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(Wj FRINTEO IN U.S.A.

ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

AMERICAN INSTITUTE,

CITY OF N^EAV YOKK:.

FOR THE YEARS

1861, '63.

ALBANY^

VAN BENTIIUYSEN, PHINTSR.
1SG8.

4>o4

^6l-ioZ

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page.

Officers of the American Institute, 1861-2 3, 4

Letter of the Corresponding Secretary to the Speaker of

the House of Assembly, March 27, 1862 . 5

Report of the Trustees of the American Institute, Feb. 5,

1862 7-9

Proceedings of the Institute , 11

Address of the President _ _ 11-14

Obituary of the Hon. Henry Meigs, Recording Secretary

of the Institute. _ 15-18

Obituary of Dr. D. Meredith Reese, one of the Committee

on Manhfactures, Science and Art 19-22

Report of the Finance Committee of the American Insti-
tute. Feb. 1, 1862 23-26

Report of the Board of Managers of the 33d Annual Fair,

Feb. 5, 1862 _ 27-30

Report of the Board of Managers of the 34th Annual Fair,

April 26, 1862 31

Reports of the Polytechnic Association and Farmers' Club. 33-48
Essay on the culture and propagation of the apple, by L. A.

Roberts 49-59

Premiums awarded by the American Institute, 1862 61, 62

Report of the Library Committee, January 31, 1862 63-69

Proceedings of the Farmers' Club, together with the Rules
and Regulations adopted by the Committee on Agri-
culture ....71-356

Proceedings of the Polytechnic Association, together with
the Rules established for its government by the Board
of Science and Art 357-567

AMERICAI INSTITUTE.

Trustees and ComixLittees.

1861.

President.— \^1LLI AM HALL.

Vice-Presidents. — John Gray, Dudley S. Gregory, William Ilibbard.

Recording Secretary. — Henry Meigs.

Corresponding Secretary and Agent. — Thomas McElrath.

Treasurer. — Benedict Lewis, jr.

Finance Committee. — John M. Keed, Thomas M. Adrianee, Wm. S. Slocum, S. R. Corn-
stock, Peter H. Titus.

Managers of the Fair. — James C. Baldwin, Wm. H. Butler, Wm. Ebbitt, Thomas F.
De Voe, John V. Brower, George Timpson, John Johnson, Thomas Williams, jr., Andrew
Bridgeman, John B. Peck, Isaac M. Phyfe, T. F. Engelbrecht, Wm, S. Carpenter, George
Peyton, James Knight, Cyrus Mason, AVm. Cotheal, Henry Steele, George M. Woodward,
Geo. R, Jackson, John D. Jersey, Chas. Perley, Clarkson Crolius, Chas. A. Whitney.

Committee on Agriculture. — A. P. Cumings, Nicholas Wyckoff, Charles A. Stetson,
Adrian Bergen, Wm. Lawton.

Committee on Commerce. — Luther B. Wyman, Pvush Patterson, N. B. Mountfort, Wm.
T. Pinkney, Joseph Hoxie.

Committee on Manufactures, Science and Art. — *Jame3 Reuwick, John T). AVard,f D.
M. Reese, W. A. Bartlett, Edward W. Serrell.

Committee on the Admission of Members. — Robert Lovett, James F. Hall, John W.
Chambers, Thos. McElrath, John G. Bell.

Committee on Correspondence, — John H. White, Hiram Dixon, Henry L. Stuart, John
AV. Avery, George F. Barnard.

Committee on the Library. — Wm. Hibbard, Edward Walker, John W. C. Leveridge,
Jireh Bull, James K. Campbell.

Committee on Repository. — Martin E. Thompson, James BogarJus, Wm. Close, J. K.
Fisher, T. D. Stetson.

Clerk and Librarian. — John W. Chambers.

Messenger. — Wm. Christie Miller.

* Resigned — Wm. H. Butler elected to fill vacancy,
f Deceased — Samuel D. Tillman elected to fill vacjincy.

4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

1862.
President.— WILLIAM HALL.

Vice-Presidents.— John Gray, Dudley S. Gregory, William Hibbard.
Recording Secretary. — Thomas McElrath.
Corresponding Secretary. — James Renwick.
Treasurer. — Benedict Lewis, jr.

Finance Committee. — Thomas M. Adriance, John M. Reed, William S. Slocum, Jacob
C. Parsons, Jonathan H. Ransom.

Managers of the Fair. — James C. Baldwin, William H. Butler, Wm. Ebbitt, Thomas F.
De Voc, John V. Brower, George Timpson, Thos. Williams, jr., Andrew Bridgeman, John B.
Peclc, F. W. Geissenhainer, jr., John Johnson, Wm. S. Carpenter, T. B. Stillman, George
Peyton, James Knight, Wm. Cotheal, Henry Steele, Geo. M. Woodward, George R. Jack-
son, .James R. Smith, Clarkson Crolius, Geo. C. Mann, John G. Bergen, »D. R. Jaques.

Committee on the Library.— Wm. Hibbard, Edward Walker, Jireh Bull, James K. Camp-
bell, Russell Smith.

Committee on Agricult\ire — James J. Mapes, Wm. Lawton, Adrian Bergen, W. S. Car-
penter, Edward Doughty.

Committee on Manufactures, Science and Art. — James Renwick, John D. Ward, S. D.
Tillman, Joseph Dixon, Jas. L. Jackson.

Committee on Commerce. — Rush Patterson, Joseph Hoxie, Luther B. Wyman, E. D.
Plimpton, John R. Montgomery.

Committee on the Admission of Members. — Robert Lovett, John W. Chambers, Geo. G.
Taylor, Wm. A. Leffingwell, Joseph Lamb.

Committee on Correspondence, — John H. White, Hiram Dixon, Henry L. Stuart, John
W. Avery, George F. Barnard.

Committee on Repository. — Martin E. Thompson, James Bogardus, Wm. Close, John B.
Rich, T. D. Stetson.

Clerk and Librarian. — John W. Chambers.

Messenger.— Wm. Christie Miller.

♦Resigned — J. S. Underbill elected to fill vacancy.

tait 0f %t\^ florfi*

ISTo. 251.

IN ASSEMBLY,

]yrarcli 28, 1862.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

American Institute,
New York, March 21 th, 1862.

Sir — I have the honor to transmit herewith the Annual Report

of the American Institute of the city of New York, for the years

1861, '62.

I have the honor to be,
With much respect.

Your obedient servant,

JAS. RENWICK,
Corresponding Secretary Jim. Inst.

To the Hon. Henry J. Raymond,

Speaker of the House of Assembly of the State of Mew York,

Albany.

REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES,

OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK.

To the Hon. Legislature of the State of JVew York :

The undersigned, Trustees of the American Institute, in con-
formity with law, beg leave to present their Annual Report for
the years 1861-62.

Since the last Annual Report, the American Institute have met
with a severe loss in the death of their venerable associate and
Recording Secretary the Hon. Henry Meigs, who served the Insti-
tute with fidelity in that capacity for more than sixteen years.
The various addresses, translations and reports contained in the
Transactions of the Institute bear witness of his indefatigable
industry and devotion to the cause of Agriculture.

The Institute also sustained a further loss in the death of Dr.
D. M, Reese, late one of the Yice-Presidents, and at the time of
his decease, a member of the committee on Manufactures, Science
and Arts.

The active operations of the Institute during the past 3'ear
have been confined principally to the Farmers' Club, to the Poly-
technic Association, and to the Library.

The Farmers' Club continues to be popular, and its meetings
are well attended. The subjects discussed are generally instruc-
tive, and always of a practical and useful character. This Club
commends itself to the favorable notice of all real friends of Ag-
riculture.

The Polytechnic Association continues to show improvement
in its manner of discussing scientific subjects brought before it;
its organization is much more complete and efficient than ever
before, and it promises increased usefulness. The attendance
during the year has shown an increase of members, and the dis-
cussions, although mostly of a scientific character, were exceed-
ingly interesting.

8 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Tlie Institute at a meeting held on the 5th day of June last,
referred to the Trustees the duty of appointing a person to report
the meetings of these clubs, which resulted in arrangements being
made with a skillful short hand reporter for accurate reports of
the proceedings and discussions of both clubs. The manner in
which the duty has been performed the Trustees believe has
been satisfactory.

The Board of Managers of the Annual Fair, after mature
deliberation, deemed it advisable to defer holding any general
exhibition during the past year, but in order to continue the
encouragement which the Institute has held out to Farmers and
Mechanics for more than thirty years, the Managers offered thirty
special premiums for improvements in Agriculture and the
Mechanic Arts, and the subjects for which premiums were offered
were referred to the Farmers' Club and Polytechnic Association,
the competing articles after due examination by the respective
clubs, to be reported upon to the Board of Managers.

The lease of the property of the Institute, Nos. 351 Broadway
and 89^ Leonard street, expires in May next.

The premises were leased in 1859, for three years, at. a rent of
$11,000 per annum, but in consequence of the depressed state of
the country, the full amount of this rent, will not be collected
the present year.

The taxes on this property for 1861, were |1,631.46, being an
excess of $290.47 over the previous year. An assessment of |500
has also been made on the property for the widening of Worth
street.

The lease of the rooms now occupied by the Institute in the
Cooper Union, for which an annual rent of $1,750 is paid, expires
on the 1st day of May next. The Institute has a refusal for three
years more at the same rent. The Trustees are of opinion that
if the Institute should take a new lease it should only be done at
a considerably reduced rent.

The Trusteees do not deem it necessary to more than allude to
the continued usefulness and popularity of the Library. The
Report of the Library Committee will exhibit its improved con-
dition.

The Transactions of the Institute and of the New York State
Agricultural Society have been received by the Institute from
the Secretary of State, and have been distributed to members as
called for. The Transactions of the Institute have been for-

REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES. 9

warded to the various foreign societies and kindred domestic
associations with whom the Institute have arranged for niutual
exchanges.

The Trustees regret that they are unable to show the same
improvement in the financial affairs of the Institute which they
were able to present in their last Annual Report. It will be seen
by the Report of the Finance Commitlee that while the expenses
have been materially lessened during the year, the receipts for
rents have fallen off nearly or quite one half.

The present unsettled state of our country has affected the
operations of this Institute as well as of kindred associations
throughout our land. But it is confidently hoped that when
prosperity again prevails, that the Institute will feel its genial
influence and again take its position among the most energetic
and enterprising of the Industrial institutions of the country.
The oldest of its kind in the United States, and the one from
which has sprung all the Farmers' Clubs, and most of the Mechan-
ical associations of the country, it will still seek to maintain its
pre-eminence as the pioneer in all advance movements having for
their object the general improvement of the Mechanic Arts, and
the Agricultural developments of the Nation.
New York, February 5, 1862.

WILLIAM HALL,
JOHN GRAY,
D. S. GREGORY,
WILLIAM HIBBARD,
THOMAS McELRATH,
BENEDICT LEWIS, Jr.,

Tiustees.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INSTITUTE.

ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT.

At the meeting of the Institute held on the 7th day of March,
18G1, the President, General Wm. Hall, on taking the chair,
addressed the members as follows :

The members of the American Institute have again done me
the honor to elect me the President of their Institution, and when
I look at all the varied interests which cluster around us, and
which it seems our duty to cherish, I cannot but acknowledge
some misgivings as to my ability to meet them and keep up with
the onward march of this age of progress.

It is not to be supposed that the whole end and aim of the
American Institute is, as many of our members seem to think, to
give an Annual Fair ; this was only one of the means and at
our first formation the most available one of raising the dignity
of American Arts, Science, Manufactures, Agriculture, and in
fact every branch of industry, whether the product of the brain
or the hands. Through this medium we have certainly accom-
plished great results. We have raised a healthful competition
in all these branches, and added dignity to labor. We have
done more, we have awakened throughout the length and breadth
of our whole country, this same dignified competition, tending to
enrich and beautify our land, and each season now finds organiza-
tions tending to the same purpose, in every State, and even in
almost every county. It is true that this may detract from the
novelty of our exhibition, and if our objects went no farther than
the speculative interests of showmen then we might feel a jeal-
ousy, but I trust that we all take wider and more liberal views,
and rejoice that we have been the parent of so many sturdy sons
who are pressing forward in the same direction we have pointed
out to them.

It is not for us how'ever, to stand idle because we have accom-
plished one purpose of our organization. The w^orld of science

12 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

and industry is daily opening new channels, and if we would lead
the van and hold out new inducements to keep all such things
moving forward in the right direction, we must not take our
stand point from the past while the world is rushing past us, but
we must try to hold the helm of the future. I would not be
understood as recommending a discontinuance of our Fairs, for I
believe that under proper and judicious management much good
is yet to come from them, but to require a pledge from candi-
dates before election, not to hold them annually unless such
arrangements and accommodations can be had, as would tend
to the dignity and well being of our institution, and further the
intention of its incorporation, is simply to make it subservient
to one idea, which, however worthy in itself, is certainly a very
narrow sphere for us to labor in.

The efforts of the Trustees during the past year to obtain
suitable grounds or buildings for the permanent use of the Institu-
tion were not succesful ; whether it is possible to obtain as many
lots, or as much space as is required for holding the annual Fairs,
and transacting all the incidental business of the Institute, in a
convenient and desirable location with the limited means which
the Institute can devote to that purpose, is at the present time
somewhat doubtful. For more than thirty years the annual
Fairs of the Institute have attracted to the city many thousands
of strangers, and the opinion has long been entertained that the
city authorities, recognising the advantages which the city has
derived from the Fair, would furnish the necessary grounds on
which the Institute might erect appropriate buildings. This
hope is not yet abandoned, the city has it within its power, to
put the Institute in possession of grounds admirably adapted to
its wants, and the Institute has sufficient means to erect the
building. This subject will undoubtedly receive the early and
careful attention of the board.

The past year has called from us one of our most active and
efficient members, our late first Vice-President, Mr. J. A. Bunting;
a man beloved and respected in all his social relations, a never
failing friend, and safe, adviser of the American Institute, and
imbued with liberal views of its mission, and purposes, and while
I pay this tribute to his memory, and mourn our loss, I cannot
but feel that for him it is a gain.

The Library h-ds under the present management assumed greater

ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 13

importance than heretofore and consequently a more valuable fea-
ture in our Institution. At the beginning of the present year not
more than two-thirds of the volumes, were entered on the cata-
logue. A complete catalogue is now nearly prepared, adding
much to the library facilities 5 over five hundred volumes at the
beginning of the last fiscal year were missing from the shelves
with no record of their disposition, neither has any clue to them
been yet discovered, A more perfect system is adopted by the
present Librarian which will prevent any such loss in future'.

The Farmers^ Club has been in existence some eighteen years,
and its beneficial results to the cause of Agriculture and every
interest of the Farmer, can scarcely be estimated. It has been
the means of bringing together the scientific and the practical
Farmer ; thereby correcting whatever errors a want of practical ,
knowledge may have misled the Farmer in his theories, and ena-
bling the latter to make use of and properly apply such improve-
ment to the management of his farm as the nature of the soil
demanded, A fund of useful information, the result of the expe-
rience of the largest and most successful farmers of the country
is thus collected, and through the reports of the Institute, and
our public journals, published to the world. A careful extract
of such matters of interest as relate to the various branches of
agriculture, stock raising, &c., from foreign journals or scientific
works, is made, and at once presented to the club, and as the dis-
cussions are free to all who choose to take part in them, the
meetings are of great and varied interest, and fraught with good
results.

The Polytechnic Association is of more recent organization than
the Farmers' Club, but promises no less important results. It has
not only become the medium of distributing scientific information,
and canvassing the rights of the theories, inventions, &c., which
are presented to its attention, but it brings to notice new scien-
tific theories, discoveries, or mechanical inventions, which by
having their merits and demerits freely discussed, bring to light
that which might otherwise have remained long in darkness.

Congenial minds are thus brought to act in concert, and already
important results have sprung from the conversational meetings
of the Polytechnic Association. It seems to me, however, that
there must be a higher aim and purpose in this department of the
Institute, before it can claim that position of authority which is
accorded to cotemporary institutions in Europe.

14 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

If a scientific bureau composed of those most competent, and
skilled in the various liranches brought before the Associatioii
for their deliberations, could be formed, and a monthly or quar-
terly report be made and published, the value would be greaty
and coming with authority from the Institute would command
the respect and recognition of the scientific Avorld. Thfere are
connected with the Institute or within its reach, those whos&
names would guaranty a recognition of its acts in all scientific
circles, and the endorsement by the Institute of their judgment^
would react to mutual honor and credit.

This Scientific Bureau or Faculty of the Association might
organize courses of study, and lectures at small cost, sufficient
only to make them self-supporting and by awarding diplomas tO'
be issued by the Institute to such as have attained sufficient
degree of proficiency ; create a taste in all these matters which
would greatly benefit the community, and extend our field of
influence and usefulness.

The floating debt of the Institute, in February 1860, exceeded
eight thousand dollars, over four thousand of which has been-
paid off by the current receipts, and the balance has been paid
by obtaining the amount on bond and mortgage, thus relieving
us from any outstanding floating debt. (See Treasurer's report.)
Upwards of one hundred members have this year been added to
the Institute, and our affairs show a condition of prosperity
scarcely to have been hoped for in these times of business depres-
sion.

Too great care cannot be used in the admission of members.
It is on a careful examination of the character of each candidate
that the future of the Institute must depend, and I recommend
an increased vigilance in this important branch of our affairs.

I thank you for the many acts of kindness extended to me
during my past term of office, and I trust that the same consid-
eration and kindly judgment of my acts may continue during the
one on which I have now entered.

OBITUARY.

DEATH OF THE HON. HENRY MEIGS,

RECORDING SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

At a stated meeting of the American Institute, held June 6,
1861. President "William Hall, in the chair.

Mr. Thomas McElrath offered the following preamble and reso-
lution, which were unanimously adopted :

Whereas since the last monthly meeting of the American Insti-
tute, one of its oldest and most active members has been taken
away by the hand of death. The name of Henry Meigs has been
for so many years connected with the Institute that it is difficult
to think of one without the other. In view of his long services
it is deemed just and proper that some suitable memorial of him
should be prepared for preservation ^ therefore,

Resolved, That Professor James X Mapes be requested to pre-
pare and read at the next meeting of the Institute a paper on the
life, character and services of the late Henry Meigs.

At a meeting of the Institute held on September 5, 1861, Pro-
fessor Mapes read the following paj)er :

It becomes our painful duty to record the death of the Hon.
Henry Meigs, late recording secretary of the American Institute,
and secretary of the Farmers' Club. All who visit this institu-
tion will sadly miss the late secretary from his accustomed place,
and feel with a keen sense of loss that his kindly glance and
words of pleasant greeting can be known on earth no more ; yet
their sadness may be relieved by knowing that the absent one,
having faithfully finished his earthly task, has started fearlessly
and cheerfully on the unknown journey, with the strength of a
well-spent life for his pilgrim-staff, and the star of faith to guide
him onward.

It is with these mingled emotions that we contemplate the
death of our friend and associate, the Hon. Henry Meigs. Tried
through long years of public and private usefulness — true as a

16 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

man, faultless as a gentleman, and in domestic relations judicious
and tender, few men have left behind them memories more hon-
ored and beloved.

Mr. Meigs was born in New Haven in 1*182, and died in May-
last, in the 79th year of his age. He graduated at Yale College
in 1799, was educated for the bar, and practiced as a lawyer for
many years. Early in his career he won the confidence of many
prominent citizens, and numbered among his friends and clients
John Jacob Astor, Robert Lenox, Isaac Bronson, Messrs. Prime,
Parish, and Gallatin, and other wealthy men of the day Some
of these gentlemen were instrumental in connecting him with the
United States Bank, three-quarters of whose capital of $10,000,-
000 passed through his hands. During this time he had occupied
several important public positions. In 1807 he was appointed
one of our city magistrates, and continued in that office for seve-
ral years. Though exempt from military duty he volunteered in
the war of 1812, and was appointed adjutant under Col. Marinua
Willett, of revolutionary fame ; his regiment served for city de-
fense during the entire war.

In 1816, when the construction of our canals was resolved upon,
Mr. Meigs published, in the New York JVational Jldvocate, articles
recommending railroads, with locomotive steam engines, as being
capable of an average speed of sixteen miles an hour. The idea
was ridiculed as absurd by his contemporaries, in whose Avildest
dreams of the possible so daring a scheme could find no place.
In those days of slow coaches and post horses the great spider of
enterprise had not woven the first thread of the iron net work
which was to encompass the land, and on which both Mr. Meigs
and his sage opposers were to be whirled along at the rate of
forty miles an hour.

Mr. Meigs was characterized throughout his long life by a pure
public spirit. His own personal interests were but as stubble,
to be trodden down whenever they arose to check him in the path
of what he believed to be his duty. His career while serving in
the XVIth Congress amply testifies to this. Elected by the city
of New York, and without pledge of any kind to man or party,
he resolved, in spite of the remonstrances of friends and clients,
to leave a lucrative and growing business and meet the Missouri
question, which was then the uppermost theme of the day. How
he met it the public have long ago been told. " I found," said
he, in a manuscript now in the possession of his family, " that

OBITUARY. 17

tlie battle deserved all my courage, for I was immediately and
constantly threatened with assassination ! I felt compelled, in
self-defense, to carry my old war pistols all the time in the Hall
of Representatives and elsewhere."

Nevertheless, he stood firmly by the side of w-hat he believed
to be the right. Though tempered with extreme charity toward
Lis opponents, his words were edged with the keenness of convic-
tion. The Missouri compromise was passed, and he was one of
the majority of three that carried it, after he had addressed the
House upon the question with great vigor and effect. He also
introduced the first resolutions ever offered to exchange our pub-
lic lands for slaves, and to send the latter in families, with the
Bible and the plow, to Africa as fast as the sale of the public
lands would allow, declaring to Congress that if the plan were
not then adopted the increase of the blacks would soon render it
impossible, and a civil war must ensue between the JYorth and South.
He lived to see his prediction sadly verified, to see with his clos-
ing eye our Union, the great beacon-fire of liberty, whose kind-
ling he had known, flicker dimly and fitfully in the presence of
bewildered nations 1 Men may not coincide with him concerning
the cause of the great calamity, but none will deny the purity or
the boldness of his purpose.

Subsequently Mr. Meigs represented New York city in the
State Assembly, and in 1832, as president of the Board of Alder-
men, was a stanch servant of the city's interests. He, at that
time, strongly advocated the introduction, on a grand scale, of
the Croton water, and penned the first resolutions which were
offered on the subject.

The American Institute elected Mr. Meigs recording secretary
in 1845, and this position, in connection with that of secretary of
the Farmers' Club, he occupied up to the time of his death. The
minutes of the meetings and the records of the transactions of
the Institute bear witness to his indefatigable industry and his
devoted attachment to the cause of Agriculture. No research was
too intricate, no exertion too great, provided that by any effort of
his own he could add either to its dissemination or to its interests.
Day after day in later years he was to be seen faithfully laboring
at his post, and keenly at the present time must his co-workers
of the Institute feel that the blank in their midst cannot soon be
filled. His collations from the foreign journals of science, par-

[Am. Inst.] B

18 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

ticularly those devoted to agriculture, and his published synop-
ses of the current advancement of the day, are to be fonnd in the
" Transactions," and his opening addresses at the various lairs of
the Institute constitute the best history of the advance of science
in America that can be found.

Judge Meigs was a man of extraordinary acquirements. In
addition to his knowledge of natural law and its useful applica-
tion, he was a profound and varied linguist. His knowledge of
oriental literature was beyond that of most scholars of the day,
and indeed his familiarity with the best writings to be found in
all modern languages was remarkable.

He was an intimate friend of Dr. S. L. Mitchell, Dr. David Ho-
sack, and other progressive men of his age. At his funeral the
writer met the Hon. Mr. Dewey, the oldest living graduate of
Yale College, being now in his ninety-fifth year. Mr. Dewey
spoke of him in the warmest and strongest terms. Judge Meigs
has left behind him children well known and respected in the
community. It has fallen to the lot of few men to be more
happy than he in their private relations. Blest with vigorous
health, he died in the full vigor of a ripened age. His tall, com-
manding form and benevolent expression of kindly interest once
seen were not to be easily forgotten ; and strangers who have
visited the Institute have turned and asked again concerning
him. Well might the words of the friar in the old ballad have
been recalled to mind, when men wondered to see him out, hale
and hearty, on cold winter days without an overcoat, or reading
with unaided eyesight at the age of seventy-nine.

" In the days of my youth (father William replied)
I remembered that youth would not stay,
And abused not my health and my vigor at first
That they might not vrith age pass away."

Mr. Jireh Bull offered the following resolution, which was una-
nimously adopted.

Resolved, That the thanks of the Institute are hereby voted to
Professor Mapes for his able and interesting paper on the life and
services of the late Henry Meigs, and that he be requested to pre-
sent a copy for publication in the Transactions of the Institute.

OBITUARY. 1§

DEATH OF DR. D. MEREDITH REESE,

ONE OF THE COMMITTEE ON MANUFACTURES, SCIENCE AND ART.

At a meeting of the Polytechnic Association of the American
Institute, held on May IG, 1861 ; the chairman, Prof. Mason hav-
ing; announced the death of Dr. D. }A. Reese.
On motion of Mr. Butler,

Prof. Mason was requested to prepare a paper to be read at
the next meeting of the Institute.

At the meeting of the Institute, held on the 6th day of June,
Prof. Mason read the following memoir :

In the autumn of 1826, the newly organized Medical College,
in Duane street, was opening its course of instruction by a week
of popular lectures. The friends of the new movement and the
admirers of the several professors crowded the lecture room. An
evening came, in the course, which, partly by accident, and partly
by prearrangement, brought to the desk, a young Doctor from
Baltimore, of whose fame, as a public speaker, whispers had
reached the faculty; and, who was announced by a cordial notice
from Colonel Stone, in the Commercial Advertiser.

His subject was a general survey of the field of chemical knowl-
edge. For a short time he proceeded cautiously over this field,
but with the calm self-possession' of a practiced public speaker.
Gradually he approached the border of the field, where chemical
science touches the verge of the old physiology, and meets the
region of spiritualism, filled with the beings of the old witchcraft
and the modern clairvoyance.

A few flashes of his wit into this obscure region lighted up the
face of his audience, and expressed the general sympathy which
sustains and inspires a true orator.

Following still his manuscript, with occasional interjections of
extemporaneous illustration, he found he had complete mastery
of his audience, while he drew out stronger and stronger marks
of approbation.

At length his manuscript disappeared ; and yielding himself up
to that inspiration, which consists of the power to conceive in the
presence of an audience, the happiest thoughts, more rap-
idly than the}'- can be uttered, he poured out a strain of delicate
wit and scorching irony on the scientific and medical quackery of
the age, which left his audience nothing to desire but that he
might continue when his hour was ended.

20 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Dr. David Meredith Reese entered a section of the profession
where a good partisan was welcome, and he was soon established
in a large and lucrative practice.

In the spring of 1861, at his house in Union Square, Dr. Reese
sat, alternately in his easy chair and his bed, laboring, in the
intervals of acute suffering, to prepare for the press his last num-
ber of the American Medical Gazette. The obscure disease,
which had been long growing upon him, he believed was mas-
tered, as often as he obtained relief, for it left his appetite unim-
paired, and his vital powers quite strong.

His medical friends were divided in their views of his prospect
for recovery.

Some, who had been present at his first appearance in the city,
were charmed with the fervid eloquence of his conversation on
topics of passing interest in the social and medical world ; and in
a moment they would be disheartened at seeing him thrown into
fearful anguish. But, as often as he got relief, he showed the
same indications of strength, and cherished the unwavering con-
fidence of his recovery. And up to the last hour he cherished
the same hope. The last tiling he wrote was an apology to the
readers of his Magazine, promising to set all right the next
month.

Thus closed the long and too active life of a man, whose genius
qualified and impelled him to a great variety of labors, in any
one of which he might have gained a high reputation and a com-
petent fortune. His life deserves a memorial : not only as a
record of what was well done, but also as suggestive of what
more might have been done by attempting less.

Dr. Reese, (his medical brethren being judges,) was a good
physician. At the bed-side, where suffering drew out the gentle-
ness of his nature, his penetration and sagacity had full play in
finding out the causes of disease, and his full knowledge of reme-
dial treatment rendered him ingenious to find a cure.

He justly regarded disease as an enemy, which had stolen into
the world, and might gradually be expelled. Wherever he heard
of disease he was ready to go ; and therefore he was eminently
the physician of the poor. In the chambers of poverty, where
all the surroundings were discouragements, he gained those
untold and unrewarded triumphs over disease, which push back
the pressure of evil from our race, give joy to despairing fami-
lies, lengthen human life, and advance the civilization of a people.

OBITUARY. 21

Had Dr. Reese lost his pen and his rhetoric the day after he
entered New York, he would probably have risen to lasting
eminence and great prosperity in the medical profession. But,
"he was made so 5" and therefore he continued to write and
speak.

His first school of rhetoric, when quite a boy, was a Methodist
meeting; and he continued to exercise his talents, in the same
way, after he wa« a physician. Now it is a felicity in the life of
a physician to accept without a question the creed and offices of
the church in which chance or fortune may place him. But, Dr.
Reese took to religion rather antagonistically. In his airing of
his inner man he somehow put his foot over the trace, and came
to some disagreements with some of the regular clergy. And as
it was not an easy thing to get the last word with the Dr. the
matter was rather ungracefully referred to at his funeral.

Situated as he was in New York, it was natural that Dr. Ree«e
should desire to be a public teacher of medicine. He was, at
different times, employed as a professor in three medical colleges.
He was a zealous and spirited teacher ; but always in small col-
leges, and always to the injury of his professional success.

Indeed there was a sort of epidemical furor over the northern
states for medical colleges. Gentlemen who had been educated
abroad, and had seen the glory of Letsom, Hunter and. Cooper,
returned emulous of such glory at home. Colleges sprang up in
the great cities. And when it was seen that emigrants in the
north and negroes in the south needed physic, the rage for multi-
plying small doctors exceeded all bounds, and flooded the country
with cheap men, who have anastomosed with every quackery,
without apparent improvement of the public health or advance-
ment of medical science.

Dr. Reese had a faculty and tact at controversy, which drew
him away from his profession, in the contest about " The Bible
in the Public Schools." The paper of Col. Stone was open to
his writings, and he pursued the matter with a zeal which made
him the candidate of his party for the office of superintendent.
He was elected, and a subsidence in the controversy led to the
assumption that the conflict was ended.

But this was only a side-issue of a much more comprehensive
question, which will remain open until it shall be ascertained (at
the end of our civil wars) what shall be the future relations of
religion to the government, and what church will then be able to

22 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

assert and prove the highest claim to the confidence and support
of the administration.

Meanwhile the head of the Catholic church in the United States
provides schools for all the children of his church, applies disci-
pline to secure their attendance, pays the tax to support the pub-
lic schools, and performs foreign missions of the highest order for
the administration ; and in this connection it is curious to observe,
in an able and conciliatory article in the Edinburgh Review, a
suggestion that Washington is an appropriate place for the Papal
residence, while the Roman question is liable to be violently
discussed.

It rarely happens that any one but a political laAvyer turns
aside to party controversy and public office without being pushed
on farther than he intended, and gravely injuring his former pur-
suit and position ; and so it happened to Dr. Reese.

In the offices which he filled in the American Institute Dr.
Reese was sagacious, firm and faithful, and deserves to be well
remembered.

If that is a happy life, which is filled up with the largest
measure of agreeable and innocent emotions, then Dr. Reese pro-
bably attained it ; and if his wit would sometimes, in spite of
him, boil over upon a fool, he had occasion to remember the say-
ing of Bacon, "that he that is of a keen wit had need to take
heed of other men's memories." But the habitual and earnest
bent of his mind and life was in the direction of doing good.

Mr. Jireh Bull offered the following resolution, which was una-
nimously adopted :

Resolved, That the thanks of the Institute be presented to Prof.
Mason for the memorial of the late Dr. Reese, which he has this
evening presented, and that he be requested to furnish a copy
thereof for publication, and to be presented to his family.

FINANCES.

The following is the financial condition of the American Insti-
tute on the first day of February, 1862 :

Balance in the treasury, February 1, 1861 $367 96

The Receipts of the past year have been —
From rent of premises No. 351 Broadway, and 89^

Leonard street $5,733 50

Admission fees, $90 ; annual dues, $520 ;

life membership, $20 _..,... 630 00

Treasurer of the State of New York,

(under act of May, 1841), for 1860 950 00
Crystal Palace— sales of old lead and

brass, $67.14 ; case of conscience,

50c 67 64

Library — sales of duplicate volumes,

$5.47; fines, $1.11 6 58

Sales of Transactions _ 1 00

■ 7,388 72

Am't to be accounted for, includ'g last year's bal'ce, $7,756 68

Expenditures.

Real Estate.
Interest on mortgage($20,000)

to Aug. 1, 1861 $600 00

Taxes, 1861, property No, 351

Bd'way& 89 i Leonard St. 1,631 46
Repairs — new leader for roof. 18 49

$2,249 95

Carried forward $2,249 95 $7,756 68

24 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Brought forward $2,249 95 $7,756 68

Library.

Books 194 13

Periodicals 9127

Binding 124 75

Newspapers 36 13

346 28

On account of Thirty-second Annual Fair.

Silverware for premiums $125 00

Engraving 15 00

Cases for medals. _ 18 00

Filling diplomas 11 00

Book and paper 4 75

Expenses boxing leaves of the

Victoria Regia 5 00

178 75

Miscellaneous Bills.

Rent of rooms in the Cooper

Union, 9 months, to Nov.

1, 1861 $1,312 50

Storage of articles used at

the Fairs 52 00

Storage of tent 24 00

Insurance, property No. 351

B'dway and 89^ Leonard

street 101 71

Insurance, articles on storage 5 00

Insurance, library 32 40

Printing 24 30

Stationery . 33 58

Advertising 45 00

Reporting 59 meetings of the

Farmers' Club and Poly-
technic Association 295 00

Gas _. 82 53

Ice(1860, '61) 17 55

Watering street 7 00

Freight on Transactions 25 82

Carried forward $2,058 39 $2,774 98 $7,756

FINANCES. 25

Brought forward $2,058 39 $2,114: 98 $7,756 68

Freight and expenses on books

from France ^. 9 25

Agents' travelling expenses.- 10 00

Covering tables _, 3 69

Expenses of inspectors of elec-
tion 5 50

Petty Cash:

Advertising meetings, sub-
script'n to papers, clean-
ing, postage, &c., &c 206 11

2,292 94

Salaries.

CJorresponding secretary and

agent $525 00

Recording secretary 312 50

Clerk 1,500 00

Messenger 267 00

— 2,604 50

- — $7,672 42

Balance in the treasury Feb. 1, 1862. $84 2:6

In presenting their report at the close of the fiscal year, yoTir
committee take occasion to remark that they have examined tho
books opened in 1858 by Mr. John W. Chambers, the efficient
clerk of the Institute, down to the present time, and after a full
examination of the cash account with the general accounts of
the treasurer and with the members' ledger, it affords them
pleasure to say, that they have found the same correct, and that
every dollar collected has been fully accounted for.

JOHN M. REED,
THOMAS M. ADRTANCE,
WM. S. SLOCUM,

Finance Committee,
New York, February 1, 1862<

26 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Account of property held by the Institute January 31, 1862.

Real estate No. 351 Broadway and No. 89^ Leo-
nard street, cost $45,800 00

Lessmortgage 20,000 00

$25,800 00

Library and fixtures 13,404 43

Office furniture and fixtures, iron safes, case of

models of fruit, &c 934 75

Property used at the fairs 1,353 60

Gold and silver medals on hand 443 08

$41,935 86
Cash in the treasiiry February 1, 1862.... 84 26

$42,020 12

REPORT

OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS OF THE THlRTY-THlRD ANNUAL FAIR OF
THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The Board of Managers of the thirtj-thlrd Annual Pair of the
American Institute respectfully report :

That immediately after their election they organized, by the
appointment of Mr. James C. Baldwin as chairman, Mr. W. H.
Butler as vice-chairman, Mr. Thomas McElrath as corresponding
secretary, and Mr. John W. Chambers as recording secretary.

The subject of holding a Fair was discussed at several meet-
ings, and after mature deliberation it was deemed advisable, in
the present unsettled state of our country, to defer holding a
general fair during the year.

The Board of Managers resolved to offer thirty premiums, con-
sisting of gold and silver medals, for articles deemed of impor-
tance to the public, and the subjects were appropriated between
the Farmers' Club and the Polytechnic Association, requesting
these associations to examine and report upon the articles which
might be brought before them for premiums.

It was not until the month of October that these measures
were finally adopted, and immediately thereafter the following
circular was issued, and distributed extensively through the
country :

EXHIBITION OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF THE CITY OF
NEW YORK, 1861.

In the second week of February next, the Managers of the Fair
of the American Institute will make a public exhibition of such
inventions and improvements brought before them as may be
deemed worthy of public approbation.

To give a just encouragement to those ingenious citizens who
are laboring for the improvement of Agriculture, Manufactures

28 TRANSACTIONS OF THE A^fERICAN INSTITUTE.

and the Arts, the managers have selected those- subjects on which
improvement seems most needed for the public weal, and now
offer the medal of the American Institute for such new invention
or improvement on any of those subjects as shall be adjudged
worthy of an award.

To aid their judgment in this matter, the managers have divi-
ded these subjects appropriately into two classes, and referred
the one class to the Polytechnic Association, and the other class
to the Farmers' Club, requesting them to examine the articles or
claims which may be brought before them, and to report on the
same, in writing, to the managers, by the 15th day of January
next ; the Board reserving to themselves the right of ultimate
decision on all questions relating to the premiums. No award
will be made, when in the judgment of the Board the competing
article or essay falls below the standard.

To the Farmers'' Club of the Institute the managers have assigned
the following subjects :

1. Flax. For the best mode of preparing the fibre — long or

short staple Large gold medal.

2. For the best seed machine for sowing cereals, drilled or

broadcast Gold medal.

3. For the best vegetable seed sower Silver medal.

4. For the best mode of packing and preserving apples and

pears Gold medaL

5. For the best portable mill for grieding corn, by hand power,

for farm use , .. Gold medaL

6. For the best corn shelling machine that will not break the

grain ._ Large silver medaL

*7. For the best implement for cultivating the garden by hand
power - - Silver medal.

8. For the best novelty and improvement in horse-shoeing.

Silver medaL

9. For the best improvement in heating conservatories.

Gold medal.

10. For the best essay on the culture of the peach.. Gold medaL

11. For the best essay on the culture of tlie apple.. Gold medaL

12. For the best essay on the culture of the pear Gold medal.

13. For any improvement or new implement adapted to the farm,

not enumerated, and superior to any now in use, Gold medal.

14. For the best implement for field culture Large gold medal.

15. For the best power for farm use Silver medal.

REPORT OF MANAGERS THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL FAIR. 29

To the Polytechnic Association of the Institute the managers have
assig7ied the following subjects :

1. For the best machinery for spiuning and weaving flax,

Large gold medal.

2. For the best lifting and force pump by hand power,

Silver medal.

3. For the best invention for the amelioration of camp life,

Gold medal.
4.. For the best novelty in mineral building materials.

Gold medal.

5. For the best machine for preparing mineral building mate-

rials _ Gold medal.

6. For the best novelty of practical value extracted or manu-

factured from coal oil or coal tar Gold medal.

7. For the best improvement in the making of iron or steel,

Gold medal.

8. For any new preparation or application of India rubber,

Large silver medal.

9. For the best lamp for burning coal oil without a chimney,

Gold medal.

10. For the best refrigerator Large silver medal.

IL For the best novelty in railroad tracks.. Gold medal.

12. For the best machine for setting and distributing type.

Gold medal.

13. For the best farm hygrc^eter, to cost not more than $2,

Silver medal.

14. For the best mode of heating houses Gold medal.

15. For the best original research or monograph on any subject

pertaining to the science of chemistry or mechanics, or their

practical applications ._ Gold medal.

Two discretionary premiums (gold or silver medals,) to be deter-
mined by the Board of Managers.

Inventors and others wishing to bring before either of the
Clubs herein named, any article for examination and competition,
may present the same at the rooms of the Institute, to Mr. John
W. Chambers, recording secretary of the Board, at any time dur-
ing business hours. All communications on the subject addressed
to Mr. Thomas McElrath, corresponding secretary of the Insti-
tute, will meet with immediate attention.

The Polytechnic Association meets every Thursday evening,
and the Farmers' club every Monday, at noon, at which times the

30 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

articles or subjects presented will receive the attention and
examination of the respective Clubs.

The late date at which this circular was issued, and the public
mind being almost exclusively occupied with the existing national
troubles, inventors, manufacturers and others did not so promptly
respond to the invitation held out to them as the managers had
hoped would be the case. But within the last two weeks a num-
ber of applications have been made to compete for the premiums,
and your managers, at a meeting held on the 29th of January,
resolved to extend the time for the reception of apjjlications to
the 5th day of February inst.

Under these circumstances the Board of Managers ask the
Institute that they may be discharged from all further conside-
ration of this subject after the 13th inst., and that the whole
subject matter relating to the premiums be referred to the new
Board of Managers.

KespectfuUy submitted,

JAMES 0. BALDWIN, WM. S. CARPENTER,

WM. H. BUTLER, GEORGE PEYTON,

WM. EBBITT, JAMES KNIGHT,

THOMAS F. DE VOE, GYRUS MASON,

JOHN V. BROWER, WM. COTHEAL,

GEORGE TIMPSON, HENRY STEELE,

JOHN JOHNSON, GEORGE M. WOODWARD,

THOS. WILLIAMS, Jr., GEO. R. JACKSON,

ANDREW BRIDGEMAN, JOHN D. JERSEY,

JOHN B. PECK, CHAS. PERLEY,

ISAAC M. PHYFE, CLARKSON CROLIUS,

T. F. ENGELBRECHT, CHAS. A. WHITNEY,
THOMAS McELRATH,

Managers.

o

New York, February 5, 1862.

EEPOET

OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS OF THE THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL FAIR
OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The Board of Managers of the Thirty-fourth Annual Fair of
the American Institute respectfully report :

That on the sixth day of February, 1862, the Board of
Managers of the Thirty-third Annual Fair made a report to the
American Institute stating that they were unable to make a final
report of their proceedings, and asked that permission be given
to the new Board of Managers to act upon the reports and the
premiums, and conclude the proceedings of the year.

The American Institute considered the recommendation and
referred the whole subject to the new Board of Managers and
they herewith submit the reports made and the premiums they
have awarded consisting of 1 large gold medal ; 5 gold medals ;
1 large silver medal ; 5 silver medals ; 2 bronze medals; ,and 5
diplomas.

Respectfully submitted,

JAMES C. BALDWIN, Chairman.

John W. Chambers, Secretary.

April 26, 1862.

REPORTS

OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION AND FARMERS' CLUB

POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION.

The Secretary of the Mechanical Section reports:
That several of the special committees appointed to examine
improvements in mechanism and manufactures referred to them,
have carefully inspected the articles presented, and offer the
following opinion upon their respective merits.

REVOLVING POCKET PISTOL.

This pistol, invented hy Dr. Elliot, is intended for the civilian
rather than the soldier, is a simple yet ingenious arrangement
consisting of but few parts. Its principal feature is the great
proportionate length of the barrels as compared with that of the
pistol. The inventor is entitled, in the opinion of the examiners,
to a bronze medal.

HEATING HOUSES,

The hot air furnace of A. H. Bartlett, known as Bartlett &
Lesley's new Gothic Furnace.

The examiners are aware that a gold medal is offered for the
best mode of heating houses. The hot air furnace, together with
two other apparatus hereinafter to be described, present three
different modes of heating, each having peculiar advantages.
Although there are several varieties of each, these three modes,
Lave this in common, that each uses only one of the three. Thus, of
each different mode no more than one form has been presented, so
that there is in reality no fair competition as to the best hot air
furnace; the best hot water air warmer; and the best steam heat-
ing apparatus. As each of these modes is old in all its essential
features, your examiners believing that no one of the articles
presented can be pronounced the best, under all circumstances

[Am. Inst.J C

34 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

and in all conditions, deem it proper that they should notice the
more prominent improvements in each which will be deserving of
an award.

The principal novelty in the hot air furnace of Bartlett is its
form, and while it is open to the usual objections made against
hot air furnaces in allowing the air intended for breathing as
well as heating purposes to come in contact with the usually red
hot fire box, it is to be commended for the simple manner in
■which the gases of combustion are prevented from finding a way
into the hot air chamber. The examiners deem this a cheap and
efficient method of heating in situations where a chilling tempera-
ture is rapidly produced by immense drafts or currents of cold
air, yet they cannot endorse it as the best method of heating.
They recommend that a silver medal be presented to the
inventor.

Brown's Water Furnace.

The object of this invention is to furnish to a house or con-
servatory a large quantity of air at a moderate temperature,
generally below but never exceeding the boiling point of water.
The apparatus is necessarily very large, because the heating sur-
face must vary inversely with the temperature, yet the boiler and
nearly all the other parts being made of cast iron, it is compara- '
lively cheap. It is well adapted for green houses, for public
schools, and for large assembly rooms, where a frequent change of
air is more important than high temperature.

Mr. Brown has an ingenious method of regulating the heat of
the water so as not to allow it to reach a state of ebullition.
The apparatus requires careful attention, and in the coldest
weather the fire should be continuous in order to guard against
the danger of freezing. The examiners recommend that a silver
medal bo presented to the inventor.

Baker & Smith's Improved Low Pressure Self-regulating
Steam Warming Apparatus.

The inventors of this apparatus are to be specially commended
for the care and caution they have shown in making every part
of their arrangement secure against accidents. The boilers they
put up are made by other parties, but are tested by the inventors,
so as to insure the capability of sustaining about one hundred
times the pressure to which they are usually subjected. Tho
pipes which distribute the steam and radiate the heat are of the

BEPORT OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 35

Icind which has long been in common use for simihxr purposes.
These pipes can either be stacked in the room w|^ere the heat is
to be used, or in an air chamber from which the air is to be con-
ducted to the upper rooms. The regulation of the heat by the
pressure of steam is not new, but Messrs. Baker & Smith have a
modification of the connections which seems to be efficient. The
most valuable novelty in their apparatus is the regulation of the
admission of cold air into the warm air chamber — this seems to
be essential when there is danger from the formation of ice in
the pipes. It has been the aim of Messrs. Baker & Smith to
make a steam heating apparatus wliich can be comprehended and
managed by an ordinary domestic without the aid of an engineer,
and this is accomplished in part b}^ making the machine regulate
itself.

This apparatus, as an improvement on the steam-heaters, is
entitled to a silver medal,

Mitchell's Type-setting and Distributing Machines.

Type-setting and distributing machines operating in the estab-
lishment of J. F. Trow, No, 50 Greene street, invented by Wm.
Mitchell of Brooklyn.

These admirable machines deserve high commendation. The
inventor has not attempted too much by endeavoring to make
his type-setter select every character to be found in the printer's
case, but he has succeeded in all he has attempted.

This machine, properly managed, will do about the work of
two compositors. The main adjustment of the type conveyors,
which will deliver the type in their proper turn and place, is an
invention, the final completion of which must have cost the inven-
tor a vast amount of time and thought. The distributor is
equally ingenious, and in its selection of the various letters and
placing them in their proper order, the machine seems to possess
a human endowment. This selection is regulated by a nick upon
the side of each type, which is the infallible guide to its proper
depository. These machines can be moved and managed by a
boy. Mr, Trow deserves great credit for introducing these use-
ful innovations, which have been in successful operation for seven
or eight years.

The examiners think Mr, Mitchell is entitled to a gold medal.

S. D. TILLMAN, Secretary.

New York, February 27, 1862.

36 TRANSACTIONS OF TfiE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The Chemical Section of the Polytechnic Association, to which
was referred the articles exhibited in competition for premiums'
under provisions established by the Board of Managers of the "
Institute, respectfully report :

That they have examined in full section and through special
committees, the various articles exhibited, and submit the fol-
lowing as the result of their labors :

Ormsbee's Camera Box.

This Camera Box is designed to facilitate the production of
two or more photographic impressions on one plate, and as in
most other boxes used for the same purpose, the various portions
of the plate are brought successively into the field of the lens
by the movements of the plate-holder. In this box the move-
ments and adjustments are made by brass work, thus securing
the nicest accuracy. The box is also suitable for all the ordi-
nary photographic uses, and, in short, is a happy combination
of all the most desirable qualities of a camera box for practical
work. We recommend that the large silver medal be awarded
to the inventor.

Burnett's Ventilator for Sick Rooms and Hospitals.

This device consists of a refrigerator containing ice, to the
bottom of which is attached a light hose of varnished cloth. In
operation, the ice-box is placed on a shelf at a suitable height
above the bed, and the hose led to the locality to be cooled; a
current of air is at once established from the refrigerator down-
ward through the hose from which it issues, cooled, and, to a
considerable extent, purified ; if desired, it is of course practi-
cable to have the ice-box so disposed, that the fresher air from
outside the sick-room may be used. We recommend that a
bronze medal be awarded to the inventor.

Selleck's Method of Coating and Cementing Iron with Frank-

LINITE.

The specimens exhibited by Mr. Selleck, of soldering and plat-
ing wrought and cast iron with the Franklinite metal, indicate
to the section the probability of an entirely new branch of indus-
try. Several members have witnessed with great interest the
methods of working, and are of opinion that it is practicable to

REPORT OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 37

cover large surfaces of wrought iron with a film of Franklinite
metal of any desired thickness, which coating will be extremely
hard and little liable to rust, and that as a cement or solder for
wrought or cast iron, this new material will prove to be of great
utility. The committee recommend that a gold medal be award-
ed to Mr, Selleck.

Baudellot's Beer Cooler.

This beer cooler consists essentially of an upright frame or
series of horizontal copper pipes, so joined at alternate ends
as to form a continuous water channel. In operation a stream of
cold water flows within the pipes from the bottom to the top,
where it is discharged, while the hot wort is laid on the whole
length of the upper pipe of the series, and flows down evenly
over the outside of the remaining pipes to the bottom, whence
it is led to the fermenting tuns. The rapidity of flow and tem-
perature of the cold water is easily adjusted to the amount of
work to be done ; also it is to be observed, that while the wort
is properly and uniformly cooled by reason of the large surface
in contact with the air, it becomes thoroughly aerated.

A special committee (Messrs. Johnson, Dibben and Seely) wit-
nessed the cooler in operation, with approbation, at some of the
largest breweries in the city.

A large silver medal is recommended to be awarded to the
proprietors.

The other articles exhibited to the Association, and examined
by the section, are not found worthy of the distinction of premi-
ums. Some of them, however, display commendable ingenuity,
and a fair degree of novelty. The lack of advantage over inven-
tions of similar design alone excludes them from more favorable
notice.

The lamps designed to burn coal oil, without a chimney, were
specially examined by Mr. Churchill, whose report is hereto
annexed.

The polar refrigerator was dismissed from examination on the
ground that it had been previously exhibited at a fair of the
Institute,

Respectfully submitted.

CHAS. A. SEELY, Sec'y.
New York, February 21 th, 1862.

38 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Report on Lamps to burn Coal Oil without a Chimney.
The lamps referred to me for examination were received in
the following order :

No. 1. Thomas's.

2. Kaestner's.

3. Isaacson's. '

4. Miller's.

5. Smith's.

6. Dietz & Co.

No standard requirement was fixed for the competition, and the
lamps must alike seem only to have this much in common, name-
ly, that they will all burn on the top of a pint cup. Comparative
results must, therefore, be regarded as approximations.

The evil against which they have to provide is simply blacks
that smell ; almost any naked flame can bo made to smoke ; but
Nos. 1, 2, 4 and 6 will do so when carried about with such a
draft of air as may be made by persons quickly passing, or by
quickly shutting even a distant door. No. 5 is in the same cate-
gory when burning enough coal oil to give a useful amount of
light. It has been objected by Mr. Smith that other lamps can
be put out by suddenly lifting them up. This is seldom the case
with less motion than equals running up stairs, unless they are
previously pulled downwards. It is to be remarked that the
blacks are not accompanied with injurious products of decom-
position, as in the case of imperfectly burnt alcohol, or tallow.
No headache results; nor is there any acid generated, as there
is from foul gas. This does not apply to the vapors escaping
unburnt after contact with heated metal as in lighting Nos. 1
and 2. Entire cleanliness is of the greatest importance in the
use of these lamps. Every part of them should be accessible to
remove fragments of matches, spilt oil, &c. A small piece of
dirt adhering to the burner has been observed to cause smoking.
Offensive smells cannot otherwise be prevented. In this respect
Nos. 1 and 2 are more defective than others.

The important properties of coal and petroleum oil, for lamp
purposes, consist in its capillarity and the non-adhesiveness of
the solid matters deposited from it. The latter are easily de-
tached from the wick where this is accessible, as in Nos. 3, 4, 5
and 6. Too much has been expected from the first of these. It
will, no doubt, enable a supply to be drawn up three or four
inches. In none of these lamps is it indifferent whether the level

■REPORT OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 39

varies; yet there is notliing provided to meet this, except the
surplus ingenuity of the inventor, who bids his customer pray
for a whole lamp and use half a one. In No. 5, with two fluids,
this evil is doubled. The flames are marked by absence of flick-
ering, but are agitated by any vibration communicated to the
lamp.

A very transparent oil was furnished for the single trial of
No. 5. I have used oils bought at 18c., 16c., 15c. and 14c. per
quart; the last three being probably such mixtures as are now
almost alone retailed. They may be distinguished by a purplish
eflorescence on the surface. Lamp No. 6 loses much of the power
of regulation when volatile oils are used. Where deposits of
carbon were formed, especially in No. 4, this was the more observ-
able the cheaper the oil.

There is one point which may be aggravated by the use of the
more volatile oils, viz : the explosiveness of the vapor mixed
with air. In lamps, as No. 1, where heat is carried into the
fluid, on the cooling of the lamp after extinguishing the light, air
will enter to take the place of vapor and a more or less intimate
mixture of air and vapor will exist inside. I have frequently
witnessed the explosion of such a combination obtained with less
heat than is transmitted downward by No. 1, and probably by
No. 2., when fitted to a metal lamp. But the effect is not violent
when there is a free vent. The inventor of No. 5, has informed
me that later trials made by him have resulted in greater suo-
cess with " heavy coal oils," but I have been afforded no oppor-
tunity to verify this.

The combustion of coal oils involves less destruction of the
wick than that of common oils, but the greater capillarity of the
former produces so much swelling that a wick which does not fit
loosely in its tube, when dry, is sometimes moved with difficulty,
A case of unusual charring in lamp No. 4 was obviated by sub-
stituting a thinner wick. A few days disuse, even when entirely
exposed to the air, does not prevent a wick being used without
trimming after a few minutes immersion: but the amount of
cleaning which occurs in practice so mucii diminishes the capil-
lar}^ power of the wick, that an experiment with a new wick
affords no criterion of the value of a lamp. The volatilization of
the oils used is irregular, affecting both the form of the flame
and the inclination to smoke. The latter has been observed to
increase with the increase of lateral surface exposed. The mode

40 TRANSACTIONS OF THE A5IERICAN INSTITUTE.

of limitiBg this in No. 6, by increasing the upper surface, is note*
worthy. The difficulty in lighting is a serious drawback to No.
1, involving much care and time ) indeed so long a time that
it might be a serious difficulty to have no other lamp in
case of fire. No. 2 is only slightly more effective, Nos. 4 and 6
may be relighted instantly night after night. It is to be observed
also that while these may be blown out with comparatively little
smell, Nos. 1 and 2 require to be turned down to be extinguished.
They therefore require readjustment for lighting. The quantity
of heat withdrawn from the flame proportionably retards light?
ing. It seems to have been assumed by those inventors who use
pinions for setting the wick, that they would also serve for alter-
ing the quantity of light at will ; but it is not so, the extent of
exposed surface is then changed with the effect before noted, and
direct experiment shewed that great variation in the character
of a flame is produced by small changes in the height at which
air is deflected upon it. In the field which seems open to these
lamps — the desk and the secluded work table — it is of great
advantge that a lamp should be self-supplying — the weary eye
says that the light is burning, but affords no standard for adjust-
ment, and turns dissatisfied from even destructive glare.

The pinions without racks afford an uncertain guide where a
small want of parallelism may disarrange the whole effect.

The principle applied in Nos. 1, 2, 4 and 6, viz: drawing up a
heated column of air below the flame, seemed to deserve exami-
nation. Perfect combustion being due to a proper admixture of
the combustible and air, at a sufficient temperature, it is appa-
rent how much velocity of issue, and extended conductors of heat
in contact with the vapor, may impede this.

The characteristic of a lamp with a chimney is the concentra-
tion of flame and heat, where the air is made to impinge. Con-
trast with this the dispersion of the flame upwards and heat
downwards. In proportion as this principle is developed, (in the
reverse order of the numbers,) there results a larger flame from
the same sized wick, at a cost of radiated heat and of oil; the
light I ot varying equally with the size of the flame, and com-
plete combustion being obtained by withdrawing heat from a
much smaller portion of the flame than in No, 1. Another fea-
ture of lamps with chimneys, as commonly made, is excess of air
beyond what is necessary for perfect combustion. This is always
ready for an irregular supply of vapor, and with this form of

REPORT OP THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 41

lamp it is frequently of advantage to supply heated air, thus
increasing the volume and diminishing pro rata the injurious
excess ; but without a chimney, heated air rising around is less
adapted for concentrated combustion.

But tliere is also waste combustion above the burner and heat-
abstracting apparatus, when the combustible vapor is driven
upwards with a force which prevents its immediately mixing with
air; it is then burnt on the outside in so thin a film as to be non-
luminous. This was tested in the course of this examination in
this way — a peculiarly steady flame was taken — a wire placed in
non-luminous flame (alcohol or a Bunsen's burner,) is ignited and
renders it luminous ; in the centre of the. dark part of the
kerosene flame it remained dark, indeed actual cooling was
observed, when a wire, previously ignited, was introduced into
it ; lamp black volatilized in the centre also, did not become
ignited, while if it was retained in the burning film on the out-
side it grew hot, and when withdrawn into the air it kindled.
These films, dark when looked at directly, were luminous when
seen obliquely. I submit that this shows total absence of com-
bustion in the centre, and absence of free oxygen in the bujrning
film on the outside ; also that a flame requires a certain thick-
ness to appear luminous. This combustion without light meas-
ures the waste of combustible with increase of blue flame, or
with equal areas it is inversely as the thickness at that part. •

Mr. Smith has offered no results in opposition to the received
opinion that a flame owes its luminousness to incandescent car-
bon. Such experiments are necessary to establish the economy
of attempting to obtain light from burning alcohol as in No. 5.

Comparisons of the relative cost of difl'erent sized flames yield-
ing variable quantities of light for uncertain periods, have given
no exact results. The lamps Nos. 1, 2, 4 and 6, were taken into
use as soon as received, and were repeatedly tested in various
ways. I am familiar with a burner similar to No. 3. It requires
a special lamp and wick — neither were furnished, and it has not
been specially tried. It is intended for less general use than the
former ones — it is partly based on the same principles, and the
class of burner is inferior to them in nearly all but cheapness.
No. 5 has been tried as far as suited the inventor. I have been
assisted by other members of the section, and the conclusions
obtained are confirmed by those who have used the lamps.

The principle of mixing the vapor of coal oil (schist oil) with

4:2 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

air in a chamber heated by its own combination, was introduced
by M. M. Busson, at Rouen, twenty years ago, in France ; and
that of correcting one flame by another, by Prof. Hare, between
1819 and 1824, on inventing burning fluid. The vertical cur-
rents used in No. 1 are found in No. 6 of earlier date, and the
admission of air on a level with the top of the wick, is found in
lamps of Nibbs & Birmingham, lampraakers, patented in 1858.

If originality in invention must be successfully developed to
deserve a gold medal of the Institute, the lamps do not come up
to this standard ; they may be distinguished thus :

No. 1 gives the largest flame ;

No. 2, a flame as white, of better form, but smaller ;

No. 3 is the cheapest ;

No. 4 gives, when well trimmed, a very grateful reading light ;

No. 5, a very small light without smoke ;

No. 6, a light similar to No. 4, but smaller.

The propriety of the reference to this section will be appa-
rent. With chemists, the phenomena of flame are a frequent study,
and the manipulation of lamps is part of their daily practice, but
the mechanical section may Avell be asked, whether stamping and
spinning should not be expected to furnish more exact and dura-
ble work than appears in Nos. 1, 4 and 6.

JOHN HARTLEY CHURCHILL,

Sub-committee.

FARMERS' CLUB.

Report on Cahoon's Patent Broadcast Seed-sower.

The special committee, to whom was refgrred the examination
of Cahoon's Patent Broadcast Seed-sower, respectfully report :

That they have examined the two kinds of this machine ; the
first, or hand-sower, is composed of a breast-plate suspended
from the neck, armed with a hopper and surmounted by a seed
bag. In front of this hopper is a register plate which may be
set to regulate the delivery, varying from one peck to ten bushels
per acre. On the side of the hopper is a set of gearing with a
crank-handle, which may be worked by the sewer while walking
across the field. By this handle, a trumpet-shaped disc which
receives the seed from the hopper is caused to revolve, to throw

REPORT OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 43

it by centrifugal force so as to cover a space many feet wide.
In this manner from four to eight acres may be sown per hour by
a single sower, and the seed is distributed with positive even-
ness. It may also be used for distributing guano, plaster, lime,
etc. The best wheat crop raised in the State of Illinois in 1859,
and which took the first i^remium at that fair, was sown with
this machine. It is claimed that it saves four-fifths of the labor
and time ; that it enables any one, however inexperienced, to sow
with regularity, and that, in consequence of the evenness with
which it distributes the seed, it causes a saving of from ono-
quarter to one-third of the grain ordinarily required.

A larger kind of this machine is also exhibited to your com-
mittee, which is placed upon a wagon with a band or chain pass-
ing over a collar surrounding the hub of the wheel. This machine
is moved by the progression of the wagon, and is capable of sow-
ing ten to fifteen acres per hour. It is equally applicable to tho
sowing of wheat, rye, barley, oats, turnips, grasses, and all other
seeds requiring to be sown broadcast. It has taken the pre-
mium at many of the State fairs, and is highly recommended by
numbers of farmers who have used it. Your committee send
herewith a list of the testimonials furnished by the inventor.
Yoyr committee would recommend that the gold medal be award-
ed to this machine.

Signed, SOLON ROBINSON,

N. H. GALE,

Committee.

Keport on Halsted's Hand-garden Cultivator.

The committee, to whom was referred A. M. Halsted's Hand-
garden Cultivator, respectfully report :

This cultivator is intended to be worked by hand. It is very
simple in form, and, being made of iron and steel, is not liable to
get out of order. It has six cutters arranged on a movable frame.
These can be readily adjusted.

This implement is well adapted to all articles cultivated in
rows or drills, and can be regulated to any desired width, from
eight to twenty-four inches, and to depths of one-quarter up to
two inches. It can be made to cultivate within one inch of the
row without disturbing the plants, or burying them, and leaves
the weeds on the surface of the ground. From the examination

44 TRANSACTIONS OF THE A^IEEICAN INSTITUTE.

made by jour committee, they deem it a very useful instrumerrt
for garden culture, and recommend the silver medal to be awarded
to the inventor.

Signed, SOLON ROBINSON,

N. H. GALE,

Committee.

Report on Whittemore Bros'. Chaff Cutter.

The special committee, to whom was referred Whittemore Bros.
Chaff Cutter, respectfully report :

That they have examined this machine and find it novel in its
construction, and perfectly well suited to the purpose for which
it is intended. It has been long known in England, that twenty-
five pounds of hay in the natural state, nineteen pounds cut one
inch long, and thirteen and one half pounds finely chaffed, are
equal in value as food for horses, cattle, etc. ; but the cost of the
English chaffing machine has been entirely too great to engage
the attention of American farmers. The chaff cutter, however,
is of but small cost, and embraces all the advantages called for.
It is composed of two rollers, the one armed with shear steel
edges, and the other with corresponding knives, sustained in
their relation to each other by the casting of the ends, which
insures very equable relative positions in the rollers, so that
they shall be always in the proper position for cutting. This
casting is arranged, however, so that its upper end sustaining
the shear cylinder is permanent. The lower end, or that sustain-
ing the cutting knives, is attached to two sectors that are held
to the two sides of the machine by thumb-screws.

These sectors are movable, so that the perfect cylinders may
keep in position in relation to the shorn cylinder between the
vertical and the horizontal, and tliat each change of their rela-
tive position the length of the cut is altered, so that the machine
is capable of cutting straw of all lengths, from mere chaff to an
inch and a half long, thus enabling the farmer to select such
length as he may prefer. It is also equally applicable to the
cutting of cornstalks.

Your committee would rccommerxd that a diploma be awarded
for this machine.

Signed, SOLON ROBINSON,

N. H. GALE,

Committee.

REPORT OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 45

Eeport on Beardsley's Hay Elevator and Horse Power Fork,

The special committee, to whom was referred Beardsley's Hay
Elevator and Horse Power Fork, respectfully report :

That they have examined this invention, and find it everyway
worthy of the notice of the Institute. The fork is so constructed
that it may be pressed into the load of hay, and elevated by
means of a pulley fastened to the string piece of the barn. To
the other end of the rope the team is attached, after being dis-
engaged from the wagon. As they move outward, this forkful
of hay being equal to one-sixth, of a ton, may be raised to any
required position in the barn. On the pulling of a cord the fork
drops, emptying itself, and may be immediately again lowered
80 as to take up a new quantity. In this way, in six forkfuls,
which may be raised in six consecutive minutes, a ton of hay
may be unloaded and stowed away in its place.

This is a labor-saving machine w^ell worthy the attention of
farmers. We w^ould recommend that a diploma be awarded for
this machine.

Signed, SOLON ROBINSON,

N. H. GALE,

Committee.

Report on Whittemore, Belcher & Co.'s new Hay and Corn-
stalk Cutter.

The special committee, to whom was referred the examination
of Messrs. Whittemore, Belcher & Co.'s new Hay and Cornstalk
Cutter, respectfully report :

That they have examined this machine. The state of the art,
as found by Mr. Whittemore, of making hide roller machines, was
such that when they were applied to the cutting of cornstalks,
the knife cylinder from the Y form of the places between the
knives would become stufied with the pieces of cornstalk, and
would be rendered thus inefiicient. This machine, however,
remedies this evil perfectly.

The hide roller forms the upper cylinder, as is usual in such
machines, but the knife cylinder below it is so arranged that the
knives are made to approach the hide roller in such direction aa
to leave no space between them to be stuffed by the cut stalk.
They, therefore, are not subject to derangement, and constitute
a substantial improvement on those before in use.

46 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Your committee would rccomxaend that a diploma be awarded
for this machine.

Signed, SOLON ROBINSON,

N. H. GALE,

Committee.

Report on Improvements in Horse Shoeing.

The special committee to whom was referred the subject of
examining the patent process for improvements in horse shoeing,
invented by Thaddeus Selleck, respectfully report :

That they have examined the testimony of the usefulness of
this improvement and believe it to be of great importance and
value to the agricultural interests.

Mr. Selleck's improvements consist in the use of Franklinite
metal instead of steel for the facing of the calks and toe pieces
of horse shoes. This metal fuses at so low a temperature that,
with the assistance of borax, it readily melts and combines with
the shoe. When so attached it is much harder and more durable
than steel itself, while the cost of application is much less, re-
quiring only the ordinary skill of the blacksmith for its use.

From the copies of testimonials attached it will be seen that
in j)ractice shoes prepared as above with the " Franklinite,"
wore much longer than others, and as the surroundings, iron,
wears, the hard Franklinite protrudes, and from its peculiar
hardness prevents slipping on ice, stones, etc. This invention
renders the changing of shoes less frequent, and therefore the
hoof is not required to be pared or cut unnecessarily often. It
is not in the province of this committee to treat of the great
advantages to arise from other uses of this metal in the arts as
this branch of the subject has been assigned to the Polytechnic
Club of the Institute, but it may be proper for them to suggest
that Mr. Selleck's invention will prove highly valuable for point-
ing and facing plows and agricultural implements generally, for
the points of contact in the links of chains and other surfaces
subject in use to friction, &c.

Your committee Avould recommend that- the medal offered in
the recently published programme of the Institute, be awarded to
Mr. Selleck.

Signed, ISAAC P. TRIMBLE,

P. T. QUINN,

Committee.

REPORT OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 47

Report on the best Improvements in Heating Conservatories.

The special committee to whom was referred the subject of
examining the best improvements in heating conservatories
respectfully report :

That they have examined the different methods offered for
competition, and have considered the subject under the following
heads :

1st. The greatest amount of heat in proportion to cost.

2d. The quality of heat thus generated.

3d. The least complicated system, which then and therefore
demands less skill to keep it in working order and repair.

4:th. Economy in space occupied by the heating apparatus.

5th. Durability of material used.

In addition to our own investigations we have availed our-
selves of all the information possible from persons using the
diffeient modes of heating.

Having considered the subject as fully as the limited time
aJlowed us would permit, we are unanimously of the opinion that
the combination cone and flue boiler patented by A. E. Hitchings
in 1860, is the best apparatus for the purpose of heating conser-
vatories.

Respectfully submitted, .
Signed, A. S. FULLER,

New York, Feb. 10, 1862. ISAAC BUCHANAN,

Committee.

Report on the Sanford Flax Dressing Machine.

The special committee to whom was referred the Sanford Flax
Dl'essing machine respectfully report :

That your committee visited the premises of Messrs. Sanford
and Mallory, and saw the machine in operation ; they have also
examined the testimony of several manufacturers as expressed
in their certificates as to the superiorit}^ of this machine, and
which fairly corroborates the statements of the owners of the
patent.

The machine itself may be thus described: Its cost is $130;
power required to move it at 125 revolutions per minute, one
horse ; the amount of straw it will clean per day, 500 lbs.,
yielding 20 per cent, or 100 lbs. of flax, which is worth from one
to three cents per lb. more than flax as ordinarily prepared ; the
tow resulting is as 32 to 56 in favor of this machine, and in

^ TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

quality it is worth from one to two cents per lb. more than ordinary-
tow — that is, flax from this machine parts with, as tow, but 32
lbs., while the same quantity of flax prepared in the old way
would part with 56 lbs. of tow of inferior quality. The increase
in perfecting flax is therefore great.

The machine is simple and not liable to derangement, and free
from the usual chances of accident to the operatives, requiring
only one boy or girl to operate the machine, and one to prepare
the straw. The whole machine is inclosed within a case and
may be thus described :

Two feed rollers, the one of India rubber or other flexible
material, the other of metal, corrugated, and so geared as to run
either way, thus j^roviding for the ingress and egress of the straw
which is held in clamps so that it may be pressed into and pulled
from between these feed rollers as required. The straw on pass-
ing through these rollers is impinged upon their rear by a cylin-
der armed with lugs, each alternate lug being slightly toothed,
while immediately under the feed rollers is a small spider drum
aver which passes an endless belt, armed with lugs similar in
form and use to those before described, so that both sides of the
straw are acted upon alike, removing all the non-fibrous organic
matter, and leaving the flax of the full length of the straw.

Your committee would recommend that the premium offered in
the programme be awarded to this machine.

Signed, J. A. NASH,

JAMES J. MAPES,

Committee.

New York, March 24, 1862.

ESSA.Y

ON THE CULTURE AND PROPAGATION OF THE APPLE.

BY L. A. ROBERTS, BROOKLYN, L. I.,
For which the Gold Medal of the American Inditute iocs awarded.

Although apple trees are sometimes successfully propagated
by layers and cuttings, undoubtedly the best method is from the
seed, and the best manner of obtaining seed is as follows :

Take the cores from nice, fair apples, grown on thrifty trees,
always preferring seedlings ; wash them entirely free from the
flesh of the fruit and dry them slowly, carefully, and thoroughly.
The cleaning is conveniently done by first rubbing the core or
pommace through a coarse sieve, and afterward macerating or stir-
ring it in a vessel of water, when the pommace will float and can
be skimmed off, while the good seeds sink. It is common to take
ordinary pommace from a cider mill, but in sodoingyou are more
likely to get seeds from poor fruit grown on unhealthy trees than
from such as you would desire.

Some persons plant the seed in the pommace without cleaning
it ; in such cases the seed is often destroyed by the malic acid
of the fruit.

It has been held that stocks raised from the seeds of crab-
apples were more hardy than from those of cultivated fruit.
While this is doubtful, it is certain that stocks from such seeds
are almost certain to be of slow growth, and to make but small
trees. We cannot, therefore, recommend their use.

SEED BEDS.

Prepare seed beds by trenching or plowing a soil of sandy
loam, at least eighteen inches deep; make it rich with well-rot-
ted manure, and under no circumstances use raw or unfermented
animal manure, for it will certainly breed insects, as well as

[Am. Inst.] D

50 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

destroy the young roots. Sow the seed, in the autnmn, in drills
from twelve to eighteen inches apart. Cover not more than one
inch deep with finely pulverized soil, and spread a thin mulch of
some light substance to keep the ground moist and prevent the
weeds from growing. The seeds will commence coming up early
in the spring, and continue to do so for several weeks. Seeds
may be planted in the spring, in which case they must have been
carefully kept through the winter in a slightly moist condition.
This can be done by keeping them in a cool place in boxes of
sand just wet enough to keep the seeds from drying.

The plants should not be allowed to stand closer in the rows
than one in about two and one-half inches. Careful attention to
them when quite young will save much future labor and insure a
better growth. Weeds should not be allowed to shoAv themselves,
and the ground should be kept mellow by frequent stirring, and
moist by gentle watering, if necessary.

When the young trees, generally designated as stocks, have
attained a diameter at the ground of about three-eighths of an
inch — which they should do in one year from planting — they
should be transplanted to the nursery. The transplanting may
be done in the autumn or in the spring. It is sometimes well
and necessary to let stocks remain eighteen months in the seed-
bed to attain proper size for planting. Those that do not attain
that size in two years, may as well be rejected as worthless.

THE NURSERY.

Select for a nursery, ground that has not been previously used
for that purpose ; a sandy loam, easily worked, is best. It
should be level, or if inclined the inclination should be slight,
regular, and southerly. Thorough drainage is indispensable.
It should be sheltered from the bleak north and westerly winds
of our northern winters by some natural barrier — a hill or a belt
of trees. We shall not recommend that the soil be very highly
manured, or at least made much richer than the orchards into
which the trees are to be finally set, as if it is, the trees, when
planted out, are usually checked in their growth and make com-
paratively but little progress for two or three years. If you are
not prepared to make your orchard rich, do not over-manure
your nursery, and what you do put on should be thoroughly
mixed with the soil by trenching or plowing at least ten inches
^eep — fifteen would be still better, and the whole sub-soiled fi f

ESSAY ON THE APPLE. 61

teen inches more. Avoid the use of animal manure, so far as
possible, using ashes, muck, well-decomposed leaf-mold, bono
dust, and things of like nature instead.

TRANSPLANTING.

Transplant from seed-bed to nursery in the fall. Raise the
plants from the seed-bed carefully with a spade placed at such a
distance and inserted so deep as to do as little injury to the
roots as possible. Prune off all small fibres ; they will never
work again, but decay and transmit disease to the tree. Cut the
tap-root and all others that show an exclusively downward ten-
dency, and prune off all broken or bruised roots with a smooth
cut. Open trenches, running north and south, and sufficiently
far apart to admit of easy culture with a cultivator or horse-hoe,
without injuring the trees, say from three and a half to four feet.
Set the trees eighteen inches apart in the trenches ; put the
earth slowly and carefully about them that it may come in con-
tact with all the roots ; press it gently with the foot, using care
not to displace the tree so as to make the row crooked. Set a
trifle — say an inch lower in the ground than they stood before,
for the soil will settle about them. Cut back to a vigorous bud
one foot above the ground.

If the stocks have made a good growth, they will be ready for
budding in one year from transplanting.

It is perhaps unnecessary to note that whenever care in culture
has produced improvement in fruit, seedlings from such fruit
sometimes improve on their parentage and furnish us with some-
thing still better. But there is a strong tendency for them to
return to their wild or native character.

The chances for getting good fruit from seedlings are so few
that from the earliest time of which we have liorticultural know-
ledge, artificial methods for preserving and propagating varieties
have been employed, among the principal of which are budding
and grafting. We prefer the former for several reasons, among
which are :

1st. It can be done when we have more leisure than in spring,
the time when most kinds of grafting must be attended to. Root
grafting is an exception, and has its advantages.

2d. In grafting, we are obliged to use two or more buds on
one stock ; in budding, only one. This, when propagating rare
varieties, is sometimes important.

3d. If the first operation does not take or grow, we can re-bud.
Grafting, illy performed, spoils the stock.

52 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

4th. Budding can be done more expeditiously than grafting.

5th. Root grafting can be done in winter, and consequently is
not subject to the first objection ; but when scions of strong and
rapidly growing varieties are grafted on seedling stocks, they
are very liable to burst the bark near the point of junction.

BUDDING.

The most successful mode of budding with which we are
acquainted may be summed up as follows :

Select a branch, the terminal bud of which is plump and full.
Usually, at least two buds from each end thereof are imperfectly
developed, and should be rejected. Cut off the leaves,
leaving about half of the foot stalk attached to the
branches (fig. 1). Holding the small end toward you,
with a sharp, thin bladed knife, cut out the buds, leav-
ing about half an inch of bark above and below the eye,
as the bud proper is technically called, cutting just deep
enough to secure a little wood under the eye. It is not
necessary to remove the wood from the bud in working
the apple, although with some kinds of fruit trees it is
important to do so.

The best budding-knife is a small one, with a thin
blade, round at the end, around half of which the edge
extends the remainder of the end, and an inch therefrom
Tia. 1. on the back, being quite thin. The lower one-third part
of the blade is left dull, that the fore-finger may clasp it. An
old-fashioned Barlow knife, with the end properly ground into
shape, makes a good budding-knife. A knife of this pattern was
first exhibited at the Farmers' Club of the American Institute,
in 1859, by A. S. Puller, of Brooklyn. It has been very properly
designated " Fuller's Budding Knife."

On the north side of the stock, four inches above the ground,
make a horizontal incision through the bark, being careful not to
cut into the wood, of from a quarter to a half inch in
length; from the middle of this incision make an incision
of an inch downward, so that both incisions, taken toge-
ther, shall resemble the letter T (fig- 2). Without remov-
ing the knife, insert the back of the blade under the bark,
and loosen it to the horizontal incision by an upward
movement. Lift the bark on the other side in the same
\ way, using care not to injure the alburnum or substance
Fio. 2. between the inner bark and the wood. Take hold of the

ESSAY ON THE APPLE.

53

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6.

foot stalk of the leaf and insert the lower end of the bud you
have prepared as above, under the bark at the opening formed
by the junction of the incisions, and gentl}^ push it down to near
the bottom. The bark above
the bud should now be cut so
as to make an exact joint with
the upper part of the horizontal
incision, and the whole bound
with threads of bass bark,
woolen yarn, or some other
soft material, so that ever}"
part of the bud shall be cov-
ered except the eye (figs. 3, 4,
6, 6). The bud should be in-
serted on the 7iorth side of the stock to prevent it and the young
shoot from the direct rays of the mid-day sun.

Budding is usually most successful when done in August or
September. Just the proper time is when the terminal
bud of the stock is about half formed.

So soon as a union has been formed between stock
and bud, which will be in about two weeks, the strings
should be loosened, and when the union is complete,
usually in from three to four weeks, they should be
removed altogether. In the ensuing spring the stock
should be cut down to within six inches of the bud.
To this remaining part the shoot from the bud may
be tied as it grows, until it has become sufficiently
wooded to sustain itself, when the stock should be cut
smooth diagonally downward from the place where the
bud was inserted (fig. 1).

Fig. r.

ROOT GRAFTING.

Should it be desired to pursue this plan for propagation, it
should be done before planting in the nursery, the trees should be
taken up in the autumn, the tap-roots cut off six inches below the
top, and the bottom part thrown away. Grafts on the lower part
will grow, but they will not make first rate trees.

Pack the stocks away, with the roots in sand, to keep them
moist until such time as it is convenient to graft them.

Procure scions of ripe wood, firm and fully matured, from
thrifty, productive trees in the fall, before very cold weather,

54

TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

and keep them in sand or moss moist, but not wet, in a place too
cool for the buds to swell, but do not allow them to freeze.

"When ready to use them, cut the scions in pieces of two or
three buds each. With one upward stroke of a sharp knife, cut
the stock from the crown or point where the root and top join at
such an inclination that the length of the cut will be about four
times the diameter of the stock. Select a
scion as near the size of the stock as possi-
ble, and cut it at the same inclination with
a downward stroke (fig. 8.) Place the two
inclined surfaces together in such a way that
the outer edge of the wood of each piece will k a
come in contact with that of the other in as
many points as possible without regard to
the external portions of the bark. Bind the
parts firmly in this position with strips of
paper on which grafting wax has been spread.
A more perfect contact of the parts can be
Fig. 8. obtained, and the chances of displacement Fig. 5.
lessened, by inserting the knife across the cut of both stock and
scion and splitting them through the centre, (fig. 9,) so far that
their parts can be sprung, and admit the shorter
end of each into the split thus made in the other
(fig. 10.) The edges of the wood should be adjust-
ed, and the waxed paper applied as before (fig. 11.)
The best grafting wax is made by melting to-
gether four pounds of resin, two pounds of bees-
wax, and one and a half pounds of tallow. When
thoroughly melted, pour it into water, and when
cool enough to handle, work it thoroughly in the
hands, remembering always that too much work-
ing won't injure it. The consistency of the wax
Fig. 11. is changed by the quantity of tallow used. It is
applied to paper or cloth with a brush, after having thoroughly
worked as above described, and then re-melted.

Every person should make his own wax, as, Avhen improperly
made, it does great injury to the trees.

After having grafted as described, the stocks should be replaced
in sand. When the season is sufficiently advanced, they should

Fig. 10.

ESSAY ON THE APPLE. 55

be transplanted to the nursery in the same way as if directly
from the seed-bed.

When trees in the nursery seem of feeble growth, or grow too
luxuriantly from over-manuring, they will be improved by being
cut back one third of their growth, and it is sometimes advan-
tageous to repeat this operation twice, and even three times.
The first cut should be downward from a strong, healthy bud ;
the second time it should be from a bud on the side of the tree
opposite the one cut from before, in order to preserve a direct,
upright growth.

When the tree has attained the height at which you desire the
main branches to start — say from four to six feet, it should be
stopped by pruning the ends, that from three to six lateral shoots
may be developed.

Too much care cannot be had in the keeping and culture of a
nursery. Weeds must be kept down and the ground kept
mellow.

As an example of the way a nursery should be kept, it gives
us pleasure to refer to that of Mr. William Reid, at Elizabeth,
N. J., whose rule is to "take time by the forelock." He keeps
all weeds, not down, but away^ by keeping the ground stirred so
often they do not have a chance to get up.

Annual top dressings of ashes, shell lime, muck, road scrapings,
leaf mold, are any of them serviceable, and still better would be
a compost of the whole.

THE ORCHARD.

In locating an orchard, the first thing to which attention should
be directed is the selection of a proper soil ; for although some
varieties of apple trees thrive well on all the different soils, from
a stiff, clayey loam to a coarse gravel, that which seems best
adapted to the family at large is a rich, warm loam, with just
enough sand to make it easily worked on a gravelly sub-soil. A
true loam is for the most part readily soluble in water, and pro-
bably derives its name from its smoothness and softness. In this
and more northern localities, a southeastern exposure, with a
gentle slope, is best ; next a southwestern ; then south ; while
further south, a more northerly aspect is favorable. There are
but few locations, if indeed there be any, that would not be
improved by thorough underdraining.

An analysis of the apple-fruit and wood shows that it contains

56 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

a large proportion of potash, soda, lime, and phosphoric acid.
It is well if a soil can be found containing these substances in a
proper condition to be taken up by the roots; if not, they must
be supplied by the application of such manures as contain them.

Too much care cannot be taken to bring the ground in proper
condition before transplanting the trees from the nursery, and
every dollar spent in thoroughly pulverizing and mixing the soil
will be paid back ten-fold. It is impossible to go too deep, for
try your best, and roots will penetrate beyond.

The distance apart at which apple trees should be planted,
depends very much upon the variety, some being naturally of an
upright growth, others more branching. It being desirable to
keep all varieties so pruned as to groAv so near the ground as
possible, we should never advise planting less than twenty-five
feet apart, and think thirty preferable. If, however, you are
determined to have fruit and other crops in the same field, the
distance should be greater. We cannot, however, recommend
this plan.

For setting in the orchard, select trees four or five years from
the bud, straight and thrifty, with low branches — say from four
to five feet above the ground. At this age they should be from
one and a half to two inches in diameter, and from six to eight
feet high. Those trees that require seven or eight years to
attain this size, show, either from disease or neglect, too slow a
growth, and are worse than worthless.

Transplanting on proper soil is best done early in the fall, as
the roots will get in place and commence growing in the winter,
ready to give the tops a good supply of food in the spring. On
wet, heavy soils, however, spring planting is preferable.

Take the trees up carefully, in order to cut and bruise the
roots as little as possible. Shelter them from wind and sun.
Examine carefully every portion of the roots, remove all parts
that are in any degree mutilated, and cut in others, always
remembering to cut upward in such a manner that the incision
will be on the lower side of the root, where it will be more likely
to come in direct contact with the soil. If cut downward, the
rootlets will not start so readily, and the ends will be very likely
to decay in consequence of the water that rests on them as it
settles.

It is impossible to give definite directions as to shortening in
the top. That it should be done to some extent seems evident,

ESSAY ON THE APPLE. 57

when we remember that the tree has been deprived of a portion
of its roots, through which the top received its sustenance. Gen-
erally, then, first prune to bring the tree into proper shape ;
next, shorten the limbs to balance as near as may be .the amount
of root that has been removed, cutting most those shoots that
have a decided upward tendency, for the larger the space of
ground you can make the branches of an apple tree cover, other
things being equal, the larger will be your crop of fruit.

The ground having been previously prepared, holes for the
reception of the roots should be made, and let them be so large
that there will be no cramping or crossing thereof that did not
exist in the nursery, and the deepest at the outside ; first, to
invite the roots from the surface ; second, that the earth may
not sink away, take the center of the tree down till it shall be
lower than some parts of the root adjacent. Put in the earth
slowly and carefully, being sure that it touches every portion of
all the roots, pressing down that which is on top firmly with the
foot to fix it in its place. The tree should be planted at the
same depth it stood in the nursery.

Three stakes, to keep the tree in its place, should be planted
at a distance of at least one foot from the tree, and equidistant
from each other. The fastening should be of a material that will
not chafe the bark, and be so loose as to allow a vibration of two
inches in every direction.

We desire to impress the idea that no matter how perfect may
be the tree, or how well adapted and prepared the soil, careless-
ness in planting will more than balance these advantages, and
the orchard will prove a failure.

Better pay a competent, careful man ten dollars an hour for
doing the work properly than to have it done as it most usually
is, for nothing.

We have before noted our objection to cultivating other crops
in orchards, and we do not believe the highest success can be
attained when this is done. We would have the whole field kept
mellow by frequent plowing and horse-hoeing, going deeper as
you leave the trees. If any crops are cultivated, preference
should be given to roots and hoed crops. Wheat is injurious,
and rye should never, under any circumstances, be allowed ;. and
never suffer a plow to come nearer than ten feet to the tree,
under any consideration. Keep all weeds down for this distance
by stirring the soil often with the fork and spade.

58 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The practice of mulching trees, except perhaps for the iBrst
year or two after planting, we look upon as a choice of evils made
by those who are unwilling to cultivate properly. Mulching will
inevitably engender insects that will injure the tree, and with
proper culture, is not at all necessary. It is a saving of labor at
the expense of the tree.

From the first planting, the orchard requires the watchful eye
of the cultivator, that it may be kept properly pruned. When
is the best time to prune ? has been well answered — whenever
you see it necessary. In the spring, before the leaves start, there
is more leisure, the bare branches better show their deformities,
and encroaching limbs are more readily discovered. But when-
ever pruning is necessary, then prune, keeping in mind that the
great object is to keep the limbs from coming in contact with
each other, to prevent too thick growth, to preserve a good shape
to the tree, and to encourage a good spread thereof.

All pruning should be done with a sharp knife, and the wound
left as smooth as possible. AVith proper attention, it will never
be necessary to remove a limb wdth a greater diameter than one
inch. As the properties of the soil are constantly being used,
they must be as constantly returned by proper manuring.

GRAFTING.

When trees bear their first fruits, we are often disappointed
therein, as it frequently happens that whereas we had expected
the best varieties, we only find those that are entirely worthless.
Carelessness in selecting the scion from which the buds are taken
is the chief cause of this trouble. When this occurs, we have,
to make the tree of any use, to resort to grafting.

The physiological rules wdiicli govern propagating by grafting
are the same as in budding, namely, inserting on one tree or
stock a portion of the wood, with a bud attached, of the variety
desired, in such a manner that a perfect union will be formed be-
tween them.

The manner in which grafting is usually performed on trees of
any considerable size is known as cleft grafting. Cut the branches
square across wdth a fine saw, and smooth them off with a sharp
knife. They are then split down about two inches wdth a sharp

ESSAY ON THE APPLE.

59

Fig. 12. Fig. 13.

knife driven with a hammer or mallet,
and a wedge inserted to keep the
cleft open (fig. 13). Take a i?cion
with two or three buds, and cut the
lower end in the form of a wedge, be-
ing careful to leave the edges smooth
(fig. 12). Adjust the scion on the
outer side of the stock, so that the in-
|/\| ner bark and stock of the scion shall
lig. 14. come in direct contact, and with-
draw the wedge (fig. 14.) Cover the end of the stock with
grafting wax, allowing it to lap over the end about an
inch. Rub it down smoothly, so as to make the joint
between the scion and stock air and water tight, and
entirely cover the cleft in the stock. When the stock is
of sufticient size, say two inches, or more, in diameter,
a scion may be inserted on both sides (fig. 15.) The
Fig. 15. weaker one may be taken off after the first year. The
highest branches should be grafted first, and not more than one
third, or, at most, one half, of the tree should be grafted at one
time, as some leaves are necessary to assimilate sap for the sus-
tenance of the tree.

PREMIUMS

AWARDED BY THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE, 1862.

Jlgricultural.

D. H. Furbish, Portland, Maine, for the best machine for sow-
ing cereals broadcast, (Cahoon's Broadcast Seed Sower.) Ex-
hibited by Mapes &, Lockwood, No. 23 Cortland street, New
York. Gold medal.

A. M. Halsted, Rye, N. Y., for the best hand cultivator. Sil-
ver medal.

Whittemore Brothers, Chicopee Falls, Mass., for a chaff cutter.
Exhibited by Mapes & Lockwood, No. 23 Cortland street, New
York. Diploma.

Levi A. Beardslee, South Edmeston, N. Y., for a hay elevator
and horse-power fork. Exhibited by Mapes & Lockwood, No. 23
Cortland street. New York. Diploma.

Whittemore, Belcher & Co., Chicopee Falls, Mass., for a hay
and cornstalk cutter. Exhibited by Mapes & Lockwood, No. 23
Cortland street. Diploma.

Thaddeus Selleck, Greenwich, Conn., for an improvement in
horse shoes, being the application of Franklinite. Diploma.

Hitchings & Co., No. 248 Canal street, New York, for improve-
ments in heating conservatories. Gold medal.

Sanford & Mallory, No. 5 White street, New York, for San-
ford's flax dressing machine. Large gold medal.

L. A. Roberts, Brooklyn, N. Y., for an essay on the cultivation
of the apple. G old medal.

Geo. H. Hite, Morrisania, N. Y., for a paper on pruning the
pear. Diploma.

62 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mechanical.

Wm. H. Elliot, Plattsburgli, N. Y., for a revolving pocket pis-
tol. J. W. Moore, agent, No. 426 Broadway, New York. Bronze
medal.

Wm. Mitchell, Brooklyn, N. Y., for type-setting and distribut-
ing machines. Exhibited by John F. Trow, No. 50 Greene street,
New York. Gold medal.

M. Ormsbee, Boston, Mass., for a photographic camera box.
Large silver medal.

B. J. Burnett, Novelty Works, New York, for a ventilator for
sick rooms and hospitals. Bronze medal.

Thaddeus Selleck, Greenwich, Conn,, for coating and cement-
ing iron with Franklinite. Gold medal.

A. H. Bartlett, No. 426 Broadway, New York, for the Gothic
hot-air furnace. Exhibited by Bartlett & Lesley, No. 426 Broad-
way, New York. Silver medal.

Brown's Water Furnace Co., No. 274 Canal street. New York,
for a w^ater furnace. Silver medal.

Baker & Smith, 180 and 182 Centre street, New York, for
improvements in steam heaters. Silver medal.

Geo. B. Turrell & Co., 626 Washington street, New York, for
Baudellot's beer cooler. Silver medal.

ANNUAL EEPORT

OF THE LIBRARY COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE 1862.

The library committee of the American Institute, in conformity
to section 47 of the by-laws, respectfully report:

• The American Institute was incorporated to promote domestic,
industry in this State and the United States in agriculture, com-
merce, manufactures and the arts.

It was deemed by the founders of the Institute that a library
•was essential to the advancement of these objects. Statistics,
especially such as related to the productive industry of the coun-
try, were necessary to aid the committees and members in making
out reports on subjects that were constantly coming before the
Institute. A library was accordingly projected and was styled
*' The Statistical Library of the American Institute." Members
contributing $25 in money or books became stockholders and
were entitled to take books out of the library, while members
who had not taken a share were only allowed the use of the books
in the rooms.

The contributions to the library were not very rapid, and as the
members of the Institute were composed of gentlemen in nearly
every department of life, the volumes contributed were necessarily
of a miscellaneous character.

Had the books been purchased under the supervision of a.
library committee, it is not likely that any considerable number
of works other than scientific would ever have appeared on the
shelves of the library.

In 1850 the library committee having in view the reorganiza-
tion of the library, submitted the following plan for the action
of the Institute : " That in consideration of the surrender by the
stockholders of their interest in the librar}' as such, a resolution
Avill be introduced at the next regular meeting of the Institute
to make them life members, whereby they will not only retain all

64. TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

the privileges they now enjoy, but also be admitted to the fairs
and lectures of the Institute free of charge."

A majority of the library shareholders agreed to surrender to
the Institute their shares in consideration of being made life
members. This proposition being accepted, the library thus
became the sole property of the Institute.

For some years past the library committee have confined their
purchases to works treating on agriculture, manufactures and the
arts, with the exception of works on other subjects to complete
sets already in the library.

It is thus gradually acquiring a solid and substantial character
as a scientific library, and for the number of volumes which it
contains is perhaps the most valuable, and purely scientific of any
library in the countr3^ It is the constant resort of members,
inventors and others, for reference, as many of its practical works
are not to be found in other libraries in the city,

While the library committee have cared for the pi'eservation of
the volumes already in the library, and to the completion of sets
of works of importance, the}^ have not overlooked the suggestions
of members in the purchase of new books, as will appear by refer-
ence to the list of purchases herewith annexed.

The donations and exchanges during the year have been larger
than for a number of years past, and your committee take this
opportunity of acknowledging the valuable contributions from the
Imperial Agricultural Society of France ; Imperial and Central
Society of Horticulture, France ; Imperial Society of Acclima-
tion, France ; Mons. A. Vattemare, France ; Imperial Academy
of Sciences, St. Fetersburgh ; Trades Society of Lower Austria ;
Royal Agricultural Society of England ; Society of Arts, London ;
Smithsonian Institute, Washington ; Commissioner of Patents,
Washington; Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington; Lieut.
Gillies National Observatory, Washington ; Marjdand Institute,
Baltimore ; Massachusetts Board of Agriculture ; Maine Board
of Agriculture ; New Hampshire Agricultural Society ; Hon.
Preston King, U. S. Senate; Hon. F. A. Conkling, House of
Representatives; Board of Supervisors, New York; Commis-
sioners of Emigration, New York ; Astor Library ; Governor E.
D. Morgan, Albany ; Regents of the University, Albany ; L. S.
Doty, Albany; C. Van Benthuysen, Albany; Edward Walker,
Thomas McElrath, Prof, James J. Mapes, John M. Ferrier, Chas.
A. Seely, J. M. Sanderson, D. T. Valentine, Jireh Bull, George
Peyton, S. W. Francis, Thomas F. De Voe, New York.

ANNUAL REPORT OF LIBRARY COMMITTEE. 65

The following communication was receired from M. Alexander
Vattemare, the founder of the system of International Exchanges.
The works he refers to, embracing one hundred and sixteen vol-
umes and reports on the subjects of agriculture, manufactures, and
the arts, have been received. They form a valuable addition to
our library :

To the Corresponding See']/ of the American Institute:

"A long and most painful disease, which kept me nearly two
years from my office, the overwhelming business accumulating
during this long absence, as well as the desire of forming a col-
lection of publications of interest to the Institute, and procuring
the numbers and volumes wanted to complete your series of
French publications, are my apologies for having been so long
acknowledging your kind letter, as well as the case containing
the nineteen copies of the Transactions of the Institute for the
years 1854, '55, '56 and '57, which case reached my office on the
23d of March, 1861.

" These Transactions were presented in the name of the Insti-
tute, to their proper destinations, and received by the Imperial
Academy of Sciences and the other scientific societies, public
establishments, and private individuals with the greatest grati-
fication, and all of them requested of me to address to the Insti-
tute their grateful acknowledgments for the same.

'• You will find in the enclosed list the best evidence of the ever
increasing popularity of the system of International Exchanges,
an intellectual and peaceful link of nations, which ought never
to be interrupted, for scientific intercourse in pursuance of its
philanthropic aim overleaps the barriers often raised by preju-
dices or misunderstanding.

" Knowing, as they do, my devotion to the welfare of the
American people, I trust that the Institute will appreciate my
ardent desire, to see the interchanges between our two countries,
carried on just now as actively as ever, showing thus to those
unacquainted with the inexhaustible resources of your blessed
country, that there is no alteration in the progress of America's
glorious destinies.

•' The members of the Institute may, perhaps, take the initia-
tive in this patriotic act, by inviting their fellow-citizens to add
to the Transactions of the Institute, what they can spare, such
as books, pamphlets, maps, charts, &c., enabling me thus to

[Am. Inst.] E

86 TRANSACTIONS 0^ TUB AMElliCAN INSTlTtlTE.

do here -what I did in 1848, '49, in the iTnited States, bv receiving'
and distributing in the name of France the most beautiful speci'
mens of her genius, and without interruption, not even during
the terrible days of revolutionary struggles, which overthrew a
throne, and deluged Paris in blood, communicating among your
people our faith in the speedy restoration of prosperity and con-
fidence in the public credit of our country.

" The case contaiuing the works inscribed in the enclosed list
is not shut up yet, because I am waiting for the volumes to com-
plete your series of the " Societe hnperiale et Centrale d' Agricid'
ture)'' as well as the ^^ Bulletin de la Societe d^encourageme7it
pour V Industrie JVatiojiaUi^' wanted to complete your series of
French publications; both societies have ordered them to be
delivered to me, but the difficulty of completing those series is
the cause of this long delay in transmitting them. Yet, you are
sure to receive them, only I would not inscribe them in the list
before being in possession of them.

" Hoping that this letter will find you in good health, and
begging of you to be kind enough to present my affectionate
respect and devotion to the members of the Institute, with the
assurance that as long as it will please the Lord to keep me on
this side of the grave, the Institute will always find me ready
and most happy to attend to their wants within the limits of my
humble power in anything connected with the specialty of labors
of the Institute.

"Very respectfully, yours,

" ALEXANDER VATTEMARE."

The number of volumes in the library at the date of the last

report was ^ ,^. .^ -. 8,012

Volumes found in the library not numbered ....._...... 87

8,099

Added during the year b}' purchase. ...-». 54

subscription 25

premium books . 5

exchanges.^ .^.^ 73

donations ^ * .^ _, 6G

84

139

223

Total volumes in the library ..^ 8,321

ANNUAL REPORT OP LIBRARY COMMITTEE. 67

In consequence of the depressed state of the times the library
committee deemed it inexpedient to offer the duplicate volumes
for sale; and only a very few hrave been disposed of.

Of the appropriation made in 1851 there still remains a balance
of $154.62 unexpended and at the disposal of the library com-
mittee.

The catalogue containing 212 pages was printed in 1852; a
supplement of 132 pages was added in 1857. It is very desirable
that another supplement be printed containing the additions
made to the library up to the present time, and we hope that per-
mission will be given to our successors to have the work put in
hand at as early a day as practicable.

The year through which we have passed has been the most
remarkable in the annals of our country's history. The public
mind has been almost exclusively occupied with the existing
rebellion, yet while the peaceful pursuits of our countrymen have
been so generally exchanged for the camp and the battle-field,
your committee are not without substantial evidence that the
particular interest entrusted to their care by the Institute
during the past year, has at no period during its existence been
in more prosperous circumstances, nor its usefulness more highly
appreciated.

All of which is respectfully submitted.

WILLIAM HIBBARI),
EDWARD WALKER,
JIREH BULL,
JAMES K. CAMPBELL,

Library Committee,

New York, January 31, 1862.

BOOKS PURCHASED DURING THE YEAR ENDING JANU-
ARY 31, 1862.

SCIENTIFIC.

Encyclopaidia-Britannica. Vol. 21, and Index.
New American Cyclopedia. Vols. 11, 12 and 13,
Nichol's Cyclopaedia of Physical Sciences.
Leibeg & Kopp's Progress of Chemistry. Vol. 4.
Morfit's Applied Chemistry to the Manufacture of Soap and
Candles.

68 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Morfit's Chemical and Pharmaceutic Manipulations.

Abel & Bloxam's Hand Book of Chemistry.

Gregory's Inorganic Chemistry.

Anderson's Agricultural Chemistry.

Wise's History and Practice of Aeronautics.

Isherwood's Engineering Precedents. 2 vols.

"Williams on Heat, and its relations to Steam.

Descriptions des Machines et Precedes Specifies dans les Bre-
vets d'Invention. By M. Christian. Vols. 5 and 6.

History of Railroads and Canals. Vol. 1.

American and European Railroad Practice in the economical
generation of Steam.

The Permanent Way, and Coal Burning Locomotive Boilers of
European Railways.

The Economy of Steam Power on Common Roads.

Rankine's Manual of the Steam Engine and other prime
movers.

Darwin on the origin of Species.

Year Books of Fact, in Science and Art. 3 vols.

Manual of Scientific Discovery. 1861.

Loudon's Arboretum et Fruiticetum Britannicum. 8 vols.
2,500 engravings.

Hooker's Icones Plantarum or Figures with brief descriptive
characters and remarks of new and rare plants. 4 vols.

London Farmers' Magazine. 1861. 2 vols.

London Mechanics' Magazine. 1861. 2 vols.

Artizan. 1861.

Newton's London Journal. 1861. 2 vols.

Practical Mechanics' Journal. 1860-61.

Repertory of Patent Liventions. 1861. 2 vols.

Quarterly Journal of Agriculture and Transactions of the High-
land Agricultural Society.

Silliman's American Journal of Science and Art. 1861. 2 vols.

Scientific American. 1861. 2 vols.

Journal of the Franklin Institute. 1861. 2 vols.

HISTORY AND TRAVELS.

Benton's Debates. Vols. 15 and 16.
Irving's Life of Washington. 3 vols.

Barth's Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa.
Vol. 3.

ANNUAL KEPORT OF LIBRARY COMMITTEE. 69

Humboldt's Cosmos. 3 vols.

Holton's New Grenada — Twenty months in the Andes.

Macaulay's History of England. Vol. 5.

British Almanac.

American Almanac.

MAGAZINES AND REVIEWS.

Blackwood's Magazine.
Edinburgh Review.
North British Review.
Westminster Review.
London Quarterly Review.
Merchants' Magazine.
De Bow's Review.

PROCEEDINGS OE THE FARMERS' CLUB-

Rules and Regulations of the Farmkrs' Club, adopted by the Committee of

Ageicultuke.

1. Any porson may become a member of this Club, and take part in the 'debate by
simply conforming to its rules.

2. Any member for disorderly conduct may be expelled by a vote of the majority.
3^ The minutes of the Club, notices of meetings, &,c., shall, as formerly, be under

the control of the Recording Secretary.

4. The Chib shall be called together from 12 M. to 2 P. M.

5. A chairman pro tern, shall be chosen at each meeting.

6. The first hour of the meeting may be devoted to miscellaneous subjects, as fol-
lows: papers or communications by the Kecoiding Secretary, communications in wri-
ting, reports from special committees, subjects for subsequent debate proposed, desul-
tory or incidental subjects considered.

7. The principal suljject of debate shall be taken up at 1 o'clock (but may be intro-
duced earlier by vote of the meeting), and continue until 2 o'clock unless a vote to
adjourn prevail.

8. No person shall speak more than fifteen minutes on the principal subject unless
by consent of the meeting.

9. All controversy or personalities must be avoided, and the subject before the
meeting be strictly adhered to.

10. Questions pertinent to the subject of debate may be asked of each through the
chairman, but answers must be brief, and not lead to debate.

11. The chairman may at any time call a person to order, and require him to dis-
continue his remarks.

12. When any committee is appointed by the Farmers' Club, the members of said
committee shall be members of the American Institute.

13. No discussion shall be allowed, that is not connected with the great subjects of
Agriculture and Rural Improvement.

May 6, 18 61.
Mr. John G, Bergen in the chair.

EFFCTS OF FROST.

Several members having spoken of the effects of the late frost
in destroying fruit buds,

Mr. Fuller stated that he had noticed that varieties with
pubescent leaves were uninjured, while others with smooth leaves
and supposed to be equally hardy, had been destroyed. For
instance, among grapes, with shoots of the same length, about 1|
inches, the Delaware was uninjured and the Taylor killed. Of
hardy native fox-grapes, Blood's Black was uninjured and Blood's
White was killed. The Diana, Concord, and Hartford Prolific
were all uninjured. He would not lay this down as a rule for

72 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

want of more extended experience, but made the remark as a
suggestion to future observers. Some varieties of trees escaped
by coming out late, as Rawle's Genet and the Northern Spy.

Mr. Carpenter said that Wilson's strawberry, and the Jenny
Lind, and Scott's seedling, the latter being sweet strawberries,
had escaped the frost. Downer's Prolific seemed also to be per-
fectly hardy. The Hooker had been frozen out.

Prof Mapes remarked that in using a cold frame it is not at all
necessary to guard against freezing, but to take care and not let
it thaw. The cold may be the original cause of the harm, but
the sudden increase of heat is the danger to be guarded against.

MARKET GARDENING.

Mr. Trimble suggested for discussion " The Agricultural
Topography of Eastern Virginia with reference to Supphnng the
New York Market." He considered it important, especially at
this time, that this subject should be taken up and considered by
the club. These gardeners contributes to the comfort and plea-
sure of life by prolonging the season for vegetables, and ought to
be protected.

Next subject for discussion : The subject of Indian corn and
potatoes was continued.

Adjourned.

May 13, 1861.
Mr. Edward Doughty, of Newark, N. J., in the chair.

A NEW MANURE.

Dr. J. A. Thompson described the composition and mode of man-
ufacture of a new disinfectant and manure, the basis of which is
the Cayuga plaster. This plaster has been extensively used in
Western New York as a top dressing with good effect. The new
manure contains six parts out of twelve of this Cayuga plaster.
When thoroughly dr}', two parts, by measure, of lime of the best
quality, are added, while hot, and ground with the plaster. Any
superfluous moisture will thus be taken up by the lime. From
wood of a porous structure a charcoal is then prepared, sucli as
is best suited for disinfecting purposes. The wood is converted
into charcoal in an iron cylinder. The charcoal thus produced is
ground in an ordinary cob mill. Certain kinds of wood, contain-
ing upon analysis large quantities of the earthy phosphates, are

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 7.3

burned in such manner that their ashes can be taken up clean and
pure. Two parts of the charcoal, one part of these ashes, and
one part of common salt are added to complete the compound,
the ashes and the salt being mingled with the charcoal at the time
of grinding. Then the composition is packed in air-tight pack-
ages, or sacks made air-tight, and is ready for use.

As an ordinary top-dressing, from one two hundred pounds per
acre would be required, and the cost -would be less than $20 per
ton. This compound is submitted as containing all the most
valuable inorganic elements required by the growing plant. If
the club would appoint a committee to experiment with and
report upon this manure, he would furnish them such quantities
as they might require for that purpose.

A committee was appointed consisting of Messrs. Carpenter,
Pardee, Gale, Robinson, Hite, Trimble and Bergen.

Dr. Trimble said that he had e'xperimented A\dth plaster and
found the results sometimes very great and sometimes impercep-
tible. Upon rows of corn, it w^ould make them green, but pro-
duced no better corn. Probably the committee would come to
very different results with this manure from differences of soil
and other conditions.

Mr. Robinson stated that his experience had been that plaster
does not increase the grain but the blade, and is valuable in
raising fodder.

Dr. Thompson, — It takes 400 parts of water to dissolve one
part of plaster. If there comes a heavy rain before it is gradually
dissolved and taken up by the plants, it may be washed away.

Mr. Capenter. — ■'In a dry season plaster has no effect, while in
a wet season the effect is very great. When used too frequently
it may lose its effect.

Prof. Nash believed that on sweet land, moderately manured,
plaster always pays. He had found that the best farmers recom-
mended its use. If it is a dry season when it is applied, it will
not show the effect until the following year. The farmer is cer-
tain to get its value sooner or later. As it dissolves so slowly
the farmer may put it on either 100 lbs, a year or 400 lbs, once
in four years, as is most convenient. Its use is not merely to
furnish sulphuric acid and lime to the plants, but to give reten-
tiveness to the soil, to take up gaseous substances from manures*
decayed grasses, or from the atmosphere, such as are required by
vegetation.

74 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Dr. Thompson remarked that he found it best not to grind the
plaster to an impalpable powder, but to leave it sufiSciently coarse
to require time for its complete solution.

Mr. Bergen presumed that the farmer for one-half the cost
could sow his plaster, lime, sulphur, charcoal, ashes and salt, in
such proportions as his land might require them. However
valuable the manure might be, it seemed necessarily an expensive
way to obtain it.

Mr. Pardee said that much of the value of the manure
depended upon its containing the right ingredients mixed toge-
ther in the right proportions and under the right conditions.
Sowing the different ingredients separately would not have the
same effect. The manufacture requires an apparatus and a degree
of skill and chemical knowledge which renders it impracticable

for the farmer to undertake it.

* <

SPRING PLANTING.

This subject was postponed until the next meeting, and made
the subject for discussion at that time.
Adjourned.

May 20, 1861.
Mr. W. S. Carpenter in the chair.

DECEASE OF JUDGE MEIGS.

Mr. Robinson. — I rise, not to move business, but out of respect
to the memory of Judge Meigs, who departed this life at half past
ten o'clock this morning, to move an adjournment of the Farmers'
Club. Long years we have had him with us, one of the leading
spirits of this Club, and I think it is due to his memory that the
Club should adjourn in consequence of his death.

Mr. Pardee. — I cordially second that motion. The memory of
Judge Meigs is very pleasant to us all — very courteous, very gen-
tlemanly, very intelligent upon a great many subjects. We shall
never forget the pleasant hours we have spent here with him.

The Chairman. — I can add my testimony to the worth of this
departed friend. I have received great satisfaction and infor-
mation from my intercourse with him. He has been an advocate
of agriculture and horticulture to as great an extent, perhaps, as
any member of this Club. It is with deep regret that I have
heard the announcement of his death. We shall certainly mis

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 75

him here, as a friend and as a co-worker with us in the objects
of this Club.

Prof. Nash. — I most heartily concur in all that has been said,
I hear of the death of that good man, so devoted to agriculture,
with uncommon grief, though he had lived to a good age, and
has been long useful. I hope that the motion will prevail.

The motion was agreed to, and the Club accordingly adjourned.

May 27, 1861.
Prof. J. A. Nash in the chair.

DECEASE OF JUDGE MEIGS.

Dr. Waterbury. — We have met with a very severe loss in the
death of the secretary of the American Institute and of the
Farmers' Club, Judge Meigs. Other gentlemen here may have
had a longer acquaintance with him than I, but few have been
more intimate with him. He was a man of more than ordinary
capacity; his great age gave him experience, while the powers
of his mind were undimmed. Slower, he might have been, in his
later years, in coming to his conclusions, but never, when reached,
were his conclusions more sound. His experience followed
the whole existence of our republic. Judge Meigs was educated
very thoroughly, in the old-fashioned time, and there are few in
this country whose learning extended over so wide a field. With
classical matters he was perfectly familiar. When you carried
him back into the Hebrew or the Sanscrit he was not lost ; yet
lie brought his powers to bear upon the most common affairs of
life ; nothing relating to industry or economy was beneath his
notice. I feel that every member of this Club will respond to
the following resolution :

Resolved, by the Farmers' Club of the American Institute, That
the loss of its secretary, Hon, Henry Meigs, is one that cannot
be repaired. As a body we can only join Avith the family and
friends of the departed, in mourning the loss of a man whose
whole energy of life has been for years devoted to the best inte-
rests of agriculture, and whose extensive learning enabled him
to do much for the cause to which this Club has long been de-
voted— improvement and extended information in agriculture.
As friends of that cause we sincerely mourn the loss of our
friend — the friend of humanity.

The resolution was unanimously adopted.

76 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

PATRIOTISM OF THE FARMERS.

The Chairman remarked upon the noble part taken by the
farmers in the present crisis. A supply of provisions is the first
necessity in war as in peace. He believed that the men who
cultivate the soil in the southern states would be the first to
return to their allegiance.

Dr. Waterbury. — The north cannot only carry on the war, but
take care of its agricultural interests besides. The soldier must
be well fed in order that he may fight well ; and that party which
could best feed its soldiers would inevitably win the day.

The Chairman read an article from a newspaper, with regard
to the "flax-cotton." He expressed the opinion that flax might
yet be used as a substitute for cotton. It might not be so dura-
ble, but would be cheaper. Chemistry has done a hundred things
kindred to that. When we can accomplish this, cotton will no
longer be king. Illinois alone can produce 200,000 bags of flax
yearly.

Dr. "Waterbury explained the peculiarity of the fibres of flax,
cotton and wool, saying that the microscope shows why cotton is
king ; that it is in consequence of the peculiar shape of its
fibre.

WHAT CAN YET BE PLANTED.

Mr. Robinson read an article upon this subject, together with
a letter from a woman, urging the planting of corn and root crops
to meet the wants of the coming year. Indian corn, especially
the improved King Philip, can be planted up to the 10th of June.
Corn of almost any kind will produce a valuable fodder crop up
to the first week in July. Buckwheat, field beans and pumpkins
may be sown until June 10th. Still later, a most important crop,
the root crop, can be put in.

Dr. Trimble said that in the latitude of 42'^, upon the North
river, he had found the first of June to be the best time to plant
corn. He left the ground, a sod, unplowed until that time, then
plowed it, harrowed it thoroughly, and planted his corn. The
consequence was that it would germinate quickly, get the start
of the weeds, and require very little cultivation through the
season, compared with that planted earlier. And although the
corn would appear to be late, he had always found that the two

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 77

weeks of hot weather in September would ripen it effectually.
He had known a farmer in Pennsylvania to obtain a good crop
from corn planted on the 17th of June. For many years he had
sown buckwheat from the 4th to the 19th of July ; and the best
crop he ever had, was sown upon the 11th of July. It is a little
hazardous, but as you get clear of the frost, in sowing at that
time, the crop is the best. The hot weather seems to blight the
earlier blossoms. Shoots are sent out in succession for a number
of days. Turnips he would sow the first of August. Sweet corn,
for boiling, may be planted at any time up to July 10th. He
had matured the seed of sweet corn planted on July 1st.

Dr. Waterbury said that the produce of corn would depend
upon the aggregate amount of sunshine that fell upon it during
its growth. He preferred using varieties requiring a long season,
when he could. If the spring was backward he would go north
for another variety. His neighbors never could do so well, in a
good season, with the eight-rowed Canada, as he could with the
sixteen-rowed North river corn. The only difficulty was that he
had to be exceedingly careful in curing the stalks. He concurred
with Dr. Trimble's suggestions as to the cultivation of corn. It
ought to be planted upon sod-land, and the ground should not be
touched until just before planting. The growth upon that sod,
previous to planting, will be wholly assimilated by the corn crop
before fall. As to buckwheat, he had sowed it about the 4th of
July. It is an object to have it filled in cool weather.

Mr. Gale said that whether corn is planted earlier or later, the
ground must be brought to a certain temperature, probably about
56° Fahrenheit, before the corn will germinate at all. If put in
before that it might as well be in the corn-crib as in the ground.
He mentioned having raised an excellent crop of corn, which was
planted while his neighbors were hoeing their corn, upon a field
which he had intended to mow. He would not put corn into the
ground until he was satisfied that it would germinate in six or
seven days. In 1857, while his neighbors planted corn, some of
them three times, he had no trouble. He planted later, and
covered it not exceeding half an inch. He had the best corn
raised that season within five miles of it, and attributed it to
these facts. As to buckwheat, the 4th of July was early enough.
It is a very peculiar cereal, and if it does not happen to have the
right weather at the right time it is sure to blast.

78 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Robinson would not follow the almanac in corn planting.
The old Indian rule was a much better guide, to plant corn when-
ever the leaves of the oak tree in that neighborhood are of the
size of a squirrel's ear. When the oak leaves have made a fair
start it indicates that the condition of the earth and atmosphere
are sufficiently advanced for the planting of corn. Sometimes
that will be the 15th of May; sometimes not until the 10th of
June. He had heard Judge Meigs frequently remark that the
oak tree was more infallible than the almanac maker.

Dr. Trimble stated, another good rule to be, to plant when
the blossoms of the dogwood are fully expanded, perfectly white,
and beginning to drop off. The depth to plant depends upon the
season. Early in the season, or in moist weather, we may cover
lightly ; later, especially if it is dry, we must cover deeper, in
order that the corn may be surrounded with the moisture neces-
sary for its germination.

Mr. Robinson. — The proper time to cultivate corn is before it
is planted, by preparing the ground thoroughly. The suggestion
of Dr. Trimble he approved. He would spread the manure
intended for the corn upon the grass, and let it lie until planting
time, and then turn the sod over from five to eight inches, run-
ning the subsoil plow as deeply as possible in the bottom of each
furrow, and then harrow the ground thoroughly. If the ground
has been previously subsoiled, and will bear to be turned up with
the Michigan plow, there will be no occasion for harrowing. Then
the after cultivation will be to go over the ground with the horse-
hoe to keep the surface mellow, and the crop is certain.

Prof. Nash stated the results of experiments in plowing ma-
nures under, showing that upon sandy soil, where the manure
was plowed in four inches deep, the product was greatest. Upon a
retentive soil the depth should be less ; a single inch may be
sufficient. If the manure is sufficiently near the surface to receive
the proper warmth and moisture, it is readily decomposed. If
plowed under to the depth of eight inches it will be decomposed
very slightly, and then not into the compounds valuable to the
plant, but into those which are absolutely hurtful. A farmer
Y/ho plowed a large quantity of manure sixteen inches below the
surface, never could perceive that any benefit resulted from it,
either to that or to future crops. Probably the manure was all
converted finally into compounds, many of which were poisonous,

PROCEEDINGS OP THE FARMERS' CLUB. 79

SO that it did more harm than good. If corn is hoed after harvest-
ing, the roots are so torn as to injure the crop.

Mr. Gale rehated his experience, in corn culture. He plants
his corn at the distance of three and a half to four, by five feet.
He expressed the opinion that every time the ground is moved
in the cornfield the crop will feel the advantage ^f it. If the
man who plowed his manure so deep, had had his land so tho-
roughly disintegrated that the roots of the plant could reach it,
he would probably have been benefited ; but his own rule would
be never to put manure into the ground at all ; it needs air as
well as water to act upon it, in order that it may be decomposed,
and take the condition in which the plant can appropriate it.

Mr. Lodge stated that corn should never be worked after the
braces begin to be thrown out from the bottom of the stalk. If
earth is put upon them then they become soft, and are unfit to
support the corn. The corn should be planted in warm, well
pulverized ground; the surface should be kept clean and open
until the braces appear, and then it should be left undis-
turbed,

Mr, Eobinson said that the subsoil plow is the best implement
for working the rows for corn, and for working the corn when it
is young.

The subject selected for the next meeting was, " What »iay yet
be Planted J' Adjourned,

JU712 3, 1861.
Mr. Edward Doughty^ of New Jersey, in the chair,

ROSE SLUGS.

Dr. Trimble inquired whether cxjtting down a few bushes con-
taining slngs^ the others being free from them, and burning them,
would not be the best remedy; whether the bushes would not
shoot up again and make good bushes hereafter: or whether it
would be necessary to kill the slugs individually.

Mr. Robinson said that he had found the aphis worse than
slugs, and proposed that the subject should be considered at the
next meeting.

80 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

TURNIPS.

Dr. Waterbury said that there would soon be a call for cavalry
for our army, which would create a demand for forage for the
horses. To supply this, horned cattle and sheep should be
taken from the hay-mow, and provision made for feeding them
on turnips. It is not too late in the season for sowing that
crop.

Dr. Trimble suggested that the blockade of the Southern ports
had cut off that market for our hay crop, and hence that which
was formerly sent thither Avill be on hand for the army horses.
Many articles of consumption are now unusually low, because
there is no market for them in the South. Even eggs were sent
from New York to Galveston, last year.

Mr. Carpenter considered the turnip crop important for the
health of cattle. They will thrive better with an occasional
mess of turnips, and if necessary can be fed with them altogether.
In England the turnip crop is considered one of the most valua-
ble crops grown. Cattle are fatted on turnips principally. Tur-
nips can be raised very cheaply ; they cost but 7 cts. per bushel,
and sometimes even less, but little more than the cost of storing.
Nor is it too late to sow buckwheat, or even corn. The finest crop
of corn he had ever raised was planted after the 5th of June j
although that is too late for corn as a general rule.

Dr. AVaterbury said that history showed the effect of war to be
to raise the price of agricultural produce. If prices are now
lower, it is merely the temporary result of shutting up the out-
lets. The kind of turnip he preferred, was the ruta baga, being
richer and containing more substance than the white turnip.
The white turnip contains so much water that cattle are some-
times said to do better, on feeding them with turnips, if denied
all other water than that contained in their food. The ruta
baga turnip can be planted in drills, either with a small sowing-
machine, or by attaching a tin cup with a small hole in the bot-
tom, to a stick, for a handle, so that the seeds may rattle through
the hole. Turnips require the best of land. The rows ought to
be from twenty inches to two feet apart. If the land will yield
100 bushels of corn to the acre, he would recommend the distance
of two feet. It is well to mark the rows by placing a long board
four inches wide by the side of the row in planting, and walking
across it. This makes a mark which can be readily seen for a

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 81

month. One half the trouble of taking care of the crop will be
saved by keeping ahead of the weeds. As soon as there are any
signs of vegetation of any kind, the hand hoe should be passed
between the rows. It may be necessary to do this a second time;
but it will be very little trouble compared with weeding. As
soon as the rows are visible, the cultivation may be done by
horses ; for the horse will keep between the rows if he can see
them. What sort of an implement shall the horses use ? The
common plow throws the earth over npon the rows. The culti-
vator moves with too much irregularity. Construct a skeleton
plow of wood, after the pattern of the common plow, taking the
beam, one handle, and the land-side, and to that land-side bolt a
common cast iron plow point, so as to stand at the same pitch
with the common plow; and it is just what is required. It will
raise a furrow which will fall in again behind the point and break
in pieces ; it will destroy the weeds ; and yet it will not cover
the rows. In thinning out the crop, if for the market, they
should be left about a foot apart ; but in raising for stock they
may be left nearer. It is unnecessary to pull out every plant
singly ; but they may be thinned with the hoe ; and two or three
left together will grow nearly as large as one in the same place.
The best way to prevent injury from the bugs is to provide for
them, to sow the roots thickly enough to feed the bugs and yet
leave all that are required. The harvesting of turnips is an easy
matter. They will keep best if buried in the field ; but for feed-
in'g to stock in the winter it will be necessary to put them into
the cellar. The amount of stock a farmer keeps is the key to his
prosperity; and that will be governed much by the amount of
turnips he raises.

Prof. Nash regarded the turnip crop as of great importance in
the present crisis, although not so important permanently. Every
country must have its fallow crops. The old principle of. fallow-
ing has become obsolete. Instead of the naked fallow, intelligent
farmers have fallow crops, which, while they may be in them-
selves profitable, have the effect of preparing the ground for other
crops and clearing it of foul weeds. The great fallow crop in
England is the turnip, from a climatic necessity. Indian corn is
our fallow crop from climatic experience. The turnip never can
take that place in this country, any more than Indian corn can

[Am. Inst.] F

82 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

take it in England. Corn is a tropical plant, requiring a hot sun,
and will not flourish in the continual fogs of England ; but in
that moist climate the turnip will do better than here. It has
been the salvation of England. Her advancement this day rests
upon the turnip, and nobody can over-estimate its importance to
that country. But in this country it is otherwise. Corn is our
great crop. We are destined never to raise less than $500,000,-
000 worth of corn excepting in very bad years. Even in New
England Ave have three months of tropical weather ; and what is
more, we liave sixteen hours of sun then in the day, whereas they
have but twelve hours under the equator. Many farmers may
laugh at the idea that corn is a fallow crop; but we accomplish
precisely the same results with our corn that the Englishman
does with his turnips. We break up the land, manure it heavily,
and raise a tremendous crop of corn, and the land is then ready
for wheat.

But this year we want every farmer to jDut in a crop of turnips.
The English thin their turnips with a machine which has revolv-
ing knives so placed as to cut away about nine inches in every
foot of the rows. But it will often happen that the cutter will
destroy all the turnips in one place, leaving the row untouched
where there are no plants. For this reason, he would not recom-
mend that machine. A greater weight of turnips can be raised
by placing the rows at least twenty inches apart, and thinning
the turnips to a distance of twelve inches than by having them
closer together.

Dr. Waterbury said that v/hile corn was the true fallow crop of
this country, yet the turnip crop was the most profitable, if the
land is in a proper condition, and the same amount of money is
put upon it. An acre of land, for instance, will raise 1,000 bush-
els of turnips at 20 cents, or one hundred bushels of corn at fifty
cents.

Mr. Adrian Bergen said that in consequence of the too early
planting of corn this year, it had become necessary to go over
the ground and take the hard crust off the top of the hill in order
that the corn might be able to come through. It would be better
to plant it the first week in June than the first week in May. One
difficulty in comparing the profits from corn and turnips arises
from the fact that another crop can be taken from the same
ground with turnips, but not with corn. Early potatoes may

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 83

"be dug in July, and a crop of turnips raised from the same land ;
even ruta bagas can follow potatoes in this way.

Dr. Trimble. — In England the turnip crop can stand out all
winter, and the stock can be fed in the field. Besides, it requires
more labor than corn, and labor is cheaper there. In consequence
of their climate, it is there a certain crop ; while here it cannot
be relied upon. About once in ten years we get a good crop.
It is not yet too late to plant corn for next winter, because it is
a backward season.

Mr. Carpenter never failed in growing ruta bagas, planting
them from the 20tli of May to the 5th of June. If put in later
he had not found the crop so satisfactory. He paid no regard
to the quality of the soil, unless sandy or weedy, but took pains
to have it in good tilth. About 200 lbs. of Peruvian guano, with
an equal quantity of plaster, should be scattered along the top of
the ground to mark the rows and keep the insects away. At the
second hoeing he would thin them out to ten or twelve inches.
Barn-yard manure is not so good for them, as it is filled with the
seeds cf weeds. White turnips he had raised, without any ex-
pense, among his corn, sowing it at the last hoeing. When the
corn is cut they are still small ; but they then receive plenty of
light and grow rapidly. He was satisfied that the strap-leaf
turnip was worth more than 7 cents per bushel for feeding to
cattle, while their cost did not exceed 3 cents per bushel.

The crop of carrots is very valuable, and is unfailing. They
may be planted until the 10th of June. They are more trouble
to cultivate, but are considered worth nearly as much as
oats.

Prof. Nash. — There is nothing more unsettled than the ques-
tion how much turnips are worth. Many men of sound judgment
will say they are not worth a fig ; that they find that their cattle
eat as much if not more hay, when fed with turnips, and come
out no better in the spring. Others place an extravagant esti-
mate upon it. The corn crop is almost sure. Even in 1816, the
poorest year for corn for many years, there was a two-thirds
crop. The turnip crop must in this country inevitably be uncer-
tain.

DRIED CURRANTS KIRKLAND APPLE.

Mr. Robinson exhibited specimens of currants, dried in the

84 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

sun, by Mrs. Hite, some of which had been kept three years.
There is no necessity for importing so much dried fruit, when
every family can so easily prepare so excellent an article.

Mr. Pardee said that it -was much better than the imported
fruit, and suggested that it could be mixed with dried apples for
pies, &c.

Mr. Pardee exhibited a specimen of the Kirkland seedling
apple, perfectly sound, although it had remained all winter in a
warm room. The flavor remained un'injured.

Mr. Hite stated that the cherry currant has too large seeds for
drying ; that the small red Dutch currants are the best.

Mr. Pardee suggested the Versailles currant, as having small
seed, and being well flavored, w^hile as large as the cherry cur-
rant. It is a new French variety.

GAPES IN CHICKENS.

Mr. Carpenter inquired the cause of gapes in chickens.

Dr. Trimble stated it to be a worm in the throat of the chicken.
If chickens are not hatched until July, they are not so liable to
the disease.

Mr. Bergen had never lost a chicken from the gapes. He could
only attribute his exemption to the fact that he always kept grain
within reach of the chickens. Whether that was the cause or not
he could not determine.

Mr. Doughty had observed that when feeding chickens on In-
dian meal, they had been troubled by the gapes ; and upon being
fed upon dry cracked corn, they ceased to be so troubled.

Mr. Carpenter. — I am in the habit of keeping grain constantly
by my fowls, and I also have fed them on cracked corn. Yet
they have the gapes. As soon as they are large enough to eat
corn they are safe.

Mr. Gore, finding his chickens troubled with the gapes removed
them from the house to a place where they could get fresh water,
and they were no longer troubled with them.

Dr. Trimble was of opinion that the cause was the deposit of
an egg in the mouth of the chicken by a fly. This is hatched
and becomes a larva, like the bot fl}' in horses, and the insect in
the heads of sheep.

Dr. Waterbury suggested the importance of a large supply of
fresh air to all fowls.

PROCEEDIITOS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 85

The subject selected for the next meeting was " Flowers, In-
Han corn for Soiling, and Strawberries."
Adjourned,

June 10, 1861.
Mr, Hawshurst in the chair.

RHUBARB.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited a stalk and leaf of Cahoon's Mammoth
Rhubarb, grown .from a single eye set out last spring. For
culinary purposes it is not equal to Myatt's Linnaeus, although
as good as the Victoria or Prince Albert. But for wine purposes
it is preferable to any other. Leaves have been grown to weigh
nine pounds.

Mr. Pardee said that the rhubarb had been raised very much
in value by the system of selecting the best seed from the best
plants,' and giving the plants thus produced the highest possible
cultivation. By the continous repetition of this process, we not
only obtain varieties very much improved, but they are more
likel}^ to produce their kind from seed than those which are not
so thoroughbred.

Mr. Robinson stated that the original Cahoon's Mammoth Rhu-
barb was produced at Kenosha, Wis., on Lake Michigan, on land
richer than any garden could be made in this vicinity, being a
muck of the richest kind, and 20 feet deep. It is remarkably
true to its kind in raising from seed,

Mr. Carpenter— Rhubarb inclines to a moist and deep soil.
Covering it in the winter does not materially hasten it in the
spring. It is a gross feeder and will exhaust the richest soil ;
but if the soil is renewed, it will bear for a great number of
years. The rhubarb is a desirable plant, being a healthy and
inexpensive food, and making its appearance in the spring long
before currants.

Mr. Robinson — There is not a family in the city, that has room
to place a barrel in the back yard, hut may raise more pie plant
than they can consume.

SUGAR VS. MEAT. DIETETICS.

Rev. Mr. Weaver said that rhubarb was not inexpensive,
because it cost so much for sugar to render it palatable.

86 TKANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Robinson. — A pound of sugar costs less than a pound of
meat, and will go farther as food in the family. It may as well
be eaten with rhubarb as with anything else.

The Chairman. — One small Victoria supplies me abundantly,
and most of my neighbors. Sugar is considered by a very eco-
nomical friend of mine, as the cheapest diet that he can bring
into his family.

Rev. Mr. Weaver. — Do people eat any the less meat when they
have sugar ?

Prof. Nash. — When used to a reasonable extent, sugar goes
farther than meat, per pound.

Mr. Pardee said that probably most people who ate sugar, ate
nearly as much meat as they v/ould without the sugar, but it
only proves their bad habits of eating. A great many people,
after eating a sufficient dinner, will finish off with a sweet and
luxurious dessert, and then suffer for twenty-four hours, perhaps,
from the effects of it. There is more nutriment in sugar than in
meat, and it would be well if we ate less meat and more sugar.
He narrated his experience in substituting a dinner of a cup of
black tea, with plenty of sugar and milk, for a hearty meal of
beef steak, the effect having been that he had not only felt better,
and been in perfect health, but had gained in weight. He had
found himself equally able to endure fatigue.

Rev. Mr. Weaver said that it was true that most of us eat more
than is necessary, and that most people who die have their disea-
ses brought on by eating too much. We do not know what the
true diet is, and have little disposition to learn. The more dain-
ties are placed before a man, the more he will be likely to eat.
We should not place so many luxuries before men to tempt their
appetites.

Dr. Waterbury said that the animal that could digest the
greatest quantity of food, could do the most work. Col. Pratt
made it a rule never to buy a team of horses that could not eat
a bushel of oats per day; half a bushel apiece. Otherwise he did
not consider them profitable for his business. The generally
received theory, that of Liebeg, is, that sugar is used in support-
ing respiration, while meat assists muscular exertion. Conse-
quently the man who is called upon to undergo severe muscular
exertion, should eat a greater proportion of the flesh of animals ;
while, on the other hand, the food of literary men should con-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 87

tain less animal flesh, since the brain receives little or no support
from animal food. The brain contains no nitrogen, whereas
beefsteak is highly nitrogenized. But soldiers and laborers
should be fed with meat. Stages are never run upon hay, but
upon grain, upon oats, which are highly nitrogenized, and which
take the place of meat in supporting muscle.

Prof. Nash. — It is true that the man who can digest the most
can do the most work ; but there is a point with every individual
beyond which eating diminishes his ability. Is not overeating
the cause of more leanness than undereatino;?

Dr. Waterbury. — I believe it is in the city. If a horse fed
upon half a bushel of oats per day, lies idle in the stable, he is
ruined. His food must be diminished, and when he is again to
be put upon hard work his food and exercise must be gradually
raised. So with man. If he indulges in heavy diet without
corresponding exercise, the result will be a dyspeptic condition
of the system.

Mr. Pardee was no believer in late dinners. He had seen too
many friends carried down to the grave by it. A light tea, at
six o'clock, or soon after that, should be the last food taken in
the day.

Prof Nash said that it was a mistaken notion that time is
saved by eating quickly. On the contrarj^, our powers of action
are so much diminished that we lose time by it. A man who
takes half an hour for his meal, will not eat as much as the man
who takes onl}' eight or ten minutes. This may seem paradoxical,
but the reason is obvious. Hunger is caused by the gastric juice
preying upon the stomach, for the want of food to act upon. If
we eat rapidly we pass the point of repletion before the gastric
juice has time to act upon the food and to cease to act upon the
stomach. We continue therefore, to be hungry, and keep on eat-
ing, although we have taken enough. The man who eats rapidly
should not wait until he ceases to be hungry before stopping his
meal.

INDIAN CORN FOR SOILING.

Mr, Carpenter. — Corn may be planted up to the 1st of July for
soiling purposes. Corn may be sowed upon a piece of sward, if
not too weedy ; but drilling is the better plan. Many farmers
defer cutting too long. It may be commenced M'hen the corn is
a foot high. It will then make a good second growth. It seems

88 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

to answer a better purpose, and to be more palatable when cut
early. When topped out it becomes hard, and the cattle do not
like it as well. It may be drilled twenty inches or two feet
apart, so as to leave room to pass a plow through.

Mr. Robinson. — Or drill it four feet apart and sow turnips.

Mr. Carpenter. — I have wintered horses upon the stalks ; once
in particular, as an experiment, I wintered two horses upon corn
stalks alone, and with a gratifying result. They were in as good
a condition as others wintered on dry hay. These were the
stalks from the field crop of corn, after husking the ears. There
is more nutriment in the stalk if it is cut before producing the
ear, and cattle eat it better.

Dr. Waterbury. — Maize is a grass. Other grasses we cut when
in blow. Does the analogy hold with maize ?

Prof. Nash was inclined to the opinion that it does; and that
corn should be cut for soiling when the tassels are beginning to
come out.

Mr. Gale was in favor of cutting after the ear is set, but before
the grain is filled. Then the cob and all would be eaten. Before
that the corn is not sufficiently mature. He had raised an excellent
crop of chicken-corn, sowed broadcast in May, and cut at that
point, and the animals ate it eagerly. He inquired whether mil-
let Avonld not be better than corn, to be cut before the grain has
ripened.

Mr. Robinson. — Two crops can be grown in the same season
for soiling. The most profitable way is to sow clover, manure it
thoroughly, so as to produce a heavy crop of clover, and as soon
as that is mown, which may be at this time, to turn the soil over
and put in the corn. Dressing the ground with ten bushels of
lime will help the growth of the corn very materially.

Mr. Gale. — Then sow clover seed with the corn, if you please,
80 as to have it ready to fertilize another crop another year. I
would plant for soiling the corn that produces the most sugar,
perhaps Stowell's evergreen. The best of mowing ground should
'be broken up every three or four years, to convert the sod into
manure.

Mr. Carpenter suggested that the Chinese sugar cane would be
an excellent article for soiling.

Mr. Freeman, (from southern Illinois,) stated that he had raised
the sorghum, 12 feet high, the seed of which had ripened, and the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 89

cattle would eat the entire stalk, while of corn they would not.
It was cut when the seed was ripe and put up in bundles. There
was no other curing. He had been so well pleased with the
result of this experiment that he proposed this year to substitute
the sorghum for corn, for a soiling crop. It can be fed to horses,
mules and cattle. It is planted at the same time with corn. It
stools out, four to six from each seed ; and there is about three
times as much weight of fodder to the acre as can be raised of
corn. It is planted in hills, because it stools more than if planted
in drills. It is planted at a distance of four to four and a half
feet each way.

Mr. Gale considered it worth three times as much as corn for
soiling, but was fearful that in tliis latitude, if planted late, so
as not to mature, it would be difficult to cure it.

NEW SUBJECT.

The question selected for the next week, was " Flowers and
strawberries."' Adjourned.

June 11, 1861.
Dr. Trimble, of New Jersey, in the chair.

GAPES IN CHICKENS.

Mr. Robinson read an inquiry from Mr. Horace C. Wheeler, of
North Stonington, Conn., for a cure for the gapes in chickens.
He had taken great pains with their food and shelter, feeding
them upon coarse meal. He had tried the proposed remedy of
mixing pepper with their food, but without success.

Mr. Doughty suggested that feeding with cracked corn seemed
to be a preventive ; perhaps by scouring the worms from their
throats.

Mr. Carpenter said that the old method of feeding chickens
w^ith moistened Indian meal was the worst that could be adopted.
But even feeding with dry cracked corn was not a sure preventive.

Mr. Doughty. — I give them the cracked corn as soon as they
are hatched, as coarse as they can eat it.

Rev. Mr. Weaver explained the process by which chickens
troubled with the gapes can be cured ; by doubling a horsehair,
running it down their windpipes, and twisting it around until the
worms get entangled in it, when they can be pulled out, some-
times to the number of a dozen.

90 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The Chairman had seen the same operation. Some women
become very expert in ridding chickens of these worms. As the
worm is in the windpipe, and not in the tube to the stomach, it
is not easy to see that the feeding can much affect it.

Mr. Carpenter suggested that the change of the male birds
every year would tend to give the chickens stronger constitutions,
and thus cause them to be less affected by the gapes.

THE PRINCESS PEA.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited specimens of the Princess Pea, planted
April 16th, and fit for the table on June 13th, in fifty-eight days.
It grows from two and a half to three feet high, and is very pro-
lific, the pods containing from five to eight peas. The quality is
very good, better than that of most early peas. It is a new
variety, introduced last year.

ROXBURY RUSSETS.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited specimens of the Roxbury Russet
apple. He considered them a good apple for Massachusetts,
where they originated, but they had been overrated for the mid-
dle states, where the^^ do not flourish so well.

PHELPS' OHIO COMBINATION HIVE.

Mr. Phelps exhibited specimens of honey formed in this hive,
the comb being so formed that at any time a sufficient quantity
of honey for a single meal may be taken from the hive without
cutting.

Mr. Robinson explained the hive. It resembles the Langstroth
hive. There are frames, or sashes, a few inches square, set in a
box, and separated by partitions formed of slats an inch wide
and with quarter inch space between them. There is also a
space of quarter inch between these partitions and the sashes.
The bees can readily pass through these narrow openings, but
will not build out their comb into them, unless the openings are
wider. The bees fill up these sashes separately, and any one,
after it is filled, can be removed with the contained honey, with-
out disturbing the others ; and an empty sash can be returned in
its place. Mr. R. proceeded to narrate some incidents with refer-
ence to the swarming of bees, to show that if there are tv/o small
swarms at about the same time, they should be put together. If
there are two queens, they will dispose of one, and in all proba-
bility unite as one colony. The more bees are handled the more

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 91

gentle they become, and the more unlikely to sting when it is
necessary to handle them.

Dr. Peck explained his method of building straw hives so as to
admit of the modern system of removable sashes or boxes. Mak-
ing a square frame of the desired dimensions, a rope of straw is
to be wound around it, so as to cover the sides. This gives the
coolness, airiness, lightness, and comfort of the straw hive, in a
convenient shape. This hive can be very readily fumigated, if
moths should get into it.

Mr. Robinson, — They have already been made and patented
just in the form you describe. I dare say you have told some-
body, and he has patented it as an original invention of his own.

STRAWBERRIES.

The Chairman exhibited specimens of Wilson strawberry
plants, nearly equal in foliage and in fruit. The first had been
planted out in September last ; the second in June of last year ;
and the third in April of this year. They were planted with a
ball of dirt. He exhibited them to show^ that the strawberry can
be planted out at any season, and if managed properly, will yield
fruit. It is the least trouble to plant them out in the spring,

Mr. Fuller exhibited a large variety of specimens of fruit from
his seedling strawberries, most of which were the second year
from the seed. The cultivation in stools is the best ; but as
strawberries are wanted for field culture, it is necessary to test
seedlings by giving them the same culture, as they are expected
to receive. He had this year, therefore, giyen these seedlings field
culture. The Downer strawberry had been heralded forth as a
most wonderful berry. It was certainly a remarkably prolific
berry, more productive than Wilson's, but it was small, with a
poor flavor, and in fact good for nothing. Wilson's he consid-
ered as still the best strawberry we have ; most productive,
rather acid, but of good flavor. If he could raise a seed-ling as good
as the Wilson, the Triomphe de Gand, or the Hooker, he should
be satisfied. Scott's seedling is a very mild, pleasant berry, but
a shy bearer. The Heine Hortense is a good berry, one of the
best. The Bartlett is a remarkable variety in another respect.
The bed may be allowed to run together for four years, and is
still loaded with berries, although overrun with grass. The Tri-
omphe de Gand may be eaten before it is ripe. The Vicomtesse
has a very good flavor. Some of the largest and most handsome
berries were the seedlings from the Wilson, one year from the seed.

92 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Pardee. — In company with a number of gentlemen I visited
Mr. Fuller's grounds last year. We selected and marked some
50 or GO of his seedlings as superior. Some very large and fine
berries were thrown overboard because inferior in flavor. Some
of the berries we marked, we considered of the very highest fla-
vor, and the best berries in the market. It was universally con-
ceded that it was the best lot of seedlings we had ever seen, the
best in flavor as well as in productiveness.

Mr. Carpenter. — I visited Mr. Fuller's place last week and was
surprised and delighted to see the efforts he has made to produce
the berries we now have here on exhibition. I found an exten-
sive plot devoted to the cultivation of seedling strawberries, and
containing many thousand seedlings. We discovered there a
great improvement over anything we had ever seen before. Seve-
ral of his seedlings appear to me to surpass the Wilson, Avhich I
consider one of the best berries we have, for general cultivation.
Nos. 53, 20, 42, 46, and 7, I selected as leing equal in every
respect to the Wilson; and I would prefer them to plant, to the
Wilson ; especially No. 46 and No. 20. I think this Society
should take some action upon the subject ; and I move that a
committee be appointed to visit Mr. Fuller's grounds, and to
examine his strawberries, and to name such as may in their
opinion be worthy of dissemination.

The Chairman expressed his gratification at the results attained
by Mr. Fuller.

Mr. Fuller. — I shall certainly object to any puffing of ray straw-
berries, although I shall be happy to meet the committee and
afford them every facility. I am working upon a platform ; and
when I can produce a strawberry to answer the requisites I have
prescribed, I shall be willing to have it sent forth ; but I must be
satisfied myself before I shall propagate or send out any new
variety. First, I want a berry that is productive, that will bear in
beds, or in common soils, and not merely in stools or in rich soils.
I do not want a berry that will run all to foliage like the Peabody,
or all fo fruit like the Wilson, on any soil; but one that will
accommodate itself to the soil. I want a fruit that will elevate
itself above the earth, by a good stout fruit stalk, capable at
least of lifting the berry out of the earth and laying it upon the
straw. I want a large berry; not very large and hollow or with
a tasteless white pith, but of a good size, solid, and uniform. I
want a good bright color. No. 34 is of excellent quality and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 93

productive ; but by the time you have carried it five miles it will
look as if it had been picked for three days ; and that is sufficient
to condemn it. Then I want a good quality. The Wilson has
not sugar enough in it. If we can get the quality of the Tri-
omphe de Gand or the Hooker, and the size and productiveness of
the Wilson, we shall accomplish something. Again, Ave want the
calyx to part readily from the fruit. We want all these things
combined. Out of 1,000 varieties of last year, I preserved 70;
and of these 70 I shall only preserve four for another year. I
have this year, seedlings, that have borne fruit for the first time,
that promise still better than anything I had last year ; but I
must test them thoroughly before I can endorse them.

The Chairman appointed Messrs. Mead, Pardee, Carpenter,
and Roberts, as the committee to examine and report upon Mr.
Fuller's seedling strawberries.

Mr. Hite exhibited a new seedling from the Wilson ; and re-
marked that he had two strawberry plants with the flavor of the
peach.

Mr. Doughty had tasted of these strawberries, and could cor-
roborate the statement as to their flavor.

Mr. Gale appealed to Mr. Fuller not to destroy the seedlings
which he had rejected, but to allow others to try them on other
soils. And he trusted he would not wait until he had obtained
every conceivable improvement before disseminating his plants,
but would take advantage of any real improvement however small.

The Chairman remarked, that inventors A\ould sometimes aim
at something beyond their reach and failing to attain that would
leave what they did attain, which was really valuable to the ten-
der mercies of the world. He should expect the committee to
take care of these strawberries.

Rev. Mr. Weaver read the following recipe for making straw-
berry syrup : Put 12 lbs. of strawberries into a pan, and pour over
them two quarts of water previously acidulated with 5 ounces of
tartaric acid. Let them remain 24 hours. Then strain, taking care
not to bruise the fruit. To each pint of clear juice add 1 A lbs.
of lump sugar, finely powdered. Stir it frequently, and when
quite dissolved, bottle the syrup. The whole process must be cold.

FLOWERS.

Mr. Fuller and Mr. Cavanach exhibited and distributed a large
number of specimens of beautiful and fragrant flowers.

The subject of "Fruits and Flowers" was continued for dis-
cussion at the next meeting. Adjourned.

94 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Jxtne 24, 1861.
Mr. Adrian Bergen, of Long Island, in the chair.

TREATMENT OF LAWNS.

Mr. Gale read a communication in which he took exception to
the method of frequently and closely cutting the grass of the
lawns of the Central Park in this city, and carrying off the grass.

Mr. Carpenter. — In this country we are rather in our infancy
in the management of lawns and parks ; but it is a settled prin-
ciple in England that the oftener a lawn is shaved the more beau-
tiful it becomes. The lawn of Mr. Reed, in Elizabeth, N. J.,
which is cut once in six days throughout the season, is a most
beautiful object. I have been much pleased with the general
management of the lawn in the Central Park. I think that the
S3''stem of close shaving, which is repeated as often as once a
week, will improve and beautify the lawns much more than the
old system of mowing.

Mr. .Robinson. — As to carting away the grass, that is a mere
matter of dollars and cents, whether the grass is worth more for
mulching than for feed ; because the mulching can be obtained
from coarser materials, such as salt hay. It would be w^ell if we
could devise some means to produce a lawn in the City Hall Park,
where great efibrts have been made thus far without success. I
think the fault has been in the manuring. It has been manured
with the richest kind of nitrogenized manure, so as to cover the
ground two or three inches thick with street manure. But the
attempt to make the grass grow is a wretched failure.

Mr. Carpenter considered the effect upon grass of close cutting
to be the same as that upon shrubbery, to cause it to send out an
excess of vegetation, branching until the ground becomes com-
pletely covered. When the lawn is taken care of in this way no
spot of ground is visible.

Dr. Trimble said that it would not do in this country to imitate
England in the management of lawns. It will do in the spring
and early summer to shave the grass closely, but when the heat
and drought of July and August come, if the grass is cut, the
roots will be killed for the want of protection. In England,
there is a kind of moss growing between the roots of the grass,
keeping the ground green and velvetty, like a carpet, and that
moss is destroyed by the drought of August in this country. To
make a lawn beautiful it must be cut constantly, but the land

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 95

must be deeply trenched and underdrained so that it will bear to
be cut in hot weather. Grass will grow under locust trees even
better than in the sunshine.

Mr. Pardee cited the lawn of Mr. John C. Green, on the
northern border of Staten Island, as one constantly beautiful, a
velvetty green, and made so by being shaved every week. By
proper preparation he believed that a lawn might be made as
perfect in this country as in England. If we have not suffi-
cient moisture, the defect can be supplied by an occasional water-
inc:, and if with manured water so much the better. The new
English lawn grass, the Spergula prolijica, which grows but two
inches high, and needs no cutting, does not succeed here.

Mr. Fuller inquired what was the proper way to make a lawn.

Mr. Carpenter. — I would sow white clover principally, with a
little mixture of timothy. It may be better to seed it down with
some cereal, oats, wheat or rye, for they seem to protect the
young plant; but the ground should be thoroughly trenched, and
well underdrained, if necessary.

Dr. Trimble. — The first thing that is wanted for a good lawn
is a great deal of money,

Mr. Gale objected to the plan pursued in the Central Park,
because it would be impossible to obtain any depth of sod, com-
mencing in that way. To make a lawn, it should first be under-
drained, and made very rich. We should then sow four or five
kinds of grass seed — red clover, white clover, red top, and several
others. Let that grow the first year and rot on the ground. The
roots would then have an opportunity to penetrate and permeate
the ground, and the next season there would be twice as much
foliage, as if the grass were cut every week the first year. Even
the Canada thistle cannot live two years if cut three times a year.
Even allowing cattle to pasture upon mowing land in the fall
injures the sod.

Mr. Carpenter said that meadows would frequently have but
little grass after a few years, while pasture lands never became
void of a sod. Yet pasture land is nipped oftener than once in
five days. Meadow lands not 'pastured eventually run to weeds.
When tlie grass is cut, the weeds and coarse grass are the first
to start. If cattle are turned in, they are nipped off first.

Dr. Trimble said that sheep or deer were much better upon
lawns than cattle. In the lawn near Windsor Castle, sheep are

96 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

kept surrounded by moveable wire fences, which are moved
daily. Guinea pigs will answer the same purpose, on a small
scale.

NEW STRAWBERRIES.

Mr. Carpenter, from the committee appointed to examine and
report upon Mr. Fuller's seedling strawberries, stated that the
committee had made a careful and thorough examination, and
submitted the following report :

"We have been much assisted in forming a correct and reliable
opinion, as Mr. Fuller has growing, beside his seedlings, and re-
ceiving the same care and cultivation, the following popular
varieties : Wilson, Hooker, Boston Pine, Jenny Lind, Triomphe
de Gand, Oscar, La Constante, Wonderful, Wizzard of the North,
and many others, enabling the committee to compare his seed-
lings with these. From the great number of seedlings, compris-
ing many thousand plants, one hundred kinds might be selected,
none of which would be inferior to some of the varieties now
propagated for this market; yet the committee believe that the
number now in cultivation should be reduced. A selection of
six varieties would be a sufficient number to furnish a succession
of fruit. This select list of varieties should be adapted to
general cultivation. With all the boasted success with new and
improved seedlings, there seems to have been little progress made
toward completing such a list. The committee can name but
two varieties, the Wilson and Triomphe de Gand, that they could
recommend for general cultivation, and the first of these is con-
sidered by some far from being perfect. The great effort now
being made to ameliorate the condition of this fruit must result
in the production of greatly improved varieties, and the com-
mittee hope Mr. Fuller will feel encouraged from his past success
to persevere until he has accomplished his desire, viz: the pro-
duction of a perfect strawberry. The committee feel the respon-
sibility of recommending new varieties that have been tried but
one or two years. Many of the new seedlings that have lately
been introduced have been overrated, and they would caution the
public against purchasing any new variety without its first hav-
ing been tested by responsible parties for at least three years, for
the true character of a strawberry cannot bo established in less
time than this. They trust Mr. Fuller will not allow his seed-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 97

lings to be disseminated this year, but let their merits be estab-
lished by another year's trial ; let this club appoint another
committee who will test their value and report after another
year's fruiting. We shall then have something reliable, and
public confidence will be established. In testing Mr. Fuller's
seedlings, the committee adopted the following requisites to
entitle a variety to consideration : large size, good flavor, high
color, firm and solid, great productiveness, foot stalks well up,
and good foliage. The committee believe that the following six
varieties possess, the foregoing properties, in a greater degree,
than any other kinds that they are acquainted with. They name
the following seedlings in their order of excellence, using the
numbers heretofore affixed :

" No. 5, named by the committee, ' Fa^'mers' Club,' is of the
largest size, flavor very good, color a beautiful glossy crimson,
flesh dark pink, solid, firm, foliage good, footstalks well up, very
productive, staminate or perfect flower, seedling of the Wilson,
first year's fruiting, very promising of being well worthy of cul-
tivation.

" No. 53, named ' Brooklyn Scarlet,' size large, flavor best,
color brilliant scarlet, shape long, pointed cone, solid, firm, very
productive, foliage good, footstalks well up, perfect flower, fruited
two years, and shows no deterioration.

" No. 20, named at the suggestion of Solon Robinson, was ' Col.
Ellsworth,' size very large, oblong, irregular cone, with neck,
color dark crimson, flavor good, solid, flesh dark pink, ripens
early, foliage good, footstalks well up, as productive as the Wil-
son, perfect flower, fruited two years, very promising, seedling of
Peabody's seedling and a remarkable fine berry.

" No. 42, named ' Great Eastern,' extra large, brilliant scarlet
flower, good, solid, tolerably firm, very productive, foliage good,
footstalks well up, perfect flower, fruited two years. The com-
mittee believe this to be one of the largest berries in cultivation.

" No. 7, named ' Ridgewood,' size large, flavor best, color
dark crimson, solid, tolerably firm, very productive, foliage good,
footstalks well up, perfect flower, fruited two years, promises well.

" No. 34, named 'Nero,' very large, color dark glossy maroon,
Beeds yellow and very prominent, solid, very firm, and dark
throughout, very prolific, flavor very good, foliage good, foot-
stalks medium, pistillate, fruited two years, promises well.

[Am. Inst.] G

9B TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

*' The following varieties, seedlings of 1860, Nos. 1,12, 22, 46,
43, and 56, the committee consider very promising and recom-
mend another year's trial. No. 14, though this year not of the
largest size, maintains its productive character, and for flavor is
not equalled by any berry in Mr. Fuller's collection. The variety
reported last year as the ' Unifolia,' has this year, in a great
measure, lost its specific character, and it may be considered
more curious than useful."

Mr. Fuller exhibited specimens of the seedlings recommended
by the committee, and also of some of the best varieties already
brought into general notice. He believed that twice as many
strawberries could be raised upon an acre as potatoes. He was
satisfied that he could raise 600 bushels to the acre ; by actual
measurement he had raised at that rate. The Triomphe de Gand
will yield 400 bushels to the acre. The expense would not exceed
$100 an acre. He had probably not spent over $25 an acre, but
$100 an acre would pay better than $25. The question now is
whether we shall have berries of good quality, abundant and
cheap, or raise tart berries not worth picking.

Mr. Robinson had set out 100 plants of the Wilson and 100
plants of the Hooker, and without having given a dollar's worth
of care to the beds, he now had more berries than his family
could use or give away. On a single day, they had picked two
bushels of berries.

Mr. John G. Bergen suggested that it would be necessary to
renew strawberry beds, and to take care of them, in order to
continue to obtain good results.
On motion of Mr. Pardee,

The report of the committee was adopted ; and they were re-
quested to make further examinations and report next year.

Dr. Trimble stated that his strawberries had been winter killed,
and that he should have had no strawberry beds this spring, if
he had not transplanted plants and formed new beds, as explained
last week.

Mr. John G. Bergen had found no advantage with regard to
winter killing from mulching. The Peabody seedlings were
nearly all killed,

Mr. Pardee said that it was always best to give a slight cov^
ering to strawberries and raspberries ; for although it may not
always be necessary as a protection against winter killing, it is
an advantage to the fruit. A larger quantity of fruit can be

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 99

raised by keeping the plants a foot apart than by allowing them
to grow nearer to each other.

Mr. Robinson said that he could warrant three new seedlings
to be proof against winter killing ; Prince's Eclipse, Prince's
Scarlet Magnate, and Prince's Climax. These berries would bear
a bigger crop of vines than any other kind, and less fruit. Yet
there is a great abundance of the fruit, for it is utterly worth-

Mr. Fuller. — Gentlemen will see now how I happen to be so
bashful about my seedlings. Mr. Prince has puffed his berries,
and you see the result. I have been so much afraid of just such
a blast myself that I have resolved to disseminate nothing until
it has proved itself to be good.

Mr. Gale. — I am glad to see that we are progressing ; that we
are finding out that mulching is good. Some kinds of strawber-
ries were killed by the warm weather we had in the first of
March, and the cold that followed, although they were mulched,
because they felt the force of that hot weather just in proportion
to the protection they had during the winter, and felt the subse-
quent cold for the same reason ; so that this fact does not mili-
tate against the principle of mulching.

Subject for next meeting. — The subject selected for the next
meeting, was "Corn, Fruits, and Flowers."
Adjourned.

July 1, 1861.

Mr. George H. Hite, of Morrisania, in the chair.

Mr. Robinson read an invitation from the Brooklyn Horticul-
tural Society, to attend an exhibition of fruits and flowers at their
rooms on the evening of Tuesday, July 2d.

MILDEW OF GOOSEBERRIES.

Dr. Trimble exhibited a specimen of gooseberry that had never
mildewed in his garden. It is under a tree, always in the shade.
The branches lie upon the ground, and yield a profusion of fruit.
No care whatever is taken of it. Some years ago he had had a
bush upon which the fruit never mildewed ; but upon dividing it,
and cultivating it, the mildew attacked it.

100 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Carpenter Baid that farmers in tlie vicinity of New York
would do well to pay more attention to raiding small fruits, instead
of following the old routine of corn and potatoes. The Houghton
gooseberry, yielding at the rate of two hundred bushels to the
acre, which will bring $1.50 per bushel, is a profitable crop.
Larger gooseberries will bring from $2 to $4 per bushel.

iJr, 'J'Timble suid that the gooseberry would not be a reliable
crop until it could be ascertained what the mildew is, and how
to remedy it. He had tried all proposed remedies, without effect.

Mr, Carpenter considered the caufo of the mildew to be in
atmospheric influences, and the remedy to be close and proper
pruning. The branches should be thinned out so as to permit
a free circulation of air, and so as to admit the light. Tho
branches should be at least three to six inches apart.

The Chairman, saying that that coincided with his experience,
added that he had his ground forked up late in the fall, and left
very rough, covering it with long manure, which remains until
the spring.

Dr. Trimble. — When I followed that plan I could get no fruit.

The Chairman. — With the English varieties, the more care you
take in pruning, the better will be tho result.

CAKE OF SHRUBBERY.

Mr. Carpenter expressed the opinion that thousands of treea
have been lost this season in the Central Park from an excess of
water. A large hollow is made around the tree, and a barrel of
water is poured in every day. It would bo much better to dig
around them often, keeping the ground mellow,

Mr. Gale said that they should take the grass which they shave
from the lawns so closely, and scatter it half an inch thick around
the trees. They would need no water, if thus mulched, unless
there should be no rain for six weeks. It would be better to
cart on a loud of stones than to leave the earth entirely bare.
Whether the watering could do any damage he could not say.
lie had applied two or three gallons per day regularly to a small
pear tree, with excellent results.

Mr. Carpenter. — I had reference particularly to trees newly
planted out.

Mr, Gale said that might make a difference, although the general
impression is that a tree newly set out needs quite as much water
as an old tree. At any rate tho trees should bo mulched. It

rROCEEDINGS OP THE FAHMERs' CLUB. lOl

nourishes tlic trco and protects it from tlio sun. TTo was in favor
of fall plowing, fall dip;ging and mnlcliing. If land is mulched
with coarse manure in the fall it is leached just whore it is wanted.

'^I'lie Chairman recommendcid mulching, and in watering to put
two or three pounds of IN'ruvian guano with a barrel of water,
and to use the solution, especially for small fruit. Digging to
keep the ground mellow is very important in the summer.

Mr. Carpenter. — What I objected to was watering upon the
bare ground, Avhich becomes as hard as a brickbat. The tree, if
newly planted out, must die under such treatment. Digging
around the tree carries moisture to the roots, and assists the
tree in making new roots.

THE AUSTIN STUAwnKRRY.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited a dish of Austin strawberries, grawn
eight miles from Albany, the largest of which weighed an ounce,
and measured 5^ inches in circumference. This strawberry
floui'ishes best in a sandy soil, and a|)j)earH lo bo a good market
berry. It is very productive, and by some is preferred to all
other varieties; but it is yet a new berry, and some which havo
been longer known could be recommended with nioro confidcnco.

THE KASPIJKKUY PllUNlNG.

Mr. Carpenter said that raspberries had been much ixighicted,
and probably in part from the trouble of covering thiMu in the
fall. There are some new varieties, as the Belle de Fontenay and
Doolittle's Ulack Cap, Avhicli promise to be ])erfectly hardy. They
will give aV)undanco of fruit, with as little care as currants.
Brinkle's Orange he regarded as the best raspberry, but it re«piirc8
covering.

Mr. Doughty had found the l>elle de Fontenay a perfectly hardy
and prolific berry, as well as one of the best fruits. Doolittle's
Black (^ap he feared would prove too small.

The (Jhairman stated that proper pruning would almost su{>cr-
sede covering. About the time of the summer solstice, if the
Bhoot is six feet high, cut it down to four feet, and it will send
out strong lateral branches. \i' they are very vigorous shorten
them. TIk; })lant will then ri{)en and harden its wood, so that
it will stand the wintc^r. So with the blackberry. In this way
he had obtained fruit from the very top of lir inkle's Orange.

Mr. Carpenter had tried this method to some extent upon shrub-
bery. He had found the grapevine better prepared for the winter

102 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

by being nipped in. He had seen the benefit of it upon the pear.
There are some varieties, the Madeline, for instance, which grow
rapidly in the latter part of the season, and the frost comes while
the wood is soft. Shorten it in and it will ripen the wood.

The Chairman remarked that if the laterals are cut the top
must be left. It will not do to cut both at the same time.

Mr. Peter G. Bergen had tried this method upon peach trees,
but the effect had been to cause the tree to send out a large
number of laterals, making it a bush that he could not see
through.

INSECTS.

Mr. Bergen proceeded to say that he had had trouble in raising
currants, from a worm which would bore the branch ; and this
year the worms have attacked the fruit itself. They were extend-
ing their ravages to the gooseberries, blackberries and pear trees.
He had been very much troubled with slugs. The trouble seemed
to be rapidly increasing. Peaches drop off as if stung by some
insect.

The Chairman explained briefly how to prune to avoid the too
close branching of the tree, which tends to harbor insects.

Mr. Carpenter said that the more evergreens are planted about
a dwelling the more birds and the more fruit there will be. If
birds are encouraged they will rout the insects.

Dr. Trimble exhibited specimens of the pupas of the measure
worm, Avhich he had obtained from the city parks. He had found
many of them empty, having a hole upon one side. An ichneu-
mon fly had attacked the measure worm in this city. It deposits
its eggs in the body of the worm, and after it has spun the cocoon
they hatch, and destroy it. Probably by another year the
measure worm will have been destroyed by this fly. There are
many varieties of the span worm — a measure worm. In New
Haven the elms were saved by encircling the trees with some-
thing which would prevent the female, which was without wings,
from crawling up. But there are varieties, of which both male
and female have wings. The only remedies are to destroy the
eggs in the winter or spring, as they are found, in clusters upon
the tree, and the ichneumon fly. There are few or no birds in
the city, and therefore our parks are perfect cabinets for the
entomologist. The ichneumon fly seems to be the provision of
nature to prevent the too great increase of this class of insects.
The Hessian fly a few years ago threatened to destroy our entire

PROCEEDINGS OP THE FAItMERs' CLUB. 103

•wheat crop, but it was itself destroyed by the ichneumon fly.
The curculio is a beetle, and beyond the range of the ichneumon
flies, for they attack only the insects that are at one period of
their lives caterpillars; they cannot control the coleopteras.
There is an immense class of these flies, from three inches long,
down to little specks that are hardly visible. Birds are useful
in destroying insects, but birds should be selected with long
beaks, such as the wren, the thrush, the oriole, and the catbird.
Birds with short beaks are seed eating. Let the spiders alone in
the stable, and they will protect the horses from the flies.

Mr. Robinson. — The most troublesome insect on my place is
the rose bug. They have taken possession of the apple trees.
It is no uncommon thing to see half a dozen of them upon a single
apple.

The Chairman suggested throwing plaster of Paris upon them,
killing them when they come down.

Mr. Robinson said that would not do for such large numbers.

The Chairman proposed raising smaller trees, pruned upon the
spindle system, which would yield better fruit, and as much as
large trees.

Dr. Trimble stated that thousands of these span worms, half
grown, are lying dead upon the ground, probably destroyed by
the ichneumon fly. The lady bug is a great destroyer of the
aphides, but not numerous enough to control them.

Subject for discussion. — The subjects of " Corn, Fruit and Flow-
ers " were continued.

Mr. Hite proposed at the next meeting to explain his methods
of pruning. Adjourned.

July 8, 1861.
Dr. James P. Knight in the chair.

LANDS ON LONG ISLAND.

Mr. A. McCotter sent to the Club a specimen of rye grown on
Long Island, on land which had never been in cultivation, upon
the application of 150 lbs. of guano ta the acre.

Dr. Peck stated that this rye was remarkable merely from the
fact that it was grown on the barrens of Long Island, on land
where it is supposed that nothing will grow. It shows that the
waste land there may be cleared, and produce a fine crop of rye

104 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

by the application of 150 lbs. of guano to the acre. It may be
seeded down to clover, and it will produce two tons to the acre,
or a good crop of timothy ; and it will continue in heart with the
same culture that is applied to other lands in the State of New
York. With ordinary culture it will produce wheat as well
as any other lands in the State. The premium crop of wheat, a
few years ago, was raised at Brookhaven, upon Long Island, on
land geologically identical with this. There is no difficulty in
raising any kind of crops there, in great abundance. It is a
great natural garden. There are tens of thousands of acres of
land there suitable for any kind of crop, and with sufficient tena-
city to sustain anything.

Mr. Robinson argued that wherever wheat can be groAvn, even
on Coney Island, it may just as well be grown as upon the richest
prairie land of Illinois, so far as the expense of keeping it in
heart by manure is concerned. He preferred manures which
would yield the largest return the first year. Whatever is unused
the first year might as well not have been applied until the sec-
ond, and the interest on its cost would have been saved. Other
things being equal therefore, the manure is most profitable which
yields the quickest return. Money spent for manure brings a
larger profit than railroad, bank, or insurance stock.

Mr. Carpenter objected that while that might save interest, it
would cost labor. He preferred in seeding down a plot of grass
for five years, to put on manure enough to last the five years.
Fields he had laid down ten years ago with 20 bushels of medium
bones to the acre, were now showing astonishing results.

Mr. Robinson. — How much did you spend ?

Mr. Carpenter. — Ten dollars per acre.

Mr. Robinson. — How much did you get back the first year ?

Mr. Carpenter. — Fifteen or twenty dollars.

Mr. Robinson said that as the manure had lasted ten years he
might assume that only three dollars worth of it was consumed
the first year. If instead of applying bones, Mr. Carpenter had
applied some manure costing three dollars which would be all
used up the first year, he would have had the same result the
first year. He would then have left seven dollars to be expended
in manure yielding an immediate profitable return instead of
lying idle.

Mr. Carpenter. — For immediate returns I know nothing to

PROCEEDINGS OF THE farmers' CLUB. 105

equal guano ; but generally stimulating manures which give their
results the first season, leave the soil in a worse condition than
it was in before.

Dr. Peck alluded to the indefinite way farmers have of speaking
of putting on so many " loads of manure " to the acre, without
specifying how large a load, or what kind of manure.

STRAWBERRIES.

Mr, Carpenter exhibited a specimen of the Austin strawberries,
which he considered remarkable for its lateness. They were sent
here from Watervliet, near Albany. The Wilson, growing by
their side, had ceased fruiting before these were ripe for the
market. These are the only good strawberries now coming into
New York. They are not so sour as the Wilson.

Mr. Pardee said there seemed to be a general dissatisfaction
with Downer's seedling and the Austin strawberry. Downer's
seedling is prolific but the berries are small and the flavor is
very indifferent. The Austin is hollow, rather mealy, lacks the
requisite of a good flavor, very soon becomes insipid, and is not
prolific under ordinary culture. His own observation had been
that this strawberry was no better than others. If it could be
established as a fact that it is later, it will be valuable, and bring
a large price after other strawberries are gone. Strawberries
that will bear three days earlier will bring a dollar instead of
eighteen cents per quart.

Ml-. Robinson said that in his garden the Wilson held out ten
days longer than the Austin. It might possibly be because the
Wilson plants were a year older. He did not consider it firm
enough for a market strawberry. They Avill sell, however, if late
enough to be offered after the better strawberries are gone.

Dr. Trimble thought that those who raised these strawberries
ought to be encouraged, for they were certainly in a good condi-
tion, of fair size, and with a strawberry flavor, coming at a time
when we have no other strawberries.

Mr. Carpenter reminded the Club that he had exhibited the
Austin strawberry last year as late as July 22d, The Hooker
strawberry is much better flavored j but it is not hardy, and
does not bear satisfactorily.

Mr. Hite. — Plant the Hooker straAvberries six inches apart and
you will have as much fruit as from the Wilson planted at 12 to
18 inches.

106 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

PRUNING CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES.

Mr. Hite exhibited specimens of currant bushes trained upon
the Spur system. The cherry-currant bushes were about seven
years old, the roots being eight or nine years old. There were
also specimens of the Red and White Dutch currant. The bushes
were all heavily loaded with fruit from the bottom to the top.
He explained the system thus : The first year allow one cane only
to come up from the cutting. The next year cut that half way
down, and it will start and grow very vigorously, and send out a
great many little side shoots, which must be pinched in about
the mi<ldle of June. Other shoots may come oiit, but by the
middle of August they m.ust be pinched off. In the spring of the
next year, it must again be cut off, leaving it half or three-quar-
ters of an inch from the stem. Side shoots must not be allowed
to grow, unless they come up from the ground. There may be
six or eight canes allowed to grow, so that the main stem can be
replaced at any time. A stake may be put up and all fastened
to that. A stake will be necessary in order to support the fruit,
and the canes may be all tied together to that like an umbrella.
The same system, with some slight modifications is applicable to
the gooseberry. In this case instead of a single stem, a tree is
formed. By this process fruit is generally obtained the second
year, and will bear every year in profusion. The cherry currant
has some peculiarities. At this season of the year the upper
shoot will sometimes stop growing, while the others continue to
grow. If an inch or two of the shoot is cut off it will again
begin to grow. The summer is the best season for pruning the
cherry currant. By this system, there is but one stem, and the
fruit is much easier to pick. Currants pruned in this way can
be planted two feet apart.

Mr. H. proceeded to exhibit specimens of gooseberries, and
remarked that since adopting this plan of pruning he had not
been troubled by the mildew.

The Chairman remarked that the Crown Bob could be grown
well in the close'jT^ards of the city.

Mr. Hite. — If a gooseberry bush is attacked with the mildew,
it will be paralysed down to about three inches from the ground,
where there will be a bud started. Cut it down to that, and
burn the top. It will soon send up a vigorous shoot, which will
grow six or eight inches before fall.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. lOt

The Chairman said that a vigorous plant was less liable to be
attacked with the mildew, which is a fungous growth.

Mr. Pardee had never seen mildew upon a plant, unless that
plant was neglected. He believed that there was no necessity
for mildew upon the best English gooseberries.

Dr. Trimble produced a specimen of his gooseberry, mentioned
last week, and asked why that did not mildew ?

Mr. Pardee replied that it was an American gooseberry, the
mate to Houghton's seedling, which is not liable to mildew undea:
fair cultivation, a valuable variety for common cultivation, for
cooking, preserving, or for wine. The English gooseberries are
preferred because they are more showy and highly flavored.

Mr. Carpenter said that the system of pruning illustrated by
Mr. Hite had been brought to great perfection in England by Mr.
Rivers. It is now applied successfully to the pear, which may be
planted at distances not greater than two feet.

The Chairman suggested that this method of pruning allowed
the wood to mature more thoroughly.

Mr. Hite was trying the experiment of the spindle system with
the pear; and also a system of connecting a row of trees by in-
arching and pruning them upon the espalier plan.

Subject for discussion. — On motion of Dr. Trimble, the sub-
ject of " The Fruits of the Season " was selected for the next-
meeting.

Adjourned.

July 15, 1861.
. Mr. A. S. Fuller, of Brooklyn. L. I., in the chair.

PEDAL ENGINE,

Mr. Hotz exhibited his Pedal engine. It resembles the Hydro-
pult, but is constructed to be worked with the feet, thus enabling
the operator to exert a greater force with less labor.

Mr. Carpenter remarked that it was a more powerful machine
than the hydropult, but not so convenient to carry.

Dr. Trimble said that especially in drawing water from a deep
well to water a garden, which requires more force than can well
be applied by the hand, this implement might be very useful.

108 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Gale, Dr. Trimble and Mr. Doughty were appointed a com-
mittee to examine and report upon this invention.

LATE STRAWBERRIES.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited a specimen of the Austin strawberry,
from Watervliet, in excellent condition. It is now retailing at
25 cents per half-pint basket.

Mr. Pardee said that a strawberry which would bear under
ordinary exposure until July 15th, was a valuable acquisition;
but that this might be accomplished in several ways Avithout its
being a test of the berry. The strawberry may be made to pro-
duce a late crop by giving it a stern northern exposure, by cul-
tivating it in the shade of trees, or in masses, or by cutting off
the early flowers, and in other ways. To prove the lateness of
the Austin strawberry, it is desirable that some other cultivators
should test it.

The Chairman — I think that it is a late berry.

Mr. Carpenter said that these strawberries were cultivated
upon an open level piece of ground, with no shade whatever, and
no care taken to prolong the season. He had found many of the
plants a few daj's ago, in his own garden, just blossoming a
second time.

Mr, Robinson stated that it was easy to prolong the bearing
of any strawberry. When they are in full blossom, go over the
bed and give it a dressing of fine salt. It will kill every blos-
som. They will then re-blossom and bear two weeks later than
they would otherwise have done. Mr. Peabody has carried
strawberries to the market in Columbus, Ga., regularly for more
than six months in the year, from the same bed.

Mr. Pardee. — Mr. Lawrence, of New Orleans, has carried them
to the Picayune office every month for ten months in succession.

Mr. Robinson. — Mr. Peabody attributed the continuous bear-
ing to artificial watering. He watered them thoroughly every
day.

Mr. Pardee. — Mr. Peabody told me that we might have straw-
berries six months in the year, as well as not. He trains his
plants so as to reduce their luxuriant habits. He took new pine
barrens, and put just enough soil with it to give it a little life,
and the consequence is that the leaves are no larger than a
quarter of a dollar, while there are berries more than three
inches in circumference. The same result may be produced from
a soil composed of three parts of pure river sand and one part

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 109

of good, fair, loaray, garden soil. My plants, potted in that
way were in bearing for at least three months during the sum-
mer with no symptoms of throwing out a runner. Mr. Peter B.
Meade had also obtained the same results ; but one morning he
was surprised to find one of his plants throwing out a runner.
Upon examination he found that a small bit of manure had given
that plant power enough to send out runners. As soon as the
runners start, the production stops. The Crescent seedling was
supposed to have the power of continuous bearing ; but as soon
as it received ordinary cultivation it lost that property, I have
no doubt that in this way any one willing to take the pains can
have late strawberries. Of course they must be attended to and
well watered, as carefully perhaps as greenhouse plants.

Dr. Trimble remarked that sometimes strawberries are found
in blossom out of season, the same as apple trees, pear' trees, &c.,
but it never amounts to anything. That is difierent from a
regular lateness of a variety.

Mr. Carpenter. — By special watering, strawberries can be
made to produce a second crop in October, the Bartlett particu-
larly.

The Chairman. — Every fall a large proportion of the old plants
come into bloom and fruit. Generally when the snow flies I can
go out and pick a dish of strawberries. But I do not consider
a fall bearing strawberry of any value. Put the Bartlett in the
green-house and it will bear fruit continuously for eight months.

Mr. Carpenter. — We have perpetual raspberries, and I have no
doubt we may have perpetual strawberries. But every fruit has
its season, and when we have had an abundance of it, we want
something else. It is a novelty to have raspberries in October;
but we cannot prize them then so much, having other good fruit,
such for instance as the pear and the apple of the improved
varieties.

Mr. Pardee said that although for ourselves we might not
prize these fruits out of their season ; yet, when out of season,
they will bring from two to three dollars a quart from rich
people, who want them for their parties, because they are out of
season ; and hence it may deserve attention as a matter of
profit.

Mr. Doughty. — The Catawissa raspberry with me is perpetual.
I can go into my garden at any time and get a supply ; and they
are sweet enough to eat without sugar. It is perfectly hardy.

110 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The Chairman, Mr. Pardee, and Mr. Carpenter corroborated
these statements, and spoke favorably of this raspberry.

Mr. Gale referred to the immense amount of money expended
annually in preserving strawberries, as an evidence that they are
desired out of their season, and that it is most desirable that
late strawberries should be grown, if possible. All sorts of fruit
should be in the market as long as possible, for it will conduce
not only to comfort but to health. While he could obtain the
fruit, it was his custom to make it one-third to one-half of his
diet, and he never enjoyed more energy or vigor of body or mind
than during that season.

Mr. Robinson suggested that the Farmers' Club memorialize
the Legislature to forbid the selling of berries excepting in mea-
sured baskets. The true way is to sell them by the pound ; but
any kind of measure is better than the present way of selling
fruit and vegetables in this market.

CURRANTS.

The Chairinan exhibited varieties of currants.

Mr. Pardee referred to the fact that professedly new varieties
are frequently got up to sell, receiving new names, although
identical with the old varieties. He preferred the Versailles to
any other for a red currant.

Mr. Hite, while recommending the Versailles currant, also
recommended the red Dutch.

The Chairman said that he had five varieties of the currant,
all of which he believed to be identical with the cherry currant.
He had received the last year three new strawberf^es, all of
which proved to be the Wilson; and another new strawberry
will appear next year, which will also be the Wilson. The red
Imperial he presumed was identical with the Cherry currant.
The white Holland is the white Grape. The Gloire de Sablons
has been highly recommended at Washington ; but it is a little
diminutive currant, with a stripe in it, and this paper contains
the whole crop from five bushes. Here is the Imperial Jaune,
which is certainly a fine currant ; but I really think it is the
White Grape.

Mr. Hite considered the flavor different.

The Chairman. — Here is the Imperial red. I think this will
turn out to be another old one. I have come to the conclusion
that there are but two or three currants worth cultivating. The

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. Ill

White Grape, the Cherry and the Versailles are certainly
improvements upon the older currants. The Victoria has a very
long bunch, and is prolific ; but the lower end seems never to get
ripe.

Mr. Carpenter. — The White Grape is double the size of the
White Dutch, with the same cultivation, and will bear more
fruit. I consider it one of the most prolific currants in cultiva-
tion.

CARNATIONS.

The Chairman exhibited specimens of seedling carnations,
some of which were of colors never before attained.

GRAPES THE ROSE BUG.

Dr. Underbill stated that he had observed this year that the
grapes grew farther apart on the stem than usual, making the
cluster more open, and by admitting the light and air, making
the grape more highly flavored. The greatest nuisance among
the insects was the rose bug. It was considered a part of the
spring's business to remove them, as much as to remove the
weeds. By plowing in the fall, turning up the larva) to the frost,
they had been much reduced ; but the vineyard would still be
visited by rose bugs from the woods and from lands not so
treated. The ordinary remedies, syringing, smoking^ etc., he
had found useless in the vineyard. The insects soon return
and are as troublesome as ever. Every morning and evening,
men go through the vines with a cup with a little water in it in
the left hand, and holding it under a leaf or a cluster, the
moment the plant is touched they will drop into the water. The
same method will, answer for rose bushes by taking a large tin
pan to catch the insects in.

Mr. Pardee remarked that if this method would answer for the
rose slug, it would be an easy method of getting rid of them.

Mr. Gore said that they would not fall from the leaf so easily;
so that it would not answer the purpose.

THE SPAN WORMS.

Dr. Trimble stated that the victory of the ichneumon flies
appeared to be complete. There were many varieties of these
flies that had simultaneously attacked the spanworm.

Subject for discussion. — The subject selected was " Fruits of
the season and Potatoes." Adjourned.

112 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

July 22, 1861.
Dr. Trimble, of Newark, New Jersey, in the chair.

OATS BONE MANURE.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited specimens of Poland oats and black oats,
five feet and six inches in length, selected from patches in the
field. Last year a crop of corn, estimated at 60 bushels to the
acre, was taken from the field, 15 bushels of bones to the acre
having been applied. This year the same quantity of bones was
put on, with no other manure. He used the sawings and the fine
bone. He considered bone to be the best manure he could use
for the cereals. It has this advantage over guano, that if a large
quantity is applied, sufficient strength is imparted to the stalk to
hold it up ; whereas, upon applying 500 lbs. of guano to the acre
to wheat, the result was a great growth, but long before the
seeds formed, it fell and was a total loss. This field was seeded
down to grass, and the next year the effect of the guano was im-
perceptible. The second year the grass nearly failed in that
part of the field where this large amount of guano had been
applied, showing that it had stimulated the soil to such an extent
that it had exhausted it, and it became the poorest part of the lot.

HOTZ'S PEDAL ENGINE.

The committee appointed to examine Hotz's Pedal Engine beg
leave to report, that they deem it a valuable acquisition to the
man^'^ and improved implements of security and usefulness, to the
domestic household. The vacuum being as perfect as in other
implements for like purposes, it will take water from a well or
reservoir 30 feet below the surface, and by the action of a per-
son weighing 150 lbs., without any advantage of mechanical
force, throw it to an equal height, or 50 feet in a horizontal line ;
and pf course proportionally higher and further with greater
weight and facilities of mechanical force. The improved nozzle,
or pipe for sprinkling or showering, is the most perfect your com-
mittee have examined. It is susceptible of producing a mist, and
then by a simple turn of the wrist throw a solid stream ^^gths of
an inch in diameter. For watering gardens, putting out fire and
washing windows, your committee esteem it a cheap and valua-
ble invention.

(Signed) N. H. GALE,

I. P. TRIMBLE,

New York City, July 22, 1861. EDW. DOUGHTY.

The report was adopted.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 113

FRUITS AND PO'JrATOES.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited Austin strawberries, sent by J. 0.
Thompson, Tompkinsville, Staten Island, and also from Water-
vliet. The former were in bunches, many of which were green
and small, showing that they were not yet exhausted. Also,
specimens of Johnson's seedling gooseberries, of which fifty-
three weigh a pound, and worth over four dollars per bushel,
sent by Mr. Thompson. Also, specimens of the Downing
seedling gooseberry, which he did not consider an improve-
ment. Also, a choice seedling gooseberry, of excellent fla-
vor. Also, the Prince Albert currant, of good flavor and very
late. Also, the Brinkle's Orange and Belle de Fontenay rasp-
berries, the former especially adapted to family use, both for
quality and productiveness. Also, a raspberry sent by Mr. F. A.
Henry, from Western Pennsylvania, represented by Mr. Henry as
being a superior berry, but which he suspected had been over-
rated.

The Chairman. — Nearl}^ all these fruits degenerate when you
undertake to transfer them from the mountains to lower levels.

Mr. Carpenter also exhibited varieties of potatoes. The Early
Algiers, supposed to be a choice seedling, he regarded as an im-
provement in early potatoes. It cooks as dry and mealy as pota-
toes in September. Pell's seedling gave a successful result, being
taken from the ground in YO days, although then not fully grown.
The Dykeman potato, now generally planted in this vicinity, is
not equal to the Early Algiers in quality, and will not produce
within one-third as much to the acre.

Mr. Gale exhibited cherry currants raised by Mr. Hite, some
of which measured more than one inch in circumference. They
are cultivated upon a horizontal trellis, the upright shoots being
cut down to within half an inch of the branch. The grape he
cultivates in the same way. A pear tree pruned upon the same
general system has upon it a pear growing out of the body of the
tree within twelve inches from the ground. The peach tree he
has commenced to treat upon the same system. The gooseberry
also he prunes upon the same system, and has no mildew.

Mr. Pardee. — He is only following the instructions of the
books.

[Am. Inst.] H

114 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Fuller explained his method of training grape vines, sub-
stantially the same as Mr. Hite's. He would have the trellis 18
inches from the ground, in order to prevent the bunches from
being spattered with dirt. He preferred allowing one vine to
occupy the lower bar of the trellis, and the next vine the upper
' bar, rather than to fasten the two to the same bar. When the
shoots reach to the top of the trellis it is usual to pinch off the
ends ; but he preferred to let the two end shoots run wild. If
the top is checked too much it checks the roots, and some strong-
growing varieties will do to grow wild. The next year these
ends are cut off down to the trellis.

Mr. Gale said that Mr. Hite proposed to connect those two
ends by inarching.

Mr. Fuller. — I see no advantage in that.

The Chairman suggested the appointment by the Farmers' Club
of a permanent committee whose duty it shall be annually to
revise the list of fruits recommended to be cultivated.

Mr. P. G. Bergen stated that he had visited the "barrens" of
Long Island and had found strawberries and blackberries doing
well. The cranberries transferred to the uplands were doing
extremely well. He considered those lands capable of high cul-
tivation with moderate fertilization. He had seen cucumbers
and melons of remarkable growth. Dwarf pear trees did not
seem to do well, perhaps from the difference of the soil from that
of New Jersey whence the trees were obtained. The cranberries
are cultivated by some between the pear trees. Their cultiva-
tion on the uplands is still a matter of experiment, but has been
tried since 1856.

ENTOMOLOGY.

Mr. Fuller exhibited specimens of jose bugs and beetles.

The Chairman. — Here are a few specimens of the immense class
of coleoptera. Some of them live three or four years under the
ground in the form of a larva ; and this is the period of their
destructiveness. The greater part of these beetles are amongst
the scavengers of the world. Very few of them in this, the last
stage of their life, eat much of anything.

Mr. Fuller said that the word "rose-bug" included a large
variety of insects, every locality giving the name to a special
variety. These are some of the last to appear. By keeping a
diary, he had found that the same varieties always appeared

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 115

within a few days of a regular time ; so that he knew when to
expect them. By killing them as fast as they appear, the garden
or vineyard can be preserved from destruction ; for with that
course they do not increase in numbers. If let alone, they would
soon destro}^ everything.

The Chairman said that the proper way to get rid of the apple-
moth, is to pick the fruit as it falls and feed it to the hogs ; but
as it is a winged insect, it cannot be exterminated in any locality
without combined action by the farmers of the neighborhood.

Mr. Carpenter described an insect which has attacked the melon
crop within a short time, and which also attacks squashes, pump-
kins and everything of that nature. It bores the stalk near the
root, destroying the life of the plant, and is a white grub, half to
three-fourths of an inch in length.

The Chairman stated that it had been computed that the undis-
turbed progeny of a single herring would in twenty years monopo-
lize the whole earth. Yet we are in no danger of being swallowed
up by the herrings. The fact is that there is no fish, beast, or
insect, that would not multiply to swallow up everything, if
there were nothing to regulate their increase. The destruction
of the-span worms of this city by the ichneumon flies, is an illus-
tration of one mode of regulating this enormous increase, —
We need not get nervous about the insects ; it is not intended
that they shall destroy everything. They are just as much a por-
tion of creation to make the world suitable for us, a superior order
of beings, as any other of the branches of created beings.

Prof. Nash suggested that perhaps, as we succeed so poorly in
our attempts at regulation, they might be as well regulated with-
out our help as with. We used to kill birds, for instance; but
found out at last that they were beneficial to the farmer.

The Chairman said that if we could find a remedy for the cur-
culio, which is safe against the ichneumon fly, it would be a bless-
ing. He considered it necessary to bestow a great deal of atten-
tion upon its destruction. His remarks were intended especially
to apply to the caterpillars, and butterflies.

JYew subject. — The subject selected for the next meeting, was,
" The Flowers and Fruits of the Season," to be illustrated by an
exhibition.
Adjourned.

116 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

July 29, 1861.
Mr. Henry Steele, of Jersey city, in the chair.

APPLES.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited specimens of apples — the Ked Astra-
chan, ^vhich is one of the earliest apples, and fine for cooking,
but rather acid for the table. They will ripen gradually for a
month or six weeks, a few at a time. Also, the Early Joe, one of
the earliest and finest apples. The GijBTord is a few days later.
The early Strawberry apple is another desirable apple for every
farmer.

Mr. Pardee. — The Summer Rose is one of the best early apples.

Mr. Carpenter. — The Jersey Sweeting is a little later than
these ; but I know of none so desirable. Its quality is almost
equal to some of our best pears. It is a great bearer, and bears
every year. I obtain good fruit in two or three years, by graft-
ing on the top of an old tree. The trees may be grafted from the
middle of April until they are in full bloom. I think it is not
very safe to graft after the blossom has fallen ; but I have been
as successful when the trees are in full blossom as at any other
time.

WHEAT CORN.

Mr. C. also exhibited a new variety of spring wheat, of very
promising yield, some of the heads being six inches long. It was
sown about the first of May. Also, a specimen of early Narragan-
set sAveet corn, a week earlier than other varieties of sweet corn.

Mr. Robinson exhibited a specimen of Mediterranean wheat,
and remarked that boiled wheat is an. excellent dish for the table.
It is to be gathered as soon as it is ripe enough to shell, or may
be used after it is ripened, and is cooked like rice ; to be eaten
either as a vegetable with meat, or with syrup or sugar. It is
far superior to rice ; more nutritious, and costing less.

DROUGHT WATERING CULTIVATION,

Mr. Carpenter, after referring to the drought now pervading
some sections in this neighborhood, said that he Avas convinced
that upon ground Avhich has been trenched, digging often to
mellow the ground is more serviceable than watering. The
atmosphere penetrates the soil and its moisture is condensed
about the roots.

Dr. Trimble suggested that early in the season, before the
plants are large enough to permit digging, the surface may be

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 117

kept mellow with a rake oonstructed for the purpose. The
ground should be raked over after every rain, before the surface
has had time to become hardened in drying.

Mr. Gore said that in 1848, in a drought in Maryland, he had
cultivated his corn constantly, and was considered a crazy man
in consequence 5 but he had corn, while his neighbors had none.

The Chairman, in visiting a garden a few daj^s ago, had
observed that the cucumbers alone seemed to be suffering from
the drought; their vines so covering the ground that it could not
be stirred beneath them.

Mr. Pardee said that irregular and partial watering is worse
than none. A garden should be watered as regularly as a horse,
or not at all. It is a trade to learn how to water, as much as
anything else, with regard to horticulture. In city gardens, an
excellent implement for keeping the ground mellow, where the
plants are too near together to use an ordinary hoe, is the bayonet
hoe.

Mr. Carpenter had found the bayonet hoe very useful in the
cultivation of beets, carrots and parsnips. In watering, he
would first dig the ground deeply, and would afterwards cover
the ground upon which the water is poured with fresh earth. In
the Central Park, the trees are dying, because the water is poured
upon the surface, and a basin is formed around each tree, forming
a perfect hard-pan.

Mr. Robinson. — The proper plan is to water the top of the tree
or plant. Washing the dust from the leaves will do more good
than wetting the roots.

Mr. Pardee stated that Col. Stoddard, who was very successful
in raising strawberries, put on a pailful to every four or five hills.
The leaves of a plant need to be clean, in order to have good
respiration.

Dr. Trimble considered the irrigating process the best. If we
are to water at all we should water effectually.

Mr. Robinson. — Do we sufficiently consider the proper time to
stir the earth? On some days the moisture will be immediately
dried out of the earth, and on others the earth will condense the
moisture. Ought we not to measure the hygrometric condition
of the atmosphere, and know whether stirring the earth will add
to its moisture or evaporate its moisture ?

Dr. Underbill. — I never thought I received much advantage
from moving the soil, during a drought, in the early part of a hot

118 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

day. The cool soil turned up will become heated, and a consid-
erable part of the moisture which would have remained in the
soil will be dried up. But, I do think an advantage is gained by
turning up the cool soil to the influence of the atmosphere just
at night, working, if it is moonlight, very late. The plowing
should be commenced very late in the afternoon and continued as
long as you can see. The dew is thus very much increased. I
have noticed this for many years.

Mr. Gore. — It has been my practice to cultivate in the after-
noon.

Mr. Carpenter. — I plant out everything after the heat of the
day is over, particularly at this season. In setting out cabbage
plants, take a good sized crowbar and shove it two feet into the
earth, filling the hole with Avater and then with earth, and one
out of five hundred will not die. But it should be done just at
uio-lit. The plant will be almost established by morning.

Mr. Underbill. — Watering should be done just at night. It
wnll then sink into the ground far deeper, and the same quantity
of water will do three times as much good.

ASPARAGUS.

Mr. Carpenter. — Is it necessary to allow asparagus seed to
mature, in order to have a good orowth another year ; or may
the tops be cut off?

Mr. Underbill. — My own experience is, that the plant will be
soon destroyed if it is not allowed to go to seed. The young
plants, Avhen not wanted for renewals, may be hoed up in the
spring.

Mr. Gore. — Asparagus should never be cut later than the
middle of June.

Mr. Robinson. — We should stop cutting Avhen the cutting is
still good, and let it perfect the seed thoroughly.

Mr. Pardee. — The ripening of the seed is the most exhausting
operation there is. The only way to raise hybrid roses is to cut
off the bulbs where the roses have blossomed, and prune them
down a little. Instead of allowing the asparagus to harden the
seed, I should suppose that cutting it off would save the strength
which is necessary for that process. That is the law for all
flowers. Whenever we want flowers to continue, we must take
them off as soon as they have fairly blossomed.

Dr. Trimble. — The Canada thistle can be killed by that process,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 119

and a very large number of tlie perennial plants would be killed
by if; cutting off the top several times during the season, and
again in blossom.

Rev. Mr. Weaver. — In this case there is nothing to throw the
strength into, for you cut off the whole top.

Mr. Pardee. — To make a vine strong, it should be pruned in
November, and should not be left until spring. That throws the
strength back into the buds that are left.

Mr. Carpenter. — There can be no doubt that wood grows in
the winter. Fruit trees will grow half as much in the winter as
in the summer ; therefore, pruning gives the best results when
done in the fall.

Rev. Mr. Weaver. — That throws the strength into the buds
that are left. The case of asparagus is different, nothing being
left.

JOHNNY-CAKE.

Mr. Robinson read a recipe, by a lady, for making Johnny-
cake : " Take some good corn meal ; run it through a coarse sieve ;
pour boiling water, just enough to mix it; have the griddle hot;
put on a little butter to prevent sticking, unless you have a soap-
stone griddle ; spread the dough in cakes about seven-eigliths of
an inch thick ; let it bake sufficiently on one side before turning.
A cake may be prepared from rye, oat, or wheat meal, in the
same manner, that will also be delicious." Mr. R. remarked that
lard or pork-rind were either of them better than butter for
greasing the griddle ; cooked butter being never good, any more
than cooked honey. But beeswax is better than either. Wax a
rag with beeswax, in the fall, and add a lump as large as a pea
at each time of cooking, and it wnll prevent the cakes from stick-
ing as well as lard. The griddle should be rubbed over with the
waxed rag, in the morning, before commencing to bake, and then
the same rag should be used to brush off the crumbs. It is better
in every respect. He had used it for years.

Subject for discussioyi. — The subject of " The Flowers and
Fruits of the Season," Avas continued.

Adjourned.

120 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

August 5, 1861.
Mr. Pardee in the chair.

HONEY AND BEES.

Mr, Steele exhibited a specimen of honey made in small sashes
without any intervening partitions. A little guide-comb is rub-
bed upon the inside of the top of each sash, when the bees will
proceed to fill the sash with honey, which can be removed with-
out cutting. He, also, exhibited his bee-moth protector, which
is constructed with a row of circular apertures, fitted with trap-
doors, alternately opening inward and outward. The bees will
pass through readily, while the bee-moth will be ejBfectually
excluded.

Dr. Trimble regarded this a most ingenious contrivance, and
had been pleased to see the bees going in and out. It had been
said by naturalists that it is impossible to educate any insect,
because their lives are not long enough. This apparatus seemed
to overturn that theory.

Mr. Steele — It is not the result of instruction, for I have had
the bees pass through within three minutes from the time it was
put on, without instruction. Bees coming out and opening the
door, will open it to go in again. Bees not in at the time, and
coming back from the fields, seeing it for the first time, would
wait, and seeing others go in would enter in the same way.

Dr. Trimble — There is the instruction.

Mr. Steele — It is a perfectly efiectual protection when it is
properly put on. I have never known it to fail, excepting from
not putting it on properly, or from not putting it on early
enough.

Dr. Trimble — Must the hive be made perfectly tight ? Will
the young insect creep through into the hive ?

Mr. Steele — Undoubtedly I make my hives perfectly tight.

Mr. Carpenter said that there was another annoyance ; mice
would destroy both bees and honey, and this would be no pro-
tection against mice.

Mr. Steele — You can protect the bees from mice in various
other ways. The bees can be put upon a stand so suspended
that mice cannot approach them.

Dr. Trimble stated that but one kind of mouse would attack
bees. The ordinary mouse and the meadow mouse will not touch
them. It is rather a small mouse; the tail is very long. Its
fore-legs are short. It is somewhat of a kangaroo shape.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 121

Mr. Fuller — You are describing the prairie mouse. I did not
know that that was found in this vicinity.

Mr. Carpenter — I have noticed that the shape was peculiar.
It appears to be a distinct variety.

The Chairman suggested that a wire placed across the trap-
doors, so as to allow them to open only far enough to admit the
bees, would cause this protector to keep the mice out.

Mr. Carpenter inquired whether the Italian bee conld, as repre-
sented, extract the honey from the red clover. The common
humble bee is the only one that we now have that can feed upon it.

Mr. Steele had some bees purporting to be Italian bees, but
they were no larger than the common bee.

Mr. Carpenter said there were two kinds of bees called
Italian bees, only one of which is genuine.

Dr. Trimble — Our ordinary honey bee cannot reach the honey
in the red clover, Its tongue is not long enough. If the Italian
bee can extract the honey from the red clover, it would enable
us to have many times as much honey as we now have. Besides,
it would enable us to have clover seed from the first crop of
clover, which we now seldom have. The humble bee is almost
the only insect that we have which can penetrate the red clover ;
and the humble bee does not live through the winter in numbers.
The new colony of bees is not raised so early in the season as
the red clover blossoms. There are, therefore, not bees enough
to fertilize the blossoms.

Mr. Fuller did not consider bees necessary to fertilize clover.
They may assist in fertilizing clover, and insects may assist in
fertilizing strawberries; but nature has provided for their ferti-
lization without such aid. The native Indians of the Southern
Ocean discovered that if dioecious trees arc planted within ten
miles of each other the one would fertilize the other.

]\[r. Burgess suggested that the bees do not visit the wheat
fields, and inquired how they were impregnated.

The Chairman — Nature is not dependant upon the bees.

Mr. Carpenter — No doubt the bees will carry the pollen; but
whether it is necessary, I doubt. We are indebted to the bee
for many hybrids that have proved valuable.

Mr. Burgess — And for many that are not. When I wish to save
seed, I should be glad to have the bees kept out of my garden.

Dr. Trimble referred to elementary works on botany to prove
his statement.

122 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The Chairman — Close observers are continually exploding the
theories of botanists.

Mr. Fuller — We have had the theory advanced here that every
branch of a tree is connected with a corresponding root, so that
neither can live without the other. But the facts explode that
theory; for, if we take a limb of a tree and cut away the bark
so as to prevent the continuous passage of the sap, by tenoning
out pieces in two rings, the upper openings being opposite the
uncut portions of the lower ring, the sap will pass sideways and
the limb will continue to grow. The reason why plants some-
times fail to be fertilized in the greenhouse, is the absence of the
wind.

FLOWERS.

Mr. Fuller exhibited specimens of the gladiolus, remarking
that they are so easily grown, and so easily kept through the
■winter, that they will probably to a great extent take the place
of the dahlia.

COMMUNICATION FROM CALIFORNIA.

The Chairman read a communication which had been sent to
the Farmers' Club from Mr. Bruce, dated at Mariposa, in Cali-
fornia, June 24, 1861; as follows :

To the Secretary of the Farmers^ Club:

Dear Sir : I promised to write to you from hence, and to com-
municate such information from time to time as I considered
either new or useful for the benefit of the members of the Ameri-
can Institute, of which, though absent, I still consider myself a
member. This promise I now proceed to fulfil.

To give any detailed account of my voyage would be interest-
ing to but few; I will, therefore, say nothing on that subject,
further than to state that the passage to Aspinwall, on the Atlan-
tic, was all that any one familiar with sea life could desire ; and
our trip by railroad, over the Isthmus, exceeded in comfort that
of any railroad I ever rode on. It was through a country of
tropical luxuriance, excelling all I had previously beheld. The
inhabitants along the road, as we passed, crowded out to take a
look at us. They were composed of every hue and color human-
ity has yet assumed — the majority of them dressed, as I should
suppose, were earth's earliest inhabitants, while the children were
destitute of all covering whatever.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 123

I have said that our passage on the Atlantic was all any one
familiar with sea life could desire ; but our trip on the Pacific
excelled it in tranquility by all odds. There was, for most of
the distance up from Panama, scarce a ripple on this placid ocean
to disturb the digestive organs of the most delicate female. This
sudden change for the better brought to light many ladies who
had not before been seen at table, and thereby filled up spaces
long vacant, callirjg out from among them many who were vota-
ries of both Apollo and Terpsichore, thereby enlivening our even-
ings for the balance of our trip with singing and dancing to a
late hour. We stopped at Acapulco to coal on our way up, where
many of the passengers went on shore and indulged in fruit eat-
ing, some contracting sickness therefrom, while those remaining
on board were amused by the natives, who surrounded the ship
in boats, selling fruit, shells, coral, squirrels, monkeys and par-
rots, a portion of each being purchased by the passengers; while
others were amused by throwing overboard pieces of money to
divers, who displayed great agility in that art, by catching each
piece before it reached half way to the bottom, although sharks
were visible all around the ship. On leaving Acapulco we met
in the night a ship, that our captain mistook for one of Jeff
Davis's cruisers, and instantly ordered all our lights extinguished.
He at last came to the conclusion it was the downward steamer
of our line. This sudden freak created no slight sensation among
the female passengers. We at last reached San Francisco, this
wonder of the world, which, like ancient Rome, stands on seven
hills, and not low hills either, covered with houses to their sum-
mits. No other nation in the world could believe it possible to
construct a city of such magnitude, and, I may with propriety
add, magnificence, in the short period of a dozen years. What
would this State have been if given over to slavery, as at first
attempted ? Little better than a wilderness ! I remained three
days in San Francisco, and took a good look around ; then took
steamboat for Stockton at 4. p. m., and arrived there at 2 a. m. ;
staid on board till daylight, when I went to a hotel with my
daughter, intending to take a view of the place. We walked
around, and were particularly struck by the beauty of the place
and its surroundings. The outskirts are altogether composed of
handsome white cottages, each having a fine garden, and attached
to each house a small windmill, employed in pumping up water
into a reservoir. This water, by the aid of hose, is used to irri-

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gate their gardens, which otherwise, for eight months of the year,
there being no rain, would remain a perfect barren ; but by this
mode of irrigation the ground produces all manner of fruits, flow-
ers and vegetables in the greatest abundance. We visited the
State Lunatic Asylum at this place — a fine building of brick, with
elegant surroundings. Here we were shown through the female
department by the lady matron, Mrs. Farnum, in whom I found
an old friend, who politely entertained us for two hours. The
next morning at 6 a. m. we took stage for Mariposa. On being
seated in the stage, and ready to start, a gentleman stepped up
and inquired for me by name, stating he had received a tele-
graphic dispatch from my grandson from San Francisco, who had
gone down to meet us, but passed us on the way, and requesting
us to remain till he came up, which we did. Next morning we
started, making stages of twelve miles, with a fine coach carry-
ing nine inside, and some outside, drawn by five excellent horses
on a smooth, level^road, over a plain of vast extent, relieved occa-
sionally by round-topped hills, on which were grazing large herds
of cattle and horses, in fine condition. Although the herbage on
which they fed was, to all appearance, burnt up by the sun, yet
upon inquirj^ I learned that in that state the cattle would thrive
better and become fatter on it than when in the green state. We
soon reached the mountains, in the valleys between which we
passed many fine farms ; and, although only in the month of May,
I was surprised to find it the harvest time in this region. On
several farms the mowing machine Avas at work cutting down
wheat and barley, which, to all appearance, were an abundant
crop. Of Indian corn I saw but little ; oats and barley, as also
wheat, upon occasion, are mowed in the green state for hay, and
the horses appear to thrive on it, they being all in fine condition.
We put up for the night at the mining town of Hornitas, where
we went to bed at the hotel the stage stopped at, but not to
sleep, although much in need of it. This town, as are most
mining towns, is infested by a set of men who, after the well-dis-
posed are abed, make night hideous with their howling in their
drunken orgies. They thus deprived us of all sleep, which had to
be paid for, the same as if we had been blessed with a taste of
kind Nature's sweet restorer.

At 5 A. M. the stage for Mariposa called for us, in which we
travelled breakfastless a distance of seven miles, to Bear Valley.
Here the chief quartz mills of Fremont are located in a little vil-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 125

lage, finely situated between his gold-bearing mountains. Again
started and passed as before many pleasant farms, or ranches, as
they call them here, some deeply and successfully engaged in the
culture of fruit of all kinds — grapes, peaches and apricots, in par-
ticular; the same means of irrigation having to be pursued as I
have mentioned was done at Stockton by windmills and pumps,
unless, as is frt^quently the case, a mountain spring is in their
vicinity, when the most ingenious methods are resorted to to get
and give by its distribution equal benefits to all the plants, under
which treatment everything flourishes in the utmost luxuriance
till late in the fall. We reached the town of Mariposa at 12 m.,
and were warmly received by my sons, who had been long expect-
ing us. Mariposa is situated, like most of the towns in the mining
districts, in a valley between high mountains of gold-bearing
quartz. The valleys appear to have been chiefly formed by land-
slides at various periods, forming eminences or risings above each
other, many of which form good farming land, but all containing
more or less gold in particles or large lumps. I am the more
convinced in this theory, from a conversation held with our next
neighbor, an old, trusty employee of Mr. Fremont's, who informed
me that in front of the place where we now are, that was bought
from him, and which fronts on the creek or brook, he had in one
day taken out $2,300, and the next day $1,700, and added a million
of dollars had been obtained within the space of a few hundred
feet. Wealth thus easily obtained is as easily got rid of; hence
the inhabitants, with but slight exceptions, are woefully deficient
in domestic economy. All that is bought, with the exception of
beef, is at four times its cost in New York. There being no coin
less than a dime in circulation, we pay a dime for a pint of milk.
I had an invitation for myself and family to spend a day at the
ranch of a Mr. John Neal, formerly a jeweller of New York city,
but who got burnt out in the great fire which nearly destroyed
this place three years ago, but managed from the wreck of his
fortune to buy his present farm, situated about three miles from
here. I accepted the invitation, Mr. Neal sending for our accom-
modation horses saddled for the journey. We found his place off
from the Fremont grant, situated in a valley of some eighty acres,
almost environed by high granite mountains, from the debris of
which his land is formed, and consequently must, if the theory of
Prof. Mapes be correct, contain the sixty-four primaries, and from
its apparent fertility must contain them in suitable proportions

126 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

to afiford to plants their most nutritious pabulum. I am the more
convinced of the truth of this, when taken by Mr. Neal through
his ground, which is admirably laid out for the cultivation of
fruits of all kinds, for which purpose it is mainly designed; and
although little more than two years since he entered on it a wil-
derness, it will take the palm as an orchard and garden from any-
thing I ever beheld at the north, in the immense profusion with
which the trees are loaded with fruit, with this peculiarity that
the apples, peaches and many other fruits grow in clusters of
from five to eight. The color of the soil of this lovely spot was
jet black, and the secret of its great fertility was discoverable in
a large spring situated on the side of a mountain near by, the
water from which is led in little ditches of an inch or so in depth
in every direction through his garden and orchard where required,
thus obviating the necessity of the windmill and pump, before
alluded to, for this purpose. These little streams, meandering
through his grounds, carried little bright shining particles of
mica, which, to the uninitiated, bore all the appearance of gold.
Besides the immense crop of fruits and vegetables Mr. Neal has
already raised this year on his farm of eighty -four acres eighty
tons of hay, made from huge crops of barle}^ wheat and oats,
which is cut while the grain is yet in the milk, the hay being in
value here from twenty-five to sixty dollars a ton. All the help
Mr. Neal employs to perform the labor of his farm is an old Indian
chief, of great celebrity as a warrior, and his two sons, boys of
about sixteen and seventeen. All of them excel as marksmen
and by their dexterity as such keep his table continually and
abundantly supplied with all manner of game native to this region
of country. The Indians are in abundance, located a short dis-
tance from this town, some of whom are daily visitors; but few
of them seem disposed to adopt habits of civilized life.

The Chinese are to be found in large numbers in and around
the neighborhood. They are chiefly engaged in mining, and that
in places deserted by the whites as not sufficiently productive.
There are two classes of these — Tartars and Chinamen — who bear
a deadly enmity to each other. When the opportunity presents
of either side being brought within the meshes of the law, the
other side will expend large sums in the feeing of lawyers, and
do their utmost to have their opponents hanged. A peculiar
arrangement exists with regard to the people. If any of the
males die here they are buried for a time, then disinterred and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 127

placed in a leaden coffin, soldered up tight, and that placed in a
wooden box, which is sent to San Francisco. There it is encased
in a still stronger box, in which it is shipped to China ; but the
females, for some reason, are not included in this arrangement.

I am makini; every effort to make such collections of seeds of
flowers, fruits, vegetables and trees as I thought might prove
of interest, besides various curiosities. I have obtained some
already that are deemed valuable, but the sending of them by
express — the only safe mode from here — will be attended with
some expense, that, to an individual, might soon prove too bur-
thensome, I would respectfully ask if the Institute could devise any
mode whereby I could be relieved of expense in their transmission.

With best respects to my old colleagues of both Clubs,
I remain yours, truly,

JOHN BRUCE.

Mr. Carpenter remarked, with reference to the statement in
this communication that cattle do well upon dry grass, that he
had adopted the practice of preserving a piece of grass into
which the cattle could be turned in case of drought, and he had
found that the cattle did well upon this dry grass. Another
method is to plant corn for soiling. Sweet corn may be cut up
and fed to hogs, who will eat the entire stalk and thrive upon it.

Mr. Adrian Bergen had tried the plan of feeding cattle upon
dry grass, and they kept in good heart. They might fail in their
milk with this feed. Any kind of corn may be cut from the
ground and fed to hogs, who will eat it up clean, and do well.
He remarked that he had lately been down upon the " barrens "
of Long Island, and was confident from his own observation that
they could be cultivated to advantage. They were growing as
good crops down there as anybody need to grow.

On motion of Mr. Gore, Mr. Carpenter was requested to reply
to Mr. Bruce's letter.

Mr. Fuller remarked that the Sequoia Gigantea stood the cold
of last winter, and might be called perfectly hardy. He con-
sidered it worth four times as much as the Cedar of Lebanon.

Mr. Carpenter did not consider it perfectly hardy. Mr. Reed,
of New Jersey, lost his best specimen last winter, a tree about
eight feet high, one of the largest in this neighborhood. He
had learned that Mr. Gore was about to leave soon for Honduras,
and would suggest that he should write to the club.

128 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Gore promised to do so. He had never found such con-
flicting accounts about any other place, and hoped to be able to
furnish some reliable information respecting it.

DROUGHT.

Mr. Carpenter had observed marked effects from the sprinkling
of plaster in drought, from its attracting the moisture from the
atmosphere.

Mr. Gore had noticed the same result.

Mr. Doughty had lately sprinkled plaster upon oats which were
all burning up from the drought, and the good effect was easily
seen.

The subject of " Protection from Drought," was selected for
discussion at the next meeting. Adjourned.

August 12, 1861.
Mr. Amos Gore in the chair.

APPLES AND PEARS.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited ten varieties of early apples, the
Bovine de Mai, the Drap d' Or, the Early Strawberry, the Sum-
mer Queen, the Summer Rose, the Red Astrachan, the Sweet
Bough, the Early Joe, the Indian Queen, and a chance seedling
as yet unnamed. The latter he described as fart, very tender,
and very juicy. It remains a long time upon the tree, is produc-
tive, and an excellent variety. The quality of apples does not
seem to be affected by the drought this year, although they are
prematurely ripening, and the crop, especially of winter fruit, is
falling from the trees. Of pears he exhibited four varieties, the
Beurre Giffard, Osband'a Summer, the Ott, and the Jargonelle.
The Ott is a seedling from the Seckel, and quite as good. He
took occasion to commend the accuracy of Mr. William Reed, of
Elizabeth, N. J., in labeling his trees, remarking that it is dis-
couraging to an amateur, after waiting several years for a choice
variety, to find that the result is some other miserable and use-
less kind.

Mr. John G. Bergen said that the seedling was a first rate
apple. The pear exhibited as a Jargonelle is called by Downing
the Windsor Bell, and has been condemned by the American
Pomological Convention. He considered it a great wrong to
throw it out, for it is one of the most profitable pears that grows

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 129

upon Long Island. It is one of the best bearers, and the
strongest growers. In planting a pear orchard he would plant
more of them than of any other kind, excepting perhaps the
Bartlett. This is not the nsual Jargonelle pear.

Mr. Carpenter. — This is known as the Jargonelle by all the
nurserymen in the United States and in England, and is so called
by all the books, without an exception,

Mr. Bergen. — We had the matter up in the Convention, in
Philadelphia, last fall, and this was admitted by Mr. Wilder and
others to be the Windsor Bell.

Dr. Trimble considered the Jargonelle, as he had seen and
cultivated it, worthless. It may appear fair and fine upon the
tree ; but knock it down from the tree, and it is not a i^ear but
a squash.

Mr. Bergen said that that might be true, if the pear is allowed
to ripen on the tree ; but if the Windsor Bell is picked green
and put into the cellar, and allowed to soften there, it will ripen
without becoming rotten at the core. If they are destroyed by
being left too long upon the tree, it is not the fault of the pear.

Mr. Burgess. — This is not the English Jargonelle at all. It is
nothing like it. It is a great fault of the Jargonelle that it will
not bear gathering. It should be eaten from the tree, one day
before it gets ripe. It is a fine pear, if you can find it just right.

Mr. Bergen read Downing's description of the Windsor Bell,
in which the tree is mentioned as of straggling growth.

Mr. Carpenter. — This is not straggling. It is upright,

Mr. Bergen. — Then I may be mistaken in the identity of this
pear.

THE GLADIOLUS.

Mr. Andrew Bridgeman exhibited some beautiful specimens of
the Gladiolus, in spikes, mostly however secondary flowers, the
season for them being nearly over. From the bulb planted in
the spring there will shoot up four or five stalks, according to
its strength. Each stalk produces three spikes of flowers, a
principal spike growing from 18 to 20 inches long, and flowering
gradually up to the top, and a secondary spike on each side of it
which are much shorter. The bulb that is planted dies, and
each of the stalks thrown up expands at the base and forms a
new bulb to be planted the following season. These bulbs
iLiiiw themselves indefinitely, and there is no occasion to renew

[Am. Inst.] I

130 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

from seed. The proper time for planting is April or May. They
may be planted as late as June, if the bulbs are kept dry and
are not started. They will stand the winter ; but it is not
desirable to leave them out, for two reasons. The bulb being
formed each year above the old one, it is necessary to plant
them deeper. Besides, the multiplication of the bulbs makes it
desirable that they should be taken up and separated. They
should be taken up just before or just after a frost, and after
being gradually dried should be kept in a dry place, the tops
having been cut off and the roots cleaned. These specimens
were of the French hybrid Gladiolus, derived from the Emperor's
gardens. The soil best adapted to them is a good loamy soil.
They require considerable moisture, and do not bear, particu-
larly in the dry season, too much exposure to the sun and heat.
It should not be fertilized too strongly with manures.

Mr. Carpenter remarked that experience seemed to show that
there is a certain point that we cannot go beyond in the improve-
ment of fruits and flowers, and that if we attempt to pass that
limit, the fruit or the flower falls back to its original condition.

PROTECTION FROM DROUGHT.

Mr. Carpenter stated, that, in a portion of Westchester county,
there has been no rain of any consequence since the 4th or 5th
of June. Yet, the portion of his garden which had been trenched,
30 inches deep, and manured throughout at the same time, there
was no injury from the drought. Melons planted there, and
receiving no artificial watering, were doing as well as he could
desire. In other parts of his garden the ground is baked hard, and
the melon vines are nearly dead, there being no fruit upon them
of any value. Much can be done upon the farm by subsoil plow-
ing, 20 inches deep. A piece of ground thus prepared and sown
with carrots, was doing well. The stirring of the surface, in a
dry time, is very important. An application of a very small
quantity of gypsum will produce a striking efi'ect, from its
attracting the moisture of the atmosphere. He had applied it
with marked effect upon potatoes and corn. It is a good plan to
give the corn a slight dusting three or four times, with gypsum,
in the course of the season.

Mr. Bergen said that clearing the ground of weeds is not all
that is necessary. At no time does the ground so much need
frequent stirring as in the time of extreme drought. He had

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 131

lately visited what were known as the Barrens of Long Island,
and had found the crops, notwithstanding the drought, in a green
and flourishing state. He coincided with the view taken by Dr.
Peck, that before many years shall have elapsed, these lands will
be cleared off and cultivated. Within the last fifteen years,
hundreds of acres have been cleared off, and wherever they are
properly cultivated the crops look well.

Dr. Peck. — Probably the only remedy we have, without resort-
ing to irrigation, is through deep tillage. The soils in this region,
south of the Highlands, and within fifteen or twenty miles of the
sea shore, never need to suffer, with proper tillage, if thoroughly
plowed and subsoiled or trenched to the depth of not less than
18 or 20 inches. Keep the surface of the earth stirred, so that
the atmosphere may thoroughly permeate it, and the drought
will have little effect. As to the Long Island soils, it had been
twenty years since he had brought up the subject before the
Farmer's Club as a matter of public interest ; saying, then, that
he could see no reason why they should not be cultivated. The
event has proved not only that they are well worthy of cultiva-
tion, but that they will stand a drought as well as any other
region in the State. For twenty years successively, he had
visited Hempstead Plain, with a view to observe the effects of
drought upon that soil. When in other places the corn leaves
were rolling up from the drought, going by railroad to Hempstead
Plain, he would invariably find the corn green and luxuriant.
There is not now a single, sign of drought in that whole region,
while there has been no more rain there than here. And there
has not been a drought there within the memory of man.

The Chairman stated his experience in Maryland, in 1841, when
he had raised the only crop of corn in the neighborhood, in con-
sequence of deep plowing and constant cultivation. His neigh-
bors only plowed, as is customary there, about 3 or 3-| inches
deep.

Mr. Robinson suggested that, that was probably twice as deep
as they really plowed. In measuring the deptli of plowing, if
we measure from the top to the bottom of the furrow, as turned
up, we shall make it nearly twice as deep as it really is.

Dr. Peck recommended the old method of plastering corn,
throwing in a teaspoonful to the hill, two or three times in the
season. The sea air does not, as is sometimes supposed, destroy
the effect of plaster.

132 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Bridgeman had observed that the plains of Long Island
stand a drought better than inland soil. He had also observed
the same thing of the eastern shore of New Jersey. He ascribed
this result to the influence of the salt in the atmosphere, which
has a tendency to attract and retain moisture. He had found
that a small quantity of salt sprinkled upon dry lands, would
often enable them to stand a drought.

Mr. Robinson cited his own garden as an exception to Dr.
Peck's theory, that land deeply plowed and constantly stirred, is
safe against drought. His land had been trenched 30 inches
deep, thoroughly manured, plowed and subsoil plowed repeatedly
and as deeply as possible, and had been stirred as frequently this
manner as it is ever desirable to stir land even in drought. In
addition to that, plaster and salt and ashes have all been used.
Yet, with all this, the drought is so severe that the crops fail.
There has been no rain there since the potatoes were planted,
sufficient to wet them in the hill. In planting the potatoes, he
had marked the rows with a subsoil plow, going as deeply as pos-
sible, and scattered salt with the potatoes in the rows. By his
method of cultivation, he had been able to obtain a few small
potatoes, while his neighbors, who merely scratched the ground
Maryland fashion, got none. All the remedies for drought have
failed, excepting irrigation; and to tliat wo must come at last.
The best outlay that can be made upon a farm is to prepare by
wind-power or water-power for irrigating the land, and placing
it beyond all fear of drought. If the -lands are properly under-
drained there will be no danger of giving them too much
water.

Dr. Trimble said that in New Jersey, where they have marl,
there is no necessity for irrigation. They have no drought.

Mr. Carpenter said that drought was particularly injurious to
shrubbery and trees newly set out, unless they have been pro-
perly watered when set out. And by a proper watering they
can be protected from the effects of drought. Spading around
each tree to a depth of fifteen inches, then applying not less
than six pailfuls of water to a tree ten feet in height, and mulch-
ing the ground as far as the roots extend, there is no necessity
for repeating the operation, if there should be no rain for a
month. Unless thoroughly wet more injury may be done than
good.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 133

Subjects for discussio7i. — The subjects of " Protection from
Drought," and " Fruits," were selected for consideration at the
next meeting. Adjourned.

August 19, 1861.
Mr. Austin Church in the chair.

APPLES AND PEARS.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited specimens of apples and pears, a
little later than those exhibited by him last week. Persons
wishing to set out fruit trees would be enabled to test the fruit
in advance, and would be enabled to detect any errors committed
by nurserymen in labelling their trees. The Alexander apple,
which usuall}^ ripens in September, has been forwarded by the
drought. He had found it a free bearer, bearing every j^ear. It
is a fine cooking apple, and large and showy for the market.
The Gravenstein is one of the best apples for the dessert or for
cooking. One of them will perfume a room. The Bay apple,
Jenny's seedling, small and finely flavored, and the Horse apple,
for cooking, were among those exhibited. Of pears, the Tyson,
Bloodgood, and Dearborn's seedling were mentioned.

Mr. Robinson exhibited specimens of Erhard's early pear,
which he highly recommended, and of the early strawberry
apple, beautiful to the eye, and spicy to the taste, and as fragrant
as the Gravenstein, which every farmer should possess.

Mr. John C. Bergen endorsed the recommendation of the apple,
but stated that it did not now succeed in Kings county. They
had done well twenty or twenty -five years ago; but he should now
be compelled to remove the trees. He presented specimens of
the Summer Bell or Windsor pear, of which he had spoken last
week. The Pomological conventions may reject it, but the public
consider it a good pear.

Mr. Carpenter said that, in quality, this pear is but second
rate, but that for market purposes it might be serviceable.

Mr. Bergen said that this pear is astringent, and that many
persons prefer the Bell pear to the Bartlett, because it is astrin-
gent. This pear ought not to be set aside as unworthy of culti-
vation.

THE HESSIAN FLY VS. THE APHIS.

Mr. Robinson read a letter from a gentleman in Montrose, Pa.,
enclosing wheat-heads infested with insects this season for the
first time, and inquiring whether it was the Hessian fiy.

IS'4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Dr. Trimble, after citing " Kirby and Spence" to prove his
former assertion that certain plants could not mature seed with-
out the instrumentality of .certain insects in their fertilization,
stated that he had examined these insects a month ago and found
them to be the aphis, or plant-louse. He had found upon inves-
tigation that it has been attacked by a parasite insect -which
would keep it in check. The aphis is remarkable in its rate of
increase. It commences early in the spring, and there are eight
successive generations during the summer. Then comes a genera-
tion of winged insects, which lay eggs to produce the young for
the next summer. It has attacked vegetation generally this
summer. The wheat-fields and oat-fields are black with them.
Yet he should not apprehend any material injury to the grain.

Mr. Carpenter did not consider the appearance of this insect
an occasion for alarm. Grain does not appear to be injured in
the least by them. They might injure tender shrubs.

Mr. Bergen had had his cucumbers so much injured by them
that he would obtain but $50 from a plot which usually yielded
$250. He should be compelled to abandon the raising of cucum-
bers on this account. They have injured squash plants, but not
to such an extent. "Watermelons are much injured by them.

Mr. Fuller regarded the aphis as an insect doing great injury.
If he did not destroy them upon the grape vines early in the
season, they would injure them so much as to stop their growth.
He had lately found that his strawberry plants had been attacked
by a sort of subterranean aphis. He was obliged to take up the
plants and clean them from the roots, and transplant to prevent
them from destroying his vines. Yet, there were none upon the
top of the plant. As to the fertilization of plants, although
there are works which throw out the hint that insects are indis-
pensable, he was not convinced of it.

BUTTER-MAKING.

Mr. Robinson read a letter from Clinton county inquiring why
the writer sometimes failed to obtain butter in churning, and giv-
ing in detail the facts respecting his cows, dairy, churn, &c. He
remarked that he had had the same experience this season, the but-
ter sometimes coming promptly, and at other times not for hours.

Mr. Carpenter recommended the use of the thermometer churn.

Mr. Robinson stated that the writer used the thermometer in
churning, and the cream was brought to the temperature of 62

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 135

^leg., which was the proper temperature. He had himself com-
menced churning with the cream at 62 deg., and kept it at 62
deg., and yet after four hours of churning the butter had to be
strained out from the buttermilk.

Mr, Gale said that just as good butter could be made in
August as in October, and can be made as well in the western
part of New York as anywhere else. The only difficulty is in
knowing how to do it. The true mode is, the moment the milk is
strained, to put it in a cool place properly ventilated, and to keep
it cool until it is to be churned, when it must be churned at the
proper temperature,

Mr. Robinson said that the thermometer in the churn would
not suffice ,• there must be a thermometer in the dairy, and the
temperature there must be properl}^ regulated. Then, provided
always that the electrical condition of the atmosphere is right,
we may always make butter. But we all know that milk is
affected by a violent thunder storm, and we cannot be sure of
making butter unless we know that the electrical condition of
the atmosphere is right.

Prof. Mapes suggested that it was not the electricity but the
difference of barometrical pressure consequent upon a thunder
shower which affected the milk by precipitating particles held in
mechanical suspension. Probably a milk room in the neighbor-
hood of Bull's Run on the day of the battle would have been
affected in the same way. We are apt to attribute effects to a
fact associated in some wa}" with the cause. For instance, Mr.
James G. King raised very large crops by the aid of galvanism,
placing wires at some depth below the surface of the soil and
connecting them with a battery. But he found that with the
same disintegration of the soil which was required to bury his
wnres, he could raise the same crops without the battery.

Dr. Trimble said that the error probablj^ was, as suggested, in
not keeping the milk at a proper temperature before churning.
In the best dairies of Pennsylvania, which he had visited, the
dairy is built, over a spring of water at a temperature never vary-
ing in summer, and not far from 55 deg., and the pans are set in
this water. There is no difficulty there in churning, and they
consider this spring-house essential in making good butter.

Mr. Carpenter said that dairymen from whom he received large
quantities of butter informed him that they never had a failure.
The milk is always the same, it is churned by the thermometer,
and the result is always the same.

136 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

ELDERBERRY WINE.

Mr. Robinson read a letter inquiring how to make wine from
the elderberry without putting spirits in it.

Prof. Mapes said that the proper way Avould be to change the
nature of the sugar at the outset. If we melt the sugar and add
a very small quantity of sulphuric acid, half a gill to 100 lbs of
sugar, and boil it four or five hours, we may then add common
chalk which will take up the sulphuric acid and go to the bottom
in the form of gypsum. The supernatant fluid, poured off, would
not afterward give an article resembling rum, but would give an
article resembling brandy. If the sugar be so treated we may
make the best of elderberry wine with it.

Mr. Carpenter read a receipt from a lady — " One quart elder-
berry juice, to three quarts Avater, and three pounds sugar. Let
it ferment and then cork up."

Mr. Robinson said that the juice of apples would make better
wnne than anything else excepting grapes. Next comes .the juice
of peaches and pears. They are all far superior to berries.
Elderberry wine he did not consider worth making.

Mr. Fuller said that apple juice was decidedly better than
anything excepting grape juice for wine.

DROUGHT.

Mr. Robinson read an extract from the " Boston Cultivator/'
stating that Mr. E. L. Metcalf, of Franklin, Mass., is preparing to
irrigate forty acres of his land.

Prof Mapes explained the importance of underdraining land to
prevent drought. The primary function of the drains is the
aeration of the soil, and both ends should be left open. The cur-
rent of air en ering charged with moisture is cooled sufficiently
to deposit a portion of that moisture in the soil with which it
comes in contact, and this moisture is taken up by capillary
attraction within reach of the roots of the plants. The air
escaping from the outlet of the drain will be several degrees
colder than when it entered, and this heat, as well as a portion
of its moisture has been taken up by the soil. . Hence, under-
drained lands, properly subsoiled and surface plowed, will be two
weeks earlier in the spring and tAvo weeks later in the fall than
other lands. lie desired that the subject be continued for another
week.

Subject, " Drought and Flowers."

Adjourned.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 137

August 26, 1861.
Mr. Doughty in the chair.

TRANSPLANTING CORN TOPPING SUCKERS.

Mr. Burgess exhibited a specimen of corn which had been trans-
planted when about a foot high. It was topped as soon as the
grains were impregnated. There were several suckers, and the
yield was seven ears, several of which Avere of good size. It had
Bot suffered from the drought. His object was to show that corn
could be readily transplanted.

Mr. Carpenter would object to topping corn, when the greatest
yield of grain was desired. There will be more corn, and it will
be heavier, if the tops are allowed to remain until the grain is
perfected. But in many cases the value of the tops for fodder
may more than compensate the loss on the grain.

Mr. Robinson. — I think this experiment touches a new point,
in topping corn. In all the experiments that have been made,
the results have apparently been in favor of not topping the corn,
the increased value of the corn when not topped being more than
the value of the stalks. But Mr. Burgess tops his corn several
weeks earlier than corn is ordinarily topped. In the experiments
hitherto the corn has been topped after the ears have been so far
ripened that the grain would grow ; for when in a good state for
eating, particularly the sweet corn, if the ears are plucked from
the stalk and hung up and dried until they shrivel up, they will
vegetate. But it is a new idea, worthy of being tried, to top
corn so much earlier.

Mr. Gale mentioned an incident which had occurred to himself.
His neighbors' cows had broken into his corn-field, and remained
there several days before they were discovered, topping the corn
most effectually; but in the fall, where the cows had been there
was the heaviest yield of corn. In his experiment in Maryland,
before mentioned, he did not top his corn, as his neighbors usu-
ally did.

Dr. Trimble said that corn ought to be planted at such a dis-
tance as not to throw out suckers. They are a nuisance in a
corn-field excepting in hills where but one or two kernels of corn
have vegetated. There suckers may be allowed to grow.

Mr. Bergen explained that he had not brought this corn to
illustrate the advantage of topping corn, or of suckers, but merely
to show that even in such a drought as that of the present year

138 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

corn may be transplanted so as to fill up vacant hills. It may
be done so rapidly that 500 could be transplanted in an hour.

Mr. Carpenter. — I do not think farmers can transplant their
corn to much advantage. The .best way is to sow it on an
inverted sod, preparatory to transplanting; but I believe it to be
the most difficult of vegetables to transplant. I have attempted
it, but I could never make it amount to much. It is better to
put in plenty of seed, and then if there are too many to take out
the surplus. But as a general thing, I think farmers plant their
corn too far apart. If planted in hills three feet apart each way,
four grains to the hill, or in drills three feet apart, and the grains
nine or ten inches apart in the drill, it will produce more to the
acre than if planted farther apart. A neighbor of mine, who last
year planted a large field, partly in hills and partly in drills,
found that the drills yielded about five bushels per acre the most,
and this year has planted a large piece in drills, which now has
a very promising crop.

Mr. Robinson had never been able to satisfy himself that suck-
ers upon corn detract from the yield. The results appeared the
best where the suckers had been permitted to grow. Whether
corn will sucker or not depends, not upon the distance at which
it is planted, but upon the variety, and upon the season.

Mr. Carpenter. — It has been proved, I think, beyond dispute,
that it is detrimental to a crop of corn to take off the suckers.
I am always pleased when I see an indication of suckering; for
it shows great strength to bring out the crop.

Mr. Steele stated that he had observed that corn never puts
out braces unless there are to be two or three ears to the stalk.
Sometimes a second and even a third tier of braces will start out.
Their office is to support the stalk. So the suckers come up from
a strong stalk, and their office is to supply pollen for the late
ears and for the tops of the ears. Cornjthat is topped does not
fill out so well to the ends of the ears.

Mr. Burgess. — The suckers have their own roots, and support
themselves. They do not rob the parent, but rather add to its
strength, being attached to it, and the sap going into it.

DROUGHT.

Mn Burgess exhibited specimens of late beans and tomatoes
which had not suffered from the drought, and attributed it to his
method of manipulating the soil. Before every rain he passes

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 139

between the rows with a fork loosening the earth so that the
water shall at once sink beneath the surface ; and after the rain
he loosens the surface with the rake. He recommends in plant-
ing potatoes, &c., upon hill-sides to riiake the rows as nearly level
as practicable, so that the water may sink into the earth instead
of being conducted down the hill.

Mr. Fuller remarked that an occasional drought is necessary,
and he believed the drought of this summer had been of great
benefit to the country in destroying the different varieties of fun-
gus. All 'the cryptogamous plants seem to have been destroyed
this year. There is no mildew upon the grape vines or in the
ground. An immense amount of seeds of such plants must have
been destroyed this year.

Dr. Trimble said that the same remark would apply to the
larvse of insects. By experiment he had ascertained that the
larv£e of the curculio would not be perfected in the absence of
moisture.

UNRIPE SEEDS.

Mr. Burgess also exhibited young tomato plants, produced, as
he supposed from the seed of tomatoes pickled green and remain-
ing in the brine all winter. They came up thickly wherever the
brine was put, while in the rest of his garden there were only a
few in a place, in scattered patches.

Mr. Carpenter said that he presumed some of the tomatoes
must have matured their seed before being put in the pickle.

Mr. Burgess maintained that wheat cut Avhen the milk can be
pressed out from it will make the strongest stalk.

Mr. Carpenter. — There is vitality enough in the stalk to mature
the grain.

Mr. Robinson suggested that in this case the seed were not
separated from the tomato, and might be ripened in the same
way.

Mr. Burgess had planted the seed from a green cucumber, and
obtained a premium for the cucumbers produced.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Mr. Burgess exhibited a sweet scented verbena, and a petunia
with a green-edged corolla.

Mr. Fuller, in answer to an inquiry, stated that seeds and
plants to be sent to South America must be put up dry. There
will be moisture enough in hot latitudes condensing upon them,
however tightly they may be packed.

140 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

APPLES AND PEARS.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited the Summer Pippin apple, and the Ott,
Brandywine, Tyson and Russet pears. The Madeline is one of
the earliest pears, but is astringent.

MANURES.

Mr. Robinson exhibited a specimen of a manurial substance
produced from butcher's oflfal, and which it is proposed to sell
for $8 per ton.

Mr. Carpenter referred to tafeu, fish guano, and other similar
manures, as being of very doubtful utility. The only manures of
the kind he had found always reliable were Peruvian guano and
bone dust.

Mr. Fuller said it w'as unsafe for the Farmers' Club to recom-
mend any special manure, no matter how valuable it might seem,.
for a few tons would be made according to the sample, and the
rest would be worthless. Bone dust and Peruvian guano are the
only ones worth hauling, and we may even be swindled in bone
dust, for an agricultural firm in this city has been selling for bone
dust a mixture three quarters of which is vegetable ivory, and the
other fourth perhaps bone and perhaps something else. He had
tried a ton of the phosphates this year, with no results. These
manures might be valuable if there were honest men engaged in
their manufacture. Poudrette, for instance, properly made would
be valuable, but as now made, using lime to expel the ammonia,
it is of no value.

THE APHIS.

Mr. Morris, of New Jersey, stated that the oats were destroyed
by the insects in his neighborhood. Upon examination he had
found that although the principal part of these insects were the
aphis, yet there was another insect with them, which he exhibited.

STRAWBERRIES.

Mr. Robinson read an inquiry as to the proper method of rais-
ing strawberries for the market.

Dr. Trimble obtained a full crop the first year by setting out
the plants a foot apart.

Mr. Gore. — I have had excellent results setting them twenty
inches apart.

Mr. Carpenter. — The method depends upon the variety and the
soil. I think most of our native seedlings will bear in masses.
The Bartlett, I think, will bear closer growing than any other.
I have seen them as close as they could stand, and bear a fine

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 141

crop. So with the Austin. On the contrary, the foreign varie-
ties produce better in hills. The Triomphe de Gand will not bear
neglect ; but should be grown in hills. It is one of the finest
flavored berries in cultivation.

Mr. Robinson read another inquiry, as to the best means of
carrying strawberries to market. The best baskets, he said, are
Cook's baskets, made in New Haven. He should prefer a box
made by cutting two shavings from a block of wood just long
and wide enough, and bending them into the proper shape and
tying them. Such a box would be so cheap that it need not be
returned to be used a second time. They should be sent to mar-
ket in a spring crate.

Mr. Carpenter said that in setting out strawberry plants they
should be mulched an inch thick with green grass. This will
wither and dry up by the time the plants are well rooted.

Mr. Fuller recommended to set out strawberries from this time
until the 10th of September, twelve inches by eighteen apart.
If but one crop is desired the ground may be made rich. No
runner should be allowed to grow the first season. If too much
manure is put on, the plants will be of no value after the first
season; and in the neighborhood of Boston it is the practice to
raise but one crop from the plants. By transplanting, or dib-
bling out runners as soon as they begin to form a root, cutting
off the runner on the side next to the main plant, close to the
little plant, a new set of roots will be thrown out on that side,
and then the plants may be transferred to the main bed. —
Although this process makes the main bed fifteen days later, yet
the plants are larger, and it seems to pay for the trouble to dib-
ble them out and let them stand ten days. Old plants may be
transplanted, of scarce varieties, but the new plants are better.
Cook's basket costs but three cents to the quart, and the berries
will sell for enough more to pay for that. But it should be hon-
est measure. It will not do for him to yield to the demand of
dishonest dealers for scant measure.

Mr. Robinson. — If he does we must expose him.

Mr. Carpenter mentioned that the same crown never boars
fruit a second season. It sends up new crowns around the first,
and they produce the fruit.

Mr. Fuller said that that was the way with the lily and other
perennials of that class.

Subject — "Fruits of the season." Adjourned.

142 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

September 2, 1861.
Mr. N. H. Gale in the chair.

UNRIPE FRUIT AND VEGETABLES.

Mr. Steele exhibited specimens of grapes and tomatoes such
as are sold in the New York markets, saying that he thouglit the
time had arrived when the Farmers' Club should do something
to put a stop to the desecration and sacrilege of bringing vege-
tables and fruits into the market in an improper state, forcing
the residents to eat what they do eat before it is ripe.

The Chairman. — This is a very important subject. If the club
could have such an influence, it would be a saving to the farmer
and a saving to the purchaser. For instance, as our farmers are
in the habit of taking their potatoes to market, every barrel con-
tains from one to two pecks not fit for family use, and which are
only thrown away. But if they would keep these out they would
not loose more than one barrel in twenty, for they do little more
than fill up the interstices between the larger potatoes, and the
potatoes would bring from a quarter to half a dollar more per
barrel. So the farmer, in keeping out the small potatoes, would
receive as much as in putting them in, and would have the small
potatoes besides.

Mr. Adrian Bergen had been astonished that the people of
New York would use such fruit and vegetables as are brought to
market ; but they would buy them, and how could we prevent
it?

Mr. Robinson said that the small potatoes could be sold sepa-
rately, for half price, to bakers for yeast and for bread. As to
unripe fruit, not only are fruit and vegetables brought here in
an unfit state for human beings to use, but after they are brought
they are injured by the manner in Avhich they are kept. Pota-
toes, especially, are much injured by exposure to light and air,
undergoing that slow but certain process of turning green and
becoming unwholesome food. Peaches are brought into the
market not merely unripe, but sometimes only half grown ; and
two-thirds of the grapes sold here are only fit for hogs to eat.
But if the people know no better than to buy them, how can we
blame the producer for bringing them?

Mr. Pardee said that it was a wonder that New York did not
sufi"er even more than it does from the use of unripe fruit. Chil-
dren will even take the wilted cucumbers that the grocers throw

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 143

into the street and eat them. Grapes are brought into the
market as soon as they are colored, which is some time before
they get their flavor, and we seldom see a peach that has the
peach flavor. The Isabella grape, the Lawton blackberry and
the Wilson strawberry are all green for a considerable time after
they are colored, and until they are thoroughly ripe they are not
only wanting in flavor but are unwholesome. There are some
varieties of the pear that can be ripened in the house ; but it is
necessary to study the peculiarities of each variety. He had
brought a specimen of the Isabella grape, colored, and inquired
whether any other person, excepting Mr. Steele, had grapes as
far advanced.

Mr. Doughty. — I have the Hartford Prolific very nearly ripe.

Prof. Mapes said there was a period of summer rest in the
growth of grapes which can be obviated by a stimulating
manure. Stick a pin at the end of any lateral, and it will be
found that the growth of all the laterals has for a time entirely
ceased. The nitrogenized superphosphate of lime, or potash in
solution, two pounds to one hundred gallons of water, applied
either before the first of July to prevent it, or after that time to
arrest it, will cause the grape to keep up its growth. He had
Delaware grapes riper than the Isabella ; also Norton's seedling
and Bland's Virginia. The Hartford Prolific he did not find
earlier than the Isabella.

Mr. Doughty. — My Hartford Prolifics are a good deal earlier.

Prof. Mapes exhibited two specimens of beet plants grown by
Prof. Mason. The seed was sown on the 20th of July, in the
early part of the drought, in a rich bed treated in alternate rows
willi Mapes' nitrogenized superphosphate of lime. Those treated
with the phosphate were twenty-six inches long, producing a
good crop, while those in the alternate rows not so treated were
four inches long and worthless.

The Chairman.^-My family do not eat one-fourth of the fruit
and vegetables that we would eat if we could get them in a
proper condition. If we could only persuade the gardeners
around the city of New York that they can make more money by
keeping their fruit and vegetables back until they are ripe, we
could accomplish something. I have not bought five pounds of
grapes here for twenty years, because I cannot find them here
fit to eat. And I have not eaten an apple this season, excepting
one that Mr. Carpenter brought here. It is a subject well

144 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

worthy of the pulpit, to put a stop to bringing this unwholesome
food into the city.

Mr. Steele mentioned having brought in a basket of good ripe
tomatoes to a market woman, a little later than the usual season
of them, and she was so much pleased with them that she offered
to fill his basket in return with Vergalieu pears. So it is some-
times, at least, profitable to have your fruit ripe.

Mr. Robinson mentioned another instance in which a market
gardener cleared $1,000 by sending his tomatoes to market a
week earlier, although they were green. The proper remedy is
to begin at this end, — to stop the buying and eating.

Prof. Mapes said that tomatoes could be raised ten days earlier
by topping the vines. Ninety per cent of the fruit is within
eighteen inches of the ground, and ninety per cent, of the vine
is beyond that distance. The vine does not bleed, so that it may
be cut fearlessly, and the removed branches should be dug
beneath the surface. The proper time is when the first fruit is
of the size of an egg. The same principle applies to lima beans.
If allowed to grow at will, they will measure forty feet ; but the
first beans are formed on the lower part of the vine, and many
of those on the upper part of the vine never ripen. The terminal
bud should be pinched off at five and a half feet high, and they
will then throw out laterals and yield largely. They will yield at
least fifty per cent, more when so treated. There is another mat-
ter which farmers should take into consideration. The flavoring
matter of every fruit is a proximate principle known as fusel oil
combined with one of the acids. Fusel oil is one of the products in
the distillation of grain. He had instituted a series of experiments
to determine how to produce these flavors. Taking one hundred
watch glasses and placing a drop of fusil oil in each, he then
added to one a drop of nitric acid, producing a pine apple flavor;
to another a drop of hydrochloric acid, producing the flavor of
the cherry; to another a drop of tannic acid, producing the
strawberry flavor, etc. The flavor of strawberries may be
increased by watering them with a dilute solution of tannic acid.
But the mere fact that a certain flavor is produced in a watch-
glass does not prove that the same flavor will be produced in the
soil, for we do not know what chemical changes will there take
place. But chemistry having informed us how the flavors are
produced, we may then by experiment ascertain how to obtain in
the plant an increased flavor.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 145

Mr. Gale corroborated the statement of the good effects result-
ing from pinching the tops of tomatoes and lima beans.

Mr. Steele. — The same principle applies to all kinds of vines.

GRAPES AND DWARF PEARS.

Dr. Houghton, of Philadelphia, stated that in that neighbor-
hood they had not arrived at any satisfactory results in the cul-
tivation of native grapes. They had suffered severely from
mildew, vine-bleeding, late frosts in the spring, and early frosts
in the fall. Most of the good native grapes in the Philadelphia
market come from Cincinnati. He considered them the least
profitable, least certain, and least useful of the fruits. The cul-
ture under glass he considered more reliable, and consequently
more economical. As to dwarf pears, upon the quince stock,
with proper treatment they do well. His own orchard, contain-
ing 3,000 trees in a good condition, upon the quince stock, was
planted for marketing purposes, and he had great conjSdence in
it. There is not a borer in the whole orchard. The method of
keeping them out is this. He plants the quince root about two
inches below the surface of the soil. To protect the tree, the
beetle must be prevented from going down to the quince root.
The motion of the tree by the wind would soon, in ordinary soil,
leave a space around the trunk suliicient to enable them to go
down; but if the tree is surrounded with pulverized charcoal,
that will sift down and keep this aperture filled up. But from
the middle of June to the middle of Jul}', when the • beetle
deposits its egg, he applies a further preventive. By means of
a bellows, constructed for the purpose, he throws a powder con-
sisting of Scotch snuff, Cayenne pepper, and pulverized white
hellebore, around the trunk of the tree, first mixing it with a
little plaster or airslacked lime, under the belief that any insect
coming there and finding such substances in his way would con-
sider it a notice to leave. The charcoal tends also to keep up
the moisture in the quince root at the junction with the pear, so
that the sap shall flow freely up into the tree. The apple re-
quires further protection, since they will enter the tree anywhere,
if prevented from entering at or below the surface of the ground.
His method was to protect the tree a few inches above the
ground with charcoal dust held in place by a wrapping of tarred
felt or of pasteboard. At the close of the season this being
taken off, the borer will be found to have penetrated not more

[Am. Inst.] J

146 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

than one-sixteenth of an inch, at the surface of the charcoal, and
can be readily removed.

Mr. Pardee mentioned the success of Mr. Miller, at Seneca
Falls, in raising native grapes of at least twenty varieties. So
at Utica, fine native grapes are grown.

Mr. Fuller. — I went over to Southern Illinois, expecting to find
it a good place for grapes ; but I found the same trouble they
find in Philadelphia. It was neither north nor south. One year
it would be a southern climate, and the next year a northern
climate. Every year or two the Avarm April days would start
the vines, and the frosts of May would kill the shoots. Plants
are sometimes killed at Philadelphia, or in Georgia even, that
will stand the New York climate.

Mr. Robinson mentioned that he had known the oak tree to be
killed in Georgia by frosts in April.

Mr. Steele. — I noticed in Richmond, two years ago, that their
best grapes were brought from Cincinnati.

The Cliairman. — It depends more upon the altitude than any-
thing else. In the warmer climates, go upon the hills and these
difficulties will all be avoided. In Northern Tennesee, upon hills
2,000 feet above the level of the ocean, tliey sometimes have not
a particle of frost, while the corn is killed to the ground in the
valleys, 1,500 feet below them.

Subject for discussiofi. — The subject of " The fruits of the sea-
son," was selected for discussion at the next meeting.

Adjourned.

September 9, 1862.

Prof. Cyrus Mason in t]\e chair.

The Chairman stated that he had just completed revising the
yearly volume of the Transactions of the American Institute,
and had found that their contribution to the public enlightenment
consisted primarily in the Proceedings of the Farmers' Club, and
secondarily in the Proceedings of the Polytechnic Association.
In the progress of the age, the newspaper has cofeie nearly to
supercede all other modes of diffusing intelligence among man-
kind. While in former years the annual exhibitions of the Ame-
rican Institute have presented hundreds of novelties to public
notice, the newspaper is now anticipating them through the weekly

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 147

reports of these two Clubs. Within a week from this time more
persons will have read the proceedings of this Club, to-day,- than
of any other aseociation upon this continent, within as short a
time. The local newspapers will have copied them all over the
country, because these inquiries directly concern the mass of the
people. It was thought to be a great advance to publish these
reports at Albany ; but now that the newspapers are circulating
them, they are a hundred fold more read than they were thirty
years ago. If a novelty appears here it will be much more
thoroughly investigated than it could be by a committee at an
annual fair. It would seem, therefore, desirable that the Farmers'
Club, and the Polytechnic Association, should have the power
of conferring premiums, thus making these two associations a
perpetual fair.

APPLES AND PEARS.

Mr, Carpenter exhibited a large assortment of apples and pears,
embracing forty varieties of apples and twenty varieties of pears,
being, with a few exceptions varieties which have ripened since
his last exhibition. A few of these varieties have been hastened
in reaching maturity by the drought. Of apples, the Gravenstein
he placed at the head of the list, the finest apple, and with the
highest perfume, of large size, and good appearance. Next comes
the Hawley, of monstrous size, and of the best quality. Next
comes the Porter apple, an excellent market apple, bearing pro-
fusely, and having a delightful perfume. The Dutch Mignon is a
monstrous apple, weighing a pound ; and the Rhode Island
Greening is also a large apple. The Pound Sweeting is a fine
looking apple. The Landron is a new, large apple, of excellent
quality. The St. Lawrence is a beautiful apple, of good quality.
The Alexander is a beautiful apple, but is not valuable for the
market. The Cloth of Gold is a fine orchard apple. The Fall
Pippin, and other varieties, were exhibited without comment.
Of pears, the Beurre Clairgeau is of great beauty, but not yet in
season. The Flemish Beauty is very large. TLe Bonne de Zees
is a French pear, a fine bearer, of large size and delightful flavor,
averaging larger than the Bartlett. The Beurre Kirtland is a
seedling from Pennsylvania, a good table pear, but not of first
quality. The Belle et Bonne is second rate for the table, and a
good cooking pear. The Beurre d'Amadis is a second rate pear,
and a great bearer. Stephens' Genesee is an excellent variety
thrown out at one time by the Pomological Convention, but after-

148 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

wards restored to the list. The Bartlett, Ott, Seckel, Doyenne
Boussack, Tyson, Louise Bonne de Jersey, La Cass, Captal, Eye-
wood, Fondante de Automne, Fondante de Malines, .Colmar d'Arem-
burg, and Hull, were exhibited without special comment. He
considered the culture of pears as more profitable than the cul-
ture of apples, for they will bear every year, and are less liable
to be attacked by insects. Bartlett pears had been worth $15
per barrel this season.

Dr. Underbill complimented the specimens of fruit exhibited
to-day as an honor to Westchester county. It was gratifying to
see so fine a collection so early in the season.

The Chairman remarked that the production of good fruit
tends greatly to the civilization and refinement of society. Out
of all the fruits exhibited by Mr. Carpenter, there was but one
which had been known in his father's family when he was a boy.
Most of them were improvements upon the apples of the last gene-
ration. The consumption of fruit should be encouraged in the
country, where it is too much neglected, as well as in the city.

NATIVE GRAPES.

Mr. Carpenter alluded to the remarks of Dr. Houghton, of
Philadelphia, with regard to the cultivation of the grape in that
region, speaking of it as unprofitable and uninteresting, and of
the grapes as unhealthy. It was evident that Dr. Houghton's
taste led him to the cultivation of the vine under glass; but Dr.
Houghton cannot raise grapes for less than forty cents per pound
under glass, while Dr. Underbill can raise them in the open air
for twelve cents per pound. He had been advised by Dr. Under-
bill twelve years ago to enter into the cultivation of a vineyard,
for nothing would pay better, or be more healthy, or more inter-
esting; but his tastes had led him to prefer the cultivation of the
orchard.

Dr. Underbill did not regret that Mr. Carpenter had not fol-
lowed his advice, for his success in his own chosen pursuit has
vindicated his choice. Yet he had nothing to take back from the
opinions he had expressed twelve years ago. The experience for
many generations of the thirty millions of France has proved the
healthfulness of the grape. The feeble resort to the vineyards of
France to strengthen their constitutions ; and the liver complaint
is there unknown. But if the grape is not ripened it is, of course>
unhealthy ; and it is very difficult to induce men in this country

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 149

to prune it so that it may be able to ripen the crop. The vine
always produces five times as many buds, unless they are destroyed
by the winter, or in some other way, as can be properly ripened.
Unless four-fifths of the fruit is taken off early in the season, the
grapes may make vinegar, but cannot make wine. The priining
should be commenced before they blossom, and continued until
the vines have all been pruned. Grapes ripen best high up,
where they can have plenty of sun, and at the same time plenty
of foliage. If we take off the foliage to let in the sunlight the
vines cannot breathe, and the fruit will be sour, for the sugar
will not be perfected. The proper way to eat grapes is to swal-
low the pulp without breaking it, rejecting the skin unless it is
desired for its astringent qualities.

Mr. Carpenter. — A medical man at Brooklyn said that the seeds
were very unhealthy, and should never be eaten. I am very glad
to hear this statement to the contrary, for it appears to me, then,
to be incorrect.

The Chairman corroborated the statement that it is necessary
to take off a large proportion of the fruit in order that the re-
mainder may be properly ripened.

SAMBUCUS WINE.

Mr. Robinson read a statement with regard to the Sambucus
or elderberry wine, recently advertised in this city, as being the
product of a new species of the elder brought from Portugal.

Mr. Fuller. — It is all a humbug. I will state that in advance.
Mr. Spear has gathered up all the elderberries in that neighbor-
hood,

Mr. Robinson. — That is just why I introduced it here. That
whole region has been scoured to gather elderberries to make
this Sambucus wine.

NITROGENIZED SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME.

The Chairman corroborated the statement of Prof. Mapes at
the last meeting, respecting beets raised by him. Celery and
mushmelons, also, that he had manured with the nitrogenized
superphosphate of lime, furnished him by Prof. Mapes, had done
well, while others had completely failed. Upon examining the
ground in the morning he had observed moisture where this
manure was applied, and entire dryness where it was not. It
had been applied freely, but not at such a rate as to make it
unsuitable as an economical manures

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Mr. Carpenter. — I have tried the superphosphate, and also
wood ashes and plaster, and I can see no advantage in the super-
phosphate over the wood ashes and plaster. On my land, which
is a little light, plaster and wood ashes have an excellent effect.

The Chairman. — I should have mentioned that I applied plas-
ter with the superphosphate, mixing the two together.

Subject for discussion. — The subject of "Fruits and Flowers"
was selected for discussion at the next meeting.

September 16, 1861.
Dr. Hawkes in the chair.

GRAPES.

Mr. Steele exhibited some Isabella grapes with the flavor of
the grape, in contrast ivith others colored, but unripe, such as
are sold in the New York market.

Dr. Trimble would discourage the use of the Isabella grapes
at this season of the year. Usually it is not fully ripe until
there has been cold weather; and at this season there is a large
variety of ripe fruits.

Prof. Mapes remarked that he had not seen a sweet grape
brought to market by Dr. Underbill. His grapes are large and
fine looking, but not so sweet as many other Isabella grapes.
He had found a marked difference between different vines, all
supposed to bear the Isabella grape. He exhibited a piece of
grapevine bearing grapes, and as the producer supposed, also
peaches. Upon cutting one of the supposed peaches open, in the
presence of the club, he found therein the appearance of a seed ;
but it was pronounced by Dr. Trimble to be a larva, such as is
often found in such excrescences from the bark of trees,

Mr. Perry, of the firm of William Perry & Son, of Bridgeport,
Conn., exhibited a specimen of the Delaware grape, grown in
Pennsylvania.

Mr. Pardee. — This is the best of the native grapes. Its flavor
is far above the Catawba or the Diana. This is a young vine;
it was a layer last spring. I have seen large vines bearing in
the same way bunches that would weigh nearly a pound.

Mr. Fuller. — This is a fine specimen, and I believe the first
exhibited here, of a vine grown upon Bright's system. It is a
question whether that is a good system. The plan is to grow
vines two feet apart, trained upright. Each alternate vine is

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 151

trained np to throw out laterals to bear fruit, wbile the others
are kept from producing laterals or fruit. The next year these
vines are allowed to bear, and the others pruned in a single
stem. This system is two hundred years old ; but is now intro-
duced again as Bright's system. As soon as the root becomes
old, it will fail to produce a good healthy cane. The sap always
runs up to the upper part of the vine. Here you see the best
colored and the ripest bunch of all at the very top, and here are
the poorest bunches at the bottom. That is the trouble with the
upright S3^stera, that it bears the best bunchos at the top. Upon
throwing it down upon a horizontal trellis we have bunches
nearly equal for the w^iole length.

Mr. Perry. — The chickens destroyed some of the finest lower
bunches of this specimen. You will observe, too, that on that
upper lateral there are but two bunches; while upon this lower
one there are four, so that they will naturally have less nourish-
ment. The stake may be leaned over in the spring, checking the
flow of the sap and equalizing the bunches.

Mr. Fuller. — That is not Bright's system, but the old green-
house mode. Bright's system is upright, and intended for the
vineyard, where they cannot introduce this tipping operation.
Trained upright, a vine will bear the best fruit at the top ; and
if allowed to extend itself upward the best fruit will still be at
the top, and there will be a space at the bottom where there will
be none.

Mr. Perry considered the horizontal system more complicated
and difficult; especially in covering the ground evenly with
vines.

Mr. Pardee said that the club were greatly indebted to Mr.
Perry, for this fine specimen of the Delaware grape, and to Rev.
Mr. Weaver, for specimens of the Hartford Prolific laid upon the
table to-day by him. He had never found Br. Underbill's
grapes well flavored, although so fine looking.

Mr. Bergen attributed the difl'erence between Isabella grapes
to the difference in the locations in which they grew. He had
gro\>'-n superior Isabellas and inferior ones from cuttings from the
same vine. In one case an Isabella grape vine, which had pro-
duced superior fruit, failed upon a time to produce better fruit
than the other vines.

Prof. Mapes. — My Isabella grapes are grown upon an arbor,
and they difi'er as widely, grown a few feet apart, as it is pos-

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sible for them to diifer, and they have maintained that difference
for fourteen years. The fertilization and manipulation of the
soil, for the whole length of the arbor, has been alike, during the
entire fourteen years.

TREE COTTON,

Mr. Kendall exhibited a specimen of tree cotton grown by him
in Maryland, and a portion of the tree. It has been popularly
believed that the cotton plant cannot be grown north of the
parallel of 31° in our country. But as long ago as 1833 cotton
has been perfected in Canada. The plants have also perfected
their fibres in Massachusetts. Early in 1854, he had had his
attention particularly drawn to the perennial cotton tree, being
then in Chili. For a whole year he studied the growth and the
product of that tree. The climate of Southern Chili is as rigo-
rous as that of New York State. Yet there are cotton trees
there one hundred years old, annually supplying the natives with
materials for textile fabrics. By diligent investigation and
inquiry, he had learned that it produced with great certainty,
and that the crop was never a failure. In those regions the tree
commences bearing the third year, and continues in bearing 35
or 40 years. In warmer latitudes, it dAvindles to a shrub, bear-
ing 10 or 12 years. He had observed that in many instances
tropical plants have been improved by their removal to the tem-
perate zone. Thus with the cotton tree. It is improved by the
cold, producing a finer fibre and a longer staple. This specimen
was grown about fifteen miles north of Baltimore. The annual
production would probably be about twelve pounds to each tree.
It will probably perfect the fibre of the cotton wherever Indian
corn will grow. He would estimate the yield per acre at 1,500
pounds ; whereas the yield from the cotton plant is 500 pounds.

Mr. Pardee remarked that the specimen produced was above
the average of good cotton, and nearly approached the Sea
Island cotton.

Prof. Mapes corroborated this opinion, and moved that Mr.
Kendall be requested by the club to deliver a public lecture upon
this subject.

The motion was agreed to.

FRUITS, POTATOES AND GRAIN.

Mr. Carpenter this week exhibited improved varieties of pota-
toes and of grain. Hallet's Pedigree wheat has produced a head

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 153

seven inches in length, and the yield has been 108 bushels to the
acre. The Poland wheat, with a kernel of remarkable size, the
Noe wheat, of excellent quality, the Red wheat from Italy and
from Turkey, both superior to the common varieties, and the
Rivet wheat, and another variety of bald wheat from France,
were also exhibited. Mr. C. also exhibited an improved variety
of winter barley, remarkably prolific, and another sample of bar-
ley from France. Spelts, grown in Germany, appear to form a
variety of wheat of inferior quality. It is used in Germany for
diet. He stated that he was preparing ground to test all these
varieties. Of potatoes, he exhibited many beautiful specimens.
The Peach-blow, one of the best; the Eusko White ; the Copper-
mine Prolific ; the Pinkeye Rustycoat ; the Rough and Ready;
the Early Algiers, one of the best early potatoes ; Pell's seed-
ling,— the Early Algiers will yield about double the quantity
with the same cultivation, and of equal quality ; Bulkley's seed-
ling, and the Garnet Chili, — the same potato, but an acquisition;
the Meller seedling, identical with the Peach-blow ; the Prince
Albert, very large and improving in quality, and the Buck-eye
potato, which has been very much improved since its introduc--
tion, and is superior to the Garnet Chili. Of apples, he exhibited
the Gloria Muiidi; and of pears some delicious specimens of the
Doyenne Bossock, Bartlett, and Bon de Zee, which were distribu-
ted among the audience. Mr. C. also exhibited, sent him by
Mr. Isaac Briggs, of Macedon, Western New York, a new grain
resembling rye, and yielding about forty bushels to the acre ; and
a new variety of onions, forming about four hundred bulbs on the
top, instead of black seeds. These being planted will produce
good sized onions.

Mr. Carpenter. — I generally advise to plant the Bartlett pear;
yet I scarcely eat the Bartlett, because I have so many better
pears ripening at the same time. I recommend that as one that
gives universal satisfaction. With regard to potatoes, if we can
have but one, I would advise the Buckeye. It is nearly as early
as the Early Algiers, and is a good potatoe late. The Princess
Pea I find a few days earlier than the Dan O'Rourke. My taste
leads me to prefer a variety ; besides, the difference of locality
will frequently change the character of a fruit or vegetable.

Prof. Mapes exhibited an insect which had attacked his Seckel
pears— pronounced by Dr. Trimble to be one of the class of
scavenger beetles, attracted probably by the perfume of the pear.

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WORMS IN POTATOES.

Mr. John G. Bergen inquired how he should destroy the worms
which trouble potatoes. He stated that he had abandoned the
growth of the Peachblow potato, finding it to require more
manure, to deteriorate in flavor when large, and not to be invul-
nerable to the potato rot.

Mr. Pardee recommended using the salt and lime mixture, and
frequently stirring the soil. This would be so offensive to the
worms that they would leave.

Mr. Bergen stated that he had a piece of ground which had
become so Avormy as to be worthless for potatoes. It had been
frequently stirred, had been limed, and seaweed, containing salt,
had been applied to it.

Prof. Mapes. — That would not be a hundredth part enough
salt. I have tried it for fourteen years and know that it will
keep the worms away.

Mr. Bergen. — That is not sufficient ; I have other ground where
the worms keep away without it.

Rev. Mr. Weaver suggested that Mr. Bergen should try that
mixture on this piece of ground.

Dr. Trimble. — I would not recommend him to take that trouble.
I do not believe in these mixtures at all. These insects are won-
derfully erratic. One year they come upon us like the aphis of
this year, and the next are gone. Any chemical ingredient which
will destroy the larvfe of Ihese insects will destroy the seeds of
vegetables and vegetables themselves.

Prof. Mapes said the lime and salt mixture had been known
and valued from the time of George III. Applying lime or salt
separately, or at different times, will not produce the same effect.
The mixture must be formed so as to make a chemical combina-
tion, producing chloride of lime and carbonate of soda; and this
chemical union will not be found in the soil.

Subject for discussion. — The subject of " Flowers, Fruits and
Vegetables of the Season" was selected for discussion at the
next meeting.

September 23, 1861.
Mr. John G. Bergen in the chair.

EGYPTIAN CORN.

A specimen of grain sent for identification was stated by Prof.
Mapes to be a variety of millet known as Egyptian corn, the seed

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 155

of which was said to have been taken from a mummy. It will
produce sixty bushels to the acre.

APPLES AND PEARS.

Mr. Carpenter distributed fine specimens of the Porter and
Hawley apples. They are particularly deserving of attention
from the length of time they remain perfect in the market. The
Porter has been considered as a first rate apple ; but the Hawley
is superior to it. It would be well if nurserymen would pay more
attention to the kind of soil adapted to each variety of apple.
He had been compelled to abandon the cultivation of some vari-
eties of apple, as the Spitzenberg, while others, as the Porter,
would grow on his grounds to great perfection.

Dr. Trimble exhibited some pears from Newark, X. J. Pears
are better ripened in the house, but should never be taken from
the tree until by bending the stem a little it breaks off at the
shoulder. If taken off too early the stem itself will break. Dr.
T. exhibited Seckel pears of a beautiful color.

Mr. Robinson stated that the Seckel pears had been raised of
double the usual size, the grafts having been taken from an ordi-
nary tree.

Mr. Carpenter said that the Seckel pear tree, as well as dwarf
trees, should be manured frequently and thoroughly. Where
they produce as freely as the Seckel, the soil is soon exhausted ;
and if the tree is neglected it will soon cease to bear and die.

Prof. Mapes stated that Seckel pears could be raised of double
the usual size by the use of potash, in the form of unleached
wood ashes, and phosphates rendered soluble. This would not
cost more than two cents per tree. The color of pears depends
very much upon the iron in the soil. The color is very high,
particularly upon the Louise Bon de Jersey, in the belt of soils
in New Jersey, between New York and New Brunswick. Prof.
M. proceeded to narrate the arguments with regard to grafting
the pear upon the quince stock.

Mr. Doughty related an instance of pear trees upon the quince
stock, which had grown so little that orders vv^ere given to thrc^T"
them away ; but their removal having been neglected, they began
the next year to grow rapidly and produced excellent pears. It
was presumed that they had thrown out pear roots.

Prof. Mapes said that he had had occasion to move many pear
trees, and he knew it was not true that when the pear root is

156 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

thrown out the quince root dies. In every instance he had found
both roots perfectly healthy and growing.

The Chairman stated that his own experience corroborated
these statements. He had found that the Bartlett Avould some-
times do well on a quince stock, and would sometimes fail.

Prof. Mapes stated that the Bartlett will produce upon the
same area of ground, a much larger quantity and better quality
of fruit, upon the pear stock than upon the quince.

Mr. Carpenter was opposed to the theory of having the same
tree both a dwarf and a standard. He w*ould plant the quince
stock an inch below the surface, to protect it from borers merely.
By putting it deeper the roots are brought too far beneath the
surface, and will not feel the changes of the weather readily.
The tree keeps growing until it is injured by a frost.

Prof. Mapes would only plant three or four inches deeper,
which will enable the pear roots to be formed. Whether the
tree shall remain a dwarf or become a standard depends upon
the pruning. As soon as the pear roots are thrown out, new
vigor is infused into the tree.

TREE COTTON.

Mr. Kendall was invited to repeat his statements with regard
to the Gossypium Jirhoretum, or cotton tree of Chili, and made
some statements additional to those in last week's report.

The tree grows to the size of the peach tree. Under the trop-
ics there is no regularity in the crop ; but in the colder latitudes
the crop is as regular as that of the grains of the north. It takes
root kindly from cuttings, and may he produced from the seed.
It is of rapid growth, is a prolific bearer, makes an efficient hedge,
and is a highly ornamental tree. The blossoms are variegated
and odorous. The predominant color is a bright glossy yellow.
It is the same species with the cotton tree of Africa, but the
quality difiers with the locality. The African tree produces a
short, irregular staple, while this produces a long and uniform
staple. The lint is much more easily prepared for the market
than that of the herbaceous cotton. The seed is not distributed
throughout the lint, as in the herbaceous plant, but is confined to
a central stem, so that the lint may be drawn away, leaving the
seeds in a cluster. Clothes made of this cotton are water-proof.
The cotton will require ginning, but the gin may be simplified,
and the fibre will not be materially deranged.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 157

Rev. Mr. Weaver desired that some steps might be taken to
introduce the seed and try the experiment further.

Dr. Trimble. — If it will grow in Baltimore county, as stated,
it may be grown anywhere as a profitable crop.

Mr. Carpenter stated that Mr. Kendall was about to deliver a
public lecture, in accordance with the request of the Club last
week. He hoped that the Club would give more attention to
this subject, and take some further action.

The hour for adjournment having arrived, the subject of
" Fruits, flowers, and vegetables of the season," was continued,
and the Club adjourned.

September 30, ISGl.
Mr. Amos Gore in the chair.

DAHLIAS.

Mr. Bergen exhibited specimens of the following dahlias :
Lady Popham, Lilac Queen, Triomph de Rubex, Triomph de
Truna, Ruby Queen and Lord Palmerston. He stated that from
the six petals of the natural flower, cultivation had produced a
flower with 370. The nearer the centre we take the seed, the
more certain the seedling is to be double.

SATINVVOOD.

Mr. Brown exhibited branches resembling the locust or mi-
mosa, which he stated to be from a satinwood tree, brought into
this country from the East Indies several years since, and now
some 50 feet high. The wood is valuable for cabinet work, and
it may be well to know that it will grow in this climate.

APPLES, PEARS AND GRAPES.

Mr. Carpenter stated that probably 300,000 bushels of apples
would come to this market from Westchester county this year,
the fruit being unusually fine ; while in other parts of the State
apples are not plentiful this year. The color of fruit, he con-
sidered as depending more upon atmospheric conditions than upon
the presence of iron in the soil. Easterly and southerly winds,
near the seacoast, bringing the spray from the sea, tend to dis-
color fruits ; and when they do not prevail to a considerable ex-
tent, our fruit is as highly colored as the western fruit. Mr. C.
exhibited specimens of Concord grapes, which he considered
superior to the Isabella.

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Mr. Fuller suggested that persons exhibiting fruits or flowers,
and especially if for identification, should bring a piece of the
stem and a leaf. For instance, the leaf of the Concord grape is
so distinct from that of the Hartford Prolific that it may be dis-
tinguished in the dark, while the fruit is not always so distinct.
Mr. Carpenter proceeded to exhibit his closing specimens of
apples and pears, including the late fall and the winter varieties.
Among the pears -were the Vicar of Wakefield, very large and
nearly equal to the Bartlett when properly ripened, but unreliable,
and therefore not adapted to general culture; Langley's Beurre
abetter winter pear. Paradise of the Autumn; the Sheldon, a
fine native pear ; the Fulton, which is in November what the
Seckel is in September ; the Beurre d'Anjou, a first rate
fruit ; the Henkel ; the White Doyenne, Vergalieu, Louise
Bonne de Jersey ; and the Van Mons Leon le Clerc, which
he would caution every one against buying; for although
a more delicious pear does not grow, and it is large and showy,
the tree is imperfect, and a fair specimen cannot be obtained one
year in ten. From the appearance and flavor of the fruit, any
one would be tempted to try it. He would rather encourage the
culture of standard trees. Although perfect pears may be sooner
grown upon the quince stock, yet they may be grown to equal
perfection upon the pear stock wdien it has reached a proper
degree of matuiity. Of apples he exhibited, among other varie-
ties, the Dutch Mignon ; the Harrison Sweet ; the Manomet.

Mr. Carpenter proceeded to exhibit the Schwarr, a choice apple
for winter; the Baldwin; the Dominie, a good apple for the mar-
ket; the Roxbury Russet ; the Northern Spy, long coming into
bearing, this being the first specimen upon trees grafted seven
years ago and large enough to bear two or three bushels
a piece ; the Golding, an excellent apple for table or cooking ;
the York Baldwin, more valuable than the Boston Baldwin ; the
Wine apple ; the Holland Pippin, unworthy of cultivation.

Prof. Mapes considered the Holland Pippin a fine apple.

Mr. Robinson. — Will you name ten varieties wdiich you would
recommend to be grown in Westchester county for the market?

Mr. Carpenter. — The Rhode Island Greening ; the Gravenstein ;
the Hubbardston Nonsuch; the Porter; the Fall Pippin; the
Drap d'Or; the Sweet Bough ; the Baldwin ; the Dominie; and
the English Russet. I have omitted the Hawdey; "that must be
put in somewhere.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 159

Dr. Trimble exhibited specimens of the Gansell, Bergamot, and
Seckel pears from New Jersey.

Mr. Fuller said that he considered the Northern part of New
Jersey, and northward even up to Albany, a safer place for a
vineyard than localities further south. The shoots do not start so
early in the spring, and are more likely to escape the spring frosts.

Prof. Mapes stated that the strip of land between Newark and
New Brunswick produces sweeter grapes than are grown else-
where ; but so long as the people of New York city will eat sour
grapes they can be better grown further north.

Mr. John G. Bergen had observed that the sweetest and best
grapes are those which have the most sunshine.

Mr. Fuller. — The grape vine is more affected by soil than any
other plant. Vines may be destroyed in three years, for quality,
by the mismanagement of the nurseryman. Make short cuttings
from the base of healthy shoots upon a healthy vine. Pinch in
every lateral so that the cuttings shall ripen every particle of
their wood to the top, and proceed properly, ^tep by step, with
the vines thus produced, and the grapes will be as good or better
than those of the parent vine. Instead of Isabella, which ripen
late and which the season is hardly long enough to ripen at all,
so far north, he would plant the Delaware which ripens its shoots
to the very top, and whoso leaves remain healthy until the grapes
are gone ; the Concord, which, altliough not equal to the Dela-
ware sells better than the Isabella; the Hartford Prolific, which
rattles too easily from the bunch unless thoroughly ripe, but
which is a week or ten days earlier than the Concord. The Diana
will be a favorite Avith some people because of its musky flavor.
It is a little later than the Concord. The Rebecca sometimes
grows well in the city yards, but in the fields is good for nothing.
The Delaware grape may be readily propagated from layers, but
from cuttings it is difhcult to produce it. All hardy cuttings
should be set out in the fall. If cuttings of the currant are set
out now, they will be rooted within ten days, although they will
have no tops; and next year they will grow two or three times
as much as if cut in the spring.

Mr. Carpenter stated that ho had been deterred from attempt-
ing to strike Delaware cuttings from the representation of its
difficulty, but upon trying it, he had been as successful as with
other varieties of the grape. He considered the Clinton a valua-
ble grape, after ripened by the frost.

160 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Fuller said that the Cuyahoga grape was a new variety
which promised well. The Ontario grape is the same with the
Union Village, and no better than the Isabella. It makes no dif-
ference what a grape is if it will not grow well. People seeing
the Rebecca grape set out hundreds of vines before they find out
its true character.

Mr. John G. Bergen said that the Rebecca grape would grow
finely in the yard, but he who should adopt it for vineyard cul-
ture would make a fatal mistake.

Mr. Pardee. — Perhaps a new grape was never introduced with
more care and authority than the Rebecca. It had been exposed
to the open air and they knew all about it. Just so long as peo-
ple would buy it at three to five dollars a vine it was an excel-
lent grape ; but when the price falls the nurserymen are discou-
raged, and some new variety, like the Cuyahoga, is trotted out.
The whole truth has not been told until very recently about the
Rebecca, and I hope we shall take breath before we recommend
any new grape which may be brought forward.

Mr. Fuller. — We were told that the Rebecca vine stood there
all winter, but I have been told since that it was laid down every
winter. But suppose that it did stand there. We have a Black
Hamburgh in New York which has for years stood out of doors
without protection. Shall we recommend the Black Hambui gh
for out-door culture ? The nurserymen sutler more than other
people after all, paying five dollars a dozen for a new variety of
strawberry, for example, that is good for nothing. Every year
they pay a good deal for new things which fail, while they some-
times find one that will sell. He would not condemn the Rebecca
because it is now grown finely by some persons, but for general
cultivation it is not to be 1-ecommended.

Mr. Carpenter remarked that the Bartlett pear can be pro-
longed by keeping it in a refrigerator. They can be kept until
December in this way.

NEW SUBJECTS.

The subjects of "Corn Fodder" and "Mushrooms" were selec-
ted for discussion at the next meeting.
Adjourned.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 161

October 7, 1861.
Mr. Geo. Andrews, of New York, in the chair.

GRAPES.

Dr. Crowell desired information with regard to the new grapes,
the Rebecca, Anna, Diana, &c.

Mr. Pardee. — The Delaware sustains itself this season, stand-
ing at the head of the native grapes. Next to that comes the
Diana. Although it has been killed in some places this last win-
ter, yet upon inquiry I do not attribute any importance to these
cases. There has been a disposition to cry down the Rebecca,
but I have never eaten them so fine as this season. I have no
doubt that it is a little tender, but with a little care the Rebecca
will give satisfaction for garden culture. The Anna is pronoun-
ced a little better than the Rebecca. The Concord is improved
this year. It is superier to the Isabella, and I think will prove
a finer grape than most people have anticipated. The Hartford
Prolific is also improved this year. I am disposed to give more
credit to the Isabella than most people do, when it is well ripened.
But I have very little opinion of most of the grapes — the Isabella,
Concord, and Hartford Prolific — grown in vineyard culture. The
Delaware and the Diana are as hardy and as early as the Isa-
bella, and although I consider the Isabella a valuable vine, where
already established in city yards or in protected situations, I do
not know that it has any advantage. Certainly where the Dela-
ware and Diana are well established, no one will wish to eat
Isabellas or Catawbas. Some of the best of our native grapes
sell as high as foreign grapes. As the vines grow older, we find
that the bunches of some of the new varieties grow larger and
finer. This is easily explained. While the price of vines is from
three to five dollars, the vines will be forced beyond their
strength to produce new vines. The vines thus produced will
slowly recover their strength ; but I do not think that a vine
which has once been overtasked can ever completely recover.

Dr. Trimble. — I think the Isabella grape has been much dis-
paraged and unjustly, I never thin them out, and my vines will
bear a profuse crop for twenty years in succession. This year,
owing to the weather, the fruit is sweeter than usual.

[Am. Inst. J K

362 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Dr. Crowell. — I rely upon four varieties, the Concord, Hart-
ford Prolific, Isabella and Catawba. The grape which takes the
pre-eminence, when well ripened, is the Catawba. I find that it
pays to erect rough board fences to protect my grapes.

Mr. Carpenter. — The Isabella and Catawba cannot be grown
generally with success north of New York. The great bulk of
the grapes for this market will be grown north of New York, and
the Concord and Hartford Prolific have given general satisfaction
there. I have Isabella and Catawba vines twenty-seven miles
north of New York, and I can only ripen them once in seven
years. My Hartford Prolific and Concord were ripe several weeks
ago.

Mr. Robinson stated that the finest show of Isabella grapes in
the State was to be seen in Yates county, upon the top of a high
hill, and grown upon a stiff clay loam ; the biggest berries, the
biggest bunches in the State.

Mr. Pardee. — I have lived fifty miles north of Yates county,
and every year I had ripe Isabellas grown Avithont ringing and
without protection, excepting that they had a southern exposure,
being upon the south side of a building. For twenty-five years
I never knew one instance when my Isabella vine and my Catawba
vine, trained above my wood-house, did not ripen grapes enough
for my family.

Mr. Carpenter. — These grapes come in the same category with
the Newtown Pippin ; they are local.

Mr. Fuller. — I do not believe in the doctrine of location, for
apples or any fruit. If the Newtown Pippin will grow in one
location, I believe it will grow anywhere else, within the range
of temperature, with the right soil and culture. There are more
failures south of New York than north of it, in growing the Isa-
bella grape. Not one vine in twenty ripens its fruit well. But
it is not the lateness of the fruit which is the cause of the failure.
It is the peculiarity of the leaf, which is thin, and easily destroy-
ed by the wind. If the leaves of a vine are destroyed before the
fruit is ripened, it never can ripen. That is the trouble with the
Isabella vine ; and I do not think the Rebecca is any better. But
I have never seen the leaves of the Concord whipped to pieces by
the wind. The Concord is a model grape, so far as the leaf is
concerned.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 16S^

Mr. Carpenter. — The Pomological conventions have determined
that certain fruits are adapted to certain localities. The New-
town Pippin, the Rhode Island Greening, and the white Doyenne
pear, are examples. The latter will grow at great perfection at
the west, but cannot be raised upon the seaboard.

Mr, Pardee. — The Vergalieu pear was rejected for western
New York, a few years ago, now it ripens well there. The changes
of the seasons overturn all our distinctions of locality.

Dr. Underbill exhibited samples of Isabella, Catawba, Ohio,
and Norton's seedling grapes. He asserted that the Ohio grape
was not the same with Norton's seedling.

Mr. Fuller. — ^Cannot native grapes be profitably grown at five
cents per pound.

Dr. Underbill. — If we allow them to grow with five times as
many upon the vine as they should bear, and neglect them, they
may be ; but if we properly prune them, and bestow the labor
upon them which they ought to receive to enable them to perfect
their fruit, they cannot. Every imperfect or unripe berry is
carefully trimmed out before our grapes are sent to the market,
so that every berry that we send may be eaten in the dark.

Mr. Carpenter. — Fruit properly grown is cheaper at double the
price. Apples are sometimes gathered by being shaken from the
tree, bruising them and causing early decay. They may be sold
for less per barrel, but are not the cheapest apples.

Mr. Fuller. — In order to obtain cheap grapes, I should give
them the highest culture. I think I can grow grapes at five cents
per pound which will yield $1,000 per acre, and grow them well.
I have no thinning out of my grapes. I disbud the branches as I
lay them down.

Dr. Underbill. — If you cut out the buds, of course you do not
have to cut out the fruit.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Mr, Steele exhibited Vergalieu pears grown this year from the
same tree which last year produced them with a black knot.
This year but two were so affected. He exhibited also a pear
which he asserted to be the Beurre Diel, ahead of its time.

He was interrupted by Mr. Pardee and others, who said that
he was mistaken in the name. Mr, Carpenter, after tasting the
pear, pronounced it the Onondaga.

164 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Steele insisted that he was right, and promised next week
to prove it by bringing other specimens from the same tree.

Dr. Trimble again brought forward specimens of the Gansell
Bergamot pear.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited two pears, the Lawrence, and the
Beurre Clargeau,both excellent pears. Good judges consider the
latter nearly equal to the Seckel.

TREE COTTON.

Mr. Robinson read a letter in which a sea captain, whose name
was not given, confirms the statements of Mr. Kendall with regard
to the cotton tree. He describes the cotton as of very fine tex-
ture, equal to our Sea Island cotton, but not of so long a fibre.
He had once brought 150 bales of it to this city, prior to 1853 ;
but on account of the tariff, and as it was imperfectly ginned, he
reshipped it to Liverpool, for which he received such good
returns that the merchant resolved to ship his cotton direct to
England.

FUMIGATION OF BORERS.

Mr, Bergen exhibited a specimen of poplar perforated by large
borers, to show that they so stop up the hole behind them that
they cannot be reached by fumigation.

"Corn fodder" and " Mushrooms" continued. Adjourned.

October 14, 1861.
Prof. Nash in the chair.

PRESERVATION OF GRAPES.

Mr. Eobinson read a letter inquiring what is the best method
for keeping grapes.

Mr. Pardee. — I obtained a premium five or six years in succes-
sion for Catawba grapes brought to the annual meeting of the
State Agricultural Society in February. My process was this :
Selecting a very pleasant, dry, sunny day, when the grapes were
just ripe, I commenced at half past three o'clock in the afternoon
to take the grapes from the vines, as carefully as my fingers could
take them off, and picked out Avith the scissors all the green,
wilted, or imperfect berries. I next carried them into the house

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 165

and laid them very gently upon a table. I then dipped the ends
of the stems into a little melted wax or sealing wax. Perhaps
that was not essential, but, at any rate, it did no harm. I left
them upon a table, in a cool and rather dark room, for a M^eek or
two, until fully dried and sweated. I then took a candle box and
spread upon the bottom of it a little layer of cotton ; upon that
a layer of dry old newspaper ; upon that bunches of grapes so
laid as not to touch each other ; upon them another layer of cot-
ton and of newspaper ; then another layer of grapes ; and so on
alternately until the box was filled. I then put the box in the
coolest place in the garret, and let it remain until the frost was
so severe that it was dangerous to leave them there any longer,
when I put it into the coolest chamber I had where there was no
danger from the frost. There they would remain with verylittle
loss of flavor, even to March or April. I have prepared them in
granulated cork, in vats, in bran, &c., but the plan I have given
was the most successfid.

Mr. Carpenter. — Without claiming to answer the question from
my own experience, I may say that I have learned from my friends
two different ways, both claimed to be effectual. In each case
all the care recommended by Mr. Pardee must be exercised in
selecting and preparing the grapes for being packed. One method
is then to pack them in wheat bran, holding them in the box with
the stem downward so that the berries shall fall apart as much as
possible, and then pouring the bran between the berries, The
other method is to lay the bunches in an earthen jar, glazed upon
the inside, without anything between them, and covering over
the jar to bury it in a drj' sandy soil beyond the reach of frost.
The gentleman who described this method, and who was the only
person from whom I have heard it, stated that after tlie ground had
thawed in the spring he had found the grapes in great perfection.

The Chairman. — The inversion of the bunch to divide the ber-
ries seems to me an ingenious and useful device ; for if it is desi-
rable that the berries of different bunches should not touch each
other, it is desirable that the berries of the same bunch should
be separated, so far as it is possible to do so.

Mr. Carpenter. — The grapes received from Europe seldom come
in perfect order, unless the passage is short. They now use the
granulated cork, which is better than the sawdust, which was
formerly used.

Mr. Burgess. — Whenever bran, sawdust or cork is to be used,

166 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

it should be well dried in an oven, making it as hot as it can be
held in the hand, cooling it before using it.

Mr. Pardee. — In some locations moisture will accumulate, if
these substances are used, dry them as you will.

The Chairman. — For keeping potatoes the rule is to keep them
cool and moist. Fruits should be kept cool and dry. To secure
these conditions the amateur gardener has an ice-house or refrig-
erator building. Every man must inquire how, in his own local-
ity, he can best secure the conditions of keeping his fruit as near
the freezing point as he can without reaching it, and as dry as
may be.

APPLES AND PEARS.

Mr, Steele exhibited a pear indented by another in growing. •
Pears that are apt to cluster should be thinned out to prevent
this defect.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited about forty varieties of apples from
the western part of Connecticut, mostly local varieties, having
only local names. Some of these he considered worthy of intro-
duction, and had made arrangements for that purpose. The
favorite apples for orchard culture he found to be the Rhode
Island Greening, the Stackyard, the Black apple, the Baldwin,
the Roxbury Russett, and the Meadow Sweet. Mr. C. exhibited
specimens of the Beurre Clargeau.

GIRDLING GRAPES SWEET CORN.

Mr. Hite exhibited a specimen of grapes from a girdled vine.

Mr. Fuller. — It makes them dropsical. They have more water
and less sugar. It hastens their maturity, but certainly does not
improve their quality.

Dr. Trimble. — When the bark grows together again, as it some-
times will, the quality is inferior.

Dr. T. exhibited some flowers, and some sweet corn, ready for
the table, planted upon the 8th of July.

Messrs. Pardee and Carpenter eulogized StowelPs Evergreen
sweet corn.

Prof. Mapes stated that Stowell's Evergreen corn, grown in
1855, and that grown in 1856, had been placed together upon
the table at the American Institute fair in 1856, and no man
coiild tell the difference.

PEOCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 167

MUSHROOMS.

Prof. Mapes stated that the amount of French mushrooms im-
ported into this market had reached a $1,000,000. They are grown
in cellars or vaults, with a uniform temperature of 55"^ during the
entire 3^ear. Horse manure, from which the long straw has been
removed, is pkiced in heaps and allowed to heat to 115°, when
the process is arrested and the heap remodeled. At its second
beating it is stopped at 105°. The process is repeated until it
will not heat above 90°. It is then read}- for the cellar, where it
will heat up to 90° and cool gradually to 60°, It is finally covered
with very fine earth and the spawn is sown. In about four weeks
a white fogdike wet will appear, and in two weeks more little
buttons, about the size of peas, which must be removed from
the cellar. Then the mushrooms will begin to grow, and ten
quarts may be gathered every other day from every twelve feet
in length of the beds. The beds will continue to bear for about
eight months. He had built two caves five hundred feet long,
each, and wide enough for two beds, but the arches being of w^ood,
instead of brick, were destroyed the first season. Yet the crops
of that season re-paid the entire cost. Some kinds of mushrooms
are poisonous in one district and edible in another. If chocolate
colored they are edible, and if pink are j^oisonous.

TRANSPLANTING TREES,

Mr. Carpenter. — I have this season transplanted evergreen trees
every month since April, and with uniform success, both with earth
attached and without it. I think the best time to transplant ever-
green trees is after they have made about an inch growth. They
then seem to receive no check in their growth. Transplanting
later seems to prevent their growing, but, nevertheless, they live
and do well. I have also found that we may transplant deciduous
trees at any time when the soil is open, by taking all the leaves
off. I do not approve of watering the tree much after it has been
transplanted. Put the ground in good condition, and mulch it,
and it is sufficient, unless it is found that a little water is neces-
sary to cause the earth to settle among the roots.

Prof. Mapes. — Mr. Whitlock, who has transplanted thousands
of evergreens every week in the year, never waters.

Mr. Fuller.— A nurseryman never waters a tree when he trans-
plants it.

168 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

THE LIST OF FRUITS.

Dr. Trimble read the list of fruits recommended by the Farmers'
Club last year.

The Isabella grape, White grape currant, and Catawissa and
Fastolfe raspberries were added to the list, and as amended the
list was unanimously adopted for this year. It is as follows :

Summer apples. — Early Bough, Early Harvest, American Sum-
mer Pearmain, Summer Rose.

Autumn. — Autumn Bough, Gravenstein, Hawley, Fall Pippin,
Porter, Jersey Sweeting.

Winter. — Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Jonathan, Mon-
mouth Pippin, Spitzenberg (Esopus,) Tallman's Sweeting, King
of Tompkins County, Boston Russet.

Summer pears. — Doyenne d'Ete, Dearborn's Seedling, Beurre
Giffard, Rostiezer, Tyson.

Autumn. — Bartlett, Seckel, Beurre d'Anjou, Beurre Snperfin,
Doyenne Boussack, Duchesse d'Angouleme (on Quince,) Flemish
Beauty, Fondante d'Automne, Sheldon, Urbaniste.

Winter. — Beurre Gris d'Hiver Nouveau, Beurre Diel, Lawrence,
Vicar of Wkinfield.

Cherries. — Belle de Choisy, Bigarreau, or Yellow Spanish, Black
Eagle, Dowmer's Late Red, Early Purple Guigne, Elton, Black
Tartarian, Governor Wood.

Plums. — Green Gage, Coe's Golden Drop, Imperial Gage, Wash-
ington or Bolmar, Smith's Orleans, Jefferson.

Peaches — Crawford's Early, CraAvford's Late, Early York(large),
Bergen's Yellow, George IV., Oldmixon Free, Morris White.

Clings. — Heath, Large White, Oldmixon.

Jfectarines. — Downton, StauAvick, Early NeAA'ington.

Apricots. — Dubois' Golden, (American variety,) Peach or Moor-
park.

Grapes. — DelaAA'are, Diana, Concord, Union Village, Hartford
Prolific, Isabella.

Quinces. — Orange, Rae's Seedling, Portugal.

Currants. — Large Red Dutch, Versailles, Victoria, Large White
Provence, White Dutch, White Grape, Black Naples.

Gooseberries. — DoAvning's Seedling, Houghton's Seedling, (hardy
American varieties and free from miklew.)

Raspberries. — Hornet, Franconia, Orange, Belle de Fontenay,
CataAvissa, Fastollf.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 169

Strawberries. — Triomplie de Gand, Bartlett, Wilson's Seedling
(acid,) Hooker's Seedling (sweet,) Jenny Lind.

Blackberries. — New Rochelle (or Lawton,) Dorchester, New-
man's Thornless.

Subjects for discussion. — The subjects of "Corn Fodder" and
" Preservation of the Potato " were selected for the next meeting.
Adjourned.

October 21, 1862.
Mr. Adrian Bergen, of Long Island, in the chair.

FRUIT AFFECTED BY THE STOCK.

Mr. Carpenter. — It has been asserted by men of science that
the stock has no effect upon the fruit. Let the stock be of the
apple kind, and let apples be grafted upon it, and I believe that
it is pretty well settled that the stock will not materially affect
the result. Yet here are two specimens taken from two trees in
a farm in Connecticut, both grafted some fifteen years ago at the
same time with scions taken from the same tree. One was grafted
upon a Fall Pippin and the other upon a very inferior apple, not
a crab apple but a remarkably small apple. The former is twice
the diameter of the other, and appears like a better apple. They
are fair specimens of the trees from which the}^ Avere taken. But
although the evidence seems to be very strong, I doubt the whole
thing yet. I have grafted the Maiden's Blush upon the Siberian
Crab, and I never saw finer specimens than that bore.

[The apples having been cut and tasted were pronounced to be
so decidedly different in quality as to be convincing evidence of a
mistake in grafting.]

Prof. Nash. — Anybody Avould argue, a priori, that the stock
would affect the fruit, in size or quality, or both. I have always
been exceedingly inclined to believe that such is the fact. It
would seem impossible that a graft put upon a tree of defective
organization should mature a perfect fruit ; and I believe if a
series of experiments were to be made, this would be found to be
the fact. And this is perfectly consistent with Mr. Carpenter's
experiment with the crab apple, because the elaboration of the
sap takes place not in the stock but in the graft, and the sap of
the crab apple tree may be sufficient to develope all the perfec-
tion of the Maiden's Blush.

170 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Carpenter. — As a further illustration of the theory that
the stock does not materially affect the fruit, I will mention that
the pear is grafted upon the quince, the thorn, and the mountain
ash, these stocks being used to dwarf the pear, but the character
of the fruit is not materially altered. The only effect is that the
dwarfed trees attain their full growth much earlier than the
standard trees, and are therefore sooner prepared to develope all
the qualities of the fruit. We obtain in from three to five years
such fruit as the pear stock will require ten or fifteen years to
produce. The pear on the pear stock will generally bear speci-
men's in a few years, but while it is perfecting the tree, and
rapidly growing, the fruit will not be as fine as after it has
reached its full size. I have used the Paradise and Doucin
stock to dwarf the apple, but I never could see any difference in
the flavor of the apples produced.

Dr. Trimble. — I have grafted plums upon the common hedge
plum and the only bad effect was that the stock was short-lived
and the graft outgrew it. I could see no difference in the plums.
Again, as an experiment, I inoculated a number of peach trees
upon these natural red hedge plum stocks. Some of these trees
lived long enough to bear peaches ; and although nothing can be
more unlike than the hedge plum and the peach, I could see no
difference in the peaches. I grafted 120 or more varieties of
plums upon the hedge plum, but by the time they were ready to
bear I found that I could raise apricots as readily as plums, and
I turned every one of these plum trees into an apricot tree,
inoculating them with the peach apricot from Italy. I gathered
several crops of apricots from them and I saw no difference in
the fruit.

Mr. Burgess.-— Nobody in England would use the peach as a
stock for the peach or apricot. Nothing will give the apricot or
peach so fine a quality as to bud it upon the muscle plum. I
think that the great reason why peaches fail in this country is
because they are upon their own roots. I think if they were
grafted upon the muscle plum it would be a great acquisition.

Mr. Pardee.— -That is becoming common in Western New York.
I have grafted the pear upon the apple. The grafts would grow
tolerably well but would never produce much fruit. With the
quince it assimilates very nearly. The whole virtue of the graft-
ing process lies in the terminal bud which will push out as far as
you choose to let it go. In pinching trees the object is to throw

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 171

the sap back and form laterals. So with vines, such as melons
and squashes, pinch the terminal bud and laterals will be formed,
and upon these laterals fruit will be grown. So a grape vine will
run all over the side of a house and produce little or no fruit if
it is not pruned. If we put a bud into a tree and it grows
vigorously, it cannot but produce the same kind of fruit, because
the fruit lies in that bud and the sap only helps to elaborate it.
If we get a stock that is too thrifty it will develope apples very
large, very watery, and very apt to be deficient in flavor. It is
x-ery rarely that we get a large and fine Spitzenbergen apple. It
is not the fault of the graft but it is from the influence of the
soil. It is very difficult to ascertain how far the stock affects
the fruit, because we have not yet learned how far the effect is
due to the soil.

POTATOES.

Prof. Nash. — Nature teaches ua how to preserve potatoes.
"When you leave a potato in the ground below the reach of frost
it is better in the spring than any that you can preserve. From
October, when they are ripe, until May, they are in a cold and
moist condition. Remove the potato without any delay to a
moist place, regulating the temperature so that it shall be cold
continually and yet not freeze, and the potato will be as good in
May as in October.

Mr. Carpenter. — My experience has been that different potatoes
require different treatment. There are some varieties whose
best season is early and they will be poor in the spring, whereas
other varieties will be better in the spring than in October.
The Prince Albert, for instance, is better in the spring. The
Western Red is a miserable watery potato in the fall, but quite
late in the spring is a good eatable potato. The Jenny Lind is a
very poor potato in October, but by being kept in the cellar un-
til May or June becomes almost equal to the Peach Blow. I am
satisfied that in raising potatoes a change of seed is requisite for
the best results. I procure it from the West if I can, every year,
and I think I have seen the benefit of it. Indeed this will apply
to almost every thing we plant. Changing the seed will be a
material benefit. I think that if I had been obliged to pay
$10 per bushel for my seed potatoes it would still have paid me.

Dr. Trimble remonstrated against the doctrine of changing
the seed.

Mr. Andrews stated that the President of the Agricultural

172 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Society of Monmouth county, N. J., who raises excellent potatoes,
and has no rot among them, considers it important to change his
seed every year.

Prof. Nash. — I admit that some potatoes deteriorate less than
others, but that any have become better by keeping I cannot
admit. I object entirely to the practice of farmers, of spreading
their potatoes on the ground to dry in the sun. Let a potato be
kept in a moist place, at a temperature just about 32 deg., and
it would keep unchanged for thousands of years, but the moment
it is exposed to a higher temperature the process of converting
starch into sugar commences and the potato deteriorates.

Prof. Mapes. — A few years ago, Mr. Roberts presented here
potatoes from Michigan, weighing eight pounds more per bushel
than any potatoes we had ever seen. He left in the ground all
winter the portion he intended for seed, taking them up in the
spring and replanting them. The potatoes grew heavier and
better in quality every year. Bermuda farmers say that they
never replant their own potatoes, but always buy their seed m
New York. They generally buy the Western Reds.

Dr. Trimble. — I have cultivated the Bermuda potato here, and
it retains its distinct individuality from year to year.

Prof. Mapes. — Many have tried it and it has changed. Some
years ago Mr. Pell stated that he had raised a larger crop of
potatoes by gouging out the eyes than he could raise from the
whole potatoes. His results, however, were different from those
of others. Another suggestion has been to turn the stalks out-
ward when twelve inches long and cover them ; then to turn
them inward when they have grown twelve inches more, and
cover them again, repeating the process until the potato blos-
somed. The number of potatoes produced was very large. But
in this case as well as in that of planting the eyes only, the
potatoes averaged small. I have found also that cut potatoes
yield less than whole potatoes, and small jDotatces less than large
potatoes. Mr. John Bucklin of the Phalanx farm, has repeated
these experiments with the same results. It has also been deter-
mined by experiment that the potato yields the most when
planted at the depth of six inches ; that it yields the greatest
weight in pounds and the greatest quantity in bushels by flat
instead of hill culture. I have no doubt of the advantage of
changing the seed.

Mr. Burgess was in favor of changing the seed of potatoes.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. ] 73

PRIZES OFFERED.

Mr. Carpenter read a communication from the Board of
Managers of the American Institute, announcing that they had
determined to refer the award of medals at the next exhibition
to the Polj'technic Association and Farmers' Club, and communi-
cating a list of the subjects to be assigned to the Farmers' Club
for consideration.

Adjourned.

Octoler 28, 18G1.
Prof. Cyrus Mason in the chair.

PLOWS AND PLOWING.

Prof. Nash. — This subject is old and trite, but not unimportant.
Great improvements have been made in the art of preparing the
soil for the crops ; but have we yet attained the best possible
practice ? I think not. Fifty years ago it might have been said
with truth, that man's power over the soil had been doubled
since Virgil, two thousand years before, wrote his description of
the best plow of his time. Within the last fifty years, man's
power over the soil has been doubled again. It has been more
than doubled by improved implements, if we are to judge solely
by his present ability to effect a complete overturning of the soil ;
for we can go over more than two acres to our fathers' one. But if
we look also at the influence of their plowing and of ours upon the
fertility of the soil, the comparison will stand differently, and we
shall find that we have not gained as much as we had supposed.
While we can stir more than twice as much soil in a day, we can
not show practical paying results in a like proportion. I am not
a believer in the correctness of the universal practice of turning
the furrow slice upside down to any depth we choose to plow, on
all lands and for all crops. In the time of Abraham, the plow
was probably a little more than a section of a small tree with
one limb projecting forward at an angle of 45 deg., cut perhaps
to the length of one foot, to enter the ground, armed at the end
with a sort of iron thimble terminating in a point, and another
limb on the opposite side to be bent backwards and to serve for
a handle. The effect of such a plow would be not to invert the
soil, but by long continued patient labor, to loosen and mix it.
Precisely such would be the effect of the plow described by Vir-
gil, who lived midway between Abraham and our time. The

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Spaniard among the Cantabrian mountains, at this day, uses for a
plow, a huge rake, having four iron teeth about two feet long.
The rake's tail he ties to the yoke with leather thongs. The
yoke is but a straight stick fastened by other thongs to the horns
of a pair of cows or oxen, or a cow and an ox, as often happens.
Thus harnessed, he drives them over the field, more in some
places and less in others, till the whole is mellowed as far as the
teeth can reach, a depth of two feet slant measure, and at least
one foot perpendicular. The operation must be enormously labo-
rious, but the results are somewhat proportioned. Fifty bushels
of wheat to the acre is but the average crop in that part of
Spain. The people there will tell you that this rake-fashioned
plow is 3,000 years old. Its effect on the soil, like that of Abra-
ham and of Virgil, must be to pick it to pieces and to mix it.
Similar to this has been the effect of nearly all plows used pre-
viously to the present century. The process with all was
tediously laborious ; but it pulverised and mixed the soil
thoroughly if persevered in sufficiently long. Within the present
century the efforts at improvement in the plow seem to have
aimed at saving of labor more than at a thorough pulverization
and intermixture of the surface and subsoils. If a complete
inversion of the soil is to be aimed at and is to be the only end
gained by plowing, then our best modern plows are about per-
fect. In lightness of draft, in ease of holding, and in the beauty
of the work they are capable of doing, there is little room left
for improvement. But do they effect that on the soil which
secures the greatest crops ? I think not. The Spaniard of the
Cantabrian hills, does a much better thing for his crop in six
days, with his cows or mixed team, and himself or his wife to
drive, than we with our fine teams and A No. 1 plows can do in
six hours. In speed, we beat him all hollow; in the crop, he
beats us as much. What is now wanted is to combine our speed
with his thoroughness. On another occasion I propose to con.
tinue this subject, and to exhibit the model of an implement for
this purpose.

Prof. Mapes. — The ordinary plows introduce a wedge into the
earth which tends to compress the soil on the land side and also
below it. There is a digging machine, the cost of which is a
great objection to it, but which will do the work more thoroughly.

Mr. Puller. — The garden fork is the best digging machine I
know of, although I think I could improve upon that.

PROCEEDINGS OF TIIE FARMERS' CLUB. 175

Prof. Mapes. — Even in digging with the fork the whole leverage
of the handle is broiight to bear npou and compress the earth
behind the upper portion of the tines. The failure of the steam
plow is in its applying too much power in a particular place and
thus compressing the soil. The power must be applied gradually
and must be diffused as much as possible to avoid compacting
and hardening portions of the soil. There are machines which
will plow in one tenth the time of the ordinary plow, but they
would destroy any farm they might be used upon.

POTATOES.

Dr. Crowell exhibited specimens of Bermuda and of peach
blow potatoes, all raised in New Jersey, appearing to be the same
potato.

Mr. Carpenter. — This Bermuda was evidently a peach blow
originally. The Bermuda planters generally plant the Western
Reds, the character of which is so changed from the soil and the
climate that we consider their potatoes equal to anything we
have at any time in the year. I have never seen any indications
of disease in the Bermuda potatoes.

Dr. Crowell. — The potatoes twice planted in New Jersey show
some indication of a dry rot; but very little of it.

Dr. Trimble. — I have planted the Bermuda potato and never
knew them to rot ; the potatoes were very good, but they degen-
erated.

Dr. Crowell. — The first year I got no double potatoes. The
second year they began to come double.

Mr. Carpenter, — I should not advise any one to plant the Ber-
muda potatoes in this country because we have early potatoes
that show better results. The Bermuda potatoes soon come back
to the character of the Western Reds and are very unsatisfac-
tory.

Mr. Pardee. — The Bermuda planters buy the potatoes which
they can buy the cheapest. Generally they buy the Western
Reds, but if they can get the peach blows cheaper at the time
when they wish to buy them, they will take them. These pota-
toes are evidently the peach blows, and if so, they cannot have
come from the Western Reds, for I do not believe the Bermuda
climate will turn a Western Red into a peach blow.

Mr. Robinson. — The harvesting season here is the planting
season in Bermuda ; the potatoes, therefore, are taken from the

176 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

ground, packed into barrels, kept in the dark without the oppor-
tunity to change, transferred to Bermuda, and immediately put
into the ground again.

The Chairman inquired in what climate potatoes arrive at the
greatest perfection ? It is stated that they originated in a far
Southern latitude ; but at present our best potatoes seem to
come from the North.

Mr. Robinson doubted the imputed Southern origin of the
potato, for they flourish as far North as anything, if cultivated,
better than in the South. He had seen potatoes growing in
Canada, blossoming with the profusion of a field of buckwheat,
while in the Southern States they have few blossoms and are
nearly worthless for food.

Mr. Fuller suggested that they might have originated in a
Southern latitude, but so far up on the mountains as to be really
not a tropical plant. In its natural state, the potato seeks to
reproduce itself from seed, but by our cultivation we have so far
changed that that most of the force of the plant goes to form
tubers.

Prof. Mapes repeated his statements made last week upon the
proper mode of cultivating the potato, and proceeded to make
further suggestions upon the same subject. When a potato is
placed in the ground with a freshly cut surface, there is a ten-
dency in the starch to be transformed into acetous acid. To
prevent this the farmer dips it in plaster to form an artificial
ekin ; but if a thickness of an inch of plaster will not hold
water, it is evident that this thin covering of plaster cannot take
the place of a skin to prevent this transformation of the starch.

Mr, Carpenter. — I agree with Prof. Mapes upon most of his
statements, but I am fully convinced that cutting the seed to two
eyes, gives me the best results. If the whole potato is planted,
but few of the eyes will sprout; whereas, if they are cut down
to two eyes, they will all germinate. I would cut a potato of
good size into six parts of two eyes each, and place the pieces
12 inches apart in the drill, the rows being 20 to 24 inches
apart in order to produce the best results. With regard to the
depth of planting, I would recommend six inches for ordinary
soils, but for a heavy soil I think there would be a loss of ten
days in planting so deep, and I would recommend to plant but
three inches deep in clay soils. As to the time of cutting the
potatoes I have tried different times with no apparent difierence

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 177

in the result. I found that when I cut them immediately before
planting there was a new skin formed, and I could see no advan-
tage from cutting them either the day before or the week before
planting.

Prof. Nash. — I agree with Prof. Mapes upon every point except-
ing the depth of planting in heavy soils, and that I suppose is
really no exception, for with such tillage as he would recommend
they would cease to be heavy soils.

Prof. Mapes. — I would not vary the depth of planting in heavy
soils, but I would manipulate differently, for I would cover the
potatoes first at the depth of three inches, and when they had
grown through that, add the other three inches of covering.
The new potatoes are formed further beneath the surface than
if merely covered three inches, and are less liable to be exposed
to the deleterious action of the light and atmosphere. As to
the cutting of potatoes, if a suflScient amount of pabulum is
furnished all the eyes will germinate, thus answering the objection
to planting them whole.

The subject of the proper method of cultivating potatoes, was
referred to a committee consisting of Alessrs. Mapes, Carpenter,
and Fuller.

PREMIUMS OFFERED.

The Chairman read a communication from the Board of Mana-
gers of the American Institute, with regard to the exhibition to
take place in February next, and referring to the Polytechnic
Association and Farmers' Club, the subject of the award of pre-
miiums, to be reported upon prior to the 15th day of January
next.

To the Farmers^ Club of the Institute, the Managers have assigned
the following subjects :

1. Flax. For the best mode of preparing the fibre — long or
short staple. Large gold medal.

2. For the best seed machine for sowing cereals, drilled or
broadcast. Gold medal.

3. For the best vegetable seed sower. Silver medal.

4. For the best mode of packing and preserving apples and
pears. Gold medal.

5. For the best portable mill for grinding corn, by hand power,
for farm use. Gold medal.

[Am. Inst.] L

178 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

6. For the best corn shelling machine that will not break the
grain. Large silver medal.

7. For the best implement for cultivating the garden by hand
power. Silver medal.

8. For the best novelty and improvement in horse shoeing.
Silver medal.

9. For the best improvement in heating conservatories. Gold
medal.

10. For the best 3ssay on the culture of the peach. Gold
medal.

11. For the best essay on the culture of the apple. Gold
medal.

12. For the best essay on the culture of the pear. Gold
medal.

13. For any improvement or new implement adapted to the
farm, not enumerated, and superior to any now in use. Gold
medal.

14. For the best implement for field culture. Large gold
medal.

15. For the best power for farm use. Silver medal.

[The communication will be found in the report of the Poly-
technic association for October 31.]
Adjourned.

Jfovemher 4, 1861.
Dr. Crowell, of New Jersey, in the chair.

SELECTION OF SEED.

Mr. Adrian Bergen exhibited a specimen of corn which he con-
sidered the most profitable corn to plant on Long Island. It will
yield sixty bushels per acre on common land.

Mr. Carpenter. — I think this is what is called the T corn. It
is productive, but a little late. I do not consider it as well
worthy of attention as some other varieties. It is not so heavy
as flint corn. I have tried the Wyandot corn, and if I were in a
lalitude where I could ripen it, I should have continued to culti-
vate it. I planted two grains of it, from one of which I gathered
seventeen ears, that made half a bushel of corn in the ear. The
ears were some of them twelve or thirteen inches long. One
grain in the hill, at four feet apart, I estimated would produce
150 to 200 bushels per acre. ■ Although the stalks of the southern

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. IV 9

corn are larger, I think the eight-rowed flint corn, planted three
feet apart, four kernels in the hill, yields more to the acre. It is
better still to plant in drills, three feet apart, and dropping the
kernels eight inches apart in the row.

Mr. Steele. — A gentleman of my acquaintance, in planting
corn, always rejects the extremities of the ears, and never will
plant an imperfect grain. The result is that his corn is contin-
ually improving.

Mr. Carpenter. — I have full faith in selecting the best seeds for
everything. I would select my seed corn in the field, and from
no stalk except those having two or three ears. From those
stalks I would select the ears that ripen first, and that are the
largest and best developed, filled out to the very end. By pur-
suing that course, year after year, we may improve the varieties
of corn, and the same principles will apply to all the cereals and
vegetables. A friend of mine takes his seed corn from the ends
of the ear and rejects the middle. He argues that from the small
end he obtains earlier corn, and that the ears are developed out
to the very end. I do not know but he is right.

Mr. John G. Bergen. — These small kernels fill otit later than
the others, and may grow more rapidly. I should not reject any
but the imperfect kernels. The principle of selecting seed corn
from stalks producing two ears, may be carried too far. I know
a man who has experimented twelve years or more, and he carried
it so far as to produce eight ears to the stalk ; but he came to
the conclusion that he lost in the size of the ears as much as he
gained in their number. I doubt whether corn can be j)roduced
profitably with more than two or three ears to the stalk.

Mr. Fuller. — That is the principle upon which we take seed
from the middle of the ear. We follow the same principle upon
which this man produced eight ears instead of one ; that the
result will depend somewhat upon the character of the seed
planted. But it was said here last week that we should always
select the largest potatoes for seed. I say that is wrong. If we
wished to improve the potato in size, that would be right ; but
what we want is to improve their quality.

Mr. Robinson. — Mr. Bergen has told us the reason why the
kernels from the end of the ear produce earlier corn, because they
come to maturity in a shorter time. Nature indicates that if we
plant kernels which took only 70 days instead of 90 to perfect^
we shall obtain an earlier crop.

180 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Adrian Bergen. — One season I broke the ears in two, and
planted the butt ends only, but I found no difference in the crop.
I usually select the best ears for seed, and I do not find as good
ears where there are two or more ears upon the same stalk. I
should prefer one large ear upon the stalk to two or three small
ones, and I select my seed accordingly.

Mr. E. Henry. — Mr. Carpenter's rule for planting corn should
be modified according to the quality of the land. . If it is very
rich we may plant four grains to the hill, but if it is poor we
should plant only one.

Mr. Carpenter. — I would rather reverse that and plant the one
grain in the rich land, for it will tiller enough to produce several
stalks.

Mr. Adrian Bergen. — You would better plant none at all on
poor ground, for on poor ground you cannot raise corn.

The Chairman. — I have found this season that it would pay to
raise the plants of Wyandot corn in beds, and set them out after-
wards.

Mr. Carpenter. — The Wyandot corn is remarkable for tillering;
it seems to ftller from the root instead of throwing up suckers.
As to the potato, the largest buds will be found in the largest
potatoes, and they will throw up larger and stronger stalks than
smaller potatoes.

Mr. Fuller. — Is the large potato, of any given variety, of a bet-
ter quality than the smaller ones ?

Mr. Carpenter. — That is not a question for us to settle. We
grow for the market and want a potato that will sell. I think
the Red-blow and Buck-eye may be grown too large, so as to be
injured by their size. But the Mercer I have never seen too
large.

Mr. John G. Bergen. — I prefer to plant large potatoes for
another reason. I have observed that the crop is earlier. They
come up earlier and keep ahead the whole season. I have found
the seed end of potatoes to be earlier, but not to produce so well.
I have experimented also in the depth for planting potatoes. I
planted at all depths, from two inches to twelve under the soil.
My results w^ere not quite consistent, but I came to the conclu-
sion that three or four inches under the soil was the best depth.
My intention was to give them a flat culture, but it w^as not abso-
lutely flat, because that w^ould be too much expense.

Mr. Robinson. — I have learned from Mr. Bergen not only that

- PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 181

the large potatoes are the earliest, but the reason. They mature
the quickest. As to large or small potatoes for seed, there is not
an iota of difference, provided the small potato is as ripe as the
large one. The small potatoes are generally immature, and that
is the reason why they do not so soon send out shoots, or so well
support them as the large potatoes.

Mr. Carpenter. — Where the majority of the potatoes of a crop
are large, would you plant the small ones ?

Mr. Robinson. — No ; but there are cases where the farmer
knows that the small potatoes are ripe, and just as perfect as the
large potatoes, if not more so. Then why not plant them ? Why
will they not produce just as good a crop as large potatoes ?

Mr. E. Henry. — This year peach blows planted by the side of
Mercers, stood the drought much better.

Mr. John E. Bergen. — I do not think it is always so ; but the
peach blow being longer lived may have out-lived the drought.

CHRYSANTHEMUMS.

Rev. Mr. Weaver exhibited a large bouquet of Chrysanthemums,
grown by Mr. Richardson, of Fordham. They had been subject-
ed to several severe frosts, but had not suffered from them.

Mr. Fuller. — There is no trouble about keeping them all winter
in dry ground without covering, although it is better to throw
enough litter over them to shade them, and prevent the ground
from freezing and thawing. Frost does not seem to trouble
them. Chrysanthemums are apt to run back to single flowers if
not kept under high cultivation. The best way to guard against
that is to grow them from cuttings every year. The cuttings
strike easily, and this Avill keep the flowers in perfection.

Mr. Carpenter. — I have no trouble about keeping the Chrysan-
themum through the winter. If it is allowed to grow at random
it becomes a straggling bush. I find it well to nip it several
times to thause it to grow out laterals.

Mr. Fuller. — The pinching can be continued until August.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Mr. John G. Bergen read a paper in reply to the circular of the
New York State Committee of the American Pomological Society,
in regard to fruit culture in Brooklyn and vicinity.

Mr. Robinson exhibited Bunker Hill apples, sent from Water-
ville. New York. It was generally pronounced a second rate
apple, being inferior to the Fearmain, which it resembles.

182 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. John G. Bergen exhibited a Vicar of Winkfield pear^ of a
high color, which he attributed to its growing in sandy soil.

Mr. Robinson read a statement that cider apples were now
bought by calico dyers of Manchester, Eng., the juice being used
to make fast colors, and the price had risen in consequence of this
new use.

The subjects of " the feeding of cattle " and of " fall flowers "
were selected for discussion at the next meeting.

Adjourned.

JVovember 11, 1861.

Dr. Trimble, of Newark, N. J., in the chair.

Mr. Pardee mentioned the fact that geraniums and salvias have
been preserved through the winter by hanging them up in a cellar.

Mr. Carpenter had tried this plan without success, and con-
sidered it ordinarily a useless method.

HONOLULU NECTARINE SQUASH.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited a specimen of the Honolulu Nectarine
Squash, which he considered superior to the Boston, the Hubbard,
and all other varieties, especially for pies. They make as good
a pie without eggs as other varieties with them. They are also
valuable for cattle, nearly equal to corn for fattening cattle and
hogs. They weigh from twenty to forty pounds; they require
rather more care than the ordinary corn pumpkin, but will pay
as a separate crop ; there is danger of their crossing. Ordinarily
melons and squashes will not mix at a greater distance than ten
rods ; but with the aid of bees they will mix at a distance even
of forty rods.

APPLES FLOWERS.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited specimens of the Meadow Sweet and
Autumn Strawberry apples.

Rev. Mr. Weaver exhibited a beautiful bouquet of Chrysanthe-
mums, and other late flowers, from his garden.

Mr, Robinson exhibited a nosegay of flowers from the roadside,
hastily gathered this morning on the way from his d\velling.

PLOWS AND PLOWING.

Prof. Nash. — A fortnight ago I stated that I believed that the
soil should not be inverted in plowing, and stated some historir
cal facts to show that none of the plows used from the dawn of
humanity down nearly to the present time, have had that effect.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 183

The plows used by the Jews, Greeks, Romans, and modern French
and Spaniards, until the late improvements, and even at present
in large parts of Europe, stir the soil without inverting it. In
our late improvements we have aimed at two results and accom-
plished both ; first, to construct a plow that will go alone, and
the plows of Ruggles, Nourse, Mason and Coles need but little
attention ; second, to construct a plow that will turn the soil over
handsomely, and we have attained that. The husbanding of
power is a point to which sufficient attention has not been given
until within the last five or six years. I raise the question
whether, by turning over the soil handsomely, we gain anything ?
It is pleasing to the eye, but does the field produce well ? I be-
lieve it to be bad economy. The surface soil, to the depth of
eight inches, weighs 1,600 tons. By our inverting plows every
particle of that must be raised, and pushed sideways on an aver-
age one foot. This requires a great expenditure of power. If
the process is repeated, as it usually is, throwing the earth out-
ward every time, there is soon a depth of two feet of soil piled
up along the fences, and the fields become mis-shapen. The great
end of plowing is to pulverize the soil. There are certain chemi-
cal changes which take place when the soil is brought up to the
surface ; but when you bury that soil it changes back again to
what it was before. Another object in inverting the soil is to
bury the seeds of weeds. If we bury them they w^ill either ger-
minate and appear above the soil about the end of July, at the
very time when you wish to stop working in the field, instead of
appearing immediately in the spring to be destroyed in the early-
cultivation, or they will remain dormant until another year, when
by another inversion of the soil they are brought near the sur-
face, and are just as troublesome as they would have been if left
in their original position.

Here is a model (exhibiting it) of what I propose. There is a
horizontal cutter below, which will cut the soil to a width of
about seventeen inches, and lift it one inch, which Mr. Mapes
says will separate it into as many parts as if it were raised a foot,
and will produce the same effect as if the soil were cut across
every quarter of an inch. I propose to have four or more verti-
cal cutters besides the central connection with the beam of the
plow. I think that this will make a furrow twice as wide with
the same power.

Mr. Carpenter. — Can it be used on sward ground ?

184 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Prof. Nash. — I think not ; but I am not positive about that.
I had in view simply stubble ground, and ground devoted to hoed
crops the year before. In cutting a piece of wood with a chisel
across the grain, it will take four times as much power to take oflf
a shaving two-fiftieths of an inch thick as to take off a shaving
one-fiftieth of an inch thick. The power required increases not
directly with the thickness, but as the square of the thickness.
If I were to undertake to cut off an inch at a time I could not do
it. So you will see carpenters taking off many shavings, because
they can cut many small ones more easily than one large one.
So it is in the soil. These vertical cutters are so arranged that
the first cuts its shaving, and is followed by the second, so far
behind as not to allow the earth to become wedged between
them. Placing four more vertical cutters (making nine in all,
counting the standard) a little behind the others, we have a per-
fect potato digger.

Mr. Carpenter. — This may answer the purpose in part ; but, as
a whole, it seems to press down the earth below, while lightening
it above. The mole, on the contrary, mellows the ground both
above and below. There should be something here to manipu-
late the soil below the horizontal cutter.

Prof. Nash. — That can be done with a sub-soil plow.

Mr. Carpenter. — That is a double operation ; besides, there is
the same difficulty at the bottom of that. The spading fork is
nearest to perfection of anything we have now.

Mr. Robinson. — I think if I were to undertake inventing, I
should take a hint from the buzz-saw, and invent something to
saw up the earth and convert it into sawdust.

ISABELLA GRAPES.

A gentleman exhibited Isabella grapes from Washington, in
Dutchess county, N. Y. The ground is upon a limestone base,
which does not hold the water freely. The vines are always
buried in winter.

Mr. Carpenter. — I will repeat that I do not believe the Isabella
grape can be grown successfully in ordinary culture north of this
latitude. By burying the vines they are advanced and ripen
with greater certainty. I refer to open culture. We have the
Concord, which is sure without special care in burying the vines,
and it is conceded to be about equal to the Isabella. Why, then,
should we encourage the culture of a grape, which is so uncertain
as the Isabella, north of this latitude ?

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB, 185

Mr. Pardee. — In Newburgh, Catskill and Peekskill, there are
whole vineyards of Isabella grapes, and nobody thinks of burying
the vines; and I never saw finer Isabellas than I have eaten
around Poughkeepsie and Newburgh. We might as well talk
against the Spitzenbergen apple as the Isabella grape ; and we
can encourage the Concord without depreciating the Isabella.

Rev. Mr. Weaver. — I lived for some years north of Albany, and
we had excellent Isabella grapes, although we never pretended
to bury the vines.

The Isabella is not a grape that will ripen under all circum-
stances ; but four years out of five they will do well. With care
and cultivation they will do well two hundred miles north of New
York.

DOUBLE FLOWERS,

Mr. Carpenter stated that of a dozen Zinnias raised from the
seed, but one had proved to be double. The flower is very pretty,
and lasts very long — sometimes over a month without fading.

Mr. Pardee. — The Zinnia has been a long time a single plant,
and it is difficult to break up its habit. Unless the central petals
are pulled out it is almost impossible to obtain seed from the
double flowers. The seeds are scarce and costly, and the seeds
of the single Zinnia exactly resemble them in appearance. It is
not to be wondered at, therefore, that after the seeds have passed
through several hands, but one out of a dozen is pure. If there
is but one plant, and if that is double, the seeds will be perfect.
But if there are any single plants in the garden almost all the
seeds will produce single flowers. So with balsams. One single
balsam will hybridize all the rest, if permitted to go to seed, and
the seed will be utterly Avorthless ; whereas, if that one is de-
stroyed, the balsam seeds will almost all be double. It is a valu-
able rule with regard to all kinds of flower seeds, to protect the
double plants from the single plants, because it is the nature of
the single plants to produce seed in abundance.

The great difficulty with regard to flowers is that the soil is
not half prepared. The proper implement is the spading fork.
The ground ought to be turned over almost every day for a week
or more before planting the seeds. The bayonet hoe is an excel-
lent implement for distributing the soil without disturbing the
plants. If the soil is disturbed just before a rain, it will become
very light and porous. Flowers want plenty of room, plenty of

186 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

air, plenty of stimulus. Perhaps nothing is better for them than
soap-suds every Monday from the wash.

Mr. Steele. — -I use a common sieve for fine flower seeds in plant-
ing. I sift the earth, then strew the seeds, and sift fine soil over
them.

TRENCHING.

Mr. Carpenter.—I have never seen greater benefit from trench-
ing than during the drouth of this past season.

Prof. Nash.— I do not think the benefit of trenching can easily
be over-stated. In Belgium the soil is sandy upon the surface
and clay below, and trenching and mixing it makes it very fertile.
The government exempts from taxation the man who trenches his
soil for twenty-five years.

Mr. Carpenter. — I suppose an acre can be trenched two and a
half feet deep for $50.

Prof. Nash. — It will cost |500 if the man who does the work
is to be paid for it.

Mr. Pardee. — You can do it for less than $500 in the way I
have done it. I never carry the soil from one part of the garden
to another. I first throw up the earth twelve or fourteen inches
deep with a spading fork, and then fork up the earth as much
deeper to lighten it. Then I throw the earth from the next row
upon this, and fork up the earth below that, and so on. This
lightens the soil two feet deep. I have my garden trenched in
this way every spring. Doing it with the spade is a slow and
difficult work ; but the ground can be trenched very rapidly with
a long spading fork. And there is a vast difference between going
three feet deep and two feet wide in the expense.

Prof. Nash stated that the question had arisen upon the farm
connected with the State Reform School in Massachusetts, whether
it would pay to trench land with the labor of the boys at two
cents per day. They came to the conclusion that the cost of
trenching three feet deep was $500 an acre, and that it was a
good operation at that,

Mr. Carpenter. — Mr. Pardee's method is very good as far as it
goes, but it is very different from changing and manuring the
soil two feet deep, making it all loam for that depth, forking up
another foot. I can run a cane to the bottom of the trench of
land trenched eight or nine years ago.

The further consideration of the subject of " Trenching" was
postponed until the next meeting. Adjourned.

PROCEEDINGS OP THE FARMERS' CLUB. 187

Mvemher 18, 1861.
Rev. Mr. Weaver, of Fordham, in the chair.

GRAPES.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited a cutting 25 feet long, from a Diana
grape vine. The entire growth this year was 30 feet 8 inches j
and if it had been summer pruned as it should have been, it
would probably have grown eight or ten feet longer. He had
also planted a hundred cuttings this year taken from the same
vine. It was a two year old vine planted two years ago. He
considered the Diana one of the strongest growers ; the Hartford
Prolific and the Concord, not extending quite so far. The Dela-
ware had made a very satisfactory growth this season, a little
over twenty feet. A vine may be too rampant in its growth, for
if it growls very freely it requires a great deal of attention. The
Rebecca is rather delicate, growing this year only about eight
feet; still he did not think the Rebecca should be set down as
unworthy o'f cultivation. In point of productiveness, he consid-
ered the Concord superior to the Delaware, the bunches being
much larger. As a market grape, he should consider it equal or
superior to the Delaware ; but in quality, although it has much
improved this year and is likely to become a favorite grape, it
falls short of the Delaware. The Concord ripens as far North
as it is desirable to cultivate the grape. The Diana is rather
late, ripening but a few days earlier than the Isabella.

Mr. Pardee. I should quite disagree with the estimate Mr.
Carpenter places upon the Concord grape. It is a large, loose
jointed, foxey grape. No Concord grape has yet been produced
without the foxey flavor. It is a very watery grape, and although
the bunches look large, I have never yet seen a bunch weighing
over fourteen ounces. Bunches of the Delaware have repeatedly
been produced weighing as much. I suppose the Diana comes
next to the Delaware in point of flavor. I do not myself dislike
the musky flavor of the Concord grape, and I think it is desira-
ble to cultivate. There is an objection to it for a market grape
that the berries rattle off the bunches. I undertook to bring
some from Poiighkeepsie to this city, and although great care
was taken, the jar of the railroad cars shook off every grape.
It will not hang upon the bunches like the Isabella and Catawba.

Mr. Carpenter. — I feel bound to defend the Concord grape
against the charge of dropping off. I have kept bunches which

188 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

were fully ripe and sweet when they were picked, for ten days In
the house, and then shaking the bunches failed to shake off a
a single grape. The Concord upon my vines this year is finer
than I have ever seen the Isabella.

Mr. Pardee. — I have had an extended opportunity of knowing
the fact. There were at least 150 gentlemen at the Poughkeepsie
Horticultural Society all raising it, and without exception, they
made that objection to it. Ten days is not long enough for a
market grape to remain on the stem.

The Chairman read an article from a Montreal newspaper and
also extracts from correspondence, respecting the Adirondack
grape, discovered by Mr. Bailey at the foot of the Adirondack
mountains, which is stated to be superior to all others for culti-
vation north of Albany. It is ten or fifteen days earlier than
any first quality grape and promises to be as good in quality as
the Diana or the Delaware. It has not yet been extensively
introduced,

EXCELSIOR MOWER.

Prof. Mapes exhibited, on behalf of the agent, the model of an
improved mowing machine. The bar is capable of lifting itself
upon coming in contact with a stone. The driver with his foot,
may raise it a certain distance, and in addition to that the bar
will lift itself a certain distance so that by the two motions com-
bined it may pass over an obstacle a foot high. The cutter bar
continues its motion in all its positions. In moving upon a side
hill \vithout tipping the machine at all, the machine will mow as
well as upon level ground. The wheels may be readily unshipped
so that when the bar is raised the mower may be moved like an
ordinary carriage.

Mr. J. B, Clute stated that he had taken the agency of this
mower. The name of the inventor is Robert Bryson, of Sche-
nectady. This mower performs all the fuuctions of the Buckeye
mowing machine, which is- said to be the most perfect machine
hitherto constructed, and has also the advantages which have
been stated.

TRENCHING.

Prof. Mapes said that trenching properly means the reversing
of the soil, and not merely its lateral movement. If we filter
through a barrel of soil containing one percent, of carbon and
one percent, of alumina, the b'Vown liquor from the barn-yard,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 189

more than 90 percent, of its organic matter is taken up within
its first twelve inches, and at a depth of 34 inches the organic
matter will have been taken up so completely that there will be
no chemical trace of it in the pure and inodorous water which
will run out. If land is reversed to a depth of two feet, the top
soil, which has absorbed all the organic matter, is brought below,
so that the roots penetrating into it can still find pabulum there.
In some places a disturbance of the subsoil will destroy the crop
for the next year. If the subsoil contains sulphuret of iron, the
atmospheric action will change it into sulphate of iron which is
fatal to vegetation. But if we add lime, it will combine with
the sulphuric acid and form plaster, leaving the iron in tiie form
of a protoxide which is not injurious. The soil will then become
productive again, and more than ever before in consequence of
the trenching. The red shale hard pan of New Jerse}^, when
exposed to the atmosphere, soon crepitates into an excellent soil
well supplied with potash. An acre of ground cannot be trenched
three feet deep, thoroughly, for less than $500, unless it is done
with the trenching plow, and then it will cost about $70. The
advantages of trenching can, to a very considerable extent, be
obtained from underdraining and subsoil plowing. If the drains
are properly made and open at both ends, there is a circulation
of air equal to that from trenching. I plow from 12 to 15 inches
deep, and run a 19 inch subsoil plow below that; and if I can
get down 32 inches with them both, I am satisfied. I have got
it as deep as that for many acres, and have found it to pay. The
security against drought alone is a great advantage, because we
lose one-tenth of our produce in this country from drought.
Land will pay better with each successive plowing it receives at
$3 per day, with medium paying crops, until it has received
seven plowings. I think that perfect trenching is neutralized by
its cost. Neither trenching nor subsoiling will avail upon a
naturally wet soil not underdrained.

Mr. Carpenter said that trenching had the advantage of bring-
ing to the surface a new soil upon whieh manure could be applied
with a larger percentage of profit. Upon land he had subsoiled
ten years ago, he could perceive no difference after the fourth
year ; but ground trenched ten years ago remains unchanged ; it
is as light now as when it was first done. When land is worth
$500 an acre, the soil must be deep in order that it may be useful

190 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

for agricultural purposes. Upon such land trenching may be
useful, even if it costs $500 or $1,000 an acre.

Prof Mapes. — In England they trench but little deeper than
they plow ; only about fourteen inches deep.

Mr. Pardee thought that spending $500 an acre upon trenching
was a mere matter of theory never reduced to practice. The
best method in practice was turning over the soil and subsoil, as
lie had explained last week, which costs less than $50 per acre.

Mr. Robirison. — I can get a ditch dug three feet wide, three
feet deep, and one rod long, for 25 cents. That is fifty super-
ficial feet, which is just half a cent per superficial foot. That
will be about $218 per acre.

Prof Nash. — That would give the man who did it 1 1-8 cents
per ton for lifting the earth, and no more. I still think that
land cannot be trenched three feet deep for less than $500 per
acre ; and as I said last week, that there is no advantage in
reversing the soil.

NEW SUBJECTS.

The subjects of "fall plowing," "winter feeding," and "trench-
ing," were suggested for consideration at the next meeting.
Adjourned.

J^ovemher 25, 1861.
Dr. Hawkes in the chair.

SQUASHES AND PUMPKINS.

Dr. Trimble called attention to a mammoth pumpkin, the seeds
of which were selling for a dollar per dozen.

Mr. Carpenter said that the mammoth pumpkins were generally
deficient in quality. The white mammoth Leghorn is a valuable
squash, but not as valuable as the Honolulu, the largest speci-
mens of which weigh from 35 to 60 pounds.

Mr. Robinson. — What advantage is it to grow big pumpkins
weighing 200 pounds ? Is it any more profitable than growing
200 pounds of pumpkins weighing 10 pounds each ? These big
pumpkins are almost worthless in their quality.

Mr. Carpenter. — The field pumpkin is considered a paying crop
when planted among corn, as the Connecticut farmers are in the
practice of doing. I consider it a profitable crop when planted
by itself, for home consumption. The pumpkin is valuable for

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 191

feeding to cattle, to hogs and to poultry. It is very fattening,
particularly the Honolulu squash, and may be fed for a long time.
Any atmosphere that will keep sweet potatoes will keep pump-
kins. I paid $5 per pound for the seeds of the Honolulu squash
last year, and I believe they are worth it if they cannot be pro-
cured for less. It will probably produce more pounds from the
same seed than the mammoth varieties.

Prof Nash. — It will cost twice as much per pound to raise one
squash weighing 100 pounds as to raise 10 squashes weighing the
same in the aggregate. With regard to raising pumpkins among
corn, I believe in the principle of one crop only in one year upon
the same soil. The better way is to plant the pumpkins by them-
selves, and to prune them so as to produce pumpkins instead of
pumpkin vines. I speak now of farming and not of gardening.

Mr. Carpenter. — In planting pumpkins among corn, I never
could perceive any difference in the corn in the hills where the
pumpkins grew, so that I conclude it is not detrimental to the
crop of corn. I have seen three heavy crops, corn, turnips and
pumpkins on the same ground, each of which was sufficiently large
to satisfy any farmer for a single crop. What the effect upon the
soil is I cannot state, but I have never seen any detrimental
results from growing the three crops together. It is supposed
that turnips are not very exhausting, drawing most of their nutri-
ment from the atmosphere.

Mr. John G. Bergen. — Culture of that kind is very common
among market gardeners; but the more crops you take off the
ground the more manure you must put on to keep the ground up.
The most profitable pumpkin that I have seen grown is the West
India or cheese pumpkin. It is not uncommon to sell |100 worth
per acre, besides feeding the small ones. The most profitable
squash I have found to be the early white scollop squash, not so
much for its quality as for its being so early. I have received
$400 per acre for this squash.

TOUGH TURKIES.

Mr. Pardee stated that tough turkies could be made tender by
steaming them an hour before baking.

GAS STOVE.

Mr. Pardee stated that the gas stove sold by Mr. Pierce, 806
Broadway, would heat a room at a cost of 1| cents per hour,
without any unpleasant smell. It seemed to be a great improve-
ment upon the common gas stoves.

192 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Prof. Mapes. — Will it give more heat than a similar consump-
tion of gas in the open air ?

Mr. Pardee. — Yes; twenty times.

Prof. Mapes proceeded to state facts tending to show that when
gas burns with a blue flame it gives out very much more heat
than when it burns with an ordinary bright yellow flame.

SUBJECT FOR NEXT WEEK.

On motion of Mr. Pardee, Mr. Fuller was invited to address
the club next Monday, at one o'clock, upon the subject of " Cut-
tings."

ACCLIMATION.

Prof. Mapes. — For the purpose of bringing up the question, I
will take the ground that there is no truth in the doctrine of
acclimation. That is, I shall maintain that plants being carried
from a certain country to different places, and acquiring various
peculiarities in those places, will, when carried back, all produce
alike. The same vine will produce Madeira wine in the island of
Madeira, and Hock wine in the Hock district, as often as it is
carried back and forth. The Gossypium Arboreum, at 40 deg.
10 min. south, in Chili, is a long, fine staple. At 15 miles en this
side of Baltimore it produces a cotton like that of Chili. The
same tree grows in Peru, Honduras, Borneo and in other places.
As you approach the Equator it becomes a short staple ; and as
you recede from the Equator it becomes a long and fine staple,
finer even than that of Edisto island. Now I contend that if you
take the seeds from any one of the localities and carry them to
any other, they will produce the quality of cotton now produced
there. In other words, the plant maintains its integrity, and
when carried back to its original locality it will produce as it
did before. We are all familiar with the facts about the Ber-
muda potatoes. Western reds, peach blows and Carters all go
to Bermuda and come back Bermuda potatoes, which we know to
be such from their appearance. Plant those potatoes here, and
back they go to w^estern reds, peach blows, &c., as they were
before. The Havana orange carried to Florida becomes a Florida
orange. There are grapes which gentlemen have taken much
pains to acclimate, and Avhich after some time they have placed
in the open air ; but unfortunately they did not try the experi-
ment of placing them in the open air in the first place. I have
no evidence that any plant has changed its integrity from removal

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 193

to a different climate, or lias become better capable of standing
the severity of a climate from exposure to it.

Mr. Carpenter. — I think we should make a distinction between
plants propagated by cuttings or eyes and those propagated from
seed. I have no doubt that we can alter the character of vege-
tables produced from seed, and that they can be acclimated ; but
I think those produced from cuttings or tubers cannot. Bring a
muskmelon from Persia, and by planting the seed each year of
the first melon that ripens, we may get it to ripen some weeks
earlier, and by following it up we may obtain a permanent
advance.

Prof. Mapes. — That does not meet the point, because the same
thing might be done in Persia. It is the particular selection of
seed that makes the difference, and not the change of climate.

Rev. Mr. Weaver. — As I understand acclimation, the statements
of Prof. Mapes prove it. I do not understand it to mean such
a change that the plant will not return to its former character,
but such an adaptation to the climate that the plant becomes
able to live there, as a person going to Africa, and having the
fever several times, becomes acclimated and is able to live there.

Prof. Mapes. — I admit it as to the fever, but not as to plants.

I hold that if we should raise seed from the Gossypium Arbo-
rium here, and procure seed fresh from Chili, and plant them
together, the result would be the same. It is sometimes the case
that a larger or older plant will bear more cold than a smaller
one, and a young plant brought from a warmer climate may be
unable to bear the cold, and j^et the same plant when a few years
older may seem to have become acclimated.

Dr. Holton said that it was his opinion that the external force
of the climate might so prevail over the internal force of the
plant as to develope a new interior power. If Cretins, from the
goitrous district of Switzerland, are carried to other countries,
the children will retain a goitrous tendency, although that disease
is produced by the climate. After some generations that ten-
dency may be overcome. So plants, after some generations, will
probably return to their original character, but not immediately.

Prof. Mapes. — That is the true issue, for I claim that they will
return the first year. But the illustration is not quite fair, for
diseases may become hereditary, and it must be shown that the
changes in plants are from disease to establish any analogy.

Mr. Pardee. — Mr. Peabody supposed that by his mode of treat-

[Am. Inst.] M

'19'4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

'ing Hovey's seedling and the large early scarlet strawberries, he
Lad so changed their character that they would not run ; but
upon giving them the ordinary treatment, the very first year
they returned to their former habits, running as rapidly and
forming as large a leaf as other plants not so treated.

TRENCHING.

Prof. Nash said that M^here labor is cheap and bread is dear,
as in England and on the continent of Europe, it may be good
policy to trench, and yet it may not be good policy in this coun-
try. So long as we keep so many horses, so long as labor is
higher than six cents per day, and so long as there is no lack of
bread, the stirring of the soil by human muscles is out of the
question, excepting in the smallest enclosures. One foot in depth
of soil weighs 2,000 tons to the acre, and more if it is in a moist
condition. In trenching three feet deep, at $500 per acre, this
would be 8.1 cents per ton for lifting the earth. The subsoil plow
produces as good an effect upon the soil above it as the spade,
and the action of the air and rain admitted upon the soil below
it will keep it from becoming too compact.

- Mr. Carpenter. — In England the trench plow has nearly super-
seded the subsoil plow. When land is subsoiled it soon settles
back into its former condition, but when it is trenched either by
the spade or the trench plow, the change in the position of the
subsoil, allowing the atmosphere to operate upon it chemically,
is productive of the best results. In trenching, the earth has not
all to be lifted ; the top spit is merely rolled over into the fur-
row ; the second is more laterally, and the third is the only one
that is lifted.

Prof. Nash. — The inertia of every ounce of the soil must be
overcome. It must all be lifted a little, and a portion of it three
feet. As to tlie pressure downward of the subsoil plow, I admit,
action and reaction being equal, that there is just as great a pres-
sure downward as the lifting force, but at the depth at which
the subsoil plow runs, who cares for that ? But it w411 not remain
condensed by this pressure, for, as I have stated, the action of
the air and of the rain will soon cause it to crumble.

Mr. Adrian Bergen. — I do not see that it makes any difference
whether you plow or spade, provided you go into the ground
deeply. In my garden I sometimes plow a part and spade a part,
and I can see no difference in the results from the part plowed
and from the part spaded.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 195

Mr. Robinson read extracts from Stephens' " Book of the
Farm," rekitive to the English mode of trenching fourteen inches
deep.

Prof. Mapes stated that that was written before the invention
of the JMichigan plow, which would do the same work, turning a
six inch furrow into a fourteen inch hole, and then lifting the
next eight inches and plowing it in a reversed position upon the
top, at an expense of three cents per running rod.

Adjourned.

December 2, 1861.
Mr. Henry Steele, of New Jersey, in the chair.

NEW GRAPE.

Mr. Haight, from Dutchess county, exhibited a specimen of a
supposed new grape, produced from a vine eight or ten years old,
upon the grounds of a neighbor of his. It ripens some ten days
earlier than the Isabella, with the same protection, and is a very
good grape.

Mr. Fuller. — It is a very good grape; with the Catawba flavor,
but without the muskiness of the Catawba. It may be a seed-
ling from the Catawba.

Mr. Pardee. — I think it is the Diana. The flavor has been
changed from being kept in the house for some time. If it were
not for its early ripening I should think it was a Catawba; but
there might be reasons for its ripening earlier, being on the south
side of a house, for instance.

Mr. Haight. — That is the case. It is on the south side of the
house, within ten feet of it. The house is a white building.

Mr. Fuller. — If Mr. Haight will bring a branch of that vine
a foot long I will tell him whether it is a Catawba or Diana. It
is very easily settled by the wood. If it is a Diana it will have
from the base of the bud little dark streaks running down the
dark upon the new wood.

Mr. Haight. — Would you recommend propagating this grape ?

Mr. Fuller — I would recommend planting it in other localities,
away from the house, to see whether it keeps its earliness. ■

Mr. Pardee. — It is certainly worthy of further experiment.

DEATH OF M. ISIDORE GEOFFROY ST. HILAIRE.

Dr. D. P. Holton. — It may be appropriate to allude to the death
of Prof. Isidore Geoffrey St. Hilaire, upon the 11th of October.

196 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

He Avas professor of the Garden of Plants of Paris, and President
of the Society of Acclimation. His father, Etieune Geoifroy St.
Hilaire, was cotemporary with Cuvier, and held that where Cu-
vier ended, with the examination of facts, was the proper place
to commence a philosophical investigation of natural history.
His labors were chiefly in discovertng the law of harmony between
the different orders of animals, and at the same time the law of
compensation, that a deficiency of one organ is counterbalanced
by a corresponding development of opposite organs. The son,
whose death has recently taken place, continued these researches,
and his labors have been very efficient and very acceptable to
lovers of natural history.

ACCLIMATION.

On motion of Mr. Robinson, the subject of "Acclimation" was
selected for the next meeting.

On motion of Dr. Hawkes, Dr. Holton was requested to trans-
late from the French, the views of Prof. St. Hilaire upon this
subject, to be read at the next meeting.

APPLES AND PEARS.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited specimens of the Schwaar apple, one
of the oldest and best apples in the country. Also, of the Glout
Morceau pear, which is a longer keeper than the Lawrence, and
will command a higher price in the market. It is a great bearer
after the trees have acquired sufficient age. The Vicar of Wink-
field is a great bearer, but I have never seen it a good table fruit.
It lacks flavor. For late winter pears we have none completely
satisfactory. The Madame Eliza, the Marshal Dillon, and the
Beurre Clairgaut are good late pears.

CUTTINGS AND LAYERS.

Mr. Fuller. — Before I commence I wisK to say that I have no
sympathy with the spirit of gardeners who are unwilling to make
known their methods of propagating plants. I have never had a
secret in gardening, and I never will have. I cannot promise to
tell you anybody's secrets — I do not know that there are any
worth telling — but only Avhat I have learned from the reading of
many authors, and from practice ; for some of you may not have
had time to spend ten years in this study and practice.

In the propagation of hardy plants there are certain principles
which govern us. The roots of a plant always come out of the
alburnum or inner bark of the plant. Perhaps there is a greater

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 197

variety of plants that will root from green wood than in any
other wa3^ But the cutting must be placed under glass where
the evaporation of the leaves can be stopped until the leaves are
formed. As a general thing the easiest way is to grow plants
from cuttings of the hard, dr}^ wood. We know that the circu-
lation of the sap, in deciduous plants, does not cease when the
leaves drop off. The proper time to make these cuttings is, as
soon as the leaves drop off in the fall, or as soon as they can be
pulled off without injury to the adjacent buds. We make the
cutting near the bud, in order that the descending sap, passing
down the plant to form the last layer of wood for the season, may
exude from the wound we have made and throw out roots. The
iBrst plant which is ready, is generall}- the currant. We cut them
in lengths of six or eight inches, and plant them in ground pre-
pared for them, by being dug deep and made moderately rich.
The ground should be sandy, or porous in its nature. We set
out the cuttings about two inches apart and pack the soil about
the base of the plant verj'^ firmly. The cuttings may be made in
September; and as roots will grow after the weather is too cold
for foliage, roots v^'ill be formed upon these cuttings ready to
feed the plant when the circulation begins in the spring. If the
cuttings are not made until spring, the alburnum becomes har-
dened during the winter, and the cutting must be placed where
that can be softened again before roots can be formed. Almost
all domestic shrubbery may be grown in the same way. But
there is a difference in the mode of throwing out roots; for while
one plant will throw out roots all along the stem, others will only
throw them out from the freshly cut surface. The latter requires
special care in packing the earth closely against the end of the
stem. Quince cuttings may be taken from the one, two or three
years old wood. The two years old wood will generally grow the
best. If not to be set out in the fall, when cut, they may be
placed in the cellar, or heeled in, in rows, so that the earth shall
come in contact with every part of the bark. The rose is grown
in the same way; but as it only forms roots at the base, it is
necessary that the cutting sliould be taken off at a bud, cut
smooth and square, and that that end should be protected by
being placed in contact with the earth. It is not necessary that
the stem should be buried in this case. It is generall}^ necessary
to wait until quite late before the frost will enable you to strip
off the leaves from the rose in order to make your cuttings. It is

198 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

generally the practice to make cuttings from the grape two or
three feet long; but I prefer to make them of only two or three
eyes, the cuttings being from four to six inches long. Another
method of making cuttings is to cut away a portion of the old
wood, making a hip or mallet shoot; and many cuttings so made
will grow, which would not grow if cut in the other way. There
are some varieties of evergreens, as the arbor vitte, the box, and
the ycAV, which we can grow in the open air from cuttings, plant-
ing them in a half-shady situation and a sandy soil. But the bet-
ter way is to plant such cuttings under glass, in a cold frame, in
a soil nearly all sand. The leaves of the evergreen are covered
with a fine hard coat, or epidermis, which imbibes very little
moisture and perspires very little. They will, therefore, remain
green for months where deciduous plants would perish. The
surest way to propagate them is to make small cuttings from the
green wood in the summer, when the tree is growing most rapidly,
and plant them in a hot-bed ; but this method requires more care
and skill. I prefer to make all my cuttings so short that they
can be planted perpendicular. If the cutting is delayed until so
late in the winter that the sap begins to rise, they may be placed
in the ground in a reversed position, so that the butt end of the
cutting shall be near the surface; and then the rising of the sap
will make the callous excrescence from which the roots are to
spring. The cuttings may afterwards be taken up and placed in
their proper position.

A layer is a cutting, only it is propagated in another form.
The branch is cut partly off, forming a tongue upon which there
should always be a bud. The object is to check the flow of the
sap, and to produce roots there, so that the branch may be sepa-
rated from its parent plant and become self-supporting. The fall
is generally the best time for layering deciduous trees ; but there
is no general rule. Some varieties, such as the soft-wooded
plants, do better in the spring. It is easier to make layers near
the surface of the ground, but it is not necessary, for you may
put a box of earth up into the tree, and keep it there until the
roots have been formed in it. You can bend over your tree and
layer from the whole top of it, if you desire many plants; but in
that way you will destroy the parent tree. The best time to
layer the grape is in the spring, after the buds have started. The
roots that grow from a layer are not as sound, or as firm, or as
active as those growing from a cutting; because the layer

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 199

derives its nourishment from the parent plant during the summer,
and the roots have had little to do. There is a great difference
between roots that have had work to do, and those that grow
merely because it is their nature to shoot out. Evergreens can
only be layered successfully in midsummer, Avhen the plant is
making its most rapid growth. If you wait until the plant has
stopped its growth, you will find that the resin exuding from the
wound will so coat it over as to prevent the alburnum from pro-
ducing roots. Carnations may be layered in the fall, after they
are through flowering, about the first of September. Make a
tongue by cutting right under a bud, so as to leave the bud on
the tongue, making the tongue about three-quarters of an inch
long. Ten days will suffice to root it well ; and it may be plant-
ed out in the spring. The new plants will produce much better
flowers than the old ones. Verbenas should be reproduced every
year to keep them good.

Mr. F. illustrated his remarks by numerous practical examples
upon specimens of a large variety of plants.

Mr. Carpenter and Mr. Pardee expressed their gratification
from the remarks of Mr. Fuller, and condemned the course of cer-
tain gardeners who had objected to Mr. Fuller's betraj'ing the
secrets of the profession.

Mr. Fuller. — I learn that the greatest trouble was that I
explained the mode of propagating the Daphne. Now Theo-
phrastus, who wrote 300 years before Christ, described that very
plant. This illustrates the secrets of the profession.

Subject — " Acclimation." Adjourned.

December 9, 1861.
Rev. Mr. Weaver, of Fordham, in the chaii*.

PEARS.

Mr. Carpenter recommended the following pears, after trial.
Of American varieties, Osband's Summer ripens the last of July,
and is handsome, of good size, and of fine flavor. The Beurre
Kirtland ripens about the time of the Bartlett. Manning's Eliza-
beth ripens a little earlier, and is a delightful pear. The King-
sessing, Brandywine, Cabot, Sheldon, Fulton, Princess St. Germain
and Stephens' Genesee have proved good. The Washington is
one of the finest American pears. Of foreign varieties, the Beurre

200 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Clairgaut, the Beurre Hardj, the Beurre de Montigeron, the
Golden Beurre de Bilboa, the Henkel, the Paradise d'Aiitomne,
the St. Michael Archangel, the Duchesse d'Orleansand the Winter
Nelis have proved good.

On motion of Mr, Pardee, a pear exhibited by Mr. Randall for
a name, and which was pronounced a superior winter pear, was
named the Randall pear.

duane's seed sower.

Mr. Carpenter stated that Mr. Duane desired to enter for a
premium his Seed Sower and Broadcast Sowing Machine, and
moved the appointment of a committee to examine it.

The motion was agreed to, and Prof. Mapes, R. L. Pell and
John G. Bergen were appointed as said committee.

ISIDORE GEOFFROY ST. HILAIRE.

Dr. David P. Hoi ton said : The announcement of the death of
Isidore Geoffroy St. Hilaire, an honored correspondent of the
American Institute, calls us to pause in our ordinary course, to
pay a tribute of respect to his memory ; to pass in review some of
the labors of the distinguished naturalist, and to consider some
of the valuable deductions and analogical inductions of his phi-
losophic mind, especially those forming the basis of the organiza-
tion and practical working of one of the most important societies
of France — the Society of Acclimation — whose president he was
from its foundation, 10th February, 1854, to his decease, Paris,
October llth, 18G1.

The setting forth of these labors might have been entrusted to
one of greater erudition and scientific appreciation ; but a solemn
duty rests upon your speaker — that which a pupil bears to a
respected teacher.

As in the schools of Medicine (passing from modern times to
remote antiquity,) Ave associate Bichat Avith Hippocrates; so in
Natural History Ave associate Geoffroy St. Hilaire Avith Aristotle.

To give even a general view of the Avorks of Isidore Geoffroy St.
Hilaire it is peculiarly necessary to speak of his father, Etienne — a
father Avhose developments in Natural History have placed him as a
fixed star in the galaxy of brilliant lights of the first half of the
nineteenth century; a father Avhose " Philosophie Anatomique"
was the polar star in the reasoning and observation of the son in
his logical deductions and generalizations, giving in fact a ncAV

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 201

direction to the analytical 8,nd synthetical labors of those study-
ing practical questions respecting plants and animals.

Those who have attended the lectures of the son at the Sor-
oonne, or Garden of Plants, well remember the enthusiastic eluci-
dation and application of the principles of " Mon Pere." At what
round on the scale of progress commenced the father, Etienne?

This point cannot be seen without passing in enumeration, at
least, some of his cotemporaries and predecessors.

Before the finishing strokes to Buffon's great work had been
drawn, his co-laborer, Daubenton, called the young St. Hilaire to
the (xarden of Plants, where Lacepede and Jussieu then labored.

St. Hilaire had not been long in his new position before he
received some essays from young Cuvier, and discovering therein
marks of genius called him from obscurity to Paris.

Cuvier, born in 1769, (the natal year of Wellington and Napo-
leon) was three years senior of St. Hilaire.

At the points where BufFon and Linngeus closed, the young co-
laborers, Cuvier and St. Hilaire, commenced their work upon a
zoological classification; and there were but three years between
the completion of Bnflbn's Natural History and their first essays
on Comparative Anatomy.

Before passing in review the three schools of natural science
wdiich occupied the attention of students in the first half of the
present centur}^ — the schools of Cuvier, of Schelliiig, and of Geof-
frey St. Hilaire — let us briefly enumerate some of the links
in the chain of progress anterior.

Plato's most celebrated pupil was Aristotle, the prince of Natu-
ral Philosophers of Antiquity, Avho became the teacher of Alex-
ander. The spirit of conquest did not eradicate from the con-
queror his early implanted zeal for the advancement of .Natural
History. In all his military expeditions Alexander was accom-
panied by a body of scientific men, charged with the mission of
studying, collecting and sending into Greece whatever was deemed
of interest or practical utility. Thus, with the productions of
Southern Europe, Aristotle was able first to compare those of
Egypt, of Asia Minor, of Persia and of India — trophies which the
young king of Macedonia, at each victory, was pleased to send
home, as if he had charged himself with conquering the world
for science, as much as for himsef. It was worth}^ of Alexander
thus to acquit himself towards his preceptor, Aristotle. Thus
the rice plant and the bean from India were introduced into

202 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Europe, according to Theoplirastiis, a pupil of Aristotle, justly
gtyled the second naturalist of antiquity; whose studies, pursued
in his botanical garden at Athens, have in reality founded the
science of botany.

Pliny and his cotemporary, Dioscorides, labored some four hun-
dred years later. Pliny, as is well known, was suffocated at the
eruption of Vesuvius in A. D. 79.

From this time the chain of progress seems for ages obscured
in dark waters. It re-appears in the times of Luther and Bacon,
and henceforth science marches upon sure bases in place of assump-
tions and fancies.

Henceforth the portraitures of Deity are to be received by the
human mind in freedom, that Truth may have its perfect work.

It has often been said that more has been done in the depart-
ment of zoology, during the fifty years commencing with the
French revolution, than all which had been previously done.

Among the chief means of progress we enumerate the re-organi-
zation of the Garden of Plants in June, 1793, and the creation of
the Menagerie five months later. That this became the school of
Comparative Anatomy, is due to the bold, initiative and perse-
vering labors of Geoffrey St. Hilaire, and his co-laborers, Cuvier
and Lamarck.

It was in 1800 that first were published the " Lessons on Com-
parative Anatomy " by Cuvier, while that of Blumenback appeared
in Germany five years later.

It was when Cuvier published his Comparative Anatomy that
Bichat gave to the w^orld his " General Anatomy," reserving in
part physiology, and through it medicine.

Now, in order to realize the true position of Geoffroy St. Hilaire,
to comprehend what is his " method," his Philosophic Anatomy,
to seize the characteristic of his noble work, it remains for us to
pass in review the three cotemporaneous schools of Natural His-
tory : the school of Cuvier, that of Schelling, and that of Geoffroy
St. Hilaire :

1. The school of Cuvier was one of observation, of the direct
study of nature in all its phenomena, in all its manifestations
accessible to our senses; whence comes our knowledge of ^cic^y.
According to Cuvier the science was essentially the history, the
descriptive and the methodical exposition oi \\\e facts.

2. The school of Schelling recognized the necessity of observa-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 203

Hon, and, moreover, after and throngh it, reasoning, whence comes
our knowledge of facts; and by the aid of these facts comes our
knowledge of the laws of Nature ; a knowledge of the general
relations of the facts and of their laws ; a reasoned history of
nature, which may become the positive philosophy of history.

3. The school of Geoffroy St. Hilaire employed reasoning on
the one part and observation on the other, whence, at the same
time, the knowledge of the laws of Nature were deduced inde-
pendently of the facts from pre-established principles, and paral-
leily the knowledge of the facts.

The school of Geoffroy St. Hilaire, is at the same time a his-
tory and a philosophy of nature ; two sciences, (as says Isidore)
in one, the first only empirical and accessory — the second purely
rational and fundamental; two sciences parallelly developed and
reciprocally ind.^pendent.

What Cuvier and his school have accomplished, is good, Tsays
Geoffroy St. Hilaire,) but it is necessary to do more.

Observation and analysis are indispensable, but they are not
sufficient. Reasoning and synthesis have their rights. Let us
use our senses for observation, as most and best we can ; but,
also, after observation, those most noble faculties within us — our
"judgment" and our " sagacity."

Let us establish positive facts, and afterwards seek to deduce
their scientific consequences.

" Ne faut il pas q'apres la faille des pierres, arrive leur mise en
oeuvre ?"

After cutting the stone should we not put them to use ; other-
wise what fruit do we derive from the materials?

But we cannot here fully elaborate the higher natural history
sought by Etienne.

Happy in the conception and development of his " philosophic
anatomy." Happy father, in having a son whose useful life car-
ried the " method" to practical ends with greater certainty and
rapidity than could at first have been looked for.

" Philosophic methods," in multiplied forms of utility, among
which witness the triumphs of acclimation.

The teaching of Schelling at the universities of Jena, Wurtz-
burg and Munich, and his prolific pen, had created for his phi-
losophy a widespread popularity, which he lived to see justly
upon the wane, giving place to the rival school of the Geoffreys,

204 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE,

not in France only, but throughout Europe ; and in 1841, at the
66th year of his age, in the University of Berlin, his first lecture,
if not apologetic, was at least pivotal, and he there commenced
in silence to elaborate a new species of philosophy which Avas to
bear the name of " positive" philosophy. This he never pub-
lished.

The favorite expression of Schelling, best defining his phi-
losoph}', was :

" Ueber die Natur philosophiren heisst die Natur schaffen ;"
that is to say, " To philosophize upon nature is to create nature."

He lived long enough to realize that his creations were only
transcendental chimeras. Long enough to witness the triumph
and practical adoption of the " method" of his rivals, the Geoff-
roys.

The father, Etienne, having established analogies from points
of views in the department of comparative anatomy, the son,
Isidore, brought additional demonstrations of the same from
tera-tology, still further strengthened by confirmations from
embryology. Nor was he limited to the animal kingdom in co-or-
dinating analogical developments. Vegetable characteristics
were found to have typical coincidences and analogies, in harmony
with those of the animal kingdom.

Thus munificently commissioned by the positive charter from
nature, countersigned by all the subordinates in the two king-
doms, the animal and the vegetable, Isidore Geoifroy St. Hilaire
went forth to possess an inheritance which he has transmitted
greatly augmented by newly discovered laws and harmonies.

What Alexander and Aristotle did for Greece as acclimators,
Isidore Geoffroy St, Hilaire desired to do for all the world. This
thought, in him ever active, sought a development, and found its
best expression in the organization and labors of the society of
acclimation. " Apres la taille des pierres, arrive leur mise en
ceuvre."

ACCLIMATION OF PLANTS.

Prof. Mapes said that the definition of Webster, the process of
becoming habituated or inured to a foreign climate, being
accepted as the meaning of the word " acclimation," there was
no such thing as an acclimation of plants. There is no analogy
in this respect between plants and animals. Lima beans grown.
here for a hundred years are no more hardy than those just
imported. The Gossypeum Arboreum produces a very different

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 205

fibre in different latitudes, but he believed that the seed from all
of these latitudes brought here would produce the same result.
He had been in the habit of attempting to acclimate plants by
gradual exposure ; but upon placing them out of doors at once
the result was the same. Take a tender seed from the latitude
of New Orleans, and plant it fifty miles to the north of New
Orleans; take a seed from that and plant it fifty miles further
north, and so on until you reach this latitude, and then it will be
just as tender as when it started. There are no facts demonstrat-
ing the reverse yet made known.

Mr. Carpenter referred to the change in Mediterranean wheat,
and in Poland oats, in being brought to this country. He
believed it required a series of years to produce the change
here, and inferred that if carried back an equal length of time
would be required before they would return to their original
character.

Prof. Mapes was of opinion that it would return the very first
year ; that plants never carried back, even temporarily, to their
original location, the changes which had taken place in them
abroad,

Mr. Fuller expressed the opinion that acclimation does not
take place in plants, although they may be said to become
naturalized when carried into a new locality where they flourish.
One reason for the belief that plants become more hardy upon
being carried northward, probably is that we are able to select
the hardy plants at the North, and to cultivate from them. If
we could make the same selection at the South, the same effect
would be produced.

Mr. Carpenter. — The hand of nature has not distributed upon
the earth its shrubs and trees, and given each its locality. They
have been carried from one locality to another in various ways.
Birds, for instance, sometimes carry seeds five hundred miles or
more from their native place. The wild pigeon is annually
carrying seeds from the South to the North, and from the North
to the South.

Mr. Pardee. — There seems to be only one real point of differ-
ence of opinion here, whether a plant carried back to its original
locality will return at once to its original characteristics, or only
after a series of years. The great practical question seems to
me to be, not what they v,\\\ become when carried back, but
what they will become when brought here.

206 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

On motion, the question of Acclimation was continued for
another week.
Adjourned.

December 16, 1861.
Mr, R, L. Pell, of Ulster county, in the chair.

STRAWBERRIES.

Mr. Carpenter said that in consequence of tlie mildness of the
weather, his strawberries were blossoming; and a practical gar-
dener had stated that every plant thus blossoming would be des-
troyed. If so, the crop of strawberries next year w^ould be small.

Mr. Robinson. — Mine have been blossoming all through Octo-
ber and November.

Dr. Crowell. — Mine always do that. I cannot say that it
injures the crop. I noticed the same thing last fall, and I had a
very heavy crop this season. My method of cultivation may be
new to some. After the season is over I mow down the plants
close to the ground so as to destroy all the runners, which do not
form again during the fall to any considerable extent. I then
run a cultivator both ways between the stools, and then the sub-
soil plow.

SEED CORN.

Mr. Robinson read a communication from the New England
Farmer, of December 7, recommending persistent and extensive
experiments to settle the disputed questions about seed corn,
stating that if the result should be a gain of but three bushels
per acre, it would add millions of bushels to the product of the
country.

Dr. Trimble stated that a North Carolina farmer for many years
had raised enormous crops of corn, which had commanded a high
price in the market, both to be sent south for seed corn and to be
sent north for hominy. His practice was to take off the irregular,
the small and the defective grains from the ear, and to use them
for planting, while the regular and perfect corn was shipped for
the market.

Mr. Carpenter stated that a loaf of corn bread weighing five
pounds can be made for 6^ cents for the meal, while flour for a
similar loaf would cost nine or ten cents; yet the corn contains

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 207

one-fourth more nutriment. Most of the corn for hominy comes
from Maryland, where they raise it to great perfection. It is
important to get corn that will ripen early. The golden drop is
10 or 12 days earlier, from being selected for a series of years by
taking the earliest ears, from corn producing two ears to the
stalk, for seed. Now the stalks generally produce two or three
ears.

BELLIGERENT BEES.

Dr. Trimble read from a newspaper an account of seventy
swarms of bees engaging in a war which only ended from the
approach of night, and remarked that he presumed the cause to
be a scarcity of food in that neighborhood, and that they had
undertaken to rob one another.

Mr. Robinson, — What becomes of the bees of a w^eak swarm
when a strong one robs it ? The bees and honey will all disap-
pear in a few hours.

HOTZ PEDAL PUMP.

Mr. Hotz exhibited a modification of his pump, so that it may
be Avorked by hand instead of by the feet. In other respects it
is similar to his former plan, heretofore referred to a committee
of the club and reported upon favorably.

THE YAK ACCLIMATION.

Dr. Holton, as an instance of the recent acclimation of an ani-
mal, by the Society of Acclimation in France, read the following
paper :

Marco Polo, the great voyager of the middle age, mentions the
Yak of Thibet, an animal, Avhich, to the inhabitants of the eleva-
ted table land between the Himalaya and the Kuen-lun moun-
tains, is as useful as is the camel in Arabia or on the burning
deserts of Africa. It serves for draft, for riding, or for a beast
of burden ; it furnishes milk, wool, and an excellent meat.

This useful animal was seen only upon its cold, native plateaux,
averaging from 10,000 to 12,000 feet above the level of the sea.
No specimens, even, had reached the museums of Europe, till upon
the suggestion of Isidore Geoffrey St. Hilaire, a long time pre-
occupied with the grand thought of acquiring and acclimating
this animal of ardent utility, the French Consul at Shanghai, M.
de Montiguy, having obtained a herd of twelve sent them to the
garden of plants at Paris, where I had the pleasure of witnessing
their arrival in the month of April, 1854.

6

12^

208 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The principal races and varieties of the species were moreover
represented in the choice of the individuals :

For there were three white ones, with horns , 3

Five white, without horns 5

And four black, also without horns _ _ 4

There being six males and six females 12

/" \
, ! Three yaks of the white horned race kept at the Gar-
I den of Plants.

d } Two of bl'k race without horns, sent to Count de Morny,
^ 5 ^"^ ^1 ^ J ^^^ Allier, the elevated central portion of France.

f) Two of bl'k race without horns sent to the Ag. Com. of
g ) Barcelonnette, in the department of Basses Alp^s.

. ! Three white without horns, sent into the department
. j of Doubs, bordering on Switzerland.

Two white witliout horns, sent to Mr. Jobes, a far-
mer on the Jura mountains.

Three years later (1857.) the twelve were all living and in good
condition.

The family of three, kept at the Garden of Plants, (where the
mean annual temperature is much like that of the Central Park)
had in less than three years increased to eight, and of the five young
yaks one was of the second generation indigenous — certainly noble
specimens of acclimation. On the 13th September, 1856, was
born a young male from a female that had herself been born the
14th March, 1855, and consequently had not obtained her eigh-
teenth month.

As I watched this movement at acclimation for more than three
years, I could not but think the mountainous regions of the
United States, or the high plateaux of the American continent
would one day be enriched by the philosophical deductions of
my venerated pi-eceptor.

True we have the cow, the horse, the sheep, each more perfect
in its own order than is the yak, which seems to be substituted
for all three. But we should not neglect to consider that the
cow, the horse and the sheep have been raised to their preseiit
perfection from inferior races, by reason of the care of man. So
may it be in regard to the yak. One race may (under changed
external circumstances) serve us with wool ; one with milk, and
another with beef, Avhile yet another may continue much like the
yak of Thibet, to furnish all at once.

PROCEEDINGS OF Till: FARMERS' CLUB. 209

ACCLIMATION.

Rev. Mr. Weaver considered the question of the return of
plants to their former state foreign to the question of acclimation.

Prof. Mapes considered it an important practical question, and
stated that it had come up as a collateral question ; the opinion
having been advanced that there had been permanent changes,
which he could not admit.

Dr. Holton, agreeably to the request of the club, read the fol-
lowing translation of an extract from the opening address of Prof.
St. Hilaire, President of the Society of Acclimation of France,
on the occasion of its third anniversary.

" Each climate has its productions ; each region its animal and
vegetable species. But has nature there invincibly attached
them ? Has she placed laws forbidding their passing the bounds
of their original country ? Are they like the waves of the sea
which are condemned to come to break eternally, at the foot of
the same rocks, their lifeless force, their useless violence.

" Has God said to them ' Thus far and no farther.' Let us look
around us and we shall see everywhere the same answer.

"Among the vegetables, the wheat, the vine, the potato and a
multitude of others — are they the gifts of our soil? No; the
wheat and the vine have come to us from the east, the potato
from America — plants acclimated in Europe, the two first from
time immemorial; the other in the 16th century. They are now
more multiplied among us, because more useful than any others
which nature placed here.

"Immense benefits, and so great that in the estimation of the
ancients they could not have come except from divine hands.
Ceres, Triptolemus and Bacchus have their places in Olympus.
Gods of Peace aside the Gods of War, and the most beloved if
not the most fearful.

"Pious enthusiasm, ardent gratitude of young humanity, with
which contrast sadly the cold oblivious indifference of modern
generations. If a conqueror may have added a province to his
empire, twenty centuries ago, we all know his name. Know we
as well that Hawkins and Drake made the pacific conquest of the
plant which Parmentier afterwards cultivated and spread abroad ?

"Surely if the conqueror is a hero, Hawkins, Drake, Parmentier
are the benefactors of the human race.

"Our most useful animals are not natives of the soil of which

[Am. Inst.] N

210 TRANSACTIONS OF THE' AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

they form to-day the principal riches any more than are our
alimentary vegetables.

"The horse, the ass, the cow, the hen, the pheasant, the peacock,
the Guinea fowl, and let us not forget the smallest, but not the
least important of our domestic animals, the silk worm, are the
gifts of Asia and Africa. Some, and the most precious, obtained
in high antiquity ; others acquired in the times of the Greek
wars, and of the Roman domination.

" In modern times we owe to America the Cobaie, the Turkey and
two water fowls ; so that of the four quarters of the world, that
which has enriched Europe least is Europe itself

"Oor domestic animals are ours, not by right of nativity, but
right of conquest.

"Man has commanded and nature has obeyed.

"But has he not sufficiently commanded ? Has not nature
sufficiently obeyed? Some have seemed to think so, and I have
been obliged to reply heretofore, and on many occasions, to those
who say :

"Our domestic species, are they not sufficient for all our needs ?
The horse and the ox give us their force ; the beef, the hog, the
sheep and fowl their flesh ; the cow and the goat their milk ; the
hen its eggs; the sheep its wool ; the silk worm its silk. Where-
fore then new conquests ? We are rich enough. Shall we not
repose upon our riches ?

"I have made an inventory of these pretended riches, and behold
what I have found : In nature there are at least one hundred and
forty thousand (140,000) species, only forty-three (43) of which
are subdued to man ! And, moreover, of these forty-three ten are
not found in France !

"It is sufficient to cite these figures ; comment is unnecessary.

"We say then boldly, it is not for us simply to glean upon the
steps of former generations. Rich harvests are still in advance."

Mr. Carpenter. — I take the ground that selecting the first seed
that ripens is the only way in which the acclimation of plants
can be effectually attained. For the shriib I think it is an
impossibility. But it is pretty evident that animals may be
acclimated. The cow and the horse were introduced into this
country in the seventeenth century, and the horse has already
become very different in Canada from what he is in Pennsylvania.

Mr. Robinson. — I happened to be acquainted with the man
who grew the first bale of cotton shipped from the United Statesi

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 211

and lie stated to me that when the seed was first brought to
South Carolina it was supposed to be so much a tropical plant
that it would be difficult to grow it even on the low sea
coast near Charleston to perfect itself so as to produce cotton.
And after it had been grown there successfully the planters iu
the upper part of the State would not for a long time plant the
seed, thinking it would not grow there. Yet cotton has been
carried even into Indiana, north of the latitude of 40 cleg., where
it perfects itself every year. So with the sugar cane, upon its
introduction into Louisiana; it was at first doubted Avhether it
could be grown to produce sugar, and even after that was suc-
cessfully done upon the coast the planters back from the river
would not believe that they could grow it. Yet, I have seen it,
far up on the hills, upon an old worn-out plantation, produce four
hogsheads to the acre, which was as much as the best lands upon,
the river, with equal cultivation, could produce. Whether this
was acclimation or habituation is of little consequence. It is
our object, as it was the object of the Society of Acclimation, to
inquire whether there are new plants or animals which can be
usefully introduced. Shall we " rest upon our riches," or shall
we stretch out our hands abroad and see whether we cannot
grasp something else and bring it here and make it serviceable to
us. Here is this tree cotton. Who knows but we may as well
have our cotton trees on every farm as easily as our apple trees,
or pear trees, or cherry trees ?

Prof. Mapes. — I am as much in favor of introducing new plants
or animals as any one. That is a different question. Mr. Robin-
son has stated the opinions of the planters upon the introduction
of the cotton plant and the sugar cane ; but it has been clearly
proved by the government, in an experiment which cost $100,000,
that the sugar cane has not been acclimated ; for new plants have
been introduced which have been grown by the side of the old
ones and there was no dilBference.

Mr. Carpenter. — I was one of the first to plant the Persian
melon. I found it very superior, and procured some fine speci-
mens. I planted again and gained a little. Of course I planted
the first that ripened, for all did not ripen. It has now advanced
some thirty days, and it has all been brought about by the
selection of the first seed that ripened.

Mr. John G. Bergen. — I am inclined to believe with Prof.
Mapes that no permanent change is produced. In my experience

212 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

in raising vegetables of all kinds, I have never seen any change
produced after the first year, excepting from the selection of seed.
In supplying the Ncav York market, it is a matter of great impor-
tance to get early vegetables. Cucumbers can be grown out of
doors so as to be ready for the market by the 4th of July, and we
have not succeeded in advancing them beyond that. Something
may be gained by a careful selection of seed ; but that is inde-
pendent of acclimation.

Mr. Carpenter. — I think our soil affects the results as well as
our atmosphere assists in producing earlier seed. I think seed
becomes acclimated through the influence of the soil as Avell as
of the atmosphere.

ADIRONDACK GRAPE.

Mr. Bailey, the introducer of the Adirondack grape, stated that
it had ripened this year more than three weeks earlier than the
Delaware. It is of the color of the Isabella. The bunch is
more compact, and is well shouldered. This grape bears as well
as the Isabella, and is as hardy. It has been recommended in
Montreal as the best grape for Canada.

WESTERN APPLES AND GRAPES.

Mr. Fuller exhibited specimens of twenty varieties of apples
from Burlington, Iowa, which for size, color, and shape, would
bear comparison with the apples of Westchester county or of New
Jersey. A specimen of Catawba grapes, and of Catawba wine,
from the same place, were also exhibited.

JYew subject. — The subject of "Flax" was selected for con-
sideration at the next meeting.

Adjourned.

December 23, 1861.

Mr, N. H, Gale in the chair,

PEARS.

Mr. Hite exhibited well ripened specimens of the Easter Beurre,
and explained his method of ripening them. They were allowed
to hang upon the tree until there had been two or three white
frosts. They were taken from the tree, while the white frost Avas
upon them, into the house, wrapped in papers and set carefully
in a painted box, which was then placed in a cold cellar — a

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 213

wine cellar. In about a week the papers were wet from tlie exu-
dation from the pears, and had a smell something like cider. The
papers were taken off, the pears wiped dry with a napkin, and
new papers put on. In about a fortnight the pears were again
in the same condition, and the papers were again exchanged, and
every fortnight the process was repeated. If the papers are not
taken off there will be a mould, which will strike into the pear,
and which cannot afterwards be got rid of. About a week ago
the pears in the box were all alike, of a russettj green. These
specimens were taken out and put in the dining room, in a
comfortable atmosphere 5 and they have ripened and colored
well, while those remaining in the box are still hard and green.
He had had these trees in plentiful bearing for half a dozen years,
but could never get the fruit to ripen. Some he had packed in
sawdust, but in about two months they tasted like pine wood.
Otliers he had packed in bran, but they shrivelled. The method
adopted this year, and now explained, had proved successful.

Mr. Carpenter. — Will you describe the mode of cultivation ?

Mr. Hite. — It is a system I conceived some three years ago of
pruning and spurring the limbs of these trees. I spoiled a good
many trees in learning how to do it. About the first of June I
cut the limbs to within about three buds from where they start.
By the first of August they will have grown from six to nine
inches, and then they may be nipped to the next leaf, similar to
a grapevine. A fruit bud will form there, and the buds will be
enlivened all the way down. About two years ago there came
out from a fissure in the bark, about a foot from the ground, on
one of my trees, a fruit spur, and this year it produced a pear.
That pear, growing directly from the trunk of the tree, was seen
upon the tree by several gentlemen now present, and among them
yourself (described in the report of July 22d,) has ripened, and
here it is, a large, beautiful specimen of the Easter Beurre. Other
buds have come out from the same point, which Avill next year
bear fruit, and all the limbs of the tree are now perfectly clothed
with fruit buds. I learn that the plan of Debreiul, recently intro-
duced in France, is essentially the same with mine. My greatest
trouble was to find the right time for the pruning. If the limbs
are pinched more frequently there will be more buds, but they
will not be fruit buds. Debreiul's plan is to plant out a tree that
is a year old, and let it grow as it pleases that year. Next year

214 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

cut it down to about six buds. These buds will then start out,
and must be pruned so as to keep the fruit upon these limbs.

Dr. Underbill. — I tried this method upon some standard peach
trees a number of years ago. I cut them down to ten to 16 inches,
and allowed but three or four branches to grow, and they made
most beautiful trees. They were many of them Malacatoons, and
the third summer they were loaded with fruit, bending down
like a weeping willow, in every direction from the centre. That
was the last year they bore. If I had taken off two-thirds of the
fruit I should have saved my trees.

Mr. Hite. — I find that the peach tree never bears twice upon
the same wood.

Dr. Underbill. — The plan in New Jersey is to grow peach trees
all sap and no ligneous fibre. The winter naturally freezes the
water, and produces the yellows, and on the I'ourth year they die
from that cause. Their life is reduced from twenty years to four
years, by an artificial tremendous growth in the nursery.

Mr. Carpenter. — I am very glad to see these specimens to-day.
I had determined last Aveek to root out my Easter Beurres, but I
believe I will try them again. If I can produce such specimens
as these I shall be well satisfied ; but I do not think such speci-
mens can be produced generally. I have never seen the Easter
Beurre before, so finely grown, or so finely flavored. In Europe
it is esteemed one of the finest winter pears; but in this country
it has not given satisfaction, and there are few who are Avilling
to grow it. I have had it for ten years, and have never succeeded
in perfecting the fruit. The season does not seem to be long
enough. But I am inclined to think that much depends upon the
management, and that the system of summer pruning laid down
by Mr. Hite has a tendency to develop the character of the pear.
The single stem sjstem, which I believe Mr. Hite has adopted,
has many advantages, and I believe it has been proved that it
produces as much fruit as any other system. Mr. Rivers, perhaps
the most extensive pear grower in England, has adopted that
system. But to produce good trees from the quince stock, and a
good supply of fruit, they must be well manured every year, and
the ground must be kept mellow, and cultivated.

Mr. Fuller. — I think once in ten years is often enough to feed
a tree; but say "cultivate" and I will agree with you. I believe
the whole secret of dwarf pear culture is stirring the soil.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 2] 5

Mr. Carpenter. — I am speaking of trees planted out in tlie natu-
ral soil. If they hang full of fruit, and are not well manured,
they will be ruined.

Mr. Fuller. — In almost any orchard, while the hill of pota-
toes or of corn, not worth six cents, will be carefully hoed, you
will see around every tree a bed of grass. Now if the tree were
to be hoed as often as corn, or oftener, it would succeed. Grass
keeps a tree as dry as a bone all summer, because the grass
absorbs all the moisture in its own growth. I believe it is more
the want of cultivation than the want of manure, which is the
cause of the failure of dwarf pear tree culture throughout the
country.

Mr. Cavanach. — So far as my experience with dwarf pears goes,
I think they have been manured too highly. I find that in many
city gardens the trees bear very little fruit, but make a great
growth of wood.

LANDS IN NEW JERSEY.

Mr. Robinson read a letter calling attention to the cheapness
of fertile land in southern New Jersey.

Prof. Mapes testified to the value of the lands referred to for
agricultural purposes.

CHESS.

Mr. Carpenter read a letter inquiring whether oats turn to
chess, and stating certain facts : In the spring of 1860 an acre
of land was cleared, surrounded by timber lands, and three quar-
ters of an acre was sown with oats, and the rest planted with
corn. The seeds were fully ripe, and shelled somewhat in harvest-
ing. In the spring of 1861 the whole acre was sowed with spring
wheat. Where the oats grew the chess nearly destroyed the
crop; but there was very little, if any, chess where the corn had
grown. In the same way a piece of land sown with Poland oats,
and the next year with wheat, had but little chess in it; but an
adjoining piece of land, under the same treatment, but sown the
first year with common oats, and the next year with wheat, pro-
duced nearly all chess.

Prof. Mapes. — The seed oats may have had chess in them.

Mr. Carpenter. — I do not believe that oats turn to chess. I
have a neighbor whose wheat was frozen out, and chess took its
place, and he is convinced that his wheat turned to chess. I
think it is easy to understand. Chess is a hardy plant, which

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will stand any kind of weather or treatment. It tillers very
much ; and if the wheat or rye suffers from the weather, a few
seeds of chess will show very great results.

Mr. Robinson. — I settled once on a western prairie ; I sowed
some Clean, handsome looking wheat in November, and it came
up quite green. The cattle got into it, but it grew the next
spring, and made heads, but ninety-nine out of every hundred of
them bore chess. I knew another instance. In a large tract of
wheat was a water basin, where the water stood in the winter;
and while the rest of the field produced a handsome crop of wheat,
over the spot where the Avater stood there was not a stalk of wheat,
but the stalks of chess were as thick as the wheat outside the line.
Yet I do not believe that wheat turns to chess ; I believe the seeds
of the chess had lain there from time immemorial. I knew another
instance where the marks of a threshing machine were plainly to be
seen wherever it went, from the growth, not of wheat, but of chess.

Mr. Fuller. — Can it be proved that wheat was not originally
chess ?

Mr. Carpenter. — "Were oats, wheat, barley and rye all chess
originally? They are all said to turn to chess.

Mr. Fuller. — If it could be shoAvn that these grains all had a
common origin, in chess, it might clear up the mystery. But we
do not now know what was the origin of any of them. Some ten
years ago a friend of mine in Wisconsin sowed two and a half
acres with oats, at the bottom of a hill, upon new land. He
harvested his crop, and in the winter the heavy rains washed
down earth enough to cover the oats that had been shelled out.
They came up beautifully, but they produced all chess; yet I do
not think the oats turned to chess.

Prof. Mapes stated that he had carried to the Smithsonian
Institution two heads of wheat, each containing chess upon the
same head with the wheat. They decided that it was there a
parasite. Wheat or rye decaying in the soil may furnish the very
pabulum needed by chess.

The Chairman. — If wheat develops chess from the want of
proper cultivation, then by proper cultivation chess ought to pro-
duce wheat. Here is an opportunity for useful experiment. Let
somebody take the best chess he can find and see if he can pro-
duce wheat from. it.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 217

CARROTS.

Prof. Mapes called attention to the method of raising carrots
with oats, so that the oats should protect the young carrots from
the sun and from the growth of weeds.

The Chairman. — I tried it in 1856 and did not succeed. It is
a good deal of labor to take the oats off. I thought if I should
ever try it again I should try buckwheat.

SODA ASH SWEEPINGS.

Mr. Carpenter inquired what soda-ash sweepings were worth
for agricultural purposes.

Prof. Mapes. — Very little compared with potash sweepings.
You can better get the soda from common salt, by the salt and
lime mixture, when it also gives you chlorine to form chloride of
lime. I think they have a value; but they are not worth more
than one-fifth as much as potash sweepings.

Subject for discussiori. — The subject of "Flax" was continued
until the next meeting. Adjourned.

December 30, 1861.
Mr. Edward Doughty, of Newark, N. J., in the chair.

HYBRIDIZATION.

Mr. Robinson read a letter from a correspondent in Indiana,
inquiring why his Rutabaga turnips did not do well this year.
They grew up with long stalks like cabbage stalks, and made very
small roots. Mr. R, attributed it to the mixture of the seed plants
with cabbage.

Mr. Carpenter attributed it to their not having had time to
bottom. If planted late, with stimulating manure, they will
make large tops, but have not time to form roots. If there is
time enough, it is desirable that they should form large tops.

Dr. Trimble. — If two such vegetables as the turnip and cab-
bage will intermix and form a tertium quid, we have almost
unlimited power over vegetables.

Mr. Carpenter. — The Kohlrabi is supposed to be a cross between
the turnip and the cabbage.

Rev. Mr. Weaver. — I think it is a distinct vegetable.

Prof. Nash. — Hybrids tend back to the original forms ; and if
the Kohlrabi were a cross, there will be a tendency to return
either to the turnip or the cabbage.

218 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Gale referred to the question suggested last week whether
oats or wheat ever turn to chess, and suggested the appointment
of a committee to experiment and determine whether chess will
produce wheat, and whether the turnip and the cabbage will
intermix.

Mr. Carpenter said that if we sowed pure grain we should reap
pure grain, provided no chess had been grown there before.
Chess is a very hardy plant, will stand any severity of the wea-
ther, and seems to do well just where wheat will not do well, in
low wet places.

Mr. Robinson. — I had a water example last week, and now I
will produce a dr}"- land example. Upon the same prairie which
had the wet place in the center, where chess took the place of
wheat, upon the highest part of the prairie and upon as dry land
as one would wish for a garden, one of my neighbors sowed in
the spring a field of oats. After harvesting the oats, he ploweid
the ground and sowed timothy. The oats were clean and the
timothy seed was clean, yet the result was neither timothy nor
oats, but chess. I do not believe that the oats turned to chess,
but I know that if chess had been in the ground it had lain there
a good while, for I was the first occupant of the ground, and I
know that no chance sowing, since America was discovered, had
put chess seed there.

Dr. Holton undertook to explain the possibility upon physi-
ological principles that wheat might turn to chess. The com-
mencement of vegetable, as of animal growth, is a cell, composed
of an envelope and its contents. The contents appear under the
microscope to be a homogeneous uniform mass. Then there
appears in the cell a darkened spot, a nucleus, or center of
growth, and the cell divides and becomes two. Like produces
like. A wheat cell will produce a wheat cell. But there are
exceptions arising from external causes. The instances of such
exceptions and of abnormal growth are abundant. The forma-
tion of a cancer in the human system is an illustration. ^So it
may be consistent with nature that wheat cells, from some foreign
impulse, may abnormally develope the cells of chess.

Dr. Trimble mentioned instances where an abundant crop of
white clover and of red clover, had sprung up, where apparently
there had been no seed planted.

Mr. Gale said that a place might be cleared in the centre of
the woods, anywhere, and white clover would grow there; but

PROCEEDINGS OP THE FARMEHs' CLUB. 219

Le had never seen nor heard of chess growing where the cereals
had not been sown.

Dr. Trimble. — There is almost invariably chess seed in wheat.

AMERICAN SILK.

On motion of Mr. E. Henry, the " Culture of Silk " was selected
for discussion at the next meeting.

FLAX.

Mr. Carpenter. — The subject of to-day, the growing of flax, I
consider more important than either silk or cotton. Although
grown to a considerable extent in former years, this fibre has
been very much neglected lately in this country, and especially
since cotton has been so extensively introduced. Flax is very
durable, comfortable to wear, easily cultivated, and by the aid of
improved machinery it can be converted into a material equal
in some respects to the best of silk. I am told that the new
machinery produces a fibre equal to the best Sea Island cotton ;
and it is improved by being mixed with cotton, taking a silky
appearance.

Prof. Nash described the method of cultivating flax. It requires
a strong soil, and is an exhausting crop. Half a bushel of seed
to the acre is sufficient in raising the seed, but up to a bushel
and a half may be sown when the fibre is to be used. Being
sown so thickly it grows more slender and the fibre is finer. The
soil is plowed the first of May, or as soon as the weather becomes
warm, and is harrowed nicely, and the seed being scattered evenly
a bush is passed over it, so as barely to cover them. When the
upper bolls are ripe, and the lower ones green, it is ready to be
pulled.

Mr. Robinson stated that the steam gun, invented by Mr. Allen,
of the Novelty Works, converts the stalks into a very fine fibre at
a very moderate expense.

Dr. Trimble explained the old processes of hatcheling, etc., and
expressed the opinion that if they could be superceded by the
new machiner}', it would tend to cause flax to become a substi-
tute for cotton.

Dr. Jarvis considered linen superior to cotton or wool as an
article of clothing. Cotton is continually giving off minute par-
ticles, filling the atmosphere, and inhaled by the lungs. He con-
sidered cotton as a curse, from its electrical action, while linen
is beneficial, and there is far less dust from it. He doubted

220 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

whether wool was fit for buman beings to wear, and would be
glad to see linen supply its place, as well as that of cotton.

Mr. E. Henry said that the exhaustion of the soil by the culti-
vation of flax arises from two things : the fact that everything is
removed from the soil in the flax crop ; and the fact that the land
is left exposed to the sun at a season when that is an injury.

Prof. Nash said that flax ceased to be cultivated when cotton
became abundant, because it would not pay, and it could not be
again introduced without better processes than Avere formerly
used. It is superior to cotton for wearing, excepting that in cold
weather it will crack, and fail sooner than cotton.

Rev. Mr. Weaver considered wool a more important article of
clothing than flax. He had been ordered by his physician to
wear woolen under-clothing, and the effect had been a marked
improvement in his health.

Mr. Lancaster described flax culture in New Hampshire, jind
the mode of using it, as it was before cotton took its place.

Dr. Jarvis suggested that when the system is in an abnormal
condition, it may require woolen garments ; and yet, normally,
linen may be better, more invigorating, and more conducive to
health. Adjourned.

Janicary 6, 1862.
Mr. W. S. Carpenter in the chair.

THE AMERICAN ELK.

Mr. Lorenzo Stratton, of Little Valley, Cattaraugus county, N.
Y., stated that he had succeeded in domesticating the American
elk, and was requested to make a statement of his experience to
the meeting.

About eight years ago, he said, I had an opportunity to pur-
chase two horned elks. I did so, as a matter of curiosity, and
because I wished to see a few specimens of this forester preserved,
as my place is situated in the region where they used to roam in
countless numbers. They did well, and bred. I fenced off a few
acres for them, and found after a while that I could certainly
raise venison cheaper than my neighbors could raise beef. I
devoted a large plat of stony, bushy land, unfit for any other
purpose, to them. Since then I have succeeded in breeding
thirty-seven elk, I have had no accident of any kind amongst

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 221

them, and they have fatted and bred regularly, and have become
quite domesticated. The does have been gentle, and act like
domestic cattle. The bucks have been also gentle, until they
were about four years old, when they have been difficult to
manage, in September and October, like a bull or stud-horse.
In such cases I generally made venison of them. Excepting these
instances, however, the animals are quite docile. The first fawn
that I raised was very shy ; he was in a lot of about fifteen acres,
and when I went to him he would flee from me, so that I
could hardly get a sight at him. The next fawns raised were
not so frightened when they saw me ; and now, when I go into
the field, the young fawns are like so many calves. My lot is
fenced with common rails, six or seven feet high, and there is no
difficulty in keeping the animals within bounds. Frequently,
wdien the fence may get down, they go out into a neighboring
piece of woods ; but, as soon as anything startles them, they run
for their own field again, and only feel safe Avhen they arrive
there. They are not inclined to stray off. This lot in which
they are confined they consider as their home, and chase off any
dogs that may come upon it. In four generations, by kind treat-
ment, I have, as I contend, not merely succeeded in taming them,
but in domesticating them. They are as gentle as sheep that run
wild. I have sheep in the same lot that are taken to the barn
every winter and fed ; and this fall, when I go into the lot, I can-
not call them as I can my elks, which have been there summer
and winter, and never left the ground. I have kept two elks
until they were four years old, and they are dangerous to go near
in the autumn. They attack a person both with their horns and
their feet.

The elks find the greater part of their own living. They are
on the same grounds now that their species used to occupy when
the country was wild, and ought, perhaps, to take care of them-
selves now as Avell as they did then : they eat brush, moss and
grass : they eat almost everything that comes in their way : they
will grub on scrub-oak until they destroy it: they eat daisies
greedily ; not a daisy can grow where they run. There is noth-
ing to hinder the raising of them on cultivated farms. Still, I
suppose it would be cheaper to raise them on land which was
useless for any other agricultural purpose. There are a hundred
thousand acres of land in this State that can be used in this way,
and that is good for nothing else. I have an idea that the waste

222 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

lands of LoDg Island, of which I have read, might be turned to
account in this way. My elks are on the same ground that they
have occupied since I first commenced to raise them. I wintered
twenty-two last winter; I have brought three into market here.
Two of them are bucks, with antlers, weighing five hundred lbs.
apiece, and one doe, weighing three hundred lbs. I have several
hundred lbs. of hay near my field, with which I feed the animals
a little. I think that, in ordinary circumstances, three elks will
not eat more than one cow.

They reproduce when they are two years old. I think it used
to be generally believed by the Indians that they commonly
brought twins, but I have not known* an instance where more
than a single one has been produced at a birth. They might
possibly be made to give milk, but never, I think, with profit.
They can be driven, and make very fancy teams, but this is never
likely to be done, as a matter of utility. I broke one pair, and
sold them for $1,000, to take to Europe. I used a common horse
harness, with the bit. The bucks are very beautiful trotters, and
I think that a buck with antJers moves Avith more grace and
majesty than any other animal. The objection to their use in
this way is that in the summer their horns are very easily chafed
and hurt. They shed their horns in March, and the new ones
commence growing in two weeks, and in about ninety days from
that time are complete. During this time they are not in good
condition to drive; and, besides this, they cannot stand the hot
weather. In the winter time they will travel an immense dis-
tance. They will probably outstrip a common horse, but will not
equal a trotting horse : they do not tire as easily as a horse, and
a buck of four years old will go a distance of fifty or a hundred
miles quicker, and with less fatigue, than a horse could do. The
great profit in raising them, however, is for their meat. They
live and fatten on useless land. Where the feeding ground is
brush they will destroy it; but the grass will come up more pro-
fusely on this account in the summer; and it has the result of
giving them better feed in the summer, though not so good in the
winter. I paid $400 for the first pair I bought : I have bought
two does since, from which, wdth the first pair, I have raised my
whole stock : I have been at various unnecessary expenses, from
the fact that I did not know how to manage them : I can now
raise elk cheaper than I can sheep : I have a three year old buck,
weighing four hundred and eighty pounds, which has cost mo

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 223

less than any three year old sheep I have got : I have been
anxious to introduce them as a common stock, and have sold them
for $100 a pair. A great many are afraid to buy them, for fear
they will get away and go wild again. They see me go into the
field, and all the flock come about me, and each one try to get
his nose into my pocket; but they say,, "I don't believe I could
do that ;" they think there is some Rarey secret about it. When-
ever I go into the lot I generally cari^y a little handful of salt, or
grain, or something which they like, which makes them come
about me.

I think there is no better meat than that of the elk : ii is richer
and more juicy than the meat of the deer. I killed a two year
old doe this year which had had no fawn; she was very fat; I
took twenty-nine pounds of tallow from her, and she weighed
two hnndred and eighty-two pounds dressed, the skin weighing
twenty-eight pounds.

Dr. Trimble said that, several years ago, he was traveling in
Illinois, over the prairies, and he i-ecollected seeing at a house
where he stopped a full grown elk perfectly domesticated. There
were no fences about, and it never attempted to run away. He
was struck with the similarity between this doe and the doe of
the deer : he could hardly see any difierence, except that the doe
of the deer is not as stout or strongly built : he also spoke of the
beauty of the deer in one of the Philadelphia parks, and said that
they were perfectly tame, so that children played about among
them.

Mr. Stratton said the difference betAveen the deer and elk, as
regarded their being kept as a common stock, was that the deer
could be tamed, but not domesticated, like the elk. The off-
spring of a tamed deer is just as wild as it would be under any
circumstances until tamed. The elk, on the contrary, seems to
be more of a reasoning animal, and may be made as gentle a stock
as any common kind of cattle.

On motion of Mr. Pardee, it was

Resolved, That the Club recommend to the commissioners of
the Central Park to take into consideration the propriety of intro-
ducing the American elk into the park.

SILK CULTURE.

The regular subject of the day, " The Culture of Silk," was
then taken up.

224 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. E. Heniy. — Having no other interest than a desire to bring
to the notice of my countrymen a source of agricultural and manu-
facturing wealth, at this time suffered to slumber in neglect, I
would especially direct the attention of those who take an interest
in the resources of our country, to the importance of providing
proper employment for a class now almost entirely neglected, and
by so doing adding millions to our national wealth. I refer to
American silk culture, which has been so much neglected for the
past twenty-five years, that a popular belief seems to prevail that
the labor and the climate are unsuited to its production. Noth-
ing can be further from the fact, as I shall be able to show.

From the early settlement of the colonies to the present time,
the cultivation of silk has been more or less successful here ; much
more so than in France or Ital}', when the first attempts were
made to introduce it in those countries. As early as 1623 the
cultivation commenced in the colony of Virginia. In 1759 the
colony of Georgia exported 10,000 lbs. of raw silk, which sold for
two to three shillings higher per lb. than that of any other country.
In 177 1 the cultivation began in Pennsylvania and in New Jersey,
under the auspices of Dr. Franklin and other enterprising gentle-
men. In Connecticut the cultivation commenced about the year
1790, and the value of the raw material and sewing silk made in
three counties in that State in 1810 amounted to $28,503. In
Texas and California much has been done within the past few
years to establish its success in those States.

These facts are but a few of the many which go to show that
in nearly every part of our country silk has been produced.

The subject received the most attention between the years
1828 and 1837. It was at this period our government became
so much interested in it. The committee on agriculture in the
House of Representatives took the matter under special notice.
Commissioners were appointed, information collected, and a man-
ual was ordered to be published, giving general information as
to the mode of cultivating and manufacturing. Acts Avere passed
giving all necessary protection, and under the auspices of the
government, the press, and a general popular feeling on the sub-
ject, American silk culture was going on prosperously. At this
period a raging speculation was going on in the country, aflect-
ing nearly every branch of business. The great number of per-
sons embarking at once in the silk business, naturally made a
great demand for mulberry trees, for on this tree the silkworm

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 225

feeds. The demand for the trees, and the advancing price, soon
attracted the speculator; and so wild did the people become on
the subject, that a mania prevailed in the country, well-known as
the " morus multicaulis speculation." Many of the silk growers
lost sight of their legitimate business, and, like others, were
involved in the ruin that soon followed. It is here proper to
remark that this tree speculation had nothing whatever to do
with the legitimate business of silk culture, but so connected
have they become even in the minds of the intelligent, that the
disasters of both are considered one and the same thing; but it
is now quite time that an error so injurious in its consequences
should be disposed of. A quarter of a century is quite long
enough for a popular prejudice to have been dissipated, and a
thinking, intelligent people should examine and learn the truth
for themselves, and act in accordance. The silk business, when
it most needed the fostering hand of government, received a
finishing blow, by an act of Congress taking off all protection.
This act is said to have been passed at the time to satisfy the
nullifying Senator of South Carolina, John C. Calhoun, who had
lately changed his tactics on the tarifl' question, making it a plea
for South Carolina to destroy the Union. The evidence on record
up to this date proves, beyond all doubt, that under a fair pro-
tective tariff, the silk culture in this country is both practical
and profitable. I know of no branch of agricultural industry
whereby so much was produced to profit with the same amount
of labor and capital. I would at this time call the especial atten-
tion of my countrymen to the fact that some suitable branch of
labor must be provided for the respectable class of females. The
war that is now raging will naturally give a preponderating
female population, and some suitable employment must be pro-
vided for it ; and in no business can women be so profitably and
respectably employed as in the production of silk. The draft
upon our national resources for imported silk has been one of
great magnitude ; and now, while our country is bleeding at every
pore, this silken artery should be closed. If patriotism, if love
of independence are the offspring of America, let us unite our
efibrts, and by the aid of our legislators, our representatives, and
an intelligent agricultural people, at once encourage, protect and
foster the production of American silk.

Dr. Holton read extracts from several French authors, in rela-

[Am. Inst.] O

226 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

tion to silkworms, imported from Japan and other countries, and
the food most suited to their keeping.

Dr. Trimble said it is not necessary that we should import
worms from Japan, or any other country, to make silk. We have
several varieties, which are natives of this country. They may
be found by any one at night, for they are moths, which fly at
migl^t — not butterflies, which fly in the daytime. There are four
species noticed particularly : first is the Cecropia, which feeds
upon the apple, cherry and plum trees of our country ; second is
the Polyp/ieme, which feeds upon the oak and lime, or basswood
trees ; third is the Ju7ia, which feeds upon the walnut or hickory
tree, and the fourth the Promethea, which feeds exclusively upon
the sassafras tree. These worms have the same enemies, how-
ever, as others — the ichneumon flies — to which we are so much
indebted in large cities, where there are no birds, for the destruc-
tion of worms that would otherwise trouble us. The idea of the
Emperor Napoleon, in importing worms from Japan, is to produce
a silk cloth to clothe his soldiers with, so strong and cheap that
one suit may last through several generations of soldiers. The
Chinese used to hand down the clothing from one generation to
another. This was made from one particular kind of worm, which
is probably the kind of worm that Napoleon is trying to intro-
duce. In the southern part of the East — for instance in Madras —
the silkworm goes through its transformations in forty days.
Most of the insects native to this country, which have been men-
tioned, come at precisely the time that the leaves come. The
parent insect will deposit her eggs invariably upon the tree so
that they will come out at the exact time that the leaves appear.
At Madras the insect is six days an egg, twenty-two days a worm,
eleven days a grub, and one day a moth, so that in its perfected
existence it lives but a single day. There, of course, the manage-
ment must be hurried. We have worius that do not feed on the
mulberry tree. The speaker could not say whether they are as
good, as few experiments have been made on the subject. The
mulberry tree seemed to have been especially intended for this
silkworm, as no other insects live upon it.

Dr. Holton read from a French periodical, on the subject of the
silkworm, imported from Caj^enne, and which feeds on the ailan-
thus tree. Ihe tree upon which the worm originally fed was the
Cafe diable, but after feeding for some time on the ailanthns, if
it is then placed upon its native food it will leave it and die of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 227

hunger, rather than touch it, and will feed on nothing thereafter
but the ailanthus. This is an encouraging fact, and proves that
it is not essential that the worm should feed on one tree alone,
but that it may feed on any that will suit its appetite. The
capacity to deposit the silk does not depend on the food the worm
eats, but is a quality inherent in the worm itself, and it makes
no difference what the food may be, so long as the worm eats it,
and is satisfied with it.

Mr. Gale read accounts of several experiments in the food of
the common silkworm, which demonstrated that the worm would
feed on lettuce or blackberry, currant and other leaves, but that
the leaf of the mulberry was best suited to its wants.

The same subject was continued to the next meeting, and the
Club adjourned.

January 13, 1862.
Prof. Nash in the chair.

ICE AND ICE-HOUSES.

Mr. Carpenter said as it was the season of the year when people
were providing themselves with ice, he should like to inquire
what thickness was best, and what was the best manner of pack-
ing. His plan had been to lay it flat, preferring it about eight
inches thick and ten or twelve feet square. Some of his neigh-
bors, however, packed the ice upright, and claimed that this plati
had advantages over any other.

Mr. Bergen said that some persons adopted the plan of break-
ing the ice into small pieces, and say that it keeps better when
thrown into the ice-house in this way. It is, of course, more diflS-
cult to get it out in the spring, and it cannot be taken out in any
regular shape. The speaker had always packed his ice in cakes,
horizontally. The only argument which he saw in favor of pack-
ing it uprightly was that, possibly, it might be handier to. take
out again. He had packed ice when it was not more than five
inches thick, and it had kept very well. Undoubtedly the best
time to fill your ice-house is in cold and freezing weather; firstly,
because the ice is easier to handle then ; and secondly, because
it will keep better.

Dr. Trimble said it was not necessary to build great ice-houses,
at much cost, to keep ice during the summer. Hundreds of tons
will keep well, piled up in the open air, with no other protection

228 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

than hemlock boughs placed over it. He remembered once in a
town where he lived, that a number of neighbors met together
and concluded to try the experiment of taking ice from a pond
and making a mound of it, under the protection of a piece of
woods, Avhere the sun scarcely ever reached. They covered it
over with straw, and they had ice in adundance all the next sum-
mer. The speaker remembered coming down the Hudson river
once, and a number of sportsmen, who had been among the Cats-
kill mountains for trout, were coming down also. They had
found enough of ice among the mountains to pack all their fish
in, and they said it remained there in abundance. There are
many neighborhoods in the country where, with a single days
combined effort, they can have any quantity of ice for the summer.

Mr. Carpenter objected to recommending any such course to
farmers. He thought every farmer ought to be able to keep his
own ice. It was true ice could be protected in this way in the
open air, by shavings, sawdust, or evergreen boughs surrounding
it. Referring to the mode of keeping ice in houses he said that,
generally, if the soil was sandy the refuse water would settle into
the ground ; but it was necessary that the water should run off
in some way. If a drain is built the air should not circulate
through it. There should be a trap in it, where the water might •
stand, and keep out the air.

Rev. Mr. Weaver thought the cheapest method for a person
living where ice-carts run was to buy it. This was the case if
we count the extra labor and expense necessary for the storing
of ice. To a farmer, who does the work himself, the case may be
different.

Mr. Kavanagh spoke of a very simple mode of building an ice-
house, which was to place hemlock boards in a sloping position,
about ten feet high. The expense was not more than ten dollars,
and it would last three or four years. If covered with shavings
the boards keep quite dry and sound.

Mr. Carpenter said that one important use to which ice was
put, among the dairies of Westchester county, was to place in
cans of milk to be sent to New York. It was as good as a cow
to the dairyman, for it saved him a large quantity of milk, and
it was a benefit to the buyer, for it kept the milk sweet and
healthy.

Mr. Henry, in speaking of the use of ice in preserving meat,
said that meat laid upon ice is injured. It is well enough for th©

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 229

cold air to strike it, but it should not come directly in contact
with the ice.

Mr. Kavanagh said that frost had a tendency to make meat
tender.

Mr. Bergen could not say as to the ejBfect of ice upon some kinds
of meat ; but he had always been accustomed to keep fish upon
it, and it was kept in this way as fresh as when first taken from
the water.

The Chairman said that in New Hampshire, the plan in cutting
ice was to use the ice-plow, and to cut the ice to some depth both
ways, so as to make the cakes about fifteen inches wide and twenty
inches long. The ice was always got as thick as possible — gener-
ally about fifteen inches — so that the cake would have about the
proportions of a well-formed brick. The pond being checked off
by the ice-plow, the workmen then went along and struck care-
fully into these cracks all along, which would produce a crack the
whole distance, perhaps, so that sometimes a piece ten rods long
might be broken off* perfectly straight ; then it is separated the
other way into squares. The thicker the ice is the better.

THE CRESSANE PEAR.

Mr. Bergen presented a specimen of the Cressane pear, which
had kept until this time in good condition. He considered it a
pear worth raising, although the Pomological convention had
rejected it. It is a good and regular bearer, of good flavor, and
keeps well.

THE CULTURE OF SILK.

Mr. Henry said he considered this time of war the most appro-
priate one that could be chosen for the agitation of the subject
of silk culture. It was the duty of every lover of his country to
bring into notice those products which bring it wealth and keep
its means within itself. There is no article, for which so much
money is sent out of the country, as for silk. It is the result of
a war that there becomes a preponderance of the female popula-
tion, and the culture of silk is the most profitable kind of labor
that can be devised for this class. The mulberry tree grows in
almost every part of our country naturally. The high duty placed
by the government now on all imports is also favorable to silk
culture.

Mr. Carpenter said this country was not poor enough yet to go
into this subject practically. There are so many other more profit-

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able means of employment that an attempt to introduce it would
result in failure. Strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, cur-
rants— any kind of fruit and vegetable, almost, is more profitable.
Mr. N. H, Gale spoke at some length on the subject, as follows :
Mr. Chairman : The subject of silk culture has been one of
more than common interest to me for many years — ever since I
was made acquainted with the capacity of the soil and climate of
our country for its culture, and the genius and talent of its citi-
zens for its manufacture ; but more especially since the fall of
1848, when in my meanderings in the south and southwest. While
in Marion county, Tenn., on my way from the county seat, I was
overtaken by a rustic citizen, and invited to accompany him to
his humble dwelling, just under the mountain, known as Walden's
Kidge ; and so importunate were his solicitations, that I felt a
sort of social necessity of complying with them, notwithstanding
I had intended to pursue my journey a few miles further before
putting up for the night. When we arrived at his dwelling, some-
thing near a mile from the main road by a common cow-path, from
the south, I was heartily welcomed by his wife and little ones, as
a man from the north, that he had picked up on the way, and
through much persuasion had come to spend the night with them,
I was immediately voted the freedom of the domain, and ushered
into the parlor, as the observed of all observers — the elephant
from the city of New York. Soon after our horses were provided
for, his good wife had prepared an ample and substantial meal
for the household, of such as the plantation afforded ; and a bet-
ter is not to be found in every household of civilization. After
the cloth was removed, and all the family seated in the parlor,
(do not ask me any questions respecting the parlor; a description
of it might excite the nerves of refined civilization in this great
metropolis) the first subject of conversation introduced by the
wife was the culture of silk ; and she took a small silk shawl from
her shoulders, that I had before observed, which she had worn
for five years, the material of which she had cultivated. She
bred the worms, fed them, reeled, colored and spun the silk, and
wove the fabric, and wore it for five years — then an every day
appendage, and worth, for daily service, $2, if not more, in con-
trast with any other fabrics in use by females. She was exceed-
ingly chagrined and mortified that her business and pleasure had
been destroyed, and begged of me, when I returned to the north,
to inquire if there was any sale for cocoons ; and if so, she would

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 231

engage to furnish a quantity at $3 per bushel. She informed me
the amount she could make annually by silk culture, but I do not
remember ; yet, if I mistake not, she said by employing a girl for
domestic labor for one month, they, with the little ones, in that
time could make half as much as the farm produced, with ten
times the outlay of labor and money. After my return to the
north, in November, 1851, in a tour up the Naugatuck valley of
Connecticut, at Humphriesville, I visited a silk manufactory, to
fulfill my pledge to my hostess, and upon inquiry learned that
they gave |3 per bushel for cocoons ; but the hazard of transpor-
tation at that time, together with the expense, would not Avarrant
me in recommending to her silk culture at so great a distance
from market.

The gentleman in charge invited me to go through the factory
and examine the machinery, and some of the processes of silk
manufacture, and I was never more surprised and delighted in
any institution of my country than in that. I there saw one of
the most beautiful specimens of silk manufacture that I have ever
met with, either domestic or foreign, and the weaving being per-
formed by a female. It was a fancy piece — a table cover, if I
mistake not, and I do not remember ever to have seen a more
perfectly beautiful piece of fabric during my life, before or since.
The colors were unexceptionable, and were so blended in the
figures as to fill the e^^e to completeness ; and I wai^ led to exclaim,
Great God ! when will the time come when the industry and skill
of the humble people of these United States will be delivered from
the deadly influences of heartless, detnagogical politicians, and the
damning influence of slavery — that moral Upas, whose roots take
hold on hell, and has paralyzed the industry of our country, and
robbed it, directly and indirectly, of thousands of millions of dol-
lars within the last half century. And as much, sir, as I love my
country, and yearn for the full development of its entire natural
resources, together with that of its mental and spiritual genius
and industy, still I cannot, and should regret to have this Club,
recommend the cultivation of silk, to any considerable extent,
until the people are disenthralled from the shackles of political
mountebanks and costermongers, and educated in the science and
genius of the God-given nobility of a government whose aim and
purpose is the prosperity and the happiness of the people; the
protection of the weak against the strong ; the innocent against
the vicious ; the producing against the consuming and accumu-

232 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

lating classes, and what is called the governed, against those who
govern — falsely called the servants of the people — in the practi-
cal developments of our misgoverned republic.

For the last forty years, Mr. Chairman, allow me to say it, I
am not speaking as a politician — in truth, there is nothing I more
detest, than what is called politics in these last days — what I am
about to say, I utter as one of the nominally conceded sovereigns
of this mighty commonwealth — as a man endowed by God with
the inalienable right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness,
and therefore I say, that for the last forty years, to my certain
knowledge, politically, governraentall}^ the entire resources of this
government, physical, intellectual and moral, have been devoted,
to the subversion of every one of the above specifications of tho
true functions of a democratic government. I can prove what I
say, but this is not the time, or the appropriate occasion ; and,
therefore, I simply say, that until the masses of the people are
educated in the science of true political economy, which is noth-
ing more than enlarged domestic economy, or sound husbandry,
we would be doing injustice to those noble hearted capitalists
that are ever ready to embark in those enterprises that give
further promise of the development of the resources of our coun-
try and its industry, and more surely and thoroughly establish
its liberty and independence of the pauper labor of despots and
tyrants. Why, sir, it should be the ambition of every citizen of
the United States to withhold every cent of the net earned pro-
duct of liberty from the support of kings and potentates ; at least
limit them to the necessities beyond the capacities of our soil,
climate and industry to produce. And never, sir, until the people
are educated to this point, and that infamous lie — that source of
all villainies, of all iniquity, slavery, is destroyed, will I recom-
mend an extensive culture of silk, nor its use, beyond the abso-
lute necessities, and they are very few. To cultivate silk success-
fully it must be protected by a law of the General Government;
and no such law has, or ever will grace the record of our national
statute book longer than to develop the fact that it remunerates
free labor, so long as that body of death is borne through the
streets of this republic upon the shoulders of Liberty.

As to the capacity of our soil, climate and the artistic genius
of our citizens, it needs no more argument to establish than that
of cotton, flax and wool, simply governmental protection, that in
ten years would place us as independent of Great Britain, Europe

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 233

and the East, in view of silk, as we are in that of wheat, corn and
potatoes ; and would be one of the heaviest blows we can strike
against tyranny and for liberty — save and except, always, the
destruction of the kingdom of Dahomy, in the lap of Liberty in
tLese United States.

No, sir, there have been millions enough sacrificed at the shrine
of that infamous institution; aye, millions enough to conduct a
war with 500,000 soldiers, with democratic economy, for ten
years, have been offered up upon the altar of slavery through the
influence and agency of men claiming to be democrats, and labor-
ing for the independence, prosperity and happiness of the people
of their country. Sir, I speak that which I do know. It so hap-
pened, in the providence of God, that in the year of 1842, when
the labor of this country was depressed beyond all precedent, and
would inevitably have resulted in provision riots had not Con-
gress given relief; that I was in the sanctuary of the nation, con-
secrated to God, in the name of liberty and fraternity, when the
discussion of "the black tariff of '42," as it was appropriately
christened (because it was the boon of slavery,) was in progress,
and listened to most of the speeches, pro and con, and with more
than ordinary interest to that of Silas Wright, Senator from my
own New York, on the side of free trade, and saw him turn around
and vote for the very principle he had opposed in argument. By
that vote, and the influence he held at that time, the tariff was
secured. We all know with what vigor and elasticity every kind
of business sprung into life, and what a career of prosperity we
entered upon; but, alas! alas! only to be destroyed by the same
hands within four years. Until this time I had conceded honesty,
integrity and manliness to the great majority of the members of
the two Houses of Congress, but more especially to those of the
Senate. Then and there I discovered it to be a den of political
gamblers, mountebanks and costermongers, with a few noble ex-
ceptions— and oh, how few !

Prior to that I was very much in the condition of the good old
mother of Israel in good old Puritan New England. When her
horse was running at full speed down a dangerous declivity, she
said she " trusted in Providence until the breeching broke, then
she gave up all hope." Her only mistake w^as, that she trusted
in the breeching until it failed, then she trusted in Providence,
and was saved. I trusted in the wisdom and integrity of the
members of Congress until I discovered that they were a club

234 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

of gamblers ; the sanctuary of the nation their club-house ; the
people the cards and dice they shuffled and threw; the industry
of the people the stakes, and the winners the political coster-
mongers and their allies. Since then my only trust is in God.
From these considerations, therefore, I say no, sir, not another
■dollar will I seek to divert from the channels of known and suc-
cessful pursuits of industry, until we can have at least security
for the future, saying nothing of indemnity for the past, unless it
can be shown that protection is not absolutely necessary. If
there is any gentleman here that can enlighten us on that sub-
ject, I shall be most happy, for one, to hear him, I do not be-
lieve there is a person here, male or female, that needs to hear an
argument to convince him or her of the capacity, practicability
or importance of silk culture in the United States ; hence there
are but two points to look at, as I have before said. Does it
need governmental protection? If so, then our first business is
to secure it, and that permanently.

The same subject was continued until the next meeting, after
which the Club adjourned.

January 20, 1862.
Mr. R. G, Pardee in the chair.

FLAX PRESSING.

Mr. James E, Mallory exhibited a model of Sanford's machine
for dressing flax, and read a paper thereupon, (See report of
Polytechnic Association, January 16th.)

Mr. Carpenter said he had seen this machine in operation, and
thought it would create a revolution in the growth of flax. He
thought that its power in turning out flax would be greater than
that claimed for it by Mr. Mallory, and would exceed sixty lbs.
per day. It would, also, certainly save one third of the fibre. It
takes but little off except the shives. The society had offered a
premium for the best machine for turning out this fibre, and he
hoped a committee would be appointed to examine Mr. Sanford's
machine and report upon it.

Mr. Robinson moved the following resolution, which was adopted:

Resolved^ That in the opinion of this Club, this machine is cal-
culated to be of very great advantage to the agricultural interests
of America, and, therefore, we commend it to the attention of our
brother farmers.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 235

Prof. Nash said that when he heard of this machine he was
prepared to refute the statement that it saved all the fibre, for it
had always been the case in machines that he had seen, that much
of the fibre at both ends of the flax was torn oflF by the extra
force that was required to remove the shives from the middle.
But he found that this machine takes the flax and finishes a cer-
tain length of it at a time, so that no part of the fibre is operated
upon longer than is necessary to entirely clear it of shives.

The question was asked whether the steam blowing gun would
not compete with Mr. Sanford's machine for separating the fibre.

Mr. Mallory said that Mr. Lyman's steam gun was only use4
for flax cotton. For this purpose it was a success. He assisted
at an experiment with it at Jones' Wood, and a large maple log
was put in the gun and fired ofi*. For a moment he thought every-
body was killed, the explosion was so tremendous. It cut off
large limbs of trees, and struck near a horse-car, which it would
have demolished if it had hit it. Pine slabs were next put in the
gun, which was braced against a large tree, and aimed at another
tree. When it was set off the particles were spread over the tree,
and it was finer than flax. It is very useful for the purpose of
separating fabrics for paper. Anyone who wants to make flax-
cotton can do it after the shivea are removed by Sanford's
machine, by a common fulling mill. The fibre of the flax is only
about one eighth of an inch in length.

Mr. Carpenter oifered a resolution, appointing a committee of
three to examine this machine, which was adopted, and Messrs.
Mapes, Nash and Robinson were named by the chairman,

FRANKLINITE IRON APPLIED TO HORSE-SHOES,

Prof. Mapes said that since he had come into the room he had
been shown an improvement in horse-shoeing, of which he would
say a few words. The points of the shoe were made of a mate-
rial obtained from the Franklinite ore. The iron made from this
ore, after the zinc is extracted, is harder than steel, and was
at first considered useless for manufacturing purposes on this
account. It was afterward discovered, however, that it would
melt at a temperature lower than any other form of iron. It was
found, also, that it can be united by heat with the surface of
wrought iron, the compound retaining all the properties of
wrought iron. Mr. Selleck, who has been experimenting in the
matter, now places on each calk of the horse-shoe a small piece

236 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

of this metal, which, when placed in the fire, flows upon it, and
is incorporated with it. It was put into use, and when three
shoes pointed with steel had been worn out, the Franklinite iron
on the other shoe stuck out like a pea, the iron about it being
worn down. There is no such thing as a horse slipping with such
a shoe. If you attempt to wear it down with a file you find that
you might as well scrape it with a bar of soap : you can make no
impression upon it. Mr. Selleck. has also been able to incorpo-
rate this ore with wrought iron so as to be put to very important
uses. It is known that no amount of heat that can be obtained
in a forge fire will melt wrought iron so that it will flow. Now
Mr. Selleck has found this curious fact, that though wrought iron
could not be thus melted, yet when from five to ten per cent of
Franklinite is incorporated with it, it can be melted with all the
facility necessary. The compound thus obtained has all the
appearance and all the properties of steel. Cast iron will take
up a certain amount of zinc if presented to it moderately ; but
when it is taken up no amount of heat will drive the zinc out;
and when this Franklinite is separated from all the zinc that will
come from it, there is still a portion of that metal left in the
ore, which cannot be got out.

Dr. Trimble asked if the horse-shoe could be made so as to
prevent horses from slipping in Broadway, for if so it would be
something greatly needed.

Mr. Selleck said he could make a shoe that w^ould either pre-
vent the horse from falling, or cut the pavement up.

Mr. Carpenter said he thought this metal might be applied to
innumerable uses on this principle, and suggested that a commit-
tee be appointed to investigate the subject.

A motion to that effect being adopted, Messrs. Trimble, Quinn
and John G. Bergen were appointed on that committee. On motion
the regular subject of the day was postponed.

THE CULTURE OF THE PEAR.

Prof. Mapes read an essay by Mr. Quinn, oflFered in competition
for the premium proposed by the American Institute for the best
essay on the subject of " The Culture of the Fear," Messrs.
Peter B. Mead, John G. Bergen and Gabiel Marc, were appointed
a committee to report thereupon.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 237

TRANSPLANTING OF TREES.

Prof. Mapes said a friend of his, who was a careful experi-
menter, had mentioned a circumstance to him which he would
state as a subject of reflection for the Club. This gentleman
thought last year that he would try an experiment in transplant-
ing trees in the night. He took ten cherry trees, in bloom, and
commenced at four o'clock in the afternoon to transplant them,
transplanting one every hour until two o'clock. The trees that
were transplanted during daylight lost their blossoms, while those
transplanted in the night retained their blossoms, and bore full
crops of fruit. Later in the season he took ten pear trees, with
the fruit on them, one third grown, and transplanted them in the
same way. Every one transplanted after dark held its fruit, while
the fruit dropped from the others.

Adjourned.

[Same subject as last week.]

January 27, 1862.
Mr. Edward Doughty, of New Jersey, in the chair.

FLAX.

Mr. Burgess exhibited a linen sheet which had been fifteen or
twenty weeks in the year in actual use for twenty -nine years. It
appears now likely to outwear any ordinary sheet : it cost twenty-
two cents per yard : it is warmer to sleep under than a blanket.

Mr. Carpenter. — I am satisfied that we have no fibre, excepting
perhaps silk, of equal durability with flax. Two tons of flax
straw, producing seven hundred lbs. of fibre, can be grown upon
an acre. This is worth, as produced by the Sanford machine,
about $15 per hundred, showing a profit of over $100 per acre to
the farmer, for the seed will pay all the expenses of growing the
crop. Unlike the root crops, the demand for the result is unlim-
ited. We may supply the world with it if we find it sufficiently
remunerative. A specimen of fibre has been handed me by Chas.
A. Bunting, from the inner bark of the palmetto tree, which seems
to be strong, and valuable for many purposes.

FRUIT JELLY.

Mr. Robinson exhibited a specimen of jelly, made from the Iron
apple, a pleasant, well flavored sour apple, and colored with cran-
berries, as a good substitute for currant jelly, both in taste and

238 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

in appearance. Any good sour apple will answer the purpose.
A good proportion is a quart of cranberries to a peck of apples.
If the Iron apple is properly taken care of it will keep until
August. At this season of the year it is necessary to bring them
into a warm room to ripen them, as you would pears. It is
worthy of observation, that every apple that keeps well, and
keeps it's flavor well, is coated with wax, rendering it impervious
to the air. It may be scraped off the surface with a knife, and
will burn.

Mr. Hite. — Why not coat apples artificially with wax when
they are deficient in it ?

Mr. Robinson. — It will keep eggs, and I see no reason why it
should not keep apples.'

Mr. Carpenter. — It is well known that potatoes exposed to the
air acquire a green color. I have seen within a few days pota-
toes which had been coated with varnish, and had been exposed
for two months to the air and light, in which scarcely any change
was perceptible. Vegetables have been also coated with wax and
with good effect. I have no doubt that it would have a tendency
to preserve fruit, by preventing evaporation; for I suppose the
cause of decay to be that the moisture is evaporated, and the air
then penetrates the fruit and decomposes it.

GEAFTING WAX.

Mr. Hite. — A splendid grafting wax may be made in this way :
Melt together twenty-eight parts of common pitch and twenty-
eight parts of Burgundy pitch ; put in fourteen parts tallow
and sixteen parts beeswax ; then stir in fourteen parts of yellow
ochre, finely pulverized.

Mr. Burgess. — That gets so hard that it cannot be removed.
I think a better grafting plaster may be made of equal parts of
mutton fat and beeswax. In cold weather this mixture gets very
hard, but in warm weather it softens, and the tree can grow. I
have used it for twenty years. When a limb is cut from a tree
apply this, and the tree will grow and throw it off".

Mr. Carpenter. — I have used one lb. of tallow and one lb. of
beeswax to two lbs. of rosin, and found it to answer the purpose
admirably. Some use equal parts of tallow, beeswax and rosin.
I have never tried it without rosin.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMEES' CLUB. 239

TEA AND COrrEE.

Mr. Carpenter suggested that the price of tea and coffee was
rising so rapidly that the qnestion became important whether we
could not find a substitute.

Dr. Trimble said the increased price was to support the Govern-
ment, and be hoped that would not be taken as a reason for find-
ing a substitute. On the contrary we should drink all the more.

Mr. Pardee stated that a gentleman in Ohio had succeeded in
raising coffee very similar to the Rio, excepting that it seemed
young and green. It will produce about thirty bushels of coffee
to the acre. A great deal of the tea drank in this country is not
tea at all. There is no more tea about it than there is about a
load of hay : it is a manufactured article ; and even that which
is tea, is so adulterated that there is a very small proportion of
real tea in it. The Souchong tea is undoubtedly the best, and is
very wholesome. But not one woman in ten thousand knows how
to draw tea. The best tea that I ever drank, the lady told me,
was made in this way : I put the water on and heat it just as
quick as I can, and get it thoroughly boiling hot ; then I take a
teapot, entirely clean, and pour it full of the boiling water, and
throw into it a small teaspoonful of tea for every individual I
expect to sit down by the table. I close the lid and let it stand
upon the fire exactly ten minutes, then the tea-bell is rung,
and the tea is put upon the table.

Mr. Carpenter. — Dr. Trimble pays nothing to the Government
for the tea and coffee he drinks, for they are manufactured in this
city. A great proportion of the tea and coffee sold here are not
fit for a dog to eat. Much of it is poisonous. Old material,
rejected twenty years ago, is now bought up and manufactured
into beautiful green tea. Green tea may be a slow, but it is a
sure poison. I think we should have something that we can fall
back upon, which is not detrimental to the health,

Mr. Eobinson. — Upon the Atlantic coast, in Virginia, North
Carolina, and further south, there grows a common shrub known
by the old Indian name of Yupon. When well prepared it makes
a good, valuable and exhilarating tea. There is a slight bitter-
ness or astringency to it, which is a little offensive to a person
not used to it ; but not an iota more than our ordinary tea or
coffee would have to a person who had never drank either before.

Dr. Trimble. — That is drank by people who are sick, and who
want to be made sicker. As to everything being adulterated, WQ

240 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

cannot be deceived in this way. We can get good coifee, and it
is a wholesome beverage. The reason it disagrees with some
people is, because they drink it too weak, and too much of it.
Coffee should be taken strong, and not much at a time, unless
you are taking constant exercise in the open air.

Mr. Lancaster. — If ladies have been practicing so long in
making tea, without success, I think we had better find a substi-
tute for it. The best substitute for tea, that I know of, is pure
cold water.

Mr, Gale said that he had been a merchant, dealing in teas
forty years ago. Where there is one good box of tea, there are
large numbers of boxes not worth the freight. The best tea he
had tasted was prepared in this way : Take a large teacup, pure
and white, and clean, and put your tea into it; pour on boiling-
water; cover it up instantly and let it draw.

Mr. Carpenter. — Farmers who buy ground coffee buy beans and
peas in a damaged condition. If they will take beans and peas
in a good condition, and parch them, they will get a better coffee
than can now be bought in the market for less than thirty-two
to thirty-five cents per pound.

Mr. Gale said that farmers bought large quantities of ground
coffee, and after it is burned and ground peas and beans could
not be distinguished from coffee.

Mr. Robinson. — Then they are just as good.

Mr. Carpenter. — I believe that ninety-nine lbs. out of every
one hundred lbs. of ground coffee are beans, peas and chicory.
Chicor}'' is a root largely imported from South America. In
England the medical faculty decided that it was detrimental to
the health, and a law was passed prohibiting its sale; but thou-
sands of tons of it are consumed here by farmers and their fami-
lies. It is peddled all through the country to the farmers and to
the merchants.

Prof. Mapes. — The seed of the okra, when burned brown, and
not black, is a great deal better than the lower range of coffee.

PREMIUMS.

Prof. Mapes offered in competition for the premiums : Cahoon's
broadcast seed-sower; the Wethersfield seed-sower; two cut-
ting machines; also an improvement in the grinding of grain.
It is well known that flour is injured by being ground between
two surfaces. This machine appeals to momentum, at a speed

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 241

that overcomes cohesion. The shell of every grain of wheat is
cracked around its equator ; and on examining it with a magnifying
glass you find slits in each half, spread open like a basket. The
difference in the specific gravity separates these shells from the
flour. When corn is passed through this machine, the scales, the
oleaginous matter, and the flour, are deposited in their different
places.

On motion of Mr. Carpenter, a committee, consisting of Messrs.
Robinson, Bergen and Gale, was appointed to examine and report
upon these subjects.

MISCELLANEOUS.

The subject, " Silk and Flax," was selected for the next meeting.

Mr. Burgess stated that in London at least a thousand pounds
per day of old tea leaves are gathered and dried to be sold for
tea. He suggested the Viburnum Prunifolium as a substitute for
tea. The leaves are to be gathered when three-fourths expanded.

Prof. Mapes, — Dr. Charles G. Page, of Washington, a few years
ago made known the fact that passing leaves through a pair of
rollers before they are dried, thus slightly crushing them, will
cause them to preserve their color and their aroma. Probably an
ordinary domestic rolling-pin would answer the purpose.

Adjourned.

February 3, 1862.
Mr. Edward Doughty, of Newark, N. J., in the chair.

TEA AND COFFEE.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited a sample of American made tea, such
as is largely consumed in this city and in this country, and sup-
posed to be genuine. Originally it came, no doubt, from China,
but it was so poor an article that it was probably brought as bal-
last. It has been sold in this market for two or three cents per
pound : it was originally a black tea, but has been converted into
green tea : it is said to have been used in China, the grounds
being saved and dried to be sent to this country: it has lately
been sold for forty to fifty cents per pound. Imported teas have
advanced to such an extent that retailers cannot sell them at a
profit, and so they mix them with this. This article must cer-
tainly be detrimental to the health ; I think it is poisonous.

A gentleman remarked that the prohibition in England against
mixing chicory with coffee, was not upon sanitary, but upon moral
grounds. He did not regard chicory as any more injurious to the

[Am. Inst.] P

242 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

health than cojBFee itself; and if this Club were to consider the
question of chicory at all, it would be most appropriate to con-
sider the best mode of cultivating it.

Mr. Fuller. — Is this any more doctored than the imported green
tea ? I have seen that blue the hand.

Mr. Carpenter. — It is the practice in China to color it with
prussiate of iron, and it is dried upon copper. Both these sub-
stances are known to be detrimental to the health ; and scientific
investigation has long since determined that much of the green
tea brought from China is not fit to drink. The teas generally,
which are used in this country, I think are detrimental to the
health ; and I think, if the people must have something to drink,
there might be substitutes which they might drink Avith less injury.

Dr. Trimble. — I have been in the habit of drinking green tea
for many years, I like it; I never experienced* any ill-effects from
it ; I go to dealers who I think are honest, in whom I can have
confidence, and I think I have obtained the article I desired.
There are plenty of tricks and traps in New York city. —
Champagne is made from the poorest cider and whiskey ;
and New York is full of such transactions. As to chicory, I think
the objection to that in England was that the people were de-
frauded.

Mr. Steele. — I have seen in one bin, in a coffee establishment,
six hundred bushels of peas ; but they never came out again as
peas.

Mr. Fuller.^ — The only damage done was the swindling, for peas
are better than coffee : and so in almost all cases of adulteration,
the articles are better after adulteration than before.

Mr. Carpenter. — You lose sight of the fact that damaged peas
and beans are used in coffee.

Mr. Fuller. — The way to remedy it is to go to responsible men ;
men whom you can rely upon.

Mr. Carpenter — I,,have sometimes found that there is danger
of having too much confidence.

Mr. Fuller. — I will tell you a swindle in our line : A gentleman
came to our nursery last year, and wanted to buy the cheapest
strawberry plants we had. He took them over to Broadway and
sold them to greenhorns, under great flaming handbills, "wonder-
ful new plants, just imported from France." I saw members of
the American Institute in there, who ought not to have been
deceived.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 243

Mr. Gale. — Some of us are judges of tea, but there are tens of
thousands in this city who are not, and wlio are obliged to take
what they can get. I think the subject is worthy the attention
of the Legislature. The masses of the people ought to be pro-
tected.

Mr. Cavanach suggested that the adulteration of seed, by which
so many are deceived every year, should be considered in the
same connection.

Mr. Fuller. — There are plenty of laws if they can only be
enforced.

Mr. Cavanach. — A law of Congress, imposing a duty upon
imported seeds, would save us from much of this evil.

PREMIUMS.

Mr. Halsted exhibited a seed drill, which can be adapted to
sowing garden seeds, corn, and probably grain, together with a
cultivator to be attached to it, and so constructed as not to dis-
place the earth in the rows. This is offered in competition for a
premium.

Mr. Fuller. — That would be a capital thing to run between
strawberries. The knives are upon the right principle. One of
them might be turned so as to cut off the runners at the same
time.

Mr. Halsted stated that, in consequence of the shape of the
knives, making a continual glancing cut, he had cut off half inch
locust roots with it while pushing it by hand.

Referred to the committee heretofore appointed upon agricul-
tural machinery, viz : Messrs. Robinson, Bergen and Gale.

Mr. Hitchings exhibited a model for heating conservatories.

Mr. Cavanach. — The great difficulty with steam is that it takes
so long to get the heat up. With hot air we can get up the requi-
site heat in twenty minutes without difficulty. With steam it
will take an hour or one hour and a half.

Mr. Hitchings, — As a usual thing, the wafer will remain warm,
so that the heat can be got up in twenty or thirty minutes.

The subject of heating conservatories was referred to a com-
mittee, consisting of Messrs. Buchanan, Fuller and Grant.

ESSAYS ON THE APPLE AND THE PEACH.

Mr. Roberts read an essay upon the culture of the apple.
Referred to a committee, consisting of Peter B. Mead, John G.
Bergen and Gabriel Marc.

244 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Fuller read an essay upon the culture of the peach.
Referred to the same committee.

JVew subject. — The subject of the " Silkworm " was selected for
the next meeting.
Adjourned.

February 10, 1862.
Mr. Edward Doughty in the chair.

i'^RANKLINlTE STEEL CHILLED STEEL.

Dr. Trimble, from the committee to which was referred Mr.
Selleck's plan for making horse shoes, stated that from certificates
which they had received, they were of opinion that it was a
valuable invention for keeping the shoes sharp and preventing
horses from slipping upon the pavement or ice.

Mr. Collins exhibited one of F. F. Smith's patent cast steel
plows. These plows are manufactured by Collins & Co., 212
Water street, New York. They are cast by pouring steel into
iron moulds which chill the steel, thus giving it a harder and
smoother surface, causing it to wear better and to move through
the soil with less friction. Each section is cast of varied thick-
ness, giving the parts most exposed any desired thickness neces-
sary for good action and durability.

Dr. Trimble inquired whether Messrs. Collins & Co., had tried
the Franklinite steel for plows ?

Mr. Collins replied that they had not.

Prof. Nash inquired whether the expense of the plow was much
increased over plate steel ?

Mr. Collins replied that the cost was greater, but there is an
economy both in the greater durability and in the increased
amount of work which can be done from the saving in the draft j
for it perfectly scours itself even in the clinging soils of the west.

Mr. Robinson. — I think it may not be of any advantage to
make the plates thicker in the parts exposed to wear; for if any
portion is so worn away as materially to change the original shape,
the plow may continue to drag along, but cannot do economical
plowing. There is no other difhculty about scouring steel plows
except that they wear through very soon. If a steel can be made so
hard that it shall be almost impossible to wear it through, whatever
the original cost of the plow, if it is anything within reason, it

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 245

will be economical to the western farmer. A mould board may
as well wear through and be thrown away as to wear down so as
to lose the correct line of figure.

Prof. Mapes made a statement of the peculiar hardness of the
Franklinite steel. Another peculiarity is its want of liability to
oxydation,

Mr. Carpenter. — What is the increased expense ?

Mr. Selleck. — It costs about one cent per pound more than
ordinary iron. It costs six cents per pound in plates ready for
use.

Dr. Trimble inquired if the chilled cast steel could be furnished
for that price ?

Mr. Collins stated that it would cost several cents per pound
more. It remained to be proved that the Franklinite would
answer the purpose.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Mr. Hite exhibited a specimen of evergreen honeysuckle, the
Sempervirens, and also of the Chinese honeysuckle.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited a new variety of wheat from Califor-
nia, very productive. A field of one hundred acres produced 5000
bushels.

INSTITUTE OF REWARD.

Dr .David P. Holton presented sundry documents explaining a
system for providing for the orphans of soldiers slain in the pre-
sent war. A portion of the plan provides for the establishment
of agricultural schools in the difierent sections of the country,
which shall determine various disputed questions in the practice
of agriculture and horticulture.

PRUNING GRAFTING WAX.

Mr. Hite. — I have something to say to the members of the
Farmers' Club to-day ; and as it is the custom here to say as
much as possible in a few words, I will proceed by proposing
some information which I think will be of service to some one,
inasmuch as the time is near at hand to practice pruning and
grafting. It is my habit, generally, not to venture an oi^inion
relating to horticulture, other than one founded upon my own
practical experience.

246 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

To those who are willing to allow their own common sense,
reasoning and reflection, to accompany their efforts, I address
myself; for this art is so easily acquired that no one need say,
that I cannot do this or that thing as some others do.

1st. I exhibit a specimen of grafting wax or mastic, which I
have used alternately with other kinds commonly in use, and I
find this the best of all others. And now I will tell you how it
is made. The expense is within the means of every one. The
combination of one hundred parts is arranged thus — twenty-
eight parts of common pitch, twenty-eight parts of Burgundy
pitch, sixteen parts beeswax, fourteen parts tallow, fourteen
parts yellow ochre, 100.

The pitch is first put into an iron pot and placed over a fire of
gradual heat, and when the pitch is melted, the tallow and bees-
wax are stirred into the pitch until the whole is melted,
when the yellow ochre is gradually stirred in until it is
well incorporated ; I then take the pot from the fire and occasion-
ally stir it until it is cool, when it may be formed into any shape
suitable for use. It may be applied with a wooden spatula when
softened by the warmth of the weather, and will remain where it
is deposited and afford less harbor for insects than any other.
This receipt Avas given to me sometime since, and on reading that
most estimable work upon Arboriculture, by M. Debreuil, Avhich I
have recently obtained, I find this receipt given as the best in
use among the cultivators of France.

I have another solution which I have conjured up myself some
year since, for the preservation of the wounds made upon the
ends of limbs at the time of pruning trees, an application of
which renders the wood impervious to the action of the weather
until it is completely healed over. It is made thus : Take a
quantity of seed lac, or shellac, or equr.l parts of each, and place
it in a kettle, or more properly so called, a water-bath, something
like a common glue pot, and saturate the lac therein with a mix-
ture of four parts water to one part of spirits of ammonia, (harts-
horn) in quantity just enough to moisten it, and let the mixture
stand three or four hours in a warm place ; then place the pot over
a fire adding liot water at the. time to the mass as it is dissolving,
stirring until it is melted. The water that is introduced in this
way Avill decide the consistency which, when cool, ought to be
like thick cream, or more like tar. The whole mass should be
continually stirred from the commencement until it is taken from

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 247

the fire and cooled. If it should not all be melted, or if it
appears too thin, stir in a small quantity of pure spirits ammo-
nia just before it is quite cool, and it will thicken it; then put
it away in a bottle for use. It is applied with a small brush,
when it will dry immediately and become impervious to water.

It is an admirable composition to suppress or smother the eggs
or larvas of insects which may be concealed in the fissures of the
bark of trees, when applied as above.

Another method of preparing shellac, is to take one ounce of
borax, dissolve it in hot water, place it in the water bath above
stated, and then put therein five ounces of shellac, place it over
the fire, stir until dissolved. It answers the same purpose as the
above.

Mr. Chairman — as there has been so much said about pruning,
here and elsewhere, what I might say upon the subject may not
enlighten any one ; but I may say that the course I have been
pursuing for a few years past, is clearly sustained by the work
on Arboriculture, above mentioned. I have been so often laughed
at by inexperienced culturists, that I have often felt a sort of
diffidence in asserting what I thought to be the true mode of cul-
tivating fruits, &c. Being so thoroughly sustained by those cul-
turists whose talents are acknowledged as authority wherever
known, I will now speak with some considerable degree of confi-
dence of the course I am pursuing, as the only one that is calcu-
lated to end in favorable results.

Of course, I cannot occupy the time of the meeting at present,
only to repeat briefly a few extracts from an essay upon the sub-
ject of pear culture, which I have submitted to the committee
of the Farmers' Club, of the American Institute, for their
approval or rejection, as they in their wisdom may decide. If it
is approved, it may be published with the accompanying illustra-
tions, which will combine all that I could say here in the course
of the next three hours. But to the task first above mentioned,
I mean to speak of winter pruning, properly so called ; to that
which follows the great frosts and which precedes the first move-
ments of vegetation — that is, towards the end of Februaiy. If
we prune before the great frosts come, we expose the cutting to
the air, to moisture, and to frost, long before the first movements
of the sap, which should come to heal the wound, and it follovv^s
that the bud on the end of branches, is often destroyed.

248 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The consequences are not less fatal if we practice the opera-
tion during the hard frosts ; the instruments cut the frozen wood
with difficulty ; the incisions are torn and do not heal up ; mor-
tality ensues below the bud near the incision, and the bud is des-
troyed. If we wait till the budding commences, the inconve-
niences are still more grave ; the sap from the roots has perva-
ded all the parts of the tree, and that which has been absorbed
by the branches we remove, is lost. In pruning so late, we are
liable to harm and break a large number of wood and flower
buds. Lastly, the sap thrown back from the summit to the base,
may tear the tubes and give place to gum. Pruning in February
is especially important for the peach tree, whose buds, situated
at the base of the fruit branches, are frequently dormant for want
of the powerful action of the sap. By pruning early, the sap
acts with force on the buds unfavorably situated, fixes their evo-
lution, and leads also to the development of the latent buds on
the old stem ; thus we prevent the stripping of the trees.

Still, we may prune very late and even wait till the buds begin
to grow long, when we operate on trees that are too vigorous,
and cannot be made to fructify easily. A part of the action
of the sap is then used to the benefit of the suppressed branches.
It acts with less force on the reserved buds, and these take more
easily the characteristics of fruit branches. We note an excep-
tion in favor of the southern climate, where the precocity of
vegetation necessitates pruning before winter. If we had so
many trees that we could not prune them all in February, rather
than exceed this period, it would be preferable to anticipate it.
Then we should cut before winter, the fruit branches only ; then
we should wait till February to cut the wood branches. In every
case it will do to follow in pruning, the order of vegetation of
the different species. Thus we should prune first the apricot,
then the peach, the plum, the cherry, the pear, the apple, and
lastly, the grape.

The operations of summer pruning, are practiced during the
vegetation of the parts of the tree which are to receive it. To
give these indication at this time, would prolong the time usually
allotted during the hour appropriated to miscellaneous busi-
ness.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FAEMERs' CLUB. 249

Perhaps, however, it would not be amiss to say a word at this
time about planting in connection with pruning.

CHOICE OF TREES.

If we take the pear tree already grafted in the nurseries, we
select them healthy, strong, and of one year's graft, or of two
years at the most. The older they are the less easy they take
root again, and their growth is always less vigorous. They should
not be pruned until the second year after they have been planted.
Pruning them before that would only remove the greater number
of their branches, and the quantity of leaves they should develope
would be considerably diminished. Now, as these are the leaves
which the roots engender, the latter will take but little develop-
ment, and the bud whose vegetation the pruning is intended to ben-
efit, will be poor and unhealthy, not fit to aid in forming the wood-
work of the tree. On the contrary, if the pruning is postponed
until the following year, the tree will take new roots, and when
deprived of a part of its branches, the sap, abundantly furnished
by the roots, reacts with force upon the growth of the reserved
buds, and we will obtain in a single summer, branches' longer than
those of the two years' growth, in following the first operation.
We now have a favorable opportunity of giving to the tree a
desirable direction.

Mr. H. also exhibited specimens of the grafting wax heretofore
described by him, and of the solution invented by himself for
application to wounded limbs, to preserve the freshly cut surface
from the action of the atmosphere.

SILK AND SILK WORMS.

Dr. Trimble read the following paper :

There seems a propriety in discussing the Textiles at this time.
Passing events are disturbing all commercial values. The pre-
sent demand for some of these fabrics is greatly in excess of the
supply, and producers are anxiously watching prices. The farm-
ers always want to know what to plant to most advantage. The
war now in progress, should it last, will probably work mighty
changes in agriculture, commerce and manufactures, as well as in
" ideas." With sea-island cotton selling in this market for sixty
cents per pound, and the common sort at twenty-five, you will
find people sending for cotton seed to plant, and it will very
likely be planted in places where it will produce almost nothing

250 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

at best ; and should the war end before the experiment be matured,
the most bountiful crops would not pay expenses. The cotton pro-
ducing latitudes of other parts of the world, will be stimulated to
their utmost capacity; the growth of wool, flax, hemp, and even
silk, will probably be greatly increased. I look upon it as a duty of
this Club, and all similar institutions having in view the guiding
of industry and enterprise, to advise caution against any great
change in this respect.

The modern facilities for raising, equipping ai?d transporting
vast armies, are making wars much shorter than formerly, and
the present is not likely to be an exception. But what the result
of this war will be, no man can now tell. I see it stated in a
leading southern paper, that the speedy establishment of the
independence of the Confederacy is certain, and that the people
of the North will then be their obsequious serfs, differing but
little except in color, from their present slaves. In such a con-
tingency, our employments will not be at our own option. This
view of the case feels rather rough, although the same writer
assures us that we shall be treated with great kindness — their
type of manhood being of so high an order that they could not
do otherwise. Others say that the Government must be re-estab-
lished within its former limits "just as it was." Present signs
indicate that such is the only object of those in power. If that
is all, millions of men will be of the opinion, that the war will
not have been worth its cost. I, for one, believe that the pre-
disposing, exciting and proximate cause of this great rebellion,
is human slavery ; that the war is, in reality, a contest between
free and forced labor. We, as farmers, are interested in it as a
question affecting labor, in addition to the question of Govern-
ment. A surgeon knows but little of his profession that attempts
to heal a wound Avithout first removing the cause. If this war
can be made to blot human slavery with all its monstrous crimes,
utterly out of existence, then it may end ; but if it is to lead
only to some arrangement, merely to patch over this foul and
festering plague spot, then you will find this war will be " still
beginning, never ending, still destroying."

I should say to all farmers at this time, make no radical change
in your business, except to improve your lands. At present,
there is an interregumen in the reign of king cotton, his power
for the time being is in the hands of a regency that has but little
faith in the divine right of kings. With the opening of the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 251

cotton ports of our country, any unusual quantities of the other
textile fabrics would not be likely to find a profitable market.
Still, each will be wanted. Every one of them, but especially silk,
will be always wanted.

If our cotton region should be opened to northern enterprise
and free labor, without the danger of further political troubles,
cotton would come down to the level of other agricultural pro-
ductions, probably not higher than five cents per pound, and would
be the cheapest of the textiles ; the others then would be only
used as necessities or luxuries. If all the men who deserve it
should be hanged, there will still be a considerable demand for
hemp. If there should be more wool than is required to make
all the people comfortably warm in weather like this, we are still
liable to be hungry — a very "unfortunate sensation," and recur-
ring at very short intervals — then we can eat the sheep. The
good matrons who have marriageable dausihters, will always be
found buying large quantities of house linen. But those daugh-
ters will have silk, no matter how much it may cost or how cheap
cotton may be. Those of you who have noticed the ladies at
the show windows of your silk stores in Broadway, or watched
them seated at the counters where the samples are arranged in
such tempting profusion ; those of you who have seen, as I have, the
look of intense satisfaction, the sparkling eyes, or heard the
exclamations of delight, all such will agree with me that only
dollars commensurate with their wants, are then required to make
a silk bazaar, the highest type of paradise for woman on this
side the stars. Talk about " beauty unadorned" — nonsense. We
have beauties as fair as the fairest — as faultless as the Venus of
Conova, but they would pout, and fret, and worry, till the house
would become intolerable were silk dresses denied them. We
ha^Je but little patience with the frivolous Avho think only of
dress ; but we have still less respect for the habitually careless.
A becoming silk dress adds to the happiness and power of the
young woman, and she knows it. The matron feels that a silk
dress gives her dignity ; the quakeress who has been taught to
look upon plainness of apparel as almost a religious essential,
will have her silks. They maybe plain in color, almost to drab,
but they must be of the best texture. The women know that
there is no other clothing material so durable or so beautiful as
silk. Silk they will have, and if we do not make it in our coun-
try, we must make something else to exchange for it. Here the

252 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

word " must" comes in, and we may as well understand its full
significance at once and make the best of it.

The experiment of making silk was once tried in our country
to a very limited extent, but became involved so soon in so wild
a speculation as to bring it into disrepute before it was fairly
tested.

Except fig leaves and the skins of animals, silk is probably the
oldest clothing material. Four thousand years ago it was in
general use in China, but the period of its first introduction there
is not known. The first introduction into Europe, was by a trav-
eler concealing a few eggs of the silk worm in a hollow reed
which he used as a cane, and bringing them to Constantinople.
This was in the sixth century of our era, and previous to that
time it was not there known to be the produce of a caterpillar.
Silk is cultivated in all parts of China except the extreme north.
The export from that country (China) in 1858, was 78,154 bales,
or, 9,376,000 lbs. The power of export from that country is
indefinite, but would seem to be inexhaustible. The work of
feeding the worms and reeling the silk, is performed by the pea-
sants. The domestic use of silk in that country (and all classes,
even the poorest in some parrs, use it freely,) is chiefly of the
Tussah and other wild kinds. These wild kinds, as nearly as I
am able to discover by an examination of their plates of butter-
flies, are similar to our four varieties of silk worms, producing
large cocoons of a very strong fibre, but spun as tow would be,
and not so easily reeled by the single thread as the cultivated
variety.

Probably the silk worm lately imported by the Emperor of
France, and now cultivated in Algeria to make clothing for his
army, is a similar one. Such a worm of immense growth, is now
found in the island of Madagascar ; it is fed in the fields on a
kind of pea and makes a cocoon of great size. Persian silk is
considered poor, but is much used by the natives. That from
Asia Minor is excellent. Syria, Cyprus, Crete, Tripoli and
the Morea, are great silk growing countries. Poland and Prussia
raise some, but inferior. England has tried it, but with littlei
success.

The climate in which the culture of silk is attempted, should
be mild, the soil light, with a hilly or even mountainous surface.
The report of a French jury on the subject of silk, in 1855,
makes the following remark : " Every day shows more and more

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 253

the advantages to the "health of the silkworm" in the breaking
up of the large establishments for breeding them — that is, let
them be raised by the peasants in a small way, but the larger tlie
establishment for reeling the better."

Silk worms have been fed upon lettuce and will live, but are
i/ot healthy. The pulsations known by the motions of the sec-
tions of the body of the worm, will run down when fed on this
plant almost one-half — that is from about forty-five to twenty-
five per minute.

Mulberry trees do best in a dry region, and what is wonderful,
their leaves are scarcely sought after by any other class of cater-
pillars except the silk worms. The oak has some seventy varie-
ties of insect depredators, the apple thirty or forty.

The mulberry tree will bear to be stripped of its leaves every
year for ages. There are four varieties of it cultivated in differ-
ent parts of the world for the feeding of silk worms.

One hundred silk Avorms at birth weigh one grain, and after
the fifth or last moult, the one hundred will weigh 9,500 grains.
It requires thirty days for all these moultings.

Our native silk worms have but one generation a year; they
live through our winters in their cocoons in the crysalis state ;
they are all moths, that is, as butterflys, that only fly at night.
They have the characteristics of night flying butterflys, without
the little knobs on the ends of their antennas. In hot countries,
several generations of the siik worm are produced in each year.
In Madras, they have eight or ten; the butterfly itself, the per-
fected insect, living but a single day — those beautiful wings, each
containing 100,000 feathers, to be expanded for so brief a period,
and that only at night.

We have, as natives of our own country, four silk making cat-
erpillars :

The Eecropia, found on apple, cherry or plum trees.

The Polypheme, found on oak, elm or linden trees.

The Luna, found on walnut or hickory trees.

The Promethea, found on sassafras trees.

These nocturnal beauties might probably be considered the
most useful to man of all the race of insects, for they are not to
any extent injurious to vegetation, and their abundance in any
country might be rendered an important resource of wealth and
luxury.

Large sections of many of our States, and especially those

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parts of the Carolinas and Georgia bordering on the mountains,
would seem to be exactly adapted to the growth of the mulberry
and the cultivation of silk.

Some gentlemen here tell us that the cultivation of fruit is
more profitable ; that is certainly true in the vicinity of such
markets as this, provided you have the knowledge and the perse-
verance to conquer the insect enemies that are now so fearfully
threatening that business. Others say that grain can be raised
to more advantage ; that, however, may become a question of
transportation. Corn is now raised in portions of our country
where it is used as fuel. The eighty cents per bushel that it
would bring in the New York market, would be but little more
than enough to pay the cost of bringing the fifty-eight lbs. here.
Can any one of you tell Avhat would be the value of fifty-eight
lbs, of cocoons, or of the reeled silk, in this market, and which
would cost but little more for transportation than eighty cents
worth of corn ?

But in many sections of country where the land is uneven and
the soil light, fruits and grain can hardly be raised to advantage
even if convenient to a market. The great, rich West, has such
boundless advantages. These higher lands can be of no value
if distant from cheap transportation, unless devoted to the culti-
vation of such a product as silk ; and it would apjDcar as almost
a providential arrangement, that just such sections are exactly
adapted both to the growth of the mulberry tree and the health
of the silk worm.

Now, if in the course of human events, king cotton should be
dethroned by some insect regicide, which has several times been
threatened, and this Yankee nation be compelled to engage in
the growth of silk, we certainly seem to have everything that
can be required.

Much is said about the power of cotton. I once overheard a
conversation on this subject, between two very excited indi-
viduals. One said, " what would you do if we would not let you
have our cotton ?" The other replied, "what would you do if
we Avould'nt take your cotton ?" A third party stepped up and
blandly said, let me compromise this matter. To the first one he
quietly said — if you raise cotton and want to sell, I'll buy it of
you and pay the cash. To the other he says — if you manufac-
ture cotton and want some, I'll supply your spindles and give you
credit. This third party is a merchant — that is his business — ■

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 255

he does it for the profit, and never gets angry. The men who
supply New York with flour might combine and lock up the
bread stuffs — and some of you might be hungry for a while. The
distillers might refuse to sell their whisky, and a great many
voters would suffer dreadfully for a time — but the commission
men would soon find ways of unlocking these storehouses for a
profit. The idea of any one agricultural product ruling the
political concerns of the world, is a delusion, and the merchant
knows it. Cotton is an important product undoubtedly; so is
wool; but where does silk stand in this connection ? For thou-
sands of years, millions of people have been cultivating silk
worms in Asia, 800,000 people in what was ancient Media, now
Eastern Russia, find happy employment in the same pursuit. In
Italy, France, and even in England, thousands upon thousands
would have to change their employment or have nothing to do,
if it w^ere not for the silk worms. In 1840, it was ascertained
that the city of Lyons alone, consumed in her manufactories
2,205,714 lbs. of raw silk. It takes four cocoons to the grain,
making 4,292,400,000 caterpillars necessary to make it; and if
all these threads were united in one and reeled on the earth at
the equator, it would form a silken cable round the Avorld of
52,505 strans. The annual value of the trade of Europe in silk,
is £55,605,000 sterling, or about two hundred sixty millions of
dollars in our currency.

Suppose some calamity should happen to the caterpillars and
there would be no more in the world, some people w^ould con-
gratulate themselves that there were no more of the " great ugly
Avorms," and the foliage of some of our trees would be more
beautiful ; soon, however, we should begin to miss the butterfly ;
then we should wonder what had become of the singing birds of
summer ; then we should read about suff"erings in the manufactur-
ing districts of England and France — and then of starvation
amongst millions of people in the far East. Then commerce would
be greatly deranged; then this great city of yours, "the resort
and mart of all the earth," would be fearfully disturbed. Stew-
art's would cease to be the centre of so much attraction ; Flora
McFlimsey would be utterly disconsolate, and would have a right
to complain that she had "nothing to wear." Young men's
hearts would cease to bang against their ribs at the rustling of
approaching silk ; and then what would we do when wedding
dresses were w^anted ? No ; the cotton States might go out and

256 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

take their cotton; and, what they are now finding a great deal
harder to do, might stay out and keep their cotton, bnt they can-
not make cotton king ; the silk worm has something to say also
about the ruling of this world.

Jfew siibject. — The subjects selected for consideration at th®
next meeting, were " pruning " and " hotbeds."

February 17, 1862.
Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter in the chair.

EXPERIMENTAL FARM.

Dr. Holton read a paper upon the formation of a Statistical
Bureau by the government, and the establishment of a national
experimental farm, accompanied by a series of resolutions.

Prof. Renwick moved to refer the whole subject to the Ame-
rican Institute, it being beyond the scope of this Club.

The Chairman feared that nothing would be gained by such a
reference. Many efforts had already been made without success,
for some progress in this direction. If such a school of agricul-
ture could be established, great good would grow out of it ; and
New York is eminently fitted for its location.

The motion to refer was agreed to.

SWEET POTATOES.

Mr. Robinson read a letter from M. M. Murray, of Loveland,
Ohio, calling attention to the importance of a more extended cul-
tivation of the sweet potato at the North, especially in the vici-
nity of cities, and offering to furnish an essay upon its cultiva-
tion, and specimens of sweet Nansemonds grown in the latitude
of 39^ deg. Sweet potatoes are now raised as far north as Chi-
cago and Detroit,

On motion, Mr. Robinson was requested to write, accepting the
offer.

Dr. Trimble. — The sweet potato observes the laws of latitude
and of soil. In the latitude of Philadelphia, which is 40 deg., in
consequence of the soil being peculiarly adapted to it, it is culti-
vated with success ; but not so successfully as two or three
degrees further south. In latitude 42^ deg., I had a soil pecu-
liarly adapted to it — a rich sand with a warm exposure ; and by
starting the plants in hotbeds, I was able to raise them. The roots
were large, but they were not good. They necessarily remained

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 257

SO late in the season, that like melons ripened in the cold, they
were more or less insipid.

The Chairman said that he had supposed that sweet potatoes
would not thrive in this latitude ; but he had become convinced
that it was a mistake. He had seen them growing twenty-seven
miles north of New York, in different soils. It would be an
important point, if the sweet potato could be made earlier by a
judicious selection of seed. He had eaten very fine Nansemond
potatoes, grown upon Staten Island, upon a heavy clay soil.

Rev. Mr. Weaver, of Fordham, said that a neighbor had given
him some sweet potatoes, and urged him to plant them. He did
so, selecting a light soil, and in the fall had an abundant crop.

Mr. Cavenach expressed the opinion that sweet potatoes could
be successfully grown upon Long Island. A neighbor, in Brook-
lyn, plants them in a light clay soil, which has been filled in
three or four feet deep, and has an astonishing yield.

Prof. Renwick said that sweet potatoes have been grown with
success for many years as far north as 40 deg. 50. min.

GRAPE CULTURE.

Mr. Robinson read a letter from G, P. Norris, of Wilmington,
Del., offering to prepare a paper upon the culture of foreign
grapes under cheap glass structures. The ofier was accepted by
the Club.

The Chairman said that public opinion had very much changed
with regard to the Concord grape-, which seems to have improved
in quality. The Hartford Prolific would be a popular market
grape, if the berries did not rattle from the bunch, being a week
in advance of the Concord in ripening. The renewal system of
pruning he had used with success, and it seemed to have improved
the Hartford Prolific in respect to the hanging on of the berries.

Mr. John G. Bergen. — I have twenty or thirty varieties of
grapes, and I am satisfied that no general rule will apply to prun-
ing all kinds of grape vines. The Isabella and Catawba are ram-
pant growers ; but there are other kinds that do not make one-
third of their growth. The same rule could not be equally well
adapted to both classes. He had found the fruit of the Concord
equal to that of the Isabella in quality. The public will proba-
bly be disappointed in the Delaware, for it is too small to be an
attractive grape in the market.

Dr. Holton said that in the neighborhood of Paris the vines are
[Am. Inst. J Q

zoo TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

usually grown about the height of the shoulder. In Italy he had
seen them grown upon mulberry trees, which were cultivated to
feed the silkworm, thus afibrding a double crop from the same
ground. At Fontainbleau there is a grapevine called the King's
vine, extending upon a wall for half a mile, the branches falling
to the ground and taking root at intervals.

Prof. Nash said that in France the stakes are placed as closely
as we plant corn. Although they are not more than four feet
high, yet the vijies may be trained to as great a length as upon
any other system.

FLAX CULTURE.

Mr. Robinson read a letter from D. Wellman, Jr., of Watertown,
Conn., in which he says :

"It is high time we at the north should look about and see if
there is not a substitute for cotton, which will answer our pur-
pose equally well, or better; and if there is, use it instead of
cotton, and let the south and the world know that we are not
dependent on them to furnish us with material to clothe us.

" There seems to be no difticulty imagined in growing flax. The
only question is, can it be manufactured into cloth at an expense
which will bring it within the reach of the j)Oorer classes ? That
it can be manufactured by machinery there need be no doubt,
and this will operate favorably to the consumer.

" Mr. Dawson, a manufacturer of woolen cloth in Watei-bury,
Conn., says that flax can be made into cloth by machinery to
advantage ; and I am of opinion that much, if not all, the produc-
tive labor preparatory to the spindle and loom can be very much
facilitated by Yankee invention.

"What hinders us from making the experiment?"

CULTIVATION OF SORGHUM.

Mr. Robinson read a letter from C. M. L. Andrus, of Somerset,
Mich., who says that he procured in 18G0 an iron mill, and that
season run some ten barrels of excellent syrup, Avhich induced the
planting of so much the past season, that I was unable to run for
all that applied, being obliged to send many away. We run, how-
ever, between twenty-five and thirty barrels of syrup, most of it
of a quality that sells readily for seventy-five cents per g-allon by
the barrel. None that have it would be willing to exchange it
for the best southern syrup to be had here in the market. I kept
an account of all that knew how many rods they had planted, and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 259

the average was over one gallon per rod, or IGO galls, per acre.
Some was at the rate of 212 galls, per acre, and of a quality that
has granulated. I think there is an advantage in cutting off the
tops very low down. I cut my own as low as the third and fourth
joints from the top, and although I'un as late as November 12th,
after it had been frozen hard many times, and thought to be
spoiled, it made the best syrup that we have run this season,
being quite thick with sugar, and as pleasant as the best sugar-
house syrup, and yielded, after cutting so low, at the rate of 170
gallons per acre, more than making up in quality what is lost in
quantity. From my experience with sorghum, I am satisfied that
ten acres of suitable land planted to cane, in an ordinary season,
will. produce more real profit than one hundred acres, farmed as
most farmers manage in the State of Michigan.

Mr. R. stated that it had now been demonstrated that the
whole west can be furnished with all the sugar they require from
their own farms, and at a cheap rate, while the sorghum will
be a paying crop to the farmer.

Dr. Trimble remarked that the cultivation of sugar cane, or
sorghum, depends in a great measure upon the expense of trans-
portation. Here land is too high priced, and sugar can be too
easily obtained from other sources, for sorghum to be a profitable
crop ; but in the west, where the cost of transportation is so
great, and land costs far less, it seems to be worthy of the atten-
tion of the farmer.

Dr. Holton said that sorghum had been raised successfully for
several years as far north as Milwaukie, The great difficulty at
first was the want of appliances for pressing out the juice. This
difficulty was now overcome.

NEW PLOW.

On motion, a committee, consisting of Messrs. Dought}^, Robin-
son and John G. Bergen, was appointed to examine and report
upon Messrs. Collins & Co.'s steel plows.

FRAUDS.

Dr. Trimble offered the following resolution :

Resolved, That a committee of three be appointed to inquire
into and report upon the frauds of this city, practiced especially
upon the farmers and other visitors from the country.

Mr. Robinson. — I move to amend so as to include the frauds
practiced by the farmers upon the people in the cit^s ; and, par-

260 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

ticularly, in putting twenty-five per cent, of Avood npon hay. I
have known a bale of hay weigliing two hundred and fifty pounds,
■with seventy pounds of wood upon it, which was not even fit to
burn.

The Chairman stated that there are establishments for prepariifg
hay for the market, which make no charge to the farmer for put-
ting it in bales, deriving their pay from the wood which they
substituted ; that is, furnishing the farmer bales weighing as
much as the loose hay which they received.

Prof. Renwick suggested that the committee should consider
the fruit baskets used by the farmers.

Mr. Robinson suggested that they consider, also, the vegetable
baskets, called bushels, but holding only five-eighths of a bushel.

Mr. Cavanach asked that the committee should investigate
manures, superphosphates, guanos, &c., and expose the frauds
there.

The resolution was adopted, and Messrs. Trimble, Carpenter
and Gale were appointed as the committee.

MUSHROOMS.

Mr. Robinson read the following extract from " The London
Gardener's Chronicle :"

"At a recent sitting of the French Academy, November 2d,
M. Chevreuil produced a magnificent bunch of esculent mush-
rooms, from the grounds of Dr. Labordette. His method of cul-
tivating is thus described : He first develops the mushrooms by
sowing spores on a pane of glass covered with wet sand. Then
he selects the most vigorous individuals from among them, and
sows (or plants) their mycelium in a cellar in a damp soil, con-
sisting of gardeners' mould, covered with a layer of sand and
gravel two inches thick, and another layer of rubbish from demo-
litions about an inch deep. The bed thus prepared is watered
with a solution of two grammes (one gramme is equal to 15.44
grains Troy) of nitrate of potash per square meter (1.1960 square
yard), and in about six days the mushrooms grow to an enormous
size."

FRUIT ORNAMENTATION.

Mr. Robinson read the following extract from the "Scientific
American" :

" At Vienna, for some time past, fruit dealers have sold peaches,
pears, apples, apricots, &c., ornamented with armorial bearings,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 261

designs, initials, names, &c. The impression of these things is
eflfected in a very simple manner. A fine fruit is selected at the
moment it is beginning to ripen; that is, to take a red color, and
paper in which the designs are neatly cut out is afiixed. After
awhile the envelope is removed, and the part of the fruit which
has been covered is brilliantl}Mvhite, By this invention the pro-
ducers of fruit may realize quite large sums."

Mr. Hite. — I have seen this practiced, and it is capable of pro-
ducing very pretty results.

The Chairman. — The same thing may be done by scratching
the surface. I have often marked melons.

Mr, Cavenach. — There is danger of injuring melons or fruit by
scratching. I would not recommend it.

APPLES.

The Chairman exhibited the "Well apple," grown by Morris
Baisely, of Westchester, a medium sized 3^ellow apple, which will
keep a year, and several other apples, among which was the
Northern Spy, which he considered a valuable apple, having
changed his opinion since last year.

JS'^ew subjects. — The subjects of •' Sorghum " and " Sweet Pota-
toes " were selected for consideration at the next meetino-.

Adjourned.

February 24, 1862,
Prof. J. A. Nash, of Brooklyn, L. I., in the chair.

CULTIVATION OF FLAX.

Mr. Carpenter exhibited specimens of flax and of hemp, pre-
pared by Mr. Sanford's machine, heretofore described, and read
extracts from the directions for the proper management of the
flax crop, compiled by the committee of the Society for the pro-
motion and improvement of the growth of flax in Ireland.

Pieparation of the Soil.
One of the points of the greatest importance in the culture of
flax, is by thorough draining, and by careful and repeated cleans-
ing of the land from weeds, to place it in the finest, deepest and
cleanest state. This will make room for the roots to penetrate,
which they will often do to a depth equal to one-half the length
of the stem above ground.

262 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

After wheat, one plowing may be sufficient on light, friable
loam, but two plowings are better; and on stiff soils three are
advisable — one immediately after harvest, across the ridges, and
two in spring, so as to be ready for sowing in the first or second
week of April. Much will, of course, depend on the nature of the
soil, and the knowledge and experience of the farmer. The land
should be so well drained and subsoiled, that it can be sown in
flats, which will give more even and much better crops. But
until the system of thorough draining be general, it will be advi-
sable to plow early in autumn, to the depth of six or eight inches.
Throw the land into ridges, that it may receive the frost and air,
and make surface drains to carry off the rains of winter. Plow
again in spring, three or four inches deep, so as to preserve the
winter surface for the roots of the flax. The spring plowing
should be given some time before sowing, to allow any seeds of
weeds in the land to vegetate, and the harrowing in of the flax
seed will likely kill them, and save a great deal of after weeding.
Following the last harrowing, it is necessary to roll, to give an
even surface and consolidate the land, breaking up this again
with -a short-toothed or seed-harrow, before sowing, which should
be up and down, not across the ridges, or anglewise. These
operations can be varied by any skillful farmer to suit peculiar
soils or extraordinary seasons. The object is to have clean, fine
soil, as like as possible to what a garden soil should be.

Rotations recommended by a gentleman of considerable experi-
ence in the culture of flax.-

Average soils : Poor soils :

1. Grass. 1. Grass.

2. Oats. 2. Oats.

3. Potatoes or turnips. 3. Potatoes.

4. Wheat. 4. Flax.

5. Flax. ~ 5. Hay.

6. Clover hay.

Sowings
The seed best adapted for the generality of soils is Riga,
although Dutch has been used in many districts of the country
for a series of years with perfect success, and generally produces
a finer fibre, but not so heavy a crop as Riga. In buying seed,
select it plump, shining and heavy, and of the best brands, from
a respectable merchant. Sift it clear of all the seeds of weeds,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 263

■which will save a gi-eat deal of after trouble when the crop is
growing. This may be done by farmers, and through a wire
sieve, twelve bars to the inch. Home-saved seed has produced
excellent crops, yet it will be best, in most cases, to use the seed
which is saved at home for feeding, or to sell it for the oil mills.
The proportion of seed may be stated at one Riga barrel, or three
and a half imperial bushels to the Irish or plantation acre; and
so on in proportion to the Scotch or Cunningham, and the English
or Statute acre. It is better to sow rather too thick than too
thin, as, with thick sowing, the stem grows tall and straight, with
only one or two seed capsules at the top ; and the fibre is found
greatly superior in fineness and length to that produced from
thin-sown flax, which grows coarse and branches out, producing
much seed, but a very inferior quality of fibre. The ground
being pulverized and well cleaned, roll and sow. If it has been
laid ofi' without ridges, it should be marked off in divisions, oiuht
to ten feet broad, in order to give an equable supply of seed.
After sowing, which should he done by a very skillful person, as
the seed is exceedingly slippery, and apt to glide unevenly from
the hand, cover with a seed harrow, going twuce over it— once
up and down, and once across or anglewise, as this makes it more
equally spread, and avoids the small drills made by the teeth of
the harrow. Finish with the roller, wliich u'ill leave the seed
covered about an inch — the proper depth. The ridges should be
very little raised in the centre, when the ground is ready for the
seed, otherwise the crop will not ripen evenly; and when land is
properly drained there should be no ridges. Rolling the ground
after sowing is very advisable, care being taken not to roll when
the ground is so wet that the earth adheres to the roller.

Weeding.

If attention has been paid to cleaning the seed and the soil, few
weeds will appear ; but if there be any, they must be carefully
pulled. It is done in Belgium by women and children, who, with
coarse cloths round their knees, creep along on all-fours. This
injures the young plant less than walking over it (which, if done,
should be by persons whose shoes are not filled with nails). They
should work, also, facing the wind, so that the plants laid flat by
the pressure may be blown up again, or thus be assisted to regain
their upright position. The tender plant, pressed one way, soon
recovers ; but, if twisted or flattened by careless weeders, it sel-

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dom rises again. The weediDg sliould be done before the flax
exceeds six inches in height.

Pulling.

The time Avhen flax should be pulled is a point of much nicety
to determine; The fibre is in the best state before the seed ia
quite ripe. If pulled too soon, although the fibre is fine, the great
waste in scutching and hackling renders it unprofitable ; and if
pulled too late, the additional weight does not compensate for
the coarseness of the fibre. It may be stated, that the best time
for pulling is when the seeds are beginning to change from a
green to a pale brown color, and the stalk to become yellow for
about two-thirds of its height from the ground. When any of
the crop is lying and suffering from wet, it should be pulled as
soon as possible, and kept by itself. So long as the ground is
undrained, and imperfectly leveled before sowing, the flax will be
found of difierent lengths. In such cases, pull each length sepa-
rately, and, if possible, keep it separate in the pool. Where there
is much second groAvth the flax should be caught by the puller
just underneath the bolls, which will leave the short stalks be-
hind. If the latter be few, it is best not to pull them at all, as
the loss from mixture and discoloration by weeds would counter-
balance the profit. If the ground has been thorough-drained, and
laid out evenly, the flax will likely be all of the same length. It
is most essential to take time and care to keep the flax even, like
a brush, at the root ends. This increases the value to the spin-
ner, and, of course, to the grower, who will be amply repaid by
an additional price for his extra trouble. Let the handfuls of
pulled flax be laid across each other diagonally, to be ready for the

Rippling.

Rippling should be carried on at the same time, and in
the same field with the pulling. If the only advantage to
be derived from rippling was the comparative ease with which
rippled flax is handled, the practice ought to be adopted ; but,
besides this, the seed is a very valuable part of the crop,
either for the oil mill, or for feeding purposes at home. The
apparatus is very simple. The ripple consists of a row of iron
teeth screwed into a block of wood. This may be made by any
handy blacksmith.* It is to be taken to the field, where the flax

* The best ripples fire made of half-inch square rods of iron, placed with the angles of iron
next the ripplers, 3-16ths of an inch asunder at the bottom, half an inch at the top, and IB
inches long, to allow a sufficient spring, and save much breaking of flax. The points should
begin to taper three inches from the top.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMEES' CLUB. 265

is being pulled, and screwed down to the centre of a nine feet
plank, resting on two stools. The ripplers may either stand or
sit astride at opposite ends. They should be at such a distance
from the comb as to permit of their striking it properly and alter-
nately. A winnowing sheet must be placed under them, to receive
the bolls as they are rippled off; and then the ripplers are ready
to receive the flax just pulled, the handfuls being placed diagon-
ally, and bound up in a sheaf. The sheaf is laid down at the
right hand of the rippler and untied. He takes a handful with
one hand, about six inches from the root, and a little nearer the
top with the other. He spreads the top of the handful like a
fan, draws the one-half of it through the comb, and the other
half past the side ; and, by a half-turn of the wrist, the same
operation is repeated with the rest of the bunch.

Some, however, prefer rippling without turning the hand, giving
the flax one or two pulls through, according to the quantity of
bolls. The flax can often be rippled without being passed more
than once through the comb. He then lays the handfuls down
at his left side, each hdidful crossing the other, when the sheaf
should be carefully tied up and removed. The object of crossing
the handfuls so carefully, after rippling, when tying up the beets
for the steep, is that they will part freely from each other when
they are taken to spread out on the grass, and not interlock and
be put out of their even order, as would otherwise be the case.
If the weather be fine, the bolls should be kept in the field, spread
on winnow-cloths, or other contrivance for drying ; and if turned
from time to time they will soon dry. Passing the bolls first
through a coarse riddle, and afterwards through fanners, to re-
move straws and leaves, will facilitate the drying. If the weather
be moist, they should be taken in-doors, and spread out thinly
and evenly on a barn-floor, or on a loft, leaving windows and
doors open to allow a thorough current of air, and turned twice
a day. When nearly dry, they may be taken to a corn kiln
(taking care not to raise it above summer heat) pud carefully
turned until no moisture remains. By the above plan of slow
drying the seed has time to imbibe all the juices that remain in
the husk, and to become perfectly ripe. If it be taken afonce
from the field, and dried hurriedly on the kiln, these juices will
be burned up, and the seed will become shrivelled and parched,
little nutritious matter remaining. In fine seasons the bolls
should always be dried in the open air, the seed thrashed out,

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and the heaviest and plumpest used for sowing or crushing. The
light seeds and chaff form most wholesome and nutritious feeding
for cattle. Flax ought not to be allowed to stand in the field, if
possible, even the second day ; it should be rippled as soon as
pulled.

The Courtrai System.

This mode of preparation requires to be very carefully execu-
ted, as inattention will reduce the value of the straw, and yield
inferior fibre. When made up for drying in large sheaves, the
straw is much injured, the outside stalks being much discolored
by the heat of the sun before the inside of the sheaf is dry. The
flax stems should be put together in bunches, about one-half
larger than a man can grasp in one hand, spread a little, and
laid on the ground in rows after each puller ; the bunches laid
with tops and roots alternately, Avhich prevents the seed-bolls
from sticking to each other in lifting. It should be stooked as
soon after pulling as possible, and never allowed to remain over
night unstooked, except in settled weather. The stooking should
go on at the same time as the pulling, as, if flax is allowed to get
rain while on the ground, its color is injured. A well-trained
stooker will put up the produce of a statute acre or more, in good
order, in a day, with two boys or girls to hand him the bunches.
The flax should be handed with the tops to the stooker. The
handfuls, as pulled, are set up, resting against each other—the
root ends spread well out, and the tops joining like the letter A.
The stooks are" made eight to ten feet long, and a short strap
keeps the ends firm. The stooks should be very narrow on the
top, and thinly put up, so that they may get the full benefit of
the weather. In six or eight days, at most, after being pulled,
the flax should be ready for tying up in sheaves of the size of
corn sheaves. It is then ricked, and allowed to stand in the field
until the seed is dry enough for stacking. To build the rick, lay
two poles parallel on the ground, about a foot asunder, with a
strong upright pole at each end. The flax is then built, the
length of a sheaf in thickness or breadth. The bottom poles
should be laid north and south, so that the sun shall get at both
sides of the rick during the day. In building, the sheaves should
be laid tops and roots alternately, built seven to eight feet high,
and on the top a single row of sheaves lengthwise, or across the
others, and then another row as before, but with the tops all the
same way, which gives a slope to throw off rain; finish by putting

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 267

on the lop a little straw tied with a rope. In this way, if pro-
perly built, it will stand secure for months, or it can be put in a
barn, if preferred : in either case, the seed is to be taken off
during the winter, and the flax steeped in the following May.

Mr. Carpenter proceeded to remark that as the seed will pay
for all the expense of cultivating the flax, and as the seed will
be good when the bolls begin to turn brown while the fibre will
be nearly as good, it is important in this country that we should
be abh; to use both.

The Chairman called attention to the fact that the Sanford
machine lays the fibres remarkably straight and parallel.

The Chairman. — I do not believe that flax culture will ever
obtain in this country unless we can make both fibre and seed
available.

MAKING OF VINEGAR.

Mr. Robinson read a letter of inquiry upon making vinegar,
stating that two millions of dollars annually are spent in this
country in the manufacture of vinegar.

Mr. Fuller. — I have some cider which has been under the pro-
cess for a year and a half, and it is not vinegar yet.

Prof Renwick. — Twenty-five j^ears ago vinegar was made in a
week or two, from molasses and water, and no doubt is still so
made. The mixture was fermented bj' the action of yeast into a
"weak vinous liquor, of which large surfaces were exposed to the
air, by passing it through vessels filled with shavings.

Mr. Robinson. — The writer of this letter tried filtering through
shavings without success. It remains sweet yet.

Mr. Pardee. — I never had any difficulty in making vinegar rap-
idly. I put in one-fourth water, and a little mother of vinegar if
I could get it, and then took a few strips of stout brown paper
and soaked them a day or two in molasses, and dipped them into
the bunghole for a nucleus for the mother to form upon. I do
not think I ever used any that had been less than two months
preparing in a warm chamber. After the vinegar was once formed,
I would draw off perhaps a barrel a month, filling up the casks
with fresh cider, which would become good vinegar in a few days,
and continued to do this for five or six years. I learn from
Wells & Provost, who furnish vinegar to the government, that
they have a method of manufacturing it by a chemical process,
in a week or ten days. It is not made from cider — and they

268 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

claim that it is better than cider vinegar, because it is free from
animalculfe.

Mr. Carpenter. — A neighbor of mine who has made a fortune
from manufacturing cider vinegar, keeps his stock continually
about the same by drawing off five gallons of vinegar from each
hogshead every week, and filling up with new cider. That
converts cider into vinegar fast enough to be profitable.

Mr. Robinson. — The trouble is to'know how to begin.

Dr. Trimble. — The making of vinegar might very properly
come under the supervision of the committee on frauds. I have
understood that some establishments make it from the sawdust
of hemlock logs. Some chemical composition may be discovered
some day that will make good vinegar; but I do not .know that
it has been done yet.

Prof. Renwick. — Much better vinegar has been made from hem-
lock sawdust, or from the sawdust of any wood, than can be made
in any other way. By distillation, we obtain pyroligneous acid,
from which, by a well known chemical process, acetic acid is
obtained. That is diluted with 15-1 6ths of water, and flavored
with anything which may be desired, and makes a good vinegar,
which is entirely free from animalcul^e. But I believe in the
United States it costs more than cider vinegar.

Mr. Carpenter. — A neighbor of mine states that the decayed
flowers of the hollyhock will convert cider into vinegar.

Mr. John G. Bergen.; — If the apples are ground for cider before
the weather is too cold, and if a small quantity of the cider,
with a little pomace at the bottom, is left in the tub, that will
become vinegar from exposure to the air. There is a starting
point, and that can be used to make vinegar of the rest.

Mr. Hite. — I had the same trouble that Mr. Fuller has had ;
but I put it out last summer in the sun and it turned to vinegar.

Mr. Fuller. — Mine has been in the sun. The difficulty was
that it was too strong.

TIME OF PRUNING.

Mr. A. M. Powell stated that he had five hundred dwarf pear
trees in Columbia county, and inquired at what time they should
be headed in ?

Mr. Fuller. — I should say, do it immediately. If you wait
until the sap starts, they are very apt to bleed a little.

Dr. Trimble. — Suppose there should be very cold weather after
it ie done ?

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 269

Mr. Fuller. — I do not think it would hurt them. I should cut
them off at any time in the winter. When we cut early we do
not trim quite so far down. We leave an inch or so above the
bud. .

Mr. Powell. — Do the wounds heal over as readily as if cut
later ?

Mr. Fuller. — It does not heal over ; it only dries up the pores
so that there shall be no escape of the fluid of the plant. It
would do no harm to cover the wounds with shellac; but I do
not know that it would do any good.

Mr. Powell, — Some of my friends say that if cut now there
will be a decayed centre, which there would not be if the pru-
ning were deferred until the sap commenced to flow freely.

Air. Fuller. — I did not refer to cutting off anything more than
a year old, because large limbs should never be cut from a tree
excepting in extreme cases. I referred merely to cutting back
last year's growth.

Mr. Robinson. — But suppose that a man has not pursued the
right course in the beginning, what then ? Every man is not a
nurseryman.

Mr. Fuller. — I would cut off those large limbs the moment I
waked up to the belief they should come off.

Mr. John G. Bergen. — I should cut off large limbs in the sum-
mer; I think they will heal up better.

Mr. Carpenter. — My experience has been that in cutting off
large limbs in the winter some of my trees died from the freezing
and opening.of the wound. I have trimmed trees when in blos-
som, but there was then too great a flow of sap, which would run
out and poison the new wood. I think the best time is the latter
part of June or in July, when the sap is a little thicker. The
last year's growth I would cut at any time.

Mr. Robinson, — I have found the wounds to heal over best
upon apple trees, when the trees were in full bearing and the ap-
ples were half grown. If you thus cut away part of the fruit, the
same vigor that would have gone into the limb to perfect the
fruit, will go to heal the wound.

Mr. Fuller. — That may do if it does not cause the tree to
throw out a late fall growth which cannot ripen. I suppose that
the time between the spring and fall growth in the summer, is
better on the whole than any other time.

Mr. Hite. — If I had a large limb to cut away, I would cut it in

270 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

the winter a foot longer than I intended to leave it; and in the
summer I would cut away the rest and put on a little mastic to
protect it.

Mr. Robinson, — That is a \)ad doctrine, for those spurs would
never be cut away.

The Chairman. — If large limbs are cut off in winter, there is
more external injury to the tree; but if you cut them in the
summer I think tliere is an internal disease, which, in its ultimate
effect, is still worse. May we not lay it down as almost a uni-
versal rule, not to cut off large limbs ? Even if you buy a j^lace
which your predecessor has neglected, is there not a better way?

Mr. Carpenter. — I tliink it would be better to trim off the
small shoots and leave the large limb.

THE PEACH. •

Dr. Trimble called attention to the failure of the peach from
the yellows. He suspected the j'ellows to be a disease origina-
ting from the ravages of the peach worm. If so, it might be
necessary to change the stock in order to obtain healthy trees.

Mr. Carpenter attributed the disease to planting the peach
upon exhausted soils, or in not properly supplying it with nutri-
ment.

Prof. Mapes attributed it to the use of putrescent manures. It
is essential to the healthiness of the tree that it should be rightly
planted, and that it should be well cultivated.

Mr. Smith, from Connecticut, said that he was convinced from
his own experience, that the yellows may be communicated from
one tree to another while they are in blossom. A trfee, therefore,
afflicted with the yellows, should not again be allowed to blossom
near other trees. There had been a secret method of curing the
yellows communicated to him by the inventor, and referred some
time since to a committee of this Club. But the inventor having
since died, the matter did not come before them.

NEW FRUIT BASKET.

Mr. Robinson called attention to specimens of quart fruit bas-
kets, sent by the maker, Mr. Henry Mellish, of Walpole, N. H.,
who furnished them for $2 per gross. Thes are cheap enough to
go with the fruit.

Subject for discussion. — The subjects, " Sweet Potatoes," and
" Sorghum " were continued.

Adjourned

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 271

March 3, 1862.
Mr. W. S. Carpenter in the cliair.

SWEET POTATOES.

Mr. Robinson distributed specimens of Nansemond sweet pota-
toes, received from M. M. Murray, of Loveland, Ohio, and read
the article prepared by Mr. Murray, by invitation of the Club,
upon the cultivation of this potato :

To the Members of the American Institute Farmers' Club :

Sirs : Allow me to present for your consideration the propriety
of commending a more extended cultivation of the sweet potato
at the north. Evidences of its successful cultivation have been
received by me from almost all the northern States, for several
ye^rs past ; and those who have once ventured a trial, have
generally continued to grow them. I see not why the markets
of our northern cities may not be fully supplied from northern
soil. The crop certainly has proved one of the most profitable
wherever tried.

The soil selected for growing them should, in all cases, be dry-
drained, either naturally or artificial!}^; and if a southern slope
or exposure can be had, all the better. The crop is rarely injured
by drouth ; in fact, it succeeds better in a dry season. In tilth,
sweet potatoes need a condition of soil suitable for growing a
good corn crop, and two to three bushels will thus be grown
Avhere but one of corn would grow. Often a greater difference
of 3'ield in favor of the sweet potato is obtained.

The tubers, or seed potatoes, have to be sprouted in a hot-bed.
From the 1st to the 15tli of April is the proper time to put them
sprouting, or from four to five weeks before 3'ou wish to set the
plants in the field. If the soil is moist in the ridge at the time
of planting, no water is required, but the soil must be pressed
quite hard against the roots of the plant. Ridges to plant on
should be made by throwing two heavy furrows together with a
plow, or on a small scale may be hoed up by hand. This work
should be done when the surface of the soil is moist. Three and
a half feet apart is a proper distance for ridges — plants every
fifteen inches on the ridge. To make the most of the plants,
break the ridges every two feet and hoe up into conical hills,
putting one plant in each. One barrel of seed sweet potatoes,
properly sprouted, will furnish plants enough for an acre, often
more, and cost |5. Those choosing to obtain plants ready grown

272 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

can estimate 6,000 per acre for hills, and from 8,000 to 10,000 for
ridges, costing $1.50 per thousand. The plants can be shipped
very great distances with entire safety. Plant as soon as safe
from frost, or from May 15th until June 15th. Commence culti-^
vating about ten days after planting. Use an adjustable cultiva-
tor between the ridges, and follow with a shovel plow to keep
them in shape, finishing with a hoe on top of the ridge and around
the plant. Two or three dressings of this kind at intervals of
two weeks or more will be needed. Soon after the vines
commence running, they will cover the ground and take care
of themselves, when they may be left undisturbed until digging
time.

The Yellow Nansemond and Kentucky Early Red are the only
varieties that I can commend for general cultivation. Samples
of these varieties I forward for your inspection. More ample
directions for cultivation, including preparation of hot-bed and
sprouting the sweet potato, furnished gratuitously by addressing

M. M. jMURRAY,
Lov eland, Clermont county, Ohio.

DIRECTIONS FOR THE CULTIVATION AND PRESERVATION OF THE
SWEET POTATO.

Directions for keeping Sioeet Potatoes.— ^o keep the sweet potato
for use through the winter, or for seed, requires much care and
experience. A thing that can hardly be told in all its particu-
lars. One great requisite is to have the potatoes gathered before
they are injured by frost, or by remaining in cold soil, after the
vines are killed, and cease to keep the tubers in growing condi-
tion. Another very important item is to have them carefully
handled. Handle like eggs. It looks tedious, but it will pay.
Rough handling surely will not. If they are dry when brought
from the field, they may be put up the following day; if moist,
they should be allowed to dry twenty-four hours or so before put-
ing up. If muddy and wet, a longer time is needed. Throw out
all cut and badly bruised ones.

There are many methods of keeping them. I will recommend
sand — coarse sand is best, and the more free from vegetable mat-
ter or soil the better. The potatoes may be placed in boxes or
bins of any convenient size, only that they must not contain pota-
toes more than sixteen inches in depth — better only twelve — and
if placed one above another must have an air space of at least

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 273

two inches between the bottom of one and the top of the other.
They should be raised from the floor, say four inches, and not
nearer any wall than three inches. Sprinkle a little sand in
the bottom of the box, then fill half full of potatoes, then shovel
in sand until the crevices are well filled, then fill up with pota-
toes and finish with sand, having an inch of sand above the top
of the potatoes. The sand should be dry, dusty, and screened if
possible, so that it will run well. The best time to secure it is
in the months of August and September. Dry it on a platform
of boards, in the sun, and store it away in a dry place, against
time of need. It will require about one-third as much bulk of
sand as there is of potatoes to be put up. To keep well, the
sweet potato needs an even temperature of from fifty to sixty
degs. Fah. They must have something near this, or your labor
is lost. If you only wish a few each year for seed, you will find
it cheaper to buy at reasonable prices than to try to keep them.
Potatoes for the table may be kept in good condition until Christ-
mas by simply being put away carefully in barrels, or boxes, and
set in a warm, dry cellar, with nothing mixed with them. If
some dry sawdust is scattered in with them, as they are packed,
around the edge, it will prevent drying too much, but it should
not be put in the centre of the barrel, as it might generate too
much heat. Do not overhaul them, even if you discover some
rotten ones; it would only make matters worse. Remove them
only as' you want them for use.

Mr. Robinson said that it was an important fact alluded to in
this article, that sweet potatoes, moved after having been put into
Avinter quarters, are sure to begin to decay in eight or ten days.

Mr. Burgess corroborated this statement. He had bought some
very fine sweet potatoes in the fall, and put them away; but in
two weeks every one was rotten.

The Chairman said that sweet potatoes miglit become an impor-
tant crop, as they produce largely, and are not subject to disease.
It is difficult to keep them ; but with care they can be kept until
spring; they can be kept in dry sand at a temperature of about
fifty degrees. Mr. Thompson, on Staten. Island, cultivates them
successfully on well drained but rather heavy soil. In order to
grow the tuber short, he contends that the ground must not be
too mellow. He prefers to plant upon ground that has not been
broken up at all : he scatters long manure upon a line, and with

[Am. Inst.] R

274 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

a plow turns a furrow over it, upon eacli side, raising the ground
eigbt or nine inches in tlie centre, and plants the potato sprout
upon the top of that ridge.

Mr. Robinson. — Sweet potatoes should be kept in a dry, tem-
perate atmosphere. Our furnace-heated houses contain exactly
the right atmosphere for keeping them.

Dr. Trimble said that sweet potatoes could not be profitably
raised north of forty degrees. They can be cultivated to much
better advantage further south.

Mr. Doughty, of NeAvark, N. J., had raised sweet potatoes for
several years, and had obtained better crops than from common
potatoes ; but lately he had been unsuccessful, probably from
having planted later kinds.

KEW POTATOES.

Rev. Mr. Weaver exhibited specimens of the Josh Moore potato,
•which he considered a superior baking potato.

The Chairman said that there had been new and improved
varieties of potatoes lately introduced, which he had tried and
could recommend. Mr. Goodrich has spent fifteen or twenty
years almost exclusively in producing new varieties. Out of over
fifteen hundred new varieties, he recommends no more than six
or eight for adoption by the public. Of these, the Garnet Chili
is quite equal to and more productive than the Peachblows, and
quite free from rot. The Kuzko White, and the Pinkeye- Rusty-
coat, are also excellent potatoes. These potatoes are only four
or five years from the ball ; and my observation is that a potato
does not come to its perfection for eight or nine years. After
that we can. expect no further improvement. If these seedlings
contiijue to improve, as others have done, I want no better pota-
toes. In ray experience seedlings are comparatively free from
rot. That disease has been produced, I think, by propagating
the old varieties for half a century or more, without even select-
ing the best seed.

Mr. Robinson stated that he had procured four now seedling
varieties last year, but they had all rotted. The Josh Moore
potato would not sell well on account of its yellow flesh.

The Chairman stated that the Prince Albert, which is a large
white potato, is one of the finest baking potatoes.

Mr. Burgess. — Of 25 seedlings I brought to East New York
from England, all but one rotted. As to yellow potatoes, I
believe that they contain the. greatest amount of nutriment.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 275

Prof. Nash said that we raise potatoes by layering; for this
potato is not a root, but part of the top. So that all the pota-
toes of a race are one plant. Its long cultivation produces weak-
ness, and finally disease. Probably the yellow potatoes contain
more nutriment than the white; but no potatoes are economical
food. They are eaten as a luxury, and are expensive even as a
luxury.

The Chairman. — I can hardly endorse that estimate. It is
admitted that an acre planted in potatoes will produce sufficie'nt
to sustain seven persons; while the average yield of wheat per
acre is only sufficient to sustain 2^ or 3 persons.

Mr. Henry suggested that high manuring increases the liability
to rot ; and that the seed should be changed every year.

The Chairman. — I never plant the potatoes I raise. I would
pay five dollars a barrel for western seed even if I sold my own
for five dollars.

Mr. Burgess. — Seed for heavy land should be taken from sandy
land, and vice versa. We do not pay sufficient attention in this
country, to the fact that potatoes, like apples, are in season at
particular times. Potatoes which are in season in the spring
are not fit to eat in .the fall.

gird's budding knife.

Mr. E. D. Gird, of Cedar Lake, N. Y., exhibited a new budding
knife for orchardists. The blade has a curved piece across the
end, so that on pressing it upon the back, it forms at once both
the longitudinal and transverse cut. Keeping the end of the
blade in its place, and raising the handle, the curved piece is
brought underneath the bark, raising it for the insertion of the
bud. So that the two cuts are made and the bark separated
from the wood, at a single operation. There is also a blade for
cutting off buds without cutting into the wood, the form of the
blade being fitted to the curved surface of the limb.

FLAX dressing MILKWEED.

Mr. Mallory exhibited specimens of American flax, dressed
upon the Sanford machine. Also, specimens of Irish flax, dressed
in Ireland, and some of the same dressed upon the Sanford
machine. The latter produces about 30 per cent, more fibre ; and
the fibre thus produced, loses but one-third as much from hack-

276 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

ling so as to be fit for spinning. It is not necessary to pull flax.
There is no fibre within two inches of the ground, and the roots
are in the way. It should be cut with a reaping or mowing
machine. The fibre of the common milkweed promises to be
valuable. The length is about equal to that of the Sea Island
cotton ; and they are tapering, with points so delicate as to float
in the atmosphere. This is the fibre of the stalk, and not of the
seed vessel. It has also been ascertained from experiments, that
the juice of the plant yields a substan.ce similar to India rubber.
The stalks may be passed through crushing rollers to extract the
gum, and then rotted and passed through the Sanford machine.
He had tried about 100 lbs. of it this year ; and it might be even
more profitable than flax. He should make a more extended
trial the next season.

GRAPE CULTURE.

Mr. Robinson read an article furnished by Dr. George Pepper
Norris, of Wilmington, Del., upon the cultivation of foreign
grapes in cheap glass houses, in wdiich he says:

" Structures in which foreign grapes can be successfully grown
"without fire-heat, can be so cheaply constructed that no farmer
who has any ambition that way need be w^ithout one. The supe-
rior quality of the fruit, the greater security against the early
spring frosts, and the length of time we are able to preserve the
fruit after it has matured, all combine to render buildings of this
kind very desirable.

" Grape-house, or cold vineries, are of two shapes— the lean-to
or the span-roofed. The former are generally liked best, and are
usually thotight cheapest, especially if there is an old back gar-
den wall, against which they may be built. Cheap structures
may be made of wood. The foundation should be laid of stone,
at least three feet below the surface.

"AcheAp, good back wall can be had by placing cedar or
chestnut posts well in the ground and nailing thereon inch plowed
and grooved flooring-boards. On the top of the back wall is
placed a wall-plate, on which the rafters are to rest. On the
front wall-plate will hang two feet wide glass sash, to open or
shut at pleasure. The back wall should be nine feet high, and
the front one three feet. The roof must be entirely of glass,
and can be cheaply made by using hemlock or yellow pine rafters
five 'feet apart, between which strips of board two inches by one

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 277

inch shall rest. The glass may be fourth quality, and the size
10x12, and should be bedded in putty and sprigged in. A door
in one end will complete the house. A temporary structure,
which will answer quite well for persons who are renters, may
be even more cheaply made, by placing a few hot-bed sashes
slantwise against any back wall with a southern exposure, under
which very good grapes may be grown. A well constructed
border is a pre-requisite for success, whether the culture of the
native or foreign vines is attempted.'"

Mr. Fuller said that the glass should be of the first quality,
bedded in putty, but not puttied upon the top ; fastened in with
tin, and painted at the edges.

Prof. Mapes said that curving the lower edges of the glass
would prevent the rain from forming lenses to cause the sun to
burn the plants after a shower.

Mr. Cavanach. — I do not believe in putting up cheap houses.
A cheap one will cost money, and a little more will give us a
much more permanent structure.

The Chairman suggested that grapes must be thoroughly
ripened in order to keep well. The Concord grape, grown in
New Jersey, will keep better than the same grape grown in Massa-
chusetts, for that reason.

J^ew subject. — " Modes of cultivating row crops," was selected
as the subject for discussion at the next meeting.

Adjourned.

March 10, 1862.
Mr. William Lawton in the chair.

VINEGAR.

Mr. Pardee called the attention of the members of the Club to
a mode of making vinegar free from mineral acids, By it vine-
gar is made in twenty- four hours. A mixture' of one gallon of
whiskey and ten gallons of water, is passed through beach wood
shavings a number of times at a high temperature, and this is
the only secret in the preparation.

I also mention a new preparation that is said to equal the best
Java coffee, at a cost less than ten cents a pound. Mix molasses
and water in equal parts, stir in wheat bran until the preparation
is as thick as possible; place the mixture in shallow baking pans

278 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

half an inch thick and bake. A gentleman who prides himself
upon his taste for good coifee, was not able to distinguish the
diiference between the two.

Mr. Carpenter. — I understand that the syrups made in the city
are preferable to all others in making this substitute, and that
the New Orleans molasses will not do for the purpose.

Professor Nash thought that the mode of making vinegar men"
tioned by Mr. Pardee, was not new, it had been known for the
last fifteen years. White lead manufactuVers make the acid used
by them in a similar manner. I understand they only pass
molasses and water through beach or oak shavings.

As substitutes for coffee, roasted wheat, corn, peas, and various
other grains are used. The mode stated by Mr. Pardee he thought
well of.

Mr. Carpenter. — I have for the last few weeks been experi.
menting with a number of articles as substitutes for coffee; the
best I have found is rye roasted, but not ground. The remains
make a good feed for poultry. Persons who buy coffee ground
do not know what they use. All manner of articles are used to
adulterate coffee, such as chicory, nuts, grain, &c.

Professor Renwick introduced to the Club Dr. Wynne, who has
been appointed Consul at San Salvador.

Dr. Wynne. — The coffee grown in San Salvador is of a very
superior quality. The coffee plant requires a moderate tempera-
ture, which is attainable on the highlands of that region. Straw-
berries and raspberries are not found in any quantity in Central
America. I propose to take out many kinds of trees and vines
and make experiments upon them, which I shall be happy to com-
municate to the Club', and any suggestions from the members, I
shall be pleased to receive.

Mr. Carpenter spoke on the acclimation of plants. He doubted
if the character of any plant had been changed. Plants from
Japan are known to flourish in Canada.

Dr. Wynne. — I shall not attempt to change the character of
any plant, but I mean to introduce plants and vegetables into
San Salvador that are not growing there now.

Professor Renwick alluded to the tomato, eggplant, okra, that
had been introduced by the refugees from St. Domingo about
1704. They could hardly be said to be acclimated, for any tropi-
cal plant of sufficiently rapid growth, will ripen in our summers.

Mr. Pardee. — I hope Dr. Wynne will experiment on the straw-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 279

berry by raising many varieties from seed. The Chili and Mon-
tevidio strawberries possess very fine flavors. The Peabody
grows very full in New Orleans, but when brought north and
treated with our stimulating manures, does not produce well.

Mr. Carpenter hoped that no remarks made by him should be
understood to deter Dr. Wynne from trying the experiments men-
tioned by him. He should be glad to hear the results of the
experiments.

Mr. Burgess wished the attention of the Club called to the
cultivation of the Spanish chesnut. The fruit that I present is
to be found for sale in our streets, and I would recommend every
farmer to plant five or six of these nuts. The trees grow to a
large size, and the timber is equal to the oak for many purposes.

Mr. Trimble. — These nuts look large, but as to flavor, they
possess none. The trees grow in our country, but are liable to
be blown down.

He objected to the attempts made to supersede coffee. Better
let the experiments alone and buy the pure coffee.

Mr. Dodge. — I am in favor of coffee and opposed to all sub-
stitutes.

Mr. Carpenter. — Not one person in a hundred drink pure cof-
fee. Most of the ground coffee sold is adulterated to an alarm-
ing extent.

Mr. Robinson. — I think a good substitute is our common corn.
By using half good coffee and half corn, it is very hard to dis-
tinguish between the two.

Prof. Mapes. — That proves, the adulteration with corn, is supe-
rior to tiiat adulterated with other substances.

Mr. Carpenter. — I wish to remark that I tried the sam.ples of
potatoes brought to the Club at its last meeting, by the Eev. Mr.
Weaver, with the Peachblows. I consider the former as a very
superior potato. If they should cook as well in the fall of the
year as they do at this season, I would recommend them as a
valuable addition to our varieties.

Mr. Weaver. — The seed potatoes I procured from" Mr. Bailey,
of Plattsburgh, N. Y. They are called the Josh Moore. I used
this potato in my family last fall and could perceive no difference
between the quality then and now. We prefer them baked.

The subject of the day, " cultivation of row crops," was then
considered. The chairman called npon Professor Mapes to open
the discussion.

280 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Prof. Mapes, — I have spoken upon this subject so often, and
my views are so generally understood by the Club, that I feel a
diffidence in opening the subject. I subsoil the ground, and after
planting say cabbages, I disturb the soil by a horse hoe. I prefer
using a mule to draw it, for the feet of this animal are smaller than
those of horses. For potatoes, I prepare the soil for planting ; but
before I put in the seed I run a subsoil plow through each fur-
row. In raising beets, carrots and parsnips, after they appear
above the ground, let the subsoil plow be run through the center
between the rows; this will loosen the soil.

To teach a mule to do this Avork, I place two joice on the ground
three feet apart, and make the mule pass through them half a
dozen times; then I turn one of the joice, making the space four
inches narrower, and proceed in this way until the joice is twelve
inches apart. By this means, Avith a boy, a mule and the tools
mentioned, they will do more work than fifty men with hoes.
AVhen the crops are fit to gather, if a subsoil plow is run between
the rows, the roots can be drawn by hand at a very rapid rate,

Mr. Carpenter. — In relation to row planting, I fully endorse all
Prof. Mapes has stated. I think our farmers can raise a larger
crop by planting in rows than by any other mode. A neighbor
of mine planted corn six inches apart, in rows three feet apart,
and he thinks the crop is full ten per cent, larger than when
planted in hills.

I find that by planting potatoes twelve inches apart in rows
twenty-four inches wide, I grew a greater crop than by any other
means.

Prof. Mapes. — I never could find a man to tell me why corn is
planted in hills. Corn is not improved by hilling; flat planting
w^ith us is in general use. If in planting potatoes you hill the
plant up, you induce the stem to throw out new tubers, but the
results will be very unsatisfactory, the tubers will be very small.

Mr. Burgess. — I must differ from the views expressed here to-
day in relation to drill planting. The smaller roots may suc-
ceed, but I prefer to sow turnips. Mangel Wurtzel. &c., broad-
cast.

Question for the next meeting. — Prof. Mapes proposing the
" cultivation of the lima bean," which was adopted ; also the
planting of trees."

The Club then adjourned.

JOHN W. CHAMBERS, Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 281

March 17, 1862.
Judge R. S. Livingston, of Dutchess county, N, Y., in the chair.

ONION CROP.

A letter was read from Dr. 0. W. Drew, Waterbury, Vermont.

" For many years the onion crop has been an entire failure in
Central Vermont, and we have depended on Boston for a supply.
"When the plants get three or four inches high, they begin to turn
yellow and die, and then the bulbs become rotten and full of
maggots. Many experiments have been tried with lime, salt,
ashes and plaster, without benefit.

" Last spring I sowed a bed with red onfon seed ; when the
plants were about four inches high, I found they were afiected as
usual. I poured a full stream of boiling water from a large tea-
kettle directly upon each row, and repeated the application. The
plants looked bright and trim as after a May shower. I lost no
more of them, and had as fine a crop of onions as I ever saw, and
the first I have been successful with for ten years.

" Perliaps this remedy is well known, but timid people may be
afraid of so heroic treatment."

Mr. Robinson. — I have tried this experiment on peach trees
with success.

Mr. Pardee. — I think the water was applied to the roots, and
not to the tops.

Mr. Trimble inquired where the maggot was found ?

Mr. Robinson. — Li the bulb.

Mr. Cavanach. — The onion is a very tender plant. I should
suppose that the hot water would destroy the tops.

Mr. Carpenter. — I think the writer understands what he says.
If the top should die, the bulb would throw out another top.

Mr. Weaver. — The experiment is worth trying. I think the
onion is very hardy. I have onions that have stood the frost. I
do not think the hot water would kill the onion.

FRAUDS IN COFFEE, SPICES, ETC.

Mr. Trimble, from the committee on frauds, made the following
report :

The committee having the subject of ^^ Frauds'^ under consid-
eration, and finding it too voluminous for one essay, propose to
divide it into compartments — giving the first to '' coffee."

The tree, bearing this useful and world-cherished berry, is said
to be indigenous in Southern Abyssinia, growing wild over the

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rocky surface of the country. The roasted seed has been used
from time immemorial. In Persia as early as A. D. 875. In
Arabia, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, and a contury
later we find it in general use in Constantinople. The first
coffee-house in London was opened in 1652, by a Greek named
Pasqua, and twenty years later it found its way to France.
There, and in other countries, it is now the daily and almost
necessary drink of hundreds of millions of people. Of the increase
of the cultivation and export of coffee, we may judge from the-
fact that the European consumption a few years ago amounted
to 168 millions of pounds — while it takes 600 millions of pounds
to supply the coffee-drinking world, at the present time.

A remark or two on the coffee tree may not be uninteresting.
It delights in a dry soil and a warm situation, attains in differ-
ent countries the height of eight, ten, and sometimes tAventy feet,
bears a dark and shining foliage, and (under favorable circum-
stances) yields its fruit for twenty years. If used and not abused,
it may be considered one of " Heaven's best gifts" to man.

It exhilerates — strengthens — allays hunger, and imparts to the
weary traveler both comfort and repose. The genuine berry
contains three valuable ingredients, viz : a volatile oil, (developed
in the roasting,) tannic acid, and the substance called " theine" or
" caffeine" (which is common to both coffee and tea.) In this (as its
original state) it is probably cheaper than any of its substitutes,
which (wanting those elements) are riot coffee at all; but alas! it
is seldom allowed to stand on its own merits. The desire to
avoid the " tax," (which makes coffee an expensive indulgence,)
aided by that " love of money" which is the " root of many
evils," prompts to " tricks of the trade," beginning with those
*' who cheat a little to make an honest living," and ending with
those who cheat without visitings of conscience. From the _^r.?^,
?rho advertise " pure coffee at 20 cts. per lb.,") you may break-
fast on a beverage made from five pounds of coffee and two
pounds of " chickory." From the last, you maybe thankful if
the peas and beans burnt and ground for your morning draught
were not discolored and spoiled before you bought them as " a
genuine arficle.'^

Frauds to an increasing extent are practiced on those who buy
" ground spices." The " mustard," so nicely " boxed" and label-
led, is not mustard at all. In most cases it is the meal of yelloAV
kiln-dried corn, ground fine and flavored with cayenne pepper.

PROCEEDLXGS OF THE FARMERS CLUB. 28d

" Ginger" is often made of similar ingredients, with the addition
af some of tlie original article to give it taste and smell.

" Ground pepper " is frequently? made of pilot-bread, burnt in
the baking or damaged by a long voyage — and there is one firm
in this city engaged in buying this refuse stuff from ships, and
selling it again as " pepper," after a sufficient amount of the
" genuine " is mixed with it to ^^ swear by." To guard against
these impositions (or one of them), we propose to re-establish
the good old coffee-mill. It will prove a better guard against the
grocers than an army of policemen ; and if you are fond of pro-
longing morning reveries, what could be a more agreeable
reminder of getting up time than the coffee-mill ?

The newspapers are now freely discussing substitutes for
coffee. Buriit rye, wheat, barley, sweet potatoes, chestnuts,
acorns, burnt bread — each has its advocate, and all may answer
for those who, with limited sensibilities, know not what coffee is.

Not one of these articles will make coffee, and if their merit is
being cheap, water is cheaper.

The seeds and roots of many West India and South American
plants have been introduced as substitutes for coffeee. The only
one Ave have time to notice is the " succory," " chickory," or wild
endive — a weed with large pale blue flowers, and having a white
tap-root, like the parsnip or oyster plant. This root abounds in
a bitter juice, which has led to its use as a subsitute for coffee.
It is found to be much improved by cultivation, and is now so
much used as to l^ave become an important crop. You may find
it growing in some of the counties of England, but much more
in Prussia, Belgium and France. It is grown also in parts of
South America, and its cultivation is beijig introduced into our
own country, especially on Long Island. This root, when dried,
roasted and ground, so exactly resembles genuine coffee as to be
a first rate article for adulterating jjurposes, and has now been
used so long in that way, as to have created a taste, and there
are many people who think they have been cheated if their coffee
has not the flavor given to it by chickory. They have become
educated to like a bitter coffee. It is now estimated that France
uses annually twelve millions of pounds ; and in some parts of
Germany the women are becoming regular chickory-topers.

Some of the ingredients of this Aveed bear a partial resem-
blance to those of tea and coffee ; but when taken unmixed, by
those unaccustomed to it, it is disagreeable and nauseous to a

284 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

high degree. The taste, however, is soon acquired, and as it has
some strengthening and tonic properties, it is probably not
injurious if taken moderately, but by prolonged and frequent
use, it produces heart-burns, cramps in the stomach, loss of appe-
tite, acidity in the mouth, weakness of the limbs, tremblings,
sleeplessness, and a drunken cloudiness of the senses.

An admixture of chickory in coffee can be detected by putting
it in cold water— it is soluble, and imparts its color to the water
in proportion to its quantity. The coffee is insoluble in cold
water, and of course gives it no color. Johnson tells us, in his
Chemistry of Common Life, another reason why the use of
chickory should be avoided by those who can afford to buy pure
coffee, is found in the fact that pure chickory is as difficult to be
met with in the market as unadulterated coffee. Venetian red is
very commonly employed to impart to the chickory a true coffee
color; and it is curious to observe how the practice of adultera-
tion extends itself from trade to trade. The coffee dealer adul-
terates his coffee, with chickory, to increase his profits ; the
chickory maker adulterates his chickory with Venitian red, to
please the eye of the coffee dealer ; and, lastly, the Venitian red
manufacturer grinds up his colors with brick dust, that by greater
cheapness, and the variety of shades he offers, he may secure the
patronage of the trade in chickory.

In conclusion, we ask every housewife to help us in our efforts
to break up this nefarious trade. Buy no more coffee ready
ground. The pure article, at its full price, i^ cheaper than any
other mixtures, no matter how low the price asked.

In buying these ground mixtures, you not only cheat your-
selves, but you put money into the pockets of dishonest dealers,
that you suppose goes towards paying the just and necessary tax
now required by our governtment to save itself from threatened
destruction.

If you cannot afford the genuine article, ro'-L('. juur own rye or
barley, or drink milk or water, but give no more money for these
fraudulent mixtures.

Mr. Lawton moved the acceptance of the report, and in doing
so, said he was gratified to see that the committee had done a
great service to the housekeeper in bringing to their notice the
immense frauds that were made in the articles of food.

He was opposed to all substitutes being sold as the genuine

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 285

article. Coffee and tea were both of that class of enlivening
beverages which is instinctively desired by all nations.

Although the quantity of the principle caffeine in coffee is only
from two to five per cent, yet as the substitutes do not contain
any of this principle, all imitations are devoid of the essential
element of coffee, however near to the original in flavor, the
various decoctions may approximate.

He hoped the committee would follow np this subject, and
from time to time bring their labors before the Club.

Mr. Carpenter, as one of the committee on this subject, said
that he had gone into the investigation without fear or favor;
every word of the report was true ; the committee had called to
their aid persons who were familiar with these frauds.

Mr. Henry spoke in favor of the use of chicory. This root is
imported from Germany, and is sometimes called succory. It is
a species cognate to dandeline, and is used extensively by the
Germans instead of coffee. I do not think chicory injurious ;
my family prefer it to Java coffee.

Mr. Pardee. — I wish the report had treated more on the sub-
stitutes, than on adulterations. Coffee is a nervous stiaiulant,
and numbers of men and women have had to abandon its use
entirely. If a healthy substitute is found, why not use it ?

Mr. Cavanach approved of the report, and mentioned a fact
that seemed to have been overlooked by the committee. He had
been informed that the liver of animals burnt and ground was
used to adulterate coffee.

Mr. Robinson. — I have known the deleterious effects of coffee,
and for years I have not been abje to drink^ any, but I can
recommend it as a disinfectant. Bad odors are removed by
burning coffee.

Mr. Trimble. — I have no doubt persons are injured by the use
of tobacco, and lay the blame to coffee. The object of the report
was to warn our people, and guard them against the stupendous
frauds in nearly every article used for food.

A member whose business knowledge has made him familiar
with the " tricks of the trade " related other frauds that would
add to the interest of the report, but we have room only for one.
Within a few weeks a vessel arrived in New Yo;-k from some
South American port having on board a quantity of coffee, and
as is usual from these ports, hides formed a part of the cargo.
These were placed over the coffee. During the voyage these

286 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

hides became very offensive, and filth drained so freely from
them that the coffee was found to be a most disgusting mass.
But this seemed to make but little difference to the dealers ; a
well known manufacturer of ground coffee bought it all ; and it
is just about this time being distributed over the city of New
York, to give a relish to the morning rolls.

Mr. Burgess. — In the adulteration of spices, charcoal is used to
a great extent.

Mr. Fuller. — I am opposed to this whole matter of discussing
the adulterations of food. Let our people buy their coffee in the
berry, and grind it themselves ; the same applies also to spices.
1 know the hulls of mustard seed are used to a great extent by
spice grinders.

Mr. Carpenter. — Tea is also adulterated. We sampled some a
fev/ days since, and found it to be very deleterious. It acted as
an emetic to a number of persons who tried it.

Mr. Geddes, — I think facts are important, and one fact prop-
erly authenticated, is worth more than any discussion had here
without facts. I hope the report will be published, it will awaken
the attention of our people to the frauds in the preparation of
articles of food, and will do good.

On motion, the report was accepted.

Mr. P. G. Bergen called the attention of the Club to a seed of
a new fruit advertised extensively, called by the seller Alkakengi,
purporting to be a new plant discovered in Illinois.

Mr. Fuller. — This new fruit from Illinois is nothing more than
the common ground cherry Physalis visco^a, it was called Alka-
kengi by the boitanist Tournefort, and there is where this gen-
tleman who advertises the seed, got his name for an old well
known plant.

The subject of the day was then called up, viz : " The cultiva-
tion of the Lima bean."

Mr. Lawton.7-1 am in the habit of putting out 100 polos of
Lima beans annually. My method is, to take a crowbar and
make holes about four feet apart, put in the pole firmly, ai'.d then
plant four beans to the hill. I plant them from the 20th of May
to the 1st of June.

Mr. Cavenach asked if the mode of checking, by nipping off the
ends of the vine, had been adopted by members of the Club ?

Mr. Trimble. — I think we raise no vegetable that will produce
a better crop than the Lima bean. Used as a vegetable or made

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 287

into soup, there was no bean that excelled it in flavor. I do not
nip off the ends of the vine, but let them run up the poles, then
turn them down, and after a time turn them up again. I have
always had an abundant crop. I place my poles 3J to 4 feet
apart. Then I manure the ground and plant. If the beans are
started in a cold green-house, and then transpLjinted on a warm
day, you get them earlier than in planting them in the old way.

Mr. Carpenter. — I generally start my beans in the hot-bed. I
observed a new plan adopted by one of my neighbors, last year.
He is in the habit of using poles five or six feet high, with rails
tied on the top, horizontally. The beans, thus treated, bear an
abundant crop. I am in favor of summer pruning, by nipping
off the tops of the vines, inducing lateral shoots to grow.

Mr. Fuller. — The plan of nipping the tops of the vine, in my
experience, is the proper course to pursue.

Mr. Cavanach. — Last year I planted the Lima bean about the
20th of May, in drills. The beans were three or four inches apart
in the rows. For the want of poles, I used pea-brush, and the
vines run all over it. I had a very good crop.

Mr. Carpenter distributed grafts of the Spanish chesnut, and
of various kinds of apples.

Mr, Fuller hoped that attention would be paid to the grafting
of this chesnut. If grafted on native trees, they will bear in
about three years. If the chesnuts are planted, it will require
from ten to fifteen years before they come into bearing.

Mr. IJenry. — These trees grow in New Jersey very well. There
are some trees growing at Baskenridge, which produce good nuts
that bring a high price in market.

Mr. Trimble. — Our native chesnuts are as far superior in flavor
to the Spanish chesnut, as that is superior in size to ours.

A quantity of vegetable seeds put up by the United States
Patent Office, received from the Hon. F, A. Conkling, was then
distributed to the members.

Subject for the next meeting : " Spring flowers and the neglected
fruits of our country."

The Club then adjourned.

JOHN W. CHAMBERS, Secretary.

288 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

March 24, 1862.
Mr. Edward Doughty, of New Jersey, in the chair.

EXPERIMENTAL FARM AND SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND HORTICUL-
TURE FOR PATRIOT ORPHANS.

"Dr. Holton called the attention of the Farmers' Club to the
initiatory measures taken immediately after the bombardment of
Fort Sumter, for establishing an Institute of Reward.

The Institute embraces several objects ; primarily, the col-
lecting of statistics of orphanage, and particularly of orphanage
in relation to patriotic deeds, and the founding of Orphans'
Homes which will afford ample educational advantages and train-
ing for the ordinary business of life. Such provisions being
regarded not in the light of almsgiving, but as tokens of appre-
ciation of the patriotic devotion and services whereby these chil-
dren have been deprived of their natural protectors.

With one of these Homes, it is proposed to connect an experi-
mental farm and school, under the patronage of State or General
Government, in which those patriotic orphans, whose talents and
attainments give promise of eminence in any art, science or call-
ing, may receive " Prize Positions" or scholarships.

These objects and plans having been presented at a former
session, and now being reduced to form and detail, an invitation
is extended to the members of the Farmers' Club, and others
sympathizing in these objects, to examine the same after the
adjournment of the public exercises, during any portion of the
hours from two to four o'clock on Monday of each week, and to
co-operate in completing the system and plan for the organiza-
tion and conduct of the proposed experimental farm.

Mr. Robinson moved that a committee of three be appointed
■ to take into consideration the subject, and report to the Club ;
which motion was carried, and Messrs. William Lawton, Henry
O'Reilly and Charles A. Seely, were appointed said committee.

RUSSET APPLES.

Mr. Carpenter presented to the Club, several golden Russet
apples. These apples, he stated, are now in a fit state for use,
especially for cooking purposes.

A discussion followed in relation to the value of Russet apples,
in which Mr, Robinson, Mr. Pardee and Mr. Lawton took part.

Mr. Louis Koch, a German gentleman, formerly of this city,
but now a resident of the Republic of Mexico, was introduced to

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 289

the Club, by the secretary, and was requested to inform the
members in relation to the agriculture of that country.

Mr. Koch then gave an interesting account of Tobasco, the
State in which he resides, and of its productions. He remarked
that he arrived in tlmt country last August, and had settled on
a plantation on the Tobasco river, about six miles from its mouth.
This river empties itself into the Gulf of Mexico.

He had returned to New York for the purpose of purchasing
agricultural implements and machinery.

The mode of cultivation pursued in Mexico was very rude.
They had hardly any implements of agriculture. The Indians
use a long, heavy knife, called a machette, with Mdiich they cut
the brush. When dry, the brush is burned, and then the seed is
put in with a sharp-pointed stick. The soil is sandy, and very
productive. The coffee tree produces from 15 to 20 pounds of
berries in a season, while in the Brazils five to six pounds was
deemed a fair crop. Each coffee tree has to be protected from
the sun by a shade tree. Rice produces three crops in a year
from one planting. The sugar cane grows to a great height, I
have measured some stalks that were thirty-six feet high. Sweet
potatoes are ver}'- abundant, of a monstrous size, and of a very-
superior quality. The Yucca also grows in abundance. Corn
can be planted nearly every day in the year, and the ears are
very large. Notwithstanding the ease with which it is grown,
enough of it for home supply is not raised.

He stated a singular fact in relation to the change in fruit. If
you plant the seeds of the apple, they produce fruit in three
years. The first fruit obtained were small apples, but afterwards
the fruit became in character exactly like the wild guava, from
which is made the guava jelly. This iiative guava tree resembles
the apple tree in appearance. He also planted pear seeds, but only
got guava. Cherries change to a fruit unlike the original, being
yellow colored, and very sweet.

Mr. Koch takes out with him a small steam engine, a mowing
machine, a saw-mill, rice huller, machines for grinding, and the
most approved agricultural implements.

Mr. Robinson thought the change in the character of the fruit
very remarkable, but he had seen the Baldwin apple, as grown in
Ma'ssachusetts, quite a different apple when grown on the prai-
ries of Illinois.

[Am. Inst.] S

290 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Koch. — I have purchased a great variety of fruit trees,
grape vines, and vegetable seeds, for the purpose of demonstrat-
ing whether I can grow any thing true to its kind in that climate.
I intend to graft the apple and pear upon the guava tree. I shall
take great pleasure in transmitting to the CJub the results of my
experiments.

Mr. Carpenter asked, what was the temperature of Tobasco ?

Mr. Koch. — Tobasco is situated in about latitude IS'^ north,
and the range of the thermometer from 65"^ to do^. The rainy
season commences in May and continues until October, during
which time a great part of the country is covered with water.
One great drawback to the prosperity of the country consists in
the numerous varieties of insects and reptiles. These are very
troublesome and annoying.

Mr. Pardee asked if there was much sickness in consequence of
so much rain.

Mr. Koch. — We have intermittent fever, but it is soon cured.
My own health has been very good since I have resided there,
which I attribute to the wearing of flannel next the skin.

Mr. Robinson moved that the thanks of the Club be presented
to Mr. Koch for the instructive information furnished, which was
unanimously adopted.

DESSICATED VEGETABLES.

Mr. Henry presented specimens of Anjerican dessicated food,
made on Long Island. This article is now extensively used for
feeding our army, and in his opinion, is likely to drive the French
preparation out of our market.

The regular subject of the day was then taken up, viz : ** The
neglected Fruits of our country."

Mr. Robinson said he had a matter that might be very appro-
priately discussed under this head ; it was,

"What kind of grapes shall we plant." I have been induced
to undertake to answer this question now, in consequence of
receiving the following letter of inquiry from a German friend
who called to consult me on a subject nearest to his heart.

" I have two sons to whom I wish to leave each a vineyard. I
came from Steinberg, and my sons inherit a love for the vine ;
but your favorite American kijids are not good to our palatfes^
Now, will not the American taste soon so far improve as to reject
such poor flavored kinds as the Isabella and Concord, and just as

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 291

tlie vineyards come into bearing, will they not be found worth-
less, and the taste all gone to Delaware and Diana, which remind
me of our own Traminer and Rissling, which refresh like wine ?
Please tell us, and by so doing, tell many in Monmouth county,
who, like us, desire to know. Have you had the long and exten-
sive observation that it is necessary to form an opinion, or can
you tell me who has?"

This is the most important agricultural question of the present
day. It is important because it has now become as certain as
any thing of the future, that America will surely become a great
vine-growing and wine-producing country. That this event will
certainly happen we are just as sure, as we are that France is
already a great producer of grapes. The extent of vineyards
already planted is greater than the mass of people have any
conception of; and of the extent of preparation for planting no
one has an idea, except the very few whose interest or taste has
led them to inquire. We are assured by the besfe authority in
this country, that there are now planted, and in preparation for
planting, at least a thousand acres of land in the small State of
New Jersey, and that in only a few counties, and yet grape-grow-
ing in that State has been as yet hardly thought of, and so little
talked about that its own citizens are not generally aware of the
progress of this new and great industrial pursuit of a few of the
people. Yet in a few years the grape crop of New Jersey will
become one of the most important of that State, and the product
of its vineyards will not only furnish New York with an abund-
ance of fresh fruit, but will put a strong check on the importation
of wines.

There has been within a year past one tract of twenty thousand
acres of forest land, in Cumberland county, opened to settlement
and a town laid out in its center called " Vineland," because the
proprietor believes the soil well adapted to the growth of grapes,
and intends to encourage all the settlers to devote their attention
to their cultivation. We should not be surprised to see five
thousand acres of this tract planted, or prepared for jolanting
with vines within five years.

Monmouth county, too, will soon become as famous for its
great crops of grapes as it has been in jDast years for its
peaches.

Pennsylvania is also moving, in all its breadth, from the Dela-

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ware to the Ohio, in its preparation to become a wine-making
State.

New York has already several vineyards of considerable im-
portance, which furnish its cities with some hundreds of tons of
fresh grapes, and some of them have made wine to a limited extent,
which we hope never will be any greater until their proprietors
learn to make something more worthy of the name of wine than
the sweetened alcoholic beverages which they have produced.

In Connecticut, there is at this time a very decided " awaken-
ing " upon the subject of grape-growing, and large quantities are
already produced, and the intention of making it eventually a
wine-producing State is evident.

Of the extent of g-rape-growing in the vicinity of New York, an
idea may be formed from the quantity of fresh grapes known to
have been sold the last season by some of the leading commission
houses. The editor of The Vineyard, published at Jersey City,
has asceri.ained by careful examination that seven dealers, prin-
cipally in Washington market, sold of the crop of 1861, one hun-
dred and ten tons. This does not cover much more than half of
the quantity sold in this city, as it includes none of Dr. Underbill's
crop, which we estimate at twenty-five tons at least ; nor does it
include the sales of some produce commission houses which we
know sold large quantities of grapes, nor any of the small lots
sold by owners directly to hotels, private families, and retail
dealers. It is therefore quite safe to calculate that 200 tons of
grapes of the growth of 1861 were sold in the city of New York,
and, with the exception of a few from Delaware, all of the
growth of the three States we have named.

Of the extent of grape growing in the vicinity of Cincinnati
the most of our readers have some idea, from seeing that that city
is beginning to supply a considerable portion of the growing
demand for American wine, and that some of the wine made
there is equal in quality to any that can be imported at the same
cost. It is also indisputably true that Avine has been made
within two or three years at Cincinnati that is appreciated by
connoisseurs equal to the very best ever produced in France,
Spain, or Italy. Tliis, it is needless to say, is made from the
comparatively new Delaware grape, which is now acknowledged
by the best wine-makers at Cincinnati to be the best wine grape
ever produced by out-door cultivation in America.

PROCEEDINGS OP THE FARMEES' CLUB. 293

■ So far, the principal wine grape of this country has been the
Catawba, and wine has been made from it that will stand the
test, and be pronounced good by all cempetent judges. The
best that any one has produced, in quantities sufficient to put
into market, is that made by John E. Mottier, at Cincinnati.
He is an old Swiss vine-dresser, who has been all his long life
engaged in the business, and has established an enviable reputa-
tion as a wine-maker at Cincinnati, where there are between two
and three thousand acres of vineyards, seven-eights of which
are covered with Catawbas. This variety, after the long, patient
and expensive trials of Isabella, Lenoir, Herbemont, Norton's
Seedling, and particularly the Cape or York Maderia grape, and
various other sorts of native and hardy grapes, to say nothing
of the many foreign kinds that have been tried, had, until within
a year or two, seemed to have become established as the wine
grape of Ohio and adjoining States. It has been extensively
planted in Missouri, and many persons in the Western States, as
well as some extensive growers nearer our city, where they depend
more upon selling fresh grapes than upon wine, have thought
that, if they could get a vineyard well set with Isabellas and
Catawbas, they should never need to think of anything better.
Indeed, many have contended that there are no other sorts of
equal value for out-door culture in America. If this is so, then
the question is answered — " What shall we plant ? " We cannot
hope to change the opinion of those wdio are already wedded to
these two last named varieties so strongly that they will not even
inquire whether there is any better sort ; nor can we hope that
any man who has a vineyard of those will root it up to plant any
other variety — though that has been done. But we do hope
that those who are now thinking about the matter, or who
have determined to plant a vineyard, or a single vine for
family use, or a dozen vines to produce grapes to sell, will not
do so until they have answered our question to their own
satisfaction.

To assist them in the matter, we will lay before them a few
simple facts. We will take the case of Mr. Mottier, for one.
His purchase, after a satisfactory trial, was 1,200 of the lowest
price Delawares (Dr. Grant's No 4), in the spring of 1860. In
the autumn following he was so pleased with their growth, not
having lost any worth mentioning, that he writes as follows :

294 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

" They have," says he, "made a uniform growth, better than Ca-
tawbas of two years ; and I now want to engage 1,200 more, and
will say to you that, for general vineyard, I have determined to
plant nothing but Delawares hereafter. I only regret that want
of knowledge or misinformation kept me out of this variety so
long. It cannot be overpraised." From Mr. Mottier's experi-
mental vines he has made wine which, without age or name or
anything to distinguish or recommend it, but placed among a
large number of bottles of wine from Catawba and other'grapes,
was unanimously pronounced far superior.

Frederick Schnicke, of Cincinnati, is another old Swiss vine-
dresser. He says : " I can give you my opinion of the Delaware
grape in one word. It is the best kind, not of American only,
but of the world. Next to Delaware I place Lincoln, then Lenoir,
next Herbemont, and then perhaps, Catawba. But I think Diana,
when it becomes more plenty, may stand by Delaware."

"With Mr. Schnicke, the Catawba ranks last, notwithstanding
he had been using it many years for wine, and all his interest at
that time was invested in a vineyard of Catawba grapes.

Isabella always ranks below Catawba, both for the table and
wine. Then " what shall we plant ?" may be considered answered
as relates to those two sorts.

The Concord grape was recommended some years ago by
Charles Downing as "a good market .grape." This was on
account of its size and general attractive appearance being in
its favor with those who only judge by outside appearances.
Mr. Downing now sorely regrets having made this qualified
recommendation, because it has caused some persons to plant of
it extensively, and now that they find that they can get better
sorts, they regret that they did not do so at first.

As the Concord, as well as Hartford Prolific, both of which
are of the New England wild variety of fox grapes, grow very
strong where some other sorts would die, we may recommend
every family that desires an assortment to plant one vine of
each; and so would we of Isabella and Catawba. Indeed it has
been through these coarser sorts of grapes that an appetite has
been created for the best sorts already known, and the constant
effort to develop new sorts from seedlings. We know one man
who has within the last seven years grown some three tliousand
seedlings and brought them to bearing, and rejected all but
seven, and of those only, considers one super-excellent.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 295

It is a patient labor of a long life to get any new seedling fruit
that possesses qualities superior to others already known. And
after a new grape is developed, for men in ordinary circumstances
to undertake to propogate it in sufficient quantity to supply the
whole country, would require another lifetime.

Very few persons have any idea of the expenses and labor of
propagation. Let us glance at the establishment of Dr. Grant,
upon lona Island, three miles above Peekskill, on the Hudson.
This has been the great center of propagation of the Delaware
vines, which have been multiplied faster than any other sort ever
were multiplied before, and for the reason that the doctor has
the greatest facilities for the purpose in this country, or perhaps
any other. He has an acre covered with glass houses ; not low,
glass-covered beds, or sheds, but tall buildings, with glass roofs
and sides, in which he can grow 200,000 vines a year. Of course
he grows them for sale, and such men as Robert Buchanan, and
Messrs. Motier, Bogeji, Werk, Schnicke, and other old and expe-
rienced wine-makers, buy them. More than 100,000 of the
number are Delawares, which sell from fifty cents to three dol-
lars each, which is less than half what they have been sold at in
former years.

The next most salable plants are the Dianas, of which about
fifty thousaud will be sold for planting in the spring of 1862.
Then comes the Anna, Rebecca, Herbemont, Lincoln, Lenoir, and
several sorts of lesser note and lower prices, but with compara-
tively few purchasers.

The strong proof of the excellence of the first-named is in the
constant demand, and that a good deal of the demand comes
from those who have already planted vine yards of the sorts that
were so popular ten 3'-ears ago, but now find their account in
rooting them out and filling the ground with vines that will pro-
duce better fruit and prove far more profitable.

We might give many more reasons ; but have we not said
enough to make all who are disposed to plant vines, whether for
a vineyard, or to grow fruit for market, or to produce grapes for
their own family use, to ask the question and get a satisfactory
answer as to what sort they shall plant ?

Remember, under all circumstances, when about to make your
selection to plant, that taste must be consulted, and that is pro-
gressive ; that one who never tasted a good grape may be con-

296 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

tented, as I was in my boyhood, with the Fox grapes of Connecti-
cut. One who never tasted any but the old style yellow musk-
melon, may not desire to grow the green-fleshed, delicious nutmeg
melon.

Remember that, if your own sense of taste has not progressed
so far as not to relish such grapes as the public sought after
ten years ago, there are individuals of the great public, and very
soon their name will be legion, whose tastes are already pro-
gressed, so that they will not buy the product of your wild vines
if you plant them, and succeed in producing fruit. Then why
not plant the best at first, and not have to dig up and throw away
some years of labor upon sorts that prove so nearly worthless as
those that have been tried and rejected by some of the best
grape-growers in this country. I pause here to introduce another
witness, who answers the question of what shall we plant better
than I can, because she answers from actual experience. I had
written this far in answer, when I fortunately received the
following valuable and interesting letter, which I recognize as
coming from a very intelligent American lady, Mrs. Therese
Nairin, the wife of a French gentleman who knows what good
grapes and good vines are, and who now hopes to have as good
ones at their new home on the Hudson river :

"Four years ago last fall you may remember to have met me
with Mr. Downing at Newburgh. I then and there thought you
a little enthusiastic, as a new convert might be on the subject of
Delaware and Diana grapes, but Mr. Downing concurring with
you I procured as follows : four Delawares, two Dianas, two Re-
beccas, two Annas, two Concords, two Hartford Frolifics, two
Lincolns, two Union Villages, two Elsingburgs, two Isabellas, and
two Catawbas, which Mr. Downing told me would make a good
beginning for a supply for "family use." I treated them according
to directions furnished, and give you the result. I should say the
Concord and Hartford Prolific were taken because Mr. Downing
said they would be excellent for market. I have found them just
that, only they will not sell after the first trial, so I dug up Hart-
ford Prolific a year ago, and Concord last fall. The Isabella and
Catawba performed about as usual, each of them giving speci-
mens the third season, and something of a crop the last. The
Isabella every season lost its leaves sooner than the others, and
the fruit, although black, was flavorless, or not good, in compari-
son with your favorites. Catawba was better in these respects,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 297

but the bunches were uneven, from the rot. Anna was mode-
rately productive, and very decided in its rich Muscat of Alex-
andria flavor, but like its prototype, some of its bunches were
uneven. Rebecca has not yet produced much, and I fear is tender.
A few of its bunches were very beautiful, it lacks in pronounced
flavor and is not markedly refreshing, and you like it better the
first year than the second — in this respect differing greatly from
Anna, which fixes in the memory and calls you back to it as to
something good. These and Diana keep remarkably, retaining
their briskness until March, or later. Union Tillage is monstrous
in size and bears early, and beyond belief, its first crop lacked
flavor like Isabella, but the last was very good — good all the way
to the centre, and ripe much before Isabella. Elsingburg and
Lincoln ripen early, and are so spicy and rich without the least
of unripeness in the centre, and my fastidious foreign friends find
no fault with these, but praise them highly. I shall speak another
word about them soon.

"About the flavor of Delaware and Diana I shall not say one
word, for

'None know them but to love them.
None name them but to praise.'

"Delaware and Concord plants were large layers for immediate
bearing, and with the Hartford Prolific, bore specimens the first
season, but only from three to five bunches each. Those of the Dela-
ware were small, but transparent, most beautiful and good, Diana
had a little clearness, and was tolerably good, but not better
than good Catawbas, nor much earlier, and my faith in Diana
waned. Concord, bunches pretty large, and began to ripen one
week earlier than Isabella, but the skin gave a decidedly unpleas-
ant feeling to my mouth, and its fragrance, too, was quite dis-
agreeable. On tasting a few of the berries, the first sensation was
of a good degree of sweetness, but the unripe slug in the middle
was very large, tough, and very disagreeably acid; even the part
in which resided the sweetness left an unpleasant taste and sensa-
tion, which became more noticeable on further acquaintance. The
next season the Delaware gave from fifteen to twenty bunches
each, after judicious thinning; bunches larger, no imperfect ber-
ries, and fruit more spicy and refreshing. Diana, this year, quite
clear and beautiful in appearance, and most excellent in flavor,
so that some thought it almost equal to Delaware. Concord not
perceptibly better than before, and far less satisfactory to my

298 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

taste than ever ; in fact, by the side of the two just named, quite
distasteful. At the same time found Isabella flat and poor, and
noted the astringency of Catawba more than before. The third
season I had enough fruit to begin to try by weight, but not
very exactly, because some of the Delaware were picked before I
thought of weighing.

" Delawares taken at four pickings, beginning September 1st,
four vines, twenty-six lbs. ; Diana, September 6th, two vines,
twelve lbs;; Concord, September 6th, two vines, six lbs.; Anna,
September 6th, two vines, six lbs.

" From six pounds of the Delaware I made a little more than
two quarts of wine, having a miniature press, with box and screw,
made on purpose. I also made a little from Diana and Concord,
but the quantity was perhaps too small to afford a test; Dela-
ware had second fermentation in June, and became a fine, rich,
dry wine. Diana the same, but less pleasant than Delaware. Juice
of Concord became unpleasant, and something like vinegar.

" The fourth season (1861) I thinned the Delaware, so that but
two bunches grew on one shoot, and found no difficulty in appor-
tioning the shoots, so that each one occupied its allotted space
without interfering with its neighbor, and it was a beautiful
sight. I had something more than forty pounds of grapes from
the four vines, and not one unsightly bunch, and scarcely an
imperfect or unripe berry. The leaves all remained perfect until
the ripening of the fruit, and nearly all the fruit remained shaded
from the sun. I had about fifteen pounds of Diana thinned as
above, nearly all of them handsome bunches, but varying con-
siderably in size and form, and all of the fruit was beautifully
transparent, and many of the berries were entirely without seeds
and most exquisite in flavor. I can now indorse the praises of
the Diana. Some of the bunches weighed a pound — very heavy
for their she, and perhaps a little too compact, adhering firmly
to the stem.

"•The Concord vines also bore well, and some of the bunches
appeared even larger than those of Diana, but not quite so heavy.
The Concord grape is not attractive in appearance from the
beginning, being quite opaque, and not becoming clear at ripen-
ing. One skilled in grapes would judge of its poor quality by its
appearance. The flavor of Concord was no better than the pre-
vious 3"ear, and the odor more repulsive. Weight of the crop
about ten pounds, ripen before Isabella, but not quite so early as

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 299

Diana. Made wine again from Diana, Concord and Delaware ;
from DelaAvare two kinds; the first from fruit taken at full matu-
rity, about 23d of September; the second from fruit taken about
20th of October, and so over-ripe that it was of honeyed sweet,
ness, with some of the berries a little shriveled. I send speci-
mens of the wine. That marked I was that first described ; that
marked II the last, which you will find very sweet, but I think it
will be much less so after second fermentation. I also send speci-
men of last season's wine, which I think you will find really good,
and perhaps resembling " Lachryma Christi." I think you may
set it before judges who are conversant with true wine, for their
opinion. It is nothing but pure juice, the corks having been
dipped in brandy to prevent mold.

" I offered some grapes for sale, in small parcels of about six
pounds each ; the first day all brought about the same price —
twelve cents per pound.

" I withheld Delaware and Diana, thinking them a failure for
market. The third day I had an advance of double price, offered
by those who had first purchased and fairly got the flavor ; found
that Isabella and Concord were no grape at all, and that Catawba
was not as good as usual, and a few had found that Chasselas and
Black Hamburg were not the best of grapes. I paid no dealers'
commission, but sold about twenty pounds, at fifty cents per
pound, and a few pounds of Diana gave high satisfaction at
twenty -five cents ; some even classed them with the Delaware.

"The Isabella continued to bring ten cents, Catawba twelve, and
Concord eight — the latter not gaining by comparison. Delaware
and Diana make excellent raisins, drying easily, and not disposed
to rot. They also keep through January, without much shrivel-
ing, on shelves, in the same room in which you keep apples and
pears, and with the same care.

"I have also kept account of the doings of Lincoln and Elsing-
burg, both of which I kr:ow are good for table and for wine, but
results are not yet so definitel}^ ascertained. You need nat be
astonished if you find Elsingburg making Hermitage and Lincoln
Sauterne wine, or something as good. They are very rich grapes,
and never forgotten by those who have once partaken of them.

"I send this long gossip not because it shows unusual results,
but the contrary, and because they are in a degree definitely
ascertained, and not mere guess. I am preparing a little vine-

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yard, of one-fourth of an acre, planting three hundred Delawares
and two hundred Dianas."

Mr. Fuller. — I wish to add one word of caution about attempt-
ing to grow the Lincoln, Lenoir and Herbemont grapes in the
vicinity of this city; and I do not think they will succeed with-
out protection. They are all good grapes for a warm climate,
and make a very delicate wine; but you cannot transport it any
distance without spoiling.

Mr. Carpenter differed from the observation made by the lady
in relation to the Concord grape, at the convention of fruit-
growers of Western New York, the Concord was deemed equal
to the Delaware. It must be recollected that we are not all
planting vineyards for wane making. I deem the Delaware indis-
pensible to a small collection ; the Concord should not be
neglected ; it has a good sized berry, and sells well in market.

Mr. Henry, — California is a large wine-growing State. Some
of the wine made there is highly spoken of as possessing a high
degree of excellence.

The subject for the next meeting, " The Neglected Fruits of
our Country and Flowers." The Club then adjourned.

JOHN W. CHAMBERS, Secretary.

March 31, 1862.
Judge R. S. Livingston, of Dutchess county, N. Y., in the chair.

SUGAR MADE FROM THE SAP OF THE BOX ELDER.

Mr. Edgar De Peyster transmitted to the Club a sample of
sugar obtained from the sap of the box elder. It was made in
Colorado territory, in the same manner as maple sugar. In some
localities the trees are very numerous. He says : " This is the
first specimen I have ever seen, and I thought it might be inter-
esting to the Club."

*OYSTER-SHELL LIME.

John Watson, of New Hope, Bucks county, Penn., wants the
Club to discuss the following question :

" What are the chemical qualities of oyster-shell lime ? And
what amount to the acre is it profitable to use ? I have an oppor-
tunity of purchasing five hundred bushels of oyster-shells, and a
lot of old logs and dead wood with which to form a kiln to
burn them. I propose to plow my field of twelve acres for corn

•To burn oyster-shells into lime wastes all the gelatine and nitrogenous matter which they
contain. Thej form a far more valuable manure if crushed by mechanical means. J. R.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS'- CLUB. 301

thoronglily, harrow down smooth and mellow, and spread the
oyster-shell lime on top at the rate of forty bushels to the acre,
and furrow out immediately. Is this the best mode of applica-
tion on a heavy clay soil, or had I better use some other fertilizer
for corn, and save the oyster-shell lime for Avheat? I intend
composting in the hills with short manures or ashes and plaster,
or whatever else I can scrape up to do good."

Solon Robinson. — The qualities of oyster-shell lime are- such as
to render it fitter for agricultural purposes than lime from rocks.
It is profitable to use any amount that a man can afi"ord to apply,
but those who have used lime the most have agreed generally
upon about thirty bushels of slacked lime per acre, the dose to
be four times repeated, and then rest. It should always be applied
upon the surface and generally with wheat, and never composted
with other manure.

Mr. Carpenter. — I have found lime valuable on a clayey soil, but
not on a sandy one. In the former case to the extent of even one
hundred bushels per acre. I find lime very beneficial on orchard
land, and more so on wheat than corn. If lime is applied to
corn, wheat should follow. Oyster-shell lime costs me five cents
per bushel in a powdered state in the city. The results of my
crops paid me well for its application — say from twenty to forty
bushels per acre.

Mr. LaAvton spoke of the value of oyster-shell lime. It was
formerly sold in this city for three cents per bushel, but the price
is now advanced.

SUBSTITUTES FOR COFFEE BARLEY.

A. M. Carter, Johnstown, Rock county, Wisconsin, sends the
folloAving substitute for coffee. He says :

" Always reading the ' Proceedings of the Farmers' Club ' with
much interest, and in these times of war and high prices nothing
can be of more interest to the people than substitutes for some
of the luxuries of the table.

"At the meeting of March 3d, the subject of substitutes for
cofiee was discussed, and among all of them I did not see barley
mentioned. Thirty years ago, or more, my father used barley
cofiee in his family for several years, and we used to like it;
but it went out of use for some cause that I can't remember.
About four months since I commenced using it in my family,
and would not thank any man for better cofiee. We roast

802 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

it in an oven, and have to be a little more particular about the
process than with Java or Rio, because the berry is smaller, but
otherwise use it the same as with other coffee, using eggs to set-
tle, or other substances, as people prefer. When we commenced
using it we mixed half and half with Rio, but now use clear bar-
ley. I think that barley coffee contains that peculiar aromatic
principle that is so fascinating in Java or Rio, and that people
will not detect any greater difference in changing to barley coffee
than from Rio to Java, and then you will avoid all the difficulty
of the preparation of bran. We believe barley coffee to be much
more healthy, and beside it is worth in our market only about
thirty cents per bushel."

Mr. Pardee defended the preparation of bran as a substitute
for coffee. Since the last meeting of the Club he has tried the .
baked bran cakes that he spoke of some weeks since, and was
very much pleased with it. He could discover no difference
between this and Java coffee. He advises every farmer to try it.

Mr. Carpenter asked what quantity was used.

Mr. Pardee. — A little more than of coffee. The cakes are baked
in the oven until they are the color of well roasted coffee, and
have the same odor. They granulate like coarsely ground coffee,
and the beverage is prepared in the usual way,

" THE ILLINOIS COFFEE." »

Solon Robinson. — A good deal has been said lately about a
new plant in Illinois, the seeds of which were fully equal to coffee.
This seed has been examined by Dr. J. A. Warden, of Cincinnati.
He says :

" Thanks to the gentleman who has introduced this article,
Geo. R, Huffman, of Effingham, Illinois. I have received a few
seeds of this plant, which he has grown for two years past, hav-
ing received it as the coffee of Australia. An examination of the
seed shows it to be a vetch — natural order Vicia, genus Cicer.
Hence it is an annual herb. The species to which these seeds
belong is the Cicer arietimm, the chick pea, a native of Syria,
Egypt, Italy, the Levant, found among the corn or grain. The
seed has a projecting cheek, hence its resemblance to a ram's
head, which gives the name. The seeds are eatable, raw or boiled,
and constitute a considerable part of the food of those countries.
It flowers in June and ripens in August ; is grown in drills or
sown broadcast."

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLU^. 303

VINEGAR HOW TO MAKE IT.

A Tompkins county farmer tells us how he makes cider vinegar.
He says :

" Cider made late in autumn cannot be made into vinegar t)efore
the following summer, unless you can keep a regular temperature
of seventy or eighty degrees, and to make in a moderately hot
cellar, at any time, is next to impossible, as it requires air as
well as heat, and any shelter that will protect the casks from the
sun is better than a tight building. Casks that will hold from
three to four barrels are best; there is less surface to evaporate,
and they take up less room than smaller ones. These should be
filled at least three-quarters full — say about the first of June.
Then provide yourself with a brass or copper kettle that will
hold, say fifteen or twenty gallons, and fill it full from each cask;
heat it to boiling, and return it to the cask, and repeat this once
in two weeks for three months, and you will have good vinegar
surely. Good cider that has not been watered in the process of
making will bear one-fourth part water and make good vinegar,
and quicker."

Dr. Hawkes. — The rapid process by which vinegar is made of
whisky and water is by filtering the liquid through hard wood
shavings in a warm room.

Prof. Mapes. — That makes good enough vinegar for white lead
manufacturers, but it has none of the fine aroma of vinegar made
from cider or wine, which all. table vinegar should have. The
sugar refiners sell the sweet water in which they wash their uten-
sils to vinegar makers, and they leach it through beechwood
shavings, which is the best of all wood for the purpose, in a room
kept at 104* Fah., pumping up and running the liquid through
again and again, until it has taken up sufficient oxygen of the air
to make it acid enough to sell for vinegar. Some pump air
through the leach tubs to facilitate the process, and thus finish
it in twelve hours.

Mr. Trimble, from the committee on frauds, made a further
report, treating principally on mock auctions, including those of
trees and plants. •

Mr. Robinson. — As the committee ask instruction, I would
recommend that they visit the auctions to be held in this city
for the next sixty days — such as sales of plants, trees, &c.

Mr. Carpenter. — I think a distinction should be made between

304 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

mock auctions and legitimane sales by auction. Nearly all tlie
tea sold in this city is by auction.

The regular subject of the day, viz., " The Neglected Fruits of
our Countr3^"

CRANBERRY CULTURE IN WESTERN NEW YORK.

Noble Hill, Caton, Steuben county, answers the following ques-
tions about cranberry culture :

" 1st. Are cranberry meadows durable after the vines are firmly
rooted ? I learn from a trustworthy source that they have been
picked from the same meadows for fifty-nine years.

" 2d. What soil is best adapted to the cranberry, and how
shall it be prepared? A low, spongy soil, one that will retain
its moisture throughout the year. The sod, where there is one,
should be pared off to a depth sufiicient to remove all roots of
grass and weeds. Now open shallow trenches from one and a
half or two feet apart, and place the vines in them, covering them
every six or eight inches, where they will take root and thus new
vines be formed.

" 3d. Does the soil need enriching, as in the case of other vege-
tables ? The cranberry vine does not, like some overgrown annual
plants, make heavy drafts upon the soil, but is satisfied to feed
temperately wpon w^ater and decaying vegetable matter in it ;
from this it will be seen that the soil needs no enriching.

" 4th. What constitutes a vine ? This question would probably
be answered differently by different persons; but vines that I
transplant are constituted of a runner, from one to four feet long,
with numerous branches and roots ; this is what I call a vine.

"5th. Can cranberries be successfully transplanted ? For the
last four years I have set more or less vines, every spring, and in
no case have they failed to do well, growing, in some cases, as
far as four feet the first season.

"Finall}^, I believe there are hundreds, not to say thousands,
of farmers throughout the country, who have low, wet lands, that
are, and will continue to be, sources of annoyance to their enter-
prising owners, until they put them to the use for which nature
has fitted them, viz. : cranberry culture."

GRAPES VARIETIES TO GROW UNDER GLASS.

Dr. Geo. Pepper Norris, of Wilmington, Del., sends us the fol-
lowing list of grapes as the most suitable to grow under glass :
" The old Black Hamburg grape stands at the head of the list.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 305

Downing says of it, that its large size and luscious flavor make
it uni\'ersally esteemed. It is especially adapted to grow where
fire heat is not used. It even ripens in the open air in favorable
seasons. It is a very vigorous vine and regular bearer, and freer
from disease than other sorts, and should be in every collection.

" The White Frontignan is another justly esteemed variety,
although not capable of bearing as much hardship as the Ham-
burg, but with a very dry border, will almost always yield an
ample crop, and has the merit of being several weeks earlier than
the Ilambui-g,

" The Black Prince is equally hardy with the Hamburg, with
long, tapering bunclies.

" The Syrian, with enormously large bunches, is a good late
grape, although not so high flavored as the others, and north of
New York, without fire heat, may be caught by frost.

"The White Nice is also large and late, and although not
ranked first in flavor, is a very good variety. The vine is a most
vigorous grower; the fruit, when ripe, amber color, and the pulp
toughish.

" The Muscat of Alexandria, the finest flavored grape grown,
although not so well calculated for the cold house as the others —
frequently matures its crop in favorable seasons — should be but
sparingly planted where fire heat is not used. Is a very good
keeper.

"Among the newer and as yet not thoroughly tested, are the
Muscat Hamburg, a cross between the Muscat of Alexandria and
the Black Hamburg, a black grape of much promise — 'a free
grower, good setter, large berries, well-shouldered bunches,' The
Golden Hamburg — its color is golden white, fair sized bunches,
and a good bearer. The fruit has frequently, during the last year,
been before our Horticultural Societies, and is highly esteemed.
Although much praised, and well calculated for an amateur col-
lection, doubt exists whether it will maintain its position as a
standard variety. Champion Hamburg, Victoria Hamburg, Pope's
Hamburg, Mill Hill Hamburg, and Willmot's Black Hamburg, with
me, are identical with the old Black Hamburg, Buckland's Sweet
Waaler is a new white grape, untested as yet here, but backed by
the strongest English authorities, and well thought of by some of
our grape growers, who are thoroughly competent to judge. Said
to be a good grower, with fair sized bunch, and large berry.
[Am. Lxst.J T

S06 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

" Pretty much the same character will apply to the Bowood
Muscat. My vine, now fruiting for the first time, much resembles
the Muscat of Alexandria, which it may turn out to be, or so
nearly identical for all practical purposes as to render a separate
name useless. The Barbarossa, a new English late grape of more
than ordinary promise, is a very free grower, but will require the
aid of fire heat to start it in order to mature its fruit. It is said
by some to be a shy bearer, and will not do well in too rich a
border. Trentham Black was seea in fruit last autumn for the
first- time; it has a remarkably large plum-shaped berry, with
exquisite dark, bloom, a fine appearirng variety, but said- to be a
poor keeper."

Dr. C. W. Grant, of lona Island, said : The list is a very good
one, but I think the doctor confounds the Syrian and Palestine
grapes. The Syrian never grows the large bunches mentioned,
but those of only five or six pounds weight, the berries being
colored like the Muscat grapes. The Palestine grape is a dingy
amber color, and this variety does sometimes grow very heavy
bunches.

It was stated here last week that the wine of the Lenoir and
Lincoln grapes does not keep well, not having body enough. I
have not found it so, and now have wine from these varieties five
or six years old.

Mr. Henry recommended the cultivation of the Corinth grape,
which make the Zante currants of commerce.

Dr. Grant. — This variety will not answer for out-door culture
in this climate. I have tried it pretty thoroughly, and not found
it hardy.

The subject of " The Neglected Fruits of our Country and
Flowers" was continued for the next meeting. Adjourned.

JOHN W. CHAMBERS, Secretary.

April 7, 18G2.
Mr, Adrian Bergen, of Long Island, in the chair.

AMERICAN GUANO.

A paper was presented by Judge Livingston in relation to
American guano, imported into this city from islands in the
Pacific ocean, who moved that the subject be referred to a com-
mittee to report to a future meeting of the Club.

Mr. Robinson would like to know the object of appointing a
committee. This guano has been before the public for some

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB./,: 307

years, and he lias yet to learn that any advantage has been
gained by the farmer from its use. He had been informed by a
guano dealer that the principal use made of American guano was
to adulterate the Peruvian. He advised that it be referred to
the committee on frauds.

The following gentlemen were appointed the committee : Mr.
Livingston, Mr. Carpenter and Mr. J. G. Bergen.

TURNIP SEED.

The following letter was received from L. E. Reynolds, of
Mendon, Illinois :

" Some three years since I made inquiry of the Institute Farm-
ers' Club in regard to some turnip seed, which I had saved from
turnips which had lain in the ground through the winter. I had
saved some six bushels, and made inquiry if they would grow
turnips, or, as some said, charlock — a noxious weed which infects
some farms at the east. I was advised by the Club not to sow,
or try to sell it, as they thought it not trustworthy. I took
their advice in one pa-rticular — I did not sell it; but I have con-
tinued to sow it ever since, and shall continue to sow as long as I
have any left and it will continue to grow. I think it has been pro-
ved conclusively that turnips will not turn to something else, any
more than wheat will. I raise as good turnips from said seed as
any one else from other seed. The turnips have continued to
self-sow on the same ground for four years, and good turnips
come every year. I have about five bushels left yet. I sent a
bushel to Kansas last year, and my neighbors lay in for a share
yearly."

Solon Robinson. — This is a very important state^nent, as the
opinion which Mr. Reynolds says the Club expressed is the one
most prevalent among farmers.

HOW TO MAKE CIDER VINEGAR.

C. Snekell, of Portage county. Wis., gives the following mode
of making cider into vinegar in a speedy manner.

"To a barrel of cider add one-half barrel of pure rain water,
half a gallon of New Orleans molasses, half a gallon of brewers'
or domestic hop yeast. Shake it well, and place it in your garret
or wood house, near the south side, in as warm a position as
possible, without exposing it to the weather. With a bottle
inserted in the bung-hole, it will ferment in a short time. Shake
t up occasionally. I adopted this mode, and, contrary to my
expectations, in six Aveeks I had as good vinegar as I could wish.

n

08 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Another mode I have known practiced : that is to set np the .
barrel in a warm place, and put another under it, letting the
cider drop into the lower one, and by the time it drops out of
the one into the other it will be good vinegar."

R. G. Pardee. — A large vinegar manufacturer of this city tells
me that the cider made in some years, does not readily take on
the acetic fermentation that is necessary to make vinegar.

Prof. Nash. — There are several stages of fermentation. Even
the sourest apples produces sweet cider in the vinous fermenta-
tion, of which alcohol is the result. This is adulterated by ex-
posure to the air. Then comes acetic fermentation, and vinegar
is the result. If the liquid is too weak, it will soon pass into
the destructive fermentation, and become worthless.

Mr. Carpenter. — I have received the following letter from our
old friend, Mr. John Bruce, who was formerly an active member
of the Club :

Mariposa, February l7, 1862.

"The severity of the present Avinter in cold and rains, is with-
out precedent in the annals of the white men of California.

" All but the mountainous part of the country has been deluged,
bringing desolation and ruin on thousands engaged in agriculture
and its branches, destroying thousands of cattle, horses and mules.

"Our mountain towns in the mining regions have by no means
escaped, but suffered in proportion to their proximity to mountain
streams. To speak from personal knowledge, the Mariposa river
running through this town, is here but two miles from its source,
and for eight months of the year does not exceed two feet in
width. It became so much swollen by the rains of this season
as to attain a breadth of two hundred feet, and all those having
buildings on or near its margin, had them swept away by the
impetuous torrent.

" The first sufferers were my sons, whose store and the one
adjoining were leveled with the earth, one-half being carried down
stream with much valuable property. In consequence of the
heaps of tailings thrown up by Chinamen who annually mine
the bed of the stream in the dry season, the current changed its
course to the opposite side where were situated a number of
cottages with beautiful fruit gardens surrounding them. Here
the torrent commenced as it were to scoop out these gardens,
forming a semicircular bay, &c. Oar dwelling place being the
last, and on much higher ground, the water did not reach within

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB.n'C 809

twelve feet of it. It will easily be perceived that the centre
garden of the half circle sutFered most — the water excavating
the ground from under the house to half its depth, leaving the
front half suspended over the torrent. In all the mining towns,
more or less damage was done in the destruction of mills, and
dams and bridges. But as respects the great agricultural portion
of the State, the plains, where, in my former letter I described
the extensive farm work I saw being done, that portion of the
State was said to be laid eighteen feet under water, ruining
everything. In confirmation of this as a truth I have just been to
see our county sherilf, Mr. Crippen, who returned from San Fran-
cisco during the flood, in a steamer. Mr. Crippen says that at
Stockton he had business at Wells, Fargo & Co.'s office, and was
conveyed to it in a boat. Mr. Crippen further said, he was
credibl}^ informed that the U. S. war steamer Shubrick waiS
cruising on the Sacremento river and twenty miles therefrom over
the plains, saving the people who had taken refuge in trees,
rafts and such other most ready available means, whereby their
lives might be saved.

" The agricultural interests of this State have received a shock
that will take them a long time to recover from.

"The next thing I apprehend to be dreaded is a partial famine.
From the unprecedented long continuance of the rain atone time,
the farmers have thus far been unable to plow and sow, their grain,
which I am told by one of them should now be six inches above
ground, and doubts are entertained that the crops of grain will
not mature in season. Apprehensions of this must have entered
the minds of the people of San Francisco, they having discontinued
the shipment of grain to Europe, which was going on to some
extent. From the observations I have made, I have come to the
conclusion that all attempts to make this an agricultural country
for a long time to come, must prove a failure, and that it is mad-
ness to attempt to compete with countries where cheap labor
exists. Here, in Mariposa, no man can be hired to labor under
three dollars a day, mechanics receive much higher wages. Nor
will these prices abate so long as the mountains contain gold.
The late rains have developed new diggings that will greatly
augment the interest of miners, quadrupling the profits of the
merchants who fail not to raise the price of their goods in pro-
portion to the difficulty of obtaining them from San Francisco.

" I am now writing this' in clear sunshine with the weather so

olO TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

■warm that mj writing table I have fronting the door, which is
wide open. You speak of the many new varieties of the
grape, pear, apple and straAvberry of great merit and decided
improvements, and yon wish this may go on till our very hill
tops are covered with the choisest of fruits.

"I am sorry to say that this part of California cannot avail
itself of such benefits. Although our very hill tops, so far as I
have seen, are throughout' the year covered with evergreen trees
and bushes, and in a month more will be carpeted with the most
beautiful flowers, the soil being rich and presenting no impedi-
ment to cultivation, but unless some new and cheap system of
hydraulics, whereby plants and trees not native to the soil can
be irrigated during the long drouth of summer, till then our
mountains must remain barren of plants other than those native
to its soil.

"My present attempt at horticulture has been greatly facilitated
by being enabled to purchase a great many choice bearing fruit
trees that were swept by the torrent from the gardens of our near
neighbors, and caught some distance below a lot of grape vines.
I have yet no help, for love or money, except occasionally a
Wally Indian, and they will work but a few hours at a time.
But, as my horticultural experiments are only for the benefit of
my own family, a failure to produce much will affect them only.
From the heat I experienced last summer, I thought [ would be
able to raise tropical fruits out of doors, and I planted Sicily
orange seed and choice lemon, which one of my daugters sent
me from New York. But the amount of frost, snow and ice,
an inch in thichness, taught me the impossibility of doing so.

"The oranges and lemons are prospering finely, in boxes in-doors;
but, for ten months of the year, they would be perfectly safe out
of doors. I will most gladly furnish to the Farmers' Club such
rare seeds and bulbs as I can obtain with their qualities and
uses, but will have to defer doing so till fresh seed can be
obtained in the summer or autumn. It was in contemplation by
the Institute to have a cabinet of useful and curious mineral
and vegetable productions, in fact, a cabinet of natural history-
If this idea has not been abandoned, I think I might be enabled to
furnish quite an interesting addition thereto. The famed Yose-
mite falls and mammoth trees I have not yet visited, although
no more than fifteen miles in a bee line from here ; I contemplate
doinp' so the incoming summer, when I hope to be able to obtain ■

. PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. oil

some \aluable knowledge, as well as curiosities, all of which I
will be most happy to present to the American Institute. In
every mining town throughout this State, Wells, Fargo & Co.
have an an agency and forwarding office. Anything of small
bulk can be safely transmitted to you, through them, if you so
desire, of which please let me know on receipt of this.

" JOHN BRUCE."

DESTRUCTIVE WORMS. PROTECTION OF BIRDS.

Dr. A. K, Gardner read the following paper upon the measure
worm :

Among the disagreeable ciixximstances which belong to city
life, and more especially part-ain to New York and its surround-
ing cities, is the nuisance f^-om tree worms. This is so serious
in its character, although limited in duration to no more than a
few weeks in the j^ear, as to have prevented our citizens gener-
ally from enjojnng the shade and solace of trees and shrubs in
their courtyards and gardens. The general taste of the people
would induce them to plant trees along our streets. But the
display of this taste is, if not utterly thwarted, at least very
seriously interfered with, by the necessity of selecting those trees
which are not liable to the annoyance of being infested by
worms.

It is not necessary for me to enlarge upon the humanizing effect
of ornamental trees and shrubbery, or on the increased value of a
home or a city made attractive by its streets and gardens livid
with umbrageous green.

Passing by the more poetical and attractive features of my
subject, I will draw your attention to some views of a utilitarian
character, and endeavor to point out some methods of removing
the only drawback to the enjoyments I have hinted at, and which
your own imagination will not fail to fill up.

For this purpose it will be necessary, first, to give as briefly as
possible the natural history of the insects and worms which most
infest the trees of this locality.

So far as I know, there is no tree which is entirely free from
this species of vermin. The Ailianthus, although generally sup-
posed to be exempt, has, however, for its enemy, as I have repeat-
edly seen, a species of army worm ; but the ravages of these
insects are very limited in extent, rarely destroying a sufficient
amount of foliage to be perceptible to a careless examiner.

ol2 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The principle worm that infests our trees is that which ia so
generally known as the •' measure worm." It is indeed one of
the geometra or span-worms, deriving its name from its method
of locomotion, not crawling like a caterpillar, but measuring its
length with each progressive movement. There are many vari-
eties of this genus, and among them, that most familiarly known
in New England, is the so-called " canker worm." This species
is somewhat smaller than the worm of New York, and I think, is
a longer lived animal, its span of life being protracted into the
month of August, whereas the measure worm of New York is not
to be seen after 1st of July, and generally disappears about the
20th of June. These worms disappear by "spinning yarn" from
the trees to the ground, in which they enter, there undergoing
the chrysalis transformation, to reappear after their change into
the butterfly or miller.

The time occupied by the " canker worm" has long been noted,
and successful efforts have from this knowledge been adopted to
destroy them when in this form. The process ia as follows:
immediately upon their descent they change into the chrysalis,
which lies dormant for a longer or a shorter period, as affected
by the character of the season. But in the warm, thawy days of
early winter or in similar days of early spring, the newly formed
insects emerge from tlie ground, the female as a dark, wingless
grub. She, laboriously, starts upon her pilgrimage to the sum-
mit of the tree, slowly crawling up the trunk, and is met in her
path by the flying male. His duty of fecundation being finished,
he speedily closes his short life, while she continues her path till
she attains the ends of the branches from whence the young
shoots will proceed, and there she deposits in regular rows, some
fifty or more eggs, gluing them so fast to the limb that they can
with difficulty be removed. She finishes her task by covering
them over with a thick, gummy, dark colored crust, impervious
to water. Then she too closes her ephemeral existence. When
the warm spring sun has shed its revivifying rays over the earth
and the trees begin to put on their leafy mantle, the eggs thus
protected from the vicissitudes of the weather, which have been
carefully concealed by their dark covering from the searching
eyes of red-capped woodpeckers, the whistling bluejays, the
sonorous chicka-dee-dee, and other winter birds, begin to be
warmed into new life, and from them appear new worms in sea-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 313

son for the coming leaves, and ready to pursue the round of meta-
morphoses which their lot has made for them.

It may be seen from this plan that by preventing the female
from crawling up the trunk of the tree, the tree thus guarded is
preserved from the worm, and by faithfully carrying out this
watch the race might be entirely killed oif. For this end the
bark of the trunk is smeared with liquid tar or surrounded by
troughs of lead filled with oil, or with a liquid called a "patent
article," used also to fill gas metres to keep them fi-ora freezing
up in winter, which is simply sea water, from which the common
salt has been removed by evaporation. This liquid freezes with
dilHculty and scarcely evaporates in the open air, and thus serves
either as a barrier, or to drown the grub if she persists in follow-
ing out her destiny.

The measure worm differs from the canker worm in one very
important particular. The male and the female of the former,
in the second transformation, are both winged, both fly to the
spot where the eggs are to be deposited, and thus the laborious
tarring and the expensive girdling of trees with metallic troughs
is utterly useless, as experience has shown in this city and in
Brooklyn, where much money has been thus futilely spent.

This fact I discovered after diligently watching this worm for
several seasons, and forwarded numerous specimens of the w^orni
in its various forms in the year 1855, to the late Dr. T. M. Har-
ris, then the distinguished entomologist and librarian of Harvard
University, who made a careful study of this species, before
unknown to him ; classed it under its appropriate genus ; gave it
its special appellation, and it is now enrolled among the hun-
dreds of thousands of recognized and characterized insects as the
Geomelra Jiiveo-sericcaria, or the snowy-white, silky geometra. A
full description of this species, with the date of this scientific
recognition, may be found in Hovey's Magazine of Horticulture,
printed in Boston, for September, 1855. From this work I make
the following condensed descriptive extract,: It shows great
neglect upon the part of the editor of the just published second
edition of Dr. Harris' great Avork, on ^^ Insects injurious to Vegeta-
tion,''^ that no mention of this publication is made therein. One
would have supposed that a journal, to which Dr. H. frequently
contributed articles upon this his favorite branch of study, would
have been carefully examined ; and that this article, in which
Dr. H. himself took especial interest, and which he wrote me he

314 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

should embrace in the article Geometra in the edition which he
expected, but, alas! did not live to edit, would have received
the attention it demands. Such an omission is the more impor-
tant, as the means declared beneficial in the attempts to remove
the geometra are in the case of this species perfectly useless.

It is apparent, from what has already been said, that in order
to exterminate this pestiferous nuisance, some other means must
be adopted than those hitherto employed. In some remarks
which I have elsewhere made upon this subject, some year or two
since, I proposed that a light should be placed, during the few
evenings when these millers are about, before a tarred screen ;
that being attracted, and flying towards the light, they might
dash against and be permanently attached thereto. Some imper-
fect experiments have led me to think that these lights, particu-
larly in the cities, where there is so much illumination, would be
of doubtful efficacy in attra,cting these millers, whose natural
traits are stronger than their curiosity.

But two methods remain which would be effectual. The first
would be a bounty, which would be paid by the city council most
cheerfully, if proper representations were made to them, for the
worms themselves, and also for the millers. A dime or two a
pint would be a great temptation to idle boys to collect them;
and thus an immense number would be destroyed, and in a very
few years the city would be completely freed from them. If it
is of sufficient importance for the city to offer a bounty for the
destruction of the superfluous dogs of the city, stimulated by an
imaginary idea of their getting rabid during the summer, surely
a slight reward for the destruction of a nuisance, upon which so
much depends, will be easily granted by our intelligent city
officials, whose duty it is to contribute in every way to the hap-
piness of the citizens.

A second way is to promote their destruction by birds. In the
country, where these sweet warblers are numerous, there is no
such utter destruction effected as here, where but few birds are
seen. The common council would here again gladly pass strin-
gent laws for the protection of birds, severely punishing anybody
who shall shoot, throw stones, or otherwise molest the birds, or
disturb the eggs and nests in the parks, streets, and public or
private grounds of the city. Next they should be petitioned to
increase the number of birds on the island, by placing in all our
parks suitable boxes for the breeding of these birds ; should

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 315

increase their numbers by purchasing such hardy, small birds, as
wrens, chipbirds, etc., which will live through the winter in our
city, and placing them in all our city squares and parks. Next
they should be requested to import during the winter, prepara-
tory in the spring, some of the small birds of Europe, which live
on Avorras — such as the finches and linnets — to be placed in our
parks for the double purpose of destroying the vermin, and for
gladdening the ears of the people by their cheerful caroling.
More especially would I recommend the importation of the spar-
row, a bird of little beauty, resembling, but a little larger, our
chipbird, and of much more sociability. Those who have traveled
in France and England must have observed the flights of these
little birds, which fill the court-yards of the hotels, picking chance
crumbs and seeds from the ground, and which, when startled by
the motion of the stage-coaches or diligence, fly to their nests
under the eaves, or in boxes, placed. like dove-cots upon the sides
of the buildings. These birds are very prolific — among the mx)st
so of all tame birds, having several nests of five or six young
during each season. One little wren has been known to destroy
several hundred worms per day. Surely, then, no one can doubt
the possibility of a plan for ridding the city of a most annoying
evil, and substituting in their stead, at a trifling cost, these little
twitterers — I cannot call them songster^ — whose very presence,
as they hop along the ground, or fly, laden with green, brown or
yellow worms, and hairy caterpillars, will be a constant source
of pleasure.

The sparrow is so prolific a breeder as to quite overrun portions
of England, and rewards are offered for their destruction in many
places. The cost of a thousand would be but trifling, and if dis-
tributed around our parks, and suitable measures be taken to pre-
vent their destruction by boys and cats, the city would soon be
full of them, and the worm nuisance entirely dissipated. These
plans both seem to be not only possible, but eminently desirable.
Should they commend themselves to your understanding, I trust
that you will adopt some proper method of carrying them into
immediate execution.

Dr. Trimble. — 1 doubt whether the birds would learn to live
amid the smoke and dust of the city, even if the boys would
leave them alone. I have made the subject of insects a study
for some years past. I have great hopes that the measure- worm
is soon to be destroyed, for I find that the ichneumon fly

316 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

destro3"s them, and that there is also a parasite which lays its
figgs in their bodies. I do not think we sluiU have one-twentieth
part of these worms the present year that we had the last.

Mr. P. G-. Bergen differed from some of the views expressed by
Dr. Gardner. The sparrows I do not think are worm-eaters, aa
they belong to the hard billed class, which are seed-eaters.
Only soft billed birds are worm-eaters. In some parts of Europe
a price was put upon their heads, and that tens of thousands
were every j'ear destroyed.

Rev. Mr. Weaver, of Fordham. — I would not recommend im»
porting sparrows, because they are a nuisance in England, where,
although they are so plenty, they do not prevent great ravages of
worais, which are as bad there as here. I would, however, pro-
tect our native birds in town and country.

Wm. S. Carpenter. — At the Shaker settlement at Watervliet, the
discharge of a gun is not allowed, and the birds have learned to
know that they are there protected, and flock in from the sur-
rounding country, and there worms and other noxious insects
are scarce. We ought to have stringent laws to protect birds.

Peter G. Bergen. — We have such laws, but we cannot enforce
them. We have got to teach the people the value of birds, and
why they should not be destroyed.

Dr. Trimble. — Although there are several real insect eaters
among the family of American birds, I don't think there is any
one but the wren that can be made useful in cities. Swallows
are real flj^-catchers. Sparrows are seed birds.

Mr. Carpenter moved tliat a vote of thanks be presented to .
Dr. Gardner, and that a copy of the paper be requested for
publication in the Transactions, which was adopted.

Dr. Gardner thanked the Club for the manner in which his
paper had been received. I know the sparrows feed on seeds,
but when seeds are hard to be procured, they will feed their
young on small worms, and consume a great quantity.

The subject of the day was called up — " The Neglected Fruit
of our Country, and Flowers."

Mr. A. S. Fuller, of* Brooklyn. — " It is the province of the
pomologist to cultivate the various fruits that have been, and are
still being collected, from all parts of the world. But it is his
duty, in payment for those he now enjoys, to bestow a portion
of his time and skill in improving the indigenous fruits of his
own country. But, judging from the indifference with which the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 317

American people regard their native fruits, I cannot believe that
they know their intrinsic value, and that we have in them the
material for laying the foundation upon which we might, if we
^vould, build a structure that would be an honor as well as a
lasting benefit to the country. We not only have an abundant
number of species, but many of these species contain innumerable
varieties.

"In valuable qualities they are equal to those possessed by
any other country. Besides, the fact of their being natives
render them less liable to the endemic diseases to which all
exotic fruits are more or less subjected while being acclimated.
The value of some of our indigenous fruits was long ago appre-
ciated in Europe, and by the application of scientific culture
they have become superior to all others of the same class found
in any other country.

" To show what results we may reasonably expect by persever-
ance in the cultivation of any particular species, I need only
point to the American strawberry.

"The plant was taken to Europe in 1G29, and although the
European species had long been known and extensively culti-
vated, yet they were of little value ; and it was soon found that
the American species were not only superior to the European,
but Avere susceptible of being readily improved, and that too by
the application of only ordinary skill in their culture; and to-
day nine-tenths of all the varieties of this fruit, in cultivation,
have been produced by foreign skill, and in a foreign country,
but from the American species ; and although we should feel
grateful to those who have taken the trouble to improve our native
fruits for us, yet it may be questioned whether these imported
varieties would not have been much better adapted to our climate,
if not superior in flavor and productiveness, if the so-called im-
provement had been made in their native country. , This should
be borne in mind, for if, while we are making an improvement
in any one quality, a retrogade movement is going on in another,
it becomes wortliy of inquiry how can this be avoided, and is it
possible to improve any particular quality as desired without a
corresponding loss in another ?

"This improvement of a few of the qualities, with a corres-
ponding loss of others, has evidently been the case Avith most, if
not^all the fine strawberries of Europe. They have increased
their size and productiveness, and in some instances their sac-

318 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

charine qualities ; but they have lost much of their hardy char-
acter, beside tliat most highly-prized of jDerfumes, the peculiar
fragrance of the American strawberry;

*' Some of the imported varieties of strawberries could hardly
be recognized by their fragrance as belonging to the strawberry
family; and it may be questioned if this peculiar characteristic
would have been lost, or the hardihood of the plant so much in-
jured, if the improvement had been made at home. I, for one,
think not, for the new varieties that have been produced here
show that such is not so likely to be the result.

" The strawberry may be taken as a fair sample of what may
be expected of other native fruits, if an equal amount of skill is
applied to their cultivation.

" Among our indigenous fruits, which seem to recommend them-
selves to our special care, are the following: The Plum, Cherry,
Thorn Apple, Persimmon, Custard-Apple, Grape, Cranberry,
Whortleberry, Gooseberry, Blackberry, Strawberry, and Rasp-
berry. America has of each of these from two to twenty differ-
ent species, and why cannot we with this number equal, if not
excel in number and excellence, all other countries. There are
still many other fruits worthy of attention, but the few I have
mentioned must suffice for the present.

" The many specjes of nuts, such as the chestnut, hickory nut,
black walnut, butternut, beechnut, &c., should also, receive the
attention that their many excellent qualities deserve.

" But it may be thought to be asking too much of individuals
to undertake these improvements, depending upon their success
for remuneration, and doubtless it would be ; but have we not
a government which is annually expending thousands of dollars
in sending out itinerant nurserymen or botanists to Europe, to
purchase seeds, to be distributed through the country at an ex-
pense to the public of more than one hundred times their value.

" Why cannot a portion of this money, so foolishly expended,
be paid to some enterprising collector, to travel through our
own country and gather seeds, grafts, cuttings, and plants of our
truly valuable indigenous fruits ?

" Let a scientific cultivator, or a number of them, receive these
plants and seeds, and propagate and distribute them as fast as
the}^ prove worth}' of cultivation.

•' Ten thousand dollars a year, judiciously expended in this
way, I am confident would be of more benefit to the country and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE :fARMERS' CLUB. 319

the world at large than all the Agricultural Department at
Washington has ever done, or ever will do, for the country, if
conducted in its present inefficient manner.

"Almost all other countries have, through their governments,
given aid to such an enterprise as I have indicated ; and have
they not been richly rewarded, and do they not at the present
time cultivate many choice fruits and flowers that have been col-
lected or produced by persons in the employ of foreign govern-
ments ? How many of such can we show at the present time that
can be truly said were introduced or produced through the aid
and patronage of our government ?

"We ask for the name of any tree, shrub, fruit, plant, vine,
or flower which has been, is, or promises to be of the least prac-
tical value, or is worthy of cultivation, that has been introduced
to the American people through the Agricultural Bureau of the
Patent Oftice Department.

"But let us hope for better things in the future; and, while
we petition government for aid, let us not wait for it, but engage
earnestly in the cause of progression and improvement. For
this subject is one that cannot be overrated, and I confidently
believe that, if a proportionate share of labor is given to the
culture of native fruits as well as foreign, there will be an
accumulation of choice varieties, the product of Avhich will be
highly remunerative.

" I hope that every one who takes the least pride in the pro-
ductions of his country, and possesses the means of experiment,
will not neglect the indigenous fruits of America."

Mr. Lawton thought it useless to look to government aid.
Whenever a nurseryman or a florist discovers an improved fruit
or flower, they get their reward from immediate sales. He
alluded to Hpvey's seedling strawberry, and had no doubt that
gentleman had m^de a large sum from this valuable strawberry.

Mr. Pardee. — I agree with all Mr. Fuller says, and hope at a
future meeting we shall discuss the apricot, nectarine and plum.

Dr. Holt on. — If a plan could be adopted by our government
whereby a dozen practical horticulturists could be employed in
different parts of our country, with a sum appropriated to test
every new tree, fruit or flower before being introduced into the
community, a vast sum would be annually saved by our people.
Let a part of our Central Park be appropriated for this purpose.

320 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

CULTIVATION OF FLOWERS.

Mr. R. G. Pardee. — I want to impress upon those who design to
plant flowers this spring the importance of frequently stirring
the soil. It is of more importance than manure. I have already-
dug up and stirred my ground twice, and I should like to do it
five or six times before planting the seed. The rule should be,
keep stirring and pulvering the soil. Do not wait till you
are ready to plant your delicate seeds, and then stir the soil only
once. That is less than a farmer would do for corn. How much
more important that the earth should be well prepared for flowers.
Then be careful to get the best seed. Although there are forty
kinds of asters, there are but two or three worth buying. Ditto
of pinks. Then there are many things sold by seedsmen for
flo^^ers, that are not worthy of a place in any collection. The
people need a great deal of information upon the subject of
flower cultivation, and it should be talked about at every meet-
ing at this season.

"The neglected fruits of our country and flowers" were con-
tinued as the subjects for the next meeting. Adjourned.

JOHN W. CHAMBERS, Secretary.

April 14, 1862.
Mr. Hawkhurst in the chair.

A NEW FRUIT BOX.

Mr. H. G. Allen presented a new^ fruit box, made by the Oneida
community, Oneida county, N. Y. These boxes are very neat and
strong, in the form of a fig drum, without a cover. They are sold
at the rate of ten dollars per thousand.

Mr. Robinson suggested that it would be an improvement if
they could be made with a flaring top, so that the. empty boxes
might be packed one within the other.

A NEW SUBSOILER.

S. B. Pierce, of Homer, Cortland county, N. Y., exhibited a very
beautifully finished plow, with a subsoil attachment, contrived
so as to set it by turning a screw at any depth from one to ten
inches below the bottom of the turning plow. This he stated
Avould require about one-fourth more power than it does to draw
the plow without the attachment, but will add more than a fourth
to the value of the work, and probably induce some farmers to
subsoil their plowing who would not do it with a separate plow,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FAEMERS' CLUB, 321

and man and team. It can be attached to any plow at a cost
of four dollars.

Prof. Nash. — I have no doubt it will be better than the Michi-
gan plow, though that is good ; but it is not always beneficial
to turn the earth from below the first furrow upon the surface.
This' plow will loosen up the bottom of the furrow that has been
tramped by the ox and compressed by the plow, and I have no
doubt will prove worth more than the cost of doing the work.
Wherever the top soil is inverted much below the usual de^jth of
plowing, it injures the first crop materially.

Mr. Carpenter. — From the opportunity I have had in examining
this attachment, I consider it a great improvement, as it saves
the labor of running a separate subsoiler. I like to turn the sub-
soil up for corn if I have plenty of manure to apply to the top.

Solon Robinsen. — This plan of attaching a subsoiler to a com-
mon plow is good, but not a new idea. I gave this Club an
account of its practical working some ten years ago. It was
first applied by a common blacksmith at Norfolk, Va., and answered
an excellent purpose in all kinds of soil. It was not patented
then ; it is now ; and now that farmers will have the opportunity
of buying the patent, it is probable they will adopt the improve-
ment.

PEAS GROW UNDER SNOW.

Dr. Trimble, of NeAv Jersey, exhibited growing peas, planted
March 15, to show how they will grow notwithstanding the cold
and snow storms since they were planted.

BUG-EATEN PEAS.

The doctor has experimented with them, and finds that only
one in six or seven planted will grow. He does not believe in
using such seed.

THE VALUE OF HAY FED ON THE FARM.

0. Crawford, of Globe Village, Mass., inquires the value of
hay (good upland) as a fertilizer, to be fed out on a New Eng-
land farm, rather than to sell the hay and buy patent manure.

Prof. Nash said that Mr. Brooks, of Massachusetts, proved by a
series of experiments, that it was better to feed hay on the farm
than to sell it at twenty dollars a ton. As a general thing,
farmers who feed their hay on the farm are more thrifty than
those who sell hay to buy manure.

Mr. Carpenter. — I shall dispute the gentleman upon this

[Am. Inst.] U

322 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

point. I don't know a more thrifty set of farmers than those of
Long Island, Avho have practiced selling hay all their lives, and
buying manure, which they haul from the city, or get by water
nearer their farm.s. There arc many men upon Long Island who
have grown rich selling hay. They keep very few cattle, and
consider this a very good system of farming, and I am inclined
to agree with them. If you look at the hay market in the
adjoining square, you will find it full of wagons loaded with hay,
which I think answers the question.

Mr, Robinson. — I don't believe any system of farming can be
as prosperous without feeding stock upon the farm as with. I
don't believe any farmer can afford to haul such coarse manure
as they do from this city, and haul hay from their farms ten or
fifteen miles distant.

Dr. Trimble. — I believe there is no greater error in farming
than hauling hay to market and buying manure to haul back
again. There is no county in the United States where farmers
are more prosperous than in Chester county, Pennsylvania — there
the farmers won't sell hay. They grow hay, and feed it at home,
and fatten bullocks to sell. This system enables them to graze
large numbers in summer which is profitable. Many farmers in
England have proved the value of feeding hay at home. The
practice of selling hay is sure to exhaust thg farm.

Prof Nash. — Farmers near towns may possibly afford to haul
manure, they cannot do it thirty miles, nor can they afford to
sell hay at any price and buy manure. I am sure from personal
observation, that Long Island farmers could pursue a more pro-
fitable course than selling hay.

Mr. Pardee. — I have noticed on Long Island, where farmers
appear to be thriving in spite of bad management, if they grow
rich by selling hay, it is at a slow pace. I am well satisfied
that some of those who make $500 a year by that, would make
$2,000 just as easily by a different course of farming. I am
sure that no farmer can afford to haul hay ten miles, and haul
manure back again.

Wm. S. Carpenter. — I believe it is a good practice to sell hay,
and if some farmers followed the practice of feeding all at home,
they would run out. Cows often eat their value in hay in one
winter, and a ton of hay will not make more than three dollars
worth of manure.

Mr. Pardee. — Let us see about this. Suppose hay is worth

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 323

|20 a ton, then it may not answer to feed cows which afford no
milk. But hay a little way from the city could not generally be
sold for over $10 a ton. It will take one and a half tons to
winter a cow. Cows which at the beginning of winter are worth
not over $15, are worth certainly $30 in the spring. That pays
for the hay, and leaves the manure and what milk they have
given in 'winter as profit. I believe under such circumstances
farmers can afford to feed hay.

Prof. Nash. — It may be bad policy for Long Island farmers in
the vicinity of New York, to feed hay instead of hauling it to
the city, but I should not have much faith mthe statement if all
of them said so. I know one rnan, on the south side of Long
Island, who, by a small outlay of labor in gathering sea-weed,
grows 125 bushels of strawberries per acre. He has neighbors
who sell hay and buy manure, and grow corn with more labor
than it requires to grow his strawberries, and their land never
produces half the value of his strawberry crop.

FOUR SORTS OF APPLES.

Mr, Robinson. — Notwithstanding all that has been published
in relation to the best varieties of apples for cultivation, a gen-
tleman, residing between Seneca and Cayuga lakes, asks "what
are the best four varieties of apples for that region?"

Mr. Pardee answered this question by recommending as first
in order the Rhode Island Greening ; second, the Baldwin ;
third, the Tompkins County King ; fourth, the Roxbury Rus-
set. I resided between these two lakes for many years, and
know that the above are the most suitable kinds.

HOEING WHEAT.

A. Br Travis, Oakland county, Mich., says he has tried experi-
ments for several years in the way of hoeing wheat in the spring
between the rows which are drilled in, and it has proved very
profitable. It does not hurt the growing wheat to be partially
covered with fresh earth. The heads upon the rows had grown
much larger — the kernels larger. The wheat weighed more per
bushel, and made more flour to a given weight of grain, than the
same wheat upon unhoed land. The hoeing is most profitable
upon clayey or heavy soils, and Mr. T. thinks that upon such
land, hoeing will increase the yield 25 to 30 per cent. Finding
hoeing by hand slow work, he invented a machine by which it

324 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

could be done by horse power. Several of bis neighbors bear
testimony to Mr. Travis' statements.

The subject of the day was then taken up, viz. : " The neglected
fruits of our country."

Mr. Pardee. — I intend to say a few ^vords to-day on the whortle-
berry. I think this fruit might be improved by cultivation, as
many other wild fruits have been, for instance strawberries,
raspberries and blackberries. All fruits and flowers improve by
cultivation. Some attempts have been made to cultivate the
whortleberry, which have not proved satisfactory ; perhaps it is
because the selections have not been judiciously made. There
is a great difference in the wild sorts — partly owing to the soil
they grow upon. With the same perservance as has been applied
to the strawberry, cultivators may be equally successful.

Mr. Carpenter thought it would be necessary to resort to
seedlings to get improved whortleberries, as all of our choicest
fruits are seedlings ; for instance, the New Rochelle blackberry,
the Sickel pear. To improve fruits we must improve the tree.'

Dr. Trimble. — I really do not think the whortleberry is
neglected. If you go into the country during the time this fruit
is ripe, }'ou will find hundreds of women and children gathering
them. I think they grow in the right place ; we certainly cannot
afford to use our gardens to cultivate this fruit.

Prof. Renwick. — It appears to me to be the disgrace of the
horticulturists of America, that our native fruits and flowers are
either neglected altogether, or are returned to us from foreign
countries, after having received the improvement by cultivation,
which we have been too careless to bestow upon them ourselves.
An overreaching disposition in early life, and public employments
at a more advanced age, have afforded me occasional opportuni-
ties of seeing our fruits in their savage state, and less frequently
of plucking our flowers while in their short-lived beauty. The
wild arborescant fruit which I have met in greatest abundance
is the plum, and in the western part of our own State, ere the
plough and the mattock had destroyed them, the varieties w^ere
numerous, and the trees far from scarce. That some of them
were capable of being improved to the highest degree of excel-
lence, we have several instances, which I believe to be well
authenticated. The most interesting of these is the Gage plum.
According to the traditions of the American family into which
Thomas Lord Gage (the general of revolutionary celebrity)-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 325

married, he being then a major, on returning from America, after
the conquest of Canada, took with him the j^oung trees from
which all the fruit of that name in England were derived. This
is a far more probable history than that of their having been
introduced from France, as they made their appearance in the
English nurseries soon after Gage's return. If France possesses
a fruit of cognate character, may it not have been introduced
from the country of the fur nations where the Gage appears to
be indigenous, by the way of Canada.

Of all the Gages, the finest I have ever eaten was one in the
garden of my most esteemed friend, the late John DeGraff, of
Schenectady. He called it by the name of Schuyler, and informed
me that he had obtained the grafts from a tree growing in^the gar-
den of General Schuyler at Albany, which tree, it was asserted,
•had been brought by that general from the Susquehanna river.
There is also a dwarf variety of plum indigenous on the sand
hills of our coast from Plum Island, in Long Island south, south-
wards. This has a high and agreeable flavor, and might, beyond
doubt, be made a fine fruit by cultivation. Wild cherries of
many varieties are also found in our woods. As to flowers : we
owe the American Rliododendron of our gardens to plants
brought back from Europe, and, after admiring it clothing vast
slopes of the Catskill's, with its splendid flowers, I met the first
cultivated plant I had ever seen or heard of in Glasgow, in 1815.
The Kalina, of even greater beauty, has not entered our gardens;
the Girardea, the very pride of our woods in June, is not known
in our catalogues, and the Commissioners of the Central Park
have carefully extirpated the beautiful Azaleas Avhich filled every
moist dingle of their domain.

Dr. Trimble. — Amongst the really valuable fruits that are
neglected in our country, the apricot stands first. This superb
fruit, as it is found in France, Italy, Persia, or California, is
hardly inferior to anything that grows, either in quality or
beauty. Should apricots such as we have seen, be placed in a
show^ window in Broadway, most of the people passing would
stop to admire their beauty — many w^ould go in to ask what they
were, and those who would buy them would have to pay several
dollars a dozen. Yet, this fruit will grow in orchards, on good
sized trees— and these trees will bear abundantly almost every •
year — are not liable to the diseases that make the peach so
short-lived, nor the knots that 30 disfigure the plum cr cherry.

326 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The fruit bud will bear a greater degree of cold than Iho
peach, without being disorganized, yet who eats an apricot in
this country except as a most costly luxury ?

The plum tree is as hardy as the apple or pear, and by no
means a short-lived tree. It grows well almost over our Avholo
country, and although it bears better, and the fruit is superior
in flavor in some sections than in others, plums might be as
plenty as blackberries everywhere, if properly taken care of; yet
how few ever taste the really good varieties, or know from
experience that the Green Gage once so common, really sur-
passes in excellence, all the fruits that grow. Nearly all the
plums now found in our markets are brought in barrels, and are
the small common kinds — austere as green persimmons and only
fit for preserving.

Who eats a Mectarine ? Who knows anything about a necta--
rine ?

It might as well be placed amongst the lost arts, as to any
real knowledge the people have of this most beautiful of all the
fruits.

Yet the tree that bears the nectarine is just as hardy and can
be grown wherever the peach will flourish. And why are these
fruits so neglected ? It is the curculio — and what is the curculio 1
A mere speck of an insect — a little beetle — that it takes four to
weigh a single grain, or 25,000 to make a pound. And it is this
same insect that is so fearfully threatening the apples, and,
though in a less degree, all the other fruits.

Other insects, as the Hessian fly, the grain aphis, the army
worm or the grass hopper, threaten us with famine at times, and
some seasons do immense injury, but suddenly disappear, only
to return after long intervals. They are managed and controlled
by a wonderful provision in the insect world, by which they are
kept within their due limits — none are permitted to preponde-
rate for any length of time at the expense of others.

This curculio, or plum weevil, as it is sometimes called, is not
subject to the laws regulating the above named classes, and in-
creases, and will increase just in proportion to the food supplied
it by multiplying the number of fruit trees.

The nursery busines has sbecome an important one in our coun-
try— thousands upon thousands of acres are covered with young
fruit trees. Catalogues are published containing interminable
lists, and all good. Elaborate instructions are given when and

' PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 327

how to plant, and we are constantly told in all the agricultural
papers, especially those patronized by, or under the control of
the nurserymen, of the wonderful profits of fruit growing, but
scarcely anything is ever published of any practical value rela-
tive to these insect enemies. One writer will tell us that fumi-
gations will scatter them — another says, syringe your trees with
mixtures containing whale oil soap, and another tells us to plant
our trees so that they shall lean over water. We could mention
such nostrums by the dozen.

Could the insect enemies of the fruits and fruit trees of our
country be effectually checked, all the people could enjoy these
luxuries at very moderate prices compared with the present,
even if no more trees should be planted for years,

Mr. Robinson. — A good remedy for curculio is to plant your
orchard in a lot Avhere swine can be inclosed, so as to eat the
falling fruit. And do not say that we cannot grow plums ; good
ones, too,, not the poor, sour things generally sold in the New
York market.

Mr. Carpenter. — I think we have enough of neglected fruits
without going into the woods for the whortleberry. The straw-
berry, raspberry and blackberry are very much neglected ; our
farmers in general do not cultivate these fruits.

"The neglected fruits of our country" were continued as the
regular subject for the next meeting.

Mr. John G. Bergen distributed grafts of the celebrated Ber-
e:en pear. Adjourned.

JOHN W. CHAMBERS, Sec'y.

April 21, 1862.
Mr. Wm. LaAvton, of New Rochelle, in the chair.

PROSPECTS OF FRUIT.

Mr. Wm. S. Carpenter stated that he had been making a tour
through the region northeast of this city, and finds a remarkably
fair promise of all kinds of fruit. Apple trees, that bore a large
crop last year, appear to be very full of buds this year ; the
very warm weather of the past week has brought every thing
very forward. Apples are not so much injured by frost as some
varieties of pears.

COVERING STRAWBERRY PLANTS.

Mr. Carpenter. — I desire, to-day, to make a few remarks on the
subject of covering strawberry plants. I have been in the

528 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

habit of covering mine with hay, straw, sedge, moss, and have
been successful with ray crops, but thick mulching is apt to
destroy the plants. Forest leaves I consider better than straw
or hay, but the leaves must be kept in place with brush. One
of my neighbors, who grew a large crop of turnips, mulched his
strawberries with the tops. These plants seemed in excellent
order this spring.

John G. Bergen, of Long Island, said that he could not under-
stand why the green turnip leaves s]]ould have proved better
than anyining else, unless it is upon the same principle that we
observe in several other cases where green plants are the best
manure. This is the case particularly with the grape-vine, its
own green boughs being the best of all fertilizers.

As to covering strawberries, he said, I observed the other day
in Mr. Fuller's garden, that those left uncovered were in as good
condition as those covered, except not quite so forward. The
•winter before the last many strawberry plants were winter killed,
and I observed that mostly, where they were covered. This
spring I observe that strawberries look very well, and equally so,
as a general thing, whether covered or not.

The Chairman said that, in all his experience, he had not been
able to see enough advantage to pay for covering.

Dr. Trimble.— -I protect my strawberry plants by putting well-
rotted horse stable manure around the plants in the fall, and
raking it off in the spring.

Wm. S. Carpenter. — I should like to have it all raked off, as it
"is the worst sort of manure for strawberries.

INQUIRY CONCERNING INDIGENOUS AND UNCULTIVATED PLANTS.

Mr. L. Masquerier. — I would inquire of the Club what notice
has been taken of the following indigenous plants of our country:

Has any experiments been made upon the rosin weed, or com-
pass plant (Siphinra) that grows so abundantly on the prairies
of the west, as to whether its copious resinous juice can be a
useful auxilliary to that of the pine tree, and be to it as the
sugar cane is to the maple tree ?

Is the water or Indian rice of Minnesota cultivated, and why
may it not become as abundant a crop in the lake region of the
north as the common rice plant is in the salt meadows of the
south ?

Is there any attempt made to improve, by cultivation, the

PEOCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 329

"prairie grass which seems to be a species of rice, but growing
npon dry soil. It produces a very lean grain, but cultivation
might improve it as other grains and the potato have been. It
grows twice as large and tall from between the turned over sods
where the prairie is first broken, as it does on that which is
Tintouched. This grass constitutes what may be called the tall
grass region of Illinois, Iowa and Missouri. But upon the upper
half of the Platte, Kansas and Arkansas rivers, far superior
grasses for grazing set in, called the Buffalo, Bunch, and Gramma
grasses. They turn to hay in dry weather and thus feed the
Buffalo and other granivorous animals both summer and winter.

Is there any attempts to introduce them here? They might,
where there is a longer continuance of moisture, grow a larger
grain and, perhaps, become cereals, as well as grazing grasses.
■ There is a twining plant called the pea vine, bearing a finely
.flavored pea, growing in all the woods bordering the prairies,
but I have heard of no attempt in its cultivation. The stock
are very fond of grazing upon the whole plant. It grows on a
stiff stem, 'several feet high, and then branches into several
twiners that will take hold of adjoining ones, and thus be held
from falling to the ground, favoring the convenience of its culti-
vation.

But, in 1849, I saw a plant, growing in the prairie, ten miles
south of Booneville, Cooper county, Missouri, which has not, so
far as I can learn, been noticed in any botanical work. It does
not resemble the grass family, but must be classed in some of
the orders of the exogenous herbs. It rises on a stem one or
two feet high, and ramifies gradually, terminating in many little
straight twigs. In the forks of each pair of twigs, a single
round grain grows about double the size of a grain of wheat,
having a taste somewhat like wheat, but is more brittle. Its
leaves are roundish, about the size of a white locust leaf. It
seems to grow mostly in the rather moist than in the dryer part
of the prairie. Cattle seem to prefer it to the grain of the
prairie grass. This might, perhaps, be a cereal, worth, if culti-
vated more than the buckwheat crop, which, according to the
census reports, may now amount to $12,000,000 per year.

I have written, for several years past, to several friends there,
to send me some of the seed and a specimen plant, but they say
the prairies are now so eaten out by cattle, and turned into
fields, that they cannot find it. But, I think, it might be found

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further out, between the Pacinc railroad and Osage river. I
wished to have presented the seed to some of the Farmer's Club
to experiment upon; and I now make this statement with the
hope that some cultivator, having time and means, will hunt it
out, and prevent it becoming extinct.

But as clothing is second only in importance to food, fibre-
yielding plants should demand our discovery and cultivation. as
well as the cereal. Why is there nothing done with the wild
flax that Fremont observes, in his journal, growing on the
Kansas river ? While we have forty or fifty leading plants, that
furnish food, we have only the two, flax and hemp, that furnish
lint with cotton for clothing. Tlie economy of society is fortified
by having a variety of plants growing in different seasons, that
may supply the place of those that may fail through drouth.
There are whole orders of plants remarkable for the toughness
of their fibres. There are the asclepiadacece for instance, con-
taining, according to Lindley, one hundred and forty-one genera,
and nine hundred and ten species, some yielding the strongest
fibres known, and yet we are not using one of them. I have
obseved growing around New York, at least three species, all
having an equally strong centicle fibre or lint, and yet no use is
made of them. Mr. SchaefFer, in the Agricultural report of the
Patent office, considers the lint of the milk-weed equal to flax or
hemp, or at least good for paper pulp. Is there any one who
can experiment upon it further, by sowing it thicker, and see
what cultivation Avill do for it? It being perceived it could be
cultivated easily and cheaply, and should the oil and gum of the
seed answer as well as that of flax, why Avould it not be a good
auxilliary ? It is rumored that a farmer in Wisconsin improved
the strength of the fibre of the pod by cultivation.

PRESERVING TENDER EVERGREENS.

Mr. Carpenter stated that he preserves tender evergreens by
loosening the roots upon one side and turning the tree down, and
covering it with earth.

TOBACCO CULTIVATION.

Solon Robinson read a letter of inquiry upon the subject of
tobacco cultivation, which elicited a spirited discussion upon the
question of growing a plant that has done so much injury to the
world. Mr. Robinson contended that the cultivation was a curse
rather than a benefit to Connecticut.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 331

Mr. Roberts said lie was opposed to tobacco in all cases, but
must contond that the farms of Connecticut had been improved
by the cultivation of this plant ; the farmers had better houses ;
their fences and outbuildings were improved by the money
derived from its cultivation.

Solon Robinson. — Yes, I acknowledge all that, but contend
that the same degree of industry applied to some other crops
would produce better results in every respect. I consider every-
thing connected with tobacco bad.

Judge Livingston. — I grow a little of it in my garden every
year, for use in my hot-house, and consider it worth cultivation
for that purpose.

Dr. Trimble. — Perhaps it may be a useful and profitable crop,
but I hope this Club won't give any information about its culti-
vation.

CHEAP STRAWBERRY BASKETS.

There were three specimens of strawberry boxes or baskets
before the Club to-day, part of which have been noticed before,
to wit : that of Mr. Mellish, of Walpole, N. H., shaped like a
flower-pot, $2 a gross for two-quart size, and $1.75 for one-quart,
is very handsome, but not very strong. Those of the " Oneida
Community," at Oneida, N. Y., made of a hoop nailed together
and bottom pegged in, like the " Boston boxes," without lids, at
$10 a thousand, are strong, neat-looking, and very cheap. Tho
new one exhibited to-day, is made by D. Chadeayne, Corfu,
Genesee county, N. Y., of two thin strips of wood laid crosswise,
and bent together and held in place by a rim of tin. They are
cut so as to be tapering, and have holes in the sides and lids.
The price of quart sizes is $3 a hundred ; without lids, $2.50. At
this price, they cannot compete A/ith the other two, nor with
Cook's patent.

FRUITFUL TREES.

Mr. Carpenter stated that he had pear trees, eight years old,
that produced $24 worth of pears per tree ; and apple trees, five
years old, that produced $.3.50 worth of apples each. He said
all good fruit finds ready sale, at large prices, in this city, and it
is not unusual to get a barrel of pears from a single tree.

WHAT A WOMAN CAN DO.

I have for many years, for the most part, cultivated a flower-
garden, thinking it much better for my constitution, which is not

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strong, to exercise in the sweet, free, open air, rather than be
confined within the walls of the house. I determined to try my
skill in planting. So, after having the ground plowed and fer-
tilized, I planted 1,5 GO hills of corn, covering nearly one-fourth
of an acre of land, which, with but little help, I hoed myself,
three times. My corn grew very w^ell, but was somewdiat eaten
by the worms, and badly blown down by a severe wnnd, after it

■got so heavy that it could not get up again, which damaged it
considerably. When it was fit to harvest, I invited some of my
friends to an afternoon's husking, such as I have heard tell of in
the country, though I never attended one before, having been
brought up in a city. The afternoon came, as beautiful as ever
an autumn afternoon need be, and about twenty-five neighbors
spent the time as pleasantly as the day. We husked twenty-
eight bushels of ears of good sound corn, not measuring that
which was not perfectly good. I not only found the exercise

: healthful, but a real enjoyment, and hope that many others

.may be benefited as I have been, and add as much to the crops
of the country the next season. Ladies, try and see how much
better you can do, and how much better you will be.

The regular subject of the day, " The Neglected Fruits of our
Country," was called up.

Dr. Trimble spoke in favor of cultivating the apricot. The
apricot was one of the first fruits to blossom. The branch I hold

.in my hand is nearly in blossom, but I doubt if the tree from
which I took the branch will bear one apricot; a little insect,
called the curculio, will destroy the whole. If you want to raise
this fruit, you must keep hogs, who wall eat the fruit that has
fallen. In gardens, the fruit should be gathered daily and
destroyed. I find no better way than jarring the insect oft' upon
a sheet and killing it.

Rev. Mr. Weaver said that for a long time the curculio had been
60 troublesome in the vicinity of Burlington, Vt., that no plums
could be grown. A year ago last fall, there was a great change,
and all the trees w^ere full. Wlio can tell why ?

Dr. Trimble. — I attribute it to a great drouth the previous
year, having experienced the same result one year on the Hudson.
At such a time, the larvas perish in the dry soil, by the heat and
want of moisture. I have proved this by experiment, by putting
the eggs in a pot of earth in a room where it kept dry.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 333

Dr. Trimble then proceeded to discuss the subject of the " Cur-
ciilio," as follows, viz. :

Few persons probably know the meaning of the word " curcu-
Ho," and when told that it is the name of a little insect, less
than the common house-fly, many will not care to read further —
for most people consider all insects too small to be worth much
consideration. But should we be told that during the nest
month there will come some great wild animal that will tear from
the orchards and gardens, in all the United States, (except only
in California and Oregon,) all the young apricots, nectarines,
plums and the greater portion of the apples, we would read all
about it, and be much excited. There would be another " great
arising," as there was a year ago, when the government was
threatened with destruction. Now although no such animal will
appear, all this mischief will be done. Millions of dollars worth
will be destroyed — all of us will be on short allowance, and
many will have no fruit at all.

This is an evil that has now existed for many years, and is con-
stantly increasing, and still but little has been done or written
to guard these valuable crops from the threatened destruction. J

Most people who have made careful observations for a series of
years, believe that we may only expect a full crop every other
year, and that even years, are the fruit years. Two years ago,
1860, we certainly had an unusual supply of nearly all kinds, and
many supposed the curculio had disappeared. Not so ; it com-
menced operations as usual, and probably as much fruit suffered
that year as any other ; but with so much to begin Avith, there
w^as generally an abundance left: there was even part of a crop
of plums on some trees.

In many apple orchards the ground was thickly strewn with
punctured fruit, but still there was plenty left. The cherries
and peaches, as is usual when the crops of plums and apples are
abundant, suffered but little. The apricot being the first fruit
large enough for the attacks of this insect, will always suffer, and
requires the utmost vigilance to save it any year. The nectarine
though not so early, is a special favorite from its smooth and
tender skin ; it also is seldom saved, except when under glass.
. The writer of this paper has had a long war with the curcu-
lio. He has battled with him through fifteen campaigns, and,
except the three first, when he relied upon the w^eapons of quack-
ery, has always conquered. He has used the various w^ashes,

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and fumigations of horrible odors, has built fortifications of cot-
ton and tar, and troughs filled with oil round the bodies of the
trees, and placed whole loads of offensive manures under
favorite fruits, and on one occasion bored holes in the bodies of
trees and plugged in charges of sulphur. Even at this time he
occasionally jarred the trees over sheets, as directed in some of
the books, and killed large numbers of the enemy, but subsequent
experience i^roved that this last was not efi"ectually done; the
consequence was, no apricots, no nectarines, no plums, and but
few apples, except little knarly things.

But since those three years, the jarring process was systemati-
cally resorted to and has proved a perfect remedy. The fruit
crops since have never failed ; even the ajDricot and nectarine
trees never losing any portions of their crops from this cause,
and frequently overloaded.

The black knot, that disfigures the plum orchards in so many
parts of the country, and finally destroy so many trees, is also
caused by the curculio.

The rot, that carries off in a few days so many kinds of plums
just before they ripen, and when we think the crop secure, is
caused by the same enemy.

If the curculio passed a part of its life, as some other insects
do, exposed to the attacks of the ichneumon, some one of these
parasite flies might come to our rescue. But its larvfB are so
deeply imbeded in the fruit, that the smaller varieties of these
flies could not reach them with their ovipositors, and the young
curculio is too small to answer as a nidus for the larger ichneu-
mons. And then, too, they penetrate into the earth to the depth
of several inches, as soon as they have come to their growth
and leave the fruit. As the ichneumon is not known to use the
bodies of the imago, or mature insects of any kind, as a deposit
for its eggs, it is not likely to choose the curculio. Still, as
there has been a notice lately published by some gentleman in
Canada, that he has found parasite insects in the larvas of the
curculio, I will not venture to say that it is impossible ; and if
it should prove true, let all the people rejoice. There was a
time when an insect pest threatened the entire destruction of the
wheat crop in America, and in the midst of the most fearful
alarm, a little ichneumon fly took charge of the matter and
settled it effectually. If this curculio question c(5uld be settled
in the same way, the whole people of America might partake

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 335

freely of all the varieties of our glorious fruits, at an expense
merely nominal compared with the present. The total destruc-
tion of this little insect would add more to the comfort, the
health, and the happiness of the whole people of our country
than has been brought about by any one cause since the extinc-
tion of the Hessian fly.

In France, parts of Italy, in Persia and Independent Tartary,
they have apricots as we have peaches in our Middle States. In
the more mountainous parts of these countries, they flourish best ;
in this (K)untry the cultivation of this delicious fruit has not
been understood. We have supposed it could only be grown
under glass, or as a wall fruit, although it will flourish high up
in mountain regions, and the less early the spring the better.

In some parts of Europe, plum trees line every road, and the
fruit is so abundant that they can send dried plums or prunes to
us so cheap, that the beautiful boxes they are packed in are
worth nearly the cost. In those countries they have no curculio.
"We have the same kinds of fruit trees, as favorable a climate, and
Boil as good, but a large portion of our population, in a majority
of seasons, have but little fruit of any kind, and but few ever see
an apricot. Now the question arises : What can be done 1 We
may hope for the discovery of some cheap and effectual remedy.
We may hope also for some cure for consumption or cancer, and
we have no right to suppose that we shall always hope in vain;
but we are obliged to say that such cures are not now known.
We do not wish to discourage others from experimenting with
the various remedies so boldly recommended, but merely to say
that our experience has been so unfavorable, that we have no
confidence in any of them.

Suppose you discover a fumigation so disagreeable that it
would drive the curculio from your trees ; it would not kill
them, and back they would come as soon as the smoke had cleared
away. And the idea of keeping up that kind of war for six
weeks is absurd. About the same may be said of the various
washes that are to be thrown into the trees by hand engines or
syringes. Tar upon the bodies of your trees would prevent them
creeping up for a day or two until it became glazed, but they
are already in the trees, and seldom creep either down or up.
And they can fly, and pass from one orchard to another. No.
The curculio attacks our fruits w^ith but one object — to perpetu-
ate its race. The young fruit is its proper nidus, and if you

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drive it from one tree it will find another. Each female cur-
culio has several hundred eggs to dispose of, and if she can, will
take as many hundred young plums for their portions ; and I
think I see her laughing at you at the idea of disagreeable odors
stopping her in the performance of that duty.

The curculio is a hard, black, rough beetle. A handful of
them, wdien at rest, with their legs and proboscis folded under
them, might be mistaken for a handful of hemp-seeds. Like
other beetles, their wings, when not in use, are covered by a case
or shell; the proboscis is long in proportion to their size, and is
the instrument with which they puncture the fruit, and is not, as
some suppose, an ovipositor.

Persons familiar with the curculio seldom see them fly, though
it is supposed that they pass from tree to tree, or from orchard
•to orchard, upon the wing. Sometimes, when jarred from the
tree, they will open their wings, and instead of falling, Avill come
down at an angle, and light on some distant part of the sheet, or
on your person, or sometimes even fly off to another tree. They
seldom use their wings in passing from one part of the tree to
another. In cool weather they walk about deliberately, but in
the middle of hot days they are in a greater hurry. In cold wet
weather they are perfectly quiet, and are concealed under por-
tions of bark, or in the crevices of old wounds or knots in the
body or large branches of plum-trees. Like other insects, in
their last or winged state, the object of life is to arrange for the
continuation of their race. In their larva or grub condition,
they were nearly all stomach, and eating occupied their entire
time ; now, they have no stomach of any account, and they
scarcely eat at all ; consequently, they soon become exhausted,
and towards the last are but mere shells.

The mark upon the fruit made by the curculio is crescent-
shaped, (and from that circumstance she is sometimes called the
Turk,) and looks like the indentation of the little finger-nail of
an infant, and the reason it is so is, that the insect, while making
it, remains standing on the fruit, in the same position, only
moving its head. When this crescent-shaped incision is com-
pleted, she introduces her proboscis its full length, from the
centre of the crescent towards where she stands, and immedi-
ately under the skin of the fruit, and at the bottom of this punc-
ture enlarges so as to be suitable for the reception of the egg.
This done, she turns and deposits the destined egg at -the^

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS CLUB. 661

entrance of this tnbe ; then turning again, with her proboscis
pushes it gently to its proper phice. What remains now is to
secure the precious deposit from any danger from exposure to the
air or weather, as would be likely to occur by the growth of the
fruit opening the wounded part. This she does by carefully
sealing up the entire incision with a kind of wax, of which she
seems always to have the requisite supply. We have often, when
watching this operation, and especially at that part of it when
her proboscis is buried up to her very head, been struck with her
resemblance to the woodcock when his beak is entirely imbedded
in the ground.

The curculio seldom deposits more than one egg in a fruit.
Whether the dupli^cates or triplets that are sometimes found in
our fruits belong to the same mother, is hard to say, but we sup-
pose not. If a curculio, however, is confined in a bottle with but •
one plum, she will puncture it all over, so that it will sometimes
have the appearance of a nutmeg-grater. The time occupied in
each operation is eight or ten minutes, and is repeated some
twenty times each day for several weeks.

In the early part of the season, while the weather is cool, the
curculio egg will not hatch in less than ten days or two weeks,
and any time during that period it may be taken out with the
point of a penknife, or what is better, a rather blunt toothpick,
or it may be broken by pressing with the thumb-nail over the
spot where it is deposiied, and if your ear is a right good one,
you may even hear the snap. In either way you may save the
fruit; the wound soon grows over, scarcely leaving a blemish.
It is well to know this, especially if you have young trees bear-
ing for the first time, and you are anxious to test the fruit. It
can even be done repeatedly ; but remember, it must he done
before the hatching, and in very warm weather this takes place
very quickly, even as early as four or five days, and the moment
the young insect is free, it makes its way rapidly towards
the heart of the fruit, leaving a pathway at first so fine as hardly
to be visible. If you see gum about the orifice of the wound, it
is too late, the mischief has been done.

Fruit punctured by this insect continues to grow even after
the larva has penetrated to the centre, but finally its vitality, if
it is stone fruit, becomes destroyed, and it falls to the ground,
though not till the young insect is almost full grown.

With the cherry, the fruit matures almost as soon as the grub
[Am. Inst. J V i

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of the curculio, and those avIio eat the first that appear to be
ripe, will often encounter this worm, and it is needless to give
all such people any description of its personal appearance.

Here the cedar birds, the robins, and even the crows, come in
to our advantage — let tliem alone. The boys will be getting out
their guns, and sending for powder and shot — stop them ; these
are only premature cherries, generally red on one side only, and
in that side a worm; let the birds have them — your crop of
cherries will be better the next year.

You will find plump, fat, full-grown specimens of the larva of
the curculio in your apricots, in your earlier apples, in the early
York peaches, and in some of your plums. Apples in June and
July will be falling by millions : some are only blights — an effort
of nature to guard against overbearing; but most of them will
be Avormy — the embryo curculio of the next year. Pears and
quinces suffer less than the above, but you may often see the
crescent mark on these also ; and should the more favorite fruits
fail, these varieties could and would be used to prolong the race.
We have seen the crescent mark even on berries in the woods,
and when all the fruits fail, or before any of them are ready, she
wall deposit her eggs in the bark of the plum-tree itself.

However strange and unnatural it may appear, that the same
insect should resort to a nidus so different as a fruit and the
bark of a tree, still the testimony is too strong to the fact, to
leave it longer in doubt.

We must not only have a season without any fruit, but the
trees also must be destroyed before w^e can hope to be rid of
curculio for want of a nidus in which to deposit her egg. But
it may be asked, what is the proof of all this ?

We have seen the curculio making the crescent mark upon the
tree. We have watched day after day, and seen the growth of
the knot round that mark. We have seen the gum exude from
the orifice. We have taken the full grown larva from these
knots and could distinguish no difference between them and the
larva taken from the plums — have placed them in vessels filled
with earth and kept them separate from others, and watched
them during the progress of transformation.

They go the same distance under the ground, make the same
kind of a cell in the earth, assume the pupa condition in pre-
cisely the same way, and come out the perfect insect in the same
time. You may examine the two either with or without a glass,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS CLUB. OO'J

and there is no apparent difference. Mix them together, and you
cannot separate them. Thus, we think it may be considered as
fully proved, that the same insect that punctures our fruit causes
the black knot on the plum tree also. It seems both strange and
unnatural, but the insect world is full of wonders.

We have stated that the n f, sometimes so destructive to the.
plum crop, is caused also b}^ the curculio. Some persons will
dispute this proposition, and tell you that it is the Aveather only.
We admit that the weather has much to do with it. A crop of
plums will he destroyed much sooner in hot wet weather (what is
called dogday weather) than Avhen the atmosphere is dry and
pure. We have seen beautiful crops of fruit almost ready for the
marliet, and when the OAvner Avas congratulating himself that he
was out of danger, disappear in a foAv days; and this is more
often the case Avith those kinds that grow in clusters and Avhere
many touch each other. The experienced fruit grower Avill watch
his trees closely at this season ; Avhere he sees a plum decayed,
or only a speck upon it, he Avill carefully punch it off Avith a pole
— and if his experience is like ours, he Avill find, that in the cen-
tre of Avhere the decay commenced, Avill be the crescent mark of
the curculio. If that plum remains upon the tree, all the others
that touch it, either directly or indirectly, Avill rot also sooner
or later, according to the AA^eather. Where the eggs of the cur-
culio are deposited in plums so nearly groAAm that the pits are
becoming hard, they seldom hatch. We suppose the acid of the
fruit at this time destroys the egg, and it in turn becomes a
poison to the fruit. This is our theory, and whether true or not,
the destruction of our plum crops is sometimes so great from this
cause, as to call for the closest attention. Watch your trees
ervery day, take off every specked plum at once ; some even now
Avill be found to have the grubs of the curculio in them; be care-
ful to destroy them.

Much has been Avritten about the curculio in this country, but
most of it A^ery crudely. We have met Avith some of those Avriters
that have confessed never to have seen one. Had this insect
existed in Europe, it Avould, from its great importance, have been
thoroughly investigated by entomologists ; but here Ave have had
but few to devote their lives to this science, and our indigeuuous
insects are but little known. My own iuA^estigations until recently
Avere confined entirely to the means of preventing its ravages

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upon fruit ; lately we have paid more attention to its habits of
life; have not only sumraered, but wintered with it.

The larva (or worm we find in fruit) when full grown, eats its
way through the skin, and immediately penetrates the ground.
If the earth is sandy or loose, it will sometimes go to the depth
•of eight inches, and seldom less tljan three or four; there it pre-
pares for itself a kind of cell, something similar to the cell of
the mud-wasp, and this is its cocoon ; here it undergoes its meta-
morphosis. In a few weeks the white maggot, Avithout wings or
legs,' will be a black beetle, ready either to run or fly. If you
have them in confinement, you may feed them with leaves or any
of the fruits, and you may see that they eat, though very spar-
ingly. You will generally find them perfectly quiet, but touch
them, and instantly they are full of life. This will be the case
all winter if you keep them in a warm situation ; but out of doors
in our climate, they are perfectly dormant. Where the vast
army of curculios pass the winter, it is hard to say positively,
but we have found them in the crevices of the rough bark of
trees, in walls, and even under the shingles on the roofs of
buildings.

We have often supplied the young curculio with fruits, but
have never known them puncture them, or make the crescent
mark ; hence, we infer, that the opinion of some that we have
two generations the same year, is a mistake.

Those who cultivate the apricot know that it blossoms several
days before the other fruit trees, and the. young fruit grows very
rapidly from the start, but we have never seen this fruit so early
but wdiat the curculio was ready to pounce upon it as soon as it
was large enough to bear the puncture ; consequently, the cur-
culio is ready to deposit eggs many days before any of the fruits
except the apricot are large enough for her, and during this pe-
riod of waiting we have seen her, or some other beetle so near
like her that our experienced eye could detect no difference,
m-.iking the crescent mark on the bark of the twigs of the plum
tree themselves, and that led to the subsequent investigations
that proved to our satisfaction that the curculio causes the black
knot also.

In some places but little inconvenience is suffered from the
curculio. When w^e have had the opportunity of investigating,
we have found 'the soil a stiff clay, and conclude tliat the larva
w^as not able to penetrate deep enou h to be secure either ir^m

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 341

droiiglit or some other contingency during its period of trans-
formation.

Some people plant plum trees over water : some pave the
ground under them, and say that by these means they secure
crops. If so, it can only be explained by insect instinct, which
in this case teaches the parent that her little ones will not be
safe in falling in such places, and she therefore chooses other
trees. Our own understanding is so at fault in all attempts to
comprehend the wonders of the instinct of insects, that we will
not dispute this proposition, and to prevent others from sneering
at what may seem so absurd, we will relate an instance of the
instinct of another beetle still more wonderful.

The cockchaffer is a favorite food of rooks and crows ; now if
the chaffer sees one of these enemies approaching, and has not
time to escape, instead of simulating death, as the curculio does,
by drawing up her limbs and trunk, and seeming like a little
round bud, he will sprawl his legs out at full length, and look
for all the world just like a dead ciiaffer ought to, knowing, from
instinct, that rooks will not eat bugs unless they kill them them-
selves.

In visiting the New York markets, we see fruits from almost
every part of our country. The apricots, peaches, plums, and
early apples from Georgia, the Carolinas, and Virginia, have been
marked by the curculio. Later in the season, when the same
fruits come down from the north, the same unmistakable mark
is visible. Every j^ear a large portion of the apples are what
the country people call gnarly — have been tampered with by
the curculio ; many of them stung in several places, and so mis-
shapen in consequence, that but a mere section of the apple will
have a natural appearance.

One summer in our experience we escaped the curculio. We
found here and there a few at first, but not one in a hundred of
ordinary seasons, and we had a crop of fruit without trouble,.
and that was to us a new sensation — as if we should experience
one season's exemption from mosquitoes in Newark.

In our efforts to trace this strange circumstance to its cause,
we remembered that the year before there had been ?io rain in
thai immediate neiskhorhood. We had been often threatened with
showers, but they had always failed us, and the ground had be-
come as dry and parched as the Libyan deserts. Since then we
have gone through a series of experiments, and have found that

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the curculio will not live through its period of transformation
in earth that is kept perfectly dry. The drought of the pre-
ceding season was undoubtedly the cause of our exemption from
the pest that year. Had we used some of the curculio remedies
so much in vogue, they might have had the credit. And all the
credit they all have is due to some such adventitious circum-
stance.

Our whole fruit crops seem, in some near future, to be in a
great measure, at the mercy of this insect. And the question
arises, what can be done ?

As we approach our plans of managing this question, we wish
to take both a scientific and common-sense view of the whole
matter. If we could destroy all the young insects, (the worms
or larvte,) found in the fruits for one year, we should not expect
to find the full grown curculio tlie next season, and this is fos-
siklc. This young insect, or grub, in search of food, penetrates
to the centre of the fruit, and by feeding there destroys its
vitality so that it falls from the tree prematurely, and in almost
every instance some days before that worm has finished feeding upon
it. During that interval it can be destroyed with less trouble
and more certainty than at any other time. Suppose that every
fruit grower in the State of New Jersey should have all his fruit
bearing trees of every kind within such enclosures that he could
turn his stock of hogs amongst them during the time this stung
fruit was falling — let those hogs be fed sparingly — (we do not
mean that they should be kept squealing hungry, but sharp,) so
that they would be constantly in search of this falling fruit — that
fruit would certainly be destroyed, and with it that mighty crop
of embryo curculios. This may be said to be impracticable, and
that is certainly true in the present want of knowledge, but still
it is a supposable case. If this were done, the curculio question
would be settled for the time. But if impracticable in a State or
county, it may be done in a neighborhood — it certainly can be
done by an individual. Where your trees are so situated that
your hogs cannot run at the proper time, as in j^our garden, then
let the falling fruit be gathered by hand, every day, and fed to
them or burned. Some suppose the poultry is valuable to de-
stroy the curculio. Poultry is certainly destructive to many
kinds of insects, but there is scarcely any period in the life of
this insect that it is within the reach of your fowl — they cer-
tainly will not eat this green, worthless fruit because there is a

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS* CLUB. 343

little worm in the centre of it — however dainty the morsel would
be. The interval of their exposure, between passing from the
fruit and entering the ground, is too short to allow much chance
of being discovered. The same remark will apply to birds also.

In this battle for the security of our threatened fruit crops,
our great advantage, lies in the power of destroying this enemy
in its helpless or immature state — it is " the ounce of prevention
worth a pound of cure."

Thousands of little fruits just formed fall soon after the blos-
soms ; these are only blights, and are of no consequence — but in
ten days or two weeks later, in every neighborhood where the
curculio exists, you will find the crescent mark beginning to show
itself. That mark is the sign manual of the curculio, and tells
the whole story. Just under the skin in the centre of that cres-
cent, an egg has been carefully placed and secured ; in a few
days that egg will become a grub, at first too small to be visible
to the naked eye — soon it will be found at the centre of that
fruit feeding constantly and growing rapidly, and in a little
while longer that fruit will fall to the ground, and there it
will lay a day or two, or sometimes longer before that grub leaves
it. This is your time and be sure to use it. Let no fruit having
this crescent mark upon it, whether apricot, plum, apple, cherry,
peach or pear, remain upon the ground — ^gather them all, every
day, in your garden — see that your friends, the hogs, have the
chance in your orchards, where to pick them up by hand would
be too irksome— and if trees of indifferent fruits are so situated
that they cannot be attended to, cut them down, and the sooner
now the better. A single apple tree of no value, in some remote
field, may be a nursery for thousands of these curculio enemies
every year — let no such trees stand after the middle of June,
prevail upon your neighbors to act with you — have if possible, a
neighborhood combination of fruit-growers, that will study the
theory and put in practice the remedies, for this and other insect
enemies of fruit and fruit trees.

It may be asked what will all this advice avail for the coming
crops ? Nothing ; it is given to enable you to save future and
especially feeble crops.

From the backwardness of the present season, and the immense
number of blossoms, we shall probably have plenty of the more
common fruits without much trouble ; another year there may
be but few blossoms, and if the curculio is permitted to multiply

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as it will have the chance, when fruit is so abundant, it will then
leave us nothing.

Some saj those instructions may be all very good, but we have
nectarine, apricot and plum trees from which we never get any
fruit — what can we do to save the crop the present year ? Can
it be saved ? We answer yes, without any hesitation ; but you
must follow our directions, and pay no attention whatever to any
of the curculio remedies. The late David Thomas, of Western
New York, one of the most intelligent and experienced nursery-
men and fruit growers in our country, originated the plan of
trapping the curculio by spreading canvass under the trees and
then jarring them. This little insect, like most others, has an
instinct of self-preservation. In this case, when an enemy
approaches, she gathers her little limbs under her and falls to
the ground, remaining quietly concealed amongst the grass as
long as the danger lasts. A sudden tap on the tree alarms her.
Such a sudden jar upon your plum tree in the early part of June,
will also loosen the blighted blossom buds that are now dry and
black — they and the curculio will fall oft' together, and look much
alike as only to be distinguished by close inspection. Whether
the instinct of the animal teaches her to fall in such company so
as more effectually to escape detection, is a problem in metaphysics
we shall not now stop to determine ; but Mr. Thomas took
advantage of it to secure his fruit crops, and invented a simple
apparatus to enable him to do it. EUwanger and Barry, the
great nurserymen of Rochester, use the same means and nothing
else ; the writer of this depended upon it for a dozen years in
succession, and with uniform success ; having large orchards not
only in plums, but apricots and nectarines also, uniformly loaded
with perfect fruit, every year, while his neighbors could raise
none of either. To spread a sheet or piece of canvas under a
large number of trees as often as it would be necessary in the
curculio season, would be very troublesome, especially in windy
weather; to simplify this operation, bind sticks or poles to two
sidesof your sheet, and it is easy to imagine how much more easily
you can spread it out smoothly, and that it would then lie still
in spite of the wind. Now, to enable you to use such a piece of
canvas under a tree, cut one of these rolls in the middle and
slit the canvas from that point to the centre, then by taking one
of these short rods on each side of the tree, you make this cut
portion straddle the tree, and then your trap is ready — lying

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 345

smoothly on the ground, and, if large enough, equally under all
the branches.

If the trees in your orchard are young, a sheet six or eight
feet square will answer ; full grown plum or apricot trees will
require one, ten or twelve feet. The canvasafixed, the next
thing is to get your enemy upon it; this is done not by shaking
the tree, hut jarri7ig it suddenly. If it is small, the palm of the
hand answers the purpose, three or four taps are enough ; large
trees require a mallet, it would soon become painful to the hand.
Remember, however, that the tree must not be struck directly
with a mallet, you would cause a bruise that would be a serious
injury. Saw ofi" a stout branch, leaving a stump one or two
inches long, and if you will pare off the edges of this stump so
as to present a convex surface, it will bear the blows of the mal-
let longer; and, by careful management, you make it last the
whole season.

The beginner, in the pursuit of the curculio, will often over-
look them as they lay on the sheet. The little thing folds itself
up so closely and so quiet as to be readily mistaken for the dried
buds that are falling from the trees at this time; but in a few
days the eye becomes experienced, and the instinct that teaches
them to escape observation by being so still, soon ceases to avail
them.

The next thing is the crushing process, between the thumb
and the finger. Like other beetles, the curculio is hard and
crisp, and requires some force to mash it.

Some people have a conscience about the killing of insects —
we have. We would not kill a spider nor an humble bee ;
neither of them would do us any harm if let alone, and we know
they are useful.

The fruits are not only luxuries, but have become a part of
the necessaries of life; the curculio would take them all with-
out any hesitation, if she wanted them. Man was created with
dominion, and we think, in this case, is justified in pronouncing
against her ; and whenever we get a curculio fairly between the
thumb and the finger, we carry out this decision.

By observations carried on through a series of years, it has
been found that the curculio commences upon the apricot about
the middle of May, and a week or ten days later on the plum
and nectarine.

346 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

If you have delermined to secure your fruit it will be well to
begin before it is large enough to be injured, for the insect is
lying in wait for it, and can frequently be taken before any mis-
chief has been done. We have seen a promising crop entirely
destroyed in a few days.

The length of time necessary to carry on this war will vary,
but will require more or less attention almost till the time of
ripening. If you attack them vigorously from the first, you may
have them so much diminished in number in two or three weeks,
that tlie labor afterwards will not be so irksome ; and, if your
trees shall be so plentiful set with fruit as to be benefited by
thinning out, you may, if you choose, permit the few that remain
to have a chance to perform the duty they were created for —
prevent the trees from overbearing. There will be some risk in
this, however, as the curculio and you are not governed by the
same motives. She does not estimate the value of fruit by what
money it will bring in the market as you do, and, therefore, you
must be cautious about trusting it wholly to her management.

During wet days, and some cold windy days, the curculios are
inactive, but when the pleasant weather comes, and especially
the very hot days in May and June, how soon they make up for
lost time. All insect life is active in proportion to the heat of
the weather, and we have sometimes thought, when the safety of
a hundred bushels of apricots depended upon the labor of a few
hours, when the thermometor stood at 120 in the sunshi)ie, that
nothing else on earth could be so invigorated by heat as the cur-
culio.

The business of securing fruit from the curculio is a laborious
one, but how in this world can we secure anything else as good
without labor ?

If you have large orchards of apricots or plums, when the soil
and climate suit these fruits, the prices they will bring you will
justify the expense of protecting them.

In neighborhoods where the curculios has undisputed posses-
sion, as in most parts of this State, the number that can be
taken by this jarring process, in the early part of the season,
will sometimes be almost incredible, but you Avill soon find the
numbers to disappear.

Those who have no knowledge of entomology will be likely to
mistake this little insect for many others, especially the smaller
beetles. The worm we find in chestnuts becomes a flying insect

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 347

tlie next season, much like the curculio. Some have said that
the pea-bug is the same as the curculio, and they certainly look
very much alike, but any one who will try them by the crushing
process between the thumb and finger, will know that they belong
to different classes of insects.

If you have determined to save your fruit from the curculio,
watch your trees often. If you have some promising fruits in
your garden, run out witli your small sheet before breakfast, and
give your trees a tap; if you find any then, go again before you
attend to business; run out before dinner and before tea. As
your beautiful fruits grow and promise such luxuries in the
autumn, you will become more and more interested, until, like
Scott's Blinkhoolie, in the Abbott, you will come to think no life
so pleasant as that passed among the pears, the peaches, and the
plums of your fruit garden. There is nothing so beautiful to
adorn your dinner table, after the substantial part has been dis-
posed of, as the fruits taken from your own garden ; and if you
have more than you want for your own use, what is there to com-
pare with the fruits of your own raising to give away ?

Mr. Carpenter. — If you want to raise good fruit, you must wash
the tree and prune it, and you will produce fruit that will pay.
I do not cultivate the apricot, nectarine or plum, because I
know I should get no fruit. The pear will pay better tlian
either of those mentioned.

THE BERGEN PEAR.

John G. Bergen presented grafts of this pear for distribution,
which is considered as one of the best grown on Long Island,
coming a little later than the Bartlett, and being almost equal to
that in good quality.

A box of plants received from the Patent office was then dis-
tributed, consisting of choice evergreens, flowering shrubs and
plants, the Tea plant, Spanish chesnuts. Osier willow, &c.

On motion, the Hay crop was decided to be the subject for dis-
cussion at the next meeting. Adjourned.

JOHN W. CHAMBERS, Sec'y.

April 28, 1862.
Mr. Wml Lawton, of New Rochelle, in the chair.

A BARREN GRAPE VINE.

Mr. Lester, of this city, asks for information in relation to a
grape vine. " I have a small grape vine in my yard which bios-

348 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

soms full eveiy year, but no fruit ever set, the blossoms are very
fragrant for several days, then they wither and drop off; can the
Club suggest a remedy?"

Prof. Mapes. — The remedy would be soluble phosphates and
potash. Ground is often rich enough, and perhaps too rich, but
laclis some essential ingredient to produce fruit, which may be
supplied by some mineral substance.

CONDIMENTS FOR STOCK.

A gentleman in Brooklyn asks the value of condiments for
cattle.

Mr. Solon Robinson. — The experiments by Mr. Law have al-
ready been published. It was not food, and it had been tho-
roughly proved to be of no benefit to healthy stock, therefore he
objected to the cheat of calling it food. If sold as medicine,
those who desired to give it to sick animals could buy it for that
purpose. Sold as food, it is a cheat, and of no advantage what-
ever.

Prof. Mapes. — I think that declaration is a little too strong;
the subject has not yet been finally settled ; some find advantages
from its use, while others condemn it. I used a barrel of " Thor-
ley's food for cattle" without a particle of benefit, but perhaps it
was because my cattle did not need any condiments; for others
have used it, we are assured, to great advantage. It is true of
cattle, as it is of land, that they sometimes do not appropriate all
the food they consume. Grain is often voided whole; or cattle
may, as they often do, eat grain without thriving, and then some
condiment may be beneficial. We know very well that oats and
carrots, fed in equal portions to a horse, serve a better purpose
as food than oats alone ; yet analysis would show that oats were
far more valuable than carrots. The truth is, they act as a con-
diment, and enable the horse to assimilate all the food in the oats
and hay. We know that cooked food for some animals is more
valuable than uncooked, because it enables the animal to extract
more of the starch and sugar. So with carrots and oats; for it
has often been proved that a horse fed six quarts of oats and six
quarts of carrots would do as much work and keep in as good
order, as when fed with twelve quarts of oats. Yet analysis
would seem to prove this result impossible. It is barely possible
that some condiments mixed with food may have the same efiect
as mixing the carrots, by assisting the digestion of the animals.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 349

I do not think we should condemn every condiment tliat is
brouglit before us. We all know that cattle raisers use Condition
powders.

R. G. Pardee. — That is the case with the human family. Some
have such powers of digestion that they can assimilate any food
however coarse. Others seem to require condiments. It is a
question of some importance to know how far it would be benefi-
cial to use condiments in cattle food. In the use of carrots, some
who have used them almost as the sole food of animals for a time
have decided that they were not valuable. They have mistaken
their use. They should not be relied upon as food entirely, but
as condiments, as we use fruit to aid in the digestion of other
articles. How many people are injured by badly-cooked food,
instead of by the food itself. We want our food so prepared that
the stomach can assimilate it without taking an inordinate quan-
tity. It is the same with cattle food.

Prof. Mapes. — Many animals take condiments, or medicine
when they require it, and perhaps something of the kind may be
artificially prepared and given to advantage. We see cats resort
to a plant, that has thus acquired its name of catnip. Dogs at
times eat grass. Horses swallow earth, and swine eat old rotten
wood.

R. G. Pardee. — Still, I think it bad policy for any owner of
cattle to rely upon any condiments to save food. It is alwaj'S
better to feed cattle upon healthy food and try to keep them
healthy. Castor oil is a very good family medicine, but it won't
do to rely upon it, though some families who use it, never need a
physician, nor other medicine.

The Chairman thought we should look into the subject of con-
diments. All animals require care in their keeping, they should
be taken care of especially during stormy weather. For himself
he was opposed to the use of condiments in every shape.

Mr. Pardee. — I do not consider that condiments mean medicine,
but the proper admixture of food.

HOW TO MAKE VINEGAR.

A letter was read from T. B. Miller, Clayton, Indiana, which
give some information on this subject. We extract the following :

"Pull out the glass bottles from the bung-hole of your vinegar
barrels, keep out all such trash as brown paper, rye mush, wheat
bran, hop or brewers' yeast, and I will tell you how we (i. e. my
wife) make vinegar, and this comes from an experience of over

350 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

twenty years, so simple tliat all can have it, without money an
without price.

" Fill nearly full any vessel, jug, crock, pan, tub, or barrel,
with pure rain or soft water, sweeten it with any kind of mo-
lasses, (the quantity is not material,) set it in a moderately warm
place, or in the sun, cover with sieve, gauze, or net, to keep out
flies and gnats. In due process of time it will be vinegar, when
it must be put into a suitable vessel and stopped close. To con-
vert cider into vinegar — if made from sweet apples, it is only
necessary to set the barrel in a warm place and knock out the
bung; if from sour, stir in a little molasses, and when sour
enough bung up tight. Vinegar barrels should be well painted,
as they are liable to be eaten by worms.

" It will be propcsr to state that it is the action of the atmos-
phere, which in time converts the sweetened water into vinegar,
hence the greater the surface of water exposed to its influence
the sooner it will sour. There is a thick scum rises on the top
of the vinegar when making, wdnch is the ' mother,' and should
not be thrown away."

PAPER FROM STRAW..

Prof. Mapes called the attention of the Club to a subject of
great importance, viz : the manufacture of paper from straw. It
is of interest to farmers to knov/ what improvements are making
in the process of converting straw into paper. The southern
states were formerly a great source of supply of rags, and that
being cut off has stimulated invention to find a substitute, and it
is likely to be entirely successful with straw. The difficulty
heretofore has been in bleaching. Now, by the use of soda, in a
closed cylinder, with steam, the straw pulp is rendered quite
white, and soft as that made from rags. This will "make a de-
mand for straw, and make grain-growing more profitable. It
will be much better for us to use home-grown straw for the many
millions of pounds of paper required, than it is to make it of im-
ported rags.

FEEDING SiLK-WORMS.

Rev. Mr. Weaver, of Fordham, inquired whether silk-worms
can be fed upon the leaves of the black mulberry. He said his
object was not to make silk to any extent, but to illustrate to
children the way that silk is produced.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 351

Solon Robinson. — The worms can be successful!}^ fed upon the
leaves of the common naulberry, such as grows wild in our forests,
but the quality of*the silk will not be as good.

The regular subject of the da}^, " Can the Hay crop be more
profitably fed on the farm or sold," was then called up.

Prof. Mapes said that it was a question that must be decided
by the circumstances of each locality. In some parts of New
England, stable manure is valued at five dollars a cord, while
hay is not salable at more than ten dollars a ton. There, it
would be most profitable to feed the hay on the farm. In New
Jersey, where I live, manure can be bought for one dollar a cord,
and hay sold at fifteen dollars or eighteen dollars a ton, and
there it is more profitable to sell the hay and keep up the fertility
of the land by purchasing fertilizers.

I can grow three tons of timothy per acre, and I can make it
profitable to sell the hay and apply something else to the land.
I believe wherever hay is worth ten dollars a ton, it is better for
the farmer to sell it than it is to feed it.

It seems to be a question with many farmers how little manure
they can manage to get along with, instead of " how much can I
use with a profit ?"

Some fiirmers use but ten loads where they could make fifty
more profitable. I know market-gardeners who use 150 loads of
manure to the acre, and it is a common tbing for men to pay a
rent of fifty dollars an acre per annum for garden land. Such
men could not afford to feed hay on the farm to make manure ;
but they can afford to raise it, and most farmers could afford to
use it more freely.

If you look at the market-gardeners near this city, every load
of truck they bring to market, they take back a load of manure.

Mr. Hawkhurst thinks that no one can afford to feed hay when
he can sell it for ten dollars a ton.

Prof. Mapes. — The farmers at the west cannot sell their hay
for five dollars a ton, or their corn for twenty-five cents a bushel.
It is better to feed cattle and send them to market.

John G, Bergen and Adrian Bergen, of Long Island, coincided
with Prof, Mapes, and said that many farmers on the Island aver-
age $15 a ton for hay sold in the city, and, at that price they can
not afford to feed it at home ; but they can afford to buy manure,
and do so to keep up the fertility of their farms.

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IMPROVE© HAYING MACHINES.

Prof. Mapes. — The improvement in haying machines enables
farmers to make hay cheaper and better than formerly. Most
of them know something of mowing-machines, but there is
anotlier important machine for them to know, as the hay crop is
increased b}^ a better system of farming, and that is the " ted-
ding machine," which stirs the hay by horse-power. By the use
of this machine, hay cut by the mower, after the dew is off, may
be cured fit to go in the barn the same day, if put up with salt.
Hay-caps and horse-forks, too, are great helps to the hay-maker.
So is the subsoil plow, for with it old meadows can be renovated
without turning the sod, by running it every three feet, and
manuring.

John G. Bergen. — Hay may be cured in one hot day, but as a
general thing it must have more time, if cut when in the best
condition, that is, before the blossom falls. Clover cannot be
cured in one day by any process.

Adrian Bergen. — I am satisfied that it is best to cut grass
early, and use salt, half a peck to a ton,. to cure it. Stock pre-
fer it when salted, and it keeps better.

Mr. John G. Bergen wished to know the proper time to cut
Timothy hay.

Mr. Adrain Bergen. — I cut my Timothy before it blossoms.
If, by tliis process, I do not get as much per acre, I get a very
superior kind of hay.

Mr. Solon Robinson read a letter from Cairo, Illinois, from
which the following passages are extracted :

"In a recent number of The Illinois Farmer, printed at Spring-
field, by M. L. Dunlap, Esq., is the most remarkable article ever
appeared in any agricultural paper, or in any publication what-
ever. It discusses the question, whether corn at ten cents is
'profitable for fuel. The conclusion reached is, that coal is the
cheapest; that at nine cents, corn would be cheapest; but,
unless tlie coal or wood is of first quality, the wife should be at
liberty to send to the corn-crib. This will be new to most
readers — it is equally new that corn will burn at all. I am
informed tliat it makes a good fire. I am happy to say I have
never seen it burn.

Nothing more than this is needed to show that we have raised
too much grain. Most of the farmers know it, but every one is
not persuaded what can most profitably be raised instead. This
letter aims to supply the seeming want.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 353

COTTON.

In the southern parts of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, the plant
will be largely cultivated. Here, among the people, no seed can
be had; usually it has rotted at the gins ; now it is gathered up,
and is going to be planted. But it can be obtained at all the
stations. Let everybody try it ; thousands are certain to succeed
and to do well.

TOBACCO.

The use of tobacco is undoubtedly an evil — nothing can be
clearer — and the reason why it is so prevalent is, because it is
BO slight an evil. Then, let us raise tobacco, and thereby
■strengthen ourselves to overthrow not only the greatest evil but
the most awful crime.

On good soil it can be raised everywhere. Connecticut settled
this question ten years ago, and every year since has raised a
better article and got higher prices than Virginia has done.
Those who have no more than half an acre of land should raise
all they use. Tobacco is going to be high; in the leaf it is
worth over ten cents now; it will be worth twenty cents within
a year. It can be grown at a profit in any free State at five
cents per pound. Tobacco planters have got rich at four cents.

Look out for breakers in the way of high prices and taxes, and
•reflect how better you can meet them than by raising tobacco.
Let every man, even if he has to " stretch his conscience" a
little, plant tobacco, for it alwa3^s brings the cash. There are
tobacco seeds in every seed-box in stores, and often the plants
can be got of neighbors as one does cabbage plants. It will not
be quite too late to sow the seed while you are reading this, that
is, in latitudes north of forty degrees. But these remarks are
timely for next year. During the summer clear off a piece of
ii«w land, cut out the small trees and deaden the old ones is a
quick way, and sow turnips in the fall, or make preparations to
manure an old field, and have it ready. The effects of this War
will last for years ; the war itself may. It usually takes a
farmer a year to prepare for a new crop ; often much longer.
But every one. can do a little this year. Fancy the immense
amount the north would raise if every farmer planted only one
hundred hills.

I know many farmers who will plant from one to five acres.
They would not have put out a plant if it had not been for the
war.

[Am. Inst.] W

354 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

I give you a receipt to prevent tobacco worms, as practiced
by many vi^ith success, and it shortens the labor on the crop fully
half. The worm is hatched from a fly which appears in the eve-
ning before dark. About sundown build little fires through the
field on stumps, or between the rows ; the flies will rush into the
blaze, and that will be the end of them.

BEANS.

Small white Navy beans will be wanted. It requires no more
labor to raise beans than it does wheat ; perhaps a bushel of
beans can be raised easiest. They will bring, at least, one-third
more, and usually the yield per acre is greater. Put in a quar-
ter, a half, a whole acre, or ten acres. No crop pays better, is
surer, or leaves the land in better order.

FLAX.

There is a strong belief in the minds of many that flax is yet
to be crowned king of these realms. There are divers ingenious
loyal friends of his laboring night and day to place the crown on
his head. Most ancient — in blossom most beautifully blue — how
the memories of childhood are restored, when we talk again of
flax ! When raised for the seed alone, and year after year, it has
always been as profitable as wheat. But men will raise wheat,
hoping every year to get twenty-five or thirty bushels an acre,
and they are deluded like buyers of lottery tickets. Of flax,
Virgil says it burns the soil; but if he lived in these days, and
raised wheat at 50 cents a bushel, he would call it a burning
shame. I hint to the farmers that they had better be thinking
of flax-brakes again — of linen sheets and towels, which last, on
an average, as long as a human generation — of, too, pantaloons
and shirts, easily dirtied, but easily washed, and so cool as q^e
walks to the meadow with a scythe on the shoulder in the early
morning. There have been more true patriotism and more true
love beneath homespun linen shirts than beneath cotton ones,
and my opinion is that Yankee ingenuity will cause linen to
reign at the end of the world the same as at the beginning of it.
Farmers ! by all means raise flax ; in so doing, you will be look-
ing forward and be wise.

WOOL.

He who sends a young, good-wooled sheep to the butcher, is
doing his country a wrong. Sales of such should be made to

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB. 355

those who have none, or to those who can keep a few more.
Sheep should be propagated and handled with as much care as
if we had but a few flocks in the country. There are tens of
thousands of localities in the west, ungrazed, where, on each, a
man can keep 200 sheep at 30 cents a head per year, and in too
many other places farmers are raising corn instead of sheep.
Wool is worth 45 cents. Corn — I spoke of that before — but a
pound of wool can be produced for what it will cost to raise a
bushel of corn, or to get a few sticks of cord-wood. The motto of
every farmer should be to raise sheep and kill dogs.

More than all — and this is a very important matter — the soil
of a farm where many sheep are kept continually, increases in
valu,e ; it is continually impoverished when grain is raised. The
very best part of the soil of hundreds of thousands of our farms
is annually transported to Europe in the shape of grain, much
of it is exchanged for wool, and all of it, for what we ought to
hang our heads in shame for not producing. It is desirable,
since Ave are about it, that this war last long enough to cure us
of this folly, and to learn us how to be a self-sustaining nation.
And when the war ends we want to see this result — we want to
see a man, on buying a piece of broadcloth, know that it is made
of wool, and we want to see him hesitate on buying a piece of
cotton cloth for fear there may be wool in it. The mythological
story of the Golden Fleece conveys the idea of the golden profits
of sheep raising.

ORCHARDS.

Now is the time to plant orchards, because many will neglect
or be unable to do so. It is a most fortunate moment for this
business, and one who has a taste for it need not fear results if
he plant good trees, and will inform himself of valuable and late
methods of treatment. Some fancy the business likely to be
overdone, but this story has always been told, and yet there are
no 100 trees of good fruit anywhere in the country which are
not worth more than any ten acres of grain. I know of an
orchard of fine bearing trees, 4,000 in number, which were set
out four years ago this coming May. Foolish and lazy farmers,
what have you been doing that you have not orchards of fine
fruit ? Among six millions of people in the west, forty -nine
families in fifty are without apples in winter, much less have
they pears and early peaches. A nation given to fruit-growing
always is educated and wealthy; exclusively grain-growing,

356 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

ignorant and poor. The higliest civilization is impossible where
there are few orchards. Arouse, farmers, emulate the soldier
marching daily to new conquests, and by your industry and
intelligence force from an unwilling Nature her magnificent
treasures.

The following were adopted as subjects to be discussed at the
next meeting: "Improved methods of surface culture, and
economy in keeping poultry." Adjourned.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION.

ORGANIZED UNDER THE NAME OF THE MECHANICS
CLUB, MARCH 2, 1854, WHICH NAME WAS CHANGED
TO THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION, MARCH 16, 1859.

RULES ESTABLISHED FOR ITS GOVERNMENT BY THE BOARD OF
SCIENCE AND ART.

First. A Club for the promotion of manufactures, arts, and
for the discussion of mechanical subjects, is created under the
name of the Polytechnic Association.

Second. The Polytechnic Association is an agent of the com-
mittee of arts and sciences, and is under its entire control, in the
same manner as the Farmers' Club is of the committee of agri-
culture. The transactions of the Association are in the name of
the American Institute.

Third. The committee of arts and sciences appoint, annually,
the chairman and secretary of the Polytechnic Association. In
the absence of the chairman and secretary, persons to supply
their places will be chosen at the meetings of the Club.

Fourth. Every member of the American Institute shall
become a member of the Polytechnic Association, by signifying
his intention to the chairman thereof.

Fifth. The name of any person eminent in practical mechanics,
engineering, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry, natural philoso-
phy, social philosophy, geology, mineralogy, practical mining,
meteorolog}^, natural history, manufactures or the arts, may be
proposed by the members of the Association (by ballot, five-
sixths of those present voting aifirmatively) to be an honorary
member of the Polytechnic Association of the American Insti-
tute ; and when so proposed, if approved by the committee of
manufactures, science and arts, of the American Institute, a cer-
tificate of membership shall be issued by said committee.

Sixth. The chairman of the Polytechnic Association is author-
ized to arrange sections, or standing committees, embracing all
the physical and exact sciences, particularly those named in sec-
tion second of those rules, and to appoint a committee for each
section, who shall report the doings of the sections to the Asso-
ciation. Members, and honorary members, shall be entitled to
seats in those sections.

Seventh. Such papers read at the Polytechnic Association as
are accepted for that purpose, will be printed under the direc-
tion, and at the expense of the American Institute, which also
provides a place of meeting, lights and fires. No other expensea

358 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

are to be incurred, except by special appropriation of the Ameri-
can Institute, according to the rules and bylaws; nor any lia-
bility incurred by the Institute, except on special resolution.

Eighth. The meetings of the Polytechnic Association are free
of all expense to those who attend them.

JVvUh. The Polytechnic Association shall select, in advance,
a subject for discussion at each of its meetings, ^vhich subject
shall be announced in the call of meetings.

Tenth. AYritten communications to the Association are to be
read by the secretary, unless objection is made; and if objected
to, will be read, if it be ordered by a majority of the members
present.

Eleventh.. The Polytechnic Association will recommend what
papers read before them, or what part of other transactions they
judge worthy of publication, to the committee of arts and
sciences, by which the publications may be ordered in its
discretion.

Twelfth. No person attending the meetings of the Association
shall speak more than once on any one subject, nor shall occupy,
in such speech, more than fifteen minutes, except by permission
of the Association.

Thirteenth. The chairman may invite any person to address
the meeting or to participate in the deliberations, but such per-
son not a member, shall be announced as a visitor.

Fourteenth. Topics presented for consideration, or the an-
nouncement of a discovery or invention, improvement or novelty,
or the exhibition of any machine or part thereof, or any manu-
facture or article, must be preceded by a statement setting forth
the point, in writing, to be deliberated upon.

Fifteenth. Any person desiring to put on record any sup-
posed or real discovery in science, manufacture, or arts, may
address a communication to the chairman of the Association,
under seal and properly indorsed, which shall be preserved in
the archives of the American Institute as evidence for the party
depositing the same.

Sixteenth. In all cases not provided for by the rules, Jefier-
Bon's Manual shall be taken as a standard.

Seventeenth. The official reports of the meetings of the Asso-
ciation shall lie upon the desk of the recording secretary until
11 o'clock of the day following the meetings, for the inspection
of members, and such corrections as are necessary before going
to the public press.

Eighteenth. The minutes of the previous meeting shall be
read at the opening in order for correction, unless otherwise
directed by the meeting.

Nineteenth. No argument is allowed between members. Facts
alone are to be stated.

Twentieth. All questions of order are decided without appeal,
by the presiding officer.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 359

May 1, 1861.

Professor Cyrus Mason in the chair.

The Influence of Climate on Invention was the subject set down
for discussion at this meeting.

Mr. Mason having introduced this topic, opened by reading the
following paper :

Man received the earth, with its various climates, as a gift,
from his Creator ; but upon condition that he should adapt it for
his use, and furnish it out of the raw materials provided to his
hands. Near the equator his task is light; his wants are few
and easily supplied ; but as he advances towards the poles his
wants increase ; and during the long winters of some climates
they become so many, and so painful, that they govern his whole
course of life. His wants are his severe task-masters, and he
eludes them only through his ingenuity. His need of inventions
is measured by the severity of his climate, and his motives for
making them grow stronger, the nearer he approaches the limit
beyond which he is unable, by all his exertions, to attain a
prosperous and cheerful existence.

Inventions of one class have occupied men in every degree of
latitude, from the equator to the polar regions, namely, those of
contrivances to make a climate better suited to the preservation
of persons and property than the general climate of the country
they inhabit. The naked race, found by Columbus near the
equator, had contrived cellars to keep their fruits dry and cool
during the rainy season, and huts above ground to preserve their
persons from dangerous moisture. By comparing these simple
contrivances with the inventions made and in progress in our
climate for similar purposes, we shall see that the ingenuity of
each people generally rises to the measure of the wants of that
people, and no higher. But we are laboring to this hour, and
more earnestly than ever, to perfect our processes for making
artificial climates, for summer and for winter, around our persons
and the objects that minister to our enjoyment.

A description of the inventions which are employed in making
the best house for our climate, and adapting it to winter and
summer use, would fill a volume ; and yet, there are thousands of
ingenious men still at work on contrivances for improving many-
parts of the process.

The single operation of lighting up our long winter evening
has induced more inventions than ever were thought of within
the tropics, where they scarcely need an evening light.

360 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Our green-house is the result of numberless inventions, every
one of which has aided something to our facility for enjoying
the sight of tropical plants while in their growth.

Look at the ingenious arts conceived in making our winter
garments. They are almost numberless. The economies they
have wrought within our remembrance have made room for mil-
lions of people, who could not have been clothed without them.

The machinery invented and prepared in wintry climates
extends its influence into tropical regions, and draws away from
them the rich growths required for use under our northern skies.
And this reaction of inventive genius toward the equator is the
new feature of the earth's civilization, which promises to multi-
ply beyond all former example or expectation, the numbers of
prosperous people, who may live on the surface of the globe. At
the head of this new experiment stands the Empire of Brazil,
drawing to itself the arts O'f Europe and America, and working
out, in equatorial regions, a destiny which is the growing admi-
ration of mankind.

But the firm and permanent reliance for the increase and pre-
servation of ingenious arts rests on the countries which have a
winter to provide for. Our arts work the mines of Mexico, while
Mexico sends no art to us. And, perhaps, we owe it, in some
measure, to our winter, that our political weakness has not fallen
as low as theirs — that they are receiving a master from the old
world, while we are able to preserve our nationality.

Bad government and bad religion may overwhelm the arts of a
nation; and, if that nation lies near the tropics, it may be deso-
late during long ages; but, if it lies in a wintry climate, it will
rise again by its own inherent impulse, and find its lost arts, or
invent new arts. The southern side of the Mediterranean has
often been the burying place for arts invented on the north side;
but, the countries north of the Mediterranean have risen, and are
yet rising even where oppressed by the burdens of bad govern-
ment and bad religion, and under the rugged nurture of a wintry
climate they are steadily advancing the civilization of the human
race.

Praise is bestowed on ingenious nations and individuals. In-
ventors make new room for men to occupy, and we can afford to
make them famous. But, the more we investigate the causes of
human conduct on the several parts of the earth's surface, the
more shall we perceive that climate has done much to make them

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 361

differ. Men bound to labor, are the class of inventors ; men just
above want are the leaders of the host of inventors j and the
climate sharpens their wits to a keenness next to the edge of the
sword. Because of our inventions, we look around us on vast
accumulations of Avealth, at once the admiration and envy of our
non-inventive neighbors. The contact of our accumulations Avith
theirs, lies near the bottom of the present conflict. Our machines
are naturally pacific ; but it is the record of French history that
Watt and Arkwright subdued Napoleon, and Watt and Arkwright
were Roundheads.

Mr. Garbanati Avould attribute differences between nations
more to institutions than to climate. Men from southern cli-
mates have been found to be better able to bear fatigue and
exposure, and Avhen their resources are taken from them, become
exceedingly industrious. The Anglo Saxon race can adapt itself
readily to any climate from the Arctic regions to the heats of Cen-
tral Africa. When men enslave others and make their slaves do
their work, they lose the inventive character.

Mr. Fisher. — In order to make invention useful, it must
pass through different minds. The inventive faculty seems
to preclude the faculty of sober judgment, and practical skill in
details. Inventions therefore must pass through the hands of a
practical engineer, to reduce them to a proper shape for use.
And even he Avill be aided by consulting the master workman,
who Avill prune away expensive portions and make the machine
cheap as well as practicable. Finally the capitalist furnishes
the means of introducing the invention to public use. It Avould
be well if inventors could be convinced of the necessity for the
aid of these other classes in making their inventions practical.
There must be a market for inventions or they will be still-born.
Inventions must be encouraged ; and thus the influence of climate
will stimulate invention, if it acts upon the community and cre-
ates a demand for invention.

Mr. Veeder said that it had been remarked by Daniel Webster
that the slave labor went to the south in this country, not neces-
sarily because the climate called for it there, but because there
was a demand there for the labor. The cultivation of the cotton
plant may have incidentally created the difference; without it
something else may have grown up in the south tending to stimu-
late invention. One kind of invention stimulates other kinds j
and may not freedom of the mind to act, be a greater incentive

362 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

to invention than climate ? May it not be that free white labor
in the south would have made it a thousand times more fruitful
in invention than it has been ?

Mr. Churchill. — The cause of invention is not merely neces-
sity, but necessity in the presence of a remedy. History seem-
ed to show that many important inventions originated in hot
climates ; such as paper and the science of hydraulics, which
came from the Nile. In working metals, in cutting diamonds, in
irrigation in India and China.

Prof. Mason said that such inventions came from races who
had come from cool climates, and that the arts and sciences would
not remain flourishing in a torrid climate.

Mr. Garbanati. — One city produces cottons, another steel,
another pottery. A certain district of France has embarked
in the raising of essences. This is not in consequence of any
peculiarity of climate or adaptation ; but the first invention is an
incentive to others, just as business or trade is better where a
number engage in it. Thus trade in this city is now rushing up
town; the leading men go, and others follow to catch the trade.
Mr. Fisher remarked that there was no real invention in Egypt;
but when art went into Greece, there arose splendid inventions.

Mr. Rowell said that a hive of bees being sent to California,
laid up a hive- full of honey the first summer; but never did it
afterwards.

Mr. Seely. — The archeological evidence is that in this
country the tropics were once the centre of the civilization of
the continent and of the cultivation of art. In the time of Julius
Caesar, the Britons, and the inhabitants of Germany were barba-
rians, and all the civilization and refinement were in the south.
The line of civilization and art seems to have been traveling
northward for the last two or three thousand years. Institutions
seem a better explanation of our condition than climates. Were
it not for slavery, there might be manufacture and invention down
to the Gulf.

Mr. Stetson said that probably some of the hardest work ever
done by Anglo Saxons was done in California during the heat of
the gold excitement. The climate was the hottest ever known ;
and yet the Anglo Saxons out-worked the negroes, Irishmen, and
everybody else that could be found. As to the northern extreme
of invention, upon inquiry with regard to patenting a sewing
machine in Sweden last year, he had been astonished to learn

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 363

that there were but eight sewing machines in Sweden, and no
demand far more, the people there not understanding machinery.
So in Russia, it had been found that Fairbank's scales were unap-
preciated from the lack of mechanical and inventive skill.

Mr. Stewart said that of the small number of patents taken
out by citizens of the southern States, most of them were taken
out by men from the north. Dr. Simons, now in this city, had
invented certain surgical apparatus, and appeared to be the only
really southern man who had shown any considerable degree of
inventive genius.

The following report was presented and read :

New York, May 1, 1861.

Your committee, on Mr. John B. Duane's sod seeder and
broadcast sowing mechine, after careful examination of a work-
ing model of the above machine, respectfully submit the following
report, viz :

1. That the machine is a combination of the following parts,
viz: A set of cultivator teeth; harrows; seeding apparatus;
seed conducting board; roller; and fertilizer distributor. All
these parts being so disposed tliat their operations follow just in
the manner necessary to leave the field sowed and finished in a
high state of cultivation.

2. That the cultivator teeth, with their stem which forms a
knife edge, seem to be well adapted to do the work easily, by
producing a central cut and a gradual lifting of the ground,
thereby overcoming obstructions much more easily than with
teeth of the old shape.

3. That the harrows being pressed to the ground by springs,
and the teeth thereof standing at an angle of about sixty or
seventy degrees, seem to be well calculated for doing their work.
The teetli are set in two boards, and being narrow and numerous,
will certainly crush and divide lumps of earth that, under the
common harrow, are apt to be pushed aside. The teeth are also
better adapted to free themselves from bunches of roots or grass,
etc., by slipping over them instead of accumulating them, than
those of the common harrow.

4. That the seeding apparatus, with its distributing arrange-
ment, seems to be superior to most others, for the disturbance of
the seed at and around the delivery openings is very effective.
The delivery is sideways from tlie seed box, and the disturbance
created by teeth working in the seed at a right angle with the

864 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

box while another set of teeth is working vertically over the
delivery plate. The teeth are attached to two reciprocating
bars, the former set to that nearest the seed box, and the latter
to the bottom of both of the bars. The delivery plate consists
of two movable plates with almond shaped openings which can
be made large or small by simply turning a screw. The machine
may thus be adapted to all kinds of seed from clover to oats and
peas. There is another reciprocating box for sowing clover and
timothy seed at the same time. The reciprocating delivery
apron of the latter is divided into several channels and has at
the end a number of pins for the better and more equal distribu-
tion of the seed. This apron is open to view, so that it can
always be known, by simple inspection, if the delivery of the
seed is going on as desired, in the opinion of the committee, is a
decided advantage.

5. That the seed-conductor board, by a simple reversion, will
direct the seed so as to be either plowed in by the cultivator or
covered only by the harrow or drag.

6. That the two rollers being hung side by side to the frame by
a joint, can be made to maintain a position parallel Avith the
ground, whether the machine is at work or the teeth are lifted
out of the ground. The frame and the several parts of the
machine are so balanced on the center of the rollers, that nearly
the whole weight reposes on the rollers.

7. That the fertilizer distributor consists of a hollow cylinder
with four or more slots lengthways in which toothed bands, or
saws, work reciprocally. As this cylinder has a reciprocating
motion, the plaster, guano, or other fertilizer receives all the
while a disturbing motion that brings it between the teeth of the
saw. The latter forces it out in such quantities as may be desired
by being adjusted to a greater or less extent of vertical motion.

As far as the mechanical contrivance of this machine is con-
cerned, your committee finds it to be exceedingly simple. The
parts are few in proportion to the manifold work the machine is
intended to perform. It is but little liable to get out of order,
and is easy of repair. A man, or even a boy, may perform a
great amount of work by only guiding the animals. Two horses
seem to be sufficient to draw a machine four feet wide. The
resistance of each part, in proportion to that in machines for the
same purpose, of former shapes and actions, seems to be a good
deal less. The machine performing all the work (except plow-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 365

ing) necessary for putting a crop into the ground, there must be
a great saving in time and hibor, and the farmer is enabled to
finish his work at one operation. The machine, however, is only
calculated for use on lands free from large stones.

It is the opinion of your committee that this machine is
another step in advance of the arts and sciences, in their appli-
ance toagriculture, and is well adapted to be recommended to the
favorable patronage of our farmers.

JOHN P. VEEDER,
THOMAS D. STETSON,
LOUIS KOCH.

Jfew subject — On motion by Mr. Dibben, the subject of
" Steam Guns " was selected for the next meeting.

Adjourned to quarter before eight o'clock, on Thursday even-
ing, May 9th,

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, ?

May 9, 1861. S
Mr. Jireh Bull in the chair.

AMERICAN TURBINE.

Mr. Jonas Smith exhibited a model of the American turbine
waterwheel. (See report of Farmers' Club, for April 29.) One
of these now in operation, with a six foot head, and six foot
wheel, has a 28-horse power, costing about $400.

Mr. Billings stated that there was a working model in opera-
tion in this city, and asked for a committee to examine it and
report upon its merits.

The committee was appointed, consisting of Messrs. Johnson,
Dibben and Seely.

OREIDE.

Mr. Seely exhibited a specimen of the oreide from which cheap
jewelry is now made in large quantities. It consists merely of a
brass in which the zinc and copper are so proportioned as to
produce the color of gold ; the magnesia", sal-ammoniac and other
substances which are added, not being metallic, and, therefore,
not modifying the result. The jewelry is gilded, and when the
gilding is worn oif, it cannot fail to tarnish like any other brass.

366 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

CENTRIFUGAL GUN.

The subject for discussion, " steam guns," was then taken up.

Mr. Dibben said that the only practical mode of using steam
for guns, which had been yet proposed, was in connection with
the centrifugal gun. He should, therefore, confine his remarks
to that. All centrifugal guns are composed of a hopper through
which the balls are introduced ; a descending tube which con-
veys the balls, one by one, to a revolving disk, and a passage"
or barrel through which the balls are ejected in succession. The
barrel is largest near the revolving disk, and is curved in sucli
manner that the ball shall enter it in a tangent to the revolving
disk, and it is proposed that it should quit it in a tangent to the
circle within whose periphery the cavil and disk are included.
Mr. Dibben was of opinion that the latter condition was
impossible. That the great difficulty in the use of the
centrifugal guns is to give the balls the desired direc-
tion without impairing their momentum. The balls will all
have the same direction, if the barrel is moved, horizontally;
that is, they will all strike ii^ a horizonal line ; but the lateral
deviation will be very great and uncertain, depending upon the
velocity of the ball at the moment of discharge. It, therefore,
becomes incapable of efficient service. In an experiment, he
had seen, the first balls went through an inch plank, at the dis-
tance of one hundred yards, but the last ones only indented it.
The balls weighed an ounce or more, and the diameter of the
disk was a little more than five feet.

Every precaution is now taken in fire-arms to secure accuracy
of aim. It is not now a question of one hundred yards, but of
tliree or four hundred yards. We not only make the ball of just
such a size and shape, make the bore smooth and true, and pro-
vide for accurate loading ; but, not satisfied with this, we rifle
the barrel to overcome what remaining inequalities may exist.
And with a good scrapnel shot, we may, at a distance of five
hundred yards, cover a line of men so that every man of them
shall be shot down, the shot going with accuracy a certain dis-
tance, and then exploding, sending a shower of balls all within
a certain angle. •

The steam gun is objectionable, not only on account of its
inaccuracy of aim, but for its want of portability, and for its
vulnerability. The boiler is a large mark, and a single shot

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 367

from a fair distance would entirely destroy its operation. The
advantage claimed for the steam gun is, that it requires so few
men to do the work. But in w^arfare there are always plenty of
men to fight, if we can only find the money to pay them.

The ball will have a rotary motion, upon leaving the disk, in
consequence of the greater momentum of that part of the ball
which at that moment happens to be farthest from the centre of
the disk. Military authorities say that the bullet should have
an initial velocity of 12 to 1,500 feet. With light rifles the
speed probably reaches 2,000 feet. With such speed as that, the
centrifugal gun falls into the background.

Mr. Stetson. — The tendency of modern improvements is
to enable us to throw projectiles farther with a less initial
velocity. The charge of powder is somewhat reduced ; yet, in
consequence of the elongated and pointed form of the shot, there
is less atmospheric resistance, and the projectiles go as far and
produce as much effect at the distance of 1,000 yards as those of
the old shape did with a greater initial velocity. Probably the
velocity from some rifled pistols does not exceed 600 feet. The
charge of powder that instead of being one-fourth to one-third
the weight of the ball, is so much reduced, that, with the Ilotch-
kiss projectile, a twelve pound ball requires but thirteen or four-
teen ounces of powder, ranging from half a mile to a mile very
accurately.

The expansive force of gunpowder is very great, having
been shown sometimes to amount to 100,000 lbs. to the square
inch.* No such force as that of gunpowder can be produced
by steam. Nor can we produce the centrifugal force due
to such pressure without destroying the machine. We can only
obtain a comparatively small velocity.

In order to throw a projectile with a given velocity, a force is
required equivalent to lifting it a certain height, independent of
friction, for that velocity will be expended in raising it that
height ; or, inversely, if it is allowed to fall from that height, in
a vacuum, that velocity will be produced. To produce a double
speed in any mass requires a quadruple power, the power required
being in the ratio of the square of the velocity. It is thought
by some that we may be able, with centrifugal guns, to throvsr
bullets at the initial, velocity of six hundred feet, which will
kill at short ranges. But we cannot throw a stream of bullets,

•Count Renaford's experiments make the force of coafined gunpowder 500,000 lbs. — J. R,

368 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

like water tlirough a hose pipe, with that velocity ; for merely
to overcome the iDcrtioii of the balls, a horse-power will only
tlwow l|-ounce balls at the rate of one per second ; and we must
have several horse-powers to overcome the friction. If the
machine is small and convenient, the number of bullets thrown
must be necessarily very small.

As to the difficulty of directing the motion, he would not
venture to say what could or could not be done. He could not
say that human ingenuity might not discover some means of
overcoming that difficulty.

Mr. Stuart remarked that some years since he had had occasion
to investigate a centrifugal theory, based upon the principles
that double the power produces double the velocity, and thus
produces four limes the radial force.

Mr. Nash said that a steam gun could not be effective unless
sheltered, for the moment a cannon ball touches it, there is an
end to it. He described the execution which could be done with
cannon, or even with rifles, by having a telescopic sight. He
had seen it applied to a rifle forty years ago, and it was found
in practice to be exceedingly good.

Mr. C. W. Smith. — The theory that action and reaction
are equal, would seem to indicate that if the ball weighs one-
one hundredth part as much as the cannon, the recoil should give
the cannon one-one hundredth the velocity of the ball. But
friction, and the fact that the power is not applied instantane-
ously, prevents this amount of recoil from ever practically taking
place. A steel gun might be made very light, to have sufficient
strength ; but the recoil would be very much increased. He
explained the advantages of the Hotchkiss projectile in reducing
the amount of recoil, the first shook being expended in the
expansive action upon the lead, and the charge of powder being
considerably diminished.

J^ew subject. — On motion of Mr. Seely, the subject of " Ice,
and methods of refrigeration" was selected for discussion at the
next meeting.

Adjourned.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 369

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, ?

May 16, 1861. 5

Prof. Cyrus Mason in the chair.

DEATH OF DR. D. MEREDITH REESE.

Tlie Chairman having announced the death of Dr. D. M. Reese,
long an active member of the American Institute, and a member
of the committee on Arts and Sciences, under which the Poly-
technic Association is organized —

Mr. Butler offered the following preamble and resolution :

^'Whereas, in the dispensation of Providence, the American In-
stitute, in the death of Dr. D. M. Ileese, is bereft of one of its
active members, and one of the committee on Manufactures, Sci-
ence and Art, and it being deemed proper that some action
should be taken by the Polytechnic Association on the subject,

^^Resolved, That the Chairman of the Polytechnic Association,
Prof. Mason, be requested to prepare a paper to be read at the
next meeting of the American Institute."

The resolution was adopted.

NEW disinfectant.

Dr. L. A. Thompson presented a new disinfectant, which he
considered worthy the attention of the Association.

new filter.

Dr. Thompson proceeded to describe a new filter constructed
by him. He stated that water should be filtered not only for
drinking and cooking purposes, but for personal washing, and for
washing fine articles of clothing. Fine linen goods dipped into
unfiltered water are stained by the animal and vegetable sub-
stances suspended in the water. Dr. Thompson's filter is so con-
structed as to prevent the water as it passes through, from form-
ing gullies, and to cause it to percolate uniformly through the
whole mass of charcoal and quartz, which thus retains its effi-
ciency for a long period. He asked for the examination of this
filter, and of his disinfectant, by a committee, offering to send
the Association a filter and specimens of the disinfectant for
trial.

The following committee was appointed, viz : Messrs. Stetson*
Seely and C. W. Smith.

[Am. Inst.j X

3Y0 • TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

SAWING SHIP ^TIMBER.

Mr. H. S. Vrooman exhibited and explained drawings of ma-
chinery for sawing ship-timber. The principle of the machinery
is, that the timber is secured in the ways, permanently, and
moves as for straight work, while the saw is moved automatically
so as to produce the required result. There are two adjustable
guides, and after these have been regulated to produce' any
desired pattern, the sawing proceeds as readily as for straight
work.

Mr. Stetson said that in most vessels, every stick of timber has
a separate and distinct shape, and a separate name. The ribs, for
instance, vary with the curve of the vessel ; but the variation
between two adjoining ribs is small. This machinery afibrds pe-
culiar facility in this case, because the adjustment rei^uired is so
slight in passing from each rib to the next. Whether this, which
is the theory, can be accomplished in practice can best be ascer-
tained by inspection. lie would, therefore, in behalf of the in-
ventor, move a committee to examine his working model.

The -following committee Avas appointed, viz : Messrs. Haskell,
Johnson and Fisher.

CLIMATE vs. INVENTION.

Prof. Mason concluded his remarks upon this subject. He said :
In speaking a fortnight ago upon "the effects of climate on in-
vention," the general doctrine I laid down was that invention has
always been substantially limited to the temperate zone. The
question was raised whether domestic and governmental institu-
tions might not very essentially influence invention, whether by
unfavorable institutions there might not be a very great restraint
upon invention, even in those climates where invention would
otherwise take place. I have no doubt it is so. The regions of
Virginia and Tennessee are not so far south as to check inven-
tion, and if deprived of their slave labor, those climates would
have necessities that would naturally lead their inhabitants to
be inventors. I should say therefore that the line of invention
has been crowded northward by the presence of that institution.
Yet that does not falsify the general doctrine that in warm cli-
mates where inventions are not called for, they do not naturally
occur. If men were not migratory, they would remain in a semi-
barbarous condition in all the warm climates upon the earth. It
appears to me obvious that nothing like what we call civilization

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 371

ever can occur in those climates, unless carried there, as I now
propose to consider as the second branch of the subject, by " the
reaction of invention on non-inventive climates."

I suppose it will be admitted by all that for the last century,
inventions have been obviously and manifestly limited to the
temperate climates of America and Europe. That these inven-
tions have not been wanted by tne nations of the tropics is obvi-
ous from a great number of facts. The aversion of tropical races
to machinery has been illustrated, not only in Africa, but in Cen-
tral and South America. The introduction of anything but the
crotch of a tree to plow with, in Chili and Peru, has been a mat-
ter of extreme difliculty ; and the engineer of the first railway
there, told me that it was weeks before they could induce any
native to get into a car. The aversion was simply that they
were satisfied without those things.

We are told that powerful and effective machines have been
found in the tropics, as in Egypt, and that wonderful engineering
has been done there. So there are powerful and wonderful ma-
chines now to be found in Brazil. Men with those machines
have gone there from colder climates. And when a railway is
wanted now in India or Egypt, the cars and the locomotives come
from Massachusetts. But would the finding of these machines or
these locomotives in after j-ears, justify the opinion that there
had been an Egyptian race capable of inventing or of construct-
ing such works ? History shows us that whenever machines
have gone into tropical climates, they remained there no longer
than until the disappearance of the men from colder climates
■who carried them there. They are no longer in use in those
countries.

As to the extent of the machinery carried in ancient times into
tropical India and Africa, I allege that those machines were few
and small. We find there great buildings and some sculpture.
Egyptian art has suggested nothing which could at all subserve
our modern civilization. In the Egyptian Museum you find noth-
ing suggestive in the slightest degree of anything valuable or
useful. I would not give the sewing machine for all the arts they
ever had. And if in modern or ancient times machines have been
found in tropical climates, it has been from reaction from cooler
climates. Within little more than two years, England, France
and the United States, have sent machinery to Brazil, Avorth more
than $20,000,000.

372 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

What has been the effect of this reaction upon our own Gulf
States? Sugar, which cost 12 to 15 cents without the steam
engine, is now made for three. And I will venture to say that
one solitary man from New Haven has brought this present mis-
chief upon our country, by raising the value of the negro from
$200 to $1,500; and Whitney may be said to be the maker of
about three million negroes, who never would have been born
but for his invention. The reaction from our workshops has
changed the entire condition of the Gulf States by making them
so largely tributary to the cheap clothing of mankind, and the
cheap production of rice, sugar, and coffee, to feed all mankind.
This reaction of the Northern States upon the Gulf States and
the West India islands has probably added more to the popula-
tion of the globe than the entire present population of the United
States. Population increases not only at the north, but in the
non-inventive regions. The machine carries with it the man to
tend it, and others to co-operate with him, invites the merchant,
draws the ship. It covers the Southern States with a population,
one-tenth of which is not native, and which will not be driven out
even by this war. What is more, to this Massachusetts regiment
which has gone down there to keep the peace along the border,
there will happen just what happened to the Grecian general who
left 30,000 behind to people the countries to which they went ;
just what happened in the Revolutionary war, which carried my
grand-father and my father to the banks of the Hudson, and was
the occasion of my being born there. We are constantly pushing
southward a civilized population, that at first returns in the heat
of the summer, but afterwards becomes acclimated and remains
there.

Reacting from our climate, machinery can be made even more
effectually in the tropics than here. It can be applied to the
production of sugar, cotton, rice, indigo, tobacco, with greater
facility than to planting corn or raising wheat. The production
of the tropical regions to feed the world, and to contribute to the
enjoyment of civilized life of all mankind, when the rail tracks
shall have been laid down, when the machinery shall have gone
there, is utterly incalculable.

I look at the present war as being more dependent for its result
upon machinery than any war ever was before. Each party has
the power to bring to the scene of action in a few days from
remote regions, such forces as the world has never dreamed of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 373

before. But war is only an incident. After the fighting we
come again to peaceful action ; and in my opinion that peaceful
action will be far more energetic than ever before since the world
began. It is not all mischief that is coming upon us. Losing our
income, we shall gain new habits of industry and economy. New
inventions, not of war but of peace, will pour over the face of the
civilized world, including the tropics, which must contribute their
portion to the common welfare. Although at present, in the
beginning of a war that may be of tremendous force, yet I look
beyond it and see a great and peaceful world in the future. As
the Secretary of State lately said, I look underneath all this ex-
citement upon the surface and see a peaceful solution of the whole
matter.

Mr. Churchill said that in his former remarks he had had no
reference to machines but to such inventions in tropical climates
as were demanded by the civilization of that day, such as the
invention of paper in Egypt, of the melting of metals, polishing
of jewels, and digging of canals for irrigation. These inventions
are not of the same class as those of the 19th century, but were
among the pressing necessities of that day. We ma}'" now clearly
trace the part to be taken by the tropical climates when they
cease to be occupied by barbarous nations and become a part of
civilized humanity. A good machine must have a good man by
the side of it. The tropical climates must be looked to as the
sources to supply the raw material to feed the machinery,
invented, manufactured, and repaired by the north. The pro-
duction of the south depends upon the demand by the north.

Mr. Fisher cited as an illustration of the reaction of inven-
tion upon tropical climates, the efforts to introduce in India at
the present time either the traction engine or some other means
of getting the cotton to market, in anticipation of the failure to
receive it from the southern states.

ICE AND METHODS OF REFRIGERATION.

This subject was postponed to and made the special order for
the next meeting. Adjourned.

374 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE

American Institute, Polytech

Mr. Jireli Bull in the cliair.

NIC Association, ?
May 23, 1861. ]

fisher's steam carriage.

Mr, Fisher. — Since I last mentioned my steam carriage to this
Association, I have made alterations in it, and have, within a
few days, made a trial trip. It was proposed here to form a
small club to assist me in making these alterations, and in finish-
ing the carriage; but there were few who offered to join the
club, and I did not wish to annoy people, or mortify myself by
solicitations. I, therefore, have had no assistance, except fifty
dollars from Col. Hoe, who was so liberal as to offer it, on con-
dition that I would exhibit the carriage in his neighborhood
when it is completed.

The effects of these alterations are, first, to lessen the noise of
the steam blast; second, to render the carriage more manageable
in crooked places; and, third, to render it proof against heat
and moisture — the frame, which was of wood, being now of iron,
and seven feet shorter than the old wooden frame.

The means by which the steam blast is in a considerable
degree quieted, is that devised by Gurney, consisting in what he
called a blowing box, or chamber, holding five or six cylinders
full of steam. Into this chamber the cylinders exhaust ; and
the steam, instead of entering the chimney at nearly the full
pressure, is expanded, and flows in a comparatively steady stream,
like air from a smith's bellows. This device has been tried on
locomotives, but found to impair the force of draft ; but it has
the advantage of lifting fewer sparks from the fire, is in other
respects advantageous, and is, to some extent, used. I feared
that it would not give steam enough ; but was agreeably disap-
pointed to find that, with the door wide open, the fireman
reported that he could not keep the pressure below 180 pounds.
We were not running fairly, but had to stop for horses, and ran
over beds of road metal, in order to keep clear of the railway,
in ascending Bergen Hill ; but the stops did not help to increase
the pressure ; for I had found that the natural draft would not
raise the pressure above IGO, when the boiler is naked, and it is
observed that locomotives that burn coke stand for hours with-
out sensibly bio wing off steam, when the pressure is limited to
130 pounds.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 375

The inclination of Bergen Hill was stated by some persons
present to be 1 in 15. There were long beds of broken stone on
it,' which common carriages avoided, keeping on the rail track;
and the carriage ran up over these beds, thus proving a tractive
force sufficient for ordinary purposes. On a level, on a bed of
stone, we were running very fast — some thought more than 20
miles per hour — when the exhaust was so rapid as to tear open
soldered joint of the chamber of copper one-fiftieth of an inch
thick, an accident that arose from the economy of using an old
water-tank as material for the exhaust chamber. This left us
without the steam blast, notmthstanding which we returned,
about a mile, at a speed equal to an omnibus, having seventy
pounds pressure when we arrived at the locomotive works.

It is the opinion of Mr. Davis, superintendent of the works,
that the engines are well-proportioned to the weight, and that
there is boiler surface enough for much greater speed than is
required ; in fact, we ran over beds of stone faster than we shall
be allowed to run on smooth roads when carrying passengers,
and this speed was attained with the door wide open, and the
boiler, pipes and .cylinders naked. When these parts are clothed,
and the blast-pipe adjusted, I believe there will be abundance of
steam, with very little back pressure.

Comparing this performance with that of Ogle's and Mace-
rone's carriages, which were of about equal weight, we see abund-
ant encouragement. Their boilers had 250 feet of surface, mine
has 159 feet; they ran on better roads, and yet seldom attained
so high a speed. Their boilers vaporized about five pounds of
water per foot surface per hour, and mine — which is the vertical
tubular boiler — appears to steam as fast as the best locomotive
boilers, which vaporize fifteen pounds per foot per hour. Add
to this the advantages of the link, and we see that the improve-
ments that have grown up since their time, place us in a position
so favorable as to compensate for the inferior quality of our
roads. And further, the cost of this improved machinery is less
than half what they had to pay for theirs.

Besides these improvements which 1 adopt from the locomo-
tive, I claim that my parallel connection is important, not only to
preserve the carriage from damage by jolting, but aslo to diminish
the resistance. Morin found that at nine miles per hour a car-
riage with common springs ran with half the power it required
when its springs were blocked ; and my connection enables me

376 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

to use springs as flexible as those of the best common carnages.
But all former steam carriages and locomotives have been con-
stitutionally unable to use springs of much flexibility, or to last
long with stiff springs ; and it was agreed that unless good
springs could be used, steam carriages could not endure high
speed ; and the English have given up fast carriages, and are
now at work on engines to run at four or five miles per hour.

There is one exception to this : Mr. Rickett, who has built
carriages for the Marquis of Staftbrd, and the Earl of Caithness.
But I observe in his labors evidence that he is bafiled by the old
difficulties. Here are engravings of those carriages. That of
Lord Stafford has chain gearing, that of Lord Caithness has
spur gear.

Mr. F. stated that there were various projects for traction
engines before the public besides his own, and as they were
important for military transportation, he asked that a committee
should be appointed to examine and report upon the subject.

The Chair appointed Messrs. Dibben, Stetson, Rowell, Butler
and Churchill as the committee.

ICE AND METHODS OF KEFRIGERATION.

Mr. Seely. — The field of invention in this direction has not
been well explored. A practical system of refrigeration would
be of immense service to health and bodily comfort. I believe
the time will come, in a climate a little warmer than this, when
refrigerating apparatus will be as common as stoves, and will
be considered almost as great a necessity. If we put a piece of
ice in the centre of a room, it seems to throw out cold in every
direction. We have only to enclose this in something ornamental
and it will be neater and handier than a stove. The products
of the combustion of coal are a great nuisance ; but from the
consumption of ice we have only water, which may be used in
cooking or washing. Ice is cheap enough in New York city to
be used so practically now. Ice is cheaper than coal. It costs
but two or three dollars, while coal costs five to seven per ton.
The management of the ice would be extremely simple. The
cooling apparatus should be put in the garret, for cold air comes
down. And there would be less waste of the cold air than of
heated air.

Several methods have been proposed of producing ice artifici-
ally in summer.

Thus : Water is exposed in India in shallow vessels upon a

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 377

cloudless night, and the small pellicle which is formed upon the
surface from the evaporation and radiation, is carefully gathered
and sold. This is very expensive.

Ice has been produced by dissolving various salts (the nitrate
of ammonia, for example) in water, or in acids. After examination
of this method by a French society similar to ours, it was decided
that the ice produced in that way would cost over five cents
per pound. Dr. Gorrey proposed to condense air, to squeeze the
heat out of it, so to speak, and to allow it to expand in contact
with Avater, which it would freeze. With his ingeniously con-
structed apparatus, he has produced five or six thousand pounds
of ice in a day ; but at a cost a good deal higher than the natural
ice — a cost of forty dollars per ton instead of three dollars.
Prof Twining has a plan for making ice by the evaporation of
ether. He has built several machines ; and, I presume there is
no doubt they are better than any others.

The theoretical cost of the manufacture of ice is very easily
calculated. There is a relation between all the physical forces
by which one may be measured by another. A certain amount
of electricity is worth a certain amount of heat. So many foot-
pounds are equal to so much heat, or so much electricity, or so
much cold ; for the same amount of power which would be
required to increase the temperature of a body by ten degrees,
would be required to diminish it by ten degrees.

It has been proposed to generate heat by mechanical means.
Water has been boiled by the heat produced by friction.
Water may also be frozen by mechanical force. Knowing how
much heat a given power will produce, we know how much cold
it will produce, and consequently how much ice.

The apparatus of Mr. Gorrey or of Prof Twining, if applied
merely to cool air ten or twenty degrees, which would be all
that would be requisite, would probably be of more value than
applied to the manufacture of ice, because there need be no
loss by radiation.

Mr. Fisher. — A pound of coal will melt one hundred pounds
of ice. Or it will melt sixty pounds and raise it to the tempera-
ture of fifty or sixty degrees, when it will be no longer useful
for cooling. So that a ton of coal will do as much as sixty tons
of ice. I apprehend that if we used ice for cooling the air, we
could get it much cheaper than we now do ; for that which we
now use is derived from the best of water, and brought a long

378 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

distance ; whereas, for mere refrigeration any ice will answer
equally well. It appears to me desiraLle to inquire whether
mechanical methods, such as the compression of air, may not be
used, so that coal, instead of ice, may be used for cooling.

Mr. Dibben. — The cooling of houses by ice is not new. Though
it may not be in use for cooling private residences, yet it is used
to a considerable extent in this city for cooling packing-houses,
where they cut up and pack in the summer time thousands of
tons of fresh meats, simply by having a good non-conducting
exterior to the house, having double or triple windows, and
having a reservoir or cistern of ice for the air to pass through.
The temperature in that way may be kept down to forty or fifty
degrees all through the summer. But as a practical thing in
our houses, I doubt whether it would be beneficial to our health.
Generally in the summer season, the air is within eight or ten
degrees of the dew-point, or point of saturation. Lower the air
ten degrees, and it would begin to deposit moisture. I am
inclined to think that this moisture would produce various
derangements of the human system. Again, we must remember
that in order that the cooling of the air should be economical,
the windows must be closed.

For the large cities, Charleston, Savannah, New Orleans,
wherever there is direct communication with the Hudson river
and with Boston, there can be no competition in the making of
ice. But for small country towns an ice machine might perhaps
be worked to advantage.

Mr. Koch described an apparatus for producing ice artificially,
consisting of two hollow splieres connected by a pipe. One of
the spheres contains ammonia, and the other is submerged in
water. By the application of heat the ammonia is evaporated
until the pressure is sufficient to liquify it upon the other side.
As soon as the heating apparatus is taken away, the ammonia
becomes vapor and goes back. This would freeze the water.
Then the process may be repeated.

Mr. Seely suggested that the change of temperature desirable
in summer is very far less than that in winter, so that the same
means will produce a far greater effect. Mr. Dibben's objection
appears far more formidable than the mere question of cost.
But the operation would be such as to prevent the air from
becoming so moist ; for in passing over the ice the air becomes
cooled and immediately deposits its excess of moisture upon the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 379

ice or cooling surface, and, as it is graclnally warmed in its descent,
it expands, and the dew-point is lowered ; so that the dew-point
would be as far below the temperature within the house, as if
there had been no cooling.

Mr. Dibben. — Five degrees reduction of temperature would
be all that would be required to make a very sensible difference.
I think it would be better to change the air moderately and
give us more of it. Mr. I), proceeded to describe the eastern
method of hanging up mats, &c., to cool the air by evaporation,
and an apparatus of his own, producing the same effect with the
use of porous earthen ware.

Mr. Johnson described a method of refrigeration, by placing in
the window a box filled with ice, and pierced with pipes to admit
the air from the outside, so that all the admitted air must pass
through the pipes.

Mr. Seely remarked that the plan cited by Mr. Koch was a
very pretty experiment to show a class in chemistry ; but prac-
tically it Avould be useless, on account, in part, of the fact that
the heat must be removed at each operation.

Mr. Churchill considered the question of moist air very
important. He had found that a draft is seldom injurious at a high
temperature unless it is damp, but that a person subject to neu-
ralgia, for instance, would find a damp draft of air verypainful.

Mr. Rowell stated that the temperature of the earth fifty feet
below the surface is but fifty or fifty-four degrees, and proposed
that the Croton water should be carried down that distance by
a bend in the pipe, to cool it.

Mr. Fisher. — It would soon warm the earth so as to be ineffi-
cient.

Mr. Rowell. — Not if it come to a stratum of water. That
would keep it cool.

The same subject was continued. Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, ?

May 30, 1861. ]
Professor Cyaus Mason in the chair.

BREAD machinery.

Mr. Fisher called attention to a new plan for making bread
which had been lately introduced in a bakery on the Third
avenue. Water mixed with flour is impregnated with carbonic

380 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

acid gas pumped in under a pressure of 150 lbs. to the square
inch. The mixture can be kneaded and put into the oven with-
out delay. The bread is good in texture and quality, and will
keep sweet longer than bread made in the ordinary way.

Mr. Dibben considered the effect of the mode of raising to be
so different from raising with yeast, that persons with weak
stomachs would object to it. Its novelty would be its chief
attraction.

Mr. Seely considered the practical result in raising the bread
to be substantially the same as in raising it with yeast. It was
a question de gusiibus more than of anything else. Persons with
weak stomachs might be so influenced by their prejudices as to
find the bread difficult to digest. The experiment has been tried
of using atmospheric air instead of carbonic acid gas, but the
bread came out of a dark color, a circumstance which chemists
have been puzzled to account for.

The Chairman stated that he had invited the proprietor of this
new machinery to come to the Association and bring a sample of
the bread, and that the subject would then be resumed.

Mr. Johnson said that Mr. Garvey had suggested mixing the
flour with water merely, and then raising it by placing it in a
vacuum. Mr. J. had tried the experiment successfully. When the
dough is thus raised, and the air is let in upon it, it falls some-
what, but still is very light.

ICE AND ITS FORMATION.

The Association resumed the consideration of the question of
•' Ice, and Methods of Refrigeration."

The Chairman requested Mr. Seeley to state the variety of
temperatures of the formation and melting of ice.

Mr. Scely. — I believe it is settled that ice will melt uniformly
at the same temperature, 32 deg., but the freezing point, while
never higher than 32 deg., may, under certain circumstances, be
15 deg. below. Water, when peculiarly still, may be liquid at
the temperature of 17 deg. But if the water be then moved in
the least, by a breath of air, or the dropping in of a grain of
sand, it will instantly become solid. Water which is impure will
have a different freezing point. Adding alcohol, or certain salts,
to water, will reduce the temperature at which it freezes, very
much.

Dr. Vanderweyde had witnessed the sudden freezing of water^
which had remained liquid at 23 deg., by jarring the floor. The

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 381

temperature of the water was immediately raised to 32 deg.,
just enough water freezing to evolve latent heat sufficient to
bring the temperature of the whole up to 32 deg.

The Chairman cited the fact that ice will be liquified under
pressure, even below 32 deg., as explaining the movement of the
glaciers along the valleys of Switzerland. It had been found that
these glaciers move from 2^ to 500 feet per annum, horizontally,
from the more confined towards the wider mouths of the valleys.
It was found, upon setting down a line of stalks directly across
the valley, that in a few days the line would be curved, the cen-
tral portion moving the most rapidly. Mr. Thompson discovered,
in his laboratory, that pressure applied to ice, without any change
of temperature, would dissolve a portion of it, which would
immediately become solid upon the removal of the pressure.. He
took a bar of ice, and by the application of pressure bent it into
the form of a hoop, still of solid ice.

Dr. Vanderweyde stated that a heavy block of stone, lying
upon ice, with the temperature below the freezing point, will, by
its \veight, melt the ice below it so as gradually to make its way
into the ice.

Dr. Stevens. — Glaciers were found to move ftister by day than
by night, and faster in the summer than in the winter season.
They never thaw; but there is an expansion of the ice by heat.
I do not understand that there is a pressure from the mountain
side in towards the middle.

Dr. Vanderweyde. — In my opinion there is a pressure of the ice
upon the ground where it is lying. There is a slight quantity of
ice melted, and as the ice field is inclined, there is a slight motion
of it. Notwithstanding the valley becomes narrower, the motion
will be down the valley, and the ice will conform to the shape of
the valley. As the ice presses against an immovable rock the ice
will be thawed in front of it, and frozen again behind it, where
the pressure is removed, and thus the body of ice is permitted to
move.

Mr. Fisher. — All bodies radiate heat, and also receive heat
from other bodies. Heat is passing up through the earth con-
tinually, and through the ice ; but anything laid upon the ice
has the effect of clothing it and retaining the heat. That I
should consider a more plausible explanation than the mere pres-
sure of so light a substance.

The Chairman stated that on the next evening he would be

382 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

prepared to give an account of Mr. Thompson's experiments
demonstrating the liquefaction of ice by pressure.

He then proceeded to consider the formation of ice, and to
compare it with the crystalization produced by the cooling of
iron, and with the crystalization of stones. He had observed
the toughness of newly formed ice. Upon examining a cake of
ice, it will be found that the upper portion, less than an inch in
thickness, which is first formed, is solid, while the remainder of
it is full of pores, like houey-comb. This lower portion of the
ice is formed of large crystals, which bear a striking resemblance
to the crystals of a pig of the Franklinite ore which has been
heated and thrown into water. The outer sixteenth of an inch
will bear frequent bending, Avhile the remainder of the pig will
break at a blow. Shaving off a single inch from the top of a
thick cake virtually destroys the strength of that cake of ice.
Hence in the spring, after the warm weather or the rain have
thawed the upper stratum of ice, it is brittle and easily broken
through, even although it may be twelve or fifteen inches thick.
The upper crystals run horizontally, giving strength to the ice,
while the lower crystals are larger and run perpendicularly.

Mr. Veeder suggested that the ice upon the surface is more
rapidly formed and therefore does not form so perfect a crystal.
But after the ice is sufficiently thick to form a coating to the
water below, the process is much more slow, and the crystals have
time to take their perfect form. It was formerly the practice, in
storing ice, to cut off the top, calling it pithy ice. But it is
found better to keep it on.

Mr. Seely said that water is at its greatest density at a tem-
perature between 39 deg. and 40 deg. When exposed to a cold
atmosphere, the water upon the surface sinks until the whole
reaches the temperature of 39 deg. After that the coldest water,
being the lightest, remains on the top, and being a slow conduc-
tor of heat, there may be a temperature of zero in more than two
inches of ice, while half an inch below the ice the temperature
of the water may be 33 deg. The first ice is formed rapidly, and
there is no perfect crystalization. After that the water cools
more gradually, and being kept still, the crystals are larger and
assume a definite form. Water freezes in needle-shaped crystals,
always crossing each other at the angle of 60 deg.

Mr. C. W. Smith asked for an explanation of the formation of
ground ice.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 383

Dr. Vandervveyde compared it to the deposit of dew. The
bottom of the stream radiates its heat through the water, becom-
ing colder than the water, and at last cold enough to freeze the
•water in contact with it.

Mr. Smith had observed the phenomenon only in rapidly flow-
ing streams, and liis own explanation would be that the ice crys-
tals, formed on the surface, are washed away by the current,
M'hile the rocks upon the bottom form centers of crystalization
to which the particles of ice can attach themselves.

Dr. Yanderweyde said that might assist in the operation.

Mr. Dibben explained the formation of ice at the bottom of
running water, under certain circumstances, in another way.
For instance, in New York bay, there is an incoming tide for six
hours, of salt water, of a temperature perhaps as low as 25 .deg,,
cooling the surface of the earth below ; then the tide turns, and
comparatively fresh water conies down over that very earth, and
is consequently frozen. It is wortliy of mention that ice, in a
still place, is more brittle than that where the water is in motion.
After the surface is covered the particles of water cannot move
freely, and the crystals will be differently formed. It is very
probable that the last formed crystals thaw first.

Dr. Stevens related the disastrous effects resulting from
anchor or ground ice in Southern New York, where it is the
general opinion that anchor ice never forms where there is a
large amount of snow on the ground. The ground seems to be
colder than the stream.

The subject of "Ice and Methods of Refrigeration," was
continued.

The Association adjourned to meet on Wednesday evening
next at a quarter before eight o'clock.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association,

June 5, 1861.
Prof. Cyrus Mason in the chair.

CAR-BRAKE.

On motion of ifr. Yeeder, the committee appointed March 6th,
on a new car-brake, Avas discharged from the further considera-
tion of the subject.

384 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

parks' telegraphic apparatus.
Mr. Johnson presented the following report, which was adopted.
To the Polytechnic Association of the American Institute:

The committee to whom were referred certain alleged improve-
ments in the telegraphic art, respectfully report, that they have
examined the system presented by Mr. A. E. Parks of Brooklyn,
and find that its most important feature, is an alphabet which
chiefly differs from that of Prof. Morse and others, in being writ-
ten on two lines in such a way as to make the position of a
character on the upper or lower line an element of distinction,
thus enabling us to dispense with one-half of the ordinary char-
acters. The instrument employed by Mr. Park's is specially con-
trived for the use of his alphabet.

Our opinion of the invention is favorable, and we take pleasure
in commending it to the Association.

June 5, 1861. JOHN JOHxXSON,

CHARLES A. SEELY,
P. H. VANDERWEYDE,
FRANK DIBBEN.

DE BRAME'S revolving CANNON.

Mr. Dibben stated that there was a gentleman present, Mr. De
Brame, who had invented a new revolving cannon. He had wit-
nessed experiments with it, several members of the Polytechnic
Association being present, and they had invited the inventor to
exhibit and explain his model to the Association to-night.

At the invitation of the President, Mr. De Brame came forward
and explained his model :

In the revolving cannon, my main object was to produce entire
coolness everywhere. Six chambers form the breech of the
cannon ; and after one has been discharged, and the cannon is
revolved, it is open at both ends, so that the gases which have
been in the chamber can escape by the draft or ventilation
through it. At the next turn, the chamber is left free to be
swabbed out by the gunner, &c. There are always four cham-
bers open to the air, so that each chamber is cooling through four
successive discharges before it is reloaded. The next thing to
be done is to secure ventilation of the barrel, which remains
fixed. To accomplish this I have hit upon a very strange
device. It occurred to me that the object of the barrel being
chiefly to give direction to the shot, it was not necessary for it

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 385

to be closed. I have, therefore, retained of the barrel only the
bars constituting the rifling of the cannon, keeping them in place
by surrounding them at proper intervals with rings. These
bars, of course, will give the same direction to the shot as if the
barrel were closed, while the air passes freely through, and there-
fore the barrel cannot get heated.

I have been told by many persons that the expansive force of
th-e powder ought to follow the ball up to the muzzle, and if
there were any holes in the barrel a portion of that expansive
force would be lost. I am not much versed in the principles of
artillery, but I can tell you the results of my own experience and
experiments. By surrounding these bars with this tight fitting
covering, I can convert it into a closed barrel, in which the ele-
ment of fraction will be precisely the same. I have charged
this cannon with single, double, and triple charges of powder,
and fired into targets made of a thousand sheets of paper, first
with the closed barrel, and then with the open barrel. I have
made these experiments before many scientific gentlemen, and
yesterday before three members of the Polytechnic Association :
Messrs. Stetson, Dibben, and C. W. Smith. I requested Mr. Dib-
ben to prepare the charge of powder, that he might be sure that
the same quantity and same kind of powder should be used in
both cases. We found, as these gentlemen can testify, that the
penetration was considerably greater witli the open than with the
closed barrel. This result I have found not only with this small
model, but with larger pieces. I have taken two Hall's carbines,
identically alike, opening the bai'rel of the one and leaving that
of the other untouched, and have found tliat the projectile would
come with at least as great force from that which I had opened as
from the other.

The advantage of having a barrel that cannot get heated is
very considerable. The Armstrong gim will shoot very accu-
rately for a few rounds ; but the history of the Crimean, the Aus-
trian, and lately of the Chinese war, shows that however accu-
rately these and the French rifled cannon may perform at first,
after thirty or forty rounds the aim cannot be depended upon.
The reason is obvious. If the particles of metal are ever so
slightly expanded upon one side more than upon the other, it
curyes the barrel sufficiently to injure the accuracy of the aim.
With free ventilation, this injurious eflect cannot be produced.

[Am. Inst.J Y

386 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AJUERICAN INSTITUTE.

I have added to my cannon a little device suggested to me by
an article in the Scientific .American six or eight weeks ago>
which stated that sharp shooters at 800 yards distance could
shoot down, within sixty seconds, every horse, and disable every
man of a battery. I have added, therefore, this protecting shield
or screen, which ordinarily lies between the trunnions and the
wheels, but when to be used by flying artillery, may be very
quickl}'' unfolded, and will be proof against the balls of Minie
rifles, protecting the gunners and horses. Of course, I should not
expect so liglit a structure to be proof against cannon balls; but
its elasticity and strength will be sufficient to protect those who
are behind it from sharp shooters. This little model is made
upon a scale from the six-pounders used in the army. Seven and a
half times its size corresponds to the size of the six-pounder. It
is evident, tlierefore, that there will be the same amount of room
for the folded shield on the six-pounder as on the model.

The performance of this little piece has been witnessed by
Gen'l Wm. Hall and his staff, and also by Colonel Rowan, C. B.,
of H. B. M.'s artillery, now in this city, who was in the Crimean
campaign, and is a thorough scientific man.

I omitted to mention that the principle of this cannon removes
the objections to revolving cannon which have hitherto proved
insurmountable. It has been found that revolving cannon could
not be fired oftener than single barrels, on account of the heat,
and the free ventilation will prevent that. It will be observed,
too, that the weight of a revolving gun will be very materially
diminished by opening the barrel in the manner I have described.

Mr. Stetson. — Mr. De Brame has explained this so fully and
clearly as to leave very little for us to say, further than to certify
to the facts in the experiments we witnessed. We saw the piece
charged and fired repeatedly. The charges were prepared under
the immediate supervision of Mr. Dibben, so that there could be
no deception about it. We found that the penetration without
this cap was greater, the difference being distinctly recognized
by counting the sheets of paper through which the balls passed.
It would require further trials upon a larger scale to determine
whether the theory is true, but all the experiments with this
model were favorable to the invention.

The sheet iron curtain is a separate invention, and seems to be
entitled to be regarded with favor. It is no new thing to use
readily removable shutters in fortifications ; and I think they

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 387

have been used on board ships in the American service, and used
with very good eifect when vessels were engaged in close action.
It is evident that such a curtain can only be used with a breech-
loading cannon, for it would be of very little use if the gunner
was unprotected while charging the cannon. The question what
will be the effect upon them of the recoil of the gun, and whether
any provision will have to be made to prevent their being shaken
to pieces, will be best determined b}^ the test of trial.

Mr. Haskell suggested that the cap which closed the barrel did
not entirel}' prevent the air from passing the ball between the
bars.

Mr. De Brame. — I will remedy that.

Mr. C. W. Smith expressed the opinion that the quality of the
powder was an important element in answering the question.
The friction of the barrel, especially for expanding balls, affects
the result. The result of the elaborate series of experiments of
the British government was, that the most convenient length for
cannon is from seven to eleven times the diameter of the bore.

Dr. Vanderweyde said that if the barrel is closed and too long,
the ball would be retarded for the last part of the distance by the
resisting pressure of the air in front of the ball becoming greater
than the continually diminishing force of the powder. In such a
case, making the barrel shorter, or opening the sides as in the
model exhibited, would allow the escape of the air in front of the
ball, and permit it to move freely from its inertia. This cannon
certainly gives us the advantage of the greater accuracy of a
very long barrel, without the disadvantage of the resistance of
the air. It would seem as if the force of the powder would be
expended through those openings ; but the experiments seem to
show that the powder burns too quickly for that. The friction,
of course, is less, for the ball flies along upon a kind of rail with
only enough friction to direct its course.

Mr. Rowell had witnessed experiments with rifle barrels to
ascertain at what length the charge exerted the maximum force
upon the ball, and the result was a barrel twenty-two inches in
length was found to be the most effective. The remaining length
of the rifle barrel then is only useful to direct the ball, and might
be opened without injury.

Dr. Vanderweyde suggested that it would be an interesting
experiment with this revolving gun to fire it with its maximum

388 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

charge over white paper, to determine whether any of the powder
escapes unburned.

Mr. Be Brame. — I will try that experiment.

ARTIFICIAL FORMATION OF ICE.

The Chairman spoke of the importance of the snbject of refri-
geration, upon the transportation of fruit. The fruits imported
from warm climates are now more than one half destroyed by
exposure on the passage. This year, the importation being unu-
sually great, three-fourths on an average, of all the shipments,
have been destroyed. Those which are received in a sound state
are very unlike the fruit where it is grown, because they are
picked in an unripe state and ripen very imperfectly. "VVe need
refrigerating vessels, which shall go to the southern ports loaded
with ice, and removing three-fourths to seven-eighths of their
cargo of ice, shall bring back a load of ripe fruits suited to our
market. By this means, the fruit business which is now so pre-
carious, might be made more profitable and certain, and the com-
munity largely benefitted. A somewhat similar plan has already
been adopted in land transportation. Every third or fourth day
a car arrives in this city from the far west, loaded with dressed
meat and game ; and they arrive in the finest condition. They
are here stored in a building so prepared that they can be kept
with safety until they are required for use.

Prof. Twining explained his method of forming ice by the
evaporation of ether. His attention had been called some fifteen
years ago to the making of ice ; and be had tried two methods:
first, the expansion of air ; and second, the evaporation of some
liquid. The first method he had not found available in practice;
but by the evaporation of ether, he could freeze a pail of water
with extreme rapidity. Indeed, in his first experiment, the water
froze' too rapidly, producing a porous substance like hoar frost.
It must freeze more slowly in order to form clear and compact
ice. His method had been used in forming cakes of ice twelve
inches square and six inches thick, and these could be obtained
in twenty-four hours. Such cakes could be furnished in any
number that might be desired. They weigh thirty pounds a piece.
The vessels in which the ice forms are never broken by the expan-
sion of the ice, because the watur freezes from the outside, the
interior being all open water. The cost of the ice depends upon
the magnitude of the establishment. With coal at $10 a ton,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 389

and labor at $1.25 per day, an establishment making fifty tons
per day, would make the ice for $2.50 per ton. It costs the
merchant Avho buys at retail about $13 a ton at New Orleans.
At San Francisco, large cargoes are brought from Sitka sound,
and sold at $40 to $100 per ton. Boston ice cannot be carried
there for $60 per ton. In Australia it is worth $100 per ton ;
and frequently cannot be obt.-^ined there at all.

Mr. Leslie exhibited a model of Bartlett's Polar Refrigerator.
It has a central ice chamber of a wedge shape, the point being
downwards. . The sides of the ice chamber are of corrugated
metal, on which the moisture in the provision chambers is con-
densed, causing the confined air to be dry.

The Chairman suggested the importance of well arranged
experiments with the different refrigerators in the market, to
determine practically what are their comparative merits. Sellers
of refrigerators generally represent that a less quantity of
ice is necessary than families find to be so, in practical use.

Mr. Dibben considered ventilation as important as keeping
cold or keeping dry, to get rid of the putrefying gases.

Dr. Yanderweyde stated that for every pound of moisture con-
densed, seventeen pounds of ice must be melted. It is therefore
important in conducting experiments to note the humidity of
the atmosphere. The soluble .gases will pass off merely from
the condensation of the moisture of the air, and the removal of
the condensed moisture ; but there are other gases arising from
decay which are insoluble and which will remain unless there is
ventilation.

Subject for discussion. — The subject selected for discussion at
the next meeting, was, " Cooking and portable apparatus for
cooking." Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association,

June 13, 18G1.
Mr. Jireh Bull in the chair.

copper-plate printing by machinery.
Mr. Johnson exhibited specimens of steel-plate and copper-
plate engravings, printed by machinery. The plate is put upon
an endless belt passing horizontally over rollers. While inverted
it is first inked, and then the excess of ink is taken oft' by a felt

390 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

belt. The plate then passes roiiiid, coming above the rollers,
and the impression is worked off. The apparatus was invented
by Mr. Neale. The cost of printing is very much reduced, for
the machine can print ten times as many as can be printed by
hand labor.

Mr. Tillman. — Similar attempts have been made in lithographic
printing, and have been successful to a certain extent. This is
an ingenious machine, and will be useful for many kinds of
work ; but I doubt whether work of the best description could
be done in the manner proposed. A little human intellect is
necessary to regulate the wiping off of the ink to get it precisely
right, so that engravings of the highest description must still be
printed by hand.

Mr. Seely stated that this machine was regarded by practical
engravers as a success. The difficulty in lithographic printing
by machinery had been the heating of the stone, which injured
the results.

Mr. Fisher said this machine would be very valuable for maps,
coarse engraving, fashion plates, and many other classes of work.
The cost of small steel engravings is not much greater than that
of copper-plates; but the durability is very much greater
While a copper-plate will not give more than 1,000 good impres-
sions, a steel plate will produce 150,000.

Mr. Tillman. — Lithographic printing can be done just as well
upon zinc or even steel as upon stone (although the name implies
that it is printing from stone), and then, of course, it would
stand in the same light as copper or steel plate.

Mr. Churchill remarked that recent improvements in the art
of multiplying engravings have so much diminished the cost of
the plates, that it op^ns a new field for machinery in printing
from plates.

COOKING AND COOKING APPARATUS.

Mr. Seely. — There are no inferior animals who cook their food,
or prepare it in any way. I will not except the bee and the
squirrel. Even these only collect their food, they do not subject
it to the action of heat or to any chemical agency. I suppose
cooking to be a human invention, and probably it was discovered
by accident. Even now there are nations which do not practice
the art of cooking. Vegetables, in my opinion, are generally
spoiled by cooking. "We make stews and preserves of fruit,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECH?^IC ASSOCIATION. 391

either for the sake of variety or to preserve them. Nations
which inhabit cold climates and eat oil, cannot improve it hy
cooking. But cooking is a necessity for civilization. The men
of the sharpest intellect, and who can do the most work, are
those who use cooked food. There is alwa3's a chemical change
in cooking. In flour, all or nearly all the original chemical
principles are changed, and portions before soluble in water,
become insoluble. In cooking an egg, the albumen coagulates ;
and the same eftect is produced in cooking meat. The best general
rule with regard to cooking and to eating, is to cook so and to
eat so that the food shall agree with us. What is one man's
meat, is another man's poison ; and each must learn for himself
what is best.

Mr. Fisher inc(uired what was the proper temperature for baking
bread.

Mr. Rowell, — An ordinary brick oven is heated to four hundred
degrees befoie putting the bread in, and stands at about two
hundred and forty degrees when it is taken out.

Mr. Banks exhibited Morrill's yEro-vapor cooking-stove and
apparatus, for alcohol or burning fluid. It is a small, portable
apparatus, making no smoke or smell, and the lamp, when filled,
Avill burn five or six hours. Flatirons can be heated by it in
four or five minutes, the heated air passing directly through the
flatiron.

Mr. Tillman stated that persons using this or similar stoves
should be cautioned as to the large amount of poisonous matter
thrown off b}' them into the room. They generate a large
amount of carbonic acid gas; and there should always be some
provision for taking this out of the room, either by a pipe lead-
ing into the chimney, or in some other way.

Mr. Churchill remarked that the water produced in the con-
sumption of alcohol would absorb a considerable quantity of
carbonic acid gas.

Mr. Dibben. — The consumption of alcohol was much more
harmless than the consumption of coal, ^ or coke, or gas; for
these contain phosphorets and sulphurets which are much
more injurious than carbonic acid gas. An apparatus like this
in a room would not be more injurious than a common stove, and
not half as much as a couple of gas-burners. Cooking over
alcohol, as in broiling beef steak, does not cause the meat to
take a flavor from noxious gases. Coal is cheaper for cooking

392 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

large quantities of meat than gas or alcohol. But for a small
family, requiring a small fire for a few minutes only, the saving
of the fuel employed in kindling the fire, and left to burn away
after the fire had been used, together with the saving of time,
will make alcohol cheaper than coal. Gas would be cheaper
than alcohol, but it is objectionable on account of its quality,

Mr. Rowell said that the reason for the difficulty in browning
meat in the oven was that the upper part of the oven was filled
with steam. If a hole is made in one corner to let off this
steam, there will be no difficulty.

Mr. Simpson had used a gas stove resembling this, having a
partition near the back, and a ventilation in the back, taking the
steam from the top of the oven. There was no difficulty in
browning, excepting when the ventilator was accidentally closed.

Mr. Babcock remarked that gas would more readily brown
than alcohol, in consequence of the water mixed Avith the latter.

Mr. Johnson said that the gas stoves had been put in many
houses, and had generally been discarded in consequence of the
perfectly' villainous odor when in use. It ought never to be used
in the house.

Mr. Seely considered that an unnecessary nuisance. If a
brimstone match is lighted in a room, it is at. once perceptible ;
but the gas ma}^ be burning all the evening, and there is not
enough sulphur burned to attract anybody's attention. Portable
apparatus for cooking on a small scale is not adapted for the use
of the army ; for then the cooking should be done for the com-
pany or the regiment, and not for individuals. Wood and coal
can be obtained in the locality; so that they need apparatus
which will be adapted to wood and coal, rather than to gas or
alcohol.

Mr. Johnson. — When gas forms light there is no objection to
it; but when it is used to form heat, and the products of com-
bustion are not taken directly into the chimney, they are so
offensive that this use of gas is abandoned by those who have
tried it.

Mr. Seely. — The reason is that the flame is brought in contact
with tlie article to be heated too soon. Hold a cold plate over
a gas flame and it will be covered with lamp black, and there
will be an odor from it, because the compound is only partially
burned. A Bunsen burner, I think, can always be burned so as
not to produce this odor.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 393

.A'eiw subject. — On motion of Mr. Fisher,

The subject of " Gunboats" was selected for discussion upon
the next evening.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, ?

June 20, 1861. ^
Prof. Cyrus Mason in the chair,

NEW electro-magnet.

Dr. Vanderweyde exhibited and explained an electro-magnet
upon a new principle. The magnetic action of a wire conduct-
ing a voltaic current extends in all directions in a plane perpen-
dicular to its axis. If, therefore, a spiral wire surrounds a core
of iron, the magnetic action of the wire is only made available
on one side of the wire, that of the other side being lost. In
1852, Nickle constructed an electrp-magnet, having a bar on each
side outside of the coil ; both of these were connected Avith one
end of the core. This electro-magnet was found to be stronger
than one formed of the same quantity of iron and coil used in the
common way. The effect of the outer bars was to render a por-
tion of the magnetic action of the wire opposite the central core
available. Upon a similar principle, Roberts constructed an
electro-magnet, made of a block of iron about seven inches
square, with deep grooves, the copper Avire being wound around
the portions of the iron thus separated, so that these portions
are ultimately north and south poles. Witli this magnet, he
suspended 2,676 pounds. But here the portions of the Avire
outside of the magnet have not the Avhole of their magnetic
action brought into play. The new arrangement proposes to
extend this principle so as to use all the magnetic poAver of the
wire, by surrounding it Avith the iron. There is an interior iron
core, Avound Avith a helix, outside of Avhich is an iron tube con-
nected Avitli the core at one end by an iron disk through Avhich
the extremities of the Avire pass to the battery. The keeper is
a disk placed upon the other end, fitting exactly both the core
and the tube. The polarity^ of the surrounding tube Avill be the
reverse of that of the central core ; so that one pole Avill be in
the center, and the other around the circumference. If the iron
core Avere removed from this electro-magnet, it Avould have very
little poAver, the action of the Avires on the opposite sides neu-
tralizing each other's effect; but the introduction of the core,

394 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

first, cuts off this opposing action of the wires at the opposite
halves of the helix ; second, causes the core to become itself
magnetized ; and thirdly, by this magnetism induces a magnet-
ism of the opposite kind in the outer tube, which is added to
the magnetism induced by the coil. A magnet, therefore, of this
form will be peculiarly sensitive to weak currents, and will
enable us with the same battery to telegraph to a greater dis-
tance.

Mr. Johnson had made a horse-shoe magnet, with the ends
turned inward, so as to point exactly opposite to their usual
direction, bringing the keeper entirely inside of the magnet, and
winding it to the poles, in the usual way. He had found it much
stronger than the same wire would have been if the magnet
had been in the ordinary horse-shoe form. This tended to cor-
roborate Dr. Vanderweyde's theory.

REFRIGERATION.

The Chairman said that it was desirable that there should be
an examination of the different refrigerators now in use, and
especially for the purpose of ascertaining what is the importance
of circulating a current of air within the provision chamber of
a refrigerator. He had observed that in those refrigerators
Avhich have a circulating current of air, however small, the con-
tents would be found free from any disagreeable odor ; while in
others, kept entirely closed, and the air kept still, there would
soon be a disagreeable odor, even while the contents of the
refrigerator remained substantially sound.

SAWING SHIP TIMBER.

Mr. Haskell presented the following report :

Report of the committee of the Polytechnic Association of the
American Institute, appointed to examine the sawing machine
of Mr. H. S. Vroomau.

The committee have examined the machine, and seen it at
work; and have also examined the records of patents, to find
what had been done before in machines of this kind ; and have
come to the conclusion that Mr. Vrooman's invention is the only
one that automatically saws the shapes required for ship build-
ing, and other work in which compound curves are required ; and
that it is a highly useful machine, and as simple in construction
as could be expected, considering what it accomplishes.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 395

It is capable of copying any pattern in which the curves flow
into each other, and the surfaces can be touched by straight lines
at right angles to the length. The guiding apparatus can be in
a short time adjusted ; and, when adjusted, an indefinite number
of pieces can be made exactly alike.

It is therefore Avell adapted for sawing ship timber, which
requires the shapes to be much varied ; and also for architectural
and cabinet Avork, in which many pieces are required to be alike.

It may also be used to saw straight work, and for this use is
in some points better than common machines ; and a shop pro-
vided with this would, to the extent of its capacity, be relieved
from the expense and incumbrance of a common machine for
straight work.

There have been numerous wood shaping machines, highly efS-
cient, and ingenious, which have produced forms similar to those
of this sawing machine ; but they waste timber, by cutting it
into chips, and also waste power. The saw wastes only the tim-
ber from the saw kerf, and the power necessary to reduce that
amount of timber to saw-dust ; and in many kinds of work this
will be found a great advantage.

Ju7ie 20, 1860. M. HASKELL,

J. K. FISHER,
JOHN JOHNSON",

Coinmiftee.

Mr. Fisher exhibited specimens of the work sawed by the model
machine, -some of the specimens being not only serpentine in
form, but with the two portions of the reflex curve bevelled in
opposite directions. He said that there seemed to be no ten-
dency in the saw to follow the grain of the wood, but that it fol-
lowed the prescribed path accurately. There was verj^ little
waste, either of wood, or of power in its use. It works rapidly
and is strictly automatic; so that when once adjusted to any
particular form, ten thousand pieces may be sawed of that exact
shape. He saw no reason to suppose that there would be any
more difiiculty in the construction or operation of a full-sized
machine for sawing ship-timber, than in the model.

The report was adopted.

GUN-BOATS.

Mr. Fisher said that at the present time the government is
authorizing the construction of gun-boats which are not to be

396 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

constructed upon the best principle. The boiler is to be so high
that a portion of it will be exposed to shot entering the vessel
above the water line. It is proposed to protect the boiler by-
coal; but the protecting power of coal is very small. A 32-lb.
shot has been known to pass through 18 feet of coal. Steam gun-
boats should have a high speed, for a short time at least; and at
the same time should be economical. We should not -construct
vessels like the Collins' steamers to do work which can be done
by vessels costing one-fourth as much. We need not construct
as large vessels as we should expect to provide in time of peace,
for the men who engage to serve in war will expect to work hard
and expose themselves to hardships and dangers. We need not
build them excessively large, in order that they may be more com-
fortable for the officers and crew. He should not think we need
to build gun-boats at present larger than sufficient to carry one
large gun and from ^0 to 100 men. Such vessels need not draw
more than six or seven feet of water. It is a mistaken idea that
a low pressure boiler is any safer for a gun-boat. What is
required mainly is efficiency, and want of efficiency is in itself
want of safety. But the low pressure boiler is unsafe for another
reason ; that it must necessarily be more exposed to shot, and the
damage from the escaping steam is very great in case of penetra-
tion of a shot into the boiler. A locomotive boiler to develop
more power than can be developed in the nine foot boilers pro-
posed, can be placed within four feet of the floor timbers. It
w'ould be necessary to cool the water or to use a surface condenser,
but that difficulty has already been efficiently provided for. An
equal amount of heating surface in a locomotive boiler will
evaporate three or four times as much water as in the boilers
usually adapted to marine engines. They are also much lighter.
Connected with this is the question of working steam expan-
sively. We are now told that there is no advantage in working
steam expansively. But, although in engines not properly pro-
tected there is perhaps not much advantage in working steam
expansively ; yet in those properly clothed there is an immense
gain from expansion. A large engine acting slowly, is in itself a
surface condenser to some extent. But in gun-boats there is no
difficulty at all in keeping the steam dry and cylinders hot ; and
if the proper heating apparatus should give out, it can be shut off
in an instant and the work can proceed in the old way. Loco-
motives have been built by thousands, and are found to develop

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 397

the greatest efficiency for vigorous work. These boilers are
applicable in many cases where they are not used because people
are afraid of them. But for gun-boats, there is no reason why
they should not be adopted ; for they w^ill be safer as well as more
efficient than marine boilers.

Mr. Montgomery expressed his views in relation to the proper
boilers for gun-boats, adverse to the use of the locomotive boiler
as being inferior to a boiler proposed by himself.

Mr. Garbanati said that the gun-boats of the olden time were
merely flat-bottomed boats, or rafts, carrying a large gun, and
found to be very effective in taking a vessel at anchor. The
English government introduced the steam gun-boat in the Cri-
mean war. We need gun-boats of a small draught of water, to
run up rivers; and if we can use the locomotive boiler so as to
obtain also great speed, it will be an advantage.

Mr. Fisher. — In speaking of the space required by the
locomotive boiler, he had not referred to the shape of the loco-
motive boilers in common use, but with certain changes which
would diminish the height materially, and which had been found
successful in practice. Allan's boiler, for instance, Avhich has
been used upon a Scottish railway, can be put up within the
height of four feet. The receptacle for steam, instead of being a
dome above, may be placed on the same level with the boiler,
there being no lack of room in this direction; and, it could be
furnished with a pump to remove the water as it accumulates
from condensation. He would not deny that other boilers might
be used, or that they might be better than locomotive boilers;
but the locomotive boiler has been so generally used that its effi-
ciency is known and cannot be questioned. He had not felt at
liberty at this time to undertake the discussion of plans which
had been proposed but had not been brought into general use.
There may be others which may be more economical of fuel ; but
what a gun-boat Avants is not economy of fuel but to catch the
enemy. When running easily the locomotive boiler will evapo-
rate 10 J lbs. of Vvater to the foot of heating surface ; when driven,
it may not evaporate more than seven pounds.

Dr. Vanderweyde stated that gun-boats were very common
before the introduction of steamboats. As early as 1825, before
steamers were generally introduced, England, Prance, and Hol-
land, had gun-boats, and they were in the Baltic also. They
were sailing vessels having a large gun in front, and usually four

398 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

small howitzers behind. They had then been in nse for a con-
siderable time. They were fast sailers, very strong built, and
quite small. These gun-boats now to be constructed should be
small ; the machinerj^ should be small and entirely under the
water. It is a most dangerous thing for a gun-boat to have its
machinery injured. Paddle wheels would be exposed ; but the
screw being under the water is safe.

Mr. Montgomery was of the opinion that gun-boats should not
be made too light, but should have good sea going qualities and
should be able to stand the recoil of the gun. They shotild be
prepared for all emergencies and equally adapted to all. It is
unnecessary however that the}^ should draw more than seven or
eight feet.

Mr. Garbanati. — I should think it would be better not to build
all upon one model. We shall need very few out at sea, but shall
want them to advance up rivers, and to go especially into such
places as only vessels of light draught can enter.

Mr. Babcock stated that there were now two guns of very great
size at Portress Monroe; one called the "Floyd," of 15 inches
bore, made of cast iron; and the other the "Union," the largest
rifled gun ever built, being 14 inches in diameter.

JVew subject. — The subject selected for the next meeting, w^as
" Steel guns, and the preparation of the material."

Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, 1

June 27, 1861. \
Prof. Cyrus Mason in the chair.

self-clearing cartridge cases.

Mr. Stetson exhibited drawings illustrating two constructions
of metallic cartridge cases for ordnance.

If the cartridge case is made of any kind of cloth, there is a
difhcultyof the most serious character arising from the inflamed
material remaining in the gun, and prematurely igniting the
next charge. A metallic case is, also, a more perfect protection
against moisture or accidental injury to the cartridge ; and is,
therefore, better than cloth, if it can be made to clear itself
from the gun. But the back of the case is apt to stay in the
gun. The first new construction was that patented by Mr.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 399

Hotclildss ; and ilie other, the recently patented cartridge case
of Fenwick & Moore. There is in both a wooden sabet next to
the projectile. The Hotchkiss cartridge case is surrounded with
flannel, so that, as it passes out, it sponges the gun. It is sup-
posed that the gun, in which this is used, Avill need no other
sponging. The back of the case is prevented from staying in the
gun, by making it so weak in certain lines that it will break in
those lines immediately upon the discharge, the force of the
powder then coming upon the back of the gun itself, and th^
whole of the case passing out together. The charge is prepared
for firing by driving a sharp point through the vent, with suffi-
cient force to punch a whole through the metallic case. Fenwick
& Moore's cartridge case has a conical back, leaving small
empty chambers behind the cartridge, into which, when, the
powder explodes, the gas is first driven, the back of the case
being made weaker in two places to facilitate its escape. The
gas being thus introduced at once behind the metallic back of
the case, forces it out of the gun. It is a question whether the
powder exerts its maximum force with or without such a cham-
ber ; but it is unnecessary to make tlie chamber large enough to
be a disadvantage in that respect.

Mr. Stetson. — The chamber can be reduced if it is found too
large. I will remark that this drawing of the Hotchkiss cart-
ridge-case is for a 12-inch bore, the size of the "Union," the
large riiled gun at Fortress Monroe.

PROJECTILES, &C.

The Chairman. — Can any one give us a brief description of the
Sawyer gun ?

Mr. Babcock. — It is a gun of five inches bore, taken out by
Capt. Bartlett. It is a 24-pounder, carrying a 48-lb. shell. The
Sawyer shell is an elongated cast-iron projectile, coated with
some soft metal, on which are cast the projections fitting the
grooves of the gun. In placing the projectile in the gun, it is
necessary to place these grooves carefully ; and, in that respect,
it is similar to the Whitworth gun. It is stated to have thrown
a rifled shot 4, GOO yards, which is less than three miles. Any
rifled projectile could throw a shot from the Rip Raps to Sewall's
Point.

The Chairman. — "Will any gentlemean give us a brief summing

400 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

up of the progress made upon this subject within the last year
in this country ?

Mr. Babcock. — Not much. That sums it up briefly.

The Chairman. — Is it true that the government of the United
States is not at any point manufacturing the best and most
approved cannon in use ?

Mr. Babcock. — They are now rifling cannon on Governor's
Island. An old cannon rifled is just as good as a new cannon
rifled. At the Washington Navy Yard they have been manufac-
turing rifled cannon several years under Capt. Dahlgren's suj)er-
vision.

Mr. Seely called attention to other explosive compounds than
gunpowder. Gun cotton can be made more or less explosive
than powder. In some respects it has advantages over gun-
powder ; but it explodes at so low a temperature, about 300
degrees, and the products of its combustion are so corrosive, that
it is not much used. It might be made serviceable, for example,
in charging a bomb. There is a composition called white gun-
powder, which has been found to expand one-third more than
ordinary gunpowder. There are very explosive compounds,
which produce violent effects within a verj^ short distance; but
the amount of expansion is so little that they would be utterly
unfit for gunpowder. Chloride of nitrogen, for instance, will
shatter the plate beneath it to a fine powder ; but, beyond that,
has very little effect.

Mr. Johnson, to show that iron could remain good after long
heating, cited the case of the wrought-iron gun made at Liver-
pool in 1857 — a gun weighing twenty-five tons before it was bored,
and which it required seven weeks to forge. The diameter of
the bore was 13.05 inches, and the iron which came out of the
centre Avas perfect iron.

STEEL GUXS.

Mr. Nash said that it had been found, by experiment in Paris,
that a cannon made of cast steel would throw balls 13,000 yards.
This was the official report of the gunners.

Mr. Babcock. — The French steel guns are made with a ham-
mer weighing ten tons, and falling ten feet. Here we have guns
made of cast-steel, or of a semi-steel, instead of hammering.

Mr. Dibben. — The process of welding pieces of blistered steel
is the method pursued for hammered steel guns. The pieces are

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION.' 401

foggotted, and being brought to a welding heat, are drawn from
the furnace and placed under a hammer. A heavy liammer,
moving slowly, so as to act on the whole mass of metal under
the hammer, and not merely on the surface, the heavier the ham-
mer the better the forging; other things being equal. Steel
cannon, seemingly of good quality are forged in this city. A
projectile like the Hotchkiss' projectile may obviate this difficulty
in a great measure. Much of the cast steel in use is very little
better than the cast iron from a common wind furnace ; and a
good cast-iron gun will probably stand as much as the semi-steel
or German steel. There must be a certain weight to prevent too
great recoil. The service field piece, made of bronze, is as light
as can well be made an account of the recoil.

Mr. Babcock explained the construction of a gun, mad« in
Brooklyn, possessing the advantages of the steel gun. It is a
brass six-pounder, grooved out, and the grooves dove-tailed.
Pieces of steel were then fitted into these grooves, projecting a
little into the gun. This makes the bore smaller, and the pro-
jectile lighter ; which is especially an advantage in rifling can-
non for an elongated projectile which were only made heavy
enough for round projectiles. These bars can be made of a good
quality of steel, and will therefore wear longer and keep in order
better.

Mr. Rowell exhibited a steel gun barrel, made in the Krupp's
steel works in Prussia, which had been tested at Harper's Ferry.
After various trials, upon putting in thirteen balls, the whole of
the powder escaped through the vent without affecting the bar-
rel. A heavier charge of powder was then used, and with six-
teen balls, and a charge of one hundred and sixty grains *bf
powder, the barrel burst. The balls are cylinders weighing one
ounce. The fracture shows that there is no fibre to this steel.
The gun is made upon the principle of having the crushing
strength and the tensile strength exactly equal. Upon a trial in
1849, two hundred shots wpre fired as rapidly as jDossible,
requiring four hours. The temperature, at the close, was only
109 deg. Fahrenheit in the interior. These cannon are made
with a mantle to prevent recoil. This barrel recoiled three
hundred feet at the charge with which it burst.

Mr. Fisher explained the results obtained in a manufacturing
establishment, in which a tube had been expanded by the force

[Am. Inst.] Z

402 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

of a piston playing in it, to a certain point, at which its strength
had become sufficient to resist further expansion. The inner
layers of the tube were first expanded, and the process was con-
tinued until the outside layer could exert its full power in resist-
ing the expansive strain. A cast-iron gun begins to crack in the
centre before it can expand sufficiently to cause the external
layer to operate. Steel may be six times stronger than cast-iron,
but when this principle is taken into consideration, the steel
tube of but one-sixth the thickness, will be stronger than the
cast iron tube. A tube can be made very much stronger by
winding it with wire, so stretched as to operate through its
whole length. This wire may be made square or flat. Jacob
Perkins made an extremely strong vessel by taking half a dozen
vessels so fitted that each had to be heated before the inner ones
could be put in.

Mr. Stetson said that the strain upon the end of the gun,
which is not assisted in this way, must not be forgotten.

The same subject, " Steel guns, and the preparation of the
material," was continued.

Adjourned until Thursday, July 11th.

American Institute, Pol
Mr. Tillman was called to the chair

YTECHNic Association, )
July 11, 1861. I

alloy of cadmium.

Mr. Churchill said that Dr. Wood had recently patented an
allo}^ of cadmium, fusible at low temperatures, and therefore
capable of being used for soldering under hot water. His
patent, however, appears to be too broad, for as long ago as
1851, a formula was published for an alloy of cadmium with tin,
which was especially recommended for dentists' use.

•The Chairman stated that, acco|;ding to Silliman's Journal, Dr.
"Wood has produced an alloy melting at a lower temperature than
any other heretofore made.

Prof, Seely said that the formula referred to was not properly
for an alloy .but for an amalgam ; two parts of tin to one part of
cadmium, to be dissolved in mercury. He should not, therefore,
consider the criticism of Mr. Churchill as just.

Mr. Churchill said that the alloy was first to be made, and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 403

then mixed with mercury. He should not consider the fact that
it was to be subsequently formed into an amalgam as doing away
with his objection to the broad terms of Dr. Wood's patent.

STEEL CANNON AND THE NATURE OF STEEL.

Prof. Seely said that it had been supposed, until recently,
that certain barbarians knew, practically, more about the manu-
facture of steel than we do, and that there were certain lost arts
with reference to steel. There has been much doubt among
scientific men as to what steel really was. During the present
century, and until within ten years, steel has been considered a
carburet of iron. Some ten years ago, an Englishman by the
name of Binks, showed conclusively, that nitrogen is necessary
for the production of steel. He did not show plainly that there
is nitrogen in steel, but showed that we knew no way to produce
steel without bringing nitrogen in contact with iron. He put
pure iron into a porcelain tube with carbon, and heated it long
enough to produce steel, under other circumstances. But he
could not obtain steel ; the carbon came out carbon, and the iron
was as soft as when put in. He tried various elements, with car-
bon, and found that he could produce no steel except when nitro-
gen was present; while, if nitrogen was present, no matter in
what shape, whether as a simple gas, in atmospheric air, or in
organic compounds, steel was invariably produced. The amount
of nitrogen in steel is so small that it cannot be detected by the
most expert chemists. It is less in weight than carbon, and the
carbon is less than. one per cent, generally. Steel is therefore a
compound of iron and carbon, and probably nitrogen ; certainly
nitrogen must be present in its formation. The credit of this
discovery is due to Mr. Binks, although within the last year two
or three Frenchmen have obtained all the glory of it.

Cast iron and steel are nearly the same thing, chemically.
Pure iron melts with great difficulty, and hence other matters
which melt at high temreratures mix wath it. Silicium, sulphu-
rets of iron, phosphurets of iron, alumina, and other substances,
combine with it. Cast iron is a mixture of steel with all kinds
of impurities. It usually contains a little more carbon than
steel. The more carbon it contains the more fusible it is. For
ordinary purposes steel is not required to have much fusibility,
especially as this property is obtained at the cost of others more
useful. Cast iron may be made having precisely the same
amount of carbon and nitrogen as any steel ; yet, it would not

404 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

have the value of steeh When the iron fii'st runs down from the
ore, in a blast furnace, it contains its maximum of carbon. This
is expelled in the puddling process, and other impurities are
forced out in the tiltii]g and rolling. If the puddling and tilting
are interrupted at the point where the iron contains just the
right proportion of carbon, it is called puddled steel. The
question is which is the cheapest and best in the end, to purify
the iron completely, and then to retrace the step and restore the
carbon, or to arrest the decarbonization at the proper point.

Dr. Vanderweyde considered it a settled matter that nitrogen
is one of the elements of steel. There seems to be a general law
that an alloy will always be more fusible than the pure substance.
Tin and lead alone are neither as fusible as a compound of tin
and lead. So iron and carbon are more fusible than iron alone.
And if other substances are added, it will be still more fusible.
If silicium, sulphur, phosphorus, are added, they injure the
quality of the iron and make it brittle. But other substaiices
may be put in which will improve its quality. A small quantity
of titanium put into cast iron, if there are no other impurities
present, will make it almost as good as steel. The reason why
nitrogen has not been found by chemists is that it is a very difiB-
cult substance to detect in consequence of its lack of positive
qualities. It does not readily show itself or enter into combina-
tions. All the compounds used to make steel upon the surface
of iron contain nitrogen. For instance, the blacksmith uses the
yellow prussiate of potash to harden the surface ; and it will
make the surface so hard that the file will not attack it. In case-
hardening, scraps of horn and various other nitrogenous substan-
ces are used. It is often remarked that a chemist does not know
the difference between cast iron and steel, but a blacksmith does.
But the blacksmith has not the monopoly of the process of
hardening; the chemist may use all the means which the black-
smith uses to determine the difference.

Mr. Dibben. — I can find cast iron that neither the chemist nor
the blacksmitb can tell from cast steel. Cast iron and steel are
the same thing, only that cast iron contains more foreign mat-
ters than steel. Cast steel can be produced with so large a
quantity of carbon that it will have the same appearance and
properties as cast iron. If we take a good iron ore we may pro-
duce samples of puddled steel equal to any specimens ever made
in the usual manner. It is cast iron only, that it has been ham-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 405

mered a little. Subject it to the same process of tilting and
drawing, as tlie blistered steel passes through, and it will be
equal to it. Most of the steel in the market is too high, as they
call it; it contains too much carbon, and is too much like cast
iron. Iron cut from a Swedish bar is often enough like steel to
harden in the same manner. Mr. D. suggested that the function
of the nitrogen in the formation of steel might be to render the
carbon fusible, so that the iron may absorb it. Nothing can be
superior for cannon to the puddled steel made from a pure ore.
Some of the best ores are the magnetic oxides, often containing
seventy per cent, of iron. These can be reduced to puddled
steel much more cheaply than to cast steel by the old process of
cementation. And such steel will be more uniform in its texture
than blistered steel. The want of homogenity in blistered
steel render it unsuitable for cannon.

Mr. Johnson. — Do not chemists consider the carbon and the
iron to be attomically combined?

Dr. Vanderweyde. — We do not know. The strongest micro-
scope does not detect any detached carbon. Still we cannot say
that \Ji is a chemical combination. In chemical combinations we
find that the simple substances lose their former properties.
Sulphur and mercury combining form vermilla ; sulphur and cop-
per, blue vitriol. In that view I should be inclined to consider
it only an alloy.
Mr. Johnson. — Are not alloys, generally, chemical combinations ?

Dr. Vanderweyde. — When the specific gravity of^^an alloy is
unchanged by the union, it is supposed to be only a mixture ; but
where it is materially changed, there is supposed to be a chemi-
cal combination, and the more it is changed the more intense is
that combination. Where the alloy has diflerent properties from
the two metals, the specific gravity is the most changed. For
instance, tin and copper are soft metals, but they compose bell-
metal, which is very hard.

The Chairman. — Does magnetism furnish a test between cast
iron and steel ?

Dr. Vanderweyde. — No sir ; the finer qualities of cast iron are
perfectly equal to the coarser qualities of steel in keeping mag-
netism. I have a good magnet made of thin iron plates cut in
the horse shoe form, hardened with the yellow prussiate of
potash. We can easily know pure iron by that test. Take a bar
of perfectly pure iron and rub it over with a steel magnet, and

406 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

the magnetism is gone the moment the magnet is removed ; so
that it will attract the north pole or the south pole equally.

Mr. Churchill considered crystallization as the best test for the
mechanical homogenity of steel. Cast iron, with small granules,
may be stronger than a purer iron in which the crystals are
larger. If we chill cemented iron we produce a rapid condensa-
tion, which is just the condition in which small crystals are pro-
duced. We have three conditions : want of fluidity, want of
rest, and want of time, each conducing to the production of small
crystals, and each coincident with the greatest strength in differ-
ent irons.

Mr. Harrison, from Massachusetts, inquired about the "Damas-
cus steel." He had observed about it the peculiarity that if it
is heated too highly, instead of being burned like the English
steel, it will still make a pretty good tool. This steel seems to
be flaw^ey, and there will be fire cracks in hardening it.

Mr. Stuart seated that Mr. Wiard had met with remarkable
success in making cannon from puddled and cast steel.

Mr. Wiard, in response to questions, stated that the gun
referred to weighed, when finished, 700 lbs. The bore -is 26
inches, and the length 18 diameters, or nearly four feet. He
considered the puddled steel guns the strongest. 1'he machine
for rifling he explained by a drawing. The tool commences at
the bottom of the bore and moves forward, drawing out a shaving
■which sometimes comes out in one piece, and may be drawai oiit
like a watch spring. The twist commences at nothing, and ends
with one revolution to nine feet. He explained his process for
forging the steel : taking a square bar, five inches square, sur-
rounding it with slats converting it into a longer octagon, and
surrounding this with others converting it into a circle. A square
bar of steel cannot be hammered into a round form without mak-
ing flaws in the center; but by this method the form of the cen-
tral bar is unchanged in the forging, and after the gun is finished
the square is plainly visible at the end. The hole is drilled
before the forgiiig is completed, and the inside is then kept cool
by a syphon pipe while the outside is hammered. Mr. W. also
-described an improved gun carriage, allowing a ranga of eleva-
tion from 35 deg. to a depression of 30 deg., instead of 14 deg.
as now used in the service, and also preventing the aim from
being injured by the recoil excavating the earth behind the
piece. He also described an improved wheel, in which wedges,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 407

with adjusting screws are used to bind the spokes in the hub,
and also between the felloes, to expand them to the size of the
tire. A wheel may be taken to pieces to be repaired, and when
the tire is replaced, in a few minutes it can be drawn up as tight
as if drawn up by heat.

Mr. Johnson stated that the ratio of strength had been found
to be one for cast iron, three for bronze, and five for puddled
steel.

Mr. Wiard stated further that he considered it an error to
reduce the weight of the cannon in using steel. The recoil
would be increased by this. On the contrary, he should add to
the weight with the increased strength.

Mr. Bliss moved that the subject of "Steel and-its Uses" be
taken up at the next meeting, in order that the question of
refining steel may be more fully considered.

The motion was agreed to, and the Association adjourned.

^ American Institute, Polytechnic Association, )

July 18, 1861. I

Mr. Fisher was called to the chair.

steel and its uses.

. Mr. Bliss. — Probably there is no more valuable metallic
body than steel, and none of whose value we know so little, com-
pared with the advantages we have derived from it, and consid-
ering the time we have had to do with it. Few persons who use
steel are aware of the extent to which it may be refined and made
useful. About thirty-five years ago he had been called upon to ^
perform an operation in dentistry wdiich he was unable to do,
because it involved the drilling of a hole in a solid piece of mate-
rial as hard as flint. The gentleman took it and in a few days
brought it back with the hole drilled in it. He ascertained who
had drilled it, and went to see him, and learned how it was done.
By working a pound of steel under the hammer, he had refined it
so that he could make drills to " go through anything." Another
gentleman tried the same experiment, and made a drill which he
passed through the blade of his pocket-knife, without drawing the
temper of the knife at all. In Boston, he noticed that the tools
of a carver from England were left unfinished; and the carver

408 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE-

told him that for nice work the tools should be left as the ham-
mer leaves them. One half of the instruments from the manu-
facturer will break if put to the test ; and he had for a long time
made his own tools. With regard to tempering, the old plan was
to make scythes and axes with a thick edge, leaving the farmers
to grind them down, because they could not temper the sharp
edges without burning. Fifteen years ago, in a file-shop in South
Boston, he noticed some files apparently prepared for tempering,
■which looked as if they had been whitewashed. Going home
with that idea, he coated some small instruments with the flour
of pumice, and found that thus prepared the most attenuated
points could be tempered without burning. A file is made hard .
throughout, without injuring the tooth.

Mr. Dibben said that there was another important fact with
regard to refining steel by the hammer ; that to make a good
cutting edge, after hammering the steel, it should never be
heated to so high a temperature again. In tempering a drill,
the point should not be heated, but only the shank. Hammering
hardens the steel ; but if you afterwards heat it and temper it in
the usual way, it will be the same steel that it was before.ham-
merin<^. There is iron that is absolutely drill proof. Some of the
Franklinite iron has such a peculiar hardness, and such a pecu-
liar structure, that it will destroy a drill which will pass through
any ordinary hardened steel. No drill he had ever seen, would
pass half an inch through Franklinite iron in an hour.

Mr, Bliss. — I am aware that we have to heat steel higher in

tempering, than we do in working it, but if properly prepared it

endures it and still retains its value for cutting purposes ; but in

tempering it, a great deal of skill is required so as not to over-

^heat, especially where the edges are thin.

Mr. Rowell, — What kind of fire do you use in tempering tools ?

Mr. Bliss. — I have used the blaze of alcohol, of oil, and various

other substances, and tempered in wax, tallow, salt water, and

various other things. I have not been able to demonstrate clearly

which plan is the best.

Mr. Harrison. — A plan used more than any of these, is to heat
a pot of lead red hot. so that articles can be put in it and heated
to -just the temperature that is required. All that is necessary
is to plunge the article into it, and shake it about a few times,
and then put it into cold water, to harden it as we want it.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 409

Mr. Rowell stated that steel could not be burned in an alcohol
blaze ; it was impossible to spoil it. In burning a roll full of
hard spots, which the tools could not cut, tools Avere made and
hardened in quicksilver, which was successful.
• Mr. Dibben. — Steel should be tempered at the lowest tempera-
ture at which it can be made hard.

Mr. Harrison mentioned the fact that the grain of hardened
steel is somewhat coarser than of that which is soft ; and that
steel expands in hardening.

The Chairman stated that lead had been supposed to injure
steel ; and zinc had been found rather to improve it.

Mr. Harrison. — I should suppose that the extreme volatility of
zinc would be an objection.

Dr. Brower classified iron as follows :

Red short.

Cold short.

( Pure neutral.

„ , Manganese neutral.

Neutral. < ^. ,

j Zinco-neutral.

• ^^ Mang. zinco-neutral.

The property of red-shortners, or being brittle when at a red
heat, is usually said to be derived from sulphur. The property of
cold-shortners, or being brittle when cold, is said to be derived from
phosphorus existing in phosphate of lime.* When manganese
and zinc are contained in a neutral iron, they have a tendency to
overcome the effects of sulphur and of phosphorus. By the man-
agement of the puddling furnace the decorbonization may be so
graduated that instead of a true fibrous iron a semi-steel is pro-
duced which has the appearance of cold short iron, and may be
converted into a good steel. A. great deal of steel is thus made
which might not be merchantable for ordinary use, but which is
at once made into sledge hammers, crowbars, and similar tools,
for Avhich it is adapted, and is thus readily brought into the
market.

Mr. Tillman stated that according to the modern theory, car-
bon and nitrogen are both essential in the formation of steel, and
therefore substances containing cyanogen, as the cyanite of potas-
sium, are used in the hardening process. But Joseph Dixon, of
Jersey city, boldly takes the ground that neither carbon nor nitro-

* Neither of these ideas appear to be sustained by facts. — J. R.

410 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

gen is necessary; that these are impurities as well as the sulphur
and phosphorus ; that in the manufacture of steel there is simply
a molecular change in the iron ; and that all that is necessary is
simply to subject the iron for a considerable time to a tempera-
ture just below the melting point, which will so separate the par-
ticles as to facilitate this molecular change. After it has once
taken that form, it cannot be brought back again to iron. Mr.
Dixon says that he will take wrought iron, and without adding
any carbon to it, will convert it into steel.

Mr. Dibben said that he had wrought iron, bought as such,
• — Danamora iron, — containing carbon enough to be worked like
steel.

Subject for discussion. — -The subject of " Steel and its uses,"
was continued for discussion at the next meeting.

On motion of Mr. Tillman, the Association adjourned, to meet
on the second Thursday in September, at 7^ o'clock.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, ?

September 12, 1861. J

Prof. Mason, on calling the Association to order, delivered a
brief and pertinent address, concluding as follows :

The Farmers' Club and our own Association are now well
established, and growing branches of the American Institute,
from whose labors the public will justly expect results answer-
ing to the increased facilities provided for us, and th? additional
work laid out for our accomplishment. It is intended promptly
to complete the organization of this branch of the Institute.
And it is hoped that the members most active in past years will
be ready to continue their labors.

the geological age of man.
Dr. R. P. Stevens said : One of the great lessons of modern
geology is that the earth, in its past history, has been the theatre
of countless generations of living beings ; that these living
organisms have appeared in regular sequence and order of pro-
gress from the lower to the higher in the scale of perfection.
This grand procession has had well defined eras, marked by the
predominance of certain forms of animals. The first has been
called the Era of Shell-Fish, when molluscs were the highest
types of animated nature. The second has received the name of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 411

the Fisli Era, when the heterocercals, like the shark, were the
highest type. The third has been called the Reptilian Era,
when animals allied to the crocodile and lizard were the highest
type. The fourth has been called the Mammalian Era, when
animals allied to the elephant and rhinoceros were the highest
type. Succeeding this last era in the order of time, comes what
is termed the Drift Era, when all that portion of the American
continent east of the Missouri river, and as far south as the latitude
of New York city, was submerged beneath the waters of an ocean,
into which arctic currents brought ice and icebergs, transporting
rocks and gravel from the north. It was in this age that all the
beds of clay, gravel and sand, now found overlying the solid
rocks, were spread upon the earth's surface, over that portion of
the American continent above alluded to. During the continu-
ance of this period of submergence, it has been supposed that
all previously existing land animals were destroyed. It was
after the Drift Era, when the submerged earth came up above
the waters, and dry land appeared once more, that man made
his first appearance upon our planet. The evidence of this is
negative. It consists in the fact that neither his bones, nor any
of the works of his hands, have been found to any great depth
beneath the surface. In none of the deep-seated and consequently
the oldest rocks, have any of the remains of man, or any evidence
of his existence, been discovered.

The remains of the human race, found in geological formations,
may be divided into two classes; first, his works ; and secondly,
his bones. His works consist of buried and ruined cities, such
asHerculaneum and Pompeii of Italy, and those found in Egypt
and Syria; dwellings, rudely constructed of stone, found in
Northern Europe and California ; .and implements of war, the
chase and husbandry, found buried deep in peat bogs, in caves,
or in gravel beds. Works of man have thus been found at con-
siderable depths, at Abbeville and Amiens, St. Anchieul, Cliafil-
lon sur Leine, and Oise, in the Department of Percy, in France.
In these localities, the rudely constructed flint implements of an
ancient race, are found associated with the bones of the elephant,
hippopotamus, rhinoceros, bear, lion, and hyena — animals now
extinct in Europe. * At L'Aubre, Department of Arcy, the frag-
ment of a human jaw, with teeth, was found with similar asso-
ciations. The rib-bone of the auroch, an extinct ox, was found,
apparently wounded by one of the flint implements. In England

412 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Iniman remains have been found at Hoxne, Rempart Hill, Bury
St. Edmonds, in Suffolk ; at Hornell Bay, Reculvers, Scroll Cliff
near Whiteside, in Kent; at Bedford, in Bedfordshire; and at
Rosemarsh, in Surrey. In all these localities, flint implements
are found in beds of gravel, associated with the bones of the
same animals as in France. Implements, with bits of charcoal,
and bones of extinct animals, have been found in caves at
Palermo, in Sicily; Kostrich, in the Alps; Bixham, in Devon-
shire, England ; Kent's Noll, Torquay, England ; and Kirkdale,
Yorkshire, England. They Avere found in beds of bone breccia,
or limestone, cemented with fragments of bone. The same kind
of implements have been found in the river .bottoms of England,
and in the alluvial soil of the Nile in Egypt. In America, the
works of man have been dug from beds of gravel, from twelve
to eighty feet beneath the surface, in various places in Califor-
nia, on the banks of Cooper river, Georgia, and in the buried
mines of Utah, New and Old Mexico, in Michigan, and at Aux
Cayes, St. Domingo. The bones of man, petrified, have been
found in the iron mines in Sweden, in peat bogs in England and
Scotland, in buried cities in Italy, in beds of iron ore in Virginia,
and in beds of limestone in the island of Guadaloupe. From
the mass of evidence collected upon this subject, geologists have,
with great uniformity, agreed that man is of recent origin ; but
how recent, at exactly what epoch he made his appearance, has
not been satisfactorily determined. The order of geological
epochs, connected with the grand developments of animal life,
are well settled; but the respective ages of each, as compared
with any unit of time in any chronology known to man, has not
been ascertained. Human remains, and implements of the chase,
of war, of cooking, and for either purposes, found in the beds of
gravel, either bring the time of the Drift Era forward in the
order of time, or carry man, in his mundane birth, as many ages
backward, in the great procession of living beings which have,
in successive ages, appeared upon the theatre of life, sported
their allotted term of existence, and with their exit, given room
and place for newer and higher orders. But whether we give
man an older or a later time for his birth-date, the grand geolo-
gical truth remains, that he appeared in the last day of creation,
when the earth was clothed in verdure and beauty, stored with
minerals and treasures, and fully prepared for pleasures, uses,
and economies.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 413

STEEL AND ITS USES.

Mr. Fisher,. — Semi-steel was claimed to be cheaper than
iron for the manufacture of ships, and for some other pur-
poses, costing but little more per pound, comparatively, and
being stronger. The Bessemer steel is also advertised at a cheap
rate. The inventor states that he can manufacture it in masses
of twenty tons ; and that he can make steel plates of enormous
length and breadth, at as cheap a rate as smaller plates. Plitherto
in the manufacture of iron plates the cost increases with the size.

When small plates are ordered, Bessemer cuts them from the
large plates. Thirty years ago the wear of the rail upon rail-
roads was supposed to be too slight to be taken into account.
Now, rails are sometimes used up in a single season. The rails
may be made of cheap steel, and will be more durable. And
such steel may be used for axles, for wheels, and for many parts
of cars, arid locomotives especially, instead of iron. Thus, loco-
motives may be made a great deal lighter. The durability of
railway machinery may therefore be very much increased, and
the cost of railway transportation proportionally lessened. This
lightening of the locomotives will obviate one great objection to
their use upon common roads. Pavements may probably be made
cheaper of cast iron ; but trams ,may be made cheaper of steel
than iron plates, and can be protected against rust.

Mr. Dibben. — Mr. Bessemer has lately adopted a process some-
what different from that he has hitherto used, making his metal
into iron and mixing it again with a certain quantity of cast iron,
so as to give it a more uniform quality than he could obtain by
his previous process. Puddled steel is merely high iron, iron
with a little extra carbon in it, and I think too much merit is
ascribed to it. When put into a ship it is inferior to common
iron for a corrosion of the metal takes place in spots, produced,
as some suppose, by electro-magnetic action, one part of the plate
becoming positive and another negative.

Mr. Stetson said that the manufacture of cheap steel is yet in
an experimental condition, being regulated by empirical rules.
Some of the facts are known with scientific certainty j but the
intensity of the heat and attendant difficulties prevent such an
investigation of all the facts as may be made ii^a chemical experi-
ment. When we speak of good iron, reference must be had to the
use to which it is to be applied. For instance, a stove casting
requires an iron that is very liquid when melted 5 but, for larger

414 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

work an iron that is more viscid may be better. An advantage
possessed by the English manufacturers of steel is that they pro-
duce a more uniform article than we do. Their steel may be no
better than a large proportion of ours, but being more uniform,
we can depend upon it with more certainty. The Sterling iron
resembles that obtained by Bessemer's latest process, for it is
manufactured of cast iron, into which, when melted, wrought iron
is thrown. The Sterling iron is cast iron toughened.

Mr. Churchill stated that recent experiments show that when
iron has been passed through the Bessemer process, and is cold-
short, manganese will restore its strength, although the process
removes neither the phosphorus, which has been supposed to
cause cold-shortness, nor the sulphur.

Mr. Fisher remarked that in tubes, steel cannot be welded as
well as iron. Steel tubes will split in the welding.

Subjects for discussion. — The subject of " Bridge-building" was
selected for the next meeting.

The subject of " The effect of the present war upon tho
Mechanic Arts" was selected as an alternate.

Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association,

Sept. 19, 1861.
Prof. Cyrus Mason in the chair.

NEW questions.

The Chairman suggested, " Novel implements for the culture of
the ground."

Mr. Churchill suggested, " Qualitative analysis by means of the
spectrum derived from gaseous ignition."

The Chairman and Mr. Fisher,* read able and interesting
papers on " The effects of the war on the Mechanic Arts."

Mr. Fisher's paper contained a plan of an organization for the
improvement of the Mechanic Arts, from which the following por-
tions are extracted :

" 1. Trustees to be appointed to receive the assignments of
inventions and improvements, which they will patent at the
proper time.

" 2. They will invite inventors, engineers, and contractors, to

* These papers were purely literary and speculative in their character ; and are
therefore foreign to the objects and purposes of the Polytechnic Association as defineu
by the " Rules established March 2d, 1854."

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 415

improve on the plans. Thus the inventions will grow upon paper
until it is time to spend money upon them.

"3. Engineers and experts, whose reputation will influence
capitalists, will be invited to examine and report on the inven-
tions. Thus liberal men will be induced to contribute means of
efficient trial and success if the inventions be good, and some use-
ful instruction even in case of. failure.

"4. Artizans will be invited to contribute models and experi-
ments, and to work in their leisure time on the company's inven-
tions, as an investment in them.

" 5. Advertisers and advocates, such as the editors of newspa-
pers, Avill be invited to make known to the public, with a view to
subscriptions, such inventions as are approved by the experts."

" 6. Money entrusted to the trustees for general use, to be
applied by them on the recommendation of the experts, but sub-
scriptions to be open for those who prefer to select the inventions
in which to take an interest.

'' 7. Part of the profits on inventions to remain in the concern,
at the permanent credit of the author, &c.

" 8. When an invention is sold, judges to be named to examine
the records, and award to the inventors, engineers, counsellors,
and capitalists, &c., their just respective shares of the common
gain, &c.

"9. Provides that in the election of officers the right of vote
should depend on a valuation of the interests in the form of
inventions, criticisms, advice, capital, and should be represented
by certificates, such certificates however not to affect dividends."

Mr. Garbanati said that from 1811 to 1815, the country being
shut out from intercourse with Europe, our manufactures in-
creased rapidly. For a like reason the southern states will now
be under the necessity of engaging in mechanical pursuits. The
war will interrupt the supply of cotton, and other materials will
take its place ; and so far as capital is diverted into new chan-
nels, it will not readily return.

Mr. Veeder. — The principal reason for the failure of the efforts
of Georgia and other southern states to manufacture their own
cotton, was the want of intelligent operators. Now necessity
will compel them to turn their attention again to the mechanic
arts and to manufacturing.

Mr. Nash. — The mechanic arts cannot flourish with slavery, for
their whole tendency is freedom. The mechanic arts would travel

416 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

southward as fast as slavery disappears, if the climate would per-
mit, but that may prevent it.

Mr. Stetson. — The consumption of our cotton after the war Avill
depend upon the state of domestic quietude which may exist after
the war, more than upon the efforts of other nations to produce
a similar article. One effect of the war upon the mechanic arts
will be to turn the attention of artizans more and more to use-
fulness and to economy, and less to the purely ornamental.
While we are all engaged in production, we may feel able to
afford many articles of elegance and luxury ; but when the num-
ber of producers is materially lessened, whether by war or from
any cause, the consumption must be less, or the wealth of the
country will be diminished. Artizans and manufacturers, there-
fore, will find it for their interest to turn their attention to the
production of articles of use, rather than of articles of ornament
and luxury.

Dr. Stevens ej^pressed the opinion that if the war should con-
tinue six or seven years, it would cause the entire destruction of
the cotton manufactures of the United States, and a pecuniary
loss from which this generation could never recover. It has
been estimated that a change of a quarter of an inch in the length
of the staple would be sufficient to destroy the value of our cot-
ton machinery. No cotton can be procured excepting from the
southern states which will be adapted to our present machinery ;
and hence cutting off our supply of southern cotton would destroy
our manufactures of cotton. It would become necessary to create
a new manufacturing interest ; either to engage in the manufac-
ture of flax or wool, or to begin anew the manufacture of cotton
after the conclusion of the war.

Mr. Tillman. — The efi'ect of the war upon the fine arts will be
detrimental, but the general effect on the useful arts will be
beneficial ; and particularly on that class connected with agricul-
ture, for the reason that the place of farmers who are taken from
their labors will be supplied as far as possible by machinery.
The effect of the war upon the manufacture of iron is to improve
its quality, a material continuously good being required for
muskets and other war implements.

J^ew Subject. — Mr. Dibben proposed for the next meeting the
subject of " Piers and Docks," which was agreed to.

Prof Seely will make some remarks upon the subject of "Coal
Tar." Adjourned.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 417

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, 7

Sept. 26, 1861. S

This being the day appointed by the President for a National
Fast, the Association adjourned to Wednesday next at half past
seven o'clock.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association,

Oct. 2, 1861.
Prof. C^a'us Mason in the chair.

COAL TAR. ORIGIN OF COAL.

Prof. Seely. — Coal tar is a most offensive substance to smell or
to tight, but it is very valuable notwithstanding. We are,
indeed, only beginning to learn some of its wonderful virtues.
For instance, some of the most gorgeous colors worn by fashion-
able ladies are produced from coal tar. I have twenty-five or
thirty samples of velvets colored by these dyes. The colors are
all brilliant. We have from it the simple colors of the spectrum,
reds, blues and yellows, and by their combination we may pro-
duce all other tints that are known, A few years ago coal tar
was little used except for preserving wood and it is still very exten-
sively employed in Europe for that purpose. They scarcely think
of laying a railroad sleeper which has not been cured in what is
called " dead oil," a product derived from coal tar. There are
about fifty different and peculiar substances which can be sepa-
rated from coal tar, some of which are very valuable. These
substances do not exist in the coal itself. That seems to be a
homogeneous compound, all the elements united into one sub-
stance, as sugar or as salt is one substance. But by heat the
coal is broken up into these compounds. Coal tar is only a sec-
ondary product; that is, we heat the coal,*not to obtain coal tar
but to obtain gas; and the coal tar which is produced has been
considered one of the greatest nuisances attending the carrying on
of the gas manufacturing business. It was considered so great a
nuisance in Philadelphia, that a remonstrance was extensively
signed, representing that it would breed pestilence in the air, and
poison the water and the fishes ; even the present director of the
Philadelphia gas works was one of the signers of that remon-
strance. It was then emptied into the river to get rid of it.

The different products of which I have spoken, are generated
in the coal tar by the action of heat. Some of the nitrogen of
[Am. Inst.] AA

418 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

the coal will combine with the hydrogen, one atom of nitrogen to
three of hydrogen, forming ammonia, and some of the oxygen will
combine with the hydrogen, one atom of each, forming water, &c.
In making gas, we also make all these different substances, and
it is necessary to separate, as far as possible, those which are
not useful for illumination. Some of them have not yet been
successfully separated, as sulphur, for instance, which gives the
gas an offensive odor in burning. There is free ammonia in all
gas, and it is carefully separated. The water, as it condenses,
will separate from the oily products. After the latter are
removed, the coal tar is left. The substance which this coal tar
contains, probably in the greatest quantity, is kreosote, which has
an antiseptic property. The several substances may be entirely
separated by chemical reagents ; but it is found most easy to
separate them by distillation. The most volatile substance rises
first, and thus you obtain one substance after another until you
have distilled away perhaps one-half of the original tar. In the
actual manufacture, the first twentieth is reserved for a special
purpose, and called "light oil." Then about one-fifth is a thick-
ish, dark colored and very offensive oil, which is called " dead
oil." This is used as an antiseptic in preserving railroad timber.
It is of about the consistency and color of molasses. The light
oil comprises various substances, boiling at a temperature vary-
ing from the boiling point of alcohol to the boiling point of water.
When distilled once, naptha is produced, which is used in Eng-
land for burning. By treating this naptha with sulphuric acid
most of the color is taken out, and also most of the disagreeable
emell, and it is then used for burning and for manufacturing var-
nishes. About five per cent, of the light oil is what is properly
known as benzole. What are called benzole and benzine in
America, have generaOy no benzole in them. The benzole which
is separated from coal tar is the basis of all the colors which have
been spoken of. In composition it is simply a hydrocarbon, C12,
He.

The general method of producing the colors is as follows :
One atom of hydrogen is taken away and replaced by an atom
of nitrous oxyde, NO*, which forms a substance called artificial
bitter almond oil. The oxygen is then entirely taken out, and
one or two atoms of hydrogen is put in its place, so that the
formula becomes C12, H7, N. In that shape it is called " a?jt.
/tne," which is a thick oily substance, of spicy odor and taste

PROCEEDINGS OP THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 419

If exposed to the air long enough, it becomes a dye by oxydation.
The oxydation is usually hastened artificially. Besides aniline,
there are about a dozen other substances of similar nature, which
will produce colors, though generally not quite so brilliant.
Many of these substances were already known to the chemist.
They are allied to indigo, and many of them can be produced
from indigo, from the Spanish name of which aniline derives its
name. Aniline may be obtained from dead oil, but it is preferred
to obtain it from benzole. Some of these substances are solid.
One of them, napthaline, is white, crystalizable and more' vola-
tile than camphor. It has a very disagreeable, penetrating odor,
and it is to napthaline that coal tar owes, to a considerable
extent, its offensive odor. If we had a ready means of separating
the napthaline from dead oil, it would produce a very valuable
burning oil. Another substance obtained from coal tar is picric
acid, derived from the kerosote. The picric acid used in dying was
formerly obtained by treating indigo with sulphuric acid, and
was sold for a dollar or two per ounce, whereas this is sold for
thirty or forty cents per pound. They have not yet succeeded in
producing an indigo blue. The oxydable indigo, which is so
much in demand for army clothing, has recently doubled in price.
A color quite as brilliant as the purples from aniline may be
produced from guano.

The Chairman. — A gentleman stated to me that he had derived
from the distillation of oak, hickory and chesnut wood nearly
all the substances found in coal tar.

Prof. Seely. — That is quite true. Most of these substances
were first separated from wood tar. In wood there is a large
quantity of oxygen, and in coat there is very little. The distil-
lates from wood contain more of the compounds of oxygen. The
coals contain more nitrogen than the woods, so that a large quan-
tity of ammonia is or has been one of the products of the distilla-
tion of the former. The fact that coals contain so much nitrogen,
seems to point to an animal origin, for nitrogen is not commonly
found in plants.

Mr. Nash gave various reasons for supposing mineral coal to be
of animal origin. He stated that the two best dyes were animal
productions, the Cochineal and the Tyrian dye, which was an
oyster.

Mr. Yeeder suggested that the Trinidad lake of Asphaltum,

420 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

appears to be a bed of coal in the process of formation. He con-
sidered coal as of mineral origin.

Dr. Stevens stated that chemists had found it necessary, in the
first place, to define what thej mean by coal, because there are
so many different substances called by that name. Any substance
containing more than fifty per cent, of carbon is called a coal.
If it contains more than fifty per cent, of earthy matter it is
called a shale. A coal containing a considerable proportion of
bituminous substance is called bituminous coal. The carbon that
is found in coal I suppose to have been invariably derived from
pre-existing vegetables ; and the bitumen to have been derived
either from vegetable or from animal matter, or both. No animal
deposits are found in anthracite coal, but, examined microscopi-
cally, the fibre of the wood can be perceived in the coal itself.
Anthracite coal contains bitumen which has been expelled from it.

If we examine the great anthracite basin extending westward
from the Delaware river, we shall find that at the eastern end it
is pure anthracite, but that as we proceed westward bitumen is
found in it in constantly increasing proportions, until at last it
has gradually become a true bituminous coal. There is a coal
mine in North Carolina, belonging to a later geological epoch
than the coal fields of Pennsylvania. This is one of the most
highly bituminous coals in America. This coal field is penerated
by dykes of columna trap, and it is found that just so far as the
heat of the trap has penetrated the coal has lost its bitumen
and become anthracite coal.

At the time of the formation of the coal beds in the United
States the whole territory was sunk down very nearly to a level
■with the Atlantic ocean, and the interior was'occupied by a great
basin, a ^prolongation of the Gulf of Mexico. This relation of
land and water would give a climate of the character of that of
Spain. An immense amount of vegetable matter grew, and
especially of those plants which we now call peat, forming plants
and mosses. After a sufficient amount of this vegetable matter
had been formed to produce a bed of coal, there was a submerg-
ence of the American Continent, sufficiently to produce a layer
of shale, or slate, or limestone, or sandstone. And it was under-
neath the waters of the ocean that the chemical changes took
place which converted this peat into coal. Every bed of coal
has beneath it a bed of fire-clay, which was the soil in which the
plants, from which the coal was produced, grew. Nowhere, in

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 421

Pennsylvania, or Virginia, or Ohio, does a vein of cannol coal
ever run into bituminous coal, or a vein of bituminous coal ever
run into cannel coal. But sometimes a cannel coal will lie
beneath or above a bituminous coal.

Siibjecis for next Meefi?ig. — Mr. Rosevelt stated that at the
next meeting he would read a paper upon the " Constitution of
Nature."

The subject of "Piers and Docks" was continued for discus-
sion at the next meeting.

Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic A

Prof. Cyrus Mason in the chair.

SSOCIATION, )

October 10, 1861. J

THE CONSTITUTION OF NATURE.

Mr. Roosevelt read the commencement of a paper upon the con-
stitution of Nature — to be concluded next week.

THE GREAT EASTERN.

Mr. Cleveland, who Tvas a passenger in the Great Eastern, in
her recent disastrous voyage, described the method devised by
Hamilton E. Towle for steering the vessel after her rudder-head
had been broken. Mr. Towle, after the engineer had been at
work two days and a half endeavoring to repair the mischief,
succeeded in obtaining admission to see the work that was going
on. He found that the body of the rudder was supported by a
collar resting upon friction balls. The engineer was endeavor-
ing to unscrew this collar, but had not succeeded in raising it
more than an inch and a half. Mr. Towle, fearing that there
was no other support to the rudder, went to the captain and told
him that he feared, if the engineer should succeed in getting the
collar off, the whole rudder would be lost. The captain examined
it, and stopped the work. Mr. Towle then attempted to convince
the captain thai chains could be fastened around the rudder-
head, just above the collar, with sutKciont friction to steer the
ship, if suitable means were applied for moving them. The
captain gave him every facility to try the experiment, but
had so little faith in its feasibility that he, also, devised a
method which he proceeded to try. This consisted in applying
chains to the rudder itself, and leading them to the two sides of

422 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE,

the ship. Ho did not, however, succeed in fastening the chains
as he desired, and his plan was abandoned for the time. In the
meantime, Mr. Towle had succeeded in his attempt. He had at
first used a chain made of one and a quarter inch iron, but it was
not strong enough. He then used a cable made of two and a
half inch iron, the largest cable on the ship. The upper portion
of the rudder-head was ribbed, and around this portion he
wound the cable, driving in iron wedges between the links and
between the ribs, until he had made a drum of three and a half
to four feet in diameter. From the circumference of this drum
he passed the cable towards the two sides of the ship, connect-
ing it with large iron ports. By a tackle applied to these chains
he could hold the rudder in position. Thus far it had been in
the way of the propeller-screw, but now that could be used and
the vessel set in motion. He then connected these cables with a
wheel intended for steering the vessel, and with a gang of men
at this wheel he could easily steer the ship. The connecting
chains were frequently broken ; but he stationed a man on each
side of the ship, at the tackle, already mentioned, whose duty it
was always to haul up the block, so that, if the connecting
chains should break, the only inconvenience was that the rudder
remained fixed in whatever position it happened to pass, until
the chains could be repaired.

PIERS AND DOCKS.

Mr. Dibben. — I present this subject to your notice, mainly with
a view of calling your attention to the condition of the piers and
docks of this city. If you will make a tour of the water front,
and examine the structures over which, probably, the greatest
commerce of any single city in the world is passed, you will be
obliged to admit that New York has little to be proud of in the
present condition of her wharves and piers, nor Avill you see any
signs of future progress. Now and then you will see a gang of
men patching some old rotten and dilapidated pier, but every
where an abundance of unsightly encumbrances, and everywhere
natural advantages neglected and lost, mainly from the fact that
most or all of these alterations are made without any system or
unity of purpose. Many of these structures are well adapted to
some particular or individual interest, while at the same time
all greatly derange the general good. At the present time,
■several of the piers on the North river require repairs almost

TROCEEDINGS OP THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 423

equal to rebuilding. It is a question of great importance what
they shall be built of, and what shall be their size and shape.
Nor is it unimportant to decide who shall build them; for it is
evident that a matter of so much moment demands the services of
a competent board of engineers ; and until the direction of these
works is so vested, nothing better than the former practice need
be anticipated. We have a water-front, of the city proper, of
about twenty miles, most of which is capable of being converted at
a moderate cost, into clean and convenient basins and substantial
piers, if the talent and skill of competent engineers be secured.
Our basins are now merely cess-pools, requiring to be dredged out
every season. It might have been said formerly that we did not
know where to build our docks. That cannot be said now. Yet
we allow one bulkhead to extend out one hundred and fifty feet
beyond another ; and but few of our drains empt}^ at the head of
the pier. The difficulty is that we leave the whole for anybody
to do as he pleases. It was not so when we wanted Croton
water ', and when we wanted a Central Park, we had a separate
and special board for that purpose.

To show what some great sea-ports are obliged to do in order
to provide for commerce, let me refer you to the docks of Liver-
pool, formed partly by building quays within the low water mark
of the river Mersey, and partly by excavation. These quays
enclose basins which are entered from the river by locks. One
of these locks is 82 feet by 400. All of this work is of solid
masonry, of dressed stone, and extends over a front of about six
miles. The basins cover between three and four hundred acres.
On the opposite side of the river, at Birkenhead, are situated
works of nearly equal extent. These basins must necessarily be
built in this manner, in consequence of the great tide, the water
rising and falling about eighteen feet at such tides. The docks
of Liverpool were built by incorporated companies, • the city
having half the control and the company the other half.

The trade of New York would be much increased by con-
structing suitable piers. It has been said that a great deal of
our water-front could not be relied upon for solid works of
masonar3^ But certainly we ought to have better piers than we
now have, and a better circulation of water in the basins. And
we shall never advance until this matter is taken out of private
hands and directed with some forethought and unity of pur23ose,

Mr. Nash. — At Liverpool they are compelled to build their

424 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

piers and docks of stone, on account of their tide rising three
times as much as ours. At London they want room. Their
river is a mere creek, and hence they cut inland, dig out basins
and wall them up. Here we have no occasion for that ; and if
we had, we have no land to spare. Our island is too small for
its water-front, and we are all the time enlarging it. Again,
here the matter is not under the control of the General Govern-
ment, but belongs to the municipal corporation. There are very
few cases where both sides of a basin are owned by the same
individual. Again, there is a controversy between the city and
the State, who owns the land under the water of our rivers, and
there is a hesitancy to lay out money when our rights are ques-
tioned.

Mr. Roosevelt said that arches ought to be constructed next
the shore along the whole line of piers, so as to permit an unin-
terrupted current to carry away the impurities in the basins.

Mr. Garbanati remarked that the narrowness of the streets
leading to the wharves was a greater evil than the condition of
the wharves themselves. It is better to leave the management
of the piers to private corporations, because they are successful
in whatever they undertake, and are not controlled by wire-
pulling.

Mr. Tillman. — Wo have about thirty miles of dock-facing,
which is much more than that of any city in the world. Up to
this time our docks could not have been built of anything but
wood. They are filling in upon the average, two feet per annum.
Wooden piers injure the shipping far less than those of stone,
and here they are not liable to be destroyed by worms as they
are further south.

The President. — Boston is said to have the finest piers and
wharves in America. They are built of granite blocks, and are
all owned either by companies or by individuals. Upon con-
trasting our wharves with those of Boston, learning that our
piers and docks are pledged for the city debt to the amount of
five million dollars, and that the income is next to nothing, I
inquired of the trustees the reason why so valuable property
yielded no revenue. The answer was thus : Our piers and
wharves belong to the city. We keep them in repair at the
smallest possible expense, and levy a tax upon them just sufficient
to pay the expenses. The result is, that the expense of wharf-
age in Boston is double that in New York, and this difference of

TROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 452

expense is constantly influencing vessels from abroad to come
here rather than to Boston or Philadelphia.

Subjects for Discussion. — The following subjects Avere selected
for discussion at the next meeting: "The Great Eastern," and
"The Crank Motion in Steam Engines."

Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, ?

October-ll, 1861. ]
Professor Cyrus Mason in the chair.

THE geological SERIES COAL.

Mr. Nash, by means of a drawing on the black board, made an
exposition of his views of the position and order of the several
metals and minerals in the geological series.

Assuming as fact, the theory now so well established by the
analytic investigations of Laplace and Fourier, that the interior
of our globe is in a state of igneous fusion, he found in it the
source of the volcanos and earthquakes of the present geologi-
cal epoch, as well as of a very large proportion of the formations
and convulsions which mark the successive stages of the earth's
history.

The first or lowest formation, in his opinion, was gneiss, a
rock apparently stratified. Next in order he placed mica slate.
Third, primitive limestone. Fourth, the green stone or horab-
bude formation. Fifth, a green stone slate. Next, or sixth in
order, Mr. Nash placed the anthracite formation, of the United
States, which he considered to be of a primitive order, maintain-
ing that the rocks of this series are not secondary, and that the
coal has not been acted upon by heat, but is a true mineral in its
original state. Next, or seventh in order, Mr. Nash placed a for-
mation of semi-bituminous coal, and Avith this formation he con-
ceived that the earliest traces of animal and vegetable life were
found. Eighth, the salt formation. Ninth, the secondary lime-
stone. Tenth, the bituminous formation, which he considered
to be of vegetable origin, in opposition to Dr. Stevens who
ascribed it to the animal kingdom. Upon this he placed a series
of layers of bitumen, shale and limestone. Eleventh, the old red
sandstone, as found at Middletown, Connecticut. Twelfth, the
sandstone and conglomerate rocks called millstone grit. He
then stated that, in his opinion, the trap rocks which Dr. Stevens

426 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

found in the coal formation of North Carolina, were of igneous
origin, being protruded in a liquid state, like lava, from the
molten mass beneath.

Mr. Nash, as he proceeded, pointed out the metallic substances
■which accompanied, and were characteristic of the several forma-
tions.

Dr. Stevens said, that in the coal basin of Deep river, in North
Carolina, anthracite coal is found in the immediate neighborhood
of the trap-rock; but, as you leave the trap-rock, the anthracite
changes its character, yard by yard, until it entirely disappears,
and nothing but bituminous coal is found.

Mr. Nash belongs to a different school of geology from myself,
and we explain things quite differently. There is a conglomerate
rock, called the coal conglomerate, because it always underlies
the true coal formation of the United States. On the eastern
side of the great coal barrier, this stratum of conglomerate rock
may be 1,000 or 1,200 feet thick; but, mile by mile, as you
proceed in a northwestern direction, it turns out, so that at
Cuyahoga it is only about 80 feet thick. This conglomerate may
always be known from its containing certain fossils, certain sea
shells. Rising twenty to forty feet above the conglomerate rock,
in the Lehigh coal basin, you come to a bed of coal three feet
thick. If the coal is turned over, the conglomerate is found to
be turned over with it. This vein of coal contains certain fossils.
In the United States some 150 species of trees and plants have
been found associated with our coal. These fossils are never
confounded. The fossils, in different layers, are always distinct
from each other. Follow the beds westward and you find them
still holding the same relation to each other, although thinner ;
and we infer that the anthracite, the semi-bituminous, and the
bituminous coals were originally one formation. As we travel
eastward from Cu^^ahoga, we pass over the whole outcrop of the
appalochean coal system. We find the conglomerate rock at
Cuyahoga Falls, and a little south of it the first bed of coal,
which is the coal used in Cleveland and upon Lake Erie. There
are a series of eight beds of coal coming to the surface succes-
sively as you proceed towards the Ohio river. These beds of
coal are all known and have all been worked between Cleveland
and the Ohio river. They are all bituminous. Above these
comes a barren stratum, and then three upper layers of coal.
The lower of the three is the Pittsburg seam; the next is the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 427

Alleghany, and tlie upper is known as the Uncertain coal, because
it is sometimes found, and sometimes is not. There is a regular
dip of eight or ten feet to the mile, and the Uncertain coal will
appear on the tops of hills which come within the range, while
it may be wanting on intermediate but lower hills. The whole
country from the western edge of the Alleghany mountains to the
Rocky mountains, seems once to have been a level plain. The
rocks, which ha\e never been disturbed, have all a general dip
in a different direction. There is no appearance of volcanic
action. It is a country of valleys rather than of hills ; for it
seems as if the valleys had been formed by washing the surface
away, leaving the hills. Upon a branch of the Tuscarawas river, in
Ohio, is a bed of cannel coal, in a basin of clay ; and in Coshocton,
thirty or thirty-five miles distant, there is a similar basin.
Above the cannel coal is a bed of blue limestone, containing
certain fossils by which it may be identified. They are all per-
fect and beautiful sea shells, entirely diflerent from any now
found in any of our waters. Just beneath that limestone is a
little layer of four to six inches of bituminous coal. The dif-
ference between bituminous and cannel coal is merely in the
amount of bitumen. Cannel coal makes good kerosene ; but
bituminous shale will make good paraphine.

To take up the relations of the inflammable oils: There are
oil wells from which a natural oil flows at the rate of 500
barrels per day ; and it is sometimes supposed that that must be
the drainage from coal. The oil is found from 300 to 1,200 feet
beneath the coal. I suppose it to be a chemical formation, con-
stantly going on in the bowels of the earth. Bitumen contains a
percentage of hydrogen, and a certain percentage of carbon. A
very slight change in the relative amount of hydrogen and carbon
will give you all the products from diamond, on the one hand,
which is pure carbon, to the gas which we burn, which is a
hydro-carbon.

Mr. Nash. — Have you never seen the conglomerate rock above
the anthracite coal ?

Dr. Stevens. — There are two conglomerate strata which may
be confounded with each other ; but the lower contains sea
shells and never bits of wood, and the upper bits of wood and
never sea shells. There is still another, above these, containing
nuts resembling butternuts, but dividing into three instead of
, two parts. But even the three low^er conglomerate may be found

428 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE

above the coal, from the doubling of the strata of conglomerate
rock and coal upon themselves.

THE GREAT EASTERN.

Mr. Fisher said that if the rudder had been suspended in the
centre, there would have been no twist, and it could have been
worked very easily. If the rudder had been put in the bow, the
screw might have been made four-tenths lower, giving it twice
the surface and therefore twice the power. This would be better
than employing two screws.

The Chairman (Mr. Tillman). — The ferryboats have a rudder
at each end ; yet they always use that at the stern.

Mr. Fisher. — Because the rudder is not suspended in the
middle ; and a rudder suspended behind the middle could not be
easily turned without better jStting apparatus than is generally
used upon ferryboats. If the rudder could be suspended entirely
above the water-line it could be keyed up better, and there would
be an advantage in that. It is stated the rudder part was of a
bad quality of iron. The Great Eastern has no keel, because
there is not room for one. As to her rolling, it will be well to
learn how her ballast was stored before condemning her for that.
I suspect that she had gone so smoothly in her earlier trips
that no pains were taken about storing the ballast.

The Chairman (Mr. Tillman). — Mr. Cleveland considers her
the safest vessel that he ever made a voyage in. This storm
proved that she was very strongly built, for she did not tremble
at all. The Great Eastern is generally conceded to be a suc-
cess in one respect. The displacement of water is no greater
than if she were but half the length, and the friction along the
sides is .but little greater. I am informed that the Cunard com-
pany are now building a steamer 500 feet long.

Subjects for Discussion. — The subjects selected for considera-
tion at the next meeting, are "The Crank Motion in Steam En-
gines," and "Instruments for the Culture of the Soil."

STEAM CARRIAGE.

Mr. Fisher exhibited a drawing of his steam carriage for
common roads.
Adjourned.

TROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 429

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, ?

October 24, 1861. S

Prof. Mason in the chair.

Clinton Roosevelt delivered an essay in which he undertook to
demonstrate the analogy between physical and metaphysical laws.
All order in the Universe, he said, was the result of positive
forces. Men did wrong because it was opposed to their present
interest to do right. No matter how certain the ultimate pun-
ishment, if it was only far removed to the future, they would con-
tinue to do wrong. The remedy proposed was so to construct
society that it would be their highest self-interest to do right.

PREMIUMS offered FOR INVENTIONS BY THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The Chairman. — It will be recollected by most of you that
some years ago a committee was raised in the American Institute
to consider the future labors and prospects of the institution. A
report from that committee underwent considerable discussion,
the result of which was that the minds of a great many members
were not prepared to adopt the suggestion in that report. But
as Lord Bacon says: "In all your inventions imitate time, which
changeth all things, yet so gradually that no man seeth precisely
where the change taketh place." So time has been modifying the
action and labors of the American Institute, and the result has
been the gradual carrying out of that report. In that report it
was suggested that probably fairs had had their day of being
profitable to the Institute, and that until some great exhibition
should be made that would draw from other portions of the
world, as well as ours, exhibitions of novelty in the applied
sciences, there would be no revival. In May last, in view of the
great civil disturbances, and especially in view of the great
disturbance of the mechanic arts and the actual removal of an
immense body of our mechanics from the city, the Institute
passed a resolution leaving it to the discretion of the board of
managers whether they should attempt to hold a fair of any
kind during the current year. After much discussion, the board
came to the conclusion that it was expedient to adopt a substi-
tute for the fair. That substitute will be developed in a paper I
am now about to read.

The Chairman having read the paper,*

* This paper in its amended form will be found in the proceedings of 31st October.

430 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Lawton suggested an amendment to the proposed award
for the best novelty for heating buildings — to add " and venti-
latiDg."

Also to add after the word "burning," the words "and deo-
dorizing"— making it read, " burning and deodorizing coal oil."

The Chairman said he would report any suggestions that might
be made by members of this association, to the board of managers
of the Institute, Amendments of course could only be made by
them.

The revised list of premiums Avill be given at the next meet-
ing.

KEROSENE LAMP WITHOUT A CHIMNEY.

Joseph Thomas exhibited a lamp for burning kerosene or
Petroleum oil without a chimney. The principle of this improve-
ment consists in getting an extra quantity of oxygen, in the form
of heated air, to the flame. The great quantity of carbon in the
coal oil requires this. The lamp will burn common coal oil of
45 degrees of purity — and even as low as 32 degrees — without
danger of explosion. A safety valve is adapted to the lamp to
make it secure. The inventor claims that —

1. No chimney is needed on the lamp, thus saving constant
expense and annoyance.

2. That the smoke and unpleasant odor, so offensive when oil
is used in the ordinary way, are effectually prevented.

3. That a clear and bright flame is obtained without increased
consumption of oil.

4. That the burner can readily be applied to any ordinary
lamp.

CRANK MOTION.

The subject of the loss of power by the crank motion in steam
engines, was discussed by Messrs. Warren, Rowell, Fisher, Till-
man, Babcock, and Dibben, without eliciting any novel views or
arguments.

Subjects for discussion. — Excavating machines for railroads ;
also dredging machines ; proposed by Mr. Fisher. The influence ■
of a protective tariff on national prosperity ; proposed by Mr,
Garbanati.

Subject for the next Meeting. — Implements for the tillage of
the soil. Adjourned.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 431

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, )

October 31, 1861. J

Prof. Cyrus Mason in the chair.

AMERICAN GEOLOGY.

Dr. Stevens. — I have been requested to give a history of the
formation of the American Continent, as deduced from the explo-
rations of geologists in Canada and in the United States, and I
will begin to do so to-night.

Prof. Hutton, at Edinburgh, is the author of the doctrine that
all the rocks of the earth were formed by fire in its present form.
And he found corroborative evidence in his own country, for the
rocks of Scotland very generally bear evidence of having been
changed, at some time, by the action of intense heat. But, in
Germany, where the rocks are generally sedimentary, the doc-
trine was promulgated by Werner that all the rocks of the earth
were formed by water. While these two doctrines were contend-
ing for supremacy, William Smith, a county surveyor in England,
conceived the idea that he could identify geological strata by
means of the organic remains contained in them. After twenty-
five years research, he published a map of England, exhibiting
formations classified upon this principle, which from that time
has been received as the basis of the theory of the sedimentary
rocks. I should explain the original formation of the earth some-
what in the following way :

There are sixty-six original elements of matter known to sci-
entific men. Now, if we suppose that these were created pure,
the moment that oxygen and hydrogen were created and came
together, water would be formed. In the same way, silicon and
oxygen would combine and form sand ; aluminum and oxygen
would combine and form clay ; and so on until we reached all
the chemical combinations now existing. But this is the chemi-
cal history of the globe ; geology finds the world created, and
explains the history of its subsequent changes, and more especi-
ally the history of animal and vegetable life as connected with
the early history of the earth. In this view it becomes a sublime
science, teaching us the progress, from simple beginnings, upwards
and onwards through every successive age, until finally, man
made his appearance upon the planet.

In the earlier ages of the globe, it was impossible for man to
live upon it, for there was nothing for him to live upon. If we
begin at the Adirondack mountains, in New York, and travel

432 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

westward down the Ohio river, and up the Missouri, and so on t(
the Pacific ocean, in the course of our travel we shall bring to
view all the rocks known to geologists in their regular sequence.
The same series will be brought to view in the same order if we
cross the continent, passing in a southerly direction. The Adi-
rondack mountains are composed of gueiss, granite, magnetic
iron, and mica slate, all primitive, or as they are sometimes called
Hypozoic rocks. The latter term is applied because they appear
to have been formed previous to any life. These hypozoic rocks,
in my opinion, represent to us the American Continent as it exist-
ed in that age of the world. They were then dry land, and ste-
rile. The American Continent, although smaller, and not reach-
ing so far towards the south, had then pretty much the same
contour that it has at present. A large portion of New England,
a portion of Missouri, and a portion of Texas, were islands, and
there was a series of islands along the Atlantic coast. Next to
the primitive rocks come the conglomerates, formed from frag-
ments of those primitive rocks. As we proceed from the primi-
tive formations towards those of newer date, we find these frag-
ments more and more minute. Magnetic iron ore is found in
large quantities in no other than three primitive formations.

PREMIUMS OFFERED.

The President read the following communication from the
Managers of the American Institute :

In the second week of February next, the Managers of the Fair
of the American Institute will make a public exhibition of such
inventions and improvements brought before them as may be
deemed worthy of public approbation.

To give a just encouragement to those ingenious citizens who
are laboring for the improvement of Agriculture, Manufactures
and the Arts, the Managers have selected those subjects on which
improvement seems most needed for the public weal, and now offer
the medal of the American Institute for such new invention or
improvement on any of those subjects as shall be adjudged wor-
thy of an award.

To aid their judgment in this matter, the Managers have divi-
ded these subjects appropriately into two classes, and referred
the one class to the Polytechnic Association, and the other class
to the Farmer's Club, requesting them to examine the articles or
claims which may be brought before them, and to report on the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 433

same, in writing, to the Managers, by the 15th day of January
next; the Board reserving to themselves the right of ultimate
decision on all questions relating to the premiums. No award
will be made, when in the judgment of the Board the competing
article or essay falls below the standard,

[The list of premiums assigned to the Farmer's Club will be
found in the report of the meeting of October 28, page 1*7*7.]

To the Polytechnic Association of the Institute, the Managers have
assigned the following subjects :

1. For the best machineiy for spinning and weaving flax.
Large gold medal.

2. For the best lifting and force pump by hand power. Silver
medal.

• 3. For the best invention for the amelioration of camp life.
Gold medal.

4. For the best novelty in mineral building materials. Gold
medal.

5. For the best machine for preparing mineral building mate-
rials. Gold medal.

6. For the best novelty of practical value extracted or manu-
factured from coal oil or coal tar. Gold medal.

7. For the best improvement in the making of iron or steel.
Gold medal.

8. For any new preparation or application of India rubber.
Large silver medal.

9. For the best lamp for burnino- coal oil without a chimney.
Gold medal.

10. For the best refrigerator. Large silver medal.

11. For the best novelty in railroad tracks. Gold medal.

12. For the best machine for setting and distributing type.
Gold medal.

13. For the best farm hygrometer, to cost not more than $2.
Silver medal.

14. For the best mode of heating houses. Gold medal.

15. For the best original research or monograph on any sub-
ject pertaining to the science of chemistry or mechanics, or the
practical applications. Gold medal.

Two discretionary premiums (gold or silver medals,) — to be
determined by the Board of Managers.

[Am. Inst.] BB

434 TKANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

FORMATION OF SECTIONS.

The Chairman appointed, as secretary of the Section of
Mechanics, S. D. Tillman, and as secretary of the Section of
Chemistry, Charles A. Seely. To the latter section was referred
Thomas' Kerosene Oil Burner, exhibited at the last meeting.

PRESERVATION OF WOOD.

Mr. Churchill read a paper on the preservation of wood for
railways; the statistics were obtained from tables on German
railroads in 1859, presented to the Institute by M. Vattemare.

On sixty-four per cent, of the total mileage the wooden
sleepers, &c., were prepared. In new work, on two lines of
between 500 and 600 miles, chloride of zinc is being tried with
pine wood, ordinarily, oak is the material used and sulphate of
copper the general preservative. Creosote is only tried on a
short line, but the work, generally, is unsatisfactory. Recent
researches pointed ' to a longer immersion than that usually
employed as necessary; sulphate of copper combines with the
resin, and when long soaked with the nitrogenous part of the
wood, this has been entirely removed by M. Koenig, by using a
large excess of the salt.

CRANK MOTION.

Mr. Rowell again exhibited bis diagram, and explained his
theory. The common theory is that for every quantity of steam
admitted into the cylinder, there is produced an equal amount of
power at the crank. This theory supposes the connecting rod to
be always parallel to itself; but it will be found that in conse-
quence of the oblique motion of the connecting rod, it will fall
short of its place, and this will be a disturbing element. Again,
the first tenth of the stroke, the crank will be moved three
feet while the piston moves one foot, and consequently the power
cannot be so great. Upon the North river stearflboats, it may be
observed that at the half stroke there is a quick flutter of the
paddles in the water, while at the end of the strokes there is
almost a cessation of their motion. In order to use the steam
only in that part of the stroke where it is most efiective, I have
devised an adjusting piston to follow the regular piston at each
end of the cylinder, so as to allow the steam to propel the piston
for only 6-te ths of the stroke.

Mr. R. exhibited a model of this contrivance, which was sub-
sequently referred t the Section of Mechanics.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 435

Mr. Brewster, — "Would that remedy the jfluttering of the pad-
dles?

Mr. Rowell. — No sir.

Mr. Brewsrer. — Would it not make them flutter Avorse ? I
contend it would, because you take the whole power from only
two points, instead of & greater power at those two points, and
a less power for the remainder of the revolution. I think, too,
that there will be a loss from the adjusting piston. It takes some
time for the steam to enter the cylinder, and by the time it has
entered in sufficient quantity to become effective, the dead point
has been passed for some distance, and the steam begins to act
to good advantage. Besides, this new piston l>as three frictions
instead of one ; for each of the false piston ends must be made
steam tight, and will cause friction.

Mr. Tillman. — I consider this arrangement very ingenious,
although I think there is an increase of friction in it.

Mr. W. H. Bartlett. — There may be a certain distance from the
dead point where the increased friction upon the journal of the
main shaft, from the pressure of the piston-rod against the crank
will counterbalance the pressure of the steam.

Mr. Dibben. — I think it could not increase the friction so much
that you could not gain from the added power.

Mr. Stetson. — This depends somewhat upon the size of the
engine, and the size of the shaft and crank relative to the length
of the stroke. Exactly at the dead center, no amount of force
will aid the engine at all ; but from the friction upon the crank-pin,
the force would tend to prevent the engine from moving. The
angle at which the friction will counterbalance the pressure
would be different in a propeller engine, with a short crank and
thick crank-pins, from what it would be in an engine like that in
the " New World," with a 15 foot stroke.

Mr. Dibben. ---I did not take into the account what power it
takes to start the engine. The engine friction is frequently con-
sidered a large proportion of the whole power.

Mr. Stetson. — To take an extreme supposable case, the crank-
pin may be thickened until it becomes an eccentric, and you may
make it so large that even at the half-centre the steam could not
start it. Enlarging the crank-pin you increase the angle of non-
effectiveness.

Mr. Churchill. — That is in consequence of the enormous surface
subject to friction acting with a greater leverage than the con-

436 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

necting rod. Make the eccentric of three equi-distant rollers
and it would be possible.

Mr. Babcock. — I think the angle at which the engine will start
depends entirely upon the size and condition of the bearing sur-
faces, and not upon the force which is applied to them. Let a
■weight rest upon a level surface, and the greater the weight the
more power will be required to move it. This is just as it is at
the dead centre. Let the surface be inclined at a certain angle,
and the weight will just slide. That angle depends entirely upon
the condition of the surfaces. In other words, the angle of fric-
tion is constant with the same surfaces. When you get beyond
that angle the greater the weight the more rapidly it moves. In
the engine there is a certain angle of retardation, which depends
entirely upon the condition of the bearing surfaces, not upon the
size of the engine, or the length of the crank, or the diameter of
the cylinder.

J^ew subject. — The subject selected for the next meeting was,
" The plating of metals," proposed by Mr. Stetson. ,

Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, )

November 6, 186L J
Prof. Cyrus Mason in the chair.

CRANK MOTION.

Mr. Fisher. — Mr. Howell did not distinctly define the amount
of friction and leverage incident to the crank motion. Assuming
the friction of revolving bodies to be ten per cent., as a mean of
various estimates, if a wheel is so loaded that the centre of
gravity shall be at one-tenth the distance from the centre to the
circumference, a slight touch of the hammer would make it start.
Assuming the diameter of the shaft to be twe^ity inches, one-
tenth of the radius being one inch, adding half an inch for the
crank-pin, and a quarter of an inch for the joint at the cross-
head, 'we have a leverage of one and three-quarter inches, with
which a slight jar would start the engine, the pressure of the
steam being applied. This gives us three and a half inches dead
space within which power would retard the engine. But beyond
that there is a further space where the wear of the engine will
be greater than the useful result. There should, therefore, be
a leverage of two inches at least where the power would be lost.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 437

The motion of the piston, for a motion of two inches or even six
inches of the crank, would be very slight, and I believe that if
the steam should not be admitted while the crank is passing that
distance, it would be an advantage, provided sufficient cushion-
ing is provided for.

Mr. Rowell. — The back pressure, which is the greatest at the
dead centre, has not yet been discussed at all.

Mr. Tillman. — If the back pressure is increased, it will be so
much diminution of the direct pressure.

Mr. Fisher. — When the lap of the valve is long, the exhaust
opens before the piston gets to the end of the stroke, and practi-
cally back pressure ceases before the end of the stroke.

Mr. Rowell. — It is at the commencement of the stroke, when
the steam is least effective, that the back pressure is greatest.
In Mr. Babcock's illustration, at the last meeting, of the angle
of friction, the surfaces were assumed to be flat. But in the
friction of the crank-pin and shaft, the surfaces are circular, so
that the friction is the same at any angle.

Mr. Tillman. — If we allow the piston to move at all without
the pressure of the steam, we lose just so much of the force of
the steam when it is admitted, for it fills up that space without
performing- any work. The true way is to let on the steam as
soon as possible ; because, although the friction is increased, the
vast preponderance of the force applied tends to move the
engine.

Mr. Parkhurst, as an illustration of the theory of the crank
motion, exhibited a drawing showing a plan for varj-ing the
length of the crank so that equal motions of the piston should
produce equal angular motions of the crank, and hence a uniform
power.

Mr. Tillman. — Such a motion of the piston would jerk the
engine all to pieces. The varying velocities of the crank are
admirably adapted in this respect to a reciprocating piston.

AMERICAN GEOLOGY.

Dr. Stevens resumed his series of remarks upon this subject :
Many parts of New England, the whole of Labrador, a large
part of tlie northern portion of North America, and portions of
the Atlantic States, are underlaid by the rocks commonly called
primitive, but now often called azoic, from their containing no
relics of animal life. Granite is generally supposed to be the

438 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

oldest rock known to geologists.* There are also found azoic
rocks, which appear to have been formed from the breaking up
and wearing down of the primitive rocks, being deposited bj
water as a sediment, and forming stratified rocks, among which
are the slate rocks. These slates are almost infinite in their
gradations. Even in the same quarry, admirable roofing slates
may run into a mica slate of no value. In the Lake Superior
region, where they lie at a very uniform dip, they have been
found to measure no less than fifteen miles in thickness. I have
measured one series in Massachusetts, amagnesian slate, which I
found to be five miles in thickness ; and Sir Wm. Logan supposes
all the series then to reach a thickness of thirty miles. Commenc-
ing at the Adirondack mountains and passing to the Mohawk
river, in the direction of the Catskill mountains, we find first the
unstratified rocks; and upon these, layers of stratified rocks.
Upon the latter we find the paleozoic rocks, those containing the
earliest vestiges of life, sandstones, limestones and shales. The
azoic rocks contain iron, always an oxide, in the slate, never of
a carbonate of iron. One of the oldest forms of iron ore is the
magnetic. In this system of rocks, the magnetic iron is found
in mountain masses. The whole region of Marquette county, in
Michigan, may be said to be an iron formation The magnetic
iron ore is diagnostic of the primitive formation. Magnetic
iron is composed of the protoxide of iron 31, and of the peroxide
of iron 68 per cent. Hematite, or the red oxide of iron, is com-
posed of iron two parts, and of oxygen three. Tho protoxide of
iron is so easily oxidized upon exposure to the atmosphere, that
it turns into the red hematite, which is the diagnostic sign when
you are exploring for iron. In New Jersey, iron is found com-
bined with manganese and zinc, and called Franklinite' iron.
This contains sixty-six to sixty-nine per cent, of iron, fifteen to
eighteen per cent, of manganese, and ten to seventeen per cent,
of zinc. It is usually found associated with limestone.

The Chairman. — Tliere is a vein sixty feet wide, which begijjii
with sixty-six per cent, of zinc upon one side, and gradually
changes until upon the other side it is sixty-six per cent of iron,
the per centage of manganese remaining the same through the
whole.

* Tlicre is true granite in the coal fields of Virginia, traversing the co.il measty^
jn dykes. This granite, therefore, is of later date than the carboniferous rocks.
—J. R.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 439

Dr. Stevens.— The next ore in value which is found in this
system of rocks, is plumbago, which is found from six to twelve
inches in thickness. It is carbon almost pure ; and it is a ques-
tion among many geologists how to explain the existence of car-
bon in a system of rocks, which, in their opinion, never had any
vegetables growing upon it. Plumbago is found in Worcester,
Massachusetts, in the true coal system ; formed, as is supposed, by
the conversion of bituminous coal into anthracite, and then by
the metamorphed actioa being carried still further, in some places
converting the latter into plumbago. Another mineral, in the
primitive formation, is copper — the blue, black, yellow and greea
copper ores.

Zinc is also a metal belonging to the primitive formation, both
in the form of calamine or silicate of zinc, and of carbonate of
Bine. The mines of Tennessee are in this formation, and I believe
those in Pennsylvania are on the borders of this formation. The
zinc of the Western States is found wholly in another formation.
The metals are often found associated — copper and zinc, copper
and iron, copper, iron and gold, so that a vein at first worked for
gold may pay to be worked for copper. This brings us to the
theory of veins.

The Plutonian theory held that all veins were injected from
beneath ; that the centre of the earth is .a vast magazine of all
the metals, and by some of the vast forces of nature, which they
hardly pretended to understand themselves, gold would come up
in one place, iron in another, copper in another, silver in another,
lead in another. The inference often drawn from this theory was
that if a vein would pay to work upon the surface, the deeper
you went the nearer you would come to the central mass and the
richer would the vein become.* One consequence of a belief in
this theory has been that an immense amount of money has been
sunk in following out that doctrine. But I do not know that
there is satisfactory evidence that a single vein upon the wid»
earth was ever injec^ted from below. In many places in tlie Uni-
ted States we know it is not so, because the veins have been
worked entirely out. It has been thought sometimes that that
was because we did not go deep enough ; that there was merely
a break in the vein, and that if we could only reach it again it

* This inference was mechanically incorrect, for if veins were formed by injection the
closest matter ought to have been projected to the greatest distance from the central
igneous mass. — J. B.

440 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

would repay us for the expense. There is an evidence of the
fallaciousness of the theory in a vein found in North Carolina.
It was discovered by a hammock of red hematite upon the sur-
face. The centre of the vein was gold ; around that was copper,
blended in with the copper and the gold was the sulphuret of
iron, which is alAvays found with gold. Sulphuret of gold is pro-
bably the original form of the ore, and in decomposition the
sulphur leaves the gold and combines with the iron, leaving the
pure native gold in flakes. The miners -worked the gold all out;
kept on deeper and worked the copper all out ; persevered and
etill deeper they came to the end of the iron. They had reached
the end of the whole formcition. In Missouri there is a horizontal
layer of limestone bearing lead ; next below it is a layer of sand-
stone containing no lead ; then comes a second layer of limestone
containing lead ; a second layer of sandstone without lead, and
below that the primitive rock without lead. The Plutonian
theory would be that the lead in that limestone came up through
the sandstone, although there is no trace of it there. Again, in
Missouri the refuse rejected by the old Spanish miners has been
worked over the third time, and inside of the handles of the old
knives, and in the old picks left there, has been found new lead.
There is also in England the shaft of an old mine which had
extended under the ocean and been abandoned, and finally filled
up with sand from the ocean ; and now the copper may be found
extending right across that filled up shaft. In one of the iron
mines of Sweden, exhausted and abandoned two or three hundred
years ago, woodwork has been found coated with iron, and one of
the ancient miners was found with his bones converted into iron.
The theory of mines has undergone a great transformation, for it
has been found by experience that in a large majority of cases
the attempt to work to a great depth has proved an utter failure.

Mr. Nash cited instances of the finding of nuggets of gold which
geemed to have been formed from particles washed from aurifurous
quartz.

Mr. Roosevelt stated that 10 deg. south of the Equator, on the
Pacific coast, is a copper mine; and that seventy yards within
that mine there was blasted out a human skull with three thou-
sand feet of:copper ore about it.

Subject for discussion. — Mr. Tillman suggested "Stevens'
Floating Steam Battery."

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 441

The Chairman suggested " The Civil Service ; its relation to
Social Progress."

The subject of the "Plating of Metals" was taken up, and its
consideration postponed until the next meeting.

Adjourned,

American Institute, Polytechnic Association,

JYovember 14, 1861.

Prof. Cyrus Mason in the chair.

TENT FOR THE ARMY,

Mr. Garbanati exhibited a model of a tent with berths attached
to the sides, which may be drawn up against the sides by day, to
obviate the necessity of sleeping upon the zround. There are few
soldiers killed by the enemy compared with those disabled by
diseases contracted from exposure. In the Crimean war, it was
but one to eight.

Thfe Chairman. — Although the French army was less than two
months in the field before assembling at Waterloo, and although
the battle at that place was most destructive, it is my belief
there were two who died on the way to the field to every one
that died at the battle.

Mr. Garbanati proceeded : When the army encamps for the
night, it must encamp at the most* convenient spot, wet or dry,
and the men must sleep upon the ground unless there is some
special provision made for them. They will be very likely to
have the rheumatism, and similar diseases. Nor does the evil
stop there. Families do not inherit broken arms or the loss of
legs, but they will inherit the diseases springing from the expos-
ures of camp life, and for several generations after a war, the
effect is to be seen and clearly traced.

The President. — I see before me a member of the seventh regi-
ment who told me that after forty days exposure he was com-
pelled to return home, and that in his opinion if he had had any
means of placing himself above the ground at night he might
have escaped the disease.

Mr, Churchill explained the French method of dividing up the
tent so as to make it portable, and su-zgested that a very slight
addition would make them efficient ambulances.

442 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Garbanati remarked that the berths in this tent were to be
easily removed, and would serve as litters to bring our wounded
oflf from the battle field.

This tent was referred to the Section of Mechanics.

PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS.

Mr. M. Ormsbee, of Boston, exhibited an apparatus for taking
photographs, daguerreotypes, and ambrotypes, of any desired
size or number with facility. A machine had been constructed
upon the same principle, of larger size, wdiich would take 616
upon one plate, so that it would be possible upon a sunny day to
make 250,000 pictures.

The apparatus was referred to the Section on Chemistry.

IMPROVED GUN BOATS.

Mr. Fisher proposed that each member should be invited to
bring a drawing of an iaiproved gun boat a fortnight hence, the
whole to be open to criticism and amendment. He advanced the
theory that no invention is ever perfected by a single individual ;
and hence the desirability of co-operation.

AMERICAN GEOLOGY,

Dr. Stevens, in continuation of his lectures on this subject,
exhibited and explained a map of the American Continent in the
earliest geologic epoch, when in his opinion it first assumed shape,
so far as it can be ascertained after the vast dilapidations and
wearing which it has since undergone. In the Paleozoic sea, now
called the Atlantic ocean, but then covering a large part of the
U. States, were deposited the limestones, shales and sandstones of
a subsequent era, to a thickness of from 650 to 10,000 feet. Up
to that time there were no land plants. In those seas we first
find the remains of ancient life. The seas w^ere suddenly filled
with various forms of life ; rude to appearance in their forms, and
yet according to their species as perfect as any forms of the pre-
sent day. Th» minerals deposited in this age were quite distinct
from those deposited prevtoTtsly. They consist mainly of copper,
only found in this age of the world and characteristic of it, of
lead, of gold in various places, and of certain kinds of iron, among
which are the famous Tennessee tough iron, and what is called
the lenticular iron ore.

The animal kingdom is arranged by Cuvier in four orders :
Vertebratse, the Articulata?, the Molluscse, and the Radiatse. If

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 443

we were to make' an aquarium, we should first put into it a fish.
It would soon require fresh air. Then put in a water plant, and
it will absorb from the water the carbonic acid gas thrown oiF by
the lungs of the fish, and in return would give off oxygen. But
soon the water would become turbid from the presence of micros-
copic infusoria and plants, and we must introduce some animal to
eat them up. Soon we should find our aquarium overstocked ;
and we must introduce some animal to eat up the surplus popula-
tion. And finally we should have to introduce some animal to
perform the part of public scavenger, and eat up the refuse. An
aquarium thus peopled has lasted eight or ten years, and may
perhaps last forever. It is this balance of life, that keeps the
waters of the ocean pure, and not the agitation of the waves. In
the very first record of life, in these ancient rocks, reposing
immediately upon primitive rocks, we find animals forming this
complete circle of life. The trilobites were the scavengers of
those early seas, as the lobster is the scavenger of the present
seas. So abundant were the animals of that early age that there
are rocks twenty or thirty feet in thickness composed of their
shells cemented together. There is a mass of rock twelve feet
thick, extending across Western New York into Canada ; and it
is impossible to break off a piece of it as large us a butternut
without breaking a well developed shell.

PLATING OF METALS.

Mr. Stetson. — The placing of one metal upon another so that
there shall be established a connection between them may be
accomplished by very obvious means, such as cementing or glue-
ing. Common gilding is often done in that way, by putting the
gold leaf upon a varnish ; and that accomplishes that problem.
The same thing may be done, if desired, upon metals. But it is
very obvious that that is a very imperfect means of joining them
for practical purposes, because any agency that wilT destroy or
dissolve the cement will destroy the union between the two
naefrals. A similar process is that of soldering. We use a metal
fusible at a low temperature in the place of cement ; and here too
any agency, such as heat, which will destroy or soften the solder
will cause it to lose its tenacity, and its value ceases. Another
method of plating, is by covering the surface of the article to be
plated with an amalgum of a metal. Gold or silver amalgum, for
instance may be applied to brass or copper, and upon exposing

444 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

the article to heat, the mercury will evaporate, and the gold or
silver will be left. Articles maj' be washed with gold or silver
by simply immersing them in some acid, holding the gold or sil-
ver in solution. But all these methods are adapted merely to
give an ornamental surface ; for they furnish little protection to
the metal which is covered. For protection, a common method
is to dip a solid metal into another in a melted condition ; as in
the coating of sheet iron with tin or zinc. A great difficulty in
this process is in causing the melted material to lie evenly upon
the other. If a screw, for instance, is dipped into melted tin, the
thread will be almost invariably filled, thus destroj'ing its value.
The most successful method of coating screws with tin, had been
to agitate them violently before the tin had time to set, at the
same time pouring water upon them to cool them. But this is a
bungling way.

The Chairman, (Mr. Johnson.) — Centrifugal force may be so
applied as to accomplish it.

Mr. Stetson. — That is worth trying. Another question firises,
whether we can plate an article a sixteenth of an inch thick, or
more, and do it smoothly, so as to be able to cover the bearings
lof heavy shafts. The inside of the air-pump of marine engines is
lined with brass in this way. A brass tube is made nearly to fill
the inside of the iron tube, and is then hammered to expand it
until it fits tightlj'. We thus liave the etFect of a brass pump
with the strength of iron. The air-pump rod is made of iron and
melted brass is poured around it. Another method is to take a
rod of iron coated with tin, and pass it when hot within a tube
of brass also tinned and heated, thus soldering the two together.
This will do very well, if the rod is not afterwards to be heated.
Electro plating is another process analagous to tinning ; but we
cannot deposite evenly more than a very moderate thickness.

Mr. Rowell. — In tinning tacks they are thrown against a wall
with a great deal offeree, so as to knock off the useless tin.

Mr. Churchill stated that almost all metals, with pressure and
heat, may be made to weld together far below their melting point,
when air is kept from contact with them. He also gave details
of improvements in tinning and a recipe for a soldering liquid.

Mr. Seely suggested that in applying the centrifugal force in
tinning screws, it would be necessary that the screws should be
kept hot ; and that would cause the tin to penetrate and injure
the iron. Dip a thin iron plate in melted tin and it is soon dis-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 445

eolved. The less time the iron is heated the better. Another
method of coating a rod of iron with brass is shrinking it on.
The brass tube is heated and the iron rod is cooled, and thus
being put together, .as soon as they reassume an equal tempera-
ture they will be very firmly fastened together. Electro plating
more than fulfils the problem of the alchemists ; for practically
it transmutes what we please into gold, giving the articles thus
coated all the beauty, finish, and indestructibility of gold, while
it adds the strength and lightness of iron if we choose ; and that
too at an expense far less than any of the processes by which the
alchemists hoped to succeed.

Mr. Babcock explained the method and advantages of coating
common iron with the Franklinite iron which is so hard that it
cannot be drilled. In this form it is used for burglar proof
safes.

Mr. Stetson described the process by which a large shaft of
cast iron had a new bearing of tin cast about it. The operation
had been perfectly successful.

Subjects for discussion. — Mr. Stetson suggested the question,
" Tents and other portable dwellings."

The subject of " Crucibles," suggested some time since by Mr.
Churchill, was selected for discussion at the next meeting.

Adjourned.

Association, ?
r 21, 1861. 5

American Institute, Polytechnic

J^ovimber

Mr. Tillman in the chair.

Mr. Johnson requested the Secretary to read an article from
an English paper, copied from the Mechanics' Magazine, from
which the following is an extract :

" We believe that the time will come when machinery must be
introduced into English horology. There is no reason at all
why the hand-labor of English workmen, admirable and unrivalled
as it is, should be subject to the disadvantage of contending
unaided against the machine-made clocks and watches of America,
and we see no reason whatever against the introduction of ma-
chinery for the manipulation of the various parts of time keepers."

AMERICAN GEOLOGY.

Mr. Nash made some remarks respecting the formation of the
mines of Galena, in Southampton ; and Northampton, in Massa-
chusetts.

446 TRANSACTIONS OF TPIE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Dr. Stevens commenced liis lecture on American Geology, by
exhibiting a map of the North American Continent, as he sup-
posed it to have existed in the carboniferous era ; showing, at
that time, the Gulf of Mexico, as it is now called, extending up
the Mississippi valley, and across the United States into the
British possessions. The North river was, also, at that time, in
his opinion, an arm of the sea, extending to the St. Lawrence,
and separating New England from the rest of the continent.
Only three orders of plants were then in existence, as far as
known. These were :

First, Fucoids, or sea plants.

Second, Land plants, endogenous.

Third, Land plants, exogenous.

The fish exhibited is of the family of sword fishes. The
organs, which resemble" teeth, were not actually teeth, but an-
armature, on the outside of the jaw. The head was composed of
solid plates. The eyes were very large, looking upwards as well
as outwards.. The scales were of solid bone, and the tail was
heterocercal. This was, as far as known, one of the first class of
fish created. The Garpike of Lake Erie, and a similar fish in
the Earitan, are the only representatives of this class now re-
maining in American waters. It is allied to reptiles, and had
many of the instincts of reptiles. Paleontologists would say
that it was an indication that by and by reptiles were to be
created. The scales of the garpike are so hard when dry that
they will strike fire like flint.

The peculiar iron ore of this age is a carbonate of iron. In
earlier formations iron is always in the condition of an oxide,
and often magnetic, but no magnetic iron ores are ever found in
the coal region. Nor are Galena, copper, silver, gold, or zinc
found in the true coal strata. It seems as if no metal could be
found in the formations of this age when carbonic acid gas was
in such preponderance, unless it would readily combine with car-
bon ; and iron is the only onfc that will.

A STEAM GUNBOAT.

Mr. Johnson exhibited a drawing of a gunboat with the
important works below the water line, in accordance with Mr.
Fisher's suggestion of last week. The draft is obtained by a
horizontal smoke pipe, thereby relieving the gun deck. As a

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 447

night-boat, fire from the smoke-pipe would not be visible, a
blower being used as an exhausting source for draft.

Mr. Nash remarked that formerly it was considered impossible
for ships to enter a harbor defended by stf.tionary batteries
without being destroyed. The fallacy of that opinion had
been shown at Elsinore, and more recently at Port Royal.

CRUCIBLES AND FIRE-PROOF MATERIALS.

Mr. J. H. Churchill read the following paper :

The subject is of the greatest importance to the owner of
glassworks — the manufacturer of steel — the assayer of gold —
the worker in brass. Shareholders in gasworks, proprietors of
veins of quartz, or of dry river bottoms, of lime kilns, of clay
beds, of magnesia quarries, are all interested. • Salt even contri-
butes to the general result.

As one instance of this : A recent report to the Emperor
of France estimates the diiference of cost for fire-proof ma-
terials in making steel at thirty francs per ton between
that country and England. Another, the cost of working
ing up a quarter of a ton of platinum for the Russian government,
was reduced five hundred fold by a process growing out of the
work of M. Deville, by the use of lime cuprels and gaseous fuel.
My connection with the subject is this : In contriving some
experiments on a subject cognate with that chemist's work on
the alkaline metals, I had occasion, two years ago, to examine
carefully the principles on which his results were founded. I
have since followed many of them back into the hands of metal-
lurgists, who believed in alchemy. The best working authori-
ties are, perhaps, Schlutter, Kirwan, Chaptal, Berthier, Hasen-
fratz and Deville.

The materials used in making crucibles are, chemically
speaking, silica, magnesia, alumina, lime, graphite. They occur
in nature, and geologists know them chiefly in combination, and
deteriorated, as granites, gneiss, clay, slates, marl, quartz,
plumbago, gas carbon.

Singly or in binary combinations they are very infusible — in
ternary combinations with each other, or in presence of other
matter, it is often otherwise.

Steatites, composed chiefly of silicate of magnesia, are more
or less fusible in proportion to the quantity of alumnia they con-

448 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

tain. Lime, however, is not very refractory in contact witli
silica. A principle of general application in the employment of
fluxes, enables it to be made very useful. Calcareous sandstones
are protected in iron furnaces by lime in the flux; excess of
litharge preserves lime cupels from the action of glass of lead.
Chemical afiinity determines combination both within the crucible
and with the materials of it, as in ordinary solutions wnth acids,
yet bodies do not bear to one another the same affinities at differ-
ent heats; thus, sodium is reduced by iron at a white heat,
reduces oxide of iron at a red heat ; is reduced by carbonic
oxide at a cherry-red heat, and reduces it at a dull red — the last
fact we owe to Deville. The fusible monosilicate of iron pene-
trates clays at a moderate heat ; while with more silex, at a white
heat, and in quantity not exceeding eight per cent, it combines
chemically with silicate of alumina, forming a double salt, and, in
Potter's language, "a glaze." This is what occurs in the Stafibrd-
shire bricks, which, with one exception, .the vitrified bricks of
Walts are, perhaps, those made at the highest heat, and are the
leaet permeable, they are blueish in color.

The material of chief interest in brick is alumina, an element
of epicene gender. It is now a base in clay, and again plays the
part of acid in aluminate of lime. The first of these is nearly as
old as any hills, and almost as varied in its properties ; the last,
is a modern fabrication, and pretty definite, it will resist any
heat short of that of fusion of platinum.

Alumina combines with silica in other proportions than those of
clay. Stourbridge clay, which has at least the most refractory
reputation, will yield at a lower heat than alumina, with half an
equivalent less of silex. Such a material was analyzed by
Thomson many years ago, and it was said to have been brought
from Chester, in Delaware. Clays vary much in nature, being
soft and plastic in decomposed felspars ; gritty in kaolin; hard
in marl and slates, these are fire-proof in proportion to the
excess of alumina. The}' vary in contraction, by dr3-ing, from
one to fifteen per cent. The temperature for burning varies from
ten degrees wedgwood in London bricks, to one hundred and
twenty for Welsh bricks. Stourbridge and Stafi"ordshire bricks
are burnt at eighty -five and ninety-five degrees respectively. —
Prideaux speaks of crucibles almost entirely made of silex as
very successful ; great pressure was used in their manufacture

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 449

Gas carbon is recommended to be burned into shape. The
fluxes to be used by the metallurgist, the alkalis of the glass-
worker, the opposite processes of reduction and scorification,
the formation of chlorides at high temperatures, and the manu-
facture of cyanides, have such special action in each case that
must be resisted, that, with variable materials, it is a tolerably
obvious conclusion that they should have special applications.
Fire-bricks and crucibles have a property belonging to thera very
available in this matter. I have mentioned the glazing proper-
ties of iron with silica in Staffordshire bricks ; porcelain cruci-
bles are glazed externally; further, as we plaster our houses to
suit the eye, we may line our crucibles and fire-bricks to suit our
work. The crucibles may be thin — too thin or too fusible to
support themselves at the highest temperatures — a lining may
be then made to help them. Gas carbon and lime have been
thus applied by Deville. A lining may be made to absorb part
of the flux or oxide, or will assist the purification of the melted
metal. Bone-dust and sand have long been thus used in cupel-
ling the precious metals ; lime is now thus used in preparing the
most refractory. It may be difficult to cause a small per cent-
age of metal to collect in one mass, the polished paste of
alumina and alurainate of lime offers no impediment ; charcoal
permits an easy collection of the separate globules, and it also
preserves the contents from the action of oxygen and of the
carbonic acid generated by the fire ; lutes applied externally are
also used for the latter purpose. In analysis, a platinum cruci-
ble, or the ouside of one of porcelain, has been used to effect a
better distribution of the heat.

The permeability of crucibles varies much. The report quoted
states that French steel manufacturers seldom use theirs for more
than three pourings, on account of the increased porousness ; with
a charge which will yield 30 kilogrammes at the first pouring,
they obtain only 27 at the second, and 24 at the third. Even
density throughout is partly due to thorough vitrification, but is
partly produced by mechanical means in the preparation of the
clay. The "ring" which tells the thrifty housekeeper that there
is no crack, tells the potter of uniform firing. The mechanical
part of the result is obtained b}^ reducing the materials to the
same degree of fineness by grinding, pugging and sifting. When
this is not attended to, the uneven expansion in heating produces

[Am. Inst,] CO

450 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

warping, and even partial cracking. This process is often carried
so far that the clay can be suspended in water. At one factory
on the Thames, a few years since, it was pumped and then float-
ed on for a quarter of a mile. The finest stock bricks were made
from this clay at a price of 25s. sterling per 1,000. Floating clay
is, however, only common in making porcelain; in this condition
iron is separated from it with magnets.

Fire proof pottery consists of pulverized material — burnt clay,
plumbago, sand, or aluminate of lime, bound together by a plastic
clay. The last alone contracts both on drying and in firing —
the contraction commences afresh when it is exposed to a higher
heat; hence the importance of selecting the burnt clay from such
as has been fired at as high a temperature as the crucible is
intended to stand, and of using as large a proportion of it as pos-
sible to avoid warping and cracking in the kiln. Thorough
drying is of the utmost importance, to avoid hollows pro-
duced by escaping vapors. The application of great pressure
in moulding has enabled some manufacturers successfully to
reduce the amount of the plastic unburnt clay. A. most refrac-
tory brick has been made in this way containing ninety-five per
cent, silicious matter. Deville prepares aluminate of lime by
fritting together chalk and alumina. The cost of the last he esti-
mates at about $3 per cwt. Gas carbon the same chemist puri-
fies by treating it at a high heat with chlorine. Besides the use
of aluminate of lime to mix with alumina to form the body of
refractory ware, he also applies it as a lining. He makes a paste
of four parts calcined alumina, and one part of aluminate of lime,
well powdered and sifted, he quickly lays this on inside a clay
crucible, spreads with a piece of ware, and compresses it firmly
till perfectly polished, dries it and heats it to redness ; this var-
nish protected the silica of the clay crucible from the alumina
and fluor on which he had to operate.

Other successful improvements in brickmaking are drying by
the heat from a cooling kiln, grinding marls, and rolling in lieu
of pugging; these are applicable to the manufacture. That of
most promise in use will probably be melting with gas, applied
directly to the metal inside, with or without fuel on the outside.
I am interested in perfecting this.

The paper Avas accompanied by specimens of crucibles of vari-
ous makes, of one of curved outline to avoid any angle or change
of thickness near the bottom, designed by the writer, and construe-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 451

ted for him at Greenpoint, N. Y., and also by diagrams of De-
ville's apparatus for cupelling with gas. Specimens of alumina,
and of clay "calcined, to show the change of color in proportion
to the iron present; and of bricks acted on by silicate of iron,
were also shown, as also both amorphous and crystallized quartz
penetrated by iron at the heat of a coke fire, without blast.

Dr. Stevens. — I was informed at the steel works on Staten
Island, that the expense of crucibles, determines in a great de-
gree, the question whether the works can be carried on success-
fully or not. The clays used there for crucibles belong to the
Cretaceous age of the world, and are a decomposed felspar. They
do not differ chemically from the fireclays derived from the coal
formation of England. The Stourbridge clay, which is celebra-
ted for crucibles and firebrick, is found underlying a coal vein.
It would be of comparatively little value Avere it not ground up
very fine and passed under the inspection of the human eye, aided
by powerful magnifying glasses, so that every particle ©f the sul-
phuret of iron shall be taken from the clay. If we had some
chemical process which would take the sulphuret of iron out of
clays at a small expense, it would be one of the greatest aids
which could be furnished in the working of metals.

Mr. Johnson stated, that in New Jersey, a magnet had been
used to aid in extracting the iron, and more recently the clay has
been passed through a bolt. By these means a large part of the
iron could be extracted.

The Chairman stated that the crucibles manufactured by Mr.
Dixon, in Jersey City, are exported in considerable quantities,
and are used in England, France and Germany. None of the
materials employed by him are found in this country. They
consist principally of plumbago, which is brought from Ceylon,
and is the best in the world. The clay is brought from Holland.

Mr. Dibben. — Those crucibles are the most durable in the
world. One of them will outlast ten of those that we imported
from England fifteen or twenty years ago. I have known them
to stand seventy-five meltings of brass. But these pots are not
of the proper material for making steel. They are apt to make
the steel foamy, or leave in it, after it is poured, small cavities
that cannot be welded together afterwards. That I found by
melting iron of the same kind in difierent kinds of crucibles. The
clay pots would not stand my fire. I used wrought iron and cast
iron mixed together. The metal had a small per centage of car-

452 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

bon, and was as clear of other materials as I could get it. The
clay pots had too much silex in them, and it injured the metal.
One of the greatest difficulties that Bessemer had to contend with,
was that he used such a hot blast. The materials of the lining
would mix with his steel, and he had to reline at every charge.

JVew subjects. — ^Ir. Stetson suggested the subject of "Explosive
missiles of war," for future consideration. The subject of " So-
luble glass," was selected for the next meeting.

Adjourned to meet on Wednesday next at 7^ P. M.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, ?

JVovember 27, 1861. )
Prof. Cyrus Mason in the chair.

Mr. Enos Stevens presenied a new system of written music,
styled Tonography, representing every musical sound by a dis-
tinct letter, so that music may be printed like ordinary types.
Referred to the Section of Mechanics.

CRUCIBLES, STEEL, FRANKLINITE.

Mr. J. H. Churchill said that the lime used for lining crucibles
should be pure shell lime, with a very small proportion of silex.
Lime perfectly pure will crack, but with the addition of five per
cent, of silex it Avill stand a very high heat. He had not been
able to discover in what way lime was supposed to injure steel.
Swedish iron, say those who object to it, owes much of its supe-
riority to its cold-shortness, from an admixture of phosphorus.
Lime is sometimes used for removing phosphorus, in converting
cold-short into soft iron from melted metal, as mentioned by Lt.
Mather of Mexican iron work. If the removal of phosphorus
would be an injury to some steel, it is possible that lime would
not answer for lining crucibles to be used for it. Otherwise, it
would be a very suitable material, and all Swedish iron does not
contain phosphorus.

Mr. Tillman. — So far as I have been able to learn, plumbago
pots are preferred for melting steel to all others.

Prof. Seely. — I believe Dixon's pots are as good for melting
steel as any others, and better, excepting in cases where peculiar
combinations are required. For specific purposes the proportion
of clay should be specific; and for some purposes a peculiar kind
of clay may be required.

Mr. Fisher inquired with reference to the practicability of cast-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 453

ing steel into forms, so that but little work of the hammer should
be required to make a finished article— in making plough-shares,
for instance. Is the steel of good quality as to hardness, elasti-
city, &c.?

Mr. Selleck. — The steel plough-shares so made are sold nearly
at the usual rate of conuiion plongli-shares. They possess the
important quality that the soil does not stick to them. Their
durability has not been fairly tested as yet, for the works were
only commenced last spring. But, the strength of tlie shares
has been tried by their resistance to fracture, and I have seen
them, after being broken, drawn out into perfectly malleable
steel, from which razors were made.

Mr. Fisher. — What should you say of making the crank-pin of
a locomotive in that way, where strength is of the first consider-
ation ?

Mr. Selleck. — I should not recommend it, because I think there
is a much better way to make them, namely, of Franklinite, in
which I had a good deal of experience. There is a great deal
of old cast iron, such as grate bars, which is considered good for
nothing; but I find that mixing a little Franklinite with it, it
will run just like water, and give a valuable product.

The Chairman. — What is the comparative value of the Frank-
linite as a residuum and of the Franklinite ore as taken from the
mines?

Mr. Selleck. — If you use the ore without extracting the zinc,
you cannot use more than five per cent, to any advantage ; but
using the residuum after the zinc is extracted, you may use 25
per cent., and will get a better result.

Col. Curtis. — I have known ten or fifteen per cent, of the ore
to be used in the blast furnace. The trouble is that it is neces-
sary to make some provision for driving the zinc out of the
furnace. But it may be driven out, and may be collected again.
Persons running blast furnaces sometimes object to paying the
price asked for Franklinite, for the reason that the yield of iron
is less than from the magnetic iron ore. Suppose an iron furnace
consuming about ten thousand tons of magnetic iron ore, and
that it is proposed to add two thousand tons of Franklinite, it
is admitted that it will increase the value of the iron, and out
of the two thousand tons of ore will be obtained about eight
hundred tons of iron, worth the cost of the ore. But hitherto
they have permitted the zinc to escape, and by saving that they

454 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

have now a clear gain of thirty thousand dollars. My impres-
sion is, that when the Fraiiklinite is more generally used, an
apparatus will be erected, costing about two thousand dollars, to
save the zinc, and that there will be a greater profit from the
zinc hitherto thrown away than from the iron. At Williamsburg,
they are using twelve and a half per cent, of Franklinite pig for
bell metal, and it is found superior to brass. A mixture of
Franklinite cures both redshort and coldshort iron. It extracts
the sulphur from anthracite coal, which thus becomes a better
material for making iron than charcoal. If applied to the making
of rails, millions would be saved to the country annually, from
their durability. It is excellent, also, for cannon. The best test
for ordinar}'- metal has been 32,000 lbs. tensile strength to the
square inch; while Franklinite has stood a strain of 39.000 lbs.
In my judgment, the use of the Franklinite is in its infancy.
We have spent one hundred thousand dollars in our experiments,
and I think the world will say that we have conquered the diffi-
culties. Franklinite ore is well adapted not only to improve the
character of our own iron, but that of foreign irons. It is
remarkable that it is found, as yet, no where in the world except
in New Jersey vein.

Mr. Johnson suggested that the distillation of the zinc from
the Franklinite ore would of necessity carry off a large amount
of fuel, which would be lost unless the zinc was made to pay
for it.

Mr. Selleck. — In speaking of five per cent., I was speaking of
ordinary furnaces. With improved furnaces they may use more.
I have saved the zinc in working Franklinite ore, and there is
no difficulty about it if the furnace is properly constructed.

The Chairman stated that the ore of the great zinc works in
Europe had been used for ages in making the public roads before
they became aware of its value. And so in Pennsylvania, within
the past year, tens of thousands of tons had been thrown out,
put upon roads, and used to fill up valleys, when an English gen-
tleman found that it was a sulphuret of zinc, richer by more
than twenty per cent, than the oxide which had been found in
New Jersey.

Col. Curtis. — It has been suggested that the distillation of the
zinc would caiTV oft' a large amount of heat. The practical fact
is that the burning up of the zinc creates an intense heat, so
that at least twenty per cent, less fuel is required to be used.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 455

Mr. Chnrchill. — The burning of the zinc would give more
heat than carbon.

Col. Curtis. — In my judgment the iron trade of this company,
if properly developed, could be made equal to the whole cotton
crop of the south. We now import about fifty millions of iron
and steel, and are draining California of its gold to pay for it,
while we ought to be able to export those metallic substances.

Mr. Fisher, — Will Bessemer's process operate favorably with
the Franklinite ore ?

Mr. Selleck. — It is utterly impossible to make iron from the
Franklinite ore, unless you mix an oxide of iron with it. It is
made into steel.

Mr. Tillman. — It is the Kelly process, and not the Bessemer
process, for Mr. Kelly used it in this country long before Besse-
mer. The difficulty with that process is that it will not make
an uniform article, and it is supposed by manufacturers that it
will amount to nothing.

Prof. Seely — I will answer Mr. Fisher's question. Mr. Sel-
loch calls it the residuum steel, Mr, Fisher calls it cast-iron. I
think it is neither, but an alloy purely. Franklinite ore is
ninety-five per cent, of iron, and the remainder zinc and manga-
nese. Steel is ninety-five per cent, of iron, and the remainder
carbon and nitrogen. It happens that the zinc and manganese
give to the iron some of the properties of steel. Now if we
attempt to apply the Bessemer process and introduce air, it will
form an oxide of manganese and oxide of zinc, which would ruin
the iron.

Mr. Selleck. — A little Franklinite sprinkled over iron and
heated, will melt and run like quicksilver all over the surface,
making the iron as hard as steel. If Franklinite iron is put upon
the point of the caulks of horse-shoes, it will make them so
much harder than the iron that the wear of the shoe will leave
a cutting edge always sharp at the point of the caulk, and pre-
vent slipping upon the Russ pavement.

Mr. Tillman. — The effect of the admixture of manganese seems
to add greatly to the strength of iron. The atomic weight of
iron is 28, and that of manganese is 26.50; and manganese is
magnetic, like iron at very low temperatures.

Mr. Selleck. — Why does not sulphuric acid act upon Frank-
linite ?

Mr. Tillman. — I have only seen it tried with nitric acid, which

456 TKANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

does not affect it. Iron has what is called a passive condition
in which it is not affected Avith nitric acid, and may be put into
that passive condition by adding a small quantity of manganese.
The reason is that the atomic weight of nitrogen is 14, which is
just one-half the atomic weight of iron. But this belongs to a
department of chemistry not yet fully investigated. It comes
under the head of catalysis.

Mr. Nash stated that the Franklinite ore in New Jersey is not
properly a vein, but a diffusion of the Franklinite through the
rock.

Col. Curtis. — Ores appear in deposits, pockets, or veins. If in
deposits, you seldom go down one hundred feet before they are
exhausted. Most of the zinc ores are in viens. In New Jersey
we have gone down about four hundred feet, and the vien seems
to widen as we go down. Geologists consider it a wedge vein,
running at a pitch of about seventy-five degrees. If so, there is
no such thing as exhausting the ore.

Mr. Nash argued that it was merely a stratum upheaved so as
to lie at that angle.

The Chairman stated the geographical and geological position
of the New Jersey Franklinite ore. It lies between w^alls of
limestone, from which it cleaves as readily as if it were acci-
dentally pressed in there, and the limestone wall is left clean.

Subjects for discussion. — The subjects of " Soluble Glass" and
of " Explosive missiles of war," were selected for discussion at
the next meeting.

Adjourned to Wednesday next.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, ?

December 4i, 1861. )
Prof. Cyrus Mason in the chair.

screw steamers.
Mr. Fisher contributed to the inventions of the Association
according to the plan previously suggested by hira, a drawing of
a screw steamer with two advantages ; first, the rudder is placed
under the bow, and is balanced, so that it will be more effective
and require less power to control it ; second, the screw is lowered
and made of larger diameter, so that the whole power of the
engine may be applied to the screw, and no paddle wheels will be
required.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 457

FRANKLINITE AND OTHER ORES.

The Cliairman exhibited in behalf of the inventor, Mr. Selleck,
a piece of iron consisting of nine lamina, alternately of Franklin-
ite and malleable iron. In this shape it is flexible, but there is
no drill that can penetrate it. Safes made from it will be bur-
glar proof; hammers cannot break through, and drills cannot
penetrate it. The same principle can be applied to the plating
of ships, for any number of laminae can be used.

Mr. Bull asked whether drills could not be made of Franklinite,
which would penetrate it.

Mr. Godwin asked whether the blow-pipe could not be used by
the burglar to soften it.

Mr. Butler stated that no portable blow-pipe could affect it,
when in the side of a safe, and that a drill would have to be
harder than the Franklinite in order to make any impression
upon it. The extreme hardness of the Franklinite created a dif-
ficulty in working it with our present appliances. In punching
or shearing it, there must be a layer of malleable iron next the
tool to protect it. But no file can touch it. Edges must be fin-
ished with the grindstone.

Mr, Alanson Nash read a paper upon Franklinite, and other
ores of iron and zinc.

AMERICAN GEOLOGY.

Dr. Stevens, — Reptiles date their first appearance from the
close of the Carboniferous era. They begin to be found in the
Permian group, which immediately followed the Carboniferous
age, in great profusion. They increase constantly in numbers
until the Cretaceous period, when they cease to be the predomi-
nant form of life, and higher orders succeed. In the reptile
age, the Gulf of Mexico had three arms extending up into the
country, and w^as very much larger than at present ; extending, at
the beginning of this period, even up into the British possessions,
as is shown by recent surveys. New England was still separated
from the main continent by a channel in which Sorel river. Lake
Champlain, and the tide waters of the Hudson now lie. A depres-
sion of no more than 140 feet would be required now to make New
England an island as it was then. The Pacific coast then came
ta th.e western slope of the present Rocky mountains. At that
time the Rocky mountains had not been thrown up as high as

i58 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

at present. The Alleghany mountains were elevated immediatefy
after the coal era.

The Triassic period, when the red sandstone was deposited, fol-
lowed the Permian. The triassic rocks are filled with saurian
remains. In the red sandstone of the Connecticut river, are
found tracks of birds, kangaroos, reptiles, and also probably of the
opossum. The birds whose tracks have been found were of enor-
mous size, their tracks showing a stride of seven or eight feet.
In this age there were lizards in New Jersey as large as an ele-
phant. The bones of an animal supposed to have been a sea ser-
pent 140 feet long, have been found and exhibited in the United
States ; but it proved to be made up of several individual ani-
mals of a species allied to the whale. In the previous age, the
fishes were ganoids, protected by thick plates. In this age there
w^ere three new orders; those like the shark, with prickly scales,
those like the perch, witli fine teeth like the teeth of a comb upon
the scales, and those like the gray family. Sharks teeth. Sc-
inches in length, have been found in New Jersey, so that there
must have been mighty monsters in those waters. The seas in
the interior of the continent, as high up as Hudson's Bay, must
have been as warm as the waters of the tropics at the present day,
for no cold water fish, like the cod, or salmon, were found there
in -this age of the world. A great many of the trees now adorn-
ing our forests were already in existence at the close of the rep-
titian era : the oak, the elm, the maple. Besides these, the cinna-
mon tree, which is not now known upon this continent, then
flourished in great abundance in the western part of it. About
forty trees familiar to us now, have been discovered as having
flourished in the Cretaceous age of the world. From Natchez
westward to the slopes of the Sierra Nevada, the continent has
not since been changed ; but the eastern portion of this continent
has changed its level at least 2,500 feet during that time.

Prof. Seely. — These lectures are suggestive of many thoughts.
Geology is only a descriptive history of the facts that have
occurred, and not a philosophical history of the causes of things.
"When we know the causes of events, we may make prophecies.
The day will come, probably, when we shall have the philosophi-
cal history of the world. All that we know of chemistry is con-
sistent with the facts stated. For example, if the sixty-six ele-
ments were created and placed together, they would form a globe j

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 459

and immediately oxygen, seeking those substances for wliicli it
has most affinity, aluminum, silicon, potassium, sodium, &c., would
form the centre of the earth. Only after these affinities have been
satisfied, in the igneous epoch, could we have carbonic acid and
the productions of the carboniferous period. Again, the water
when first formed must have been in the form of vapor, and as it
became condensed the lime and similar substances would be dis-
solved in it, giving us very little dry land. There was then little
oxygen in the atmosphere, and therefore vegetable, rather than
animal life, was luxuriant. The atmosphere is not a chemical mix-
ture. Its composition is remarkably uniform now; but it has un-
doubtedly very much changed in the oclation of its constituents. I
have no doubt that it will continue to change so as to be suited for
higher organizations. Such considerations illustrate a method
of vieAving the subject which seems to me to open a vast field of
exploration.

The Chairman remarked that although the science of chemistry
has been improved so much since the time when four elements,
fire, water, earth, and air, were all that were recognized, yet it
remains pre-eminently the great field of investigation in natural
science. What will be the result when it begins to investigate
the development of the first forms of crystals and of vitalized
matter, no one can foresee.

EXPLOSIVE PROJECTILES.

The subject of " Explosive Projectiles " was postponed until
the next meeting. Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechn

Decern

i?ic Association, )
Tiber 12, 1861. I

Mr. Tillman was called to the chair.

Mr. Butler exhibited specimens of the Franklinite and wrought
iron in layers, and remarked that the layers of Franklinite were
not as hard as the Franklinite before put it. It seemed as if the
hardness had been in part merged into the wrought iron.

CAMP pan and baker.

Mr. C. Bush exhibited this cooking and baking utensil, which
is of light weight, convenient, and of compact form. It is con-
structed with double sides and bottoms, with non-conducting

460 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

material interposed between them ; the pans being adapted to
be used singly in the ordinary way, or attached together to form a
baker — which, when filled with the article to be baked, is buriedf
in hot ashes, or placed in an open fire, and the article cooked in
an expeditions manner.

The Chairman had found the quality of the cooking good. A
question now arose whether this pan would be liable to become
warped in use, and also whether the non-conducting material
might not be a serious inconvenience in using a fire of green
wood.

Mr. Butler suggested that the former doubt might be removed
by causing the two pans, with the fire-proof filling, to lap over
somewhat ; and expressed the opinion that there would be no
difficulty from the latter cause. There would soon be a bed of
coals and heat sufficient for cooking.

AMERICAN GEOLOGY.

Dr. Stevens resumed : The subject this evening is what is
known as the mammalian era, or the age in which mammals
first appeared in large numbers, and were the highest type of
animals known upon the face of our continent. During this era,
it appears that Lake Michigan, and all the waters of the north,
had an outflow southwards ; and were, also, connected with
Lake Winnepeg and Hudson's Bay on the north. The communi-
cations between the lakes and the Ohio and Mississippi rivers
left large islands in the northwestern States. Across the
continent from the Connecticut river to Wisconsin, ancient
sea beaches still remain, and are found sometimes in the
mountains and sometimes in the valleys, at different eleva-
tions, some more than six hundred feet above the present
level of the ocean, showing that there were several stages in
the elevation of the American Continent, the continent re-
maining stationery at each epoch long enough for sea beaches
to be formed. In Canada, and in some places in the United
States, sea shells, and the teeth of whales, walruses, seals, and
other marine animals have been found in these ancient sea
beaches. At Poughkeepsie, in the valley of the North river, the
teeth, bones, and horns of the great Northern deer, now never
found in latitudes lower than Labrador, have been found buried
in. the sands of the tertiary or mammalian era. In Rhode

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 461

Island, the entire carcass of a whale has been exhumed. At
Lubec, in Maine, the bones of another whale have been exhumed.
In Michigan, the teeth of the walrus have been exhumed from
one of the ancient sea beaches. Thousands of similar instances
have been noted, not only in the Mississippi valley, but further
east. The Atlantic coast was then further inland, say fifty miles.
in Maine, and not far from its present position in this neighbor-
hood. Tl)e line of coast southwards inclined further and further
from that now existing to the west, until Eastern Virginia, Flor-
ida, and Southern Alabama lay under the ocean. The Mississippi
river, from a width of nine miles at the junction of the Wisconsin,
increasing in many places to fifteen miles, reached a width of
twenty to fifty miles at the mouth of the Red river, and termi-
nated with a width of one hundred and fifty miles, according to
late geological surveys in Mississippi. In the interior of Nebras-
ka, east of the Black Hills, and about one hundred and forty miles
west of the Missouri river, upon the Niobrara river, was an island
sea about one hundred and sixty miles in diameter, filled with
fresh water, and stretching northward to the Red river of the
North, through that to Lake Winnepeg, and so on, extending
northwards as far as the Arctic Continent. The animals which
lived in that sea, great whales, great lizards, fish and turtles, are
preserved with remarkable perfection in the rocks. Between the
Rocky mountains and this island sea, there was dry land,
covered with trees very similar to those now found upon the
Pacific slope. Those found on the Pacific coast partake some-
what of the tropical character, showing that the Pacific ocean
had then the same warming influence upon the adjacent country
that it now has. Those woods upon this continent were tenanted
by five species of elephants, where none now exist; those of the
present epoch being confined to the Indian and the African Con-
tinents. There were three species of the mastodon in that
region, an animal, some of whose species are as much larger than
the elephant, as the elephant is larger than the horse. There
were seven species of the rhinoceros, one not much larger than
a good-sized Berkshire hog; two species of the hippopotamus.
There were, also, horses, the ox, the hog, and a variety of other
animals allied to the camel, the horse, the hog, the rhinoceros,
the bear, the leopard, the wolf, and still other varieties essenti-
ally different from any known at the present day. After the
ruminating animals had lived and flourished through the Eocene

462 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

period, the first part of the mammalian era, carnivorous animals
seem to have been introduced, such as the panther, leopard, lion,
wolf, and dog. It would seem as if this was done as a necessary
part of the great idea of animal creation, to prevent the too
great increase of animal existence.

It is a remarkable geological fact that during the whole of
this period, there is no proof that a single new mineral, or new
form of ore, of any particular value to the American people,
was deposited in the formations. California, Oregon, and the
whole country north and west of the Sierra Nevada, with the
gold and silver they abound in, were brought up after the rocks
of this period were formed. There seem to have been three
great successive stages in this process of placer-forming eleva-
tion. The first is now high up on the mountains; the last, from
which the gold has been washed into the auriferous sands, on the
level of the great plains. The gold is found only in the placer
earth, and where it has been washed out of the placer earth*
In no single instance has the placer earth failed to pay the men
who will work steadily at it through the week. This placer
earth extends from the southern part of California northwards,
to the extreme limit of the Russian possessions. From the best
information I can obtain, there is gold enough west of the Rocky
mountains to employ as many miners as wish to go there for
thousands of years. They must dig over the one hundred and
fiftieth part of the entire surface, west of the Rocky mountains,
to exhaust it.

There is a system of gold veins running due north and south,
which is as old as the primitive era, and which always yields the
purest gold. The next system is of the age of the Rocky mountains
and lies in the same direction with the mountains. The gold is a
little softer, and begins to be contaminated with iron, lead, silver,
osmium, and iridium. The third system, lying east and west, is of
the tertiary age, and is always contaminated with other metals.
It is from these veins that the gold was washed out by the action
of the sea waves and carried into tlie placers, and thence into
the valleys of the Sacramento and other rivers.

EXPLOSIVE PROJECTILES.

Mr, Stetson, — I will divide this subject into three questions :
first, the proper form for explosive projectiles ; secondly, their
contents, and thirdly, the means for timing their explosion. The

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 463

original form of bombs and shells, was spherical ; and that form
is still used in all smooth-bored pieces. They are made of differ-
ent sizes, up to 15 or 20 inches in diameter, and filled with such
materials as the peculiar exigencies of the service may suggest as
most destructive or disagreeable to the enemy. For firing into
open forts, they are generally filled with balls, or sharp pieces of
iron, sometimes six-sided or cubical, with fragments of bottles,
and similar missiles. But in firing into casemated fortifications,
it is often far more disastrous to the enemy to stifle them out, by
filling the shells with substances which will produce an intensely
disagreeable smoke. And for firing into wooden structures, like
a ship, or a fort with wooden buildings, portfire, a material which
will burn very intensely even under water, is used with great
advantage. The thickness of shells is made such as to avoid
breaking with the concussion of firing, and at the same time to
break up into a large number of pieces with the explosion of
their contents. Shells for rifled cannon are made of the same
general form with the solid shot. The Hotchkiss' shells are
arranged in the same manner as the solid projectiles, Mdiich bear
his name, and were described at a former meeting, namely, with
a belt of lead to be expanded a certain amount by the impulse of
the discharge so as to fill the grooves of the cannon. In firing
spherical shells, there is always so much windage that enough
gas passes the shell to fire the fuse, which is necessarily at or
near the front of the shell ; but with rifled cannon we have not
this advantage. It was supposed, until within a few years, that
the shell could only be fired from a mortar, which is so inaccu-
rate in its aim as to be rarely serviceable except in firing into a
city, or in similar cases. But it is now found that they can be
fired from ordinary cannon with great accuracy of aim. They
can therefore be used in firing at ships, and unless the ship is so
near that they pass completely through, they are much more
destructive than the solid ball. Although the gas cannot get
by in the rifled cannon until after the shell leaves the mouth of
the cannon, when the shell is moving at its highest velocity, yet
the fuse will generally be fired. But for greater certainty, the
Hotchkiss' shell has channels left in the side for the gas to pass
through.

The instant of explosion may be regulated in two entirely dif-
ferent ways. We may either use a fuse which shall burn for a
certain number of seconds, or we may cause the explosion by the

464 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

striking of the shell. The fuse is generally made to burn about
20 seconds, and when the shell is to be fired, it is shortened to
the required length. The percussion shell has ben publicly*
known for six or eight years, but as usually constructed has seve-
ral disadvantages. It has a percussion cap upon its front and is
fired by the striking of the shell. One disadvantage attends this
arrangement, namely, the danger of premature explosion, from
dropping or careless usage. Of course it could not be safely
rammed down. It has been attempted to construct the percus-
sion cap of such a material that it would stand an ordinary blow.
One form of the Hotchkiss' shell, is so constructed that the per-
cussion cap is enclosed within the ball. For this purpose there
is a little chamber within which is a sliding tube, and upon the
front of this tube the percussion cap is placed. When the cannon
is fired, the tube having been brought back by its inertier, the
moment the shell strikes any object, or even against the water,
the tube flies forward and strikes the front end of its chamber
with sulficient force to ignite it. Yet the cap is protected from
any blow, and the mere dropping of the shell cannot ignite it.
But this plan is attended with another difficulty. It has been
found that the shells thus arranged, are liable to explode imme-
diately upon emerging from the guii. If you can get them safely
past that point they will fly until they strike. The explosion at
this period of the flight has been ascribed to the resistance of the
air ; but I think I see another cause for it which is more likely to
be the true one.

Mr. Sykes. — Is it not the elasticity of the metal ? The tubes
come back until they strike, and then rebound with such force as
to strike the front end, and the cap is fired.

Mr. Stetson. — That is exactly what I suppose to be the cause ;
and Mr. Hotchkiss has successfully guarded against that difficulty
by putting a soft and inelastic material, such as lead or soft
putty, at the back to prevent this rebound. It is worthy of
remark that the percussion shell, although fired by the striking
of the shell, yet penetrates the whole depth due to the force of
its impact before the explosion takes place ; so that in firing
against ships the explosion does not take place until after it has
passed through the first wall of the vessel.

•Experiments were made by Robert L. Stevens in August 1817, in the presence of
President Monroe. The results were not made public. — J. R.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 465

Mr. Roosevelt described a percussion shell invented by himself
in 1854.

Mr. Babcock described several other explosive projectiles.
Sawyer's projectiles must strike with sufficient force to compress
a layer of lead before it can explode. The Shenkel shell has a
pin to prevent any motion of the tube containing the cap ; and
must strike with sufficient force to cut that pin off, in order to
produce an explosion.

A percussion projectile may pass through three feet of timber
before it has time to explode. This is an advantage in most
cases ; but the percussion shell is of very little use against
infantry, because it will bury itself in the earth before explosion.

Gov. Noble, of Wisconsin, stated that the rifled shell was
invented by Capt. Norton, as early as 1833.

NEW METHOD OF RIFLING.

Gov. Noble stated that it had been found from 500 experi-
ments that a rifled gun which would cause a penetration of eight
inches of ordinary pine board, could be made to cause a penetra-
tion of 24^ inches merely by making new grooves for a certain
distance. The theory proposed for the explanation of this fact,
but with which he was not satisfied, was : that there is a limit of
expansion to powder, which may be determined by experiment.
It is about thirty-two diameters from the breech of the gun.
Beyond that distance the motion of the ball is from its momen-
tum, and hence a vacuum is produced behind it, or the pressure of
the atmosphere before it is made available. From this point
therefore the extra rifling is introduced, which allows the atmos-
phere to get behind the ball. But if this theory were true, the
gun should be still more effective if cut entirely off at that point.
De Brame's experiments seem to involve the same principle ; and
it is desirable that some scientific explanation of the facts should
be given.

Mr. Roosevelt said that experiments had been made to ascer-
tain the most effective lengths for the barrel ; and that the suc-
cess of the accelerating gun also, was against the theory.

A gentleman suggested that the new arrangement might give
greater effect to the elasticity of the atmosphere, and might also
furnish oxygen for the more complete combustion of the powder.

Air. Stetson said that instead of air passing into the gun, he

[Am. Inst.] DD

466 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

had always found something coming out, following the ball ; and
sometimes unburned powder.

Mr. Babcock stated that the principle could not be applicable
to ordnance, for they are already far less than 32 diameters in
length. It is now the practice to make rifles shorter than form-
erly. They are made 27 inches long, instead of three feet or
more.

Mr. Sykes suggested a form for a projectile, Avith spiral wings
to cause it to revolve, and with a chamber in the rear for a rocket
composition.

Mr. Babcock stated that the explosion of the gun had been
found to destroy completely the rocket composition.

Mr. Johnson. — Another objection would be that the velocity of
the ball itself would be a little greater than that of the issuing
stream.

Subject for discussion. — The subjects selected for the next
meeting, were "Dredging" and " Soluble Glass."

Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, )

December 19, 1861. ]
Prof. Cyrus Mason in the chair.

COTTON FLAX SILK.

The Chairman proposed that the subject of " Textile Fibres "
should be taken up on the second Thursday in January, at which
time he would give the results of his microscopic examinations.

Mr. Churchill stated that upon a microscopic examination of
twenty or thirty different specimens of flax prepared by a modi-
fication of Claussen's process he had found fibres of spiral struc-
ture, flat and twisted like cotton.

Mr. Tillman stated that the flax fibre, as prepared by Chevalier
Claussen,. is like a glass tube, and utterly worthless for manufac-
ture. He had found another material however which showed the
cotton fibre.

Mr. George H. Bowley exhibited a sample of tree silk from
Nicarauga. The silk is the product of a nest of worms which
cluster like snow upon the trees. It has not been reeled ; but
the natives make ropes of it, and it is very strong. The worms
seem to prefer one kind of tree, and those trees are completely
covered ; probably 50,000 of them being on one tree.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 467

Islv. Stetson sug^'ested that many silk goods, where strength is
unimportant, arc made of waste silk ; and even if this article
could not be reeled, it might prove to be valuable.

Dr. Stevens was of opinion that if kept separate the worms
would form cocoons.

NEW GUN.

]\rr. Stephen Krom exhibited drawings of a new breech loading
guu invented by him, which he explained.

AMERICAN GEOLOGY.

Mv. Bowley exhibited a specimen of gold quartz from Nicarauga.
There are no more than eight veins in the whole district from
which this came. The mine has been worked for three hundred
years successfully. The ore will yield 10 ounces to the ton,
which is considered remunerating.

Dr. Stevens, in his lecture on the geology of this continent,
gave the history of our mountain ranges. He said :

I thought it best this evening to introduce the history of our
mountains because the close of their history has very much to do
with the preparation of the American Continent for the abode of
man.

As the earth began to cool so that solid rock could be formed,
upon the supposition that the earth was once a mass of molten
matter, the first crust formed would be thin; and a collapse of
that crust, towards the centre, forming a large valley, would
throw up contiguous to that valley a mountain ridge. The fur-
rowing of the earth's crust is the necessary consequence of the
subsidence of any portion of it.

The earliest system of mountains on the North American Con-
tinent has been called the Cabotian system, from the discoverer,
Cabot. Commencing in Labrador they stretch across the primi-
tive American Continent, one branch running southward of Lake
Winnipeg and forming the mountains whence spring the head
waters of the Mississippi. These mountains were low, scarcely
ever elevated more than a thousand feet above the surface of the
country, or 1,600 feet above the level of the sea. The next sys-
tem of mountains runs at right angles with the first, or north and
south, and lies in several different systems. They rise, in the
White mountains to about 3,500 feet above the level of the sur-
rounding plain. The third system is the Appalachian, beginning
in Massachusetts, and terminating in Alabama. If this system

468 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

of mountains had been pushed up in one grand chain, it would
have been from three to five miles in height ; but fortunately it
was thrown up in three or four great folds with breaks in them.
Between New York city and Albany, the Harlem R. R. cars cross
the region included in the Appalachian system, and yet we do not
pass through a mountain or over a mountain, but wind through
the breaks. At the same time with the Appalachian mountains,
the Colorado mountains in Texas running into Arkansas, were
thrown up ; and the peninsular of Yucatan has a system of moun-
tains belonging to the same age.

The next system of mountains is the Rocky mountains. Formerly
we were taught to believe that the Rocky mountains were the back-
bone of the American Continent ; but they were not in existence
as a high range unitl the continent to the north and east was dry
land and well stocked with animal life. The Appalachian mountains
were thrown up after the close of the carboniferous era; and the
Rocky mountains, running in the opposite direction, were thrown
up long after the Cretaceous age. West of the Rocky mountains
is the Sierra Nevada, of a later age than them ; and west of it
another range including the Cascade mountains, still later in its
origin. Between the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky mountains,
are various systems, short, isolated, and the latest of all. These
are generally of volcanic origin.

After the North American Continent had a«!sumed nearly its
present form, there was a submergence of the entire northeastern
portion of it, burying the tops of the Catskill mountains a thou-
sand feet beneath tlie bosom of the ocean. Wherever you go
upon the rocks of this region, you find them worn smooth and
grooved as if by the passage of something over them Avearing
these grooves in a certain direction. You also find immense
boulders, evidently moved from their original positions, tumbled
about promiscuously. It was the great deluge of the northern
waters, carrying floating ice, anchor ice, and all the other phe-
nomena of an Arctic climate, that blotted out all the past,
destroyed the mastadon. the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, and
prepared the continent for a new creation of animals and plants
better adapted to the use of man. Mount Washington, some of
the highest peaks of the Green mountains, and the higher peaks
of the Alleghany mountains, were lone islands in this vast Arctic
ocean. The average thickness of the drift deposited at this time
is about 100 feet; and you can imagine the mighty power which

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 469

Would grind up rocks and spread their huge fragments over the
continent, and leave a deposit of such depth. One consequence has
been that upon the south or southwest of every isolated mountain
there is a gravel bed, and there the farmer finds his richest land ;
because there is the greatest accumulation of those materials,
lime, sand, alumina, with which the drift period has enriched this
portion of the American Continent.*

The Chairman stated that he had been informed by a man who
had spent his life in trading in lands that he had formed the rule
never to bu}^ land upon the north side of hills or mountains ;
that all the best lands lay to the south of them. He had himself
observed the same fact; and that the forests are generally left to
grow upon the northern sides of the hills.

Mr. Stevens stated that since the discovery of a mammoth in
Siberia clothed with fur four inches long, outside of which was
coarse rank hair twelve or fourteen inches in length, geologists
were modifying their views with reference to the temperature of
the earth in former ages. Animals may be allied to our tropical
animals, and yet may have been fitted to endure an Arctic
climate.

The Chairman. — Is there any geological reason why there
should be a greater abrasion upon eastern than upon western
slopes ?

Dr. Stevens. — Yes ; the rocks were fractured upon the eastern
slopes.

DREDGING.

Mr. John Johnson explained his new method of dredging, which
he illustrated by numerous experiments. He gave a brief sum-
mary of the early machines used in dredging. In 1591, there
was a machine used in Italy scooping up the materials which
were desired to be removed for the benefit of navigation. In
1618, Savery took out a patent in England for the application
of steam to dredging. In 1708, Hertel, and in 1734, Morton and
Balrae, of Holland, employed a barge, and a windlass to draw up
the materials collected by a spoon and bag. In 1750, iron buckets
and an endless chain arrangement, were used in France. In 1774
to 1780, Redelykhead and Eckhardt applied scoop wheels. John
Golburn, of Chester, had already, in 17G8, used a kind of scoop

* This may be true of an isolated mountain; but is contrary to the great fact that
nearly all the richest lands of the United States lie north and west of the Appalachian
group. — J. R.

470 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

dragged across the river Clyde. In 1769, Grimsliaw used a four-
spoon dredger, each spoon containing a ton of soil. Bolton and
Watt, in 1796, applied steam to the dredger. In 1802, Mr. Rennie
enlarged and improved the apparatus. In 1805, Mr. Sliorter
operated a spoon dredger hy the tide. In 1807, Richard Treve-
thick, an engineer, made further improvement in the mode of
dredging. In 1810, John Mills introduced machinery by which
50 per cent, of the applied power was shown in the results.

At later periods the steam dredger has been much improved^
and has' been constructed on a larger scale. The result has been
that the cost per ton has been reduced within the last twenty
years from thirteen pence to fovir pence. In September last an
iron steam dredger 110 feet in length, was constructed upon the
Clyde. This machine, which can operate in .30 feet of water, has
filled a barge of a capacity of 33 cubic yards, or 45 tons, in 15
minutes, in 18 feet of water. This is an efficiency about four
times greater than was possessed by the early machines.

Pumping was spoken of by Mr. Johnson as being under some
conditions a species of dredging. In pumping, at the time of
constructing the government dry dock at Brooklyn, there was a
pound of fine sand in each gallon of water pumped out ; and
three thousand tons of sand were removed in that way, by the
Worthington pump. In an attempt of Mr. Maillefert to recover
quicksilver from the " Flying Dutchman,'' it was found t^at what
little excavation they effected in one day was filled up the next.
The sand in which the vessel lay was "so lively that the divers
sank in it knee deep. "But by the aid of the centrifugal pump of
W. D. Andrews, driven by an engine of 12-horse power, the mer-
cury and other cargo were obtained.

Mr. Johnson then proceeded to show by experiments how
readily sand may be removed by pumping, either air or water, and
when raised by his form of pump, that it will be accompanied by a
comparatively small amount of water. The weight of a cubic foot
of dry sand is about 80 lbs. Wet to saturation it is about 100
lbs. A small additional quantity of water was shown to aid
materially in the removal of sand by his pumping apparatus.
Messrs. Eaton and Brother, of Charleston, S. C, with a propeller
dredger 150 feet in length, having a centrifugal pump six feet in
diameter, with a nineteen inch tube attached, raised 150 cubic
yards of sand, shells, &c., from a depth of twelve feet, in twenty-
seven minutes, and deposited the same a mile and a half distant

PROCEEDINGS OP THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 471

in forty minutes. A thousand cubic yards have been removed by
this dredger in a day ; the average, however, being 350 cubic
yards. Roots, bits of wreck, parts of piles, bricks, cannon balls,
and a boat grapnel weighing 30 lbs., were pumped up with the
sand. One hundred and ninety thousand cubic yards of sand,
<fec., have been removed by this machine, working in a sea-way, in
two years, at a cost of 60 cents per cubic yard. But the centri-
fugal pump is too rapid for this work, pumpir.g only 25 per cent,
of sand, and therefore pumps up too large a proportion of water,
for the amount of sand raised is only 25 per cent. To prevent a
deposit of sand in running water, a velocity of 15 feet per second
is necessary. Mr. Johnson then showed that from 85 to 90 per
cent, of sand and other earthy matter might be raised by his
apparatus.

The conditions under which bars are formed, are, 1st, the
presence of sand, shingle, or other easily moved material ; 2d,
water of a depth so limited as to admit of the waves, during
storms, acting upon the bottom ; and 3d, such an exposm-e as
shall allow of waves being generated of sufficient size to operate
on the submerged materials.

The Chairman. — The Hudson River Railroad company Avould
have saved $500,000, if they had known that by the course of
the tide a sand bank would have been built up against their
bridge ; for they expended that amount in constructing a wall
which has proved an unnecessary protection.

Mr. Johnson showed that sand could be carried through a
syphon with a comparatively small proportion of water. There
are in most cases few large bodies in the earth to be removed.
It is chiefly composed of sand deposited by the tides, and such
materials as may be easily pumped in this way.

Mr. Godwin described the successful application of a similar
principle to the emptying of cesspools.

PATENTS.

Mr. Churchill inquired what the effect of the publication of an
invention by bringing it before this society would be upon the
right of the inventor to take out a patent therefor,

Mr. Stetson. — There is probably no better way to make an
inventor's rights known, than such an explanation of an invention
as is given here. His right to take out a patent is limited to two
years after sale and use, but the right to obtain a patent for an
invention made known to the public, never ceases.

472 TEANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Dr. Vanderweyde. — I have bad occasion during the past year
to prove by the printed reports of our proceedings here that my
invention had been exhibited and explained, and that very pub-
lication proved my protection.

The Chairman called attention to the provision for depositing
in the archives of the American Institute a sealed description of
an invention, which it might be desirable not to make public at
the time.

Mr. Roosevelt remarked that merely explaining an invention is
not sufficient. Something must have been done, as well as some-
thing said, to protect the inventor.

Jiew subject. — The subject of " Soluble Glass " was selected
for consideration at the next meeting.

Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, 1

December 26, 1861. J
Prof. Cyrus Mason in the chair.

AMERICAN GEOLOGY.

Dr. Stevens. — I propose to-night to speak of two phenomena
which have operated in different ages of the world to modify the
physical appearance of this continent, viz : Earthquakes and
volcanos.

Three different and plausible theories have been broached by
learned men to account for volcanos. It is one of the wonders
of the world that there should be anywhere a chimney, constantly
smoking, and giving vent to ashes, heated vapors, stones, and
oftentimes melted rock flowing as freely as melted tar. When
w^e come to analyze the lava from volcanos, we find it precisely
similar in its chemical constituents to the hardest rocks, such as
granite and trap. An hypothesis, for a time popular, was, that
there is a chemical operation going on in the bowels of the earth ;
that somewhere in the interior of the globe, are immense depo-
sits of sodium, potassium, and the metallic basis of the earths,
and that through cracks in the earth's crust, water finds its Avay
down to these metals. Sufficient heat, it was assumed, is thus
evolved to melt the rocks in the immediate vicinity. This
theory, although very ingenious, was abandoned by its author,
and is now exploded. The theory of Laplace holds that the
interior of the earth is composed entirely of molten matter ;

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 473

that beneath a thin crust, of forty to one hundred miles in thick-
ness, all is in a state of igneous fusion ; that volcanos are but
chimnics to this great furnace below ; and that whenever there
is a collapse of the earth upon the molten centre, these melted
rocks are thrown up and overflow the surrounding country. It
is probable that this theory is true, at least, in part. It may
explain some of the large volcanos of the globe, such as Hecla,
Vesuvius, Etna, Stromboli, and some in Central America. More
i-ccentiy there has been a purely chemical theory advanced, viz :
That all sedimentary rocks, which are recently formed by the
deposition of sand, gravel, and mud, at the bottom of the sea,
contain a greater or less amount of animal and vegetable matter;
that when these rocks begin to condense, to change from their
soft, muddy consistency to a hard material, heat is evolved which
is increased to such an intensity, ly means of the organic matter
in the deposit, that the soft, pulpy mass is molten in part, and
begins to bubble up and overflow. In favor of this last theory,
it is alleged that, in the neighborhood of all the active volcanos
of the globe, the rocks are those of the latest formation, and are
now undergoing that process of condensation, and all contain a
very large per centage of organic matter. Further, as we go
back in the history of the globe, every great geological forma-
tion, while it was undergoing the process of formation, had its
volcanos and its earthquakes. They are to be traced through
the cracks, radiating from a centre, precisely similar to those
now found in Italy, Sicily, and Central America, immediately
following earthquakes. On the plains of Illinois, Avhere the
coun.try appears perfectly level, for instance, we are able, by
accurate surveys, to trace a system of cracks of such a descrip-
tion. And it is almost certain that wherever a river flows, there
is an ancient fissure in the rocks underneath it, which has deter-
mined its direction. This is true, not only of the Mississippi,
the Susquehanna, the Alleghany, the Hudson, but even the little
streams that come down from the mountains, and are dry in the
summer season, all have their course determined by some fissure
in the rocks beneath. In California, where volcanos now bubble
up like lakes of molten mud, hot enough to roast an egg in a few
minutes, all the rocks are of recent formation. The same is true
of Oregon, Mexico, and all through South America, wherever
there are active volcanoes.

I will now give you the history of the volcanos of N. America.

474 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

In the Cabotian mountains, among the oldest on the globe, and
extending across the northern part of this continent, the traces
of ancient volcanos are found throughout. They occur especi-
ally upon the northeastern coast of Lake Superior, and upon the
Gulf of St. Lawrence. These mountains were formed in the
azoic age of the world.

In the latter part of the azoic age, there was another system
of ancient volcanos in the neighborhood of Boston, the outflow
of which is still found in the shape of porphyry, green stone and
certain forms of granite. Coming up a step further into the
lower Silurian formtions, when shell-fish began to abound, we
have another system of volcanos in the north of New Hamp-
shire, Vermont, Canada, and occasionally in the Blue mountains
of Tennessee, and in the Blue Ridge of Virginia, leaving granite,
porphyry, and green stone to mark their positions. There was,
also, in the Silurian age, a very long system of eruptions on the
shore of Lake Superior, occurring usually in the form of three
parallel ridges, elevated six hundred feet above the immediate
neighborhood. lie Royale appears to have been elevated from
the bottom of Lake Superior at this time, coming up with
almost perpendicular sides. Still later, in the Carboniferous and
Devonian age of the world, there were volcanos among the
mountains of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. In ihe Permian
age, which immediately succeeds the Carboniferous, we begin to
find the Triassic rocks, or red sandstones, of New Jersey and
the Connecticut river, and of North Carolina and Virginia.
When those rocks were deposited, and in the act of hardening,
trap, and greenstone, and basalt, and other igneous rocks, were
formed ; we have the traces of igneous action, beginning beneath
the bosom of the Atlantic, extending from the Vermont line
across the States of Massachusetts and Connecticut, and termi-
nating at New Haven, commencing again at the Palisades, and
extending across the States of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Mary-
land, Virginia, North Carolinia, South Carolina, and terminating
in Georgia, usually in three great systems. We find igneous
rocks also in Missouri, indicating volcanic action there in the
same age. After this age there has been no volcanic action upon
the eastern slope of the United States.

In the succeeding age, the Cretaceous, there were volcanos
lying east of the Bocky mountains, four isolated mountains lying
near the Canadian fork of the Arkansas river, others extending

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 475

down into Mexico, and, according to Humboldt, even into Guati-
mala. These have all been extinct for many years. Scoria and
pumice stone have been found floating down the Missouri river,
supposed to have come from some volcano still in action.

Dr. Vanderweyde. — Pumice stone is found floating down the
Khine, supposed to have come from extinct volcanos.

Dr. Stevens. — The pumice upon the Missouri is of fresh appear-
ance, as if recently from the fire.

While the tertiary rocks, lying between the Sierra Nevada and
the coast range were consolidating, Mount Diabolo, and Mount
Shasti Avere elevated. That system extended up into the Russian
possessions. But for this ancient outflow of volcanic matter, we
could now build, at a slight expense, a railroad running up
through this valley, turning around the Sierra Nevada, passing
the liumboldt mountains, going through the great gap in the
Eocky mountains, and so on to St. Louis, across to Chicago, by
Little Falls to New York ; and, excepting at Little Falls, we
should not encounter a mountain upon the whole route ; gradu-
ally rising six thousand feet above the level of the sea, and then
slowly descending to the Atlantic coast. Subsequent to this age
volcanic mountains were thrown up in the valley of Utah ; and
there we have the only burning volcanoes in the United States.
They exist there as large lakes, and are exceedingly interesting
and curious to travellers.

Scientific men have devised two theories to explain the pheno-
mena of earthquakes ; one that they are caused by a collapse of
the earth's crust upon the liquid mass beneath, and a consequent
surging backwards and forwards of the great molten sea beneath
us. I do not understand how that could produce such an
instantaneous movement of the earth over such a great extent
of country. The earthquake wave seems to travel with a speed
almost equal to that of lightning. I consider the true cause of
earthquakes as yet undeveloped by scientific research.

SUCTION DREDGING.

Mr. Fisher suggested that the apparatus for dredging by
pumping, explained by Mr, Johnson, would be useful also for crea-
ting an artificial obstruction or bar for the purposes of blockade.

Dr. Stevens stated that there are no boulders south of this
port ; that on the Jersey shore the largest pebbles are no larger
than a hen's egg, growing smaller as we proceed southward, the
principal substance being sand.

476 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE

DRAIN PIPE.

Prof. Seely exhibited a specimen of bitinniDized pipe. The
process of raaniifacture consists in causing a roll of paper to
pass through a reservoir of melted .bitumen, after which it is
tightl}^ coiled around a mandril to any required thickness. The
paper is so well protected by the asphaltum as not to be liable
to decay.

Mr. Tillman. — Tlie same has been used for roofs, and does not
succeed.

Mr. Stetson stated that the extremes of temperature and of
moisture and dryness to which a roof is subjected are very much
more deleterious to such a substance than the uniform exposure
of such a pipe used for water or gas.

TYPE-SETTING MACHINERY.

On motion of Mr. Stetson,

Resolved, That a committee of three from the Section on
Mechanics be requested to examine and report to the Section on
type-setting machines, to which their attention may be called
with reference to the gold medal.

Messrs. Bogardus, Ward, and Mason were nominated and
appointed as the committee, with power to fill vacancies.

SOLUBLE GLASS.

Prof. Seely stated that water-glass, or glass soluble in water
although made by accident several centuries ago, had not been
known until 1825, in its necessary conditions. To some extent
any glass is soluble in water. Those glasses which contain the
largest proportion of potash or soda, with but little lime or other
alkaline earth, are most readily soluble. It has been proposed
to use water glass as a covering for stone houses, to be applied
in the liquid form, spirting it on with a rose and to harden on
the wall. Applied in this way, it gives a very fine finish to plas-
tered walls. In a short time the surface assumes a brilliant
lustre, suggesting the idea of varnish. But after it is completely
dry it cracks and parts with its polish. What is called stereo-
chrome, is a process of covering walls after . coloring them with
this fluid, which fixes the colors and preserve their brightness
indefinitely. If water-glass is applied to a surface which has no
reaction, it is liable to be washed off. Applied to marble or to
a plastered wall, the silica leaves the potash and forms an inso-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 4:1*7

luble silicate of lime. It has been adopted in one of the pre-
liminary operations in preparing cotton cloth for printing. It is
suggested that it be used in manufacturing brick to make them
hard.

Dr. Yanderweyde exhibited specimens of soluble glass, and
suggested that it should be made soluble in boiling water, but
insoluble in cold water, so that in its application there should be
no danger of its being washed off. If mingled Avith clay, it
would probably form a silicate of aluminum, and make an
impenetrable brick. The soda would be washed away.

Subject for discission. — The subject selected for the next
meeting was, " Textile Fabrics."
Adjourned for two weeks.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, ?

January 9, 18G2. )
Prof. Cyrus Mason in the chair.

, , NEW COAL oil LAMP.

Mr. Dibben exhibited and explained a new coal oil lamp,
invented by C. W. Smith, for burning coal oil without a chimney.
This lamp burns two fluids in the same flame — alcohol and coal
oil. The latter is always uppermost in consequence of its less
specific gravity, and they are not so easily mixed as to influence
the result. One wick reaches to the bottom of the lamp, taking
tip the alcohol, and the other is floated by a cork so as to take up
the coal oil. Coal oils are so rich in carbon that they cannot .be
burned alone with an ordinary wick without an argand chimney.
In this lamp, now before us, the flame of the alcohol, furnishes
the best requisite for the complete combustion of the carbon
of the coal oil, and surrounds the flame from the coal oil,
so as to prevent smoking. The lamp is convenient, portable,
cheap and does not appear to be at all dangerous. The cost of
chimneys, in most of the coal oil lamps, prevents the use of coal
oil from being economical. This plan seems to be a good one to
obviate the necessity for a chimney.

Mr. Bull. — What is the cost of the fluids used ?

Mr, Dibben. — The alcohol is about thirty-five cents per gallon,
and the coal oil about fifty cents. It makes no difference in what
proportion they are put into the lamp. The relative proportion
consumed will depend upon the manner of trimming. It has been

ilS TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

found that about two parts of alcohol to one of coal oil produces
a good flame. It is a cheaper light than burning fluid, and much
less dangerous, if there is any danger at all. If the alcohol Avere
entirely consumed, the only effect would be that the lamp would
smoke. It is as readily lighted as a burning fluid lamp, and can
be carried about without smoking.

Dr. Stevens suggested that a petticoat burner, placed over the
coal oil tube, would increase the brilliancy of the flame by pro-
moting a draft of atmospheric air, heated somewhat by the tube,
and impinging upon the flame just at the point of its ignition. In
order completely to consume the light, carburetted hydi'ogen gas,
which is commonly burned in cities, three per cent, of atmospheric
air is necessary. With the lighter coal oils, about five per cent,
of atmospheric air is necessary to produce complete combustion,
and therein consists the philosophy of the chimne3\ Some of the
heavier oils require eight per cent, of atmospheric air, and if by
any means they can obtain that, they do not require alcohol or
any other fluid containing hydrogen.

Mr. C. W. Smith. — My object is to produce a cheap, convenient
and portable light. The attempt at burning coal oil without
chimneys have three objections : 1. The smell is disagreeable.
2. The moment you lift up one the lamps suddenly, as in going up
stairs, the flame goes out. 3. The light is very deeply colored.
In all three of these respects I think this lamp is superior. I
regard the lamp as entirely safe. I have endeavored to produce
an explosion, but have not succeeded yet. Glass is a poor con-
ductor of heat, and I do not think enough heat could reach the
alcohol in the bottom of the lamp, covered with coal oil, to evap-
orate it sufficiently to make it dangerous. It will burn any sort
of kerosene, or mixture of kerosene and petroleum.

Referred, on motion of Mr. Johnson, to the Section on Chemistry.

AMERICAN GEOLOGY.

Dr. Stevens. — The importance of the mineral formations of any
country can hardly be overrated. A nation without iron and coal
within its borders, must be little more than an agricultural
region. Steam is now the great motive power of the world, and
coal is the great generator of steam. It was coal and the steam
engine that enabled England successfully to compete, at one time,
with the French empire and almost the whole of Europe. France,
with a much larger and finer country, has never been able to
compete successfully with England, for the reason that within

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 479

her boundaries are no important deposits of coal or iron. Hap-
pil}^ for us, within our own country we have all the various eco-
nomic minerals that are to be found upon the face of the wide
globe. I believe that there is no one which may not be found in
sufficient quantities to pay the expenses of mining.

I will now point out the localities of the various mineral form-
ations of the United States, beginning with the later discoveries
upon the California coast and traveling eastward.

First comes the gold formation of the Pacific.

The deposits of auriferous sands, clays and gravels are distri-
buted from the liead of the Gulf of California, in a strip of country
varying from fifteen to seventy-five miles in width, across Cali-
fornia, Oregon, Washington, into the British possessions, and
probably as far north as the Sierra Nevada or Cr.scade mountains
extend. Upon the Sierra Nevada mountains the placer earth is
found at various altitudes. How came the gold in this placer
earth ? The theory is that at one time the whole of the Ameri-
can Continent, west of the Rocky mountains, was depressed four
or five thousand feet below the level of the sea. These plateaus
must have been formed while the continent was being elevated,
the water for a long time standing at a certain height. The
debris from the mountains would be washed down the slopes of
the valleys into these plateaus, in quantities proportioned to the
periods of time during which the earth was coming up from the
depth of the sea. Underneath the placer earth there is another
source of gold, for it is found in the rocks, the granite, the slate,
the serpentine and other rocks. The gold in these r;)cks is usu-
ally dist'ributed through three different systems of veins, varying
from a few inches to several feet in thickness. The gold is not
always uniformly diffused through the entire vein, but there is a
certain association of minerals that is never wanting. Almost
all minerals are related to each other in a certain way, certain
minerals being generally found together. The original form of
gold is sulphide of gold, and associated with it we always find
more or less sulphide of iron. All metals are universally distri-
buted, but in certain places they are gathered together in richer
profusion, and it is to these that I refer. Iron, lead, silver,
molybdenum, tellurium, osmium, manganese and copper are usu-
ally found associated.

Coming down to the Santa Clara mountains, we find the richest
mines of quicksilver on the globe. In that neighborhood tin is

480 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

also found. We have the famous "Washoe silver mines in Utah.
In Illinois and Kentucky is the subcarboniferous limestone, pro-
ducing some silver and lead ; and it makes its appearance again
in the Organ mountains of New Mexico, where Ave come imme-
diately into silver and lead bearing ores again, the silver having
become richer as we go westward. Probably this is the same
with the great silver formation of Chihuahua in Mexico, extend-
ing into Central America and into South America. By the
upheaval of the Rocky mountains, both the Carboniferous lime-
stone and the Cretaceous series were broken in two, and they
appear again upon the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada. But
the rocks of California belong to an entirely different age, so
that geologically it is in vain to look for silver, west of the
Sierra Nevada, in the same richness and profusion which it dis-
plays in the Washoe mines. Now, to come to the Pike's Peak
region ; Avherever the primitive formation have been upheaved
and brought to the surface, they have brought gold with them ;
and I have no doubt that, gold will be found along this entire
range of mountains. But it is not found in placer deposits, as
in California, and consequently it will not pay the miner as well.
It is usually found in this region in the primitive quartz. The
gold of North Carolina, extending from Virginia into Georgia,
that in Vermont, that upon the Chaudiere river in Canada, and
that in Nova Scotia, are all of the same formation.

At Lake Superior we begin with the copper, which is found in
connection with calcareous spar, and is sometimes found in
immense masses. A new theory has arisen within a few years,
viz.: That all minerals were at one time pretty uniformly distri-
buted through the mass of the rock, while it was in a soft pulpy
condition; and that the metal was gathered from the entire mass,
probably by electrogalvanic action, and brought into a vien.
Lime was also in solution in the same mass, and by the same
agencies was brought into the same vein. This would explain,
why we find the copper distributed as it is between these crystals
of calcareous spar which show no efiect of heat upon them. The
celebrated Mr. Crosse filled a box with clay, silex, and lime, uni-
formly mixed. He then formed an artificial vein, and subjected
the whole to the action of electricity. After some months the
silex had collected in this artificial vein, forming a true quartz
vein. I have explained, on a former evening, that upon the
Welsh coast copper is even now in the process of formation. In

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 481

tlie British possessions copper is found in the primitive forma-
tion, an entirely different formation from that of the Lake Supe-
rior region. We have the same formation as on Lake Superior
in South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee, in New York, and in
the lead region of Missouri.

COOKING CANTEEN.

Mr. Herbert exhibited a canteen which could be used for
cooking potatos, rice, beans, &c.

Referred to the Section on Mechanics.

TEXTILE FABRICS.

The Chairman stated that he had as yet seen no evidence of
any progress, since this subject was last under consideration, in
adapting the flax fibre to the machinery now used for spinning
wool and cfbtton, or removing any of the difficulties attending it.
So with the tree cottons. He had come to the conclusion that
they are all unsuited for cotton machinery in consequence of the
unequal length of the fibres. Upon a careful microscopic exami-
nation of seven samples of cotton, and estimating their value
from the length of the fibre, its fineness, and the degree to which
it is twisted into the corkscrew form, he had found that the
actual market value in Wall street corresponded with his esti-
mates, showing that these characteristics actually regulate the
market value of any description of cotton.

Mr. Bull. — Would there be any more difficulty in constructing
machinery for working the flax fibre than for working cotton?

The Chairman stated that cotton was peculiarly adapted to
being worked by machinery, whereas there seemed to be no such,
adaptation in the flax fibre. Napoleon ofl'ered a prize of thirty
thousand dollars for a machine for spinning flax into a thread;
but the machine never appeared. No machine has ever been
invented specially for working flax at a rate as cheap as cotton
is spun; but the proposition is not merely to spin flax, but to
spin it upon cotton and woolen machinery. The great difficulty
has been to cause the flax fibre to form a fine thread.

Mr. Fisher suggested that the flax fibre prepared by the steam
gun might be available for an extra quality of linen paper. He
considered cotton paper as hardly fit to be used for the best kinds
of printing and writing. This flax fibre might be found superior
to worn linen rags.

[Am. Inst.J EE

482 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The Chairman. — It has never yet been offered low enough.

Mr. Gale said that linen is extensively consumed in this coun-
try, for collars, wristbands, shirtbosoras, handkerchiefs, and linen
coats and pantaloons, besides many other uses. It costs us from
fifty to seventy-five cents per yard, and is chiefly imported. On
the other hand, we have a surplus of female labor in this coun-
try which might be advantageously employed in its production.
Linen is, in my opinion, a better protection -against cold than
cotton or woolen ; for if we lay a covering of linen upon a pile
of potatos, and a covering of woolen upon another pile, equally
exposed, the latter may be frozen while the former will be unin-
jured. Apples may be hung up in a linen bag, and will be secure
from frost. The United States ought to produce its own cotton,
and linen and silk.

Mr. Churchill suggested that the porous nature of the woolen
covering, and the impermeability of the linen covering might
explain the difference between the two in resisting the frost. Mr.
Churchill also remarked that specimens of prepared fibres
examined by him, and especially of flax, prepared by a modifica-
tion of Claussen's process, exhibited the various twisted forms
of cotton fibres through short lengths ; this might interfere with
the identification of short fibres as in paper.

The Chairman said that his observations corresponded with
this.

Jfew siilject. — The subject selected for the next meeting is
" Saltpetre and substitutes therefor."

Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, 1

January 16, 1862. 3
Mr. R. L. Pell in the chair,

RAILROAD JOINT.

Mr. Johnson, in behalf of P. Bartens, the inventor, exhibited
an improved railroad joint, consisting of a chair, so constructed
as to "make the road, as it were, of one continuous solid rail,
preventing any rail from getting displaced, and at the same time
allowing space between the ends of the rails for expansion."
When a rail is to be taken up, the bolts confining it to the
sleeper and the key are removed. The chair will then slide
along the rail far enough to release the end.

PROCEEDINGS OP THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 4S3

ARMY CANDLESTICK.

Mr. Benjamin W. Hopper, of Astoria, N. Y., exhibited two
kinds of improved candlesticks; one of which, in a smd,ll tin
box, with a looking glass in the lid, three inches in diameter,
comprises two candlesticks, to hang up or set down. It has,
also, compartments for matches, spare candle, inkstand, pens and
penholder.

Referred to the Section of Mechanics.

DRESSING FLAX AND OTHER FIBROUS PLANTS.

Mr. James E. Mallory read the following paper on flax and
other fibrous plants, and the proper mode of preparing them
for use :

The subject of vegetable fibres has received much attention
in this country as well as in Europe during the last few years.

The desire to procure a cheap substitute for rags in the manu-
facturing of paper has led to many experiments, having for their
object the production of a proper material from the fibres of
various kinds of wood. Having been interested in a series of
experiments of this character, I became satisfied, after a thorough
examination of the subject, that the difficulties in the way of
procuring a cheap paper, making fibre from wood, were almost
if not quite insuperable.

Turning my attention to the tropics, I found an inexhaustible
supply of fibrous plants, promising, in my judgment, the very
best material not only for paper, but for nearly all the fabrics
now in use. It was at first a matter of surprise to me, that from
sources of such unparalleled supply, the amount of fibre annually
yielded for the various wants of community were comparatively
so small. Upon further investigation, I found that it was to be
attributed entirely to the defective modes adopted in all tropical
countries of dressing and preparing the fibre for market— no
simple and well-constructed machine for that purpose is in use.
The natives produce the fibre by beating the fibrous leaf with
a piece of wood upon a stone, afterwards washing it in water; in
this manner one person may produce about six pounds of a
coarse, badly prepared fibre per day. It is true that machines
for the purpose of separating and dressing the fibre have been
invented, both in this country and in England, but all of them
have been so expensive and cumbrous, and at the same time so

4.84 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

ill-adapted to the object in view, that they have necessarily
failed.

About this time I called the attention of Mr. Gelston Sanford
to the subject, explaining fully my own experience based upon
previous experiments, and submitting various specimens of tropi-
cal plants which I had obtained from St. Domingo. After an
extended course of experiments, Mr. Sanford has succeeded, in
producing a machine wonderful for its simplicity and effective-
ness. This machine will readily produce an amount of thoroughly
dressed fibre varying, according to the kind of plant used, of
from three hundred to six hundred pounds per day, and requires
only one person to work it. It will soon be put to practical use
in the countries in which fibrous plants grow in great profusion,
by a company of gentlemen of this city.

" The following extract, from a work entitled " Tropical fibres,
their production and economic extraction," published during the
past year, by Mr. E. G. Squier, will sufficiently show the import-
ance of the subject as well as the value of this invention :

In the year 1857, (January 14,) Chief Justice Temple, of Belize
or British Honduras, read a paper before the Royal Society of
Arts of London, on the resources of that country, which, as is
well known, forms part of Central America. Amongst other
objects of interest, he exhibited a quantity of the fibre of the
plant under notice, pine-apple, as well as of the jigave Sisilana. Of
the former, or Bromelia Sylvesiris, he said : " The plant called
Bromelia pita istle by the Mexicans, and silk grass by the Creoles
of British Honduras, grows spontaneously in the greatest abun-
dance. The leaves are of a soft, dark green, from five to thirteen
feet long, and from an inch and a half to four inches wide. Along
the edge of the leaf, about six inches apart, are short, sharp,
curved thorns. When the plant is cultivated these gradually
disappear. The fibre which the leaf contains is unquestionably
of a superior description, and I have no doubt could be used in
every species of textile fabric. I have been informed by leading-
manufacturers that this fibre is equal to the best China grass,
superior to the New Zealand flax, and capable of being manufac-
tured into the finest fabrics," — [Journal of the Royal Society of
Arts, vol. 5, p. 125. J In the discussion which took place among
the leading members of the society, on the paper of Judge Tem-
ple, Mr. P. L. Simmonds, editor of the Mark Lane Express, said :
■'I have, to-day, seen some of the indigenous specimens of_the

PROCEEDINGS OP THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 485

Penguin or Bromelia from Honduras, which have been operated
upon by a new patented process of Messrs. Pye Bros., of Ipswich,
and am astonished at the remarkable improvement and high
commercial value which have been given to the article. The
main difficulty that has stood in th", way of rendering many of these
fibres useful of making them cheap, and of universal use, has been
the want of cheap and efficient machinery for preparing them, and
getting rid of the gummy and other matters without injury to the
fibres. Such machinery is a desideratum of the age^

Mr. Vye remarked that " on the authority of practical men he
could confidently pssert that the fibre of the Pita Bromelia, from
its strength and quality, might be rendered fit, by the hackling
process, for the finest fabrics."

Mr. J. B. Sharp said that "he could confirm all that had been
said by those who preceded him. He had that morning submit-
ted some of the fibres to a close microscopical examination, and
had ascertained that each fibre contained from five to twelve or
more fine filaments, held together by gummy matter, capable of
being dissolved by proper processes. Some of the specimens
before them had been passed over the comb or hackles of a flax-
mill, and had been pronounced by the most experienced flax spin-
ners of the country (England) to be greatly superior to Russian
flax, and approaching the best description of Belgian, in capabil-
ity of application to the finest textile fabrics. * * ^ material
point to be considered was : What machinery shall be employed
in obtaining these fabrics ? On this head he would observe that
the plantain, one of the most luxuriant plants in growth, could
be easily prepared with one machine, while the silk grass or pen-
guin, etc., required a machine essentially different in construction.
* * The leaf of the silk grass consisted of two different struc-
tures ; the upper side being of a soft or pulpy character, easy of
removal ; and the under side of a harder or more ligneous cha-
racter, and more difhcult to separate — these two external bodies
holding the fibre between them. The preparation of the fibre,
however, was a question of mere mechanical arrangement. * *
He had no hesitation in saying that the three British colonies of
Jamaica, Honduras and Guiana were capable of furnishing fibres
from the plants in question to the value of $15,000,000 per
annum."

Any one desirous of further information upon the subject of

486 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

tropical fibres, can be 'satisfied by reference to the book from
which I quote.

After Mr. Sanford's machine had been brought to perfection,
the question arose whether the machine or the principle upon
which it was constructed, might not be applied to the dressing
of flax. We tried it, and the experiment was so far satisfactory
that we immediately set to work to modify the ma( hine, and at
the same time commenced an earnest study of the nature of flax,
as well as of the various proce£;ses and modes of dressing through
which flax straw has to pass on being prepared for textile fabrics.
We have examined all of the machines and processes now in
use, as well as many of the most promising inventions which have
proved failures; our object being to learn the real difficulties to
be overcome, as well as the cause of the failure of so many inven-
tions. AVe finally discovered not only the difficulties to be sur-
mounted, but also the reason why others have failed in tneir
efforts ; and that I may be perfectly understood, I propose to
commence with the hand bench break and hand scutcher, stating
the objection to that mode of dressing flax, and then to notice
brieflv the flax dressing machines now in use in this and other
countries ; stating the objections to the present mode of dressing
flax, its wastefulness and danger, and also the reason why not
only the present machines and modes of dressing flax should be
abandoned, but the reason why flax dressing should be taken
altogether from the mill owner and left to the farmer by Avhom
the flax is. grown. Flax straw, after it has been rotted, still con-
tains sufficient gum to cement the fibres quite firmly to the woody
stalk, and in order to remove the boon or shoove without injury
to the fibre, it is necessary first to separate the fibre from the
woody part longitudinally, and secondly, to break the boon of a
length not to exceed one-fourth of an inch ; and as the edge of
the Avoody particles, when broken, are sharp, and act like knives
upon the fibre, it is necessary in order to remove them without
injury to the fibre, that the material should be acted upon in such
a manner as to open the fibres, allowing the shooves to drop
through them.

The construction of the old hand break is such as to break the
boon too long, leaving a great portion of it still adhering to the
fibres. In using this machine, the operator, after breaking the
straw, takes a handful of the material thus prepared and beats it
with a knife or swingle for the purpose of removing the pieces of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 487

boon still adhering. The objection to this mode of flax dressing
is this : The mass of the material in the hands of the operator,
subjected to the knife or swingle operation, is so large that a
perfect removal of the woody particles becomes impossible with-
out a very considerable waste of valuable fibre; the fibre being
drawn out from the mass with the w^oody particles, and in addi-
tion to this loss, the fibres remaining in the hand of the operator
arc materially injured by becoming entangled as well as bruised
or partially broken. The condition of the fibre, after undergoing
this treatment, is such that, in subsequently reducing it to a
degree of fineness, fit for fine fabrics, a further loss of from forty
to fifty per cent is sustained.

A great many experiments have been made, from time to time,
to discover some new mode of preparing flax straw for the action
of machinery, such as water rotting, steeping in hot Avater, in
alkali with and without heat, steaming with and without pi'es-
sure, and the like ; but all have been abandoned for the old pro-
cess of dew-rotting, which is now universal.

The business of flax dressing is now and for a long time has
been controlled by the owners of mills or factories, erected at
considerable expense expressly for that purpose. The machines
used by them are constructed upon the same principle as the
hand process above described, and require, to operate them, skilled
and high priced labor.

Flax dressing by the hand process is so tedious, and the daily
yield so small, as to render it unprofitable to the farmer, and,
as few farmers have sufficient capital to enable them to erect
suitable buildings, and to purchase the expensive machinery now
in use for flax dressing, they are compelled, if they raise flax at
all, to sell the straw to the mill owner.

Farmers living at a distance from the mill cannot afford to cart
the straw, hence the amount of flax dressed must be limited and
the price high.

Could every farmer have a machine, which could be driven by
horse power, and attended by boys or girls, without risk to the
operative, it would not be long before a linen fabric could be
purchased for a price less even than that of cotton. Great efforts
have been made in this country, as well as in Europe, to devise
such a machine, but hitherto without success. It is belived that
the machine invented by Mr. Sanford, which I will presently
explain, will fully answer that important end.

488 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

There are within fifty miles of Troy, N. Y., fiftj^six mills, which
cost from five to eight hundred dollars each, exclusive of build-
ings and power, and which severally dress from one to two hun-
dred tons of flax straw per year. The power required to drive
these mills may be stated to be from six to fifteen horse power.

All of these mills are constructed upon the principle of the
old hand process, with the single exception of the break. In-
stead of the bench break, they substitute fluted rollers, through
which the flax has to be passed six or seven times. The opera-
tive is required to exercise considerable skill and caution in
working the fluted rollers, as there is always danger that his arm
may be drawn between them. As many as ten cases of this kind
have occurred within a few years, in a single county, in each of
which the operative lost an arm.

After passing through the rollers, the flax is passed to a man
who does what is termed rough scutching, and from him to ano-
ther man who does the fine scutching and finishing. The scutch-
ing knives are precisely like the old hand scutchers, six of which
(being each about two feet in length) are placed in the periphery
of a common pulley, about two feet in diameter, and three of
these pulleys, armed with scutching knives, are placed on one
shaft, at suitable distances apart, to enable three men to stand
between them in a right line. Considerable care must be exercised
in using this machine also, as the fingers of the operative are not
unfrequently cut off" by the revolving knives. The straw to be
dressed passes through the hands of several operatives, as fol-
lows: One passes it to the man attending the break, the break-
man passes it through the fluted rollers six or seven times, as
above stated, and the man who first handles the straw then
passes it to be dressed by the revolving knives to the scutchers,
two of whom rough dress it, as it is called, then a third takes,
the product of the two rough dressers, and gives it the fine or
finishing scutch, as it is termed. It is then tied up and pro-
nounced ready for market. The man who first handles the straw,
not being fully employed in that duty, assists generally about the
milL Under the present mode of dressing flax, a number of men
are employed in rotting and preparing the flax for the mill, all of
whom are under the control of the mill owner. Much of the flax
is brought from a distance to the vicinitj^'of the mill, and there
rotted and prepared. In consequence of this, much valuable
straw is wasted by being handled so many times. After the

TROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 489

straw is at the mill, so imperfect is the present mode of dressing
flax, that nearly one-half of the fibre passes into a refuse called
tow. The tow is of two qualities : the course worth at this
time only fifty cents per hundred pounds, and the fine worth two
and a half cents per pound. All of this tow, if in long line, would
be worth, at this time, twelve cents per pound.

After flax is dressed, as above, the fibre must pass through a
subsequent hackling process, before it is reduced to a degree of
fineness suitable for spinning, and in this process loses, as I have
before remarked, from 40 to 50 per cent, which passes into tow.
This is owing to the defective principle upon which the flax is
dressed, it being impossible, by any mode now in use, to remove
the woody particles of the flax stalk without breaking or marring
many of the fibres, and entangling very badly those which
remain.

The true principle upon which flax-straw should be relieved of
its boon is to break and free it simultaneously. The only prin-
ciple, or machine, now in existance, which will thus dress flax,
preserving the fibres perfectly parallel and unbroken, is the San-
ford machine.

The principle upon which this machine works is this : The
flax-straw,, in a thin stratum, is passed through a pair of feed
rollers, one of which is elastic — the rollers allowing the straw to
pass through them at the rate of one hundred and sixty feet per
minute. As it passes through tlie feed rollers it comes in con-
tact with a cylinder and belt which are running (the one driving
the other) at the rate of eight hundred feet per minute, the belt
and cylinder being armed with teeth and scrapers, and arranged
so that the straw must pass between them — the bars or scrapers
and the teeth taking hold of the flax-straw upon both sides of the
straw, the set of bars on the belt striking the straw on one side
about an eighth of an inch in advance of the bar on the cylinder,
breaking the woody part of the straw very short, while the
teeth, on both cylinders and belt, keep the fibres perfectly
straight, so that most of the woody particles drop through the
bars. or scrapers on the belt (the belt being open for that pur-
pose). Tlie remaining shooves are scraped off, and carried out
out of the fibre, at the end of the machine, through channels which
the teeth keep constantly open. The construction of the ma-
chine is such that the flax-straw, upon being fed in, is first bent
one way, and then the other. The first effect of this bending

490 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

motion is to relieve the fibre from the boon longitudinally. The
next effect is to break it, but never till after the bars have first
loosened it. This action avoids the possibility of injury to the
fibre, by the teeth and scrapers, in removing the boon or shoove.
To operate this machine, one person (a boy or girl may do it)
places the flax-straw in a clamp, about two and one-half feet long,
and about one inch wide, by one half inch thick, the inner sur-
face being lined with rubber, so as to yield to the unevenness of
the straw as it is laid in it. The clamp is jointed at one end,
like the newspaper-holder, and is very like it in appearance.
Each clamp, filled with the straw, is laid upon a table near the
machine, and is then taken by another person (boy or girl), who
presents it to the feed rollers, holding one end of the clamp until
the rollers have drawn the straw in. After the straw has been
drawn in a little more than half its length, the operator then
steps upon a treddle, which reverses the motion of the feed
rollers, (the feed rollers being so arranged that they feed the flax
out five times as fast as it is fed in). The operator then pre-
sents the other end of the straw held in the clamp, which is fed
in as bofore.

The product, after undergoing this operation, is in a fit state to
spin into all goods of a coarse character, such as twin&, toweling,
etc., etc., but for fine goods, like flax fibre, dressed by all other
modes, it has to pass through a subsequent hackling process, but
with this remarkable difference — the fibre's cleaned by this ma-
chine being all unbroken and uninjured, and each fibre being
perfectly parallel with every other fibre, and being entirely free
from boon. The hackling process is attended with very little loss.
The inventor of this machine has spent much time and. in con-
nection with other parties, much money under the conviction
that it was possible so to construct a machine that it would
operate not only with a great saving of fibre, and without danger
to the operative, but that it might be made so simple and cheap
that every farmer, however poor, could afford to have one ; he,
also, believed that could such a macliine be placed in the hands
of the farmer, so great an impetus would be given to the grow-
ing of flax for textile fabrics, that within a few years it would
become an important branch of industry in all the free States,
remunerative to the farmer and beneficial to the community.

Many scientific men, and men of experience in flax dressing,
have examined the Sanford machine, have tested its practical

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 491

operation, and the character of the product yielded by it. They
are, without exception, convinced that the following facts are
established :

First. — A machine capable of producing seventy pounds of
fibre in ten hours, can be sold at a price not exceeding one hun-
dred and thirty dollars, at the factory ready for shipment.

Second. — The yield of flax fibre, by the use of this machine,
in proportion to the weight of flax-straw dres&ed, exceeds by at
least one-third that obtained by any other machine or process.

Third. — The fibre dressed by this machine is much more valu-
able than that dressed in any other way.

Fourth. — This machine is so simple in its coustruction and
operation that the liability to derangement is very slight, and
the facility for keeping in order very great.

Fifth. — This machine does not require in its use any peculiar
skill. It can be operated by boys or girls, and does not involve
any risk ta the hands or arms of operatives, while the ordinary
scutching machines require the use of skilled labor, and, as
experience has proved, is always attended with risk to the opera-
tives.

Sixth. — This machine can be driven by any of the horse
powers in use, and as it can be operated by ordinary farm labor,
it enables the farmer to dress and prepare for market at a little
expense the flax raised by himself, thus opening to him a new
and profitable field of labor.

Seventh. — The machine is small, occupying three feet square,
and weighing about four hundred and fifty pounds.

The amount of flax fibre produced in the United States in the
year 1850 was 7,806,8U9 pounds. Had the straw from which this
amount of fibre was taken been dressed by the Sanford machine,
the yield would have been not less than 10,409,078 pounds. The
increased product at present prices, would be worth $312,271.86.

When it is remembered that in many of the western States
an immense quantity of flax is raised for the seed alone, the
straw being destroyed or wasted as of no value, it will readily
be seen that the introduction among farmers of a cheap and
effective machine, capable of converting what would otherwise
go to waste, into an article of great value, cannot fail to produce
the most important results.

It is well known that flax can be successfully cultivated in all
the northern States. If, in addition to the value of the seed —

492 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

sufficient of itself to pay the entire cost of cultivation — the
straw can readily be made a source of large profit — a wide field
of successful industry will be opened.

Mr. Sanford, the inventor of the machine described, then
explained the model, and exhibited its mode of operation.

The Chairman inquired about the practical success of the
steam gun for making flax cotton.

Mr. Mallory stated that he had been connected with the first
experiments with the steam gun. He had tried it upon various
materials, and had even blown liguuin vitas with it. The objec-
tions to it for flax are that the cotton made by it must afterwards
be passed through a picking machine, and that the heat makes
the flax more difficult to bleach. Sanford's machine does at one
operation what requires four or five with the steam gun. And
if flax cotton is desired, it can best be made from flax that has
passed through this machine.

Referred to the Section of Mechanics. •

AMERICAN GEOLOGY.

Dr. Stevens. — I have, in a former lecture, said that certain
ores are alwa3's found associated together. Gold, when in
place, is usually accompanied by sulphuret of iron, and sul-
phuret of iron generally contains gold. Whenever lead is found
in the United States, the sulphuret or some other ore of zinc is
associated with it. One of the most prominent localities for
lead in the United States is the neighborhood of Galena. There
are immense quantities of zinc in the west, but unfortunately it
is associated with the sulphuret of iron, and on this account it
has not proven valuable. The great zinc formations of the
United States are found in the Blue Ridge. At Franklin, in New
Jersey, it is found in the form of oxide, and iron, manganese are
combined with it in one mineral. Zinc is one of our most
important mineral productions. Its oxide is of great value as a
paint, from the fact that it is not injurious to health, and that it
is not darkened by sulphuretted hydrogen.

The next great mineral formation of the United States is iron.
Practically, iron ores are divided into two great classes ; those
in which the iron is in the state of an oxide, and those in which
it is in the form of a carbonate. The latter are frequently found
associated with limestone, in the coal formations; while the
oxides are found in all formations. The ores of iron earliest, in

. PROCEEDI.NGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 493

geological date, are the magnetic oxides which are found in the
azoic rocks. Such ores are found in masses called "Iron moun-
tains" in Wisconsin and Michigan, Lake Superior, I sujopose
that the iron was originally distributed throughout the soft
muds and sands which form the slates of that region ; but by
some chemical or chemico-electric agency the iron was gathered
together in masses. The denuding agencies which have since
swept over the country, have worn away the slates, leaving the
iron ore in a mountain shape perhaps two or three hundred feet
above the level of the plain. Oxides of iron are found in other
formations. "Where the carbonates of iron have cropped out on
the sides of hills, they have given off tlieir carbon and taken
up oxygen, and have thus been converted into hematites, which
are rich ores of this metal.

Blackband is a carbonate of iron, mingled with bituminous
shale. The amount of carbon and bitumen is so great that the
whole can be set on fire, and the burning of the carbon will
roast the ore. But this ore is only used for mingling with other
ores.

Experience has satisfied iron masters that the best iron is
obtained from mixtures of different kinds of iron ores. For
instancs, from Pittsburgh they will send to the Adirondack moun-
tains for the magnetic oxide, and to Tennessee for the dyestone
ore, which they mingle with the nodular ore of their own neigh-
borhood. These nodules are found in the coal measures in a
shale which is otherwise free from iron. I account for their pre-
sence thus : After the coal was formed, there was an irruption
into the coal basin of waters from the surrounding neighborhood
which carried the neighboring forests and all the floating material
into the coal basin. They then became water-logged and sank
down upon the coal. Around this vegetable and animal matter,
the iron was collected.

SALTPETRE AND SUBSTITUTES THEREFOR.

Dr. Stevens. — Saltpetre, or the nitrate of potash, is scarcely
ever found as a mineral by itself; but everywhere the elements
for its formation exist in the soil, in organic matter, and in the
atmosphere. All that is requisite is to protect a sufficient por-
tion of the earth from rains and heavy dews. Hence saltpetre
or some other nitrate is constantly forming in caves and under
barns, wood houses and sheds where organic matter is present,
and potassa or some other base is in the soil. During the

494 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

last war, the great caves of Kentucky and Tennessee were the
chief source from which we obtained our saltpetre. England, at
present, holds almost a monopoly of the saltpetre of the globe,
in consequence of the low price at which she obtains it from her
Eastern possessions. Saltpetre may be artificially made by tak-
ing plaster from old houses, carrying it into fields, covering it
with sheds, and continuously sprinkling it with nitrogenous
fluids, until the nitrate of lime is formed. It is next mixed with
wood ashes, thus converting the nitrate of lime into the nitrate
of potash. Nearly all the saltpetre used in Germany is made
from this source.

Dr. Vanderweyde. — Dissolving phosphorus in bisulphide of
carbon, produces a liquid. Dipping a piece of paper in this,
the moment it becomes dr^^ it will ignite. (This was illus-
trated by experiment.) An Englishman has proposed to fill shells
with this compound. The plan has not been adopted in practice.
^ JSTew subject. — Prof. Seely suggested for the next meeting, the
subject of " The application of Chemistry to the Military Art,"
which was agreed to.

Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association,

January 23, 1862.

Mr. Fisher in the chair.

OFFERS FOR PREMIUMS.

Messrs. Baker & Smith offered their " Low Pressure, Steam
Warming and Ventilating Apparatus."

B. I. Burnett offered the " Eureka Refrigerator," and also the
" Eureka Ice-chamber," arranged for cooling and purifying air in
rooms of the sick, &c.

Referred to the Section of Mechanics.

AMERICAN GEOLOGY".

Dr. Stevens. — To-night I shall call your attention to the Amer-
ican coals.

It may be well to state in the first place how they came into
notice as generators of heat and gas. It is said that John
Schneider,* former Governor of Pennsylvania, had upon his

• The discovery of the value of Anthracite coal was claimed for John Cist, Esq , Wilkes -
barre. He had explored and completed a map of the W joming coal formatiou as early as
1811.— J. K.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 495

estate, in the Lehigh region, wliat he called stone coal, upon
which for twenty years he experimented at various times. He
could occasionally make it burn, but it would hardly be got to
burning, by the aid of more inflammable fuel, before it would go
out. He was laughed at by his neighbors all this time; but he
had the true German perseverance. One day a Yankee clock
pedlar, seeing it, discovered the secret of the failure to burn.
With a good fire of hickory wood, it would burn and make the
kitchen too hot too live in ; but as soon as the wood was burned
up, the coal would fall down and go out. So the Yankee went
into a blacksmith's shop and constructed a grate, and in that the
stove coal would burn. Just as it was in the tide of successful
experiment, a messenger arrived at the gate to inform the Gov-
ernor that a criminal was about to be executed, and making
application for a pardon. "Let him hang," said the Governor to
the messenger, " you come into the kitchen and see my stone coal
burn." An attempt was next made to burn it in the furnaces of
steam engines, but at first without success. At last an engineer
having got up a pretty good fire went home, and upon returning
to his furnace found it all in a glow, with a good Lehigh fire ;
and thus he discovered that the way to burn it is to get it a
burning and then let it alone. If the draft is too great, clin-
ker will be formad, and the way to prevent it is to diminish the
draft. From that time the burning of anthracite in the United
States became a fixed fact, and it is now used all over the world.
It has in many places banished all other coal, and is the purest
and riche^'t source of carbon that the world knows of.

After it was ascertained that anthracite would burn, the iron
manufacturers tried it, and found, after many and long trials,
that, with the hot blast and pure anthracite, iron could be made
cheaper than in any other way. The anthracite pig has become
so cheap in the market that, in the United States, charcoal pig
is manufactured only for specific purposes. Thus, at Salisbury,
Conn,, iron is made from a pure hemitite, with charcoal, for pur-
poses requiring a tough iron, such as the axles of cars, tires,
muskets, swords, etc.

The coals in the United States are divided into :

Anthracite,

Semi- Anthracite,

Bituminous,

Cannel, and

Bituminous Shale, J

GAS,

WATER,

ASH,

)er cent.

7.3

per cent.

.9

pei- cent.

6.8

15.8

1.2

9.9

31.5

1.5

2.0

63

1.5

8.4

U.I

1.7

45.9

496 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

According to the amount of carbon wliicli they contain. Different
specimens from the same vein of coal, differ materially in the
relative proportion of their constituent elements ; but the follow-
ing table exhibits an approximation :

CARBON,

per cent.

Anthracite 85

Semi-Anthracite . 73

Bituminous. 63

Cannel 27

Bituminous Shale. 17.7

The carbon is the element which gives to coal much of its
value for generating heat. Coals, other than anthracite, con-
tain the gases, oxygen and hydrogen, which form the flame of
coal. When the coal contains sulphur, the hydrogen combines
with it, forming sulphuretted hydrogen. For this reason, when
coal gas is burnt in cities, paint, whose basis is white lead, grows
dark more rapidly than it used to do before gas light was intro-
duced, and it is more difficult to keep silver ware bright. It is
impossible to dry coal thoroughly without artificial heat, and
there is left, as the analysis just quoted shows, one or two per
cent, of water. The ashes contain silica, alumina, iron, lime,
soda, potash, sulphuric acid, chlorine, phosphoric acid and mag-
nesia, singl}' or combined.

Dr. S. then exhibited drawings of the coal formations of the
Monongahela, showing the different depths at which the impor-
tant veins lie beneath the surface.

The Nova Scotia coal lies north of the Bay of Funday. and was
formerly abundant in our market, under the name of the "Ficton
coal." There is also a narrow trough, commencing in Rhode
Island, and running up to Worcester, Mass., about thirty-five miles
in length, containing an anthracite coal so hard that it is said
that to burn a ton of it, we must burn two tons of Pennsylvania
coal. These two coal formations belong to the same era in the
M'orld's history, and had no connection with the appalachian
system.

It is coal which has brought about that great increase of the
wealth of England, within the last century, which enabled her,
throughout the continental wars, to supply the armies of Europe
with her gold, and the world with her manufactures. It has made
England the mother of colonies. She still possesses the only

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSSOCIATION. 497

great accessible coal deposit in Europe. But we have far greater
resources of this description than she has, thus : We have, in
Pennsylvania, more coal than England ever had. We have, also,
more coal in each of the States of Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky,
Tennessee, Illinois and Missouri, and probably in Kansas, than is
known to exis^ in all the rest of the world put together. Were
our population to become as dense as that of China or Japan, we
should have for each person a ton of coal every year for at least
ten thousand years to come. I say then that we are destined to
become the great manufacturing and commercial nation of the
globe, if, happily, we can only keep together.

IMPROVED JOURNALS FOR RAILROAD CARS.

Mr. Atkinson exhibited Hopkins' patent brass journal for rail-
road cars, which had been in use upon the Central Railroad, of N.
Jersej'-, for six months, and had run 63,000 miles. It weighed two
pounds fourteen ounces, when new, and now weighs seventeen and
a half ounces. It ran three months with one oiling. The box is
made tight, so as to keep the dirt out.

APPLICATION OF CHEMISTRY TO THE MILITARY ART.

Prof. Seely. — I presume it was not the intention, in selecting this
subject, to include the application of chemistry to provide for the
ordinary wants of the soldier, but merely its application to the
pyrotechnic or destructive art. There is an exaggeration in the
public, mind with regard to what chemistry is capable of doing,
and as to what it has done in warfare. The far-famed Greek fire,
which was said to destroy ever3^thing in its way, and which
water would not extinguish, was not near as efficient as ordinary
camphine or alcohol. It seems that it was substantially com-
posed of our petroleum oil.

Some modes of applying chemistry are objected to because of
their barbarism, such as firing poisoned balls, or poisoning the
provisions of the enemy. It is not the object of modern warfare
to make men sick for life, or to destroy the lives of men, women
and children, indiscriminately, but to defeat soldiers in the field,
until the war can be ended.

The military is now the most perfect of all the ai-ts, for no
other art has been so much encouraged by governments.

I think that a shell six inches in diameter, filled with melted
cast iron, will have more effect than a hogshead of any inflamma-
ble fluid that could be fired. Sulphuric acid, sprinkled over an
[Am. Inst.] FP

498 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

enemy, may do them some harm ; but a shot will do more harm
than a drop of sulphuric acid. The great feature in the appli-
cation of chemistry to the military art is gunpowder, and I
think we shall never find anything superior to it. A new car-
tridge has been invented, of which the paper is itself explosive,
and water proof. This may be a convenience, hwt it will not
send a ball any farther than the ordinary cartridge.

Dr. Vanderweyde. — It has been proposed to use the chlorate
of potassa instead of saltpetre in the manufacture of gunpowder,
but it will not answer because the compound will ignite by mere
friction.

We may obtain from the chemical equivalents of the substances
which form gunpowder the proper proportions to be used in its
manufacture. They are as follows :

S ] { KO, SO3

3 C I which becomes J KO, CO2
KO I by combustion ] CO2
NO^ J t N etc.

The best gunpowder agrees very closely with this. Gunpow-
der was invented by accident, and chemistry has not found any
substance which will supersede it.

Mr. Stetson suggested that chemistry might, perhaps, give us
a substitute for gunpowder which would have a less injurious
efl'ect in fouling the gun, or at least supply us with purer mate-
rials, so that the powder may burn up clear.

Dr. Yanderw^eyde. — What injures the gun is the sulphuret of
potassium, SK. If the powder is not made with care, there may
be an excess of it, which will enable the sulphur to attack
the iron.

Mr. Charles W. Smith said that chemistry had brought the
percussion cap into use. In the revolutionary war, and in that
of 1812, our armies used the old flint loct musket. Among
the things remaining for chemistry yet to do, are these : To
invent a fuse, which shall be reliable for its rate of combustion ;
and, secondly, to invent a destructive fluid which will inflame
spontaneously. Filling hollow balls with melted iron has proved
unsuccessful ; and the old method of red hot shot is practically
far superior to it.

Mr. Sedgwick spoke of the advantages which chemistry might
afford in the hygienic department, in improving the sanitary con-
dition of the soldier, in providing him with good food and good
wator, etc.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION, 499

Dr. Vanderweyde incidentally remarked that aluminum, while
it will withstand the action of nitric acid, will not resist alkalies,
and will not withstand soap ; so that it is not suited for cooking
utensils.

Dr. Stevens alluded to the victories of Napoleon, won with the
smoolh-bore gun, round balls, and flint-lock muskets. At the
siege of Toulon, he drove away the British ships, while his near-
est batteries were three, and some of them five, miles off. What
have we gained upon that ? The success of an army depends
more upon the feeding of its soldiers than upon the length of
their guns.

The same subject was continued for another week.

Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association,

January 30, 1862.
Mr. R. L. Pell in the chair.

OFFERS FOR PREMIUMS.

Messrs. Bartlett & Lesley oflered for competition : The Polar
Refrigerator ; the New Gothic Furnace ; the Water, Wine and
Butter Cooler.

Mr. J. W. Moore offered for competition : Elliot's Pocket Re-
volver ; Elliot's Hand Printing Press ; Elliot's Spring Bed.

Referred to the Section of Mechanics.

pike's peak.
Mr. Walker, upon invitation, gave a description of the settle-
ments in the neighborhood of Pike's Peak, in the Rocky moun-
tains.

\ The greatest disadvantage under which the settlers in that region
labor, is the want X)f a reliable method of separating gold from
quartz. At present a large proportion of the gold is undoubtedly
thrown away, for frequently analysis shows that $300 worth of
gold ought to be found in a ton of quartz ; and yet although it,
the ore, is probably uniform in its character, $20 worth is all
that can be obtained. Amalgamation with mercury, in the ordi-
nary way, does not answer the purpose, for the gold dust may
be stirred into the quicksilver, and they will not unite. But if the
quicksilver be first amalgamated with a copper or brass plate,
the gold will then unite with it to some extent. I have examined
every amalgamator I could find, and I have seen nothing that I

500 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

think will answer the purpose. "Whoever invents a reliable amal-
gamator will revolutionize the whole system of obtaining gold.
The quartz there is universally crushed by stamps, after having
been blasted out. This quartz is not a white crystallized sub-
stance, but is more like a porous brick. It occurs in parallel
vertical veins, from two to ten feet thick, and besides the gold
there is a good deal of silver in it. The atmosphere of this
region is so dry that a piece of meat which is hung up in the air
will dry up, but will not become tainted.

APPLICATION OF CHEMISTRY TO THE MILITARY ART.

Mr. Fisher suggested that among other applications of chemis-
try various articles had been pnt into a concentrated form, in
which they could be more useful to the army. Extracts of tea
and coffee had been made for this purpose.

Mr. Johnson stated that potatos are made into a flour in this
city. They are boiled with the skins on, and while hot the skins
are. scraped off. Thej are then passed through a sieve, dried,
ground into a coarse flour and barreled.

Prof. Seely. — As I stated at the last meeting, chemistry is doing
for the soldier as it has done for other men, administering to his
comfort by improving his food and clothing. The invention of
gunpowder I consider the great tribute of chemistry to the mili-
tary art. Mechanical inventions always precede or follow chem-
ical inventions, and are intimately connected with them. It was
a mechanic who conceived and perfected the application of gun-
powder to the military art. The composition had been known in
China centuries before the Christian era, and was in common use
for pyrotechnic displays, in celebrating jubilees and for peaceful
purposes alone. But it was some centuries after the Christian
era before there was a gun, and before the composition could
have been called gunpowder. I do notknoAv that we have gained
anything in the art of destruction of life by gunpowder or other
improvements in war. I fancy that we do not kiil any more men
in proportion to numbers in battle, nowa-days, than was done
formerly. The only effect of our improvements is to increase the
distance between the combatants, who get just so much further off
to be as safe as they were before. After gunpowder there are
ten thousand little things that the chemist may introduce as
improvements in the manufacture of the materials, the iron, steel,
copper, brass; and in the modification of the composition of gun-
powder itself, in its fineness or in providing substitutes for it for

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 501

particular cases, as in the charging of shells. Among these, one
of the most important was the invention of the percussion powder
and percussion cap. Gun cotton will not take the place of gun-
powder, not only because it burns too quickly, but because it
will not burn without the presence of air. Gunpowder contains
within itself oxygen enough to burn its other constituents ; but
gun. cotton does not. If it is necessary to have a composition
to explode more quickly than gunpowder in charging shells, I
do not know anything better than gun cotton saturated with
chlorate of potassa.

Mr. Fisher. — While the improvements in warfare may not
cause any greater destruction, or give civilized nations any ad-
vantage over one another, yet they are valuable in rendering it
impracticable for barbarians to overrun civilized nations. The
more knowledge is required, and the more skill and capital are
invested in these improvements, the safer we are from attacks by
barbarous nations.

A visitor suggested that the more destructive the weapons of
war the greater must be the distance of the contending parties,
and hence the less the actnal loss of life. It is, therefore, a
humane act to make such improvements.

Prof. Joy, of Columbia College, stated that within the last
few years Prof. R. Bunsen had made some interesting chemi-
cal analyses of gunpowder, the result of which varied much
from our previous information upon the subject. The compo-
sition of the gunpowder was :

Saltpetre _ 78.99

Sulphur 9.84

Carbon 7.69

H3'drogen __ 41

Oxygen 3.07

100.00
After explosion, the residue was found to consist chiefly of
sulphate and carbonate of potassa, the analysis being :

Sulphate of potassa _ 56.62

Carbonate of potassa , 27.02

Hypo-sulphite of potassa _ 7.57

Sulphide of potassium _ 1.06

Potassa 1.26

Sulpho-cyanide of potassium .86

Saltpetre 5.19

Carbon _ 97

100.52

502 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The composition of the condensed smoke was almost identi-
cally the same, being :

Sulphate of potassa 65.29

Carbonate of potassa 23.48

Hypo-sulphite of potassa _ 4.90

Potassa 1.33

Sulplio-cyanide of potassium 55

Saltpetre 2.48

Carbon 1.86

Carbonate of ammonia .11

100.00

The composition of the gas is altogether different from what
we formerly supposed it to be. Carbonic acid and nitrogen form
nearly the whole. It was found to be :

Carbonic acid _ _ 52.67

Nitrogen 41.12

Carbonic oxide 3.88

Hydrogen - 1.21

Sulpliuretted hydrogen 60

Oxygen 52

100.00

The pressure of the gasses is 4,374 atmospheres, of which
1,000 is due to expansion by heat. The solid products of the
combustion of 100 lbs. of powder amounted to 67.70 per cent.,
and the gaseous products to 31.24 per cent., the results being :

Sulphate of potassa 42.20

Carbonate of potassa. 12.60

Hypo-sulphite of potassa ._ 3.20

Sulphide of potassium 2.10

Siilpho-cyanide of potassium _ 30

Nitrate of potassa 3.70

Charcoal _ 70

Sulphur _ -.. .10

Carbonate of Ammonia 2.80

Nitrogen.. 9.00

Carbonic acid 20.10

Carbonic oxide 90

Hydrogen _ 02

Sulphuretted hydrogen _ — .18

Oxygen _ .14

98.94

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 503

This analysis was made in 1857, and is one of the most skill-
fully executed analysis we have.

The objections to gun cotton, urged by Prof. Seely, I think
unanswerable. It has been found in blasting to blow out a small
hole instead of large masses of rock. Gunpowder is the niost
obvious contribution of chemistry to the military art ; but it
would be difficult to say what it has not contributed, for with-
out chemistry we could not clothe our army, or feed them, or
furnish them with arms.

Prof. Seel3^ — Was the gunpowder, in these analyses, burned
under pressure as in a gun?

Prof. Joy. — It was put into a fuse on the end of a whip-stalk,
and so arranged as to shake down one grain at a time into a funnel,
so that but one grain should be exploded at a time. There was
an aspirator at the other end of the apparatus to draw off the gases,
which were immediately sealed up in tubes, and set aside to be
analysed. The residuum in the little bulb was analysed, and the
smoke was also analj^sed.

Prof. Seely. — I conceive that this explanation very well
accounts for the discrepancy between the results of this analyses
and of our former analyses. The products of the combustion
of gunpowder, or anything else, will vary very much with the
temperature and the pressure at which combustion takes place.
The higher the temperature the fewer the products and the
simpler the constituents. In these analyses the temperature was
evidently low, being only sufficient to procure ignition. Cer-
tainly we should not find from a gun such an unstable product as
carbonate of ammonia. This fact of varjnng products from
varying temperature may account for some of the evils in the use
of gunpowder.

Prof. Joy stated that if our supply of saltpetre were cut off,
we could manufacture it. By boiling together the chloride of
potassium and nitrate of soda, they would decompose each other,
and form common salt and nitre.

Dr. Rowell. — The office of sulphur in gunpoAvder is to take
fire at a very low temperature ; and it is the office of the char-
coal to keep up the red heat necessary to decompose the nitrate
of potash. The temperature at which an ordinary friction match
takes fire is so low tliat it may be lighted and extinguished in
alcohol ; but if we wait until the brimstone takes fire, it will set
the alcohol on fire. It takes a temperature of 600* to set oil on

504 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

fire, and sulphur burns at a lower temperature, so that we must
wait for the wood of the match to be ignited before we can light
an oil lamp. If we could instantly convert a particle of ice into
steam, it would be as useful as gunpowder. But whatever we
undertake to substitute for gunpowder must be readily inflamed,
and, at the same time, become sufficiently heated.

Prof. Seely. — The amount of heat produced by combustion
depends upon the amount of oxygen consumed. There is no
substance which produces so much heat in combustion as hydro-
gen. We find they combine :

Hydrogen 1 Oxygen.. 8 Seg 1:8

Carbon 1 do 3^ 1:3.5

Sulphur 16 do 32 1:2

Phosphorus 32 do 40 1:1.25

And this is the order in which they produce heat. There is
another property of sulphur, also very important : its volatility,
and the readiness with which it communicates a flame from one
particle to another. This causes a large volume of powder, in
small grains, to be ignited very rapidly, there being a large sur-
face which the flame covers.

Mr. Roosevelt suggested that as it takes more than a man's
weight in lead to kill a man, gunpowder is only a humbug after
all, and the bayonet the proper weapon for an effective army.

Mr. Johnson suggested a new mode of making large iron tubes
for guns, hydraulic presses, and other articles requiring great
tenacity.

At present it is the practice in most cases to bore the cavity
out of a solid mass of metal, whether obtained by casting or
forging. Mr. Johnson would propose, instead, to form the tube
upon a mandril, beginning by rolling upon it a red hot sheet of
wrought iron. Upon this he would sprinkle, while hot the
Franklinite iron, with borax, covering the layer with a second
sheet of red hot wrought iron, and continuing thus to apply suc-
cessive layers of sheet iron and Franklinite until the thickness
necessary for strength is reached. The mandril being withdrawn,
the tube heated to the welding point, is next to be passed through
rollers, by which action, as the Franklinite is liquid at that tem-
perature, the excess of that material will be pressed out, and the
whole mass firmly united.

To avoid clogging the mandril, the first cylinder of iron
applied to it had better be a steam or gas pipe.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 505

JVeio Subject. — On motion of Mr. Fisher, the subject of " Modes
of Blockade," was suggested for the ensuing meeting.
Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, }

February 5, 18G2. j
Prof. Seely in the chair.

franklinite plates. .

Mr. Selleck exhibited a specimen of five plates of wrought iron,
cemented together with Franklinite.

Mr. Dibben. — Were the plates cleaned beforehand ?

Mr. Selleck. — There was no preparation of the plates whatever.
The scale was all on. I think it might be better to scale it. It
was thrown into water after it was rolled, when a little more
than cherry red. It would not be so hard if it was left without
being thrown into water. The Franklinite hardens like steel. It
can be as easily shaped and worked as iron. I do not think it is
so liable to rust as ordinary iron or steel. This mass was rolled
while the Franklinite was in the fluid state, and the combined
mass can be rolled as rapidl}' as ordinary iron. There is no extra
work upon the plates. This article is applicable to buiglar-proof
safes, mould-boards for plows, hoes, shovels, &c., — to any wearing
surfaces.

Mr. Dibben. — Suppose you wanted to weld a shank to that
specimen ?

Mr. Selleck. — The combination can be welded as well as any
other form of iron. I have taken a nail rod, melted Franklinite
upon it, doubled it over, drawn it out, and had a razor made out
of it. Cold chisels have been made in the same way. The
Franklinite steel becomes^hafder when tempered, than any other
steel I have ever seen. A quantity of it was sent on to Mr. Alger, in
Boston, and he used it for tools in boring out cannon. He had
the temper drawn six times, and the tool then stood six or eight
times longer than the best English steel he had ever tried. There
is some mystery yet about the hardening of Franklinite steel. I
think it hardens better in a current of air than in water. I have
had a good deal of trouble in getting it soft enough to work.

Mr. Dibben. — How long are your sheets of iron and Franklinite
subjected to heat in this process ?

Mr. Selleck. — The Franklinite melts almost instantly.

506 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. Dibben. — If you expose wrought iron to melted Franklinite,
does it not make a steel of the wrought iron ?

Mr. Selleck. — It forms a covering upon the wrought iron the
same as galvanizing. It does not penetrate over one-thirty-second
of an inch.

Mr. Dibben. — That is contrary to my experience. I have had
a piece of three-sixteenths iron entirely permeated by it without
melting. It had all the characteristics of steel 5 but it was sub-
mitted to heat for a long time.

The Chairman. — The amount of the penetration would depend
very much upon the length of time it was kept heated.

Mr. Dibben. — Can this be worked when it is cold ?

Mr. Selleck. — Oh, yes ; and wherever stiffness is required, as
in plates for vessels, in shutters, doors, &c., requiring lightness
also, I think this would answer better than wrought iron.

Mr. Stetson. — What percentage of these plates is Franklinite ?

Mr. Selleck. — I think that in this bar about one-third of the
weight is Franklinite. The Franklinite costs no more than the
iron. I do not think it would be practicable to make the plates
S9 much as one-half Franklinite. The Franklinite is very limpid,
compared with other iron.

Mr. Dibben. — That depends upon what you flux it with.
You can add superphosphate of lime to ,vhite iron, and make
pins with it.
• Referred to the Chemical Section.

OFFERS FOR PREMIUMS.

Mr. Selleck also exhibited a new traction powder for locomo-
tives, consisting of fine Franklinite. Sifted upon the track, ahead
of the driving wheels, it will so penetrate the iron as to prevent
the wheels from slipping, and will be more permanent in its
effects than sand.

Referred to the Chemical Section.

Mr. J. W. Moore exhibited Elliot's revolving pistol, heretofore
offered for a premium. The hammer is entirely within the han-
dle, so that it is impossible to fire it by accident.

Referred to the Mechanical Section.

Brown's self-regulating hot-water furnace, for warming and
ventilating dwellings, &c., was referred to the Mechanical Section.

Mr. Churchill presented coal oil lamps, invented by Dietz,
and by Miller, which were referred to the Chemical Section.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 507

Mr. C. W. Smith offered friction matches, in which paraphine
takes the place of sulphur.

Referred to the Chemical Section.

On motion of Mr. Stetson, all the members of the Polytechnic
Association were invited to meet with the Mechanical Section to
consult with regard to articles offered for premiums.

The Chairman extended to members a similar invitation, on
behalf of the Chemical Section.

Mr. Roosevelt effered a new theory of chemistry, which was
referred to the Chemical Section.

Dr. Vanderweyde also offered the following :

NEW CHEMICAL COMPOUND.

Dr. Vanderweyde. — I have discovered a new compound of
phosphorous and carbon, which I neglected to speak of at the
last meeting. The books mention a compound of phosphorous
and carbon, obtained as a residue. Carbon and phosphorous
being united, and while in a soft state, the phosphorous being
pressed out, a residue is obtained very similar to phosphorous
in its properties, inflaming and melting at the same temperature
with phosphorous. I suppose that is not properly a compound
of phosphorous and carbon, but a mixture of phosphorous and
carbon in a finely divided state. In every instance of chemical
compounds, we find the characteristics of the compound very
different from those of the constituents. Thus vermilion is a
compound of sulphur and mercury. Sulphur is a yellow solid ;
mercury is a white liquid metal, and the result is a red paint.
So with the sulphide of carbon, of which so much has been said
recently. Sulphur and carbon are solids, but the sulphide of
carbon is a very volatile liquid. I should supppose, therefore,
that the phosphide of carbon would have a different nature from
phosphorous or carbon.

I undertook to make the combination in the same way that the
bisulphide of carbon is produced. I arranged a tube in the mode
employed in that process, in which the tube being filledwith carbon
and heated, pieces of sulphur are dropped in at one end, the liquid
product comes out at the other end. In the place of sulphur I
used phosphorous; but although the tube, was kept red hot,
nothing came out at the other end, neither gas nor liquid. So I
concluded that the result of the combination was a solid, which
proved to be the fact. Upon opening the tube the compound took
fire, but I plunged it in water and extinguished the flame. I

608 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

found the pieces of charcoal covered with a white substance, so
inflammable that every piece that was taken out and left to drj,
took fire as soon as it became dry. I suppose that this combina-
tion contains two parts of phosphorous to one of carbon, or that
it is a biphosphide of carbon. I communicate this to the Associ-
ation as a new and interesting substance, and I leave to others
the application of it. The inside of the tube was covered with a
red substance, similar to amorphous phosphorous, which also took
fire as soon as it was dry.

At the suggestion of the Chairman,

Dr. Vanderweyde promised to repeat his experiment and pre-
pare an essay upon the new compound, to be offered for a
premium,
j^ Referred to the Chemical Section.

NEW ELECTRIC MACHINE.

Dr. Vanderweyde also offered a new electric machine made
entirely from India rubber.

The common electric machines, said he, collects electricity at
the most unfavorable place, namely, at the ends of the conduc-
tors. This is like attempting to fill a reservoir by pressing the
water up from below. We ought to collect the electricity at the
centre of the conductor. Instead of the long conductor of the
usual shape, I made a slit in the conductor through which I
passed a long piece of vulcanized India rubber, and thus
obtained a much longer spark. I obtained a still longer spark
by conducting rings, to the center of which I attached the vul-
canized rubber. With my present machine I have four rings,
and obtain positive and negative electricity at the same opera-
tion. The rings are isolated by pieces of rubber, and are hollow
and filled with wafer, so that no electricity can flow out. I draw
the spark from a little brass knob, and I have obtained a spark
ten or twelve inches long. The India rubber produces resinous
electricity. If the friction is produced by some other substance
we may have a positive electricity. So that with two different
coverings, where the friction is produced, we may have either
positive or negative electricity.

The Chairman. — Any known electric, except sulphur, may bo
electrified either positively or negatively.

Referred to the Chemical Section.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 509

MODES OF BLOCKADING.

On motion of Mr. Dibben, the subject of blockading Avas post-
poned until the next meeting, and extended, so as to include
" Modes of Obstructing the Navigation of Rivers and Harbors."

Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association,

February 13, 1862.
Mr. S. D. Tillman in the chair.

Mr. Abraham Brower, No. 4 Reade street, stated that he had
patented a water proof composition for leather articles, but
declined to state what its ingredients are.
It was referred to the Chemical Section.

MODES OF BLOCKADING.

Mr. Fisher read a paper upon " modes of obstructing the navi-
gation of rivers and harbors."

After giving a history of the recorded instances of the obstruc-
tion-of harbors apd the interruption of navigation by artificial
barriers, and discussing the principles of international law appli-
cable to the subject, he described the method adopted at the
entrance of Charleston harbor, and then proceeded as follows :

On engineering principles, I object to this method of Vdocka-
ding. Its first cost is greater than that of a more elHcient method,
which has recently been exhibited to this club, by Mr. Johnson,
and the removal of stones and hulks will be far more costly than
the removal of the bars formed by the means Mr. Johnson
proposes.

As I understood the plan, Mr. Johnson proposes to lift sand or
mud, through a tube, into a large chamber or vessel, by means of
an air pump, or water pump, operating to form a partial vacuum
in that chamber. When the chamber is filled with sand, the
vessel is to go to the place where it is to be dumped, to dump it,
and then to return for another cargo, and so on.

While he was raising the sand, in the apparatus he exhibited,
it occurred to me that a centrifugal pump, driven at the speed he
stated it to be necessary, might raise the sand in a constant stream,
and force it through hose, for a sufficient distance to form
embankments under water. He stated "that, in some practice in
dredging by pumps, about three-fourths water and one-fourth
sand had been pumped ; but this excess of water was due to too

510 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

much speed of the pump. At a slower speed, the sand came up
with little more water than it contained as it lay on the bottom. It
therefore occurred to me that the speed of pumping, the size of
pipe and hose, and other proportions, could be so adjusted as to get
the right mixture of sand and water, which would neither clog
the hose, nor fail to sink where it is wanted. In answer to
questions from me, Mr. Johnson gave information which con-
firmed this view, and I have subsequently conversed with two
distinguished engineers, who have had experience in pumping
sand and gravel, who assure me that the}'^ have no doubt that
sand and silt may be moved in this way, at much less cost
than by any other known.

It will be recollected that Dr. Stevens, in answer to a question
on this subject, stated that, south of New Jersey, there are no
boulders larger than eggs, — nothing that will not go through
a centrifugal pump. Oysters would be the greatest obstruc-
tion ; but conch shells can go through the pumps required for
this work.

If, as I should have supposed, before witnessing Mr. John-
son's experiment, a mere suction pipe will not raise all kinds
of sand and mud, there is a dredging machine, invented by
Mr. Montgomery, ten years ago, which consists of an archime-
dian pump, drawing mud up through a cylinder, and discharg-
ing it into a scow. Mr. Montgomery told me, some years ago,
that this machine worked well, and would have come into use
had it not been for disagreement among those concerned with it.
It was built and stationed in a ship on the North river. The own-
ers met to witness its trial. Mr. Montgomery said it must be re-
moved for trial, because it would stop up the ship, if tried as it lay.
They laughed at him, and would see it tried, and were willing to
pay all damages, " if he were not afraid to try it.'' He was indig-
nant and took them at their word, and set the engine to work ; and,
in a short time, it made a pile of mud that reached above the
water, so that the dredging vessel could not back out. And, as
she could not turn round to bring her pumps to bear upon the
banks, she was blockaded. A quarrel ensued, and the whole inven-
tion was abandoned.

This appears to me to be a promising experiment in hydraulic
blockading. The archimedean, or wren-pump, has the power to
slice the mud or sand, if the centrifugal pump requires that help.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 511

If neither can work perfectly alone, together they can do all that
is required for such bottom as that in the Southern ports; but I
think that either of them will work well alone.

If in this way embankments can be made under water, to fill
up channels, they can certainly be removed in the same way, and
the concerns of our English cousins, on behalf of mankind, in
future ages, may be calmed.

Whether there is the least chance of a trial of this plan I do
not know. Chance or no chance, I deem it our duty to say what
we think of it. It is not for us to say that the powers that be
are not wise enough to try it, and therefare we may spare our-
selves the trouble to speak of it, except for our amusement. I
am so visionary in these matters, I have no faith in politicians,
or even small associations of men ; but my want of faith is not
my rule of action. If I think a measure good, I recommend it,
and do my part to promote it.

The chief object I had in proposing the subject of blockading
was to broach the foregoing views. But I deem it proper to
speak of the ships lately built for blockading. They are all
unfit for the purpose — all too slow to catch common merchant
steamers. Their machinery is inefficient, costly, and exposed to
shot. Several locomotive builders tried to get contracts to put
locomotive engines into those vessels, but could not get permis-
sion to deviate from the plan of the department, even on stipula-
tion that their engines should work as well as those on the
prescribed plan, and twenty-three vessels were built in one
experiment, and all are one failure.

It is now proposed to build an experimental batch of iron-clad
steamships of war, of twenty or more, while the experimental
ship built by the Stevens' is left untried. We, who are not poli-
ticians, may remonstrate against this jobbing, with as little
influence as the charms of a Greek tragedy exercised over the
calamities it predicted; but it is our dury to declare that such
folly will prevent our success in this civil war, unless folly equally
gross on the other side shall balance it.

If we are to have the best iron vessels they must have the best
machinery, which is that developed by locomotive builders. The
marine engineers are thirty years behind them. They neither
originate improvements, nor appreciate the great improvements
originated by the locomotive engineers.

512 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

"Wm. Fairbairn, in an address lately delivered, said that 200
lbs. pressure is now used with more economy and convenience
than a lower pressure, and he believes that before many years,
500 lbs. of pressure will be used and found advantageous. An-
gler Perkins states that 1,500 lbs. of pressure has been practi-
cally used, and with advantage and safety. And I am credibly
informed that 200 lbs. is sometimes used on our railways, and
that the engines work better than with a lower pressure. With
such facts, and such authority, we should not blindly follow the
blind lead of our marine engineers, and fill up ships with huge
low-pressure boilers that reach above the water line.

Since the foregoing was written, we have received accounts of
a disaster which illustrates the policy of boilers of this class.
The gun-boat Essex, during the attack on Fort Henry, received
a shot through her boiler, which caused the scalding to death of
thirty-two men, and the injury of others; and this will be repeated
whenever these boilers come within range of the best guns, served
by expert gunners. The boilers of the twenty-three gun-boats
which have already been built on one untried plan, are eleven
feet high. Locomotive boilers of the patterns built by Baldwin &
Co., or by Allan, or Mulholland, would not be half as high, and
boilers of equal power may be made of less than four feet height,
and that without departure from plans that have long been in
successful use. Other plans, which have not come into use, pro-
mise still better, and ought to be tried — but not twenty trials at
a time of each plan.

Here is the last page of this paper. I devote it to a suggestion.
New York is the chief city of the Union ; the American Institute
is the free rendezvous of the promoters of practical science •
this Club is the scientific branch of the Institute ; all engineers
and inventors are invited to attend it, and speak in it as mem-
bers. If in any place on the continent it is proper to propose
the organization of a patriotic association to improve the means
of warfare, it is proper to propose it here. But such an associa-
tion must not be made up entirely of inventors, who wish to ex-
periment at the cost of the public ; nor entirely of engineers,
who neither invent, nor advance new inventions ; nor entirely of
patriotic citizens, who neither invent, nor select wisely from old
inventions. It should include all of these. There must be pro-
gressive talent, and conservative talent ; there must be capital ;

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 513

and there must be managers and secretaries. If we organize
aright, talent and capital will come in.

Dr. Stevens drew a diagram of the teredo navalis or ship-worm.
There extends through it a double tube, through one branch of
which it draws in a current of water, and sends it out through
the other. When the animal is born it is almost microscopical,
but when full grown has the size of a man's thumb. It is very
prolific, bringing forth several millions, and it is exceedingly vora-
cious. They will penetrate several feet into sand, wherever there
is water. That little animal is capable of eating up, in a few
weeks, all the vessels we have sunk in Charleston harbor.

Mr. Johnson exhibited the operation of pumping sand under
water, repeating the experiments made by him at a former
meeting. He proposed to do all the work under water, thus sav-
ing the power required in other machines to lift the sand above
the water. He proposed merely to lift the difference between the
weight of the sand and the water, while other machines lifted
the whole weight of the sand, saturated with water. A vessel
being built with an air-tight deck, and furnished with suitable
apparatus for taking in the sand below the water line, may be
worked in dredging out docks, by a steam engine on shore. The
air is exhausted from below the deck by this pump, and its place
is supplied by sand and water raised from the bottom. The sand is
then prevented from escaping, and the vessel is towed to the
point for discharging its load, where, upon opening a trap door
in the bottom, the sand, being heavier than water, will fall out,
and its place will be supplied with water. Returning to the
dock this water is removed by pumping, and its place supplied
by sand and water, as before. It is found that in most cases the
sand will be taken up with a small proportion of water. Care
must be taken that the sand should not become dry in the tube ;
and, to avoid this, it is only necessary, before taking it from the
water, to draw enough of water through it to wash it out. The
laws regulating the deposit of solids held in mechanical suspension
by flowing water, show at what velocity it is necessary that the
water should flow to prevent a deposit. If that speed is attained
there will be no tendency of the sand to subside and clog the
tube. To remove a vessel, the tube can be placed below it so
as to draw out the sand, and cause the hull to keel over.

Mr, Enos Stevens suggested that the same principle might be
applied to removing sand without the intervention of a floating

Am. Inst.] GG

511 TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

vessel, bj drawing tlie sand through a tube sunk to the bottom
of the water, in which case the sand need not be raised at all.

Mr. Johnson. — It was suggested a few years ago to make
an island of five acres, for hospital purposes. There were six
feet of water, and it was estimated that 1GY,000 cubic yards
of sand would be required. I made a rough estimate at the
time that it would take about thirty days to do that with a
moderate amount of power, moving the sand for one-third of a
mile.

Mr. Fisher. — There is a current over most bars. If the sand
were mixed w'ith water would not most of it go off to sea ?

Mr. Johnson. — It would not go very far. Mud would remain
longer in suspension than sand.

BLOCKADING.

Mr. C. W. Smith. — "We all know what uncomfortable .things
snags are. I see no reason why we should not drive piles ten or
twenty feet apart ; perhaps at such an angle as to present their
points outward to catch into any vessel which might seek to come
up. It seems to me that there is no other way for obstructing a
harbor, so cheap and feasible as that. No vessel, unless iron-clad,
could force its w^ay through.

Mr. Dibben. — I would respectfully submit that we have some-
thing else for our navy to do besides watching these entrances,
and I consider the obstructing of some of these inlets, so as to
allow one vessel to do the w^ork of two or three, a credit to him
that devised it. But this bugbear story of spoiling harbors is
all a humbug. Charleston harbor can be restored to its former
condition for $10,000. You may do all you can for six months
to spoil Charleston harbor, and I will guaranty to make it better
than it was before for $50,000. Sand can be moved very easily,
and stones still more easily. Bring up a lighter alongside, hook
on to a stone and hoist it up with a little engine, and hook on to
another one, and as soon as the stones are out the old hulk will
float. And the entrance will be better after the obstructions are
removed than it was before, because it can be made of a syste-
matic width.

Mr. Fisher. — The plan of obstructing harbors, by driving piles,
strikes me very favorably.

Mr. Selleck. — I have seen piles driven 200 feet deep, placing
one upon the top of another. They can be driven in w^ater of
any depth.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 515

Mr. Johnson suggested, in removing rocks, to pump the sand
from helow them, and let them sink out of the way. There is a
tendency of sunken vessels to sink in the sand, if it is not very
dense, so that after a sufficient time they would of themselves go
down out of sight.

Mr. Dibben was of opinion that this would not be the case.
There is the wreck of a vessel in our harbor now, that I have
seen there ten or fifteen years. Sometimes the sand will be
washed away, and sometimes will gather around it.

Dr. Stevens. — I never had any fears that the Southern harbors
would be permanently obstructed by the sunken vessels. The
accumulation of water by the spring floods would be sufficient to
form new channels, so that we shall have to sink new vessels if
the war continues. It is for this reason that I am in favor of a
living blockade.

JYew Subject. — The subject of " Coal Oils and Petroleum" was
selected for consideration at the next meeting.

Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Aissociation,

February 20, 1862.

Mr. S. D. Tillman was called to' the chair.

The Sections not being fully prepared to report upon premiums,
were allowed another week.

LARGE cannon.

Dr. Rowell stated that it had been found, in casting large can-
non, that it is useless to exceed a certain thickness, on account
of the honeycomb structure which would result. To avoid this,
it had been proposed to cast the gun of a thickness which would
ensure tenacity, and to provide for the additional strength ; first,
by surrounding it with longitudinal stays of wrought iron, to
prevent bursting the end off, and next by shrinking on rings
of wrought iron. to resist the lateral pressure. The gun is cast
with projecting rings, between which sections of rings upon the
inside of the longitudinal stays would be placed, holding the
stays firmly in their position. He would propose, instead of cast-
ing the gun with the projecting rings, to cast it large enough to
form the rings by turning out grooves between them.

Mr. C. W. Smith said that Captain Dahlgreen's experiments had
demonstrated that the angles upon the surface of a cast iron can-

516 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Don, whether originally cast upon the gun or afterwards turned,
will invariably, after the gun has been fired a few hundred times,
present centres of crystallization ; and that in this respect turn-
ing these angles has no advantage. It seems that a change is
going on in the forms of the crystals of the iron, during the
vibrations, resulting from the explosion of the gunpowder within
the gun, and especially at the angles, so that these angles are
invariably the points at which fracture takes place. It is for
this reason that in the army we have now cast aside all the old
ornaments, and resorted to the smooth plain gun. Capt. Dahl-
green, finding that casting trunnions upon the gun weakened them,
went so far as to cast a gun large enough to take in the trun-
nions, and then turn it down ; but he found that it had no effect
upon the crystallization. He, therefore, now casts his trunnions
on a separate piece, with a band to pass around the end of the
gun to receive the recoil. According to these experiments,
therefore, nothing would be gained by turning the grooves in the
gun as suggested.

Mr. Dibben said that the same law had been known before
Capt.Dahlgreen's experiments, although not so fully demonstrated.
But it is not merely after use, but at the time of casting ; if there
is unequal thickness there will.be unequal crystallization. The
Parrott gun is the best now in use, and that is made by shrinking
wrought iron over the breach of a cast iron gun.

Dr. Stevens suggested that thus far most of the large guns had
exploded before they had hurt anybody.

COAL OILS AND PETROLEUM.

Mr. C. W. Smith said that the coal oils are made up of sub-
stances very different in their characters.

The first product of their distillation is naptha. This has been
used as a substitute for turpentine. An anaesthetic has also been
extracted from it. Coal oils are now extensively used for illumi-
nation, and are going into extensive use for lubrication, being
found for that purpose superior to the best sperm oil. An oil
has been prepared from petroleum, suitable for use upon leather,
as a tanner's oil, and various other uses have been found for
these oils. They may be found serviceable for fuel for steam-
ships.

Dr. Stevens. — It is true that coal oil, understanding by that
term not only the hydrocarbons derived from the distillation of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 517

coal and shale, but those produced naturally and derived from
wells and springs, have lately come into a great, variety of uses.
They were certainly used as a medicine by the aborigines of our
country. The petroleum obtained from the springs at Cuba, in
this State, was so valuable in the eyes of the old Six Nations,
that in selling the western part of the State of New York, they
reserved those springs. At a very early day this oil was in use
among them for strains and for rheumatism, and it was known in
the druggist shops as lunar oil.

By distilling it, and thus uniting the hydrogen and carbon in
various proportions, various medicines have been derived ; one of
them, similar in effect to quinine, is used extensively in England
as a cure for intermittent diseases. Quinine and morphine are
both h^^drocarbons. Why one should be a tonic and the other
a narcotic, we do not know. An anaesthetic preparation from
coal oil has been used with some success, but not with so great
success as sulphuric ether or chloroform. Any hydrocarbon is a
valuable remedy for rheumatism. I venture to say that no per-
son ever sulBFered much from rheumatism whose skin was always
in a well oiled condition. Oil of turpentine, petroleum, para-
phine or any oil will be useful as a cure. Petroleum comes
from the earth, in the United States, in a great variety of forms ;
sometimes so hard that it is like pitch ; sometimes so loaded down
with paraphine as to be useful immediately for lubricating the
machinery of locomotives ; sometimes it is of a light amber color,
and is nearly all light oil or kerosene, burning in common lamps
without any purification, or losing only five per cent, if purified;
and there are coal oils of almost every grade between these
extremes. Of the hundreds of springs now in operation in the
United Stattjs, no two produce oil of exactl}^ the same kind, and
the oil also changes in the same spring after a few months. It
has also been found impossible to make an equable coal oil. It
can be obtained by distillation from coal for five cents per gallon ;
but some of it will lose twenty-five per cent, in the rectification,
and some of it will yield no light oil at all. At present we seem
to be supplying the world from our wells, but the springs may
be exhausted, as those of Burmah have been. Many are now
sealing up their springs, and may hereafter reap, the benefit of
so doing. But there is no certainty, if you have a well, that a
man on the next five acre lot may not tap it and run you dry.
Petroleum is not confined to the carboniferous formation, but

518 TRANSACTION'S OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE,

is found in all, being most abundant in those strata which coi>
tain the largest amount of organic matter stored up. The bitu-
men with which these strata are charged, becomes transformed,
by some chemical change in the bowels of the earth, into petro-
leum. - As to the use of coal oil for generating steam, it has been
found by experiment, before the British Admiralty Board, and
also by the experiments of Prof. Johnson, that with the present
fireplaces and boilers, the bitumen in coal adds very little to its
effectiveness, so that the best coal for the purpose is that which
contains the largest amount of carbon and the least bitumen.

The Chairman. — Oil, in my opinion, at five cents per pound,
will cost ten times as much as coal. Its expensiveness will
almost equal that of electricity, in the consumption of zinc. It
is also very dangerous, unless it has been purified.

Prof. Seely. — I had occasion some time ago to examine the
question of the desirability of using coal oil as a fuel for the air
engine, using the products of combustion, and I came to the con-
clusion, upon theoretical grounds as well as from a little prac-
tice, that coal oil at ten cents per gallon, when burned in that
most economical way, would furnish power as cheap as coal at
six dollars per ton, burned under a steam boiler. A pound of
hydrogen will give out three times as much heat as a pound
of carbon. It is to be regretted that we do not yet know
what coal oils are chemically. I am satisfied that they differ
from the oils extracted from coal tar, 'These have long since
been thoroughly investiga.ted, and the different substances
they contain carefully separated and examined. Many of these
have proved of great value. In purifying coal oils, it is consid-
ered desirable to deodorize them ; but as soon as we deodorize
■■such an oil we shall make another thing of it, and ii may not be
what we want. The odor belongs to the substance. There have
been various processes for modifying the odor, among which is
stirring chloride of lime into the oil. This has the effect, but it
generates hydrochlo-iic a-cid, which is objectionable for several
reasons, therefore chloride of lime should not be used.

Mr. C. W. Smith. — Many substances are dangerous if impro-
perly used, and indeed almost any substance may be so used as
to be dangerous. I am convinced that coal oil can be economi-
cally used for generating steam for marine engines, not only from
its comparative cheapness, but because it occupies so much less
room than coal, requiring no more than one-fourth the space. Of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 519

coiirsG the boiler and fireplace must be adapted to it. The main
point is to supply sufficient oxygen to burn up the carbon that is
so freely liberated.

Dr. Stevens. — I do not see why the use of coal oil may not be
successful. Wherever there is a large amount of heat stored up,
I think it is within the range of possibilities for the human mind
to discover some method of using it. "Wo know that it took
twenty-five years to learn how to burn anthracite coal. There
is no danger from carrying the oil to sea in barrels. It is as
safe as gunpowder, and safer than soft Cumberland coal, or any
coal containing a sufficient amount of sulphur for spontaneous
combustion. Petroleum has no liability to spontaneous com.
bustion. It is about as dangerous as gmipowder if your vessel
takes fire, but it will not take fire of itself.

The Chairman said there was danger of its coming in contact
with fire on board the vessel.

Mr. Reed stated that he had been trying a method of desul-
phurizing coal, which would remove the objection of its sponta-
neous combustion. The process is very simple and inexpensive,
and had proved very successful.

Prof. Seely referred to a former discussion, in which he had
stated the details of his computation of the relative value of coal
and of coal oil for producing heat.

JVew subject. — The subject of "Organic Chemistry " was selected
for consideration at th'e next meeting.
Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association,

February 27, 18G2.
Mr. R. L. Pell in the chair.

PREMIUMS.

Mr. Tillman, Secretary of the Mechanical Section, presented a
report recommending the award of certain medals and diplomas.

The report was accepted.

Prof. Seely, Secretary of the Chemical Section, presented a
report recommending the award of certain medals and diplomas,
accompanied by a special report upon coal oil lamps.

On motion of Mr. Dibben, the report was adopted by the Poly-
technic Association, and ordered to be reported to the Board of
Managers of the American Institute.

520 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

VALVE GEARING.

Mr. Edward N. Dickerson invited the Association to appoint a
committee to take a trial trip upon next Saturday morning upon
the steamer Kiang Tsi, which has two different valve gears for
working steam expansively, so arranged that either can be made
to operate independently of the other, one being exchanged for
the other instantaneously, by moving a handle, without any other
change of conditions, thus affording peculiar advantages for the
comparison. One of them is Winter's cut-off, and the other is
an improvement upon the Sickles' cut-off.

On motion of Mr. Dibben, the invitation was accepted. The
following gentlemen were appointed as the committee : Messrs.
Dibben, Johnson, Bartlett, Rowell and Fisher.

OK-GANIC CHEMISTRY.

Prof. Seely. — This subject is so broad that I feel a little doubt-
ful what direction I shall give it. Fifteen or twenty years ago
there was no science of organic chemistry, and we should hardly
suppose from the school books upon chemistry that such a science
was now known as organic chemistry. There are only detached
and unsystematized statements to be found in them. Inorganic
chemistry, on the contrary, is very systematically taught; and I
know of no physical science more perfect in its details. Now, I
believe that organic chemistry, so far as our knowledge of it
extends, is just as perfect, and even more beautiful as a science.
In inorganic chemistry we learn that there are sixty-six elements,
which combine, according to certain laws, and names are given
to the compounds corresponding with the combinations. It is
all very systematic, and all very simple. So in organic chemistry,
we can make a catalogue of quasi elements. They are all com-
pounds, but they combine and produce compounds in a similar
way to the combination of the elements of inorganic chemistry.
In the only treatises which we have i?i extenso upon organic chem-
istry— not in English, but in German — there are catalogues of
these radicals, as they are termed, showing how they will unite
with each other, and what compounds will result. One interest-
ing fact is this, that in these classes you will find grouped toge-
ther the most various compounds in organic nature. Butter, for
example, which we might suppose only came from the cow, or
from an animal giving milk, we can produce in all sorts of ways,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 521

from compounds that no animals have had anything to do with.
For instance, the acid matter of sour-krout is lactic acid — tho
same that is found in sour milk.

Another interesting fact is that the organic compounds can be
so readily arranged in well defined classes. For example, there
are a dozen of the petroleum or coal oils so similar to each other
that any child can see that they ought to be classed together. One
differs from another principally in being more or less volatile.
And so with any organic substance, it may be classed with hun-
dreds, perhaps, of others, resembling it, or connected with it.

Mr, C. W. Smith. — One of the. first things that will be observed
by the student of organic chemistry, is the tendency to form
series. Taking a certain compound, we find that adding a defi-
nite quantity of perhaps two elements, we produce another com-
pound, and so we can go on and build up a series, proceeding step
by step, to the extent, in some cases, of forty or fifty different com-
pounds, varying from each other by precisely the same differen-
tial. This is something entirely different from anything we meet
with in inorganic chemistry. The tendency of discovery is to in-
crease the number and extent of these series. We commence
with a substance highly volatile, and by adding C2 H2, or what-
ever the increment may be, we build up a series of substances
less and less volatile, until perhaps at last we reach a solid, or
at least a substance nearly solid.

Prof Joy, being called upon, said that the series of homologous
substances, commencing with C2 H2 O4, C4 H4 O4, Ce He O4, up
to C36 H36 O4, was now nearly complete. Such series have led to
the idea that iodine, bromine, etc., may be compounds differing
by some homologue which we have not yet discovered. The old
idea of transmuting all metals into gold is founded upon a similar
notion, for if we could find a common difference between the
metals, we should merely have to add or to subtract this common
diflference in order to convert one into another.

The growth of plants, by the formation of little globules or
cells, building up one upon another, is like the building of a
house with bricks. The plants begin with very small cells, which
have the power, not understood as yet, of taking up carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, in the necessary proportions ;
and as each cell is formed another is built upon it, and So on.
The chemist can furnish the nourishment, but the vital power is
the great mystery. It is something we cannot imitate ; and it is

622 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

that which is unquestionably of divine origin. But after the
animal ceases to live, then it forms a practical subject for inves-
tigation at the hands of the chemist. Then the chemist can
tell you what occasions the decay of the animal, and he can pre-
vent this decay, in a great measure. If it be a plant, if it be
wood, he knows that by the use of corrosive sublimate he can
coagulate the albumen in it, and prevent decay.

Let us trace, for a few minutes, the chemical history of a dead
cow. I will not dwell upon the properties of the meat sold by
the butcher, nor upon other parts of obvious value, but will take
up those things which would seem to be mere offal. These are
all picked up, and nearly all of them can be converted into glue.
The bones are boiled to convert the fat into neatsfoot oil and
stearine. Of the latter, some is converted into candles, and
some, I am sorry to say, is used to adulterate butter. The small
pieces of skin are boiled down to make glue, a portion of which
is exposed to a certain degree of cold, and purified by chemical
means, rendered opaque and spongy, in which state it is called
gelatine ; for gelatine is merely frozen glue, prepared with special
care. At the bottom of the kettles, there will be a great deal
of hair and other sediment. That is not thrown away by any
means. The hair is used in the manufacture of brushes, or burnt
and mixed with other animal matter and sold as a manure. A por-
tion of the hoof is used for combs and similar articles. The
parings of the hoof are made into Prussian blue. The bones
are used for the handles of knives and forks, for buttons,
etc. The fragments of the bones are burnt into bone-black,
which is used in the sugar refinery; and after it has been
exhausted there, phosphorus is manufactured from it. Other
portions of the bones are treated with sulphuric acid, and con-
verted into a super-phosphate of lime, for manure. A portion of
the hoof is burnt into a form of carbon, used in the manufac-
ture of steel for taking impressions for bank notes. So that
a cow is, perhaps, even more useful after she is dead than when
she was living.

Mr. Fisher inquired whether the refuse of bone or horn, used
to temper steel, should be thoroughly or partially carbonized.

Mr. C. W. Smith. — The usefulness of sal ammoniac in case-hard-
ening, and of refuse bone in tempering steel, depends upon the
ammonia ; and hence we ought not to expel the ammonia before
using it.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 623

Mr. Bartlett. — A patent has lately been taken out in Belgium
for an improvement in making steel, which consists essentially in
passing ammonia over the iron to purify it and make a way for
the carbon and nitrogen to enter in. The iron is purified, as
they say, by the decomposition of the ammonia which forms a
sulphide of hydrogen, by separating sulphur from the iron.

Mr. Enos Stevens. — Vegetables derive their nourishment both
from inorganic and from disorganized substances. Animals, on
the contrary, make all of their growth from what has been elab-
orated either in vegetables or in other animals. When disorgan-
ization has commenced, an article is destroyed for animal food.
Burned hay, for instance, is so spoiled as not to be digestible.
The system can get rid of food which has been injured by fer-
mentation or burning, or by the addition of an alkali, but. such
food does not nourish the system. If a cow is fed upon city gar-
bage, nature may use it temporarily, but unless something better
is soon given to take its place, it will be burned out by fever,
diarrhosa, diabetes, &c. And we may expect similar results from
the use of improper food by man. A proper system of cooking
would make digestion what it should be, a mechanical rather
than a .chemical process. We should never use a temperature
higher than 200 deg. or 210 deg. If we use a higher temperature
than 200 deg., to save time in cooking, we shall lose some of the
more volatile elements, and especially the ammonia, and our food
will be less nutritive. The proper way is to put one kettle within
another, as in the farina boiler, or to let steam play around and
upon the articles to be cooked, according to the manner in which
you wish the article to be cooked.

Mr. Fisher. — How would it answer to cook at a higher tempe-
rature, taking precautions to prevent the escape of the ammonia,
as in Papin's Digester ?

Mr. Stevens. — That would not do, because there would be so
much of the material disorganized. The idea is to retain ev^ry
particle, in the state of organization in which it was in the ani-
mal or vegetable in which it grew.

The Chairman. — How would you boil potatoes, &c., for stock?

Mr. Stevens. — By putting them in a large vat and introducing
steam. Practically, it will 'seldom go above 200 deg.

Mr. Bliss. — In cooking eggs it is better, instead of boiling them,
to bring them as near the boiling point as you can, and then take
them off and keep them in the water a little longer. This makes

524 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

them more digestible. I think about one-third of our food is lost
by our method of cooking.

Mr. Stevens. — I have found potatoes good when boiled upon
the mountains, where water boils at 200 deg.

Mr. Dibben. — When it was discovered that steel contains nitro-
gen as well as carbon, it became very plain that in using horn,
&c., it should be the raw material.

Prof. Seely. — This question of cookery seems to me to be sim-
ply a matter of taste. If a man finds his food to be more palata-
ble when cooked at 200 deg., I have no objection. There is one
reason why the temperature should be pretty high in cooking, to
convert the starch into dextrine, which is soluble in water. But
it is so generally the case that what a man likes agrees with him,
that I consider the matter of taste the most important criterion.

Prof. S. proceeded to explain the series of organic substances.
If we can combine any substance with one of a series we can
with them all, and the results will form a new series. Thus there
is a series of ethers, a series of alcohols, a series of acids, &c.,
each of which varies in volatility in the same regular gradation.
We can, therefore, select a substance of the desired volatility or
density for any required purpose.

Any seed will grow in water if you give it ammonia and car-
bonic acid ; but it is a remarkable fact that in that case the
plant will yield, no seed. The inorganic elements, as they are
called, seem necessary to give plants the power of reproduction. A
quantity of inorganic matter, phosphate of lime especially,
although insignificant in amount, is absolutely necessary. Where
there is no phosphate of lime in the soil, you cannot have wheat.

There is a difference in one respect between the growth of veg-
etables and of animals. Vegetables seem to grow as a house is
built. One organic cell is erected above another, they dry up
and stay in their first position, and the life seems to be destroyed.
It stays protected probably by the continual passage of the sap :
but when in animal growth a cell is deposited, it soon burns up.
The vegetable all grows and stays ; the animal all grows and
dies. In five or six years the human body may be entirely
changed. The brain of an active man is especially liable to
change, so that I think it quite doubtful whether James T. Brady,
for instance, has a particle of the same matter in his brain to-day
that was there a month ago. Using up is burning up. At each
inspiration we take in fresh air, and at each expiration throw

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 525

out the products of combustion. This combustion is more perfect
than it is in the arts. The carbonic oxide is all burned to car-
bonic acid before it escapes. All the movements of animals are
simply results of chemical action, and a little calculation will
show that an animal is the most economical machine we know of.
It is immensely ahead of the' steam engine. In a year we take
in only about a ton and a half of material, two-thirds of which
we throw away because it is not fine enough to burn. We use
only 800 pounds of oxygen; yet for 365 days we move about our
150 pounds constantly. Only about five ounces of combustible
material are required to move us about all day ; while a steam
engine, to carry us about in that way, would consume perhaps a
ton of coal.

Mr. C. W. Smith. — Without endorsing 210 deg. as the highest
amount of heat to which vegetable or animal food can be raised
without injury, I am convinced that there is a point, somewhere,
peculiar, perhaps, to each substance. In the preparation of food
the great point is to prepare it mechanically, and not to change
it chemically. It has been claimed that broiled meat is more
healthy than boiled meat. The explanation of that may be that
in broiling we get rid of the grease, which runs away and gets
burned up. Frying is especially unwholesome, because the
grease is retained and subjected to a high temperature.

The subject of " Organic Chemistry " was continued, and the
subject of the " Preparation of Food " was also adopted for the
next meeting, March 13.

Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association,

March 13, 1862.

Mr. Tillman introduced to the Association Professor Charles
A. Joy, of Columbia College, the new Chairman, who had been
appointed by the Board of Science and Art of the Institute. .

On taking the chair. Prof. Joy thanked the Board of Science
and Art for the honor conferred in selecting him to preside over
the deliberations of the Association. He was not familiar with
the former proceedings of the Association, and might need the
indulgence and aid of members. There would be some advan-
tage in his want of familiarity, as he could not be suspected of
undue partiality in cases he might decide upon.

In the absence of the new Secretary, Mr. Thomas D. Stetson,
Mr. J. K. Fisher was appointed Secretary pro tern.

526 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Mr. John M. Reed stated a new method of desulphurizing coal,
which had been tried at the Architectural Iron Works in this city
with very favorable results on anthracite coal used in melting iron
in the ordinary cupola furnace. The effect however is greater in
bituminous than in anthracite coal, owing to the fact of there being
more sulphur in the former than in the latter. The process is
simple and cheap, and one of the greatest improvements in fuel ;
the clinker is less, there is less labor in cleaning, and the metal is
improved. These results are so striking as to be worthy of inves-
tigation. I invite persons interested in the manufacture of iron
to visit our works.

Mr. Stevens. — I think the gentleman states the saving as too
large. I should think one and a half per cent, very liberal for
the absence of sulphur. As it is diffused in minute crystals, it
does but little damage, and is very difficult to get out. In de-
sulphurizing coke, in England and in Pittsburgh, by steam, some
good was done, but it injured the veins, and the process was
abandoned. He hoped that an effective process might be dis-
covered, but we must not expect too much.

Mr. Reed. — In forging with the prepared fuel, much more could
be done than with common coal. Both sulphur and phosphorus/
are in a great measure expelled ; red shortness and cold shortness
were neutralized, and these qualities would be destroyed by the
proposed coal.

The subject of the evening, "Preparation of Food," was
called up.

Mr. Enos Stevens was called upon to open the subject.

Mr. Stevens.* — It was admitted at our previous discussion that
vegetables organize their materials from both inorganic and dis-
organized substances, and build up and ever retain their particles,
cells, or fibres, in modes much like those of masons in construct*
ing houses, by cementing one brick upon another. It was also
conceded that animals are wholly made up of the particles, cells^
or fibres that have previously been organized in vegetable life.
The use, for food, of gelatine extracted from flesh, was favorably
mentioned by Prof. Joy ; and pemican, or flesh stewed, concen-
trated and dried, by Prof. Seely ; and dried vegetables, by Mr.
Dibben.

These gentlemen seemed to entertain the usual theory of the

* Although this very ingenious paper has been admitted into the Transactions, it is
not to be assumed that the theory of Mr. Stevens has received the sanction of the
American Institute. — J. R.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 527

books, that the better food is dissolved before it is eaten, the
easier it dissolves or digests in the stomach, and the more readily
it is assimilated into animal organization. Among those who
make the most intelligent efforts to apply the principles of modern
organic chemistry to the arts of selecting, preserving and cook-
ing food for mankind, I usually find the following theories and
details pursued, viz : They presume that the fermentation of
bread prepares it to dissolve more readily in the stomach. They
are also of opinion that it changes a part of the flour into starch,
and thence into alcohol ; and another part into butyric acid.
And because the very intense heat of the baking drives off both
the alcohol and the focta3 butyric acid, they, therefore, recom-
mend the consumers of such bread to regain the alcohol from
brandy, wine or beer, and the butyric acid from butter, to be
eaten on the bread. Again, they believe that beef, and all other
flesh, not corned down, should be stored until incipient putrefac-
tion takes place, so that it may be more tender to dissolve in the
stomach ; and when flesh is so intensely roasted or baked as to
expel the. fat, they require that this extracted fat should be used
as gravies, suet puddings or shortening to pastries or biscuits.
Instead of eating ripe grapes, they tell us to ferment their juices
into wine, and take the grape sugar in toddy, and the tartaric
acid in cream of tartar, soda biscuits. Moreover, in my opinion,
they actually attempt to enrich beef and hams of pork, while
salting them, by using saltpetre, which is nitrate of potash.
Others put sugar into bread, to replace that which is transformed
into alcohol by the bakers' fermentation. By various other mod-
ifications of their theory of chemically preserved and improved
organic materials of food, we find many extracting and drying
the various substances of vegetables and meats, as starch, sugar,
preserves, vinegar or salt pickles, condensed milk, concentrated
soups, and various jellies and syrups. For analogous reasons,
others feed to cattle, hogs, or poultry, distillery slop, grain or
meal damaged by water, in storage or transportation, mow-burned
hay and unthreshed grain, frozen and rotten potatoes and cab-
bages, and mouldy bread, crackers and maccaroni, and thus pro-
duce a very tender and cheap beef, veal, poultry, and very pecu-
liar tasting butter, eggs and milk.

I admit that animals derive all their constituents of growth
and repairs from the particles, fibres, or cells previously built
up in vegetable organization, like the bricks in a house ; but it

528 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

appears -very evident to me that liealthy and successful animal
growth and repairs would use only the " perfect bricks" of the
previous vegetable organisms ; and reject every particle or fibre
that was not perfectly in the state of organization that it pos-
sessed in the healthy vegetable or animal in which it previously
grew. The organizations of animals are characterized by the
good or bad conditions of the organization of the vegetable or
animal substances from which they were derived as food. When
there is only a very little disorganized matter in food, then the
vital principle rejects it quite, or nearly all. But when there is
a scarcity of normal food, and a great abundance of garbage or
partially disorganized food, or otherwise improper nourishment,
then the animal vitality makes temporary repairs or growth, as
well as store of fat or fuel, even from mud, disorganized food,
such as is most abundantly in the hog, and least so in sheep and
cattle. Yet their natural vitality evidently designs to replace
the bad materials with good, whenever normal food can be
attained.

For example, of the general proposition that animal .organiza-
tions are characterized, to some extent, by the peculiarities of
their food, I recall to your memories how, when cows eat onions,
garlic, or rotten turnips and potatoes, or mow-burnt hay, or
sprouted grain, that their milk and butter, as well as beef and
veal, taste or smell of onions, or of the several abnormal sub-
stances that they ate. For the same reasons, distillery-fed pork
not only tastes peculiarly unpleasant, but is so soft that any
person can thrust his finger through any part of it, even if three
inches thick ; and oxen and horses fed on hay, meal, or grain,
damaged by water in transportation in vessels, form their flesh
so soft and tender that they cannot endure the yoke or harness
without galling or festering, nor without their hoofs soon becom-
ing too brittle to hold their shoes well, and then even their hides
make poor leather.

But if such feed is continued to the same animal more than six
or eight weeks, and sometimes only a few days, then the vitality
will fail to retain it under animal control, and then it must be
thrown ofi" either by diarrhoea, fever, scrofulous exhalations, dia-
betes, or all of them. Indeed, fevers seem to burn out mal-
constituted flesh, by the heat of the lamp of life, as a caulker
or painter burns out the tar or other substances that encumber
their kettles. Yet if beasts are butchered when fleshy or fat,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 529

from feeding on garbage and disorganized food, then any person
who eats of them, or of their butter, milk or eggs, is the same
way affected as if he had eaten the disorganized food or garbage,
such as was eaten by the malorganized butchered beast, or of the
milk, butter, veal or eggs derived from such feed.

On the contrary, if beasts to be butchered are fed on such food
as is most agreeable to man, such as the cereals, corn and wheat,
then their flesh, milk, butter or eggs not only taste most pleasantly
to mankind, but both the beasts and such persons as feed on
them are most healthy, happy and prolific. Yet cattle and hogs,
equally fleshy on acorns, shady grass, or pungent twigs and roots,
afford unsavory flesh ; but when cattle, hogs or poultry have been
mostly raised on unsavory food or disorganized garbage, they
may be rendered of excellent quality by feeding them a few
months, just before they are butchered, with the cereals or very
pleasant vegetables. Moreover, by the same reasoning that a
cow that eats distillery slops, putrid cabbages, and mouldy grain,
is declared to produce unhealthy milk and injurious veal and
cheese; by that same rule we must conclude that the children
whose wet nurses eat charred roast beef, extracted lard, fermen-
ted or alkaline bread, or thoroughly extracted soups, are swill
milk fed of the worst kind, &c., and in a fair way to try the
whole catalogue of diseases.

But the particular practical circumstances to which I wish to
direct attention, is that it matters not by what kind of disorgani-
zation food has been affected, whether by fermentation, putrifac-
tion, evaporation, dissolution or combustion. In other words, I
mean to say that in my opinion food is equally spoiled and ren-
dered injurious to all that eat it, by either or any of the analyti-
cal processes of mow-burning by fermentation; or putrifactiori
into carrion or muck; or evaporation into soot or ether; or dis-
solution in the strong acids or alkalies or hot liquids ; or of
charring by combustion.

The conclusions derived from my observations and experiments
on these subjects, indicate that we ought to select, preserve and
cook our food in such a manner as always to keep every particle
of it in the same state of organization that it had in the healthy
vegetable or animal in which it grow. Hence all cooking should
be so accomplished as merely to render the food more easily

[Am. Inst.] HH

530 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

digested, but never so as to disorganize any of it by any analyzing
process whatever.

Food, in ray opinion, should either be taken rawer ripe, as sup-
plied by nature; or else only pulverized by machinery and soaked
in very warm or hot water, to assist the mechanical mastication
and soaking in the mouth and stomach, so as to render the par-
ticles or fibres of food easily separated from each other, and
always without any chemical changes in the atomic organization
of the several original vegetable particles. According to these
indications, extensive and practical acquaintance with the details
of practical chemistry is required in cooking only in detecting,
preventing and rejecting every chemical change in the food, while
storing or cooking it, as well as in the condiment while eating.
In pursuance of the requirement of our nature to have our food
taste the most pleasantly possible, and at the same time never in
any measure disorganized, I have succeeded, by inquiries and
experiments, in making up a very much improved system of cook-
ing all kinds of food, or serving it merely ripe ; and in selecting
most advantageously the various good articles of food for every
different age, climate, occupation and exposure of mankind, so
that man may live well wherever any other animal at all can exist.

The main peculiarities of this system of cooking are, first : that
everything is, Avhile cooking, kept below 212 deg. of Fa., and
that the bread is exploded by the combination of the elements of
common salt, previously mixed into the flour and water for the
dough. But the most important part of this system of securing
well organized materials for men and animals, is that which
describes the most expedient modes of selecting and preserving
food for both men now to be fed, as well as for the good of the
health and soundness of the vegetables and brutes to be here-
after harvested or butchered for mankind.

Mr. Seely said he had listened with interest to this theory.
Each one might indulge his theory, but he w^ould instance birds
that would eat nothing but carrion.

He did not agree that decomposition was objectionable, because
it always takes place in the system before assimilation. In regard
to the modern preparation of food for its preservation, the
greatest improvement is in drying.

Dr. Stevens. — The great use of cooking is to make the food
pleasant to the first sentinel, the nose ; the second sentinel, the
palate, is next to be pleased; the third is to make it easy of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 531

derrlutition in the mouth : next in the stomach where it meets
the gastric juice, &c. The subsequent operations by which the
system is built up, are not chemical and not to be explained on
chemical principles. No rule can be of general application.
Cooking is best when it meets the individual tastes ; it is useful
as it pleases. Kentuckians live on fried bread ; Digger Indians
live on grasshoppers. In Southern Europe and in South America
they fry vegetables in olive oil, but many Spaniards eschew oil
not rancid, and Esquimaux eat train oil. These examples show
that whether food is cooked or not, or how it is prepared matters
little, provided it agrees with us. Thirty years ago one Graham
rode a hol>by day and night ; it was bran bread. Many rode the
same hobby, and would cure all diseases by it, but there was
always something te help it.* Bran bread was a spur to the ner-
vous membrane, and as such sometimes did good. Where the
food is too liquid the rectum is contracted, and bran or sawdust
is useful to distend it. So when the contrary takes place, there
will be dyspepsia, perhaps scrofula ; in that case the bran bread
is injurious, and sometimes produces constipation of the bowels.
He adduced these instances to show that theories are good when
rightly applied. The cob-mill mania years ago killed many horses,
notwithstanding the great authorities who approved it. Yet for
all this, good cooking is essential to health, but each is the best
judge of the cooking that suits him. Starch, sugar, alcohol are
brakes in the human locomotive. We live too fast, faster than
the usual quantity of food can supply the waste, hence we must
have something that will restore the consumption of the tissues
until nutriment can be supplied. The negative effect of these
articles is seemingly equivalent to the positive effect of nutritive
food.

I do not mean that the bran should be very coarse ; it should
be pleasant to the taste. He had eaten sawdust, but did not find
it really useful ; it tended to cultivate a torpid, not a vigorous
life. Sugar, tobacco and other articles of the kind are good for
unemployed men, to make them contented.

Oysters were in certain circumstances highly nutritious, yet
were little more than jelly. Some shell fish are tough, and the
toughest were really the best ; but at times the stomach cannot

* Tlie husk of the wheat, which is separated by the bolt from superfine flour, con-
tains the greater part of the phosphates and sulphates, to which the superiority of
■wheat over other "rains, as a food for man. is in a measure due. — J. R

632 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

digest an oyster, and if it makes any one sick, he afterwards
eschews oysters. So with lobsters. He related a case where a
patient was poisoned by a lobster. I'hirty years before he had
been poisoned by a lobster, and the stomach remembered the
fact and could not digest that sort of food, as was proved by an
emetic.

The Chairman said that the rejection of food was an important
part. Oysters, lobsters, snails, &c., concentrate poisonous salts,
as he had proved by analysis, and then may be poisonous. In
regard to the temperature, it was possible to make food tough by
too much heat. It is not necessary to exceed 155 deg. to cook
food; 130 deg. will cook some kinds of food.

The subject named for the next meeting was " Salting the
Streets."

Dr. Stevens proposed, for the meeting of March 27, " The Man-
ufacture of Glass."

Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Associa

March 20

ociation, ?
, 1862. S

A communication was received from the Board of Managers of
the American Institute, and referred to an appropriate com-
mittee.

Mr. J. Johnson, from a committee on the question of changing
the day of meeting reported progress, and the committee was
continued.

A report from the committee on reporting and advertising
was presented.

ON DESULPHURIZING COAL.

Dr. Stevens remarked that steam was sometimes used for the
purpose of desulphurizing coal, and sometimes lime, the latter Avith
the expectation of forming the sulphurct of lime. He did not tliink
that much could be gained from the latter method. Coal has
rarely more than two per cent, of sulphur, but that of Cumber-
land may have as high as four per cent.

Mr. Tillman objected to this discussion, because the process
was not made known, such being a rule of the Association.

Prof. Seely did not believe it profitable to desulphurize coal,
as the sulphur is usually in the shape of sulphuret of iron. The
usual process of desulphurizing is to add some matter having a
greater affinity for sulphur than iron.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 533

SALTING STREETS.

Prof. Seely thought that the authorities would be compelled
to reverse their action with regard to the salting of streets.
Some years ago there was much snow, and the streets were im-
passable. The next year the streets were salted, and then there
was no trouble. He used to think it was a beautiful application
of science. Now, all ills are laid to salt — diptheria, etc. Doc-
tors railed at it. The question was brought before the City
Council, and they passed a stringent act against the practice of
salting the streets. There was no objection to salt in itself.
Salt was necessary to the human system. Each of us needs
about twenty pounds per year. Salt water upon the feet is not
bad in itself; salt water bathing and salt atmosphere are both
conducive to health. All action of salt in the streets other thaa
the lowering of temperature is certainly beneficial.

There has been more diptheria this year than when salt was
freely used. The surface salted is too small to have much effect
upon the general health.

Salt slush is complained of as very disagreeable, both from its
filth, as compared with the dry snow, and from its great coldness.
Wetting the feet does tend, under certain conditions, to induce
colds, but as the snow is certain ultimately to melt and present
the same wet and filth, it is only a question of time. The
increased cold of the salted snow-water is the only difference.
This coldness is overrated. Salt and snow may, when guarded
from access of heat, be made to assume a very low temperature,
but in the streets, in practice, it rarely goes more than threo
degrees below the ordinary freezing point.

It is averred by some that salted snow-water rots the leather.
There appears no ground but imagination for this supposition.
Leather does, perhaps, remain wet a little longer for the salt, but,
except for this reason, the salt is probably beneficial to the leather.

The most serious objection to salt is the injury supposed to
be done to the horses. It is a general belief that salting streets
injures the horses. It probably does in fact injure some whoso
feet are wounded, or in some other manner susceptible to cold,
but the general benefits to man are so great as to render the
injury to horses a small evil.> Salt has sometimes been used in
excess, and it is better to use but little. Its use should be under
the supervision of the law. Probably the best way would be to
apply it at twelve o'clock at night, under the control of the police.

534 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The streets may be cleared very effectively and cheaply by
its use.

Mr. Fisher called out Mr. Ebbitt, of the Sixth Avenue Rail-
road, Avho said he was one of the first to use salt. He thought
185G was the first year in which it was used in this city. He was
the first. It Avas continued until 1861, when the Common Coun-
cil stopped it. If the salt produced diptheria by any effect on
the air, it should affect the drivers and conductors. There are
300 men in the employ of the Sixth Avenue Railroad Companj',
and the conductors generally are not naturally robust men. The
situations are sought by men of feeble health as a good business
to preserve and restore health. Only 130 or 140 bushels of salt
were used for each snow, on the entire length — five miles of
double track. There are, in an average winter, about sixteen
snows requiring saltings. The speaker had, himself, been in all
the snows, night and day, and had had no colds.

There are some medical men who think the salt saturates the
earth and produces evils after the snow has gone. This is pro-
bably an error. It all goes into the sewers, and each additional
snow requires additional salt. None of the effects of the salt, in
removing the snow, are experienced three days after a salting.

Mr. Ebbitt presented the following schedule of the quantities
used on his road each year :

Year. Bushels.

In 1856 52

1857 1,945

1858 1,900

1859 2,970

1860 3,960

The following table gives the number of times snow fell in
New York city, from 1853 to 1862, from memorandums kept in
the ofiice of the Sixth Avenue Railroad Company :

Year. Snows.

In 1853... 5

1854 11

1855... 12

1856 18

1857 19

1858 16

1859. 16

1860 11

1861 13

1862 19

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 535

Mr, Ebbitt explained some of the diseases of the feet of
horses, averring a belief, based on a long and constant famili-
arity with the matter, that the use of salt does not injure them.
He said that thrush was a foot disease of horses, for which salt
was the most approved remedy. Salt, he thought, tended to
make the nails hold the shoes more firmly to the feet, and was in
that point a slight benefit.

Salt was the readiest and quickest agent to put the track in
condition for use. Without salt they were obliged to double
the horses per car, and reduce the number of . cars running. A
large enough number of horses to keep double teams of four
horses for each car, with suitable relays, so as to keep the whole
number of cars running, cannot be kept with economy.

The economy to the company in the use, and also of the proper
use of salt, as distinguished from excessive use, is a better guide
or control over its use than any police regulation.

Salt is from eighteen to twenty-five cents per bushel. It is
more efficient when applied during the fall of the snow than when
applied after its fall.

Mr. Fisher inquired the relative cost of removing the snow by
salt and by shovels.

Mr. Ebbitt said the regulation would not allow the companies
to dump snow in the docks. If the track lies unsalted, even if
the most of the snow be removed, the horses are not able to
stand, unless freshly shod. This is the main evil. Shoes last
generally about sixteen days. To fresh shoe five hundred horses
in a single night is practically impossible. The actual cost of
removing the snow by shoveling to the sides of the streets is
probably not more than that of salting.

Mr. J. H. Churchill asked if there w^ere frosted feet on the
horses at other times than the 8th of February, 1861, wdiich had
been spoken of, when sixty horses on Mr. Ebbitt's line had frosted
feet.

Mr. Ebbitt said no. Ou that occasion no salt had been used,
for eight days before, and then no more than thirty bushels. The
salt and snow had cntircl}' disappeared. There was a sudden
and very severe lowering of temperature, after a foggy morning,
nearly to zero. That was the cause of the evil.

Mr. Dickinson, of the Second Avenue Railroad, agreed with
Mr. Ebbitt. On the 8th of February, 1861, his road had 550
horses, and over 100 were injured, dating from that day. The

536 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

appearance was like a frosted part. He had seen the same in
Canada, but never here before. We had not used salt for ten
days before. The morning was foggy, the noon warm, and the
afternoon became very cold. Almost every horse out that after-
noon was injured. But other horses, in stage lines, and some
at Astoria and Harlem, which did not come near the railroad
track, were affected the same way. Some of them, similarly
affected, were brought to his stables, from distances in the coun-
try, to be cured. Mr. D. thought salt cost a little more than
clearing the streets by hand, but not much. On the slightly
traveled portion, at the upper end of his road, near Harlem, it
is almost impossible, even with crowbar and pickaxe, to keep the
grooves of the rails clear, and salt is almost indispensable. The
snows, in the latter part of this winter, since the salt had been
interdicted, had been light. If there had been heavy snows, we
should have been blocked, as we were four years ago, and could
not have run through the entire line. We then did not run to
Peck Slip, and the Third Avenue line did not run below Pearl
street for some two weeks.

Prof. Read thought the railroads were a great accommodation.

1 • *
They add ten cents a day by the time saved to the laboring

people. The doubling of the teams and reduction of the number

of cars is a serious evil to them. He found the water running,

off the railroad, in Brooklyn, when salted, contained only three

per cent, of salt, and that is too small to be of much eliect in

this regard. He found but a quarter of one per cent, remaining

on the track after the snow was gone, and but one and a quarter

.while the salt lay on the track.

Mr. Ebbitt wished to learn from Prof. Read if the salt really
could injure paints, brussels carpets, and silk dresses, as waa
complained by some.

Prof. Read thought that there was ammonia in salt which
might affect the paint, etc., a little, but the quantity was too
email to be of any perceptible effect.

Prof. Joy said it was a common, but incorrect, opinion that an
acid was formed by the salting, which was an injury.

A gentleman remarked that salt might affect dyes badly. He
had a black silk hat which was injured by a short exposure on
the sea-coast.

Prof. Read thought that salt might decompose iron in the dyes,
if the dyes were not good.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 537

Mr. Dibben remarked on the known effect of salt on snow and
ice, whether with or without water. As the water is added to
the mixture by the thawing of the snow, the temperature at which
it will remain fluid is higher. Salt and snow alone will sink to
8 deg. F., or 8 deg. below zero. As the snow melts and the
brine freshens, it ceases to melt more snow at 28 deg. or 29 deg.
The occurrence on the 8th February, 18G1, Mr. D. thought was
due in part to th(! salt remaining on the track, which increased
the evil of the sudden cold weather and slight fall of snow. Mr.
D. thought the increased cold due to the salting of the railroad
was very sensible to the human feet; he could distinguish it
readily himself, and he thought its effect was evil.

It was an universal opinion, and he thought a correct one,
that distempers in the feet of horses, other than railroad horses,
occurred in an increased degree after each salted snow.

Mr. Ebbitt thought Mr. Dibben more sensitive to the tempe-
rature than most people, and that most persons with their feet
ordinarily clothed would not experience any sensation whatever
in crossing a salted and briny track. He had 7iever had any fros-
ted feet among his horses, although salting for several years,
except that period in February, 1861.

Mr. Robert Walker thought the horses were of less account
than human beings. The water produced by salting the track
was muddy and slimy, and would always wet the boots of the
gentleman crossing, and worse, the morocco of the ladies' balmo-
rals. It penetrates both, and the common council had a view to
the health of the foot travelers mainly. The fact that salt was
good in the food, and was in the blood, etc., did not show that
salt in water did not prevent wet feet from injuring health.
Working girls had to work all day with the feet wet, occasioned
by crossing the salted railroads. The salt was a great injury to
such persons, and to all others who have to walk through it, or
even upon the sidewalks near the crossings.

Samuel Hotaling said he was the first to call the attention of
the authorities to the use of salt to thaw out hydrants and the
like. He was a dealer in salt, and had been familiar with the
provision business since boyhood. He had walked through salt
slush every winter and through brine in summer. It was not
injurious; it was a healthy business. During the yellow fever iu
this city, when the people left the lower part of the city, they
flocked to a packing-house yard to avoid contagion.

638 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

He had inquired among stage owners, and a Broadway stage
proprietor had assured him that the salt did no injury to the horses.
Salt had been the means of enabling the people to use the rail-
roads. Without salt the roads would be practically blocked with
snow, and the people compelled to avoid the upper part of the
city, and live in Brooklyn and Jersey city instead. Salt, by
thawing away the snow, quickly promotes rather than injures the
health of the people. It makes the track dry in a short time.

He had found little but theory on the subject as regards the
effect on the lungs by exhalations. But the Sanitary Committee
of Philadelphia had actually recommended salt for the streets.

Mr. J. H. Churchill said that he had obtained statistics from
one of the city railroads, which led to a different conclusion from
that presented by Mr. Ebbitt. It is well known to horsemen
that the grease and similar effects mentioned by him are produced
by chill from wet and deficient circulation, will remain a stand-
ing complaint, and in this condition horses will be particularly
subject to inflammation of the extremities from exposure, even
weeks after the removal of the first cause. Salt, it is true, dries
up grease again, and in fact the feet of horses in this city are
injuriously hardened.

It would seem idle to discuss the question whether wet feet
are injurious to men, women or children, and equally so whether
cold and wet feet are an aggravated evil.

On the other hand the removal of the snow^ is a paramount
necessity, as shown to-night and the last season, for travel ; and
if the common council or those in authority would insist upon
the railways doing what they allege now that they can do, viz :
remove at once the slush and water by opening channels to the
sewers, all the objections would be reduced to practicable limits.
The idea of malaria must be left to the doctors, who will possi-
bly differ ; but it is a fact that the salt is not carried up in any
water evaporated from the slush. But there is a question of
much interest which is at the bottom of this matter : The boil-
ing point of a mixture of salt and snow is raised ; does such a
mixture evaporate more slowly at low temperatures than snow or
water? At any rate the evaporation is slow and practically
during a long continuance of snow; we have for all this time
■wet crossings, and when the snow breaks up we have none the
less all the usual inconveniences of a thaw. In fact, our misfor-
tunes are doubled. The task is to shorten it. Remove the water

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 539

as produced by the salt, and the railway companies would confer
a great boon on the city ; but it must be removed instantly, as
soon as thawed.

One word on the scientific part of the question. The process
adopted of snowing and salting simultaneously, is exactly the one
most suited to produce the greatest degree of cold, for the time.
The more expeditious the thawing the greater the cold. This is
necessarily done at all hours, even when the streets are fullest.
We cannot avoi,4 the nuisance. It is no answer to say that after
so many hours the usual temperature is very nearly re-estab-
lished. Again, it is not the same thing whether a foot that is
subjected to a given mixture of snow^ and salt is at, say the
temperature of this room, or has been previously made as cold as
it can bear to be.

Dr. Vanderweyde read a letter from the Herald, by a contrac-
tor for hauling the Hudson R. R. R. cars from Chambers street
to Thirty-first street, againfet the use of salt. He said he lost
eighty horses by frosted feet, which he attributed to this cause.

Subject for next week, " Glass." Subject for week after,
*' Salting Streets," continued.

Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, )

March 27, 1862. \ ,
Prof. Chas. A. Joy in the chair.

The regular subject of the evening was taken up.

GLASS.

The Chairman — I invited a gentleman to give us the history of
the art of making glass ; but, a short time before the meeting, I
received a note from him, saying that it would be impossible for
him to attend ; so, if you will allow me, I will give you a brief
sketch of this history myself. The art of making glass dates
from immemorial antiquity. The first mention made of it in
writing is probably in the Book of Job — in the xxviii. chapter,
and the 17th verse. In the 12th verse, the question is asked,
"But where shall wisdom be found? and where is the place of
understanding ?" and, in connection with the question, the remark
is made, in the l7th verse, "The gold and the crystal cannot
equal it; and the exchange of it shall not be for jewels of fine
gold." Here glass is compared in value with gold and with
wisdom. '•'

540 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Though gliss was known in ancient times, it was exceedingly
rare and costly, and, even among the Greeks and Romans, it was
a luxury.

The manufacture of glass Avas introduced into Euroj)e by the
Crusaders ; and, for a long time, Venice had the monopoly of
this industry. In the latter part of the seventeenth century, in
France, the manufacture was monopolized by the nobility, all
other persons being excluded from it by law. Though the art
of making glass is so old, its chemistry was first understood by
a chemist who died in 1S47. It is claimed for Berzelius that he
first showed the relations of the composition of glass to chemis-
tr3^ He ascertained that silica is an acid — silicic acid — and
combines with bases to form salts — glass is a double or triple
silicate of soda, or potassa, of some familiar oxide of metal.
Bv the combination of silicic acid with different bases — either
one or more in the same compound — a great variety of glasses
may be made, but there^ are only eight of these varieties that are
of any considerable importance. The simplest of these is soiuble
glass, which is a single silicate of potassa or soda. This article
is attracting much attention at the present time, and there is a
practical maker of it in the room, who, I hope, will give us an
account of the process of its manufacture. Bohemian or crown
glass is a silicate of potassa and lime. This variety is used for
the convex portion of achromatic lenses. Window glass is a sil-
icate of soda and lime. Bottle glass is made of very coarse
materials ; it is a silicate of soda, lime, iron and alumina. In
this phial are specimens of the materials used in making this
bottle, just as as they are mixed at the manufactory. Crystal
glass is a silicate of potassa and lead. Flint glass is the same,
with a larger proportion of lead. This is the glass used for the
concave portion of achromatic lenses. Enamel is a silicate and
stannate of soda and lead ; or the soda may be replaced by pot-
assa. The presence of iron in glass gives it a green or red color.
This color may be removed by the binoxide of manganese, but
in this case it is liable to return in the course of time by the
reoxidatioa of the iron. In Bond street, in this city, there are
old windows in which the glass has a reddish hue, obtained in
this way. Will Dr. Stevens give us the geology of this subject ?

Dr. Stevens. — The silex used in making glass is obtained
usually in the form of sand. Formerly all the sand used in this
country in glass making was collected on the sea shore. The
•

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 541

purity of the sand is of so much importance that the small pro-
portion of impurities in sea sand has caused glass works to be
removed a considerable distance, from one locality to another.
The Lenox glass works were removed from the eastern part of
Massachusetts, in order to be near the pure sand found in Lenox.
All the sand now used in the glass works of the United States is
derived from the older rocks. The Lenox sand belongs to the
Taconic system, the very oldest of the fossiliferous rocks. The
Oneida county works, the works in Wayne county, and those in
Oswego, all use the Oneida county sand, which is derived from the
Silurian rocks — the rocks lying next above the Taconic. The
Pittsburgh works use the magnesian sand stone of the lower
silurian, obtained from Missouri, a little below St. Louis.

The Chairman. — Will Prof. Scely give us the chemistry of gWss ?

Prof. Seely. — As it is getting late, and as there are strangers
here, prepared to speak, I should like to be excused.

The Chairman. — Prof. Dwight, of the Law School of Columbia
College, has kindly consented to give us the law in relation to
the use of light, which, he says, under the decisions at present in
force, is a dark subject.

Prof. Dwight. — It may be of some interest to know what are
our legal rights in relation to the use of light; and though, as
the Chairman says, the subject on the whole is a very dark one,
there are some points which are settled. The only case in which
questions could arise in our community is in that of proprietors of
adjoining lands. There is one way unquestionably in which/ a
man may acquire a right to have a window look out over his
neigbor's land : that is, by express grant. And the law is settled
that such grant, to be valid, must be made by deed — an instru-
ment with a seal. All grants of similar rights in land must be
made by a sealed instrument. In case of such grant, the right
of the owner of the land must yield to that of the grantee ; so if
a person has granted to an adjoining proprietor the right to have a
window look out upon his land, he cannot so occupy it by build-
ing, or otherwise, as to obstruct the enjoyment of this right.
Thus far the law is clear ; no doubt can be thrown upon these
points. In England, it is settled that the right to light coming
over the land of an adjoining proprietor may be acquired in two
other ways. If a man sells a building with a window looking
out on a vacant lot, he cannot afterward build upon the lot in a
way to darken the window. This is called a right by implied

542 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

grant, the other is by right of ancient possession. If a man's
window has opened upon his neighbor's hind twenty years, his
neighbor cannot then close it. These questions have been raised
in this country, and in some of the lower courts there have been
decisions adverse to the adoption of the English law. It is
thought that it would be peculiarly unsuited to our growing
cities and villages. You know that when the common law of
England was adopted for this country, it was adopted with the
proviso that only such portions should be in force as are in
accordance with our institutions. Though the questions in
regard to the right to light either by implied grant or by pre-
prescription, are not yet fully settled. I have little doubt that
the English law on the subject will finally be rejected by our
courts.

The Chairman. — Will Mr. Kraft give us a desci'iption of the
mode of making soluble glass ? He has a manufactory in
Brooklyn.

Mr. Kraft arose and whispered to the Chairman, who remarked,
"Mr. Kraft is not familiar with the English language, and if the
Society will accept my version, I will translate for him." Mr.
Kraft then spoke in' German, Prof. Joy translating as follows:
Quartz, soda and a little charcoal are pulverized and melted
together in a crucible, six fusions being necessary to make a per-
fect mixture. This is the appearance of the soluble glass. It
will dissolve in one-fifth of its weight of water. In this vial is
a earaple of the solution.

Mr. Dibben. — Will the gentleman please state a single use to
which the soluble glass has been practically applied ?

Mr. Kraft. — It is used in some of the calico-print works, near
Boston, ^as a mordant. It is also an admirable article for paint.
To prepare it for this purpose, it is pulverized and added, little
by little, to water kept in a state of ebullition. With the solu-
tion thus obtained, the pigment is ground, as is usual with lin-
seed oil. To fit the ground paint for use, it is diluted with
water. If the solution is not less costly than linseed oil, the
prepared paint is relatively cheap, because the white basis need
not be a costly metallic oxide, and carbonate of lime, whiting,
or other cheap substances, become a substitute for the white lead
used in oil painting. The white thus prepared does not change
by exposure to the air.

Soluble glass applied to plaster gives it a very strong hard-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 543

ness, by converting carbonate into silicate of lime. Applied to
calcerious stones, liable to decomposition by exposure to the air,
it will enable them to resist disintegration.

Applied as a paint to wood, in several coats, of which the first
is thin, it will prevent it from taking fire and burning with flame.
A building, of which the floors and wood work are thus painted,
is practically incombustible.

Mr. Bartlett.— 1 understand the soluble or water glass is used
as a wash, but not as a mordant.

The President. — I can state that it has been successfully used
in Germany for fresco painting. I can also state a use for which
it has been found not to answer; that is for cleaning clothes. In
a large establishment, near Berlin,, where there are several hun-
dred children, it was thoroughly tried, but was found to dissolve
the linen.

Mr. Dibben. — Will Mr. Kraft state the price at which it was
sold?

Mr. Kraft. — The solid at $12 per hundred pounds, the liquid
at $10.

Prof. Seely. — There is one point that I should like to make
here, in relation to the chemistry of glass. ' Any one acquainted
with the laws of chemical combination, and with the composi-
tion of glass, would have antici])ated that the silicic acid might be
replaced by boracic acid ; silicon and boron being so similar in
their properties. It is well known that this is found to be the
case ; the borates, formed by the combination of boracij acid with
the alkalies or metallic oxides, are glasses similar in their proper-
ties to the silicate glasses, but somewhat different ; for instance,
they are more fusible. One metallic oxide may also replace ano-
ther in the combination. Faraday was the first to suggest that
the oxide of zinc might be used in the place of oxide of lead,
and a glass is thus produced, superior, I believe, for certain opti-
cal purposes, to the lead glass. Now, the point that I wish to
make is, that this law indicates a wide field which has not been
explored. For instance, the metal cadmium is analogous to zinc,
and it is probable that a glass in which the oxide of cadmium
should replace the oxide of zinc w^ould have properties sim-
ilar to those of the zinc glass, but still not precisely the
same. Let us try it. Rubidia and cassia too, the newly-discov-
ered alkalies, would, doubtless, make glass with peculiar proper-
ties ; and it is conceivable that these properties might be of suf-

544 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

ficient value to justify the use of even so I'are and costly sub-
stances as the oxides of rubidium and cassium. For instance, if
the lustre of the glass imitated more closely than any other the
lustre of the diamond and other precious stones, the cost of the
materials would be of trifling importance.

The Chairman announced that the subject of the next meeting
is "Salting the Streets," continued from a previous meeting.

The Association then selected for discussion, a fortnight hence,
" Naval Warfare," and adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, ?

Jipril 2, 1862. \
Prof. Chas. A. Joy in the chair.
The regular subject of the evening was called up, viz. :

salting the streets.

Mr. J. K. Fisher. — At the first discussion of this question — the
utility of salt as a means of clearing snow from the streets —
it. was claimed that salt is cheaper than the other means allowed
and used for the purpose; and it was also claimed that no injury
to persons or horses results from it.

On the other side, it was claimed that the mixture of snow
and salt sensibly chilled the feet of men, and probably injured
the feet of horses.

As to cost, it was said that the salt cost somewhat more than
the shoveling of snow from the railway to the sides of the street.
It was also said that the companies were prohibited from throw-
ing snow into the docks. This prohibition would increase the
cost of removing snow by cartage.

I do not intend to say much on the comparative merit of these
two ways of getting rid of snow. It is obvious that if snow is
melted, and runs away immediately, it is better for the public
than when it is thrown to the sides of the street, and left to melt
in the sunshine, and to keep the streets wet for a long time, pro-
vided there be not in the salted water something more injurious
than in an equal quantity of fresh water. It is also cheaper than
the means used to clear Broadway during the past season. The
snow was frozen ; then broken up by picks; frozen again ; then
broken up again, and the remains carted ofif. Had it been shov-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 545

eled and carted while soft, it would have cost much less. The^
cheapest way is to remove it before it is packed. The next
cheapest w^ay is to remove it before it is frozen.

But the cost of removal is not the only cost to be considered.
The cost of drawing loads over it, or through it ; the cost of
shoes, for horses and men.

The damage to carriages and pavements from jolting, the doc-
tors' bills, and the cost of sleighs, all these and other items inci-
dent to the presence of snow, are to be estimated. But all these
are trifling when compared to the discomforts and insalubrity of
our streets in the snow season, compared with the streets of
European cities that have little or no snow in them.

Comparing the style and expense of private buildings with the
style and expense of the pavements and sidewalks, and the keep-
ing of them in repair and cleanliness, we see a contrast which
proves that the public authorities do not keep up with the wealth
and liberality of the people. The people desire luxury, and are
willing to pay for it. Mere comfort does not satisfy them, much
less are they satisfied with what mere health requires ; still less
are they satisfied with a condition that is neither luxurious nor
comfortable, nor healthy, and has not the apology of being eco-
nomical, even to the public treasury.

In view of all the probable expenses, and of the wants of the
people, I conclude that the first policy is to remove the snow as
soon as it has fallen, while it is soft ; to sweep it from the streets
as thoroughly as dust should be swept.

If this be done, if the streets be kept dry, I believe the public
health will be promoted ; the comfort of the people will be greatly-
increased ; the cost of shoes and clothing will be less ; the wear
and tear of carriages and pavements, caused by the falling of
wheels into holes in frozen snow, and pounding the pavements
into holes, and breaking the wheels, will be saved ; and what is
scarcely less desired, the love of order and beauty will be satis-
fied. We shall no longer feel ashamed of our public affairs, our
rulers and our city, even of our country. Wealthy citizens will
no longer be constrained to live in the country for the health
and comfort of their families, but will prefer the city if this and
corresponding improvements be carried out, as such improve-
ments may be with economy, where wealth is concentrated.

Here I might conclude my remarks if I were in a merely popu-

[Am. Inst. J II

646 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

.lar assembly, that ignores all improvement but that which its
own eyes have seen ; but in a meeting of scientijSc men, who can
gee with their brains, I may be allowed to consider whether
genius, taste and liberality may not, at a cost not exceeding the
good of it, develop another means of removing snow, and of other-
wise increasing the facility and comfort of locomotion in streets.

There is a new means already in some measure introduced. The
dummies or noiseless locomotives, which for the last ten years
have at times worked on the Hudson River railway, have proved
that steam is in all respects better than horses for moving cars
in streets. I am well informed as to what has been done in steam
rail cars, steam carriages and locomotive engines, and I have no
^oubt that all classes of railroad vehicles can be worked by steam
more cheaply and safely than by horses ; and even on common
pavements and common roads, carriages of all kinds can be
worked at less cost than horses, and Avill injure pavements and
roads less than horses will injure them. As evidence of this I
refer to the published statements of cost, from which it appears
that a train of seven cars is drawn at thirty miles per hour by
a locomotive, at a cost ranging from twelve to twenty-two cents
per mile, according to the price of fuel and the quality of the
engines; and the cost of drawing a single carat six miles per
hour by four horses, is more that twenty-four cents per mile.

I compute that a street rail car will require four pounds of
coke per mile. On the best railways the consumption of coke is
about a third of a pound per ton per mile. If we could attain
«qual economy in street cars, less than two pounds per mile
would suffice ; but the wheels of street cars are smaller than
those of steam rail cars ; the rails are clogged with dirt ; there
are frequent stops and other causes of waste, all of which indicate
that four pounds per mile is a moderate computation. This fuel
will melt about four hundred pounds of snow, if it be effectively
applied. We may, therefore, expect that each steam car will
melt four hundred pounds per mile run ; and as a car is started
from each station every second minute, on a fully worked street
railway, we have sixty cars per hour traversing each mile of
double track, and twenty-four thousand pounds of snow may be
melted per hour on each mile.

The weight of snow, as it falls, is about eight pounds per cubic
foot. The width of track, which the companies have to clean, is
fifteen feet ; hence if the snow is a foot deep, there is 120 pounds

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 547

on each linear foot of railway, or 634,000 pounds on each mile.
Hence in 2Y hours the cars will molt a foot in depth of snow
from the whole surface of the way; but as the steam may be
thrown upon the rails alone, until they are cleared, and then
thrown upon the parts between them, there is little reason to
doubt that the cars will be able to melt the snow as fast as it
falls on the rails, and to clear the whole track in a day or two.
And all this may be done without the danger to public health
which is alleged to attend the melting of salt.

The same means, to greater extent, may be used when omni-
buses, wagons and other vehicles are run by steam, because
more steam will be required. On stone pavements the steam and
gases of the carriages in a street like Broadway, would in a day
or two, or less, melt the snow that ordinarily falls in one storm.

Not only M^ould there be little snow left to be carted from the
thoroughfares, but there Avould be a use for snow which would
partly pay the cost of carting it from private streets. Snow
would be better than water to make steam for carriages, because
it is pure, and because less of it is required. The steam, in
melting the snow and heating it to 212 deg., would be about one-
third condensed and returned to the boiler, thus saving a third
of the weight of water.

We do not yet know whether steam cars and carriages will con-
dense their steam. Thus far the dummies have condensed it ;
but steam carriages have exhausted it into the air, keeping it
invisible by excess of heat in the chimney. If condensers be
used, snow and ice will be more important than when there is no
condensation. In this case snow will be accumulated during the
■winter, to be used in warm weather; and to supply this the
private streets will be disencumbered of snow, paying but a part
of the cost of removing it.

Mr. C. W. Smith. — I was not here, Mr. Chairman, at the first
.discussion of this subject, and, if I attempt to make any remarks,
I may occupy ground that has already been gone over. I happen
, to be one of those persons who, as the gentleman says, "enjoy
poor health ;" and I find very little enjoyment in it. Many years
since, I contracted a disease of the lungs, and I am very sensi-
tive to changes in the atmosphere. You may take me blindfold
through the city, and I can tell every street that is salted, as
Boon as I enter it, from the chilliness in the air, and its efi"ects
upon my system. Melting snow by mixing salt with it, doe

548 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

sensibly and considerably reduce the temperature of the lowest
stratum of the air. As in the case of all other substances, snow can-
not be reduced from the solid to the liquid state, without absorbing
heat, and when it is melted by means of salt, the heat is absorbed
from the atmosphere. The air is not only made colder, but it is
rendered more luoist. "Warm air will contain more water than
cold air, and when the temperature of the air is reduced, the
invisible vapor which it contained is condensed, and is perceived
in the form of moisture. Thus we have a cold, damp air— the
very worst air for the health. I never walk through or even
cross a salted street, without having my cough increased, and I
have no doubt that every such exposure must tend to shorteil my
days.

Dr. Gardiner. — The first question, to be decided in relation to
this matter is, whether it is desirable to have the suow removed
from the streets. In Paris and other cities in France, when the
snow falls to the depth of a few inches, a large number of work-
men are employed with carts, and in a short time the snow is all
carted away. There is so little snow in that country that it is
not used for sleighing, and when it does fall it is simply a nuis-
ance, to be got rid of as soon as possible. But the case is differ-
ent with us. The country around New York is frequently so
covered with snow, that the roads are impassable with wheeled
vehicles, and if people visit the city at all, they must use sleighs
or sleds. If the snow is all removed from the streets, they can-
not be traversed with runners, and the country people find it
impossible to get about with their sleds. Now, it is a question
worthy of consideration, whether the streets of the city should
not be adapted to the same vehicles as the roads in the vicinity.
Cut off the city from the country, and the city perishes.

The Chairman. — I invited Dr. Sayre to be present at this dis-
cussion, and to give us his views. He is the city physician, and
in his official capacity caused the practice to be discontinued.
He has devoted a great deal of attention to the subject, and can
doubtless give us some pertinent facts in relation to it.

Dr. Sayre. — Mr. Chairman, I thank you for the invitation to bo
present at this discussion. Dr. Gardiner, Mr. Smith and Mr.
Dibben have so fully stated the chemistry and science of the
matter, that it is not nepessary to go into that branch of the sub-
ject. Every old woman knows that if she mixes snow and salt
together, and sets her vessel of prepared milk and eggs into the

PEOCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 549

mixture, the milk will be frozen into ice cream. SnoAV and salt
form a freezing mixture, which extracts caloric from any sub-
stances with which it comes in contact. I will state the circum-
stances which first called my attention to the effects of salting
the streets. Sometime after my appointment as city physician,
by Mayor Wood, as I was walking one day up Broadway, I sa'v
near Canal street, a team of four fine horses belonging to Mr.
Herring. The wheel horse was standing on the snowbank near
the curbstone, and was resting comfortably on his four feet ; but
the other three horses were standing in the water which filled the
middle of the street, and I was surprised to see that each of them
was standing on only two of his feet. Stopping to observe them,
I soon saw them change their position, putting down the feet
which they had been holding up, and raising the others out of
the water. Seeing that the horses were fancy animals, I asked
the driver if this was some trick that he had been teaching them.
He replied that it was not, and remarked that he supposed the
horses raised their feet to get them out of the cold water. I
then put my finger into the water, and discovered that it was
extremely cold. This led me to investigate the subject, and I
soon became satisfied of the very deleterious effects of the prac-
tice of salting the streets. Never, in the history of the world,
was such an event known as the freezing of a horse's hoof. Every
blacksmith knows, and every person who has ever seen a horse
shod knows, that you may burn the hoof with a red-hot iron, or
you may stick nails into it, without producing any sensation. It
is an inert mass. So long as a horse stands upon the surface of
the snow, he would not have his foot frozen, if he should stand
there forever. But when he puts his foot into a freezing mixture
that is in a liquid state, so that the liquid comes in contact with
the corona of the foot above the hoof, where the parts are alive
and sensitive, full of blood vessels, then the foot may be injured.
I have at my office, specimens of horses' hoofs that have sloughed
off" in consequence of injuries received to the feet by the animals
standing in the salt slush in the streets. As Dr. Gardiner has
well remarked, this question is simply a matter of dollars and
cents to the railroad companies. When a manager shows the
stockholders that he has cleared a track with $60 worth of salt,
when it would have cost $460 to clear it with shovels, they con-
clude that he is an excellent manager. They do not think of the
horses which will be dying a fortnight hence, or perhaps next

550 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

summer. On the Tenth Avenue railroad, the contractor for draw-
ing the cars owns the horses, and he has discovered that the loss
in horses more than counterbalances the economy resulting from
the use of salt ; and after thorough trial, he has adopted the plan
of clearing the track by having the snow shoveled off at his own
expense. [The speaker then read an affidavit of this man, stat-
ing that when he used salt on the road, he lost quite a number
of horses, and had others become lame, and that since he aban-
doned the practice, none of the horses' feet were injured by the
cold.] If salt slush is thus injurious to the feet of horses, why
should it not be to your or my more sensitive feet ? It is. I
had one case in my own practice, that is worth all the theories
in the world. A man whose name is known to a large portion of
the inhabitants of this city — Captain Reed, of the privateer Arm-
strongs an old gentleman — in stepping from one car to another,
wet both of his feet, in the salt slush, above his ankles. He rode
some distance up town to his house, and when he got there both
of his feet were frozen. He died from the effects.

On motion of Prof. Seely, the same subject was continued for
discussion a fortnight hence.

Naval warfare was made the subject for the next naeeting*

Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, ?

April 10, 1862. i
Prof. Chas. A. Joy in the chair.

MANUFACTURE OF PUDDLED WROUGHT IRON DIRECT FROM THE ORE.

Dr. Stevens exhibited a model of the apparatus invented by
Mr. Isaac Rogers, of Newark, N. J., and explained its operation.

It consists in first roasting granulated iron ore mixed with
coal, for several hours in a close revolving cylinder to deoxidize
it, then conveying it directly to a puddling furnace, in which it
is converted in a short period of time into balls of wrought iron.
In Mr. Rogers' works two roasting cylinders and two puddling
furnaces are in operation, and the manufactui-e of wrought iron
blooms direct from the ore goes on continuously. One cylinder is
sixteen feet long, the other tw^enty, and both six feet in diameter.
A description of one will suffice for both. The huge cylinder is
hung horizontally in the loft above the puddling furnace. This

PROCEEDINGS OP THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 551

cylinder is really a large oven, and evolves on a hollow shaft.
It is placed in a covered brick arch, and is heated by the waste
heat arising through flues from the puddling furnace. New
Jersej'- magnetic ore is that which- is operated on. It is first
ground with about 25 per cent, of Cumberland coal, and in this
condition it is fed in at regular intervals to the cylinder through
an opening in the hollow shaft. During every revolution of the
cylinder, 25 pounds of ground ore and coal are dumped eight
times into the hopper placed over the shaft at one end, and the ore
is then carried slowly to the back end of the cylinder by a screw.
A signal bell, operated by the engine, warns the attendant when
to dump his bucketful of ore into the hopper. It takes from five
to eight hours for the ore to pass through the cylinder to the
back end. During this period it is turned over frequently, and
exposed in thin layers to the heated surfaces of the cylinder.
The object of this roasting operation is the deoxidation of the
ore out of contact with the atmosphere. Although the ore is
thus treated for several hours, as much roasted ore, at a low red
heat, is discharged into the puddling furnace at every revolution
of the cylinder as makes a common bloom of wrought iron weigh-
ing from 110 to 130 pounds. During every 22^ minutes, 200
pounds of mixed roasted ore pass from the revolving cylinder above
to the puddling furnace below, and in the same space of time a
ball of puddled wrought iron is taken out from the latter, placed
under the trip hammer and converted into a bloom. The impu-
rities in the ore melt in the puddling furnace, are separated from
the iron and flow down into the spue hole in the form of slag.

Prof. Seely. — I would ask if there is any evidence that the
iron is reduced in the cylinder ?

Mr. Rogers. — We have the apparatus in operation at Newark,
and should be pleased to show it to the gentleman. It has been
examined by the most scientific men we have, and .it is making
good iron. We' claim three advantages for it — that the apparatus
can be erected at very low cost, that we make wrought iron at a
saving of $10 per ton, and that the iron is of a good quality.

Prof. Seely. — Have you ever tried the experiment of dispensing
with the cylinder— putting your ore and coal directly into the
furnace without passing them first through the cylinder ? It is
contrary to all the facts with which I ani acquainted, to suppose
that the iron can be reduced from its ore in that cylinder. Iron
is decomposed by hydrogen at a low red heat, but not by carbon.

552 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE*

If the experiment has not been tried of putting the ore and coal
directly into the furnace, I suggest that it be tried.

Mr. Dibben. — The advantage of this arrangement is that the
ore and coal are partly heated for the puddling furnace by the
waste heat of the furnace. But the great difficulty in all these
direct processes of making iron, where no flux is used, is to get
rid of the silica and other foreign substances contained in th9
ore.

Prof. Renwick. — I would aak if any other ore has been tried
than the Dickinson ore? The Dickinson ore is very easily re-
duced. It can be done in a common blacksmith's forge. There
is no difficulty in making a horse shoe from this ore at any black-
smith's fire. This plan of making wrought iron direct from the
ore, is the oldest of all processes, and is the one now in use
among barbarians. It requires, however, a very rich ore, and
has never yet been economical.

Mr. Cooper. — Ten years ago there was in operation at the Trenton
Iron works, an apparatus precisely similar to this. It made good
iron, but there was a practical difficulty in the cylinder warping,
and it was laid aside. The iron would be reduced in the cylinder
in this way : A little atmospheric air would get in with the coal
and ore, and the oxygen of this air would combine with the coal
at red heat to form carbonic oxide ; then, as oxygen has a stronger
affinity for carbonic oxide than it has for iron, it would leave the
iron and combine with the carbonic oxide, producing carbonic
acid, and leaving the iron in the metallic state. The silex would
be got rid of as silicate of iron, thus reducing the yield of the
ore.

Mr. Bartlett. — Very careful provision is made for excluding all
air, except that which fills the interstices between the particles
of ore and coal. As it takes thirty-three pounds of oxygen to
burn twenty-five pounds of coal into carbonic oxide, and as
oxygen forms only about twenty-three per cent, of the atmosphere,
it would r<^quire 150 pounds of air for each charge of ore and
coal. This would be equal to about 2,000 cubic feet of air —
enough to fill a room ten feet wide, ten feet high and twenty feet
long. This could not be contained in the interstices of 100
pounds of ore and coal.

The Chairman. — The time has arrived for the discussion of the
regular subject selected a fortnight since. It is

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 553

NAVAL WARFARE.

Mr. Dibben opened the discussion in a sketch of the history of
iron-plated ships.

Prof. lieuwick.— There are some facts in the history of this
art which were not stated in the highly satisfactory address to
which we have listened. Iron-plated ships were first suggested
by John Stevens, the father of Robert and Edwin. In regard to
columbiads, known in Europe by the plagiary name of Paixhans,
the first were made at the instance of Col. Williams, U. S. Engi-
neers, for the armament of the castle known by his name, on
Governor's Island, in this harbor. The drawings for the gun are
said to have been made by Col. Brunford, U. S. Ordnance. The
calibre of these guns was of 100 pounds. Elongated projectiles
were invented by Robert L. Stevens before the close of the war
of 1812. I was present at a trial of them in 181Y, and that
trial was not successful ; the shells did not explode. In the same
year there was another trial, at which I was not present, but I
was informed that it was successful. A number of shells were
made, placed An. boxes and deposited in Castle William to be
ready for use.

Mr. Babcock. — A number of steel shot have been recently pre-
pared for the government and placed on board the JVaugatuch,
Stevens' little boat, to be used in a 100-pounder Parrott gun
against the Merrimac if she again ventures out. They are of
solid cast steel of the acorn form, Avith the point terminating in
a cylinder three inches in diameter and about three inches long^
with a perfectly square end, the corners being nicely finished to
a cold-chisel edge. It is thought that if they do not penetrate
the side of the Merrimac, they will at least catch into the plates
with sufficient hold to tear them from their places. I am told
that the Merrimac has precisely similar shot, weighing 360 lbs.
each, with which to attack the Monitor.

Prof. Joy. — It is remarkable that 81 years ago they were dis-
cussing the very subject which is engaging our attention at this
time, and in reference to the same locality. I hold in my hand
an order from Washington in relation to boats at Yorktown to
protect the French fleet from fire-ships. Washington wished
Count de Grasse to sail up York river with his fleet, and thus
make the capture of the British army certain, but the Count
declined to do this unless Washington would furnish boats to
prevent his vessels from being burned. This order was accord-

554 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

ingly issued. It is dated October 15, 1781. Hostilities ceased
on the l7tb, and the surrender was made on the 19th ; so this is
among the last of the military orders issued by Washington.
[Prof. Joy then read the order. It directs the officer to take
the boats out of James river and place them on wheels and send
them over to the head-quarters of the army before Yorktown.
The order directs that the boats shall be covered with boughs
to prevent them from being seen by the enemy.]

Prof. Renwick. — Had I been aware of the subject of discussion
for this evening, I should have brought with me a model, and
descriptions of an armor-clad vessel. Had I done so, however,
I must either have postponed the exhibition of them, or have
trenched upon the time that has been so profitabl}'' and instruc-
tively occupied. May I request that the subject be continued
for future discussion?

The same subject was chosen for discussion a fortnight hence,
and the meeting adjurned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, )

April 17, 1862. \
Prof. Chas. A. Joy in the chair.

original experiments with superheated steam.

Mr. Warren Rowell made some experiments, impugning cer-
tain conclusions made in 1850, in relation to Mr. James Frost's
sfame or superheated steam.

These conclusions were, that steam at a temperature of 212*
under the pressure of the atmosphere, when heated apart from
water, had its volume doubled by the addition of 4^* of heat, and
that 12'^ more of heat gave an increase of an additional volume.

Mr. Frost's experiments were made with a siphon tube, the
short leg of which was three inches in length, and closed at the
end, while the end of the long leg was left open. He introduced
a minute quantity of water into the short leg, and then filled
this leg with mercury. The tube was held with the legs extend-
ing vertically upward, and the water in the short leg was, of
course, raised by the mercury to the upper and closed end of the
leg. The tube was now placed in a bath of salt water — a satu-
rated solution, the temperature of which is 228°. The water in
the tube was converted into steam, which forced the mercury up

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 555

the long leg of the siphon, and, as long as the steam continued
to be generated in quantity more than sufficient to fill the short
leg, the excess was forced around the bend of the siphon and
escaped through the column of mercury in the long leg.

It was supposed by Mr. Frost and the committee of the Insti-
tute that all of the water in the tube was necessarily converted into
steam, as it was subjected to a temperature of 228^, while the
pressure was only three inches of mercury in addition to that of
the atmosphere.

He now placed the tube in a bath of pure water, boiling, when
the three inches of steam was reduced to one inch, and with this
inch of steam, thus prepared, his experiments were conducted.
By placing the tube in a bath of salt water of such strength that
it would boil at a temperature of 216®, the one inch was
increased to two inches, and by inserting it in the saturated solu-
tion at 228°, it was expanded to three inches.

From this experiment Mr. Frost drew the apparently manifest
conclusion that steam of 212*, heated apart from water, had its
volume doubled by the- addition of 4^" of heat, and trebled by
the addition of 16° of heat. From this law he pointed out the
enormous vahie of superheated steam.

Mr. Frost's experiments having been recently repeated before
Mr. Isherwood, Mr. Rowell and others, the suspicion was excited
that there was water in the tube, together with the prepared
inch of steam, and Mr. Rowell devised a modification of the
experiment, to test this point.

His first plan was to introduce just enough water to make an inch
of steam in the tube at the atmospheric pressure. By exceedingly
careful measuring and weighing he obtained the proper quantity
of water in a delicate glass bulb, which he pushed down througTi
the mercury into the short leg of the siphon. It was here eva-
porated at 212*, and then the tube was placed in the bath of
216*. But this steam was not doubled by the addition of the 4*^
of heat. It was expanded only to the extent corresponding to
Guy Lussac's law. The same result followed its immersion in
the saturated solution of 228*.

Subsequently a different plan was adopted for obtaining just
an inch of steam in the tube to experiment with. The tube was
placed in the saturated solution in nearly a horizontal position —
the open leg being slightly inclined upward — and the boiling was
continued until a very little more than an inch of steam remained.

556 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

On placing the tube now in the bath of pure water, the steam
filled just one inch, and on heating this steam to 216* and to 228°,
its volume was not doubled and trebled, as in Mr. Frost's exper-
iments, but was simply expanded in accordance with the well-
known law of the expansion of gases, by which their volume at
32« is doubled by the addition of 480° of heat.

From these experiments, Mr. Rowell comes to the conclusion
that Mr. Frost had too much water in his tube, and that the great
increase of volume which took place in his steam resulted from the
evaporation of this water.

Mr. Godwin. — I was well acquainted with Mr. Frost, and
examined his experiments with a great deal of interest. I ask
permission to read, from the Scieiitijic American^ an extract from
the London Engineer, taken from the annual report of Mr. Flet-
cher, Chief Engineer of the Manchester Association for the Pre-
vention of Steam Boiler Explosions. He directs the attention of
those who use condensing engines to the fact that these motors
generally do not execute work in proportion to the quantity of
steam delivered from the boilers. The 4oss, as measured fre-
quently, is about thirty-three per cent. This is due to the alter-
nating connection of the cylinder at each stroke of the engine,
with the boiler at a high tefnperature, and the condenser at a
low one — about lOO*' Fah. In such engines there is an alternate
action of condensation and re-evaporation in the internal sur-
faces of the cylinder, and it is thus a considerable per centage
of steam passes from the boiler to the condenser, through the
engine, without doing useful work. This action is so silent and
subtle that it has escaped detection for many years. Such a loss
is of much consequence in steamships, which have to carry their
c^n fuel. It amounts to about three hundred tons of coal in one
of the larger class of steamers in a voyage across the Atlantic
ocean. " The remedy for this loss " is to adopt the steam
jacket for the cylinder, or superheat the steam. There is
nothing new, or untried, or dangerous, in either of these.
Some have held up superheated steam as a bugbear, and
have asserted that it destroyed the interior surface of the cyl-
inders, cut the faces of the valves, corroded the metal, and
prevented proper lubrication. Actual experience has proved
these objections to be visionary. Mr. Fletcher says, on this
head, " I find that where superheated steam has been fully
tested no difficulty is experienced in its use, and no alteration

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCiItION. 557

is required for old engines, to which it may be applied, beyond
the introduction of a slightly better description of packing
for the glands. The Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation
Co. have, in many of their engines, realized an economy of up-
wards of 30 per cent, by the introduction of superheated steam ;"
and a steamer lately built of 2,600 tons burthen, with engines of
400 horse power, in which steam jackets, surface condensers, and
superheated steam are applied, has realized, we are told, a sav-
ing of fifty per cent, in fuel, compared with a steamer of like
tonnage and power without such appliances. These statements
claim the attention of all steam engineers and steamship com-
panies. It has been found most advantageous to superheat the
steam to about 100*^ above that in the boiler, when no difficulty
is experienced in lubricating valves, pistons and glands. Every
new economical application of steam deserves to be generally
known and carried into practice.

The regular subject was then taken up.

SALTING STREETS.

Prof. Seely. — There was one point made by Dr. Gardiner at the
last meeting, which, perhaps, ought to have been considered at
our first discussion of this subject — that is, whether we want
snow in New York city. In regard to that, I would say that for
those who have the means to purchase fine horses and sleighs,
and the leisure to indulge in the recreation, sleigh-riding is a
very agreeable luxury. I like it very well myself. But I cannot
afford to indulge in it, and I have no doubt that in this city there
are a thousand persons like myself in this respect to one who can
enjoy sleigh-riding ; and I think that the few should be willing to
give way to the many. Even for those who have sleighs tlie
streets are not very good places to ride in, and most of those who
indulge in the recreation go into the suburbs or out of town.
This subject has recently been thoroughly investigated in Phila-
delphia. It being proposed to prohibit the use of salt on the
railroads, a committee was appointed by the city government to
take testimony, and fully investigate the matter. The College
of Physicians and the Board of Health were both called upon for
their opinions, and all citizens interested were invited by public
notice to present their views. The testimony was very contradic-
tory, but it seems to me that the preponderance is decidedly in
favor of the practice. The strongest opinions are in opposition

558 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

to it, but these are generally given by those least competent to
judge. The College of Physicians made a series of observations
for the guidance of their judgment. Dr. Rogers tested the tem-
perature of the salt slush in many places, and he walked through
the streets with a thermometer in his hand, carrying it about
three feet above the ground. He found the slush but very few
degrees colder than the snow — three, four, five, and, in one. case,
eight degrees colder; and the temperature of the lowest stratum
of the air was, in no case, any lower than that at the height of
five or six feet. Both boards gave their opinion in favor of
allowing salt to be used, and no physician objected to it.

Since the last meeting I have very fortunately had an oppor-
tunity of making some experiments myself. We had a slight fall
of snow, and 1 prepared some mixtures of it with ss^lt, in differ-
ent proportions, and observed the temperatures and the rate of
melting. I placed in my laboratory four tin cans, all of the same
size — six inches in diameter and eight inches in height. In each
of these I placed twenty ounces of snow, carefully weighed. In
one of the cans, which I call number one, I mixed with the snow
ten ounces of salt, in number two I mixed one ounce, in number
three one-fifth of an ounce, and in number four I left the snow
pure, without any mixture of salt. It will be seen that in num-
ber one the proportion (5T salt was fifty per cent, of the weight
of snow ; in number two, five per cent. ; and, in number three,
one per cent., the last being about the proportion in which it is
used in the streets. I tried the temperatures of the mixtures with
a thermometer at several periods during the day, with the follow-
ing results :

A. M. P. M.

9:15 9:45 10:45 11:45 12:45 1:45 4:00 Salt. Snow.

Temp, of air. 47° 50° 62° 55° 58° 6G° 60° — ^^> .^^.^

Can No. 1, temp. —4° —3° —1° 18° *30° 39° 48° 10 oz. 20 oz.

Can No. 2. temp. 0° S** 7° 18° 21° 27° 43° 1 oz. 20 oz.

Can No. 3, temp. 4° 19° 22° 28° 28° 30° *31° i oz. 20 oz.

€an No. 4, temp. 32° 32° 32° 32° 32° 32° 132° 0 oz. 20 oz.

The four deg. belew zero, entered in the memorandum as hav-
ing been observed at fifteen minutes past nine, A. M., is a mean
from observations in different parts of the vessel. In some parts
it was six deg., which was the lowest temperature noted. The
snow M'^as unfortunately damp, and it was impossible to mix the
salt with it as thoroughly as would have been desirable. It will
be seen from the table that No. 1 was all melted at 12:45 P.

* No snow. t Much snow still unmelted.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 559

M., and Nos. 2 and 3 at four o'clock P. M. When I left at
BIX o'clock a considerable portion of tte snow in No. 4 re-
mained unmelted. The temperature was in this case reduced
much more than it would be if the salt was sprinkled upon the
surface of snow lying upon the ground. Here the salt was all
through the mass, and could obtain heat only at the outside,
while if it was sprinkled upon the surface it would form a thin
sheet which could readily obtain heat from the air above and
from the ground below. This would also cause the snow to melt
more slowly in my experiment than it does upon the ground. I
have no doubt that one per cent, of salt, if judiciously used, will
carry off the snow in one-fourth of the time in which it would
usually be removed by our winter weather. I am still of the
opinion, Mr. President, that the use of salt, under intelligent
direction, for the removal of snow, will tend to promote the com-
fort and health of our citizens.

Capt. Bartlett. — Mr. President,, this is simply a question of
dryness. If you wet your boots with salt water they will remain
moist a long time, but if you wet them with fresh water they will
soon dry. He also cited many facts drawn from his experience
in the navy to show that the wearing of wet clothes is exceed-
ingly injurious to health.

Prof. Seely. — It is true that clothes wet with sea water will
remain moist longer than if wet with fresh water ; but this is
not the case with salt and water. There are salts in the sea
which absorb and retain moisture, but chloride of sodium is not
hygrometric.

Mr. J. K. Fisher. — During the discussion, on the second even-
ing of the subject of salting the streets, certain positions which I
had assumed were admitted, but turned against the general view
I advocated. It was admitted that the people desire comforts
and even luxuries, and are willing to pay for them ; and on this
ground it was claimed that snow ought to remain for the sake of
sleighing. If this luxury could not be enjoyed without allowing
snow to remain, we should have to choose beetween the comfort,
or luxury, if it be so, of dry and clean streets, and the luxury
of sleighing ; and, in my judgment, we should estimate the former
luxury the greatest, and not consent to sacrifice it for the latter.
But the disposition claimed by me, and conceded by those who
dissent on certain points, the disposition of the people to pay
liberally for luxuries, private and public, has already brought

560 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

into existence a place for the enjoyment of sleighing. The Cen-
tral Park has good roads, men to keep them in order, rollers to
level and pack the snow, and all means to perfect this luxury.
Here it is enhanced by the beauties of scenery — beautiful even in
winter — and by the splendor and gayety of equipages and parties ;
the meetings of friends, and other attractions not met in streets,
In the system I propose, you may ride with comfort to the park
for five cents, and there you may ride in an omnibus sleigh for as
little as you pay for it in the streets ; or you may have a better
sleigh for a fair price ; your luxury may be rated to your means
and taste. To the man of leisure, or the man of industry in his
leisure hour, one ride in the park, with the multitude around
him, would be more luxury than ten rides in the street, such as
we have been accustomed to ; and, besides the park, there are
suburban roads for fast horsemen. These provisions are enough
to satisfy all but the few who keep horses and sleighs. Others
who keep horses, ani wish to drive them on the snow, would find
it more convenient to hire sleighs in the suburbs. Hence I con-
clude that the majority of people, and of each class of people, are
not willing to accept the alternative of one or the other of these
luxuries, but desire them both, and are willing to pay for them.

The system I recommended for the streets was, to shovel and
sweep them, and cast away the snow immediately after it falls.
It was stated that this is the practice in French cities. I have
read that it is the practice in Fi'ench camps ; the ground in them
is never wet by snow that falls, while the temperature is below
freezing. These habits of a people who are clever in uniting
comfort with economy, confirm the view I advocate.

Even if no improvement in locomotion is possible, but horses,
rough pavements and dirt are to be perpetual in streets, then
perfect removal of snow while it is dry is desirable, a^d would
be willingly paid for if it cost much more than aggregate expenses
of the present practice ; but, from the evidence of all who spoke
here, it appears likely to cost much less.

Having gone thus far on ground that is established by prac-
tice, I made a separate estimate of the expense of cleaning streets,
based on the idea that improvements have not come to an end ;
that knowledge may still be increased ; that possibly the power
that draws six cars at thirty miles per hour, at less than the cost
of driving one car at six miles per hour by horses, may be refined
so that it will be admissable in streets. This separate view, I

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 56l

think, should have received some assent or dissent in a body of
scientific men. It is a view which for thirty years has been
entertained by many of the most celebrated engineers in the
world. The question it involves is, not whether a particular plan
will perfectly succeed, but. whether there exists in the world suffi-
cient engineering talent to develop a plan that can compete with
horses, in comfort, luxury and liberal economy.

Mr. Ebbitt. — Mr. Chairman, I appear here on the part of the
railroads, or at least one of them — the Sixth Avenue. I have
had a great deal of experience in using salt, and in attempting
to clear the track Avithout it. The railroads do not desire to use
salt for their own profit, but simply for the convenience of the
public. When the tracks are obstructed with snow, we are
obliged to double our teams and run half the number of cars,
thus cutting off nearly half of our receipts while our expenses
remain the same. This crowds the cars and forces a great many
people to walk when the walking is the most disagreeable. I
have been up three nights in succession, working day and night,
to get the tracks clear so that we can make our regular trips.
Nothing creates so much dissatisfaction as a failure to make our
trips .in time.

The great number of horses that were injured in February, last
year, were not injured by salt. The last time that salt was used
was on the first of February, and the horses were injured on the
eighth. I remember the day very well, [n the morning there
was a dense fog, so dense that it was impossible to see across the
street. At noon the sun came out for a little while, and then it
grew^ suddenly very cold. At night it was some six or seven
degrees above zero. Our horses that worked in the forenoon were
uninjured, but of those that worked in the afternoon, sixty-one
were found the next morning to be lame, some in one foot and
some in another. The injured feet were white and presented the
appearance of having been frozen.

There are men on our road who have worked many years,
always standing in the water when salt is used to melt the snow,
and none of them have been injured. I brought along one of our
starters, Mr. More, a man of delicate health, who will give his
experience.

Mr. More. — I have worked on the railroad, and for the last six
years we have used salt for melting snow. I stand at the station
twelve hours in the day, from six o'clock in the morning till six

[Am. Inst. J J J

562 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

at night. 1 used to be much subject to colds, but for a few years
have been quite free from them. I think that standing in this salt
water is a good thing for the health.

The subject of " Surface Condensers " was selected for a fort-
night hence, and the subject of " Glass " for the next meeting.

Adjourned.

American Institute, Polytechnic Association, ?

April 24, 1862. ]
Prof. Chas. A. Joy in the chair.

reduction of iron.
Mr. Churchill. — I was not present at the meeting on the 10th
inst., but I see by the records that Prof. Seely stated that the
iron in the cylinder of Mr. Rogers' apparatus could not be re-
duced from the ore by the carbon. This would not be necessary.
I have here on the blackboard the formnlte of the reactions
applicable to Mr. Cooper's furnace. I will take the protoxide of
iron, as that will illustrate the changes just as well, though this
is not the oxide operated on. A little atmospheric air would get
into the cylinder, and this, with the carbon and the oxide of iron,
will give us C, Fe 0, and O+Ng. The carbon would combine with
the oxygen of the air to form carbonic oxide yielding CO and
Fe 0, (throwing out the nitrogen as producing no effect.) Then
the iron would be reduced by the carbonic oxide, which would
be converted into carbonic acid yielding CO.^ and Fe. The car-
bonic acid being in a nascent state, would be immediately re-
duced, by the free carbon present, to carbonic oxide. This reac-
tion takes place several hundred degrees F. lower than the reduc-
tion of free COg, and yields 2C0. This would reduce two more
atoms of iron, and thus the process would go on.

NAVAL WARFARE.

On the call for the regular subject, a desultory discussion
arose, and continued for some time, having regard chiefly to the
struggle betAveen the Merrimac and the Monitor.

Professor Renwick then stated that, in conformity with the
notice he had given, he had brought to the meeting a model of
an iron-plated vessel. He then Avent on to say, that his reading
of the late battle in Hampton Roads is, that there is an end to
all the modern rules of naval tactics ; that artillery will here-
after play a very secondary part in naval warfare ; that hence-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 663

(the renwick steam batjtering ram.)

'f!!lllli!!!'!l!lfc

564 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

forth the vessel which, with sufficient weight, has the greatest
speed, and can change her course most speedily, must infallibly
defeat her opponent by crushing in her sides. The plan which
he exhibited, unless his judgment was warped by his partiality
for the inventor, combines these requisites in the highest degree.
It is driven by two propellers, one on each side of the vessel, and
may therefore, by the application of sufficient power, receive a
much higher speed than can be given by a sigle propeller. Placed
amidships, tliese propellers can give the vessel a motion around
an axis in her midship section, while by two propellers at the
stern, the axis of motion is in the stern-post. The act of wearing
will, therefore, be performed, all other circumstances being equal,
in half the time. The model I exhibit has been laid before the
Navy Department, and has received a favorable report. The
inventor is Edward S. Renwick, of tliis city, and the description
of the vessel is as follows :

Length of vessel. _. 400 feet.

Breadth of beam _ 60 "

Depth of hold ' 37 "

Draught of water 22 1 "

Speed per hour at least 18 miles.

The form and arrangement of this vessel are shown in the
accompanying sketches : Fig. 1 representing a side view of the
vessel ; Fig. 2, a plan of it at the lower edge of the armor plates,
four feet below the water line ; Fig. 3 being a transverse section
at the engines, and Fig. 4 a plan of a fragment of the vessel at
the engines. The objects of the projector were, to obtain great
speed, a heavy armament, protection of the guns against shot,
and a capacity to turn the vessel as if upon a pivot ; also to form
the vessel in such manner that she could be used as a ram. In
order to attain these objects, the length, e f, below water, was
made sufficient to obtain fine lines at the bow and stern, as shown
in Fig. 2, and the bow and stern above water were cut back, as
shown at Fig. 1, to reduce the weight of the armor plates to the
smallest possible quantity compatible with the protection of the
battery. The bow and stern above water thus present the form
of a half cone with the butt at the central battery. This plan
relieves the bow and stern of strain of heavy weights, Avhere the
displacement, from the fineness of the water lines, is unequal to
the load placed over them, and at the same time furnishes a long
heak which projects under water.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 566

In order to propel the vessel with speed, and at the same time
turn her rapidly, two screw propellers are located at the opposite
sides of the vessel, upon a plan lately patented to the projector.
The propeller blades are mounted upon a hollow shaft, iitted at
its ends with gudgeons which enter into sponsons, n n, secured
upon the vessel's sides. Tlie cranks of the engines are secured
to these gudgeons, and turn into the sponsons ; and the connect-
ing rods extend directly from the steam cylinders, through open-
ings in the sides of the vessel, into the sponsons. The entrance
of the gudgeons into the sponsons is packed in the usual manner,
to prevent leakage. By this arrangement, each i)ropeller is
driven by two steam engines, as shown in Fig. 4, in the same
manner as the driving axle of a locomotive ; and as the pair of
engines of each propeller are entirely independent of those, of the
other, one propeller may be turned forward and the other back-
ward, to turn the vessel upon her centre so as to present her
beak always toward an adversary. The engines are extremely
simple, l^eing plain horizontal engines, each having its air pump
driven by a piston rod extending out of the butt of the cylinder.
The condensers, c c, and air pumps thus lie at the centre of the
vessel, between the butts of the adjacent t^vo steam cylinders.

In order to make the vessel sufficiently strong, her bottom is
made cellular, and the interior of the vessel below the gun-deck
is divided by longitudinal and cross bulkheads into numerous
■water-tight compartments, as shown at Fig. 2. The boilers, h h
b b, are six in number, and each is placed in a separate compart-
ment. The coal is stowed in the compartments d, outside of the
boilers, so that it is within reach of the firemen. These coal
bunkers are of sufficient capacity to contain 1,400 tons. The
engines require only 24 feet of the length of the vessel, and each
two are placed between water-tight bulkheads at a a.

The armament is to consist of twenty-four guns of eleven inches
bore, placed on the gun-deck at the dotted line i i of Fig. 1, eight
feet above water, and sheltered by the sloping sides of the vessel.
With the draught of twenty-two and a half feet, the vessel can also
carry two twelve-inch rifled guns for solid shot, placed in revolv-
ing towers on her spar-deck, upon the plan which was adopted in
the Monitor. The armor plates are to be of solid rolled iron,
four and a half inches thick ; this thickness, when placed on a
slope, having been found by experiment sufficient. The dimen-
sions of the propelling machinery are as follows : four cylinders

566 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

of seventy-eiglit inches diameter, and three feet nine inches
stroke ; six boilers, each having six furnaces on a side, giving a
collective grate furnace of twelve hundred and twenty-four square
feet ; two propellers, each seventeen feet in diameter and thirty-
two feet pitch.

This vessel has about one-half more power than the Stevens
battery, while from the simplicity and compactness of the engines,
the machinery occupies much less space. The propellers are sit-
uated at the strongest part of the vessel, instead of overhanging
at the stern, where they would exert a tremendous strain upon
the narrow part of the vessel. In order to permit the propeller
blades to turn freely, a slight indentation is formed in the side
of the vessel ; and in order to direct the water in this indenta-
tion around the tubular propeller shaft, horizontal wedge-formed
chambers, s s, are placed in between the propeller shaft and the
vessel. When the vessel is in port, the propellers are protected
from injury by contact with the dock, by hanging a removable
skeleton guard upon each side of the vessel, similar to the guard
beams which protect a paddle wheel. The vessel has a complete
berth-deck under her gun-deck, for the crew, and ample space
for stores in the compartments, which are in advance of and
behind her boilers. The ventilation of the vessel is effected by
fan-blowers, driven by separate donkey engines, and the foul air
and smoke from the guns escape through a longitudinal shot-proof
grating in the spar deck at o. Fig. 3. The spar deck is plated
with iron like the sides, and is surrounded by a wooden bul-
wark, to keep off the sea. . The projector does not pretend to be
the first who conceived the idea of side propellers, but he claims
to be the first who has succeeded in arranging submerged side
propellers, and applying power to them in a practically useful
manner ; and that he obtains all the advantages that accrue from
the position of paddle wheels near the longitudinal centre of
the vessel, with the advantages that result from the use of sub-
merged propellers, without the defects of either system.

If 15-iuch guns can be procured, the vessel is to be armed with
them, a smaller number being used ; and if it be deemed expe-
dient to protect all the guns by revolving towers, the sloping
sides of the vessel above the gun deck may be removed, and six
revolving towers put in their place. But as a vessel with towers
cannot fire more than two guns in line with the keel, and as this
vessel can do the same, wnth the capacity to turn rapidly to fire

PROCEEDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION. 567

a broadside, the expediency of sucli a change is questionable. It
wouhl be easy to construct a smaller vessel on the same plan,
with less proportionate speed, if the projector's present plan be
deemed too large ; but the proposed vessel, although of greater
power, is only of about the same size as those now building by the
English government ; and' if the United States build a vessel, it
should be at least able to cope upon the open sea, as well as in
the harbor, with any built by any foreign government.

Mr. Dibben. — They are far more industrious in the investiga-
tion of this subject in England than we are in this country.
Within a few years a commission of competent engineers has been
appointed by government, to examine all inventions designed to
aid the public service, and whenever anything is presented which
promises to be valuable, the inventor receives facilities for test-
ing his plans. Sometimes he receives a salary while he is making
his experiments, and in other cases he is allowed the use of the
public dock yards. Sir William Armstrong was thus aided in
the beginning of his career.

Mr. Stevens. — Some years ago I made some experiments in
firing bullets throug:h plates of different materials. I found that
a bullet moving with a velocity of 1,000 feet per second, would
cut out a hole in a pane of glass without breaking the glass ; but
to cut out a smooth hole in a steel shovel blade, required a velo-
city of 3,000 feet per second.

Mr. Dibben, — I think there must have been some defect in the
pendulum with which the velocity was measured, as 1,800 feet
per second is the highest velocity ever imparted to a shot.

Mr. Howell. — Did you try firing candles through a board ?

Mr. Stevens. — Yes, and they came out in good merchantable
condition.

Mr. Babcock. — I have tried firing candles through a board,
and I have found the wicks, but I never could find the candles.
Now I am up, I will remark that I learn from Mr. Parrott that
he has been making some experiments with wrought iron shot,
and he finds that they have no more power of penetration than
those made of cast iron. They flatten against the plate.

Captain W. A. Bartlett.— I saw at Washington, last week,
a gun of novel construction, which has proved very eifective
indeed, in some of our skirmishes. It is a light rifle, mounted on
wheels, throwing a 1-inch bullet, and can be fired 200 times in a
minute. Several of the Governors of States have ordered it to

668 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

be furnished to their regiments, one or two guns to a regiment.
On one occasion one of these guns was brought to bear on a
squadron of cavalry at 800 yards, and it cut them to pieces ter-
ribly, quickly forcing them to fly. The charges are placed in
steel cases, which are placed in a hopper, and they are fired one
at a time. The arrangements are such that there is no danger
(»f the whole exploding at once.

The subject selected for discussion a fortnight hence, was
" Soap."

I roE X .

A.

Page.

Acclimation 192, 196,204, 207, 209, 210

of plants 204,-210, 278

Address of the President, 1861 11

Adirondack grape _ 212

Alkakengi 286

Alloy of cadmium ^ 402

Aphis........ ' 133, 140,182

Apple, culture and propagation of 49

Apples. .49, 116, 128, 133, 140, 147, 155, 157, 212, 243, 261, 323

Aristotle _ 201

Asparagus 118

B.

Baker & Smith's, warming apparatus 34, 62

Barton's railroad joint _ 482

Bartlett's Gothic furnace 38,, 62

polar refrigerator ._ BSd

. Baudelot's beer cooler 37, 62

Beans ._ 354

Bees 120, 207

belligerent 207

Bergen pear , 347

Bichat 200

Birds, protection of 311

Blockading ^ 509, 514

Bone manure _ 112

Bread, machinery for making 379

Brown's water furnace ._ 34, 62

Bruce, John, letters from 122, 308

Buffon 201

Burnett's ventilator, for sick rooms and hospitals 36

Bush's camp pan and baker _ _ 459

Butter making _, 134

570 INDEX.

c.

Page.

Cabbage 217

Cahoon's seed sower 42, 240

California, letters from.. _ 122, 308

Camera box, Ormsbee's . ._ 36

Cannon, large 515

new method of rifling 465

revolving ._ 384

Carrots. ^ 217

Cartridge cases, self-cleaning .. 398

Chaff-cutter, Whittemore's _ 44

Chemistry, applications of, to the military art 497, 500

organic _ _ - 520

Chess 215

Chicory... 241, 285

Chilled steel 244

Chrysanthemums ^ 181, 182

Churchill, J. H., on crucibles and fire-proof materials 447

preservation of wood _ _ 434

Cicer seeds, used as a substitute for coliet^ — 302

Climate, influence of, on invention 359, 370

Coal, desulphurizing 526, 532

oil and petroleum ._ 427, 516

oil lamps, report on _ 38

origin of 417, 425

tar 417

tar, color produced from . 417

Coals - 494

Coffee 239, 241

frauds in 281

substitutes for ...239, 240, 277, 278, 285, 301, 302

tree ^ 289

Collins & Co.'s steel plows _ 259

Committee, finance, report of _ 23

library, report of 60

Condiments for stock 348

Cooking and cooking apparatus 390

Copper plate printing by machinery 389

Corinth grape -- 306

Corn 116, 137, 154, 166, 206

INDEX. 571

Page .

Corn, as a fuel — 353

Egyptian 154

for soiling S"^

Conservatories _ 47

Cotton 210, 253

flax and silk 466

milk weed, as a substitute for 276

tree 152, 156, 164

Cranbervy culture in Western New York ._ 304

Crank motion 430, 434, 436

Cressane pear ._ _ — 229

Crucibles and fire-proof materials _ 447, 452

Cultivator, Halsted's ...43, 243

Culture of the apple - — 49

Curculio _ 326, 333

Currants 83, 106. 110

Cuttings _ 196

Cuvier _ — 201

D.

Dahlias... 157

De Brame's revolving cannon — 384

Dessicated vegetables 290

Desulphurizing coal _ 526, 532

Dietetics 85

Dietz's lamp 1 — 38

Dioscorides ._ 202

Dixon's crucibles ._ 451

Double flowers _ 185

Drain pipe 476

Dredging _ 469, 513

Drought 116, 130, 136, 138

protection from ._ 130

Duane's sod-seeding and broadcast sowing machine 200

report on 363

E.

Egyptian corn — 154

Elderberry wine — 136

Electro magnet ---- — 393

Elk, American -- 220

572 ' iNitEs-.

Page.

Elk, domesticated 223

Entomology _ -_ _ 114

Evergreens, mode of preserving _ 330

Excelsior mower 188

Experimental farm _ 256

and school of agriculture for patriot orphans 288

F.

Farmers' Club, proceedings of ,. 71-356

reports of 42

rules and regulations of 71

patriotism of the _ 76

Finances _ _ 23

' Fisher, J. K., on modes of obstructing the navigation of

rivers and harbors 509

plan of an organization for the improvement of

the mechanical arts 414, 415

Fisher's steam carriage ._ 374

Flannel, a preventative of sickness in warm climates 290

Flax 219. 237, 258, 261, 266, 354, 466

and other fibrous plants . 483

dressing 47, 234, 237, 275

Flowers 182, 320

double 185

Fly, Hessian 133

Food, preparation of 526

Franklinite 30, 235, 244,^452, 457, 459, 505

Frauds .* 259, 281

in colfee and spices _ 281

Frost, effects of _ 71

Fruit baskets and boxes. ...270, 320, 331

change in the character of 289

jelly 237

prospects of, in 1861 327

Fruitful trees _ 331

Fruits 113, 168, 169

affected by the stock 169

ornamenting 260

recommended, list of, 168

unripe _ 142

INDEX.

573

Page.

Fuller, A. S., on tlie neglected fruits 316

seedling strawberries, report on. _ 96

Furnace, Bartlett's. — 33

water, Bro wa's . - 34

G.

Gage plum, its origin _ ...-1. — 324

Gale, N. H., on silk culture.. 230

Gapes in chickens .- — 84, 89

Garbanati's tent for the army _ 441

Gardiner, A. K,, on the measure worm 311

Gas stove _ 191

Geological age of man 410

Geology . -425, 431, 487, 442, 445, 447, 460, 467, 472, 478, 4D2, 494

Gird's budding knife .. .- 275

Gladiolus, French hybrid _ 129

Glass, history of the art of making 539

soluble 476, 542

its uses ^ 542

Gooseberries 99, 106

Grafting, Hite on 246

wax 238, 245, 246

Grain 152

Grape, Adirondack 212

Corinth 306

^ culture ...257, 276

Isabella 132

vines, barren 347

girdling — 166

Grapes 111, 145, 148, 150, 157, 161, 164, 182, 184, 187, 195

212, 262, 290, 291, 304

native 148

preservation of. , _ - 161

what kind shall we grow _ 290

varieties of, to grow under glass 304

Great Eastern, manner devised for steering the 421, 428

Grinding grain, improvement in _ 240

Guano, American _ 306

Gun-boats 395, 442, 446, 456

' Gun, centrifugal _ — 366

Gunpowder 498, 501

574 INDEX.

page.

H.

Halsted's cultivator ...43, 61, 243

seed drill 243

Harper's army candlestick ..-. 483

Hay and corn-stalk cutter 45, 61

the proper time to cut — 352

value of, fed on the farm 321, 351

Haying machines 351

Heating conservatories 47

houses _ — 33

Herbert's cooking canteen 481

Hessian fly 133

Hippocrates 200

Hite, Geo. H,, on choice of trees _ 249

grafting _ 246

pruning 247

Hoeing wheat 323

Holton, D. P., formation of statistical bureau _, 256

obituary notice of Geoffroy de St. Hilaire 200

Honey 120

Honeysuckle, evergreen 245

Honolulu squash _ 182

Hopkins' army candlestick 483

Horse-shoeing 46

Hotz's pedal engine lOY, 112

report on 112

pump ---- 207

Hybridization ._ - 217

I.

Ice ---. 227

and its formation - 380, 388

method of refrigeration 376

houses _ 227

Illinois coffee 3^2

ndigenous and uncultivated plants 328

Insects - - 102, 114

Iron, malleable, manufactured direct from the ore 550, 562

Irrigation H"

Isabella grapes - 182

Invention, influence of climate on _ 359, 370

Isaacson's lamp 38

INDEX. 675

Page.
J.

Johnny cake _ _. 119

Johnson's new method of dredging 469, 513

Joy, Chas. A., appointed chairman of Polytechnic Associa-
tion _ _ 525

K,

Kaestner's lamp ._ 38

Kohlrabi 217

Krom's new breech loading gun ._ _ 467

L.

Lacepede 201

Lamai-ck ._ ._ 202

Lamps, coal oil, report on _ _ 38

without chimneys ._ 430

Lands in New Jersey ,_ _ 215

Lawns, treatment of. _ _ 94

Layers 196

Librarj^ committ-ee, report of _ 63

Light, law in relation to the use of _._ 541

Lima bean, cultivation of the .^ _ ..._ 286

Lime, nitrogenized, superphosphate of _ 149

List of fruits recommended ,_ 168

Long Island, lands on _„ 103

M.

Machinery applie(J to the manufacture of clocks and watches. 445

Mallory, J. E., on flax dressing and other fibrous plants 483

Managers, report of _ _ _ 27, 31

Manures 72, 112, 140

Mason, Cyrus, influence of climate on invention.. 359, 370

Measure worm 311

Meigs, Hon. H., obituary notice of 15, 74, 75

Milk weed, a substitute for cotton 276

Miller's lamp . _ 38

Mitchell's type setting and distributing machines 35

Morrill's -^ro vapor cooking stove 391

Mower, excelsior _ 188

Mushrooms 167, 260

676 INDEX.

N.

Page.
Native fruits and flowers improved by cultivation in foreign

countries __ _ 324

Naval warfare _ 553, 562

Neglected fruits 316, 324 332

New Jersey, lauds in 215

Norris, G, P., on the cultivation of grapes in cheap houses. . 276
varieties of grapes to grow under glass 304

O.
Oats 112

Obituary notice, Hon. H. Meigs _ 15, 74, 75

D. M. Reese, M. D 19, 369

OflScers for 1861 3

1862 4

Onion crop 281

Orchards 355

Oreide _ 365

Ormsbee's camera box.. , 36. 442

Ornamenting fruit 260

Oyster-shell lime 300

P.
Paper from straw ., 350

Park's telegraphic apparatus 384

Patents, publication of, does not interfere in taking out 471

Peach. 243, 247

trees 214

trees, pruning of... 214

Pears 128, r33, 140, 145, 147, 158, 196, '199, 212, 229, 236

culture of 236

dwarf ., 145

Peas _ 90

eaten by bugs _ 321

grown under snow 321

Pedal engine 107, 112

Phelps' Ohio combination bee hive 90

Philosophic Anatomique 200

Photographic apparatus, Ormsbee's 442

Pierce's new subsoiler 320

Piers and docks _ 422

Plants, acclimated 210

acclimation of 204

INDEX. 577

Pa^e.
Plating of metals _ 443

riiny - 202

Plows and plowing 173, 182

Polytechnic Association, premiums recommended by 519

proceedings of 357-567

Prof. Joy appointed chairman of ._ 525

report of 33

rules for the government of 357

sections of mechanics and chemistry 434

Potatoes _..113, 152, 154, 171, 175, 274, 279

sweet 256,273

worms in _ 154

Premiums awarded in 1862 ._ 61

offered in 1861 28, 173, 177, 429, 432

recommended by Polytechnic Association 519

President, address of, 1861 11

Projectiles 399, 462

Propagation of the apple 49

Pruning 245, 268

Pump, Holtz's _ 207

Pumpkins _ 190

R.

Raspberries _ 101

Reese, D. M., obituary notice of 19, 369

Refrigerators 394

Renwick's iron-plated vessel ..._ 562

Report of board of managers, 33d annual fair 27

board of, managers, 34th annual fair 31

Farmers' Club and Polytechnic Association 33

finance committee _ 23

library committee _ 63

trustees.. „. 7

Duane's sod seeding and broadcast sowing machine 363

Park's telegraphic apparatus __ 384

strawberries. Fuller's seedlings.. 96

Yrooman's machine for sawing ship^timber 394

Revolving pistol, Elliot's _ 33

Rhubarb _. _ 85

Roberts, L. A., essay on the culture and propagation of the

apple _.., ^ 49

[Am. Inst.] 37

5*78 INDEX.

Page.

Roosevelt, Clinton, on the constitution of nature 421, 429

Root crops, cultivation of _ 279, 280

Rose bug Ill

slugs 79

Russet apples 90, 288

S.

St. Hilaire, Isidore Geoffroy 195, 209

obituary notice of 200

Salting streets. 533, 544, 557

Saltpetre, and substitutes therefor .._..._ 493

Sambucus wine 136, 149

Sanford's flax dressing machine 47, 234

Satinwood _ 157

Schelling 202

Screw steamers 456

Seed corn ." 206

Seed drill, Halsted's _ 243

selection of , 178

sower, Gaboon's _ 42, 240

Duane's 200

Wethersfield.. 240

unripe _ 139

Ship timber, sawing of 370, 394

Shrubbery, care of _ _ 100

Silk, American ' 219, 223, 466

culture of 223, 229, 230, 249

in Georgia „ 224

Connecticut 224

Virginia 224

manufacture at Lyons 250

worms, American _ 226, 249, 253

Cayenne 226

food for 350

Smith's lamp 38, 477

Snow storms in New York, 1853 to 1862 534

Soda-ash, sweepings _ 217

Sorghum, cultivation of 258

Spanish chestnut, cultivation of the 279, 287

Span worms Ill

Sparrows 315, 316

INDEX. 679

Page.

Speaker of Assembly, letter to _ — 5

Species of animals, acclimated 210

plants, acclimated , 210

Sqnasli, Honolulu _ 182

Squashes ' - 182, 190

Steam superheated, original experiments with 554

Steel - 452

chilled - 244

cannon, and the nature of steel 403

Franklinite 244

guns ..400, 403

Stocks, effect of the, on fruit 169

Stratton, Lorenzo, on the American elk 220

Strawberries 91, 96, 101, 105, 108,113, 140, 206

covering of _ _ 327

report on seedling *_.._ 96

Suckers, injurious to corn 137

Sugar cane _ 211

from the sap of box-elder 300

vs. meat _.._ 85

Superphosphate of lime 149

Sweet potatoes , __2Vl, 273

culture of 271

keeping of 272

T.
Tea 239, 241

spurious _ ._ 241

Telegraphic apparatus. Park's 384

Tent for the army , 441

Textile fabrics 481

Theophrastus 202

Thibet, Yak of , 207

Thomas'slamp _ , 38, 430

Thompson's filter __ 369

new disinfectant and manure. 72, 369

Tobacco ._ - 353

cultivation of ._ 330

Tabasco, and its productions 289

Tomatoes 144

Topping corn , 137

Transplanting corn 137

580 INDEX.

Page .

Transplanting trees _ .__.. _- 167, 237

Tree, cotton 152, 156, 164

Trees, choice of . 240

Trenching ..186, 188

Trimble, I. P., on silk and silk worms. ^ 249

the curculio 333

Trustees, report of _ ^ _ 7

Turbine _ 365

Turkeys 191

Turnip seed „ 307

Turnips, demand for _ 80

Type-setting and distributing machine, Mitchell's 35, 476

V.

Value of hay, fed on the farm 321, 351

Valve gearing _ 520

Vanderweyde's new chemical compound 507

electric machine ._ _ 508

Vattemare, A., letter to the Institute. ._ 65

Vegetables, unripe ._ _ 142

Ventilator for sick rooms, &c., Burnett's 36

Viburnum prunifolium ._ 241

Vinegar .267, 277, 303, 307, 349

Vineyards _ 292

Vrooman's machinery for sawing ship timber _ 370

W.

Warming apparatus, Baker & Smith's 34

War, effects of, upon the mechanic arts 414

Water furnace, Brown's _ 34

Water wheel _ 365

Watering land 116

Weathersfield seed sower 240

What a woman can do ..,._ 331

What can be planted 76

Wheat 116, 133

hoeing of 323

Whittemore's chaff cutter 44

hay cutter _ 44

Whortleberries improved by cultivation ._ 324

Wine, elderberry 136

Sambucus _ __, 149

Wood, preservation of 434

INDEX. 581

P.ipe .

Wool 354

Worms, destructive. 311

in potatoes 154

Y.

Tak, acclimation of the 207

4"^?^-