to give milk, it is called a cow. How can you tell the age of a cow, if it has horns? When you are feeding the cow, see how many teeth it has for biting. How many in the lower jaw? How many in the upper jaw? The large double teeth far back in the mouth are for grinding. How many teeth has a sheep for cutting? How many has a horse? When you have learned about the teeth, tell why horses can bite the grass in the pasture closer than cows can. If the pasture is good, the cow eats faster than the horse and then lies down. The horse lies down but little and usually in the night. Does the horse chew his cud? JI wonder how many boys and girls know what is meant by chewing the cud. When the cows were wild, they ate rapidly in the morning when the wild beasts that they feared were gone to their lairs. After eating their fill, they hid away in the tall grass and ruminated, that is, chewed their cuds. They could not run so fast as the horse, so they tried to hide from their foes. But the horse was not so much afraid, so he ate when he pleased for he could run fast and kick hard. Both horses and cows retain many of the habits of their wild ancestors, when they are allowed to roam freely over the wild plains. On which side of the cow should the milker sit? How many toes has the cow? Put your hand on the nose of a cow, on the nose of a horse, then on the nose of a dog and see whether they feel alike. Are the rabbit’s feet like the cow’s? Does a rabbit chew its cud? If you have a cow with black and white spots on its back, see which are longer and coarser, the black or the white hairs. How does the hen chew its food? Do cows and horses use their tongues alike when eating grass? When you examine a cow in the spring, you may find hard lumps under the skin on its back. Ask your father what they are and next winter tell us all that you can about them. As you study cows, we hope you will occasionally make drawings ~ of them. In Fig. 4 and Fig. 5, you will see illustrations made from drawings sent by a member of Junior Naturalist Club 586 of Bain- bridge, N. Y. This club is under the direction of Mr. H. H. Lyon. 330 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. A GARDEN WORTH THE WHILE. Last fall at Interlaken, a small hamlet near Cayuga Lake, we found a most interesting garden. The owner, Mr. A. C. Peterson, is a mer- chant and a very busy one, but he enjoys the “fun of seeing things grow.”’ He planted the ground himself and took care of it outside of business hours. I know it will interest our Junoir Naturalists to hear about it. The garden is forty-six feet by one hundred sixty-five feet. Ask your father to show you a piece of ground about this size. You will find it not very large and therefore you will be surprised when you read the following list of fruits and vegetables raised on it. 40 bushels early harvest potatoes. 30 bushels purple top strap leaf turnips. 24 bushels fine pop-corn. 5 bushels plums, from one tree. 3 bushels apples, from one tree. 1 bushel Concord grapes. 133 pounds Hubbard squash. 50 pounds asparagus. Now suppose Mr. Peterson had sold his garden products. Let us. see what he would have receivedforthem. Following isa fair estimate: 40 bushels early potatoes— dit SAVEOMOR SECUS Ye avec kctones Gh ie SE ee TO okie CR eee $40 00 LisoldiommarketiatiG0e-ases eco be oe ee ien eien eer 24 00 30bushels tumips7at: 25¢.2-3:2 22 ce see Oe eee en eGe 7 50 24 bushels pop-corn— if saved for ‘seed ‘at p1-50: 582 iat ect eer oe eee eee 3 75 Iisoldjonsmarket. at be. cases eeetact tee ke eee ee pea ee ein 1 88 Syloppislotslsy; lhpboats Iixoyonlopngel. an GOs peo cian ccoadanbonocodnoooseuauc 2 50 sibushelsiapples at. o0G sos streets ace eee oR eee eee 90 LibushelConcordscrapessrcisc soe ene ncn mie eos 1 00 133 pounds of Hubbard squash at 23c.......... HG Asses sess aaa 35 3 33 50 pounds asparagus, average retail, 10c.................0e-ce cere 5 00 In the harvest time, I saw some of the products of this garden. I went into the cellar in which they were stored. The large, solid potatoes were well worth seeing. The squashes, so heavy that I would not want to carry one far, promised something good for future dinners; the pop-corn led me to think of an open fire place with merry faces about on the coming Thanksgiving day; and the apples looked so tempting that we were glad to hear our host say: “ Help yourselves.”” I wish our Junior Naturalists had been there. I tnink they would have learned that it is a good thing to have a garden. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 331 We believe that many of our girls and boys can have a piece of ground for a garden this spring. You will have all the pleasure that comes to gardeners and perhaps you can earn some money. If you raise good vegetables, put them up attractively for the market. Doubtless your parents and neighbors will be very willing to buy them. Begin to think about this now, for soon it will be time to select the ground for your garden. WAITING FOR THE BIRDS. “Robin! The fields are yonder! You are my better self. I care not for the birds of paradise; for whether here or there, I shall listen for your carol in the apple tree.” f De a slo A year ago I watched the springtime come on in a far-away land. I lived near a fast-flowing river in the neighborhood of high moun- tains. It was a beautiful country. The soft wind blew; the wild flowers bloomed; the birds sang wonderful songs, sweet and clear and long. But I missed the home sights and sounds. I wanted to be with the robin and the bluebird; to go to the marsh where the redwings call; to seek the field where the bobolinks sing; to listen to the clear notes of the song-sparrow. Yes, it really happened that, in the land of the nightingale and the skylark, I longed for our plain little home birds. And so this year I am waiting for them all, and as I wait I shall prepare pleasant quarters for them. It would please Uncle John to know that boys and girls all over New York State are preparing pleasant quarters for the birds. Surely Junior Naturalists will do this. Here are some things to have in mind:— 1. We shall not disturb the tangle of bushes and vines in the fence corner; the catbird may build there. 2. If pieces of string and cotton are hung out on buildings or trees, the birds may find them. 3. There should be water in our gardens for the birds to drink. They will also like to find bathing places. Tell us how you have planned for this. . 4, If pussy is well fed, she will probably leave the young birds alone. 5. From my window I can see a leafless tree. In it I am going to place a bird house right away so that it will be weathered before the birds come. They do not like new wood and paint. What kind of a bird house have you made and where have you put it? 302 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. Of course, every Junior Naturalist will have one. In making your bird house, note the following: The floor space should be about six inches by eight inches. For wrens and chickadees the doorway should be an inch-and- a-half auger hole. For tree-swallows, or martins, the doorway should measure two inches. For bluebirds an inch or an inch-and- a-quarter. A perch should be placed beneath each doorway. See that your bird house is out of reach of cats and other enemies. A LETTER ABOUT BIRD HOUSES. 25 Franklin St., SaraToGca Sprines, N. Y. Jan. 3. 1905. Dear Uncle John:— When I finished my bird house last spring, I did not set it up because the English sparrows would drive all the song-birds away and build a nest in it for themselves. | About the last of May, when all of the sparrows had built their nests, I set it up in a horse-chestnut tree in my yard. No birds_ came for about two weeks and then finally a pair of bluebirds made the house their home. About four weeks after they came, I heard something chirping in the nest, so I climbed up the tree, and found two young bluebirds about two days old in it. When these were about half-grown, the old birds had another young pair. The old birds would always be watching their house and they would fly around my head and try to make me get down, when I tried to look at their little birds. They stopped until the last of September and then each pair left separately. We thank you, Uncle John, for telling us how to build bird houses and why? Because we had learned how to take care of the birds that Colonel Brown told us about when he was in Saratoga last fall. Sincerely yours, WILLIE WARING. You will not care to wait as long as Willie did to put your bird house out-of-doors, nor would I advise you to do so. If the doorway is made small enough, I think that the bluebirds will have an oppor- tunity to occupy it. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. aaa COLOR IN FEBRUARY. ABBIE EK. CoMsTocK. Some day after a snow storm, we want you to try to see color in the landscape. Do you think an artist would paint a snow scene perfectly white? What colors do you see in the shadow of the tree trunks? Look at the tracks you made across the yard or field; can you see any color in them? Do not be discouraged if you fail in the first attempt. Look often and at different times in the day. Perhaps in your school work, you have painted trees trying to represent the fresh green of spring, the rich color of summer, or the bright tints of autumn. Did you ever think to look for color in the bare trunks and branches of the trees in winter? See that mass of trees at a distance; another nearer by. Look in the morning, in the middle of the day, and just at sunset. Look on a bright day and on a “gray day.” What colors do you see? Are they always the same? Watch the changes in the color of the twigs as spring comes on. We hope that you will be able to see a great deal of color this month and that you will write to Uncle John about it. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE MORNING TALKS. It may be that your teacher will not have time to hold regular club meetings. If not, perhaps your Nature-Study lessons can be used in the morning talks, and during the week you can use some of your leisure in writing to Uncle John about the things that interest you most. It will be well to discuss the foregoing lessons in the leaflet, and if you have time for something else, the following topics may attract you. It will be a good plan for your teacher to write the topics on the blackboard. You can then have the subjects in mind during the day and this will help you to remember them when you go home. 1. Who saw the moon last night? Was it a new moon? Was it in a clear sky or were there clouds about it? How many stars were near the moon? What time was it when you first saw the moon last night? Look to-night at the same time and see where it is. 2. How many fruit trees are there near your home? What kind are they? From the appearance of the trees, can you tell which are apple, plum, pear and peach? As you go home from school to-night, look at the branches of three different kinds of fruit trees. Do you find that the buds are arranged the same way on all of them? 334 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. Carefully break off three small twigs and show your teacher some things that you have learned by comparing them. 3. In which direction did the weather-cock face this morning? Was the wind blowing hard? Was it cold or warm? Did the wind bend the trees? Did it prune any of them? The next time the wind blows hard, notice which trees bend most easily. Which of the brown weeds growing by the wayside are most disturbed by the wind? JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. CATS. ‘Close by the jolly fire I sit To warm my frozen bones a bit.” —Robert Louis Stevenson. It is cold out of doors these March nights. The wind howls about the eaves and rattles the window blinds. You sit before the fire and think that it is very nice to be at home. The gray kitten comes in lazily, yawns, stretches, and then sits beside you. She does not like the cold. None of her family like it. Lions, tigers, and cats enjoy life best in the warmer lands. We want you to think about the gray kitten this month. If you have cared for her tenderly all the days that you have known her, she will give you many opportunities to study her ways. Cats, you know, are valuable farm hands. Let us try to understand them better that we may make them more comfortable and at the same time more useful. A long time ago, I owned a gray kitten, one of the most interesting of her kind that has come into my life. She was a little waif that I met on the highway one winter night, and, although I tried to prevent her, she insisted on going my way. When I reached home, there she was beside me. It was so cold that I did not like to leave her out-of- doors, and the next day I could not learn where her home had been. We became friendly, this little gray kitten and I, and she followed me about as faithfully as a dog. One way in which she showed her desire for my companionship, I think will interest boys and girls. It happened that for several weeks I was detained in the city until after dark, and one night, as I was returning to my home I found her standing on a corner about four blocks from the house. I picked up the little wanderer, covered her with my cape, and carried her home. The next night she was in the same place waiting for me, and this continued for weeks. Even on cold, stormy nights, the little, shiver- ing figure stood by the railroad crossing, always on time. When you write to Uncle John, tell him something about your cat. He will be interested to know how long she has lived with you, and whether you enjoy her more than your other household pets. He will also like to have you learn something about her that you have never known before. The following suggestions may help you: 336 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 1. There are two great classes to which cats belong, the long-haired and the short-haired. In which class would you place your cat? 2. Is she friendly with the members of your family? If not, what do you think you can do to make her feel happy when persons are about? 3. Notice whether she likes to do the same things each day. 4. Give your cat a bone with some meat on it. How does she hold it? Does she chew the meat? How does her tongue feel when she licks your hand? What do you feed your cat? 5. Notice how she uses her paws and her tongue when she cleans herself? Why does she keep herself clean? 6. How can pussy defend herself from dogs? 7. Feel the underside of her foot. When you do this, do you feel her claws? Tf not, why? Does a dog have claws? What does a horse have instead of claws? 8. Notice whether pussy eats slowly. Some animals hunt in packs, and when they eat, they devour their food rapidly lest their companions may take it from them. .What do you think about cats? Do they go alone in search of food? Have you ever noticed whether they are in a great hurry to get rid of their food? 9. The cat, you know, belongs to the same family as the lion, which prowls at night, very often traveling by twilight. Do you think the cat enjoys hunting by twilight? 10. Watch your cat when she is walking on the snow. Does she seem to enjoy it? 11. Why is the cat a useful farm hand? 12. Every year the government appropriates money to maintain cats in the post-offices and public buildings. Why? 13. It is said that well-fed cats are the best mousers; what do you think about this? WILLOWS. RawpH CurrTIs. When pussy willows are out we feel that spring is near. Some- times the blossoms appear very early. I have found them in Feb- ruary, but more often they wait until much later in the year. As we look at them, what memories of spring they bring! How mild the air, how warm the sunshine, how loud the sound of running water everywhere! Are you waiting impatiently for the pussy willows to come out? It will not be long before they appear. In the meantime, you can “force” some of the blossoms in the schoolroom. Bring in a few willow twigs; two feet long is about the right size. Soak them in water to wash off the dust and soften the bud scales. Stand them in jars of water, one or two in each jar is best, and change the water every two or three davs. Keep the ends of the twigs fresh by cutting off the brown, dead part so that the water can soak in easily. Re- veat the first soaking every few days to keep the twigs from drying out und to take the place of the warm March rains. After a few Fic. 4.—The two kinds of blossoms found on the heart-leaved willows. How do they differ? Notice the pine-cone willow gall. Fic. 3.—Heart-leaved willows. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 337 days the dark buds will begin to swell, soft, white hairs will peep out, and soon you will have pussy willows in full bloom, with the cold winds howling outside, and the snow still piled high in the roads. But who will get the twigs? We all know that willows are common plants. They grow everywhere and there are a great many of them, but how many know pussy willows when you see them in the winter? Can you always tell whether a twig is a willow twig ornot? Let us see how willows look as we find them in winter, and then when our pussy willows come out we can learn still more. All our woody plants, like trees, shrubs and vines, have their leaves growing either in whorls, i. e., three or more at a place, like catalpas; or opposite, i. e., two leaves opposite each other at the same point, like maples, ashes, lilacs, and honeysuckles; or alternate, i. e., one leaf at one place and another higher up, alternating first on one side and then on another like climbing bittersweet, roses, sumacs, apples, pears, peaches, cherries, oaks, beeches, elms, willows and many others. The willows, then, belong to this large group of plants with alternate leaves. In the winter time, the leaves are gone, but each leaf has left a sear, and above each leaf-scar is a bud; so we can tell whether a plant had whorled, opposite, or alternate leaves by the arrangement of the leaf-scars or the buds, or the branches which grew from the buds. Now how are we to tell willow twigs from all the other alternate- leaved twigs? This we can do by looking at the buds. It is very interesting to study winter buds. Different trees have very dif- ferent buds. Notice how different a hard maple bud is from a soft maple bud; an elm from a horse-chestnut, a basswood from a butter- nut, or the long, pointed buds of the beech from the short, silky buds of the sumac which we have studied. We find that winter buds differ greatly, not only in size and shape, but also in covering., Some buds are covered with many small, overlapping scales, others with only a few large scales, and still others are covered with one large bud scale. This is how we can tell willows from all the rest of our trees and shrubs in the winter time. The willows are the only alternate- leaved, woody plants which have but one bud scale. Some of our willows are trees and some are only bushes or shrubs. The most common willow is the yellow-twigged willow. This tree has yellow twigs and buds which turn a beautiful bright yellow as spring advances. Of the shrubby willows, the heart-leaved willow, Fig. 3, and the pussy willow are the most common. The heart-leaved willow has pinkish twigs and buds and the buds taper to a point which curves out from the twig. The pussy willow has larger, dark brown or 22 338 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. black buds which lie close to the twig. Perhaps you will find twigs of both of these willows. In Fig. 4, you will see illustrated the blossoms of; the heart-leaved willow. If you look closely, you will see that the blossoms are not alike. Notice whether there is a difference in the blossoms on the twigs you have “forced” in the schoolroom. You will also see on one of the twigs in Fig. 4, a cone-like growth. This is called a pine-cone willow gall. It is not a cone, but the home of a tiny insect. You will not have any difficulty in finding the pine-cone willow galls. Take them into the schoolroom and study them carefully. Open one of them; do you find anything inside? Put a few of the pine-cone galls in a glass and tie mosquito netting over the top. Look into the glass occasionally. Later in the year when you have studied the pine-cone willow gall, we shall tell you the story of this strange insect home. During the month of March, let us see what we can learn about willows. Following are four suggestions that will help us in our study: 1. We shall find some of the shrubby willows and break off twigs two feet long. We shall ‘‘force’”’ the blossoms on these twigs in the schoolroom and watch what happens. 2. In looking for pussy willow twigs we shall try to find an alternate-leaved shrub with large, black, plump buds having but one bud scale. 3. When the willows are in blossom in the spring, we shall try to notice what difference there are in the blossoms. 4. We shall study the pipe-cone willow gall commonly found on the heart- leaved willow. MY OLD WILLOW TREE. L. H. Baitiry, Sr. Thirty-five years ago, one cold, frosty morning in January, I arrived in Decatur, Michigan. I started on foot for South ‘Haven, 32 miles away. Reaching over a fence, I broke off a limb from a golden willow tree, and made me a cane to walk home with. I stuck the cane into the ground by the side of the well. That year it grew two feet, bottom-side-up. The next year I set it out for a shade tree on the roadside. It is now 50 feet high and three feet through and still growing bottom-side-up. Note:—The above was written by a farmer 86 years of age. It would interest him to have our Junior Naturalists plant a willow tree from a cutting, as he did so long ago. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 339 TEXTURE OF THE SOIL. G. F. WaRREN. Some of the Junior Naturalists collected samples of soil last fall. Perhaps you have called it dirt or earth. I think that soil is a better name for it, then we can use the word dirt to apply to dirty faces, and earth to mean the whole world. The soil is only that part of the earth on which plants grow or might be made to grow. What things could we have to eat and wear if there was no soil? Could we have linen handkerchiefs? Calico dresses? Woolen mittens? Beefsteak? Why? Could we have sealskin coats? Codfish? Those who collected samples last fall know some of the ways in which soils differ. Some are yellow and some are brown, some are hard and some are mellow, some are coarse and some are fine. This month we want you to see what you can find out about coarse and fine soils. Men who study soils call this the texture of the soil. Did you get some sand and clay when you collected soils last fall? If you did not, then get a little of each of these and samples of other soils. Rub some of each between the thumb and finger. Which is composed of larger particles? Can you find one single particle of clay? Of sand? What other differences do you find between sand and clay? If a soil has such a mixture of large and small particles that it is neither clayey nor sandy, it is called a loam. Sometimes one is really not a clay nor does it have enough large particles to make it a loam, so we call it a clay loam. What kind of soil would a sandy loam be? Which of these five kinds of soil is in your yard or garden? Do you think of any crops that grow best on a sandy soil? Ona clay soil? Which one of the five kinds would you prefer for a garden? Which ones are sticky? Which one is used for making brick? Which makes “mud pies” best? A FEW EXPERIMENTS WITH SOILS. Experiment I.—Put sand in one bottle of water and clay in another. Shake each bottle. Which settles more rapidly? Why? Experiment II.—How could you separate the different sized particles in a loamy soil? Thoroughly shake such a soil in a bottle of water. Let it stand for two or three minutes, and then pour the roily water into another bottle. Let this stand for about an hour. If the water is still roily, pour it into a pan and let it evaporate. When the sediments are all dry, compare them and see which is coarser. : 340 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. " Which would be deposited first by a river, sand or clay? Do you know of any stream or creek that has a sand bottom in places and a clay bottom in other places? In which place does the water run faster? What is the name of the creek? Experiment IIT.—Put some pieces of lime in a bottle of water. Shake it and let it stand about a day. Pour off the clear water into another bottle. We will call this ime water. Now put a little clay in each of two bottles of water. To one bottle add some lime water. Let the bottles stand for an hour or more. What happens? We learned in the first experiment that the large sand particles sank more quickly than the small clay particles. The lime made the clay particles stick together so that they were larger and sank. Do the farmers in your district use lime on their soil? Do you see one way in which it would do good? Do you think that lime would be likely to do as much good on a sandy soil as on a clay soil? There are some other ways in which lime does good. Perhaps you will find them out sometime. When you send in your dues, tell Uncle John about your experi- ments and see how many of the questions you can answer. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. POULTRY: Every morning at daybreak I am awakened by a very cheerful cock that lives in my neighborhood. He is an early riser and it is not his fault if I fail to follow his example. I would not banish him, how- ever, for I like to hear his lusty summons. It is a pleasure to know that the poultry yard is near, and that at any time I may go among the busy little inhabitants, learning from them the interesting ways in which they spend their days. During this month we wish all members of our Junior Naturalist Club to visit a poultry yard. Perhaps your teacher will go with you. While you are there, find out as many things as possible about the hens and chickens. Learn, too, something of the ways of the old rooster who is at all times the acknowledged master of the poultry yard. You will notice many differences, perhaps, in the poultry that you find. JI am sure you will not see two hens alike, any more than I should expect to find in your schoolroom two boys or girls exactly alike. Some hens may be brown, some white, some black, and some speckled. Some will have feathers on their feet; others will not. On many there may be high pointed combs; on others, the comb will be close to the head. Some will have long tails, some short tails, and others scarcely any tail at all. They differ in many ways. As you look at the chickens, compare them with ducks as to their feet and bills. Which do you think can scratch better for worms; ducks or hens? In what way do a hen’s feathers differ from a duck’s? Did you ever notice the scales on a hen’s feet? Does a duck’s feet have scales? What other animals do you know that have scales on their bodies? Do all fishes, snakes, turtles, and robins? Watch the chickens as they make their toilet. I have been told that among the tail feathers of barn fowls there is an oil sac which they find useful in cleaning their feathers. Do you know whether this is true? . Not long ago, I visited a poultry yard in which there were 40 hens and pullets and two roosters. They were being cared for by a young girl who seemed to enjoy them very much. I asked her to tell me what she did for her poultry to keep the birds looking so healthy, and to encourage them to produce the goodly supply of eggs which she had collected. This is what she said :— 342 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. “Every morning I feed my poultry at 7:30; the earlier they are fed the better, for the more hours the hen is active, the better she lays. I give them food made up of three parts, wheat, oats and corn. Then I fill a pan about the size of a large roasting tin with warm water for the little flock to drink. I always try to have my poultry well fed, to give them pure water and to see that they have plenty of sun- hight and warmth and a dry, clean pen. “Tn order to keep the pen clean, I remove the hen manure every day and scatter a little soil or coal ashes about. If left in the pen, the manure gives off a gas poisonous to the air. Since hen manure makes a good fertilizer for the land, particularly for the garden, I save it for this purpose. “At 11:45 I again feed my poultry. This time I give them boiled potatoes and meal. The meal mixture contains corn meal, wheat bran, and middlings. For my 40 hens I use about eighteen potatoes. These I mash and add the meal mixture with a little water. This noonday meal is carried out to the pen and placed in a trough. In addition to the food and water, I see that there is some gravel, cracked oyster shells, and meat scraps in the pen. The meat scraps have been cooked and ground and take the place of animal food which the flock would find if allowed to roam about out-of-doors. As a special treat, I give them a little extra vegetable food, con- sisting of beets or lettuce. At night the food is the same as in the morning. One thing that I try to remember in feeding my chickens is to scatter the food so that they will have to scratch for it, thus getting exercise. “The matter of pure air is important to poultry. During the night, I remove the glass window and put in a cloth screen. I have found that by putting in the cloth screen the air in the pen is not much colder and it is much better because more fresh air can enter through the cloth than through the glass.” ‘You see the poultry that I visited was well cared for. I wonder how many of our boys and girls have chickens of theirown. If you have, I wish you would try some of the arrangements I have described for keeping a successful flock of poultry, and I believe that you will be more than repaid for your extra labor and care. Let us know what success you have. PROTECT THE WILD FLOWERS. In many places the’spring blossoms are disappearing. People gather them carelessly and often uproot them. Last fall we asked Junior Naturalists to suggest some way of protecting the wild flowers. s mate Play st n early breakfa A Blood root. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 343 Among many good letters in response to this request was the follow- ing: Dear Uncle John:— In the spring I go with my father and sister to the wood to get wild flowers and I know that I would miss them very much if they should disappear, especially that queer little Jack-in-the-pulpit that I think so much of. The way I would take care of them is to be careful and not tramp on them nor pull them up by the root. I would remind other people to be careful besides myself. I am going out on a trip to the wood one of these fine days and I will find out all I can about them and get some beechnuts. Your loving niece, EpNa. Now that spring is here, Junior Naturalists will have an oppor- tunity to put into practice*some of their ideas for protecting the wood flowers. If you find many of one kind growing together, there is no reason why you should not gather some of them, but if there are only a few, these should be left for seed. I wonder whether you have ever noticed how much better a few blossoms look in a vase than when there are a great many crowded together. The place to enjoy wild flowers is in the wood. When gathered, many of them fade in afew minutes. It is much more interesting to study them where they grow. This spring we want you to watch an outdoor plant. Lest you may not be able to find it on a second visit, mark it with a stick on which you have written your name. Keep a record of its growth. Blood root is an interesting plant to watch. Have you ever seen the leaves and blossoms develop? I shall not tell you the wonderful ways of this little plant, for I want you to find them out for yourself. Tell Uncle John all that you learn from your observation. If you do not find blood root, select some other wild plant for study. HOW WE CAN HELP THE BIRDS. It will not be long now until there are nestlings about us. We can help the parent birds in rearing them. The old birds know best the food and general care that the little ones need, but in many ways we can protect them from enemies and other annoyances. There are many thousand Junior Naturalists in New York State. If each one helps a little in this work, no doubt there will be great increase in the number of our song birds another year. Write to Uncle John, tell- ing him one thing that you have done to make a bird house safe. If you are watching young birds, remember how large you are and how small the birds are. You must approach the nest cautiously, look very quickly, and then go away. Do not have anyone with 344 JUNIOR NATURALIST MoNTHLY. you when you make your observations. Let your first interest be in the comfort of the birds. Arbor Day is approaching and on that day trees and vines will be planted on the school grounds. We hope that trees and vines will also be planted on the home grounds. By doing this, boys and girls will be making’ plans for future bird residents. In my garden, the catbirds nested in a tangle of blackberry bushes in the fence corner, humming birds, built in the lilac bushes, an oriole’s nest hung from the elm tree, and robins lived in the cherry tree. All in one year we had these birds and our, garden was a merry place. Look at your own yard. Would birds come to live there? Do you think an attractive yard gives pleasure to the home folks, to the neighbors, to the stranger passing by? Tell Uncle John one thing that you have done to improve the grounds about your home this year. EXPERIMENTS WITH SOIL. GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH. When crops fail, there may be many reasons. The seed may be poor, or there may have been too much or too little rain; or it may be that the soil needs manure or fertilizers. Sometimes there are failures which do not seem to come from these causes. The soil about the roots of plants sometimes becomes sour or acid. Some plants will not grow well in a sour soil. If we could tell when a soil is sour and knew how to sweeten it, we might sometimes improve the crop. Perhaps the easiest way to tell whether a soil is sour is to test it with a piece of blue litmus paper. This can easily be obtained at a drug store. Make a small hole about five inches deep in the soil to be tested, and against the side of this hole with some loose earth, press a small piece of the litmus paper. This should be done when the soil is moist enough to make the paper mist in about two or three minutes. If the paper turns a brownish red, and remains so after it dries, it shows that the soil is sour. The redder the paper, the more sour is the soil. Some soil brought in from the field may be tested in the school house, if it is first moistened with water to make it damp. Rain water is better than well water to moisten it. It will be interesting to see how the litmus paper acts with other things before testing the soil. Take three drinking glasses and half fill each with water. Into one put a teaspoonful of vinegar; into another one-half teaspoonful of cream of tartar and stir it, and into JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 345 the third, about two tablespoonfuls of sour milk. You will find that a piece of blue litmus paper held into each of these will turn red. When reddened, take the pieces of paper out and allow them to dry. You may nowempty these three glasses or get three more clean ones and again half filleach with water. Into one put a teaspoon/ul of wood ashes and stir, into another a teaspoonful of baking soda, and into the third some lime water. You can get the lime from a mason or ask the druggist for a piece of hard “ quick-lime” about as big as a hickory nut. Put this on a small saucer, and then slowly drop water on it, one drop at a time, till it gets warm and swells. After it has swelled, stir about a teaspoonful ‘of it into the third glass of water. Hold the reddened pieces of paper into these three glasses and see how they turn back to the blue color. Things which turn the blue paper red are acids. Things which turn the red paper back to blue are alkalies. I think you will see now why cooking soda is used with sour milk and one reason why lime and ashes are put on soils. HOW THE WHITE PINE GROWS. Rapa W. Curtis. On my desk are some twigs of the white pine in blossom. They are very strange, these little blossoms that have responded to the warmth of my room. I wonder how many of our boys and girls have ever seen a pine tree in bloom? Let us consider how the white pine grows and bears fruit, and then you may find it interesting to watch one during the year. When you looked at the white pine branch in winter, you found several buds clustered at the end, nicely covered by the overlapping bud seales to protect it. You also noticed other buds, the covered tips of very short side branches. Spring comes and these tips, both of the main branch and the little side branches, begin to grow. When they begin pushing off the bud scales we say the “buds are opening.” All spring these tips grow into longer and longer branches with bundles of scales along their sides. After a while, during the summer, the young tips stop getting longer and begin forming buds right at their ends. Inside a winter bud are the twigs and leaves for next year, all packed away like a telescope, ready to push out and grow big as-soon as spring comes. It is by this growing on at the ends of the branches that pine trees grow higher and their branches become longer. 346 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. Every summer the white pine forms these side buds around the main end bud. Since the buds are formed at the end of the season’s growth, by counting the whorls or circles of branches which grow from them we can tell how old the tree is. The distance between the whorls also show how much the branch has grown in length each year. Besides growing in length, the white pine and all other trees grow in thickness. As the tree grows older, the twigs, branches and trunk all get bigger around. Every boy knows that if a piece of wire netting is nailed around a tree, in a few years the tree will grow too big for the wire. The tree gets bigger around each year by building in a thin layer of new wood and new bark just under- neath the old bark. As the tree grows bigger, the old, outside bark gets too tight and has to break open, If we go into the woods, we shall see that the bark of every kind of tree has a different way of breaking open. How many trees can you tell by the way the bark breaks open? But to return to the yearly layers of wood; these are the annual rings which we see in the stump of a tree. By counting these rings, we can tell how old the tree is. We may see some rings thicker than others, or in the white pine, we may see that some of the whorls of branches are further apart than others. It may be that the tree was not thriving well that year, or perhaps there was not rain or sunshine enough so that it could get all the food it needed from the earth and the air. ; The cones grow from buds on the end of the branches near the top of the tree. These buds open early in April and by the middle of May the little cones are in full bloom. All the higher plants grow in order to bear flowers which change into seeds. Every seed contains a little plant and when the seed is made comfortable in warm, moist earth, it will break open and the little plant will grow and make a big plant like that from which the seed came. Go out of doors and study the pines. Do you see the blossoms? What do they look like? Watch for changes that take place in them. What other trees are in bloom near your school or home? LETTERS FROM JUNIOR NATURALISTS. All the letters sent by Junior Naturalists to the University are filed away carefully. If you were to visit Uncle John’s offices you would find large boxes in which the letters are kept. Now at the close of the year we know the boys and girls that have written to Uncle John, and we also know the subjects in the leaflets that they ? ts this ard hat b VW A safe home. ird ame the bi Nestlings. N The white pine. JUNIOR: NATuRALIST MONTHLY. 347 enjoyed most. We have wanted to publish some of these letters each month, but often there was not sufficient space. Following are a few letters that I am sure will interest our naturalists and show what good out-door study some of the young people have done. Dear Uncle John:— I have been noticing that the tops of willow are yellow. December 7, 1904, I noticed where the snow lodged on the trees. I have been watching a gray breasted bird with black and blue mixed in. December 15, observing how the buds on bushes and trees are so tight together. December 20, watching a rust colored bird. December 21, watching how birds drink and lift their heads up. Why is it that birds can fly when it snows and rains? Noticed that the willow trees are cracking open. A horse can sleep when he is standing. The two fore feet are placed under him and the back straight out. A horse gets up on his back legs first. A little below the middle of the leg is a horse’s knee joint. When my grandfather’s horse, Nell, comes home from any place, he goes to the back door for sugar. If it happens that no one is there he will neigh and neigh till someone comes with some sugar for him. We have a little garden of flowers in our room of many different kinds of colors. From your niece, GRACE. Dear Uncle John:— I have a little pony. When she is teased she gets mad and kicks. We have a little sleigh and cart too. I have ridden her sixteen miles in one day. She has upset me in the mud two or three times last summer. She loves apples. When she was young she jumped at every stone she could see. This was before we got her. The boy that owned her lives about three miles from us. I go to see him in the summer. He goes to the city for the winter. I received a cocoanut from the south about two weeks ago. It had a glass of milk. It came in the husk. We had a hard time opening it. 5; I am going to make a bird house and put it up in the trees near our house. I will get some hay and put in it too. I will get some suet and hang up. The boys have a bird house in the tree at school. I am, sincerely your nephew, JOHN. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. PICTURES FOR JUNIOR NATURALISTS. My dear Nephews and Nieces:—- Many years ago, so long ago that there were but few railroads in the State of New York and telegraphs were something new, my teacher gave me a picture card on the last day of a summer term of school. It had a wreath of highly-colored flowers. ‘Two birds were holding the wreath by ribbons in their mouth. Within the circle of flowers, the teacher had written her name. For a number of wecks I examined my card, counted the roses and the forget-me-nots and wondered whether the birds were carrier pigeons. After a time other interests crowded in, but, while the picture card no longer came first, it continued to havea place in my heart. To day, after fifty-five annual house-cleanings and several changes of residences, I still have that card, the joy of my childhood. The longer I keep it, the dearer it becomes. When you are men and women you, too, will find that the treasures of your youth will become dearer with the passing years. Apprecia- tion of this sentiment was one of our reasons for changing from buttons to pictures as testimonials for the honored members of the Junior Naturalist Clubs. By that I mean those boys and girls who have sent us four letters telling what they have seen of the common things about them. We have found that buttons are often lost, but the pictures will appear well on the walls of your room or in your scrap-book and will be a continual pleasure to you. We have a set of eight pictures and you may choose any one that you fancy most. The little pictures, or “finders,” will enable you to make your choice. Do not make the mistake of thinking the pictures are too small to be of any value. The ones that we shall send are many times larger than the samples and are printed on the best paper. Please remember that only those who have written four Junior Naturalist letters during this school year are entitled to one picture. I hope it will be to the convenience of your teacher and yourselves to make an early choice, telling us the number of each required in your club, that we may have them printed so they will reach you before school closes. Give us the address of the person to whom we are to send the pictures; also give the name of teacher and number of the Junior Naturalist Club. UncLE JOHN. JUNIon NATURALIST MoNTHLY. 349 WALL PICTURES FOR THE SCHOOL ROOM. My dear Teacher:— We also send in this supplement, miniature samples of three wall pictures relating to rural life. Will you make a choice of one to be put on the walls of your school room, that pupils of coming school years may regard it as a token of our appreciation of the interest and help you have given the members of the Junior Naturalist Club of 1904-5? You may have either one of the three. Order by giving the letter (A, B or C). The pictures themselves are large enough for the walls in any school room. Jno. W. SPENCER. SOMETHING FOR THE CHILDREN TO PLANT. I presume that you will be making Arbor Day plans by the time this monthly lesson reaches you. The duties of that day are generally understood as meaning the planting of trees. I would not say a word that would influence any one to plant one tree less. There are many other things, however, that may be planted to as great advantage. They may be planted on your school grounds and at your homes. I have been thinking of a list to recommend for your consideration. I have one list of roses, lilacs and that class of shrubs; another list of peonies, bleeding heart and the like; in the third list I have climbers. In all, I have about thirty different kinds of plants. Then it came into my mind that when I was a lad I liked best to be told of a few things or given a short problem at a time. When hoeing corn, I would choose ten rows ten feet long, rather than one long row one hundred feet long. The end did not seem so far away. Ido not think boy nature has changed much since my time. If I talk to you about planting two things, you are more likely to follow my instruction than if I talk about thirty. ‘I shall speak about two kinds of climbers. King’s palaces may be improved by vines growing on the walls. I know of some school houses—and so do you—whose appearance would be improved if a mantle of vines covered them three feet thick. The farther the building is out of sight, so much the better. Some school trustees have the notion that vines rot a building and make it unhealthy. If you find such objections in your district, you will have to give up the idea of vine planting. I would not argue the question, but you can keep up just as hard thinking as you like—thinking what you will do some day when you are trustee and children want to make the school grounds appear more attractive. 350 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. There are two forms of climbers which I will reeommend. One is am-pe-lop-sis and the other is the trumpet vine. There are two kinds of am-pe-lop-sis. One is the Virginia creeper, sometimes called five-finger ivy. It is called “ five-finger” because the leaf has five parts. There is another kind that appears much like it but whose leaf has three parts. Let that kind alone, for it is poison wy. Another kind of am-pe-lop-sis is known as Boston Ivy or Japan Ivy. This last will cling to stone and brick walls much closer than the Virginia creeper. The other plant, the trumpet vine, will fasten itself to stone and brick walls and also to wood. At my farm home I have a trumpet vine planted beside a long-distance telephone pole that stands near the front of the house. It makes the ugly pole appear very attractive. I have another trumpet vine at the corner of the house where the wind at times blows very hard and for that reason it does not cling to the siding. For the last five years I have let it have its own way and it has become very handsome. It has a stem or trunk about eight feet high. Instead of climbing up, the branches fall down so that the ends touch the ground, making a sort of wigwam. Beneath those drooping branches and thick leaves is a fine place for children to have a playhouse and hold receptions and parties and serve refresh- ments. Its only use now is for humming birds and the neighbor’s hens. When the trumpet-shaped blossoms are out, “the hummers,”’ with fast-vibrating wings, seem to be sitting on air as they thrust their bills into the heart of the blossoms. The hens are never invited nor welcome; that does not prevent them from coming, however. It is usually a hot day when they cross the road, squat beneath the dense, leafy shade and take naps. For a covering for an arbor, I prefer a trumpet vine to a grape vine. When planting, remember two things which are important for success. (1) The soil next to a building is usually very poor. Be- fore planting, dig a large hole and place in it a bushel or two of fertile earth. Put your vine in this rich earth and press the soil close to all the fine rootlets. (2) The other important point to remember is to water frequently during the first summer after planting. Do not put the water on in small quantities, but with a generous hand. I have seen boys flatten themselves against the side of a building for shelter during a hard rain. The same eaves that shelter a boy from the rain will shelter a vine also. After the first summer, the roots will reach far enough from a building to find moist soil. UNcLE JOHN. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. THE BROOK AND THE BROOKSIDE. “‘Bubble, bubble, flows the stream, Like an old tune through a dream.” —Maurice Thompson. The long, summer days will soon be here. Become acquainted with the brook, for you will find it a most interesting playfellow dur- ing vacation days. There is on my desk a book written and by one who loved and explored a brook. Next fall, I should like to send this account of an outdoor comrade to one of the members of the Junior Naturalist Club. Who will enjoy it best? Do you not think it will be the naturalist who will make a brook book of his own? I think so; therefore, I shall send it to the one who prepares for us the best record of a brook by the first of October. Perhaps some of you will ask what it will be best to write in your book. In answer to this, I would say, write whatever interests you most. I shall make a few suggestions that will help you in keeping your record, but you may feel free to write the story of the brook in any way you choose. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF A BROOK. 1. It will be well to make a few measurements: the length of the brook; its greatest width; its greatest depth. 2. What kind of bed has the brook? Are there any stepping stones across it? Are these stepping stones flat? Ifso, why? 3. How does the brook appear after a storm as compared with its appearance on a sunny day? 4. Describe and name, if possible, every plant growing in the brook or along its margin. Be sure to note the trees near it. 5. Make a list of every animal that you find living in the brook. Do any live along its banks? What can you learn about these ani- mals? 6. What is the prettiest farm or home that the brook passes? Why do you think this place the prettiest? Who lives in this home? 352 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. THE FORMATION OF SOIL. G. F. WARREN. The brook in the picture is “clear as crystal,” so that you could see yourself in it. Are the brooks near your house always clear? Usually in the spring and after heavy rains the streams are all roily. Sometimes a stream comes out into a level place and runs so slowly that it deposits the silt and makes soil. Some soils were made in other ways. Long ago, before men lived here, a sheet of ice moved over what is now New York State. This mass of ice was so thick and heavy that it ground some of the rocks into sand and soil. This period was called the glacial period. Perhaps you can get some one to tell you more about it. But the most important way in which soil is being formed is going on all about us. It is so slow a process that you have probably never seen it. Did you ever see a “rotten stone,” that is, one that would break to pieces very easily? Perhaps you have seen the tombstones in an old graveyard crumbling to pieces. What do you think makes them crumble? In time would one of them make a soil? If you have a magnifying glass, examine some sand and fine soil with it. Notice that the grains of sand or clay, when magnified, look like rocks. Are there any stones in the soil around your home? How did they get there? Were they brought by streams or glaciers, or are they parts of the rocks that were originally there and that have not yet crumbled into small enough pieces to be called soil? If the stones are rounded, tell how you think they became so. How was the soil around your schoolhouse formed? Was it deposited by a stream or glacier, or how did it get there? Sometimes the soil is washed away as fast as it is formed, so that the bare rocks are exposed. Do you know of any place where the rocks are not covered with soil? Do you know of any stream that has a rock or stone bottom? | Soil is always being washed from the higher points of the field to the lower parts. Which are the more fertle, the lower lands or the higher ones? What effect does it have on the fertility of a field when the soil ‘washes’? In the south, farmers sometimes plow and plant around a hill rather than go up and down it, and they leave a strip of unplowed land every few rods. The water then has to run cross- wise of the rows and furrows, and across the unplowed strips of grass land, so the soil cannot wash badly. This is called “contour farm- ing.’ Our soils do not wash so badly, but still there is much loss. JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 353 Do you think of any way in which we might keep the soil on steep hillsides from washing? What effect would it have if the hillsides were planted to trees or grass. THE BROOK. A brook is the best of subjects for nature-study. It is near and dear to every child. . . . It is a scene of life and activity. It reflects the sky. It is kissed by the sun. It is caressed by the wind. The minnows play in the pools. The soft weeds grow in the shallows. The grass and dandelions lie on its sunny bank. The moss and ferns are sheltered in the nooks. It comes one knows not whence; it flows one knows not whither. It awakens the desire of exploration. It is a realm of mysteries. It typifies the flood of life. It goes “on forever.” —L. H. Bailey. BLOSSOM-TIME AND SEED-TIME. “When does the chestnut tree blossom?’ I asked a class of bright girls and boys. Only one of the forty knew. “When are the chestnuts ripe?” I then asked. Every one of the forty knew. I was glad to find that the chestnut tree had not wholly escaped the notice of the young naturalists, but I thought it best to encourage them to find out when the blossoms appear that make the nuts or fruit. Watch the chestnut trees this year and find out. See whether you can notice any difference in blossoms on the same tree. When the small burrs,are first forming, open one and you will learn how very interesting a little chestnut appears. Do not open many, for I am sure you will wish a goodly supply of nuts next fall. Another tree which you will find interesting when bearing blossoms and fruit is the linden tree or basswood. If a linden grows near your home, watch the time of blossoming and notice how the fruit is borne. Some of you may not understand what we mean by the word “fruit.” The fruit of any plant is that part which contains the seeds. How many trees do you know in blossom-time and seed-time? The seed-time of wild flowers is also interesting. When you take your walks in the woods during the summer, notice the wood plants gone to seed. Do you remember the little plant you marked in the spring, that you might watch what happened when it was no longer in blossom? Tell us how it goes to seed. “Notice the seed pods of the adder’s tongue. How many do you find on one plant? The adder’s tongue is a lily. What other mem- bers of the lily family do you know? 23 354 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. Have you ever seen the fruit of the Jack-in-the-pulpit? If not, I wish you would look for the bright scarlet berries all packed to- gether upon one stalk. This bit of color in the woods is as pretty as any blossom. Keep a list of the wood plants that you know in seed-time. THE STORY OF A BOY, A HEN, AND SOME OTHER THINGS. JAMES E. RICE. This is the story of a real, live boy and a big, good-natured, cinna- mon-colored hen. Both lived on afarm. They were more fortunate than many other boys and hens, because the boy’s father and mother believed that young folks should have pets of their own, and pets, you know, usually receive good care. This story begins in the spring, when wild flowers were peeping through their covering of leaves and nodding in the warm sunshine. Bluebirds and robins were singing merrily in the trees. They were looking about for a safe, cosy place to build their nests. Old Cinna- mon, also had been searching for a place to “‘hide her nest,” and she had found it too, It was under the feed manger in a vacant stall in the barn. Nearly every day old Cinnamon visited the nest, just as quietly as could be, so that no one would see her, and laid a large, brown egg. Then she flew off and cackled so loudly that the roosters crowed and the turkeys gobbled and turned red in the face and strutted about, as if trying to see which could make the most noise. They were all happy,—it was such a glad springtime. Each day, the boy—the boy’s name, did you say? Sure enough! © I have not told you! His real name was Thomas, but he was called Tom, for short; so we shall call him Tom. Tom knew old Cinnamon had a nest somewhere because he had heard her cackle. He searched and he searched until he found it. Then every night he ran to the nest as soon as he came from school, and took the egg into the house, placing it carefully in a basket, where he kept all of old Cinnamon’s eges. Each day, he turned the eggs because that was the way his grandmother did and Tom had great confidence in his grandmother; most children do, and they well may have. One night, Tom found old Cinnamon on the nest. This time she did not fly away cackling, as was her usual custom when disturbed. She actually stayed on the nest and scolded him a little, and when hej tried to feel under her for the egg, she pecked his hand. ‘Tom did not mind this. . He knew that his pet had a kind disposition and JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 355 would make a good mother hen, who could be trusted to raise a nice family of chickens. After waiting a day or two, to see whether old Cinnamon would change her mind, he dusted her with insect powder, and one evening placed 15 of the largest, smoothest, most perfect- shaped eggs under her. Near by he placed some corn and oats, some gravel, a dish of water, and a large box of dust and coal ashes. This is the way his grandmother did so that her broody hen could come off whenever she wanted to eat or drink or enjoy a nice dust bath. He then fenced in the stall so that other hens could not steal the food or disturb his silent partner. Old Cinnamon was really and truly Tom’s silent partner, for it was agreed that Tom should have half the money for the eggs and chickens. This money was to be his to put into his bank or to spend as he pleased. Old Cinnamon was to receive, as her share, the best of care and all she could eat. How long it seemed to Tom, those 21 days before the chickens hatched! But how much longer it must have seemed to old Cinna- mon who could not run about and play all day, as Tom could, but had to sit there patiently waiting for her little chickens to hatch! She seemed to enjoy it, however. One night, Tom thought he heard a chicken peep. Sure enough! He was right. Then he listened close to old Cinnamon and heard it again; “Peep, peep, peep!” But he did not disturb her, because he had learned that it is better not to go near a good hen when her chickens are hatching. So he waited, and one morning, a most interesting sight met his eyes. There was old Cinnamon, right on time, as happy and as contented as could be, with one bright, little, black-eyed chicken on her back and a row of cute little heads darting in and out between her feathers all about her. She was saying, “Cluck, cluck, cluck,” in such a soothing way that Tom imagined she was telling her little downy babies not to be afraid, for he was their friend. Tom had prepared already a large, dry, clean coop where his little family might live. In front, he had a wide board on which to place the food during the day. At night, this board was raised against the coop to keep out rats and weasels. It also kept the little chicks from running out into the cold, wet grass before Tom came out in the morning. You know little chickens are early risers. “How many chicks did old Cinnamon hatch?” How many do you suppose? “Eight?” No, guess again. Eight chickens are as many as some hens hatch, but old Cinnamon actually hatched out 11, bright, active, puff-ball babies. 356 JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. What do you think Tom gave his little chickens to eat? “Corn, wheat, and oats?” No, indeed, Tom knew that they could not swallow such large grains. He gave them some bread and milk, but he was careful to squeeze the milk out. Little chickens should not have wet or sloppy food, you know. They enjoyed moist bread and old Cinnamon taught them to eat it. She picked up some bread with her beak and called, “Cut, cut, cut!” and the little fellows came running to her and jumped up to pick the bread from her mouth. Tom always fed the chickens on a clean board or shingle, and he was careful not to give them more than they could eat up clean, for he did not want the food to get dirty and sour and make his pets sick. He was always careful to see that old Cinnamon had her share, too. On the very first day, Tom placed some fine gravel by the coop for the chickens to eat. Do you know why he did this? It was because chickens have no teeth with which to chew their food. They have, however, a place in their bodies called a gizzard, which is hard and tough and which grinds grain with the gravel until it crushes the food up fine. If they do not have any gravel or grit, they cannot digest their food easily. If you will hold a little chicken close to your ear and listen, you can hear the stones grinding in the gizzard. After a few days, the chickens were fed a mixture of finely cracked grain and chopped hard-boiled eggs. Sometimes pot cheese was given them instead of the eggs. Cracked corn and cracked wheat and oatmeal made a splendid variety. How those chickens grew! “Did he give them any water to drink?” Yes, indeed, they had water to drink the very first day. Tom made a nice fountain out of a flower pot saucer and a tin drinking cup, which kept the chickens from falling into the water and getting all wet. Right here is where Tom’s trouble began, and it taught him a good lesson about carelessness. When he filled the fountain, in the morning, he left the pail standing there partly filled with water. When he returned, there was one of his largest chickens drowned in the water pail. How sad he felt! He knew that he was the one to be blamed. It was all because he had forgotten to take the pail away, and he told old Cinnamon that he would never be so thoughtless again. A few days later when Tom counted his chickens, one was missing. He searched high and low for it, but it could not be found. The next day another disappeared. When Saturday came, Tom hid behind the bushes and waited for the chicken thief. There he waited and waited, until it was nearly dark and the chickens were calling loudly for their supper. Suddenly he heard a chicken scream and JUNIOR NATURALIST MONTHLY. 357 old Cinnamon squawked and tried to get out of her coop. Tom jumped up just in time to see Muff disappear like a flash around the corner and under the shed. Yes, it was Muff, his pet cat, that had rubbed up against his legs so innocently when he had fed her that morning.. Tim, the hired man, offered to shoot the cat, but Tom thought of the little kittens with their eyes just opened, and forgave Muff. He did not trust her, however. He built a wire-covered yard so that hawks and cats could not get at his chickens. There they stayed until they were large enough to look out for themselves. The coop and yard were moved often so that the chickens could be on clean grass. In a little while the chickens grew so large that when they attempted to get under their mother, they lifted her nearly off the ground. Then she began to wean them. Each day for a little while, she would run away, but she would always come back at night to protect her chickens. When they were old enough to go to roost and had a nice coat of feathers to keep them warm, old Cinnamon went back to roost with the other hens and soon began to lay again in the very same nest where she had hatched her little ones. ‘What did Tom do with the eggs?” Oh, don’t ask any more questions. Perhaps some day I shall find time to tell you. HOME NATURE-STUDY COURSE. —